tect a correlation between X and Y, e.g.&nbsp;a non-zero coefficient on X in the model <code>Y ~ X</code>. In that case, a causal connection provides a reasonable explanation for the correlation. But we can’t say what the direction of causation is just by analyzing X and Y data together. Even a correlating pathway is constructed out of causal segments.</p>
<p>The challenge for the statistical thinker is to figure out the nature of the causal connections from the available data, that is, the flow of an app