human
Can you continue this poem for me?
  Dey mout er bin two deloojes: en den agin dey moutent.
UNCLE REMUS, _The Story of the Deluge_.
Sceal hring-naca     ofer heafu bringan
ge widh f[=e]ond ge widh fr[=e]ond     faeste geworhte,
Finally, I have to thank the Syndics of the University Press for
SECTION   I. The Problem
SECTION  II. The Geatas--their Kings and their Wars
SECTION III. Heorot and the Danish Kings
SECTION  IV. Leire and Heorot
SECTION   V. The Heathobeardan
SECTION  VI. Hrothulf
SECTION   I. The Grendel Fight
SECTION  II. The Scandinavian Parallels--Grettir and Orm
SECTION III. Bothvar Bjarki
SECTION  IV. Parallels from Folklore
SECTION   V. Scef and Scyld
SECTION   I. Is _Beowulf_ translated from a Scandinavian
original?
SECTION  II. The dialect, syntax and metre of _Beowulf_ as
evidence of its literary history
SECTION III. Theories as to the structure of _Beowulf_
A. The early Kings of the Danes, according to Saxo Grammaticus:
Dan, Humblus, Lotherus and Scioldus; Frotho's dragon fight;
(Bjarki); the death of Rolf
B. Extract from _Hr['o]lfs Saga Kraka_, with translation
E. Extract from _Th['a]ttr Orms St['o]r['o]lfssonar_, with
translation
F. A Danish Dragon-slaying of the Beowulf-type, with translation
H. Extract from the Chronicle Roll
SECTION    I. The _Finnsburg Fragment_
SECTION   II. The Episode in _Beowulf_
SECTION  III. Moeller's Theory
SECTION   IV. Bugge's Theory
SECTION    V. Some Difficulties in Bugge's Theory
SECTION   VI. Recent Elucidations. Prof. Ayres' Comments
SECTION  VII. Problems still outstanding
SECTION VIII. The Weight of Proof: the Eotens
SECTION   IX. Ethics of the Blood Feud
SECTION    X. An Attempt at Reconstruction
SECTION   XI. Gefwulf, Prince of the Jutes
SECTION  XII. Conclusion
_Note_. Frisia in the heroic age
E. The "Jute-question" reopened
G. Leire before Rolf Kraki
H. Bee-wolf and Bear's son
At the side, Offa is represented in Prayer               " "
"in nauicula armamentis carente"                         " "
to claim that he should be made King in place of
the incompetent Offa                                     " "
East Anglia, and causes him to be slain                  " "
B[=e]owulf [not the hero of the poem]
|                    |                           |          |
|              |            |         |           |
|              |       Hr[=o]dhmund   |           |
Heoroweard       Hr[=e]dhr[=i]c         Hr[=o]dhulf     |
_but not_           _not_                            _Roluo_]
_recognized as_     _recognized_
_belonging_         _as a son of_
_to this family_]   _Hroarr_]
Hr[=e]dhel                              W[=ae]gmund
|                                       |
|        |     |             |                 |             |
Hygel[=a]c, _mar._ Hygd    |                       |
|                      |                       |
|                 |
a daughter,      Heardr[=e]d
Ongenth[=e]ow
|                                     |
Onela                               [=O]hthere [_['O]ttarr_]
_family_]                                |               |
Eanmund        [=E]adgils
approximately equal to those which separate us from the time when
Our authorities are:
opprimit, omnemque rapinam terrae restituit._
The name of the vanquished king is spelt in a variety of ways:
See _Gregorii episcopi Turonensis Historia Francorum_, p. 110, in
(2) The _Liber Historiae Francorum_ (commonly called the _Gesta
The account in the _Ynglinga saga_ of the fight between Onela and
_Post haec ortis inter Adilsum illum Sveciae regem et Alonem
Opplandorum regem in Norvegia, inimicitiis, praelium utrinque
praeciosissimas res quascunque optaret ex universo regno Sveciae
There is also a reference to this battle on the ice in the
_Dagr reith Dr[o,]sle     en Dvalenn M['o]thne..._
_['A]le Hrafne     es til ['i]ss ritho,_
_enn annarr austr     und Athilse_
_gr['a]r hvarfathe     geire undathr._
_Bj[o,]rn reith Blakke     en Biarr Kerte,_
For various theories as to the early history of the Swedish royal
arguments against them have lately been marshalled by H. Schueck
support his rather revolutionary speculations as to early Swedish
The following considerations need to be weighed:
(2) It is obvious that the Geatas of _Beowulf_ were a strong and
numerous nation. But we have no equal evidence for any similar
pirate.
(7) Probably what has weighed most heavily (often perhaps not
(1) Saxo Grammaticus (the lettered), the earlier books of whose
_Historia Danica_ are a storehouse of Scandinavian tradition and
poetry, clothed in a difficult and bombastic, but always amusing,
There are also a number of other Danish-Latin histories and
genealogies.
matter.
Starcatherus stirs up Ingellus to his revenge:
dissimilarity of names is not conclusive evidence against the
Nothing, then, is really known of the Heathobeardan, except that
evidence points to their having dwelt somewhere on the Baltic.
But another version--the Danish--whilst making Froda and Ingeld
into Danish kings, separates their story altogether from that of
The forebodings of Wealhtheow were justified.
ascertained facts for more than a generation. Miss Clarke's
_From MS Cotton Nero D. I, fol. 2 b._ ]
_From MS Cotton Nero D. I, fol. 11a_ ]
The name [Thrytho] was suggested by that of Cynethryth, Offa's
criticism. Yet, though possible enough, it does not admit of any
demonstration.
These crucial references occur in a charter given by Athelstan at
dhonne nordh ofer d[=u]ne on m[=e]os-hlinc westeweardne; dhonne
mentioned, as in the same district, _scyldes treow_ and _bican
sell_.... How much weight would this carry?"
_drindle_, or _dringle_, used both as a verb "to go slowly, to
trickle," and as "a small trickling stream." And even if an O.E.
The second story--the adventure of Grettir at Sandhaugar
Scandinavian tradition of Offa, scholars are now agreed, was not
_Prolegomena to Sturlunga saga_, 1878, p. xlix: _Corpus Poeticum
received the general support of scholars.
What Saxo tells us is this:
arguments to the contrary, see Heusler in _A.f.d.A._ XXX, 32, and
The parallel of _Gullinhjalti_ and _gyldenhilt_ was first noted
tentatively by Kluge (_Engl. Stud._ XXII, 145).
Now it may be objected, with truth, that this is not like the
Yet there are other features in the folk-tale which are entirely
Haki konungr fekk sv['a] st['o]r s['a]r, at hann s['a], at hans
Alfsola; but her brothers scorned to give her to an aged man. War
So with the death of Baldr.
