3 Chapter Probability © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

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3 Chapter Probability © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter Outline 3.1 Basic Concepts of Probability

Basic Concepts of Probability

Section 3.1 Objectives Identify the sample space of a probability experiment Identify simple events Use the Fundamental Counting Principle Distinguish among classical probability, empirical probability, and subjective probability Determine the probability of the complement of an event Use a tree diagram and the Fundamental Counting Principle to find probabilities © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 of 88

Probability Experiments
An action, or trial, through which specific results (counts, measurements, or responses) are obtained. Outcome The result of a single trial in a probability experiment. Sample Space The set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment. Event Consists of one or more outcomes and is a subset of the sample space. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 5 of 88

Probability Experiments
Probability experiment: Roll a die Outcome: {3} Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Event: {Die is even}={2, 4, 6} © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 6 of 88

Example: Identifying the Sample Space
A probability experiment consists of tossing a coin and then rolling a six-sided die. Describe the sample space. Solution: There are two possible outcomes when tossing a coin: a head (H) or a tail (T). For each of these, there are six possible outcomes when rolling a die: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. One way to list outcomes for actions occurring in a sequence is to use a tree diagram. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 of 88

Solution: Identifying the Sample Space
Tree diagram: H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 The sample space has 12 outcomes: {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6} © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 of 88

Simple Events Simple event An event that consists of a single outcome.
e.g. “Tossing heads and rolling a 3” {H3} An event that consists of more than one outcome is not a simple event. e.g. “Tossing heads and rolling an even number” {H2, H4, H6} © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9 of 88

Example: Identifying Simple Events
Determine whether the event is simple or not. You roll a six-sided die. Event B is rolling at least a 4. Solution: Not simple (event B has three outcomes: rolling a 4, a 5, or a 6) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 10 of 88

Fundamental Counting Principle
If one event can occur in m ways and a second event can occur in n ways, the number of ways the two events can occur in sequence is m•n. Can be extended for any number of events occurring in sequence. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 11 of 88

Example: Fundamental Counting Principle
You are purchasing a new car. The possible manufacturers, car sizes, and colors are listed. Manufacturer: Ford, GM, Honda Car size: compact, midsize Color: white (W), red (R), black (B), green (G) How many different ways can you select one manufacturer, one car size, and one color? Use a tree diagram to check your result. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 12 of 88

Solution: Fundamental Counting Principle
There are three choices of manufacturers, two car sizes, and four colors. Using the Fundamental Counting Principle: 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 4 = 24 ways © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 13 of 88

Types of Probability Classical (theoretical) Probability

Example: Finding Classical Probabilities
You roll a six-sided die. Find the probability of each event. Event A: rolling a 3 Event B: rolling a 7 Event C: rolling a number less than 5 Solution: Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 15 of 88

Solution: Finding Classical Probabilities
Event A: rolling a Event A = {3} Event B: rolling a Event B= { } (7 is not in the sample space) Event C: rolling a number less than 5 Event C = {1, 2, 3, 4} © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 16 of 88

Types of Probability Empirical (statistical) Probability
Based on observations obtained from probability experiments. Relative frequency of an event. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 17 of 88

Example: Finding Empirical Probabilities
A company is conducting a telephone survey of randomly selected individuals to get their overall impressions of the past decade (2000s). So far, 1504 people have been surveyed. What is the probability that the next person surveyed has a positive overall impression of the 2000s? (Source: Princeton Survey Research Associates International) Response Number of times, f Positive 406 Negative 752 Neither 316 Don’t know 30 Σf = 1504 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 18 of 88

Solution: Finding Empirical Probabilities
Response Number of times, f Positive 406 Negative 752 Neither 316 Don’t know 30 Σf = 320 event frequency © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 of 88

Law of Large Numbers Law of Large Numbers
As an experiment is repeated over and over, the empirical probability of an event approaches the theoretical (actual) probability of the event. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 20 of 88

Types of Probability Subjective Probability
Intuition, educated guesses, and estimates. e.g. A doctor may feel a patient has a 90% chance of a full recovery. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 21 of 88

