quality:corruption
Evaluation

Opinions of Cao Cao have been divided from as early as the Jin dynasty (266–420) – the period immediately after the Three Kingdoms era (220–280) – to modern times. There were some who praised him for his achievements in poetry and his political and military careers, but there were also others who hold unfavourable views of him for his cruelty, cunning and alleged traitorous ways. In traditional Chinese culture and literature, Cao Cao is stereotypically portrayed as a sly, power hungry and treacherous tyrant, serving as a nemesis to Liu Bei.

Chen Shou, who wrote Cao Cao's official biography in the Sanguozhi, praised Cao Cao for his exemplary wisdom and sagacity and his promotion of meritocracy in the civil service and the military. Chen Shou's concluding remarks on Cao Cao were "an extraordinary man and an outstanding hero of his time."

During the Tang dynasty (618–907), Emperor Taizong wrote elegiac addresses for Cao Cao, complimenting Cao Cao for his ability to maintain control of the political situation in a turbulent period, and commenting that Cao Cao was "exceptionally brilliant for a military leader but not competent enough to rule as an emperor." However, Liu Zhiji condemned Cao Cao for his oppressive treatment of Emperor Xian and his role in the murder of Empress Fu Shou and claimed that Cao Cao's "crimes" were worse than those of Tian Chengzi and Wang Mang.

In the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), Sima Guang, who wrote the Zizhi Tongjian, echoed Chen Shou's positive views of Cao Cao's championing of a meritocratic style of governance and praised Cao Cao's acumen for recognising and grooming talents, but also noted that Cao Cao was strict and harsh in upholding laws. During that period, shuoshu (traditional Chinese storytelling) was very popular among the masses, so folktales and legends about the Three Kingdoms era were widely circulated and narrated. The poet Su Shi mentioned that "audiences looked distressed when they heard that Liu Bei had lost battles and some even shed tears; they expressed joy and delight when they heard that Cao Cao had been defeated."

During the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279), Zhu Xi produced the Tongjian Gangmu (a condensed version of Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian), in which he regarded Shu Han as the legitimate successor to the Han dynasty and denounced Cao Cao as cuan ni (篡逆).

In the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Luo Guanzhong wrote the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. Cao Cao was cast as a primary antagonist in the novel.

The 20th-century writer Lu Xun once said: "Actually, Cao Cao was a very capable person and was at least a hero. I may not agree with Cao Cao, but I am nonetheless always very impressed with him."

Mao Zedong was known to be a great admirer of Cao Cao and he actively advocated providing historical "redress" for the warlord. His praise on Cao Cao centred on three aspects: Cao Cao's literary talents (poetry and writings); Cao Cao's contributions to the unification of China (after the Three Kingdoms period); Cao Cao's determination in the face of adversity.

Modern historians such as Lü Simian, and Yi Zhongtian have written books to present more balanced views of Cao Cao. Between 2006 and 2007, Yi Zhongtian conducted a series of 52 lectures about the Three Kingdoms, of which nearly a third focused on Cao Cao, on the CCTV programme Lecture Room.