How are we to harmonize these accounts?
The earlier scholars mostly agreed in regarding Malmesbury's
Some, with great
Devotion, stroke the home-borne wheat.
country. It is done in this way. An old man, or someone else well
I do not think these "neck" customs can be traced back beyond the
Took a foal swift as the spring wind,
Let the storm wind bear him forward,
Blew the trees till they were leafless,
Blew the grass till it was seedless,
Bloodless likewise the young maidens.
It is I who summoned Saempsae
From an isle amid the ocean,
From a skerry bare and treeless.
In yet another variant we are told how the boy Saempsae
Took six grains from off the corn heap,
Slept all summer mid the corn heap,
In the bosom of the corn boat.
To sum up:
"So in Norse there was a grain *_beggw-_ (becoming _bygg_) and a
The old Danish prince [Dan in Saxo] has two sons, one a weakling
It is clear also that the _Beowulf_-poet had in mind some kind of
things are commonplaces.
(1) A native (_indigena_) comes to Frotho, and tells him of the
(3) The hero in each case attacks the dragon single-handed.
(4) Special armour is carried by the dragon slayer in each case.
(5) Frotho's informant tells him that he must be of good courage.
ventre sub imo
esse locum scito quo ferrum mergere fas est,
hunc mucrone petens medium rimaberis anguem.
(7) The hoard is plundered by both heroes.
Dragon fights may be classified into several types: two stand out
In face of this we must pronounce the two stories essentially and
Scandinavian minstrel had glorified the heroes of his own nation.
To deny that _Beowulf_, as we have it, is a translation from the
transcriber.
With article  Without article
In _Guthlac_ (A) (c. 750) the proportions are:
With article  Without article
Contrast this with the proportion in our poem:
With article  Without article
With article  Without article
lines). In _Exodus_ (589 lines) there are six
examples--proportionally more than in _Beowulf_. In Cynewulf's
_Beowulf_. But eight of these are not quite certain; _se g[=o]da
deducted. One instance, though practically certain, is the result
are variations of the same phrase.
If, however, more elaborate investigation were to show that the
B. The preservation of _h_ between consonant and vowel.
Morsbach's _Zur Datierung des Beowulf-epos_ will be found in the
Goettingen _Nachrichten_, 1906, pp. 252-77. These tests have been
Muellenhoff claimed for his theories that they were simple and
A similar conclusion is reached by Professor Hart: "It might be
There remain a few _hapax legomena_, but very inconclusive.
Peculiar usages of the moods and tenses are found twice in the
introduced: anyhow it is certain that, wherever it survived, the
Surely the explanation is that to a devout, but not {127}
Dh[=a] c[=o]m of m[=o]re under mist-hleothum
Grendel gongan--
but it is heightened when the poet adds:
Godes yrre baer.
Lecturi regem ueteres affixis humo saxis insistere, suffragiaque
prudenter desciuit, ita auitis uirtutibus feliciter respondit,
remotiorem pariter ac praestantiorem hereditarii moris portionem
Saxo, Book II, ed. Ascensius, fol. xi b; ed. Holder, p. 38, l. 4.
bellicis operibus absumpto, stipendiorum facultatem, qua militem
aleret, non haberet, attentiusque necessarii usus subsidia
circunspiceret, tali subeuntis indigenae carmine concitatur:
Insula non longe est praemollibus edita cliuis,
Collibus aera tegens et opimae conscia praedae.
Hic tenet eximium, montis possessor, aceruum
Implicitus giris serpens crebrisque reflexus
Orbibus, et caudae sinuosa uolumina ducens,
Multiplicesque agitans spiras, uirusque profundens.
Quem superare uolens clypeo, quo conuenit uti,
Taurinas intende cutes, corpusque bouinis
Tergoribus tegito, nec amaro nuda ueneno
Membra patere sinas; sanies, quod conspuit, urit.
Lingua trisulca micans patulo licet ore resultet,
Tristiaque horrifico minitetur uulnera rictu,
Intrepidum mentis habitum retinere memento.
Nec te permoueat spinosi dentis acumen,
Nec rigor, aut rapida iactatum fauce uenenum.
Tela licet temnat uis squamea, uentre sub imo
Esse locum scito, quo ferrum mergere fas est;
Hunc mucrone petens medium rimaberis anguem.
Hinc montem securus adi, pressoque ligone
Perfossos scrutare cauos; mox aere crumenas
Imbue, completamque reduc ad littora puppim.
contempsit. Sed et spicula, quae in eam coniecta fuerant, eluso
efflauit.
Repertae pecuniae regem locupletem fecere....
Saxo, Book II, ed. Ascensius, fol. xv b; ed. Holder, p. 51, l. 4.
possessionem sortitus, regem Sclauiae Scalcum maritimis copiis
transuersum hominis animum uultus obliquitate mulctando. Ea res
contumeliosam ioci insolentiam temperauit, pugilesque regia abire
ludibrium coepit, quisnam esset iste Krage, quem tanto staturae
fragorem stupida procul aure sensisset, fortitudinem luxuriae
flagrasse putemus, qui, cum ignorantiae simulatione excusationem
aduersasque acies mutua uulnerum inflictione prosternit. Cumque
At nos, qui regem uoto meliore ueremur,
Iungamus cuneos stabiles, tutisque phalangem
Ordinibus mensi, qua rex praecepit, eamus
Qui natum Boeki Roericum strauit auari,
Implicuitque uirum leto uirtute carentem.
Ille quidem praestans opibus, habituque fruendi
Pauper erat, probitate minus quam foenore pollens;
Aurum militia potius ratus, omnia lucro
Posthabuit, laudisque carens congessit aceruos
Aeris, et ingenuis uti contempsit amicis.
Cumque lacessitus Roluonis classe fuisset,
Egestum cistis aurum deferre ministros
Iussit, et in primas urbis diffundere portas.
Dona magis quam bella parans, quia militis expers
Munere, non armis, tentandum credidit hostem;
Tanquam opibus solis bellum gesturus, et usu
Rerum, non hominum, Martem producere posset.
Ergo graues loculos et ditia claustra resoluit
Armillas teretes et onustas protulit arcas,
Exitii fomenta sui, ditissimus aeris,
Bellatoris inops, hostique adimenda relinquens
Pignora, quae patriis praebere pepercit amicis.
Annellos ultro metuens dare, maxima nolens
Pondera fudit opum, ueteris populator acerui.
Rex tamen hunc prudens, oblataque munera spreuit,
Rem pariter uitamque adimens; nec profuit hosti
Census iners, quem longo auidus cumulauerat aeuo.