Example: Classifying Types of Probability
Classify the statement as an example of classical, empirical, or subjective probability. The probability that you will get the flu this year is 0.1. Solution: Subjective probability (most likely an educated guess) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 22 of 88

Example: Classifying Types of Probability
Classify the statement as an example of classical, empirical, or subjective probability. The probability that a voter chosen at random will be younger than 35 years old is 0.3. Solution: Empirical probability (most likely based on a survey) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 23 of 88

Example: Classifying Types of Probability
Classify the statement as an example of classical, empirical, or subjective probability. The probability of winning a 1000-ticket raffle with one ticket is Solution: Classical probability (equally likely outcomes) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 of 88

Range of Probabilities Rule
The probability of an event E is between 0 and 1, inclusive. 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1 [ ] 0.5 1 Impossible Unlikely Even chance Likely Certain © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 25 of 88

Complementary Events Complement of event E
The set of all outcomes in a sample space that are not included in event E. Denoted E ′ (E prime) P(E) + P(E ′) = 1 P(E) = 1 – P(E ′) P(E ′) = 1 – P(E) E′ E © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 26 of 88

Example: Probability of the Complement of an Event
You survey a sample of 1000 employees at a company and record the age of each. Find the probability of randomly choosing an employee who is not between 25 and 34 years old. Employee ages Frequency, f 15 to 24 54 25 to 34 366 35 to 44 233 45 to 54 180 55 to 64 125 65 and over 42 Σf = 1000 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 27 of 88

Solution: Probability of the Complement of an Event
Use empirical probability to find P(age 25 to 34) Employee ages Frequency, f 15 to 24 54 25 to 34 366 35 to 44 233 45 to 54 180 55 to 64 125 65 and over 42 Σf = 1000 Use the complement rule © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 28 of 88

Example: Probability Using a Tree Diagram
A probability experiment consists of tossing a coin and spinning the spinner shown. The spinner is equally likely to land on each number. Use a tree diagram to find the probability of tossing a tail and spinning an odd number. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 29 of 88

Solution: Probability Using a Tree Diagram
H T 1 2 3 4 5 7 6 8 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 P(tossing a tail and spinning an odd number) = © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 30 of 88

Example: Probability Using the Fundamental Counting Principle
Your college identification number consists of 8 digits. Each digit can be 0 through 9 and each digit can be repeated. What is the probability of getting your college identification number when randomly generating eight digits? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 31 of 88

Solution: Probability Using the Fundamental Counting Principle
Each digit can be repeated There are 10 choices for each of the 8 digits Using the Fundamental Counting Principle, there are 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 = 108 = 100,000,000 possible identification numbers Only one of those numbers corresponds to your ID number P(your ID number) = © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 32 of 88

Section 3.1 Summary Identified the sample space of a probability experiment Identified simple events Used the Fundamental Counting Principle Distinguished among classical probability, empirical probability, and subjective probability Determined the probability of the complement of an event Used a tree diagram and the Fundamental Counting Principle to find probabilities © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 33 of 88

Conditional Probability and the Multiplication Rule

Section 3.2 Objectives Determine conditional probabilities
Distinguish between independent and dependent events Use the Multiplication Rule to find the probability of two events occurring in sequence Use the Multiplication Rule to find conditional probabilities © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 35 of 88

Conditional Probability
The probability of an event occurring, given that another event has already occurred Denoted P(B | A) (read “probability of B, given A”) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 36 of 88

Example: Finding Conditional Probabilities
Two cards are selected in sequence from a standard deck. Find the probability that the second card is a queen, given that the first card is a king. (Assume that the king is not replaced.) Solution: Because the first card is a king and is not replaced, the remaining deck has 51 cards, 4 of which are queens. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 37 of 88

Example: Finding Conditional Probabilities
The table shows the results of a study in which researchers examined a child’s IQ and the presence of a specific gene in the child. Find the probability that a child has a high IQ, given that the child has the gene. Gene Present Gene not present Total High IQ 33 19 52 Normal IQ 39 11 50 72 30 102 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 38 of 88

Solution: Finding Conditional Probabilities
There are 72 children who have the gene. So, the sample space consists of these 72 children. Gene Present Gene not present Total High IQ 33 19 52 Normal IQ 39 11 50 72 30 102 Of these, 33 have a high IQ. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 39 of 88

Independent and Dependent Events
Independent events The occurrence of one of the events does not affect the probability of the occurrence of the other event P(B | A) = P(B) or P(A | B) = P(A) Events that are not independent are dependent © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 40 of 88

Example: Independent and Dependent Events
Decide whether the events are independent or dependent. Selecting a king from a standard deck (A), not replacing it, and then selecting a queen from the deck (B). Solution: Dependent (the occurrence of A changes the probability of the occurrence of B) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 41 of 88

Example: Independent and Dependent Events
Decide whether the events are independent or dependent. Tossing a coin and getting a head (A), and then rolling a six-sided die and obtaining a 6 (B). Solution: Independent (the occurrence of A does not change the probability of the occurrence of B) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 42 of 88

The Multiplication Rule
Multiplication rule for the probability of A and B The probability that two events A and B will occur in sequence is P(A and B) = P(A) ∙ P(B | A) For independent events the rule can be simplified to P(A and B) = P(A) ∙ P(B) Can be extended for any number of independent events © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 43 of 88

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule
Two cards are selected, without replacing the first card, from a standard deck. Find the probability of selecting a king and then selecting a queen. Solution: Because the first card is not replaced, the events are dependent. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 44 of 88

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Find the probability of getting a head and then rolling a 6. Solution: The outcome of the coin does not affect the probability of rolling a 6 on the die. These two events are independent. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 45 of 88

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule
The probability that a particular knee surgery is successful is Find the probability that three knee surgeries are successful. Solution: The probability that each knee surgery is successful is The chance for success for one surgery is independent of the chances for the other surgeries. P(3 surgeries are successful) = (0.85)(0.85)(0.85) ≈ 0.614 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 46 of 88

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule
Find the probability that none of the three knee surgeries is successful. Solution: Because the probability of success for one surgery is The probability of failure for one surgery is 1 – 0.85 = 0.15 P(none of the 3 surgeries is successful) = (0.15)(0.15)(0.15) ≈ 0.003 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 47 of 88

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule
Find the probability that at least one of the three knee surgeries is successful. Solution: “At least one” means one or more. The complement to the event “at least one is successful” is the event “none are successful.” Using the complement rule P(at least 1 is successful) = 1 – P(none are successful) ≈ 1 – 0.003 = 0.997 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 48 of 88

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule to Find Probabilities
More than 15,000 U.S. medical school seniors applied to residency programs in Of those, 93% were matched with residency positions. Eighty-two percent of the seniors matched with residency positions were matched with one of their top three choices. Medical students electronically rank the residency programs in their order of preference, and program directors across the United States do the same. The term “match” refers to the process where a student’s preference list and a program director’s preference list overlap, resulting in the placement of the student for a residency position. (Source: National Resident Matching Program) (continued) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 49 of 88

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule to Find Probabilities
Find the probability that a randomly selected senior was matched with a residency position and it was one of the senior’s top three choices. Solution: A = {matched with residency position} B = {matched with one of top three choices} P(A) = and P(B | A) = 0.82 P(A and B) = P(A)∙P(B | A) = (0.93)(0.82) ≈ 0.763 dependent events © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 50 of 88

Example: Using the Multiplication Rule to Find Probabilities
Find the probability that a randomly selected senior who was matched with a residency position did not get matched with one of the senior’s top three choices. Solution: Use the complement: P(B′ | A) = 1 – P(B | A) = 1 – = 0.18 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 51 of 88

Section 3.2 Summary Determined conditional probabilities
Distinguished between independent and dependent events Used the Multiplication Rule to find the probability of two events occurring in sequence Used the Multiplication Rule to find conditional probabilities © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 52 of 88

