History of philosophy
Classical and medieval

The classical and medieval periods in Indian philosophy span roughly from 200 BCE to 1800 CE. Some scholars refer to this entire duration as the "classical period," while others divide it into two distinct periods: the classical period up until 1300 CE, and the medieval period afterward. During the first half of this era, the orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, known as the darsanas, developed. Their foundational scriptures usually take the form of sūtras, which are aphoristic or concise texts that explain key philosophical ideas. The latter half of this period was characterized by detailed commentaries on these sutras, aimed at providing comprehensive explanations and interpretations.

Samkhya is the oldest of the darśanas. It is a dualistic philosophy that asserts that reality is composed of two fundamental principles: Purusha, or pure consciousness, and Prakriti, or matter. Samkhya teaches that Prakriti is characterized by three qualities known as gunas. Sattva represents calmness and harmony, Rajas corresponds to passion and activity, and Tamas involves ignorance and inertia. The Yoga school initially formed a part of Samkhya and later became an independent school. It is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and emphasizes the practice of physical postures and various forms of meditation.

Nyaya and Vaisheshika are two other significant orthodox schools. In epistemology, Nyaya posits that there are four sources of knowledge: perception, inference, analogical reasoning, and testimony. Nyaya is particularly known for its theory of logic, which emphasizes that inference depends on prior perception and aims to generate new knowledge, such as understanding the cause of an observed phenomenon. Vaisheshika, on the other hand, is renowned for its atomistic metaphysics. Although Nyaya and Vaisheshika were originally distinct schools, they later became intertwined and were often treated as a single tradition.

The schools of Vedānta and Mīmāṃsā focus primarily on interpreting the Vedic scriptures. Vedānta is concerned mainly with the Upanishads, discussing metaphysical theories and exploring the possibilities of knowledge and liberation. In contrast, Mīmāṃsā is more focused on the ritualistic practices outlined in the Vedas.

Buddhist philosophy also flourished during this period, leading to the development of four main schools of Indian Buddhism: Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika, Madhyamaka, and Yogācāra. While these schools agree on the core teachings of Gautama Buddha, they differ on certain key points. The Sarvāstivāda school holds that "all exists," including past, present, and future entities. This view is rejected by the Sautrāntika school, which argues that only the present exists. The Madhyamaka school, founded by Nagarjuna (c. 150–250 CE), asserts that all phenomena are inherently empty, meaning that nothing possesses a permanent essence or independent existence. The Yogācāra school is traditionally interpreted as a form of idealism, arguing that the external world is an illusion created by the mind.

The latter half of the classical period saw further developments in both the orthodox and heterodox schools of Indian philosophy, often through detailed commentaries on foundational sutras. The Vedanta school gained significant influence during this time, particularly with the rise of the Advaita Vedanta school under Adi Shankara (c. 700–750 CE). Shankara advocated for a radical form of monism, asserting that Atman and Brahman are identical, and that the apparent multiplicity of the universe is merely an illusion, or Maya.

This view was modified by Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE), who developed the Vishishtadvaita Vedanta school. Ramanuja agreed that Brahman is the ultimate reality, but he argued that individual entities, such as qualities, persons, and objects, are also real as parts of the underlying unity of Brahman. He emphasized the importance of Bhakti, or devotion to the divine, as a spiritual path and was instrumental in popularizing the Bhakti movement, which continued until the 17th to 18th centuries.

Another significant development in this period was the emergence of the Navya-Nyāya movement within the Nyaya school, which introduced a more sophisticated framework of logic with a particular focus on linguistic analysis.
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