Hunc pius inuasit Roluo, summasque perempti
Cepit opes, inter dignos partitus amicos,
Quicquid auara manus tantis congesserat annis;
Irrumpensque opulenta magis quam fortia castra,
Praebuit eximiam sociis sine sanguine praedam.
Cui nil tam pulchrum fuit, ut non funderet illud,
Aut carum, quod non sociis daret, aera fauillis
Assimulans, famaque annos, non foenore mensus.
Unde liquet, regem claro iam funere functum
Praeclaros egisse dies, speciosaque fati
Tempora, praeteritos decorasse uiriliter annos.
Nam uirtute ardens, dum uiueret, omnia uicit,
Egregio dignas sortitus corpore uires.
Tam praeceps in bella fuit, quam concitus amnis
In mare decurrit, pugnamque capessere promptus
Ut ceruus rapidum bifido pede tendere cursum.
compendio digestus a compluribus antiquitatis peritis memoriter
usurpatur.
cuspidem per Hiartuarum agit, ultionis compos, cuius Roluoni
ministerium pollicitus fuerat. Quo facto, ouans irruentibus in se
"Why art thou here?" said Bothvar, "and what art thou doing?"
Hott said, "I am making a shield-wall for myself, good fellow."
Bothvar said, "He only got what he asked for."
The king said, "Wilt thou become my man and fill his place?"
After that Bothvar turned to Hott, and they fought a long time.
Hott said, "I shall not fear them, nor thee either, from now on."
"Yea," said Hott, "I will undertake this."
Th['o]rhallr maelti: "Heilraedhi vilda ek af ydhr thiggja."
"Hvat er th['e]r bezt hent at vinna?" segir Th['o]rhallr.
Gl['a]mr kvadh s['e]r vel hent at geyma saudhfj['a]r ['a] vetrum.
"Reimt thykkir thar vera," sagdhi Th['o]rhallr.
Grettir sagdhi, at that var satt.
Grettir kvadh gott til hesta, hvat sem af thessum yrdhi.
"Eigi laet ek m['e]r at einu getit," sagdhi hann.
"Ek skal fylgja th['e]r yfir," segir Gestr.
Um vetrinn eptir j['o]l var that einn dag, at Grettir f['o]r til
Grettir svarar: "Foert er v['i]st; en theim mun bezt thar, sem
"Hvern veg aetlar th['u] n['u]," segir prestr, "at fara?"
gein veltiflug steina,
vith hj[o,]rgaethi hr['i]thar
flugstraumr ['i] sal naumu
heldr kom ['a] herthar sk['a]ldi
Ok en thessi:
mellu vinr ['o]r helli;
hann fekz, heldr at s[o,]nnu
harthfengr, vith mik lengi;
hartheggjat l['e]t ek h[o,]ggvit
heptisax af skepti;
Gangs klauf brj['o]st ok bringu
bjartr gunnlogi svarta."
Copenhagen, 1853, with a Danish translation, and again by Boer
handschriftliche ueberlieferung der Grettissaga, Z.f.d.Ph._ XXXI,
principles: many others, however, are due to the extraordinary
difficulty of the MS itself. Mr Sigf['u]s Bloendal, of the Royal
"It is the very worst MS I have ever met with. The writing is
small, almost every word is abbreviated, and, worst of all, the
writing is in many places effaced, partly by smoke (I suppose the
_badhstofa_) rendering the parchment almost as black as
shoe-leather, but still more owing to the use of chemicals, which
There was a man called Thorhall, who lived at Thorhall's Farm in
"What work art thou best fitted for?" said Thorhall.
Glam said he was well fitted to watch sheep in the winter.
"It is thought to be haunted," said Thorhall.
After that they struck their bargain, and Glam was to come at the
snow-drifts, battered by the tempest, or strayed up into the
country-side thought great harm of this.
After that they parted, and neither was pleased with the other's
foreboding.
Thorhall was glad that Grettir would stay there, and welcomed him
"I do not care to have things all one way," said he.
"I will see you over," said Guest.
"There must be fords in it," said Guest, "do not be afraid."
"What way," said the priest, "do you mean to go?"
There into gloomy gulf I passed,
O'er which from the rock's throat is cast
The swirling rush of waters wan,
To meet the sword-player feared of man.
By giant's hall the strong stream pressed
Cold hands against the singer's breast;
Huge weight upon him there did hurl
The swallower of the changing whirl.
And this rhyme too:
The dreadful dweller of the cave
Great strokes and many 'gainst me drave;
Full hard he had to strive for it,
But toiling long he wan no whit;
For from its mighty shaft of tree
The heft-sax smote I speedily;
And dulled the flashing war-flame fair
In the black breast that met me there.
hann var ekki ['i] m['a]li sneldr,
sv['o] ekki vissi hirdhin [o,]ll.
"f[o,]rum vidh ekki sk['o]gi naer,
h['e]r er s['u] ylgr sem etr upp menn,
okkr drepr h['u]n b['a]dha senn."
h[o,]rmuligt vardh Hjalta vidhr,
ekki dvelr hann vidh thadh lengr,
kappinn B[o,]dhvar taladhi sv['o],
"drekk n['u] bl['o]dh edha drep eg thig h['e]r,
"ekki thori eg adh drekka bl['o]dh,
n['y]tir flest ef naudhigr skal,
adh bl['o]dhi fr['a] eg hann lagdhist nidhr,
drekkur s['i]dhan drykki thrj['a],
duga mun honum vidh einn adh rj['a].
fekk hann huginn og aflidh alt
af ylgjar bl['o]dhi.
var s['a] margur vargrinn beinn
og v['i]dha sveidhar.
hafi hann drepna,
ekki er h['o]num allvel hent
vidh ['y]ta kepna.
veifar s['i]num v['o]nda hramm,
sv['o] virdhar hrukku.
er hafin er r['o]ma,
hafdhi hann ekki ['i] h[o,]ndum th['a]
nema hnefana t['o]ma.
theim hildar vendi,
kappinn m['o]ti krummu br['a]
og kl['o]tidh hendi.
vidh b['o]ginn haegra,
og bar sig laegra.
og fleira s['i]dhar,
hans var lundin l[o,]ngum byst
hins hjartapr['u]dha,
Bjarki var eigi betri en jafn
austur thangadh k['o]mu,
fyrdhar their medh fr['a]nan geir
flengja thegar til r['o]mu.
unnu vel til m['a]la,
thar fell ['A]li og alt hans lidh
hafa their tekidh af ['A]la,
Hildisv['i]n er hj['a]lmrinn vendr,
hann kaus Bjarki ['i] m['a]la.
eiga um n[o,]kkur skipti,
thadh mun kosta k['o]ngligt afl,
hann kappann gripunum svipti.
l['e]tust ['a]dhr en lidhinn er vetr
leita adh Fr['o]dha malti.
og s[o,]gdhu k['o]ngi thetta,
hann kvedhst mundu handa theim
Then Asbiorn left his life with great valour and hardihood.