Section 3.3 Objectives Determine if two events are mutually exclusive

Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events A and B cannot occur at the same time A B A B A and B are mutually exclusive A and B are not mutually exclusive © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 55 of 88

Example: Mutually Exclusive Events
Decide if the events are mutually exclusive. Event A: Roll a 3 on a die. Event B: Roll a 4 on a die. Solution: Mutually exclusive (The first event has one outcome, a 3. The second event also has one outcome, a 4. These outcomes cannot occur at the same time.) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 56 of 88

Example: Mutually Exclusive Events
Decide if the events are mutually exclusive. Event A: Randomly select a male student. Event B: Randomly select a nursing major. Solution: Not mutually exclusive (The student can be a male nursing major.) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 57 of 88

The Addition Rule Addition rule for the probability of A or B
The probability that events A or B will occur is P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B) For mutually exclusive events A and B, the rule can be simplified to P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) Can be extended to any number of mutually exclusive events © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 58 of 88

You select a card from a standard deck. Find the probability that the card is a 4 or an ace. Solution: The events are mutually exclusive (if the card is a 4, it cannot be an ace) 4♣ 4♥ 4♦ 4♠ A♣ A♥ A♦ A♠ 44 other cards Deck of 52 Cards © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 59 of 88

You roll a die. Find the probability of rolling a number less than 3 or rolling an odd number. Solution: The events are not mutually exclusive (1 is an outcome of both events) Odd 5 3 1 2 4 6 Less than three Roll a Die © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 60 of 88

Odd 5 3 1 2 4 6 Less than three Roll a Die © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 61 of 88

The frequency distribution shows the volume of sales (in dollars) and the number of months in which a sales representative reached each sales level during the past three years. If this sales pattern continues, what is the probability that the sales representative will sell between \$75,000 and \$124,999 next month? Sales volume (\$) Months 0–24,999 3 25,000–49,999 5 50,000–74,999 6 75,000–99,999 7 100,000–124,999 9 125,000–149,999 2 150,000–174,999 175,000–199,999 1 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 62 of 88

A = monthly sales between \$75,000 and \$99,999 B = monthly sales between \$100,000 and \$124,999 A and B are mutually exclusive Sales volume (\$) Months 0–24,999 3 25,000–49,999 5 50,000–74,999 6 75,000–99,999 7 100,000–124,999 9 125,000–149,999 2 150,000–174,999 175,000–199,999 1 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 63 of 88

A blood bank catalogs the types of blood, including positive or negative Rh-factor, given by donors during the last five days. A donor is selected at random. Find the probability that the donor has type O or type A blood. Type O Type A Type B Type AB Total Rh-Positive 156 139 37 12 344 Rh-Negative 28 25 8 4 65 184 164 45 16 409 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 64 of 88

The events are mutually exclusive (a donor cannot have type O blood and type A blood) Type O Type A Type B Type AB Total Rh-Positive 156 139 37 12 344 Rh-Negative 28 25 8 4 65 184 164 45 16 409 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 65 of 88

Find the probability that the donor has type B blood or is Rh-negative. Type O Type A Type B Type AB Total Rh-Positive 156 139 37 12 344 Rh-Negative 28 25 8 4 65 184 164 45 16 409 Solution: The events are not mutually exclusive (a donor can have type B blood and be Rh-negative) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 66 of 88

Type O Type A Type B Type AB Total Rh-Positive 156 139 37 12 344 Rh-Negative 28 25 8 4 65 184 164 45 16 409 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 67 of 88

Section 3.3 Summary Determined if two events are mutually exclusive

Additional Topics in Probability and Counting

Section 3.4 Objectives Determine the number of ways a group of objects can be arranged in order Determine the number of ways to choose several objects from a group without regard to order Use the counting principles to find probabilities © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 70 of 88

