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Thermodynamics and statistical physics

In statistical physics, the kinetic theory of gases applies Newton's laws of motion to large numbers (typically on the order of the Avogadro number) of particles. Kinetic theory can explain, for example, the pressure that a gas exerts upon the container holding it as the aggregate of many impacts of atoms, each imparting a tiny amount of momentum.

The Langevin equation is a special case of Newton's second law, adapted for the case of describing a small object bombarded stochastically by even smaller ones. It can be written m a = − γ v + ξ {\displaystyle m\mathbf {a} =-\gamma \mathbf {v} +\mathbf {\xi } \,} where γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is a drag coefficient and ξ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\xi } } is a force that varies randomly from instant to instant, representing the net effect of collisions with the surrounding particles. This is used to model Brownian motion.