/span></a>.) Statistics teachers encouraged students to use phrases like “associated with” or “correlated with” and reminded them that “correlation is not causation.”</p>
<p>Regrettably, this attitude made statistics irrelevant to the many situations where intervention is the core concern and experiment was not feasible. A tragic episode of this sort likely caused millions of unnecessary deaths. Starting in the 1940s, doctors and epidemiologists saw evidence that smoking causes lung cancer. In s