One such revision must have been made about 796: it is a {197}
I give the pedigree in four forms:
B. _MS Harl._ 3859, upon which Mommsen's text is based, fol. 180.
VVoden               VVoden            VVoden            Voden
qui fuit,            qui fuit,         qui sunt [_sic_], Vanli
ut aiunt,            ut aiunt,         ut aiunt,         Saxi
filius dei           filius dei        filius dei        Negua
genealogists.
se waes geboren in thaere  Seth            Scyf, se waes in
earce Noe etc.           Noe, etc.         dham arken geboran
* quem Getam     *dhene dha haethena
iamdudum pagani  wuthedon for god
pro deo
venerabantur
Frithouulf                 Frealaf Fin[n]ing
Goduulfe                   Godulf Geat[t]ing
Bedwig Sceafing, [i]d est filius N['o]e, se
Scef. Ipse Scef cum uno      waes geboren on thaere earce N['o]es
Aethelwulf] rex.
Langfedhgatal       Flateyarb['o]k
Voden               Voden, _er ver_
than kollvm ver     _kollum_ Odinn
Frealaf             Frilafr, _e.v.k._ Bors
Finn                Burri, _e.v.k._ Finn
Beaf                Beaf, _e.v.k._ Biar
Scealdna            Skialldin, _e.v.k._ Skiolld
Heremotr            Heremoth, _e.v.k._ Hermod
The following marginal note occurs:
Book IV, ed. Ascensius, fol. xxxii b; ed. Holder, pp. 106-7.
Cui filius Wermundus succedit. Hic prolixis tranquillitatis otiis
Book IV, ed. Ascensius, fol. xxxiv b; ed. Holder, pp. 113-7.
De primo Rege Danorum.
De duello Uffonis.
| _Little_    |             |              |Names as given
|             |             |   . . . .    |
Inter occidentalium Anglorum reges illustrissimos, precipua
_From MS Cotton Nero D. I, fol. 2 a._ ]
amarissimo. Et q_u_a_m_ u_er_bis no_n_ pot_er_at, deo aff_e_c_t_u
Cum aute_m_ post h_ec_, aliq_u_andiu cu_m_ sociis suis decertans,
exc_er_citu_m_ magnu_m_ et fortem co_n_flau_er_unt. Duces aute_m_
Reliqui aute_m_ om_ne_s de exc_er_citu Rigani [qui _et_ Aliel
dicebatur] qui sub ducatu Mitunni regebantur, in abissu_m_
aliq_u_atenus usurpare, ne q_u_omodolib_et_ auaricie turpit_er_
sepultura interfectorum m_er_ito meruit intitulari.
fidelit_er_ steter_un_t, _et_ periculoso discrimini pro nobis se
munific_e_ntia, graci_us_ ampliare. Laus industrie tue _et_ fame
Hec aute_m_ filius deuotus _et_ mansuet_us_, licet magnific_us_
Rex igitur q_ue_m pocius prona voluntas, q_u_a_m_ uigor prouexit
aliquandiu per uniu_er_sum regnu_m_ uiguit pax _et_ securitas diu
Adquiescens _i_gi_tur_ senior_um_ co_n_siliis _et_ sapientum
Imperium, promissa, preces, confudit in unu_m_:
euuangeliis, _et_ obsidum tradic_i_one, fideliter tenendum
"Rex Offa, maioribus et p_re_cipuis regni sui, salutis et
mortuorum corporib_us_ licet lac_er_atis elicuit, audiuit.
cognouit in sp_irit_u ip_s_a alicuius innocentis corp_us_, uel
aliquorum i_n_nocentiu_m_ corpuscula extitisse, que tam inhumanam
Nesciens _er_go quo migraret regina, cu_m_ suis infantulis intra
uastissimam heremum cum memorato solitario, diu moram ibidem
co_n_tinuabat. Post duoru_m_ uero mensium curricula, Rex Offa
uictoriosissimus domu_m_ let_us_ remeauit, spolia deuictorum suis
De ortu secundi Offe.
Natus est igitur memorato Tuinfred[o] (_et_ qui de stemate regum
fuit) filius, videlicet Pineredus, usq_ue_ ad annos adolescentie
nominabat_ur_) cum cet_er_is fraudulenter no_n_ int_er_emisse....
Qualiter Offa rex uxore_m_ dux_er_it.
_con_de_m_pnata. Que diu uariis p_ro_cellis exagitata, tande_m_
Erat quoq_ue_ quida_m_ iuuenis, cui rex Offa regnu_m_ Orientalium
Aelb_er_tus iuuenis fuerat rex, fortis ad arma,
Pace pius, pulch_er_ corpore, me_n_te sagax.
Fraus mulieb_ri_s c_r_udelissima.
De martirio S_an_c_t_i Aelb_er_ti, regis innocentissimi.
muliebris tirannidis, decollatu_m_ _est_ corp_us_culu_m_ exanime
_From MS Cotton Nero D. I, fol. 19 b._
hrathe seothdhan waes
De p_re_d_ict_i facinoris ul_ci_one.
Cuius tande_m_ detestabilis sceleris a regina perpetrati, ad
co_m_militonu_m_ b_eat_i re_gis_ _et_ Ma_rti_ris aures cum
Rex u_er_o Offa cu_m_ de co_m_misso facinore c_er_titudine_m_
co_m_perisset, sese lugens, in cenac_u_lo int_er_iori recludens,
pe[_r_] tres dies cibum penit_us_ no_n_ gustauit, anima_m_ sua_m_
De morte illi_us_ facinorose regine.
Fin Folcwaldin[gh] Fr[=e]sna cynne.
Sceafthere Ymbrum, Sc[=e]afa Lon[gh]-Beardu_m_,
H[=u]n Haetwerum, _ond_ Holen Wrosnum.
Hrin[gh]weald waes h[=a]ten Herefarena cyning.
n[=o]hwaethre h[=e] ofer Offan eorlscype fremede,
cniht wesende cyner[=i]ca m[=ae]st;
b[=i] F[=i]feldore; h[=e]oldon fordh siththan
sibbe aetsomne suhtorfaedran,
siththan h[=y] forwr[=ae]con w[=i]cin[gh]a cynn
forh[=e]owan aet Heorote Headho-Beardna thrym.
