text:
Finding longitude/latitude of a aircraft
I have been scratching my head for a long time on this one so any help is apperciated. How would I find longitude and latitude points of a UAV given this:

True Airspeed
Roll rate, pitch rate, and yaw rate
Time Stamps

Is it even possible?

Do you have a starting position?  Or any position information at all?

Nothing.... just starts at (0,0,0)

Air speed won't help you a lot if you don't know the weather (wind speeds over ground)

@ash -- does (0,0,0) mean 0 degrees latitude, 0 degrees longitude, 0 degrees altitude?  Also, are you allowed to assume zero wind, or is there a possibility of wind?

No, it is not possible with that information.
The information you gave is not related to position at all.  (It could be pitching, rolling, and yawing at the equator, the North pole, or anywhere in between.)
You need at least a starting position in order to apply speed, direction, wind, etc. to calculate a final position.

You don't have the required data to determine your position relatively to the ground (lat, lon). It's pure physics, nothing related to aviation in particular.
Ground velocity integration
To solve your problem you would need to break down your UAV motion into individual segments of some duration, e.g. 10 s, and associate a mean ground velocity vector to each segment. Velocity has two components: a magnitude, what we usually call speed, e.g. 100 kt, and a direction, e.g. 120°. If you know the individual mean velocities, then you can derive your displacement for each interval (blue). You can also sum them to get your total displacement (red).

Furthermore, if you know your starting position you also know your current position. Mathematically this operation is integrating the velocity over time. In practical the interval of time (sampling interval) is smaller than 10 s, but for any sample you must know the ground speed and direction of motion.
You're missing the two components of ground velocity: Airspeed is not ground speed, and attitude (yaw, roll, pitch) is not helpful to determine the direction of motion relatively to the ground.
Acceleration integration
The usual way to determine ground velocity is to use an inertial navigation system, which determines direction with gyroscopes and speed with accelerometers.
An INS actually first detects acceleration using accelerometers. Velocity magnitude is built by integrating acceleration and velocity direction by using direction measured by gyroscopes. Velocity is then integrated, as described above, to get the displacement:

Source. The rotation of coordinates is used because this block diagram is for a strap-down INS. The rotation recreates the absolute coordinates system of the stabilized-platform INS (first generation of INS).
GNSS
Of course there are other ways to determine a position, of which the GNSS (using the US GPS or other available satellite constellations like Galileo). Small GNSS receivers like the ones in smartphones, are easily deployed on UAV.


text:
What is 1950 Military Aircraft Blueprint to Aluminum Sheet Metal Process Called?
I have sections of vintage aluminum sheetmetal with aircraft 'blueprints' stenciled, what is this process called?
One plane is identified as a F9 Cougar (plane outline shown), others have earlier font type that I believe are from F6 Hellcat production (sheetmetal was cut to square and used for custom picture frame backing of F6 photograph prints. Family worked from Grumman.
Regards

Welcome. "what is this process called" Which process are you talking about? Transferring a blueprint onto a metal sheet (commonly silkscreen printing)?

Thanks, from what I've learned in researching, is the blueprints were transferred to aluminum sheets for use, similar to silk screening in the result, but believe there was a type of photographic process in the 40, 50s

source: Stack Exchange

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

sort: votes


text:
How large do wings have to be to create lift?
How much lift is needed to get an aircraft in the air? Is there a specific formula? And also what wing shapes offer different types of lift? I.e a delta wing formation.

For an aircraft to get off the ground, lift needs to be higher than the weight of the aircraft.
The equation for calculating the lift is
$L = C_L \frac{\rho v^2}{2}A$
which shows you that lift does not depend on the size of the wing alone (A). Other constituents of lift are:

lift coefficient $C_L$ which is a variable depending on the type of the wing
density of the air $\rho$
speed $v$

To calculate the necessary lift, you basically need to know for example the weight of the aircraft and lift coefficient of the wing, and you can then work out the necessary speed range and the area of the wing.
The basic mechanism by which wings produce lift is the mostly the same: wings deflect airstream downwards, and this downwards acceleration creates a lifting force. You mentioned delta wing in your question, delta wings have a "special trick up their sleeves, since they not only "push" the air downwards along their length, but also achieve the downwards motion of air by causing a vortex along the leading edge:

Further and more accurate description of formation of lift gets quite tricky very fast, so I think it's best to leave that out of this.

Suggest you edit and change mass to weight.

Good catch @CharlesBretana, in this case weight is proper

For almost every other application, mass (or perhaps g times mass), would be correct

Well, weight is g times mass.

