[{"bbox": [97, 153, 1133, 206], "category": "Text", "text": "adequate standard of living. Participatory water management approaches have also proven to bring together\ncommunities and to promote inclusion, including for women of lower castes."}, {"bbox": [97, 218, 1133, 457], "category": "Text", "text": "Traditionally communities have harnessed water for irrigation, drinking water and farm use. New technologies like piped systems as well as use of cement and reinforcement in canals, dams, reservoirs and toilets have led to increases of water quantity and quality and increased water use. However, this is not always accompanied by measures to ensure water availability and increased watershed management, which could become a source of local conflicts and tensions. It is thus important to conserve and protect water sources on which not only water supply and irrigation schemes depend, but also forests, unirrigated farm fields, e.g. springshed protection, check dams, recharge ponds. This is even more crucial in light of climate change and increasingly erratic rain patterns. These changesexacerbate unequal access to water and create tensions, especially where there are competing uses (e.g. irrigation, drinking water, hydropower, or industrial use)."}, {"bbox": [97, 469, 1133, 576], "category": "Text", "text": "Access to water remains a crucial issue for communities, and it is a specific burden for women, who are in charge of fetching water when there is not tap at the household level. It is also a matter of inclusion, as caste based discrimination is particularly interlinked to issues of purity, cleanliness and water. Menstrual hygiene and gender sensitive water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities remain an important concern in Nepal."}, {"bbox": [97, 588, 1133, 642], "category": "Text", "text": "Municipalities have the capacities to manage repairs for short / mid term problems (financial and human capacities), but they need to plan for bigger repairs that may be necessary after 10-15 years."}, {"bbox": [97, 654, 1083, 708], "category": "Text", "text": "Identification of main stakeholders and corresponding institutional and/or organisational issues (mandates, potential roles, and capacities) to be covered by the action:"}, {"bbox": [97, 720, 1133, 801], "category": "Text", "text": "Duty-bearers: At federal level, policy making, guidance and assistance and contributing to municipal budgets. At local level, Municipal bodies and committees representing autonomous local government in planning, budgeting/financing, monitoring and reporting."}, {"bbox": [97, 812, 1133, 866], "category": "Text", "text": "Representatives of rights-holders: Water User Associations (WUAs) represented by WUSCs in service provision at the community level, and other community level user groups or committees dealing with WASH."}, {"bbox": [97, 878, 1133, 932], "category": "Text", "text": "Other non-state actors: private sector service providers (firms, individuals, NGOs and community based organisations supporting WUSCs on commercial or voluntary basis)."}, {"bbox": [97, 984, 386, 1010], "category": "Text", "text": "Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)"}, {"bbox": [97, 1022, 1133, 1210], "category": "Text", "text": "Nepal is assessed to be the 10th most vulnerable country for climate change effects in the world. It also has the steepest gradients in the whole world: the waters from the highest mountains will rush down 8,5 km vertically in a horizontal distance of about 100 km. This is causing problems at both ends; in the hills and mountains running water causes severe erosion and degradation of topsoil and even extensive landslides. In the flat lands of Terai, where the water flows slow down, floods are a common problem. Due to its topography, water passes Nepal quickly and seasonal droughts are frequent. The Western part of Nepal is receiving much less precipitation than the Eastern and Central part and is therefore more vulnerable to droughts."}, {"bbox": [97, 1221, 1133, 1326], "category": "Text", "text": "The historical warming of Nepal's climate is still modest, just over a degree (centigrade) over the past 100 years. Precipitation, however, has decreased over the past 50 years, but extremes in precipitation are increasing. Extreme weather events (heavy rainfall, snowstorms, hailstorms, storms, severe lightning) are likely to be more frequent in the future."}, {"bbox": [97, 1339, 1133, 1447], "category": "Text", "text": "Women are living in conditions particularly vulnerable to climate change as they depend heavily on nature to carry out their daily routines; due to outmigration of male population, women do most agricultural work. They typically fetch the water for the family use and for livestock. They also play a major role in the collection of fodder and various forest products, including fuelwood."}, {"bbox": [97, 1459, 1133, 1566], "category": "Text", "text": "Local governments are still more focused on response than preparedness, and lack the capacity to plan their interventions in light of risks. Their Local Adaptation Plans should be a good support to ensure that risk mitigation strategies are adopted. In urban areas, there's an opportunity to work with municipalities in planning disaster resilient public spaces, created necessary redundancies and improving the cities' response to climate change."}, {"bbox": [97, 1578, 1083, 1633], "category": "Text", "text": "Identification of main stakeholders and corresponding institutional and/or organisational issues (mandates, potential roles, and capacities) to be covered by the action:"}, {"bbox": [1038, 1680, 1142, 1706], "category": "Page-footer", "text": "Page 8 of 21"}]