For never can true reconcilement grow
Where wounds of deadly hate have struck so deep.
Here the _Episode_ ends.
country."
ill-concealed desire for revenge is noticed by the Frisians, who
Now the difficulties of this theory will, I think, be found to be
natural, if Hildeburh had eloped with Finn, and her father had in
Fin Folcwalding Fr[=e]sna cynne.
counterpart of Lotherus
_mid Eotenum_ weardh
on f[=e]onda geweald fordh forl[=a]cen.
Yet this difficulty, though it has been emphasized by Moeller and
fundode wrecca,
gist of geardum.
gif h[=e] torn-gem[=o]t     thurht[=e]on mihte,
thaet h[=e] Eotena b[=e]arn     inne gemunde.
Sw[=a] h[=e] ne-forwyrnde     worold-r[=ae]denne,
informed against him."
sidhdhan grimne gripe     G[=u]dhl[=a]f and [=O]sl[=a]f
ne meahte w[=ae]fre m[=o]d
forhabban in hredhre.
Vengeance wins the day."
"Siebs, perhaps the foremost authority on Frisian conditions,
One further argument there is, for attributing treason to Finn.
impossible; there is no hint of it.
But that is not how the story is presented.
The situation resembles that which takes place when Alboin seeks
Fin Folcwalding Fr[=e]sna cynne.
This part, in the _Fragment_, is played by Garulf.
Now the Frisians were no insignificant tribe. They were a power,
controlling the coasts of what was then called the "Frisian Sea."
The mythological theories involve three propositions:
There remains the argument of Dr Bradley. He points out that
namesake."
genealogies: for Beo(w) is son of Scyld or Sce(a)ldwa, who is a
A miller used him worst of all,
For he crushed him between two stones.
What is that little creature that I see, fawning and sneaking and
Uskie-bae ne'er bure the bell
Sae bald as Allan bure himsel.
{299} Byggvir adopts the same comic-heroic pose:
Germanic peoples of such a rye-god, as we have in the case of the
Nottinghamshire, Pembrokeshire, Wigtownshire as well as in
Transsylvania, Roumania and perhaps in ancient Phrygia.
_Circa_ A.D. 957. A list of boundaries near Battersea.
_Dhis synd dh[=a] landgem[=ae]re t[=o] Batriceseie. [=Ae]rst at
_Ondlong baeces widh neothan eostacote; ondlong d[=i]ces in
_of Grindles bece sw[=a] thaet gem[=ae]re ligdh...._
_andlang hagan to grendeles gatan aefter kincges mearce innan
excursions of some distance from their fastness amid the fens.
waves. Indeed the same explanation has been given of the word
This huntin' doesn't pay,
But we'n powler't up an' down a bit, an' had a rattlin' day.
Some scholars have seen a serious difficulty in the weak form
peculiarities.
"It is true that the Angli of Britain seem never to have included
|             |              |
/ | c. 890-900                              |
Copy sent to Ripon\
\  | Common original
assistant
Sure, a continuation for this poem could be:
  \_| compiled about  _
|              |             |
Elesa Esling, Esla GiWising,
Fr[=e]awine Fridhug[=a]ring, Fridhug[=a]r Bronding,
Brond B[=ae]ldaeging, B[=ae]ldaeg W[=o]dening.
(5) The Chronicle of Ethelwerd (_c._ 1000) does, however, stop at
_Frealaf-Geat-Sceldwa-Sceaf-Noe-Adam_ list.
intermediate Frithuwald.
Even in the rare cases where the character in _Beowulf_ and his
stat sua cuique dies, breve et inreparabile tempus
omnibus est vitae; sed famam extendere factis
hoc virtutis opus.
worolde l[=i]fes; wyrce s[=e] the m[=o]te
d[=o]mes [=ae]r d[=e]athe; thaet bith drihtguman
unlifgendum aefter s[=e]lest.
forefathers.
Olrik, Schuette and Kier. But, now that the laws of Old
district. In this MS the "Eota" of the Mercian original has been
comparatively tiny strip of coast.
It is repeatedly objected that the Goetar are remote from the
Anglo-Saxons. Possibly: but remoteness did not prevent {343} the
contribution. Dr Clark Hall added a most useful "Index of things
mentioned in _Beowulf_," well illustrated. Here again the
illustrations, with few exceptions, are from Scandinavian finds.
surprising, then, if we find parallels between English poetry and
_gold-wlanc_, but the typical thegn in _Finnsburg_ is called
all these poems Scandinavian?
Something has been said above of this second contention--that the
length enable the general reader to get a survey of the essential
wanderings on the outskirts of the Roman Empire: Hampel (J.),
industriels des peuples barbares de la Gaule du V^me au VIII^me
For weapons in general see Lehmann (H.), _Ueber die Waffen im
Angelsaechsischen_, Diss., Koenigsberg; and especially Falk (H.),
THE CORSLET. This in _Beowulf_ is made of rings, twisted and
The oak-boat was removed to Kiel, where it now is.
_hringed-stefna_, _hring-naca_, _wunden-stefna_, used of
Stockholm. This is supposed to date from about the year 1000.
Ships preserved from the Baltic coast of Germany can be seen at
wunden-stefna,
well rendered by Earle "The foamy-necked floater, most like to a
bird--the coily-stemmed."
interpretation "bee-foe" have been found by Sweet (who had been
anticipated by Simrock in some of his points), by Cosijn,
meaningless.
A typical example of the Bear's son tale is _Der Starke Hans_ in
So, too, the story of the "Great Bird Dan" (_Fugl Dam_), which is
A closer Russian parallel is that of _Ivashko Medvedko_. "John
The story from the Faroe Islands runs thus:
We find the story in its normal form in Jutland. The hero, a
From Hanover comes the story of Peter Baer, which shows all the
Unfortunately, this French-Flemish tale is found in a somewhat
_Gulliver's Travels._
(_a_) Articles dealing with single passages in _Beowulf_, or two
(_c_) Purely popular paraphrases or summaries.
s. 3. The MS and its transcripts.
s. 6. Translations (including early summaries).
s. 7. Textual criticism and interpretation.
The periodicals most frequently quoted are:
_I.F._ = Indogermanische Forschungen. Strassburg, 1892 _etc._
_Lit. Cbl._ = Literarisches Centralblatt. Leipzig, 1851 _etc._
_M.L.R._ = The Modern Language Review. Cambridge, 1906 _etc._
_Morsbachs Studien_ zur englischen Philologie. Halle, 1897 _etc._
The first description of the _Beowulf_-MS is in 1705 by H. WANLEY
Further discussion of the MS by
scholar.)
