History of philosophy
Post-classical

Averroes is often considered the last major philosopher of the classical era of Islamic philosophy. The traditional view holds that the post-classical period was marked by a decline on several levels. This decline is understood both in terms of the global influence of Islam and in the realm of scientific and philosophical inquiry within the Islamic world. Al-Ghazali's skepticism regarding the power of reason and the role of philosophy played a significant part in this development, leading to a shift in focus towards theology and religious doctrine. However, some contemporary scholars have questioned the extent of this so-called decline. They argue that it is better understood as a shift in philosophical interest rather than an outright decline. According to this view, philosophy did not disappear but was instead integrated into and continued within the framework of theology.

Mulla Sadra (1571–1636) is often regarded as the most influential philosopher of the post-classical era. He was a prominent figure in the philosophical and mystical school known as illuminationism. Mulla Sadra saw philosophy as a spiritual practice aimed at fostering wisdom and transforming oneself into a sage. His metaphysical theory of existence was particularly influential. He rejected the traditional Aristotelian notion that reality is composed of static substances with fixed essences. Instead, he advocated a process philosophy that emphasized continuous change and novelty. According to this view, the creation of the world is not a singular event in the past but an ongoing process. Mulla Sadra synthesized monism and pluralism by claiming that there is a transcendent unity of being that encompasses all individual entities. He also defended panpsychism, arguing that all entities possess consciousness to varying degrees.

The movement of Islamic modernism emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries in response to the cultural changes brought about by modernity and the increasing influence of Western thought. Islamic modernists aimed to reassess the role of traditional Islamic doctrines and practices in the modern world. They sought to reinterpret and adapt Islamic teachings to demonstrate how the core tenets of Islam are compatible with modern principles, particularly in areas such as democracy, human rights, science, and the response to colonialism.
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