re messy, as data in the world usually are.<br />
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<li>The data in Panel D show us that the apparent relationship between the two variables is solely caused by one individual, who we would refer to as an <em>outlier</em> because they fall so far outside of the pattern of the rest of the group. It should be clear that we probably don’t want to conclude very much from an effect that is driven by one data point. This figure highlights why it is <em>always</em> important to look at the raw data before pu