Yes, correct, I added the parenthetical because Lift is a force and mass is not, unless you multiple it by the acceleration of the accelerated (non-inertial) frame of reference you are measuring things in. To compare two things in a meaningful way, they need to be in the same units.

Technically, every surface that moves in a fluid creates lift. Lift is a force, and is just the result of all the aerodynamic forces created by individual fluid molecules hitting and bouncing off of a surface. From a Physics perspective, the aerodynamic force is defined as the rate of change in momentum of those molecules as they bounce off the surface.
$L = \frac{d(mv)}{dt}$
In fluid dynamics (the underlying science of aerodynamics), we call this the Lift Distribution. It represents the distribution, across every point on the aircrafts surface, of the force (change in momentum) generated by the air molecules impacting and rebounding from the surface at that point. The total Aerodynamic force is then the vector sum of all those individual forces acting at each point on the surface.
As pilots, or in aviation in general, we often narrow the definition of the word Lift to suit our purposes, such as defining it as the sum of just those forces that oppose gravity, (that hold us up in the air), or just those that are normal (perpendicular) to our flight path, (changing the direction of our flight path, [turn us], as opposed to those that change the magnitude of our velocity, [that slows us down - we call this drag]), or, just the lift from a specific airfoil, (like the wing). All these distinctions, however, are just arbitrary divisions or classifications defined to suit some specific scenario or purpose, to make an analysis simpler or more useful.
You ask "How large do wings have to be to create lift?", then in the text, you ask "How much lift is needed to get an aircraft in the air?"
which is perhaps a better question. (whose answer would be somewhat more significant).
The answer to that question is complex, because it would include analysis of all aerodynamic forces from every part of an airframe, not just the wings, and, for conventional aircraft, would include the negative contribution of the horizontal stabilizer, which pulls the aircraft down.

Remember, Lift, just like all forces, is a vector, and has a direction as well as a magnitude. The aerodynamic forces on each point
on an airframe push the airframe in the direction of the force, and
may contribute to the overall Lift vector positively or negatively.

The analysis would also need to be done for a specific indicated/calibrated airspeed, as lift is a function of how fast the aircraft is moving, which segways nicely to your last question, about the formula.
Yes, there is a formula for lift, we call, not so coincidentally, the Lift Equation:
$L = \frac{1}{2} C_L \rho v^2S$
Where:
$\rho$ (rho) is the air density
$V$ is the true airspeed Velocity
$S$ is the surface area of the airfoil, and
$C_L$ is the coefficient of lift.
For more information, see Lift equation explained

all_licenses: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
There is no voltage on the field of the alternator
I’m having a problem with a Cessna 152, the alternator do not increase the voltage of the system, just like “stay” i already try to change the regulator and the alternador and is the same, also when i check the voltage on the “F” (field) terminal, there is 0 volts, but when the wires are not attached on the alternator i have the 24+ Volts in there, any one use to have a problem like this? I’ve been trying all that i can but there isnt success, please if other avionics could help me it will be greate!

Have you asked a qualified mechanic to evaluate the alternator? Troubleshooting balky equipment is often far easier in person than over the internet.

Could be a short. Ask a mechanic.


text:
Is the visual artifact seen over the wing from different air densities, a reflection or something else?
I have noticed a strange visual artifact over the wing of a Boeing yesterday. You can see two manifestations of the artifact in the pictures below.

The first shows it at the front edge of the wing. There were actually many of those, but I only managed to capture one. It looks very similar to a scratch in the window, but moving my head in front of the window didn't move the artifact. So it must have been in a distance somewhere above the wing.
The second pictures shows something similar which looked a bit like there was some kind of reflection on the wing, but the sun was on the other side of the plane, so I wasn't sure what caused it. An odd thing was that the stripe moved kind of in sync with the turbulences

Both of those things moved during the flight and were not always on the same position on the wing. Is it possible that those were caused by pressure/density differences of the air or is it just some reflection (or even something totally different)?

What's the little orange thing near the top-left of the 2nd picture?

@user2813274 - take a look at this question

Take a look at this too (near the end at 2:30). Same phenomenon at a larger level.

That is the visual effect produced by a shockwave.
The air above the wing is accelerated and will reach Mach 1 (the speed of sound) locally.
It is usually best visible when the sun is right behind you (from the viewers perspective, so on the 3 or 9 o'clock position from the aircraft) and high above the horizon.
Here is a video of shockwave on an A320 on youtube (thanks to @mins for finding it).

Thanks for sharing those really nice pictures! I have tried to make some in the past but I couldn't make out the shock effect from all the dirt on the window.

