Sumerian language
Copula verb

The copula verb /me/ "to be" is mostly used in an enclitic form. Its conjugation is as follows:

In addition, the initial vowel of the form -am is reduced to -/m/ after enclitics ending in a vowel: 𒂍𒈬𒌝 e - g̃u - u m "it is my house". Like other final consonants, the -m may not be expressed in early spelling.

These enclitic forms are used instead of a simple sequence of finite prefix, root and personal suffix *i -me-en, *i-me etc. For more complex forms, the independent copula form is used: 𒉌𒈨𒀀 i -me-a "that he is", 𒉡𒅇𒈨𒂗 nu-u -me-en "I am not". Unlike the enclitic, it typically uses the normal stem 𒈨 - me - in the 3rd person singular (𒁀𒊏𒈨 ba-ra-me "should not be"), except for the form prefixed with ḫa-, which is 𒃶𒅎 ḫe -em or 𒃶𒀀𒀭 ḫe -am.

For a negative equivalent of the copula in the 3rd person, it seems that the word 𒉡 nu "not" alone instead of *nu-um is used predicatively (e.g. 𒍏𒉡 urud nu "it is not copper") although the form 𒉡(𒌦)𒂵𒀀𒀭 nu-(un)-ga-am "it is also not..." is attested. A different word is used to express existence or being present/located somewhere: 𒅅 g̃al.

A peculiar feature of the copula is that it seems to form a relative clause without the nominalizing suffix /-a/ and thus uses the finite form: thus, instead of 𒉌𒈨𒀀 i -me-a, simply 𒀀𒀭 - am is used: 𒆬𒃻𒂵𒊏𒉌𒅎𒈠𒀭𒋧 kug nig̃ -gur -ra-ni-i m ma-an-šum "he gave me silver (which) was his property", which appears to say "The silver was his property, he gave it to me". In the negative, the full form 𒉡𒈨𒀀 nu-me-a "which is not" is used, and likewise in non-relative functions.
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