Alexander I of Russia
Postbellum

Grand Dukes of Finland (1809)

Grand Duchy of Finland (1809)

In Grand Duchy of Finland, During the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia, the four Estates of occupied Finland (Nobility, Clergy, Bourgeoisie and Peasants) were assembled at Porvoo (Borgå) by Alexander I, he become the Grand Duke, between 25 March and 19 July 1809. The central event at Porvoo was the taking of the sovereign pledge and the oaths of the Estates in Porvoo Cathedral on 29 March 1809. Each of the Estates swore an oath of allegiance the loyal to Russian Crown and Swedish kingdom, and to keeping the constitution and the form of government unchanged. The Diet of Finland of 1809 was now to only meet whenever requested, and was never mentioned in the manifesto published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Further on, Alexander I requested a deputation of the four Finnish estates, as he expressed concern over continued Finnish resistance. The deputation refused to act without the Diet, to which Alexander agreed with, and promised the Diet would shortly be summoned. Alexander I subsequently promised to govern Finland in accordance with its laws. This was thought to mean that the emperor confirmed the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1772 by Gustav III as the constitution of Finland, where the Government for agriculture, education, energy, economic reform, health, infrustructure, engineering, architecture, commerce, trade, industry, investment, insurance, finance, manufactures, machinery industry, fiscal, taxation, justice, marine industry, ombudsman, welfare, tourism, communication, transportation, labor, women and youth empowerment, although it was also interpreted to mean that all existing codes and statutes were to be respected. The Senate of Finland, became the most important governmental organ and the precursor to the modern Government of Finland, the Supreme Court of Finland, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Finland. Collectively, the Finns were predominately anti-Russian, and Finnish guerrillas and peasant uprisings were a large obstacles for the Russians, forcing Russia to use various tactics to quash armed Finnish rebellion. Finland was then united through Russia via the crown, and Finland was able to keep the majority of its own laws, giving it autonomy. The governor-general would accordingly have a relatively diminished role. Further, the emperor would deal with matters relating to Finland directly through a dedicated Secretary of State, without the involvement of his Russian cabinet or administration. This laid the foundation for the considerable autonomy enjoyed by Finland for most of the period of Russian rule. Moreover, Alexander moved the capital from Turku to Helsinki, a small fortified town protected by Suomenlinna. Finland's main university also transferred to Helsinki after a fire broke out in Turku, destroying most of the building. On 17 September 1809 that year, the conflict was settled by the Treaty of Fredrikshamn, but it was another 54 years before the Finnish Estates were called to assemble again.

King of Congress Poland (1815)

King of Congress Poland (1815)

Alexander I becoming Russian King of Congress Poland in 1815. The state possessed the Constitution of the Congress Kingdom of Poland, one of the most liberal in 1815 Europe, a Sejm (parliament) responsible to the king capable of voting laws, an independent army, currency, budget, penal code and a customs boundary separating it from the rest of Russian lands. Poland also had democratic traditions (Golden Liberty) and the Polish nobility deeply valued personal freedom. The Constitution had 165 articles in seven titles. with General, King, Namiestnik, Administration Council, Council of State, and Parliament. It was considered among the most liberal constitutions of its time; however, it was never fully respected by the government for agriculture, labor, education, energy, finance, health, justice, environment, business economy, engineering, banking, trade, industry, communication, women, youth empowerment and other Polish Government. The Polish Parliament was composed of the king, the upper house (Senate) and the lower house (Chamber of Deputies or Sejm). Deputies numbering 128 were chosen for six years, with one-third of them chosen every two years. They had legal immunity. Voting was open to all persons of 21 years or older. Candidates for deputy had to be able to read, write and have a certain amount of wealth. Military personnel had no right to vote. Parliaments were called every two years for a period of 30 days. Sejm had the right to vote on civil, administrative and legal issues. With permission from the king, it could vote on matters related to the fiscal system and the military. It had the right to control government officials and file petitions. A Senate numbering 64 was composed of nine bishops, voivodes and castellans and Russian "princes of the blood." It acted as the Parliament Court, had the right to control citizens' books, and similar legislative rights as the Chamber of Deputies. In reality, the kings had absolute power and the formal title of Autocrat, and wanted no restrictions on their rule. All opposition to the emperor of Russia was suppressed and the law was disregarded at will by Russian officials. Though the absolute rule demanded by Russia was difficult to establish due to Poland's liberal traditions and institutions, the independence of the kingdom lasted only 15 years; and was obligated to observe the provisions of the constitution. economic situation in Congress Poland was one of the largest economies in the world. In the mid 1800s the region became heavily industrialized, however, agriculture still maintained a major role in the economy. In addition, the export of wheat, rye and other crops was significant in stabilizing the financial output. Since agriculture was equivalent to 70% of the national income, the most important economic transformations included the establishment of mines and the textile industry; the development of these sectors brought more profit and higher tax revenues. the Polish Government of 1815, It was signed on November 27, 1815 by the Tsar. It was a constitution octroyée: given by the ruler and not voted upon by a parliament. A significant contributor to the constitution was Prince Adam Czartoryski, although the text was edited by the Emperor himself and his advisors. The constitution, promising freedom of speech and religious tolerance, among other freedoms, was considered to be among the most liberal in contemporary Europe, reflecting much of the thought of the Polish and Russian Enlightenments. Compared to the Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw, the document which governed the lands that became part of the Kingdom of Poland during their time as the Duchy of Warsaw, it however prioritized the nobility (szlachta) and revoked some rights given to the Polish Jews and peasants. It was never fully respected by the Russian authorities, and increasingly its liberal but ambiguous provisions became manipulated, avoided and violated by the government. Very soon after Congress of Vienna resolutions were signed, Russia ceased to respect them.

Governorate of Livonia

This presentation is devoted to significant reforms - abolition of serfdom at the second decade of 19th century in three Baltic governorates of the Russian Empire. emperor Alexander I annexed in the province of governorate of Livonia, The author analyses the background to the abolition of serfdom noting that in this case not only the struggle of Estonian and Latvian peasants for their rights, but also the activities of liberal circles of Baltic German elite played a significant role. Abolition of serfdom in Baltic governorates was supported by liberally minded. Landtag (Diet of knighthood) of every Baltic governorate adopted analogous Peasantry Laws – Estonian in 1816, Courland in 1817 and Livonian in 1819 which then were confirmed by emperor. These laws established terms of liberation of peasants, transitional period regulation, civil and administrative law of peasants, peasant courts and their competence, law of procedure, offenses against rules of administrative law. These reforms had a compromise character, because liberation of the peasants was performed basing on condition that all the farmland remains in the ownership of the landlords. The relationship between landowners and peasants further was regulated on basis of free lease contract. Initially the economic situation of peasants was worsened, because landlords could demand corvée and payments in kind as rent which was not limited by law as it was before. However, peasantry laws issued for Baltic governorates in the middle of 19th century prescribed mandatory selling of farmland to peasants, promoting the formation of the class of Latvian and Estonian bourgeoisie.
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