Hebrew Bible
Before the exile

Modern scholars believe that the ancient Israelites mostly originated from within Canaan. Their material culture was closely related to their Canaanite neighbors, and Hebrew was a Canaanite dialect. Archaeological evidence indicates Israel began as loosely organized tribal villages in the hill country of modern-day Israel c. 1250 – c. 1000 BCE. During crises, these tribes formed temporary alliances. The Book of Judges, written c. 600 BCE (around 500 years after the events it describes) portrays Israel as a grouping of decentralized tribes, and the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 may reflect older oral traditions. It features archaic elements of Hebrew and a tribal list that identifies Israel exclusively with the northern tribes.

By the 9th or 8th centuries BCE, the scribal culture of Samaria and Judah was sufficiently developed enough to produce biblical texts. The Kingdom of Samaria was more powerful and culturally advanced than the kingdom of Judah. It also featured multiple cultic sites, including the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan.

Scholars estimate the Jacob tradition (Genesis 25–35) was first written down in the 8th century BCE and probably originated in the north because the stories take place there. Based on the prominence given to the sanctuary at Bethel (Genesis 28), these stories were likely preserved and written down at that religious center. This means the Jacob cycle must be older than the time of King Josiah of Judah (r. 640 – 609 BCE), who pushed for the centralization of worship at Jerusalem.

The story of Moses and the Exodus appears to also originate in the north. It existed as a self-contained story in its oral and earliest written forms, but it was connected to the patriarchal stories during the exile or post-exile periods. The account of Moses' birth (Exodus 2) shows similarities to the birth of Sargon of Akkad, which suggests Neo-Assyrian influence sometime after 722 BCE. While the Moses story is set in Egypt, it is used to tell both an anti-Assyrian and anti-imperial message, all while appropriating Assyrian story patterns. David M. Carr notes the possibility of an early oral tradition for the Exodus story: "To be sure, there may have been a 'Moses group,' themselves of Canaanite extraction, who experienced slavery and liberation from Egypt, but most scholars believe that such a group—if it existed—was only a small minority in early Israel, even though their story came to be claimed by all."

Scholars believe Psalm 45 could have northern origins since it refers to a king marrying a foreign princess, a policy of the Omrides. Some psalms may have originated from the shrine in the northern city of Dan. These are the Sons of Korah psalms, Psalm 29, and Psalm 68. The city of Dan probably became an Israelite city during the reign of King Jeroboam II (781–742 BCE). Before then, it belonged to Aram, and Psalm 20 is nearly identical to an Aramaic psalm found in the 4th century BCE Papyrus Amherst 63.

The author of the books of Kings likely lived in Jerusalem. The text shows a clear bias in favor of Judah where worship of God was centralized at Jerusalem. The Kingdon of Samaria is portrayed as a godless, breakaway region whose rulers refuse to worship at Jerusalem.
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