conversations.from: human
conversations.value: Give me a description for a story titled Fifty Thinkers Who Shaped the Modern World about Julian, Baggini, Guardian with the genre: Biographies & Memoirs, Professionals & Academics.
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conversations.value: For an overview of the terrain, this includes more landmarks per square inch than most maps of this scale provide and suggests routes for many fascinating philosophical journeys -- Julian Baggini * Guardian *
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conversations.value: Give me the first four paragraphs for this story.
conversations.from: assistant
conversations.value: Fifty Thinkers Who Shaped the Modern World
  After the Second World War Heidegger was briefly barred from teaching in German universities. His old friend Karl Jaspers was not as forgiving of Heidegger's Nazism as Hannah Arendt had been. In August 1945 Jaspers stated to the Freiburg University senate, which was considering the case of Heidegger: 'Heidegger's mode of thinking, which seems to me to be fundamentally unfree, dictatorial and uncommunicative, would have a very damaging effect on students at the present time.'
  Perhaps the dilemma of Heidegger is best reflected in the view of Emmanuel Levinas (1906–95), the Lithuanian-born French Jewish Talmudic scholar and philosopher who was a student of Husserl and Heidegger. Levinas found much to appreciate in Heidegger, but felt that Heidegger failed to address the question of ethics that lay beyond pure inquiries into Being. Levinas once remarked that while it was possible to forgive many Germans after the Second World War, it was not possible to forgive Heidegger.
  What characterizes metaphysical thinking that grounds the ground for beings is the fact that metaphysical thinking, starting from what is present, represents it in its presence and thus exhibits it as grounded by its ground.
  To Heidegger the meaning of Being is Time: passing and happening. To him there is no Being's ideal of permanency; indeed he holds that the task of thinking is to make man sensitive to the passage of time.
conversations.from: human
conversations.value: Give me five more paragraphs.
conversations.from: assistant
conversations.value: The development of structuralism and then post-structuralism – which began with Roland Barthes, was accelerated by the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and found its ultimate expression in the work of Jacques Derrida put paid to the existentialist tendency in France, as epitomized by Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, and has provided the impetus for countless – if not always convincing or wholly intelligible – attempts to reduce the world to a series of a sign systems.
  Languages are mostly known to us only through writing. Even in the case of our native language, the written form constantly intrudes. In the case of languages spoken in remote parts, it is even more necessary to have recourse to written evidence. The same is true for obvious reasons in the case of languages now dead. In order to have direct evidence available, it would have been necessary to have compiled throughout history collections... comprising recordings of spoken samples of all languages. Even then writing is necessary when it comes to publishing the texts thus recorded.
  What we call structuralism in the field of linguistics, or anthropology, or the like, is nothing other than a very pale and faint imitation of what the 'hard sciences', as I think you call them in English, have been doing all the time.
  Ayer established a school around his ideas by taking over the moribund philosophy department of University College, London, where he was Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic (1946–59). His relationship with Oxford University was complicated by the fact that he had angered his tutors while an undergraduate by being the first to write on Ludwig Wittgenstein, whose ideas were unwelcome, not least because they emanated from Cambridge University; but in 1959 Ayer succeeded H. H. Price to the Wykeham Professorship in Logic at Oxford.
  Ayer's mother, Reine Citroën, was a Dutch Jew whose uncle founded the Citroën car company in France. His father, Jules Ayer, was a francophone Swiss Calvinist and a financier employed by the Rothschild family. Ayer's upbringing was rather solitary, and at Eton he crossed teachers and students alike with his sharp tongue and what his fellow philosopher Anthony Quinton called his 'militant atheism'. (Quinton said of Ayer: He was a philosopher of religion only in the sense that a dynamiter is an architect.) Precociously intellectual, Ayer won a Classics scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford, where he was tutored by Gilbert Ryle.
conversations.from: human
conversations.value: Give me the last three paragraphs.
conversations.from: assistant
conversations.value: Jung, Joachim, 'The Future of Philosophy', paper given at Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, Boston (10–15 August 1998) http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Cont/ContJung.htm.
  Marcuse, Herbert, 'The Problem of Violence: Questions and Answers' (1967) http:­/­/­www.marxists.org­/­reference­/­archive­/­marcuse­/­works­/­1967­/­questions-answers.htm.
  Webster, Richard 'The Cult of Lacan: Freud, Lacan and the Mirror Stage' (1994) http://www.richardwebster.net/thecultoflacan.html.