Wow, this is one of the most interesting answers (and questions) I have seen on this site. Thanks for sharing! And @Lukas_Skywalker, those are some really nice pics :)

Ah, interesting, thanks for your answer. On a side note, feel free to use those pictures elsewhere (all of you).

@DeltaLima does this happen often on an airplane and can it be heard at ground level

@Ethan whether it happens depends on the aircraft type, atmospheric conditions, cruise speed and weight of aircraft. But I have seen it often. I don't think you can heard it specifically at ground level. It is part of the total noise of the aircraft. The aircraft itself is travelling below the speed of sound so you don't get this characteristic sonic boom on the ground.

@DeltaLima When you say "the air above the wing is accelerated and will reach Mach 1 locally", I presume you mean relative to the wing - can you clarify?

@DanieleProcida Yes, relative to the aircraft. In aerodynamics it is common to describe the speed of air relative to the object you study.

I saw this shockwave and the shockwave shadowgram a few days ago on a flight from JFK to SFO over a grey wing, and managed to film it with my iPhone. If I understand it correctly it is:

the shadowgram of the shockwave on the surface of the wing (see how it moves around)
later in the video you can see the shockwave itself as looking through the shockwave it distorts the front of the wing (the distortion moves as well, I think depending on where the iPhone focuses).

Welcome to aviation.SE!  While that is a pretty sweet video, its not actually an answer to the question.  Please either explain what the video is showing, or leave this answer as a comment on the original question.  Note, once you have enough reputation you will be able to comment on any question.

Ooops sorry just wanted to share that I was able to capture this weird phenomenon. If I understand it correctly it is 1) the shadow of the shockwave on the surface of the wing, and 2) later in the video you can see the shockwave itself as looking through the shockwave it distorts the front of the wing. Does that make sense?

You should edit your answer to reflect this comment, and then you'd be well on your way to a good answer.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/


text:
Is there an IATA airport code that is unassigned and that can be used for "any airport"?
The question is basically up there in the title; I need a default value for an app that won't do anything. A friend suggested XXX, but I'm sure there must be one reserved specifically for that purpose? ;-)
Is there a code that's used in the travel industry to denote "enter city code here" without actually being mapped to a metropolitan area/city/airport? I'm guessing it might be one beginning with Y... :)

BTW, pnuts, just found HHH is taken... @Blackbird57, looks like it might be one starting with Z, actually, if there is one: "'Z' was reserved for special uses" - http://www.skygod.com/asstd/abc.html

Good question, no good answer.
In the ICAO system, the identifier ZZZZ is reserved by that agency to designate on flight plans that the airport does not have an ICAO code assigned (not all airports do; for instance Qualicum Beach Airport in British Columbia is TCCAA registered and has TC and IATA codes but no ICAO code). There is no specific combination of alphanumeric characters reserved to mean "airport not specified"; if the flight plan does not specify an airport at a particular stop, the ICAO code field will be blank (which is valid in many circumstances in general aviation; float planes can set down on any relatively calm body of water, while bush pilots routinely fly out to a dot on the map in the literal middle of nowhere to deliver supplies or people to an established but temporary campsite).
XXXX is an unassigned but unreserved ICAO code that a few websites seem to be using for testing and demo purposes; FlightStats has a page for this code but the data is sparse and nonsensical.
The IATA system labels practically all registered airports (primarily ones of interest to commercial flight, but all FAA-registered airports have a three-character code that have, with few exceptions, been adopted verbatim by IATA). The IATA has no specially reserved code for "not specified" or any other special case. The code ZZZ is currently unassigned, and is used informally by bush pilots to indicate an "unregistered" landing area similar to the ICAO system (though as IATA labels more airstrips especially in North America, this code is used more specifically for unimproved landing areas, which are common in backcountry areas of the Plains States, Northwest and Alaska). But again, that still indicates an entry was made.
If you are writing a computer system for flight planning and you want a string value to indicate that the user has not specified an IATA identifier, the safest are null, the empty string, or three spaces. "000" is probably also safe, as IATA does not and likely will never use three zeroes for any valid identifier, and OOO is also not assigned. The code "ANY" is reserved for Anthony Municipal in Kansas, but the code "NON" is not currently assigned (though with no guarantee it will remain so). XXX, YYY and ZZZ are also unassigned but other repetitive letters are.

all_licenses: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/


text:
What exactly is the winter baffle in parentheses, where is it used and what does it do?
What exactly is the winter baffle in parentheses, where is it used and what does it do? The image is taken from the preflight checklist of the DA40NG aircraft.

