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Medieval

The medieval period in Western philosophy began between 400 and 500 CE and ended between 1400 and 1500 CE. A key distinction between this period and earlier philosophical traditions was its emphasis on religious thought. The Christian Emperor Justinian ordered the closure of philosophical schools, such as Plato's Academy. As a result, intellectual activity became concentrated within the Church, and diverging from doctrinal orthodoxy was fraught with risks. Due to these developments, some scholars consider this era a "dark age" compared to what preceded and followed it. Central topics during this period included the problem of universals, the nature of God, proofs for the existence of God, and the relationship between reason and faith. The early medieval period was heavily influenced by Plato's philosophy, while Aristotelian ideas became dominant later.

Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) was deeply influenced by Platonism and utilized this perspective to interpret and explain key concepts and problems within Christian doctrine. He embraced the Neoplatonist idea that God, or the ultimate source, is both good and incomprehensible. This led him to address the problem of evil —specifically, how evil could exist in a world created by a benevolent, all-knowing, and all-powerful God. Augustine's explanation centered on the concept of free will, asserting that God granted humans the ability to choose between good and evil, along with the responsibility for those choices. Augustine also made significant contributions in other areas, including arguments for the existence of God, his theory of time, and his just war theory.

Boethius (477–524 CE) had a profound interest in Greek philosophy. He translated many of Aristotle's works and sought to integrate and reconcile them with Christian doctrine. Boethius addressed the problem of universals and developed a theory to harmonize Plato's and Aristotle's views. He proposed that universals exist in the mind without matter in one sense, but also exist within material objects in another sense. This idea influenced subsequent medieval debates on the problem of universals, inspiring nominalists to argue that universals exist only in the mind. Boethius also explored the problem of the trinity, addressing the Christian doctrine of how God can exist as three persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—simultaneously.