Permutations Permutation An ordered arrangement of objects
The number of different permutations of n distinct objects is n! (n factorial) n! = n∙(n – 1)∙(n – 2)∙(n – 3)∙ ∙ ∙3∙2 ∙1 0! = 1 Examples: 6! = 6∙5∙4∙3∙2∙1 = 720 4! = 4∙3∙2∙1 = 24 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 71 of 88

Example: Permutation of n Objects
The objective of a 9 x 9 Sudoku number puzzle is to fill the grid so that each row, each column, and each 3 x 3 grid contain the digits 1 to 9. How many different ways can the first row of a blank 9 x 9 Sudoku grid be filled? Solution: The number of permutations is 9!= 9∙8∙7∙6∙5∙4∙3∙2∙1 = 362,880 ways © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 72 of 88

Permutations Permutation of n objects taken r at a time
The number of different permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time where r ≤ n © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 73 of 88

Example: Finding nPr Find the number of ways of forming four-digit codes in which no digit is repeated. Solution: You need to select 4 digits from a group of 10 n = 10, r = 4 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 74 of 88

Example: Finding nPr Forty-three race cars started the 2007 Daytona 500. How many ways can the cars finish first, second, and third? Solution: You need to select 3 cars from a group of 43 n = 43, r = 3 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 75 of 88

Distinguishable Permutations
The number of distinguishable permutations of n objects where n1 are of one type, n2 are of another type, and so on where n1 + n2 + n3 +∙∙∙+ nk = n © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 76 of 88

Example: Distinguishable Permutations
A building contractor is planning to develop a subdivision that consists of 6 one-story houses, 4 two-story houses, and 2 split-level houses. In how many distinguishable ways can the houses be arranged? Solution: There are 12 houses in the subdivision n = 12, n1 = 6, n2 = 4, n3 = 2 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 77 of 88

Combinations Combination of n objects taken r at a time
A selection of r objects from a group of n objects without regard to order © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 78 of 88

Example: Combinations
A state’s department of transportation plans to develop a new section of interstate highway and receives 16 bids for the project. The state plans to hire four of the bidding companies. How many different combinations of four companies can be selected from the 16 bidding companies? Solution: You need to select 4 companies from a group of 16 n = 16, r = 4 Order is not important © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 79 of 88

Solution: Combinations

Example: Finding Probabilities
A student advisory board consists of 17 members. Three members serve as the board’s chair, secretary, and webmaster. Each member is equally likely to serve any of the positions. What is the probability of selecting at random the three members that hold each position? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 81 of 88

Solution: Finding Probabilities
There is only one favorable outcome There are ways the three positions can be filled © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 82 of 88

Example: Finding Probabilities
You have 11 letters consisting of one M, four I’s, four S’s, and two P’s. If the letters are randomly arranged in order, what is the probability that the arrangement spells the word Mississippi? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 83 of 88

Solution: Finding Probabilities
There is only one favorable outcome There are distinguishable permutations of the given letters 11 letters with 1,4,4, and 2 like letters © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 84 of 88

Example: Finding Probabilities
A food manufacturer is analyzing a sample of 400 corn kernels for the presence of a toxin. In this sample, three kernels have dangerously high levels of the toxin. If four kernels are randomly selected from the sample, what is the probability that exactly one kernel contains a dangerously high level of the toxin? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 85 of 88

Solution: Finding Probabilities
The possible number of ways of choosing one toxic kernel out of three toxic kernels is 3C1 = 3 The possible number of ways of choosing three nontoxic kernels from 397 nontoxic kernels is 397C3 = 10,349,790 Using the Multiplication Rule, the number of ways of choosing one toxic kernel and three nontoxic kernels is 3C1 ∙ 397C3 = 3 ∙ 10,349,790 3 = 31,049,370 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 86 of 88

Solution: Finding Probabilities
The number of possible ways of choosing 4 kernels from 400 kernels is 400C4 = 1,050,739,900 The probability of selecting exactly 1 toxic kernel is © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 87 of 88

Section 3.4 Summary Determined the number of ways a group of objects can be arranged in order Determined the number of ways to choose several objects from a group without regard to order Used the counting principles to find probabilities © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 88 of 88
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