(promising further treatment of the problems of the MS).
The MS of Finnsburg has been lost. See above, p. 245.
praeclare gestis atque interitu, quale fuerit antequam in manus
corrections).
Geschichte der Eroberung Englands durch die Angelsachsen.
IMELMANN'S "Forschungen zur altenglischen Poesie."
An edition of Beowulf by Prof. F. KLAEBER is in the press.
s. 5. CONCORDANCES, etc.
inaccurate than Turner's summary); Danish in the _Dansk
secolo, tradotto e illustrato. In the _Atti della reale Accademia
("Fliessend und ungezwungen, sinngetreu ..."); ++Zehme,
predecessors has preserved him from misrepresenting seriously the
A translation of Beowulf into the Norwegian "landsmaal," by H.
RYTTER, will appear shortly.
See also preceding section.
Chochilaicus; see above, p. 4, note.)
historischen und mythologischen beziehungen betrachtet. Halle.
especially of Kemble.)
abstract of Beowulf]; see _Kleinere Schriften_, IV, 557-60.
indiscriminately.)
_Anglia_, III, 74-87. (Important. Gering announced Vigf['u]sson's
Sandhaugar episode, and useful comment. The discovery was further
deutschen Hochstiftes, 1890. Frankfurt.
summary of the controversy, with "a constructive essay."
Parentheses as features of Anglo-Saxon Poetic Style. Baltimore.
significato storico, etico, sociologico. Roma. (Slight.)
criticisms and modifications are supplied by the reviews, more
Heremod, Offa, Skj[o,]ldungar, Ynglingar, _etc._ Strassburg.
demonstrates the fundamentally Christian character of the poem.)
Dissertation, Halle. (Finn story.)
(Parallels between the two poems.)
(Graendelsm[^o]r in Siebenbuergen: see above, p. 308.)
_Upplands Fornminnesfoerenings Tidskrift_, VII, 309-34.
assertion of errors in Olrik's arguments in the _Heltedigtning_.)
(Conjectures based upon the assumption Geatas = Jutes.)
original views).
angelsaechsisch-nordischer Brauch (Zu Beowulf, 446, _hafalan
deutsche stud._ VIII.
important.)
Beitraege zur germ. u. roman. Philol._ XXXVIII.)
dissertation.
inauguralis, Berolini.
urspruenglich silbischen Liquiden oder Nasalen und mit
Ali, _see_ Onela
Aliel, _see_ Riganus
Athils, Athislus, _see_ Eadgils
Atuarii, _see_ Hetware
Beowulf son of Ecgtheow, king of the Geatas, 10-13;
his struggle with Grendel and Grendel's mother, 41 _etc._;
theories as to the structure of, 112-20;
the Christian elements in, 121-8;
possible classical influence upon, 329 _etc._;
division into fittes or passus, 294 _etc._
Blood-feud, in primitive society, 276 _etc._
Bothvar Bjarki, _see_ Bjarki
Bradley, Dr Henry, on the Christian elements in _Beowulf_, 127;
on Beow and Beowulf the Dane, 293 _etc._;
Chatuarii, _see_ Hetware
Danes, first mentioned soon after A.D. 500, 14;
their early history as recorded in Saxo, 129-37;
their relation to the English, 314 _etc._
Engelhardt, on the Moss-finds, 345 _etc._
Eotan, Eote, _see_ Jutes
Esthonian cult of Pekko, 299 _etc._
Funeral rites, _see_ Burials
Goetar, _see_ Geatas
Gold in the Heroic Age, 348 _etc._
occurrence of the name in English charters, 305-6;
Guest (Gestr), _see_ Grettir
Hall, Dr Clark, on the archaeology of _Beowulf_, 346 _etc._
Harvest customs, 81 _etc._
Hiarthwarus, Hiarwarus, _see_ Heoroweard
Hildebrandus, another name for Brutus, _q.v._
Hott, _see_ Hjalti
Ialto, _see_ Hjalti
Illugi, _see Grettis Saga_
Intercourse between tribes in Heroic Age, 348 _etc._
Jutes, attempt to identify them with the Geatas, 8-10, 333-45;
Kemble, his mythological theories, 291 _etc._
_see also_ Heorot
Lethra, _see_ Leire
_Liber Historiae Francorum_, account of the death of Chochilaicus
Longobardi, relation to the Heathobeardan, 23; 311;
_see also_ Alboin
Malmesbury, William of, _see_ William of Malmesbury
Neck, _see_ Crying the Neck
_see also_ Ottar Vendel-crow
Origin of the English, 314 _etc._
Oslaf, _see_ Ordlaf
_see also_ Ohthere
Pellon-Pecko, _see_ Pekko
Pinefredus, _see_ Offa II
Roe, _see_ Hrothgar
Roekil, _see_ Hrethric
Roericus, _see_ Hrethric
Rolf Kraki, _see_ Hrothulf
Roluo, _see_ Hrothulf
his story of Starcatherus, 22-3;
Sheaf, _see_ Sceaf
Shield, _see_ Scyld
account of Adilsus (Eadgils) in, 7;
on the funeral customs of _Beowulf_, 124;
on the archaeology of _Beowulf_, 346 _etc._
_see_ Eadgils, Ohthere, Onela, Ongentheow
Sweyn Aageson, his account of Uffo (Offa), 33;
Ten Brink's theories on _Beowulf_, 113 _etc._
Tours, Gregory of, _see_ Gregory of Tours
Uffo, _see_ Offa
Virgil, possible influence of, upon _Beowulf_, 329 _etc._
Warmundus, _see_ Wermundus
account of the Heathobeardan in, 20 _etc._;
Wijk bij Duurstede, _see_ Dorestad
Yte, _see_ Jutes
 Corresponding to O.N. _Adhils_ we should expect O.E. _Aedhgils_,
 The passages in _Beowulf_ referring to this expedition are:
 Strictly _Anganth['e]r_. See Heusler, _Heldennamen in mehrfacher
 Unless they are among the fragments carried off to the Stockholm
 See Schueck, _Folknamnet Geatas_, 22 _etc._
 See below, p. 98 and Appendix (E); The "Jute-Question."
 As is done, e.g., by Schueck (_Studier i Beowulf-sagan_, 27).
 For example Sweyn Aageson (c. 1200) had no doubt that the little
 _Saga of Rolf Kraki_, cap. IV.
 _Verba dei legantur in sacerdotali convivio; ibi decet lectorem
 Best represented in Saxo.
 For a contrary view see Clarke, _Sidelights_, 100.
 Saxo has mistaken a title _hnoeggvanbaugi_ for a father's name,
(_hins_) _hnoeggva Baugs_ "(son of the) covetous Baug."
