gs-and-data">DAGs and data</h2>
<p>People often disagree about what causes what. Ideally, you could use data to resolve such disputes. Under what conditions is this possible?</p>
<p>The question arises because there can be situations where it can be impossible to resolve a dispute purely through data analysis. We can illustrate a very simple system: <span class="math inline">\(Y \leftrightarrow X\)</span>. By this, we mean any of the following three systems:</p>
<ol type="i">
<li><span class="math inline">\