an be treated as a black box.

.hi[**Causal inference:**] `\(\color{#e64173}{\beta_0}\)` is a **causal effect** of `\(x_{0}\)`.
- Under stated assumptions (of the identification strategy).
- Other coefficients generally lack interpretability.



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# Prediction vs. causal inference

When would .hi[causal inference] be useful (to a policymaker, business executive, individual)? When would .hi-purple[prediction] be useful?

1. **Birth weight `\((Y)\)` ~ air pollution `\((x)\)`**

1. **Income `\((Y)\)` ~ educa