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Vestigiality, adaptionist and reproductive views

Similar to Gould's beliefs about adaptionist views and that "females grow nipples as adaptations for suckling, and males grow smaller unused nipples as a spandrel based upon the value of single development channels", American philosopher Elisabeth Lloyd suggested that there is little evidence to support an adaptionist account of female orgasm. Canadian sexologist Meredith L. Chivers stated that "Lloyd views female orgasm as an ontogenetic leftover; women have orgasms because the urogenital neurophysiology for orgasm is so strongly selected for in males that this developmental blueprint gets expressed in females without affecting fitness" and this is similar to "males hav nipples that serve no fitness-related function".