stylistic:style_transfer, information:classification
China

In 1392, General Yi Sŏng-gye led a successful coup to take political power in Korea from the King. General Yi 's followers forced him to take the crown as Taejo of Joseon, thus establishing a new dynasty. In search of a justification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime wanted recognition from other countries such as China. Furthermore, the only way to establish diplomatic relations and trade with China was to accept the tributary system of China. Thus, Joseon joined the Imperial Chinese tributary system in 1401 within the context of the Mandate of Heaven, in return for recognition. Within this tributary system, China assumed the role of a "big brother", with Korea maintaining the highest position among the tributary states, which also included countries such as the Ashikaga shogunate, Ryukyu Kingdom, Lan Xang, Đại Việt, and the Ayutthaya Kingdom, in return for accepting the subservient tributary role of a "younger brother". A series diplomatic ventures illustrate the persistence of Joseon's sadae (serving the great or serving Ming China) diplomacy in dealings with Ming dynasty. Sadae construes China as the center of a Confucian moral universe. and describes a foreign policy characterized by the various ways a weaker nation-state such as Korea acknowledges the strength of a greater power such as China. Sadae is made manifest in the actions of the weaker nation-state as it conveys goodwill and respect through its envoys. Sadaejuui conflates an attitude of subservience with the political realism which accompanies the prudent recognition of greater power. As a foundation of diplomacy, the Joseon kingdom presumed that the Korean state was positioned within a Sinocentristic milieu.

During the 1400s, the connection between Ming and Joseon was mainly pragmatic and somewhat contractual. The concept of Sadae implied a commitment to serve Ming China, and depending on the international context, the dominant state could be substituted. However, by the early 1500s, the relationship between Ming and Joseon was reinforced through a father-son dynamic, as Joseon elites began to regard the Ming emperor not just as a suzerain but also as a ritual father figure. This transformation held significant weight because, unlike the changeable loyalty to a ruler, the Confucian principle of filial piety was considered immutable and irrevocable. The lasting effect of the Ming-Joseon relationship on the Joseon elites endured well beyond the collapse of the Ming Dynasty in the mid-1600s, molding the prevailing political and intellectual developments within Joseon Korea. This influence is evident in the construction of the Taebodan, the Altar of Great Gratitude, and the Mandongmyo, an Eastern Shrine dedicated to Ming emperors, within Korea. These structures, erected in 1704 within a palace courtyard and a local private academy respectively, served as tributes to the memory of selected Ming emperors, to honor the memory of specific Ming emperors.

Joseon's perceptions of the Qing Dynasty were significantly influenced by Sungmyeongbancheong, which means worship of Ming and disdain for Qing, prior to the middle of the 18th century. The Joseon Dynasty was characterized by strong anti-Qing sentiments and allegiance to the Ming Dynasty. According to the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, Joseon regarded the Ming Empire as its ancestral homeland and considered the Qing Dynasty barbaric, maintaining loyalty to the Ming even after its collapse. Due to their adherence to the China-centric perspective called Hwai-gwan, intellectuals in Joseon held profound disdain for the Qing Dynasty.

China is the mother and father of our country; thus, those barbarians are the enemy of our parents. As a civil servant, how can you abandon your parents and become the brother of your parents’ enemy? The work of the Imjinwaeran (Japanese invasion of Joseon, 1592) was thanks to the power of the emperor. It is difficult to forget the grace of the emperor as long as our country lives and breathes. … we shall not abandon our loyalty even if our country disappears (Injo of Joseon Citation 1636).

Joseon wanted to dispatch envoys as often as possible for economic and cultural interests as well as diplomatic purposes. China demanded that Joseon pay tribute only once in a three-year cycle. However, Joseon strongly opposed this measure and demanded that Joseon pay tribute to China three times a year. In response, China put pressure on them by banning envoy delegates from entering the country or demanding unreasonable tributes, but in the end Joseon, which had a theoretical advantage, got the privilege of paying tribute at least one or two times a year. Joseon enjoyed the most opportunities for tribute trade with China, and the tribute trade with China was considered as a privilege not easily granted in Asia. China had to give a higher value than the tribute it received in order to maintain face, and Joseon abused it. Joseon experienced numerous economic and cultural benefits through gifts from the imperial China. The purpose of the tribute varied depending on the circumstances, but it was usually for economic or diplomatic gain.

At the time of the 1882 Imo Incident, the Qing dynasty had a laissez-faire policy toward Joseon; despite being a tributary state of China, Joseon was independent in its internal and external affairs, and China did not manipulate or interfere in them. After the Imo Incident, China abandoned its laissez-faire policy, signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882, and became directly involved in the affairs of Joseon.