 _Langfedhgatal_ in Langebek, I, 5. The succession given in
usurpation.
 This is proposed by Cosijn (_Aanteekeningen_, 21) and again
independently by Lawrence in _M.L.N._ XXV, 157.
 _The Deeds of Beowulf_, LXXXV.
 "Item there is vii acres lond lying by the high weye toward the
 I should hardly have thought it worth while to revive this old
 See Appendix (A) below.
 Mogk (_Pauls Grdr._ (2), III, 302) regards Grendel as a
 There are other coincidences which _may_ be the result of mere
 For this argument and the following, cf. Schueck, _Studier i
 The attacks have taken place at Yule for two successive years,
 It is only in this adventure that Rolf carries the sword
 See p. 87 and Appendix (A) below.
 It comes out strongly in the _Bjarki_-story.
Christiania, 1865. (_Norske Folke-Eventyr ... fortalte af P. C.
The _sandhaug_ is an extraordinary coincidence, if it _is_ a mere
 Yet both Beowulf and Orm are saved by divine help.
 Although Saxo Grammaticus has provided some even earlier kings.
 See below.
 Excluding, of course, the Hebrew names.
 _armis circundatus_.
 For a list of the scholars who have dealt with the subject, see
 The discussion of Skjold by Olrik (_Danmarks Heltedigtning_, I,
 The scandals about King Edgar (_infamias quas post dicam magis
 "to cry the Mare." Blount, _Glossographia_, 4th edit. 1674, s.v.
redundatione Tamisiae in modum insulae aqua circumdatur.
 But is this so? "The word Saempsae (now saempsykka) 'small rush,
 _omnem Alemannorum gentem tributaria ditione perdomuit._ Cf.
 intrepidum mentis habitum retinere memento.
 Cf. _Beowulf_, 2705: _forwr[=a]t Wedra helm wyrm on middan_.
implicitus gyris serpens crebrisque reflexus
orbibus et caudae sinuosa volumina ducens
multiplicesque agitans spiras.
Beovvulfi rebus gestis_, 1875, p. iii.
 Lichtenheld omits 2011, _se m[=ae]ra mago Healfdenes_, inserting
 "Thus in place of the expression _to widan feore_ we find
 An English Miscellany presented to Dr Furnivall, 370.
 In the Franks casket _b_ already appears as _f_, and the _n_ of
_sefu_, "seven," has been lost.
 Luebke's preface to Muellenhoff's _Beovulf_. Both the tendencies
 Earle, _Deeds of Beowulf_, xlix (an excellent criticism of
 Schuecking, Chap. VIII.
 It is adopted, e.g., by Clarke, _Sidelights_, 8.
 Yet this is very doubtful: see Leeds, _Archaeology_, 27, 74.
 See Schuecking, _Das angelsaechsische Totenklaglied_, in _Engl.
 Clark Hall, xlvii.
 Blackburn, as above, p. 126.
 MS A, followed by Magn['u]sson, makes Glam _bl['a]eygdhr_,
 MS A has _fon^m_ or _fen^m_, it is difficult to tell which.
Magn['u]sson reads _fenum_, "morasses."
 Immediately inside the door of the Icelandic dwelling was the
_Privatbolegen p[oa] Island i Sagatiden_, 1889.
 MSS _baelt_. Boer reads _bolat_ "hewn down."
 _Sk['u]ta_ may be acc. of the noun _sk['u]ti_, "overhanging
 The old editions read _fimm tigir fadhma_ "fifty fathoms": but
 _ok sat thar hj['a]_, not in MS A, nor in Boer's edition.
 Reading _kappana_.
 See _Catalogue of MSS. in the Library of Corpus Christi College,
 See _Publications of the Palaeographical Society_, 1880, where a
 So Zimmer, _Nennius Vindicatus_, Berlin, 1893, pp. 78 etc., and
Brittonum_, in Ecgfrith, who reigned for a few months in 796. See
 For a list of the Icelandic versions, see Heusler, _Die gelehrte
 I follow the spelling of the Moseley roll in this note.
 _Dacia_ = "Denmark": _Dacia_ and _Dania_ were identified.
 _uocabitur_, Gertz; _uocatur_, all MSS.
 _post quem_, Holder-Egger, Gertz; _postquam_, all MSS.
 Snyo: the viceroy whom Athisl had placed over the Danes.
 _in_ added by Gertz; omitted in all MSS.
 A scribal error for _transalbinas_, "beyond the Elbe."
 _Above this heading_ B _has_ Gesta Offe Regis mercior_um_.
 A _repeats_ sibi _after_ constitueret.
 optat, B.
 celebri, B; celibri, A.
 ueheement_er_, A.
 ueheementi, A.
 eciam, B.
 _Added in margin in_ A; _not in_ B.
 hec _omitted_, B.
 _Added in margin in_ A; _not in_ B.
 dereliqueru_n_t, B.
 precipue _omitted_, B.
 ei _omitted_, B.
 Qualmhul _vel_ Q_u_almweld _in margin_, A.
 planies, A: planicies, _perhaps corrected from_ planies, B.
 blodifeld, B.
 Gloria t_r_iumphi, _in margin_, A.
 tripudium, B; tripuduum, A.
 menbra, A.
 gracias, B.
 hosstibus, A.
 romotis, A.
 exaggeret, B.
 pulcritudi_ni_s, B; pulch_r_itudini, A.
 euuangelii, B.
 _from_ B, _written over erasure_.
 dicebant, B.
 frustratim, A, B.
 ossium, B.
 hoc _omitted_, B.
 obtemp_er_are, B.
 menbra, A.
 qui, AB; quae, Wats.
 reco_n_gnosce, A.
 sancte _et_ dulcissime, B.
 ut _added above line_, A, B.
 scenobium, A; _the _s_i s erased in_ B.
 deo, B
 tuinfreth, B.
 scenobio, A; s _erased_ B.
 de tiran_n_ide Beormredi reg_is_ Mercie, B.
 fecerat, _wanting in_ A; _added in margin_, B.
 uariis _repeated_, A; _second_ variis _cancelled_, B.
 considerans, B, _inserted in margin; omitted_, A.
 vixisset, B, _inserted in margin_; _omitted_, A.
 Alberto, _etc. passim_, B.
 virtutibus, _in margin, later hand,_ A; _in_ B, _over erasure._
 est _in margin_, A.
 et _omitted_, B.
 innotuerunt, B.
 in pietatis manu, B.
 p_re_missimis, A.
 sinistrum, B.
 quam _in margin_, A; _over erasure_, B.
 _Space for cap. left vacant_, A.
 facinoris, B.
 celeriter, B.
 Justa Vindicta, A, _in margin_.
 Finn is called the _bana_, "slayer" of Hnaef. But this does not
 The theory that Hnaef is a captain of Healfdene is based upon a
rendering of l. 1064 which is in all probability wrong.
 In the _Skjoldunga Saga_ [extant in a Latin abstract by Arngrim
(_Hoc_ being an obvious misprint).
sythdhan morgen c[=o]m
 Among those who have so held are Kemble, Thorpe (_Beowulf_, pp.
 It has been surmounted in two ways. (1) By altering _eaferum_ to
 Cf. Tacitus, _Germania_, XIV.
 For examples of this see pp. 278-82 below.
 For a discussion of the interpretation of the difficult
 I wish I could feel convinced, with Ayres, that the person whom
 Ne h[=u]ru Hildeburh herian thorfte Eotena tr[=e]owe.
 Ayres, in _J.E.G.Ph._ XVI, 286. So Lawrence in a private
communication.
 We can never argue that words are synonymous because they are
Now many scholars have regarded this as so forced and unlikely an
 Saxo Grammaticus (ed. Holder, p. 67).
 _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, anno 755.
 Finn may perhaps be holding a meeting of chieftains. For similar
 "De norske oldsager synes at vidne om, at temmelig livlige
 It has indeed been so argued by Brandl: "Beowulf ... ist nur der
 l. 2039, where a capital O occurs, but without a section number.
 _Cotton Tiberius B. XI._
 _Postscript_, pp. xi, xiv.
Byggvir kvath:
"[Veiztu] ef [ek] oethle aettak sem Ingunar-Freyr,
ok sv['a] saellekt setr,
merge smaera moelthak [th['a]] meinkr[['o],]ko
ok lemtha alla ['i] litho."
Loki kvath:
ok snapv['i]st snaper?
at eyrom Freys mont[u] ae vesa
ok und kvernom klaka."
John Barleycorn is the wightest man
That ever throve in land.
Byggvir kvath:
"Byggver ek heite, en mik br['a]than kvetha
goth [o,]ll ok gumar;
thv['i] emk h['e]r hr['o]thogr, at drekka Hr['o]pts meger
Loki kvath:
"thege th['u], Byggver! th['u] kunner aldrege
deila meth m[o,]nnom mat;
 This follows from the allusive way in which he and his wife are
 See note by K. Krohn, _Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen_, VI, 105.
 See above, p. 87, and M. J. Eisen, "Ueber den Pekokultus bei den
 There are two copies, one of the tenth and one of the eleventh
 This will be found in several of the vocabularies of Low German
 See _grand_ in Falk and Torp, _Etymologisk Ordbog_, Kristiania,
 Plummer, II, pp. xxix, xxxi, lxxxix.
 Plummer, II, p. lxxi. Note _Beowi_ for _Bedwig_.
 Brandl in Herrig's _Archiv_, CXXXVII, 12-13.
 So Ethelwerd (_Lib._ I) sees in Woden a _rex multitudinis
 Cf. Tupper in _Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer._ XXVI, 275.
 A few Geatic adventurers may have taken part in the Anglo-Saxon
 _Heroic Age_, 52-6. I have tried to show (Appendix F) that these
 Oman, _England before the Norman Conquest_, 319.
 See Oman, pp. 460, 591, for the honour done to this saint by
converted Danes.
 Faricius, Life, in Giles' edition of Aldhelm, 1844, p. 357.
 "quid Hinieldus cum Christo."
 "Thaet [=ae]nig pr[=e]ost ne b[=e]o ealuscop, ne on [=ae]nige
 See above, p. 8. Fahlbeck has recently revised and re-stated his
 _Danmarks Riges Historie_, I, 79 _etc._
 _Beowulf_, uebersetzt von H. Gering, 1906, p. vii.
 Just as, for example, in _Heimskringla: Haraldz saga ins
 _Folknamnet Geatas_, p. 5 _etc._
 Speaking of the Goetaelv, Adam says "Ille oritur in praedictis
 See above, p. 7.
 As Miss Paues, herself a _Geat_, points out to me.
_Graffaeltet vid Vendel, beskrifvet af_ H. Stolpe och T. J. Arne,
 Also added as an Appendix to his _Beowulf_ translation, 1911.
 Clark Hall's _Preface_ to Stjerna's _Essays_, p. xx.
 _Germania_, cap. XV.
 Walter, _Corpus juris Germanici antiqui_, 1824, II, 125.
 Most editors indeed do take it in this sense, though recently
 Actually, I believe, more: for two ring-swords were found at
 The Benty Grange helmet; see below, p. 358.
 Depicted by Clark Hall, Stjerna's _Essays_, p. 258.
 "Von Skandinavien gibt es aus der Voelkerwanderungszeit und
 See Chifflet, J. J., _Anastasis Childerici I ... sive thesaurus
 Forming vols. 3 and 4 of _The Arts in Early England_, 1903-15.
 _Fasta fornlaemningar i Beovulf_, in _Antiqvarisk Tidskrift foer
 See B. Nerman, _Vilka konungar ligga i Uppsala hoegar?_ Uppsala,
 _Heimskringla: Ynglingasaga_, cap. 27.
 A discovery made by Otto v. Friesen in 1910: see S. Lindqvist in
 For a preliminary account of the discovery, see _Ottarshoegen i
 Baldwin Brown, III, 216.
 Baldwin Brown, III, 215.
 It is somewhat similar in Norse literature, where swords are
 _securum etiam inter hostes praestat._ _Germ._ cap. 45.
 _Engl. Stud._ LII, 191. Among the many who have accepted the
 It is actually written _Biu^uulf_.
 _Tidskr. f. Philol og Paedag._ VIII, 289.
 No. 166. Translated as "Strong Hans." (_Grimm's Household Tales,
 Edinburgh, 1860, vol. I, No. XVI, "The king of Lochlin's three
daughters": vol. III, No. LVIII, "The rider of Grianaig."
 _Popular Tales from the Norse_ (third edit., Edinburgh, 1888, p.
 "e qui vede il gigante seduto, che detteva il suo testamento."
 p. 153. This is Panzer's version 97.
 Afanasief, VIII, No. 6.
 This folk-tale is given in a small book, to be found in the
 Cf. _Grettis Saga_, LXVI, _hann kveikti lj['o]s_; cf. _Beowulf_,
  [Greek: Pais ... neos en komidei, kai eti hupo paidokomoi
tithenoumenos], Agathias, I, 4: _parvulus_, Gregory, IV, 6.
 Archaeological works bearing less directly upon _Beowulf_ are