They are little plates that block off part of the air intakes for winter operations. With the really cold air, the normal flow velocity provides way too much cooling, so to limit the effect, you block part of the flow off. I don't know what the air intake on the wing is for, but you usually see baffles on cowling cooling intakes on air cooled engines for cylinder cooling and oil cooler flow. Otherwise you will never be able to get the cylinders/oil up to operating temperature if it's too cold outside.

Based on what you wrote, I assume that this piece is used in regions with very cold weather conditions.

Yes, generally if you are going to be operating below 20F or maybe 30F regularly. In northern US or Can you'll install them in Nov and take them off in April. The airplane will have a "winterization kit" with the baffle plates. The most critical item is an alternate exit for the engine breather tube, usually a permanent feature, which can freeze over and if there isn't a secondary outlet to act like a pressure relief (sometimes just a sharkmouth slit in the pipe), the engine will force oil past the crank seals and you'll have oil over over the windshield, and eventually, a quiet engine.


text:
Is the attitude gyro (artificial horizon) equipment on our DA40NG aircraft powered by electricity?
Is the attitude gyro (artificial horizon) equipment on our DA40NG aircraft powered by electricity?
While reading the flight manual of the plane, I saw an article about the emergency switch:
"by switching the EMERGENCY switch ON, if
installed, the emergency battery, if installed will supply power
to the attitude gyro (artificial horizon) and the flood light"
This article confused me because I thought attitude gyro (artificial horizon) equipment was backup equipment that works with "gyro" without electricity. Then I thought that the intended attitude gyro (artificial horizon) equipment could be the digital attitude gyro on the PFD, but with the image I shared below, I understood that it was not meant.
So my question is, is this attitude gyro (artificial horizon) equipment powered by electricity? Also, wouldn't it be more reasonable and logical for the emergency battery to support the digital display in the PFD instead of feeding this equipment with electricity? (Also, in my opinion, it would make more sense to feed instrument light instead of flood light.)

Do the three backup instruments on top of the panel even have instrument lights at all?  Just wondering.

Except for the attitude gyro (artificial horizon) I guess... This makes it logical to prefer flood light instead of instrument light. Thanks...

That attitude gyro is electric, and having a standalone emergency battery power supply, is your last resort to get to VFR conditions if you have a primary flight display failure and/or total electrical failure.
The little emergency battery that powers it is an odd way to do things (and one hour seems a bit short to me, but whatever). I would expect to see an emergency electrical bus operating directly off the main battery to power that gyro, because to lose all power, you would need both the engine's generator and the battery to fail and you normally don't cater to simultaneous failures of separate components.
Perhaps the emergency battery is to save yourself if you have an electrical failure, and the main battery runs down. This system does seem to be a little over-engineered for a single engine airplane.
Electric gyros need motors that run on 3 phase AC power for precise and efficient control of the gyro, so if they need to run off a DC power source as in this case, they will have an internal inverter to provide the AC power to the gyro's motor from the DC input.  Mechanical turn coordinators you see on most small airplanes are like that.

Thank you for your detailed explanation. I think "Emergency Switch" is a model designed so that we can use electricity even though the engine is running when there is a total loss of electrical power.

I'd have to see a schematic, but I can't believe the standby att doesn't also run directly off the aircraft battery, with the Emer battery there as a last ditch to keep the thing running if the a/c battery runs flat, following extended flight after a generator failure.  A lot of stuff has to go wrong.

I'm not sure on the exact attitude instrument installed in the D40 NG (I have my suspicions) , but I'd be almost certain the standby attitude instrument runs off the DC bus during normal flight

@selectstriker2 there is likely a dedicated battery bus, or emergency bus for powering an instrument like that, as opposed to the main DC bus, unless it's a cruder system than I think it is.

looking through the Diamond forums, it appears the backup battery for the AI is a primary cell pack that the Emergency switch is used to connect to the power on the AI

So it stays off until you flick the emer switch?  What a strange arrangement.

If I understand it correctly, the standby AI operates normally off of the Essential DC bus until you switch it to the backup battery. The backup battery is not rechargeable so it stays disconnected until it is connected with the emer switch

Ok that makes sense. It's a last ditch to save your ass if you have a gen failure and you run the main battery down before you can land.

Is the attitude gyro (artificial horizon) equipment on our DA40NG
aircraft powered by electricity?

While reading the flight manual of the plane, I saw an article about
the emergency switch: "by switching the EMERGENCY switch ON, if
installed, the emergency battery, if installed will supply power to
the attitude gyro (artificial horizon) and the flood light"

If the sentence you've quoted from the manual refers to anything other than the traditional "attitude indicator" at the top of panel, then it's a poorly-written manual-- so I think you've answered your own question: "yes".

This article confused me because I thought attitude gyro (artificial
horizon) equipment was backup equipment that works with "gyro" without
electricity.

Any gyro instrument needs some source of power, which (depending on the design of the specific instrument) would be either a vacuum system, or electricity.  It appears that the DA40NG has dispensed with the vacuum system entirely, so the artificial horizon is of a design that is powered by electricity rather than by the more traditional vacuum system.
Note that the more traditional solution in aircraft with "steam gauge"-type instrument panels to provide a way for the pilot to maintain orientation in cloud case or total darkness in case of failure of the vacuum system (including due to failure of the engine) is to have an electrically powered turn coordinator or turn rate indicator.  But, the DA40NG doesn't have one of those.

Also, wouldn't it be more reasonable and logical for the emergency battery >to
support the digital display in the PFD instead of feeding this
equipment with electricity?

The PFD and the associated systems are fairly power-hungry so the battery would not last very long.  Also this solution would not provide redundancy against a failure of the PFD itself, and the associated systems.

(Also, in my opinion, it would make more sense to feed instrument
light instead of flood light.)

The flood light will light all three of the backup instruments on top of the panel, as well as give the pilot some way to read a map, etc.  Seems fairly logical.

If I understood correctly, the attitude gyro (artificial horizon) is an instrument that needs electricity indirectly (a vacuum system) to operate, even if it is not directly powered by electricity. Also, according to the image in the reference manual, what is meant is this attitude gyro (artificial horizon), which is a standby indicator. When I evaluate these two expressions correctly, there is no question mark in my mind.

In most aircraft (at least piston-engine aircraft) the vacuum system has nothing to do with electricity-- see for example https://www.provac.com/blogs/news/how-vacuum-pumps-help-with-the-production-and-usage-of-airplanes#:~:text=Vacuum%20pumps%20are%20still%20used,power%20source%20for%20backup%20instruments.

So why is the emergency battery feeding the attitude gyro (artificial horizon)? For what purpose does this instrument use electricity?

Well, it's a different design of artificial horizon that runs on electricity rather than a vacuum system.  Still has a mechanical gyro inside, just powered differently.  Not terribly uncommon these days.  Traditionally though all the gyro instruments except the turn rate indicator or turn coordinator were usually vacuum driven.  I'm guessing this aircraft has no vacuum pump or vacuum system at all, right?

@pilot162 -- perhaps my answer was unclear, didn't mean to imply that the specific attitude indicator installed in the DA40NG could run either on electricity or vacuum.  Edited to clarify--

@pilot162 -- there is such a thing as an "electric standby vacuum pump" -- see https://aviation.stackexchange.com/a/9265/34686 -- but I'm sure that's not what's powering the attitude indicator in the DA40NG  --

My question was the explanation of this phrase on the AFM of this aircraft. Because it is stated that when the emergency switch is on, electrical power will be provided to the attitude gyro (artificial horizon).

This description is found in the airplane maintenance manual of the DA40NG aircraft.

Re "incorporating a special air erection mechanism"-- fascinating.  I wonder how it works, in the context of an electrically-driven instrument.  New ASE question perhaps--

It's electrically after all.. But it's like they don't want us to know something lol.


text:
Can I spot the drones watching me in the sky with naked eyes?
To quote John Oliver:
"Yemen, home to 26 million Yemeni people, and 27 million American drones."

While these numbers may be slightly exaggerated I started to wonder. As far as I know, military drones are used primarily for survaillance, meaning that they circle a potential target for hours on end to gather intelligence.
I immediately thought, that they would be spotted quickly, and any illegal activity would cease. Since they seem to be effective though, this can't really be true.
So my question is: Given typical operational parameters during survaillance, can military drones, like the Predator, be spotted with the naked eye if they are circling above you?

I tried to find an answer with some quick calculations of my own.
I can see quite a lot of airliners flying above me, and I can see their bodies quite easily. Airliners are larger though.
Some sizes I could gather are:
A320 Source
Length: 37.57m
Wingspan: 34.1m
Body width: 3.96m

Predator Drone Source
Length: 8.23m
Wingspan: 14.84m
Body width: 0.83m (estimated from picture)

When I look at just the length of the aircraft, I can calculate the angular size of the object in the sky if I know the altitude. I assume the A320 flies at around 32000 feet, or 9753m. For the drone I have no idea. But it can fly at 7620m and I would assume it stays a bit below, so I assume 6000m.

The angle of the object is then:
Angle = ArcTan(Length/Altitude)

The human eye has a resolution of 0.5-1 arc minutes, or 0.0125°.
For the given aircraft I come to these values:
A320:
Angle = Atan(37.57/9753) = