notation></semantics></math>
(as within). Finally, the observed effect sizes
<math display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><msub><mi>y</mi><mrow><mi>k</mi><mo>,</mo><mi>j</mi></mrow></msub><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">y_{k,j}</annotation></semantics></math>
that differ from the true effects
<math display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><msub><mi>y</mi><mrow><mi>k</mi><mo>,</mo><mi>j</mi></mrow></msub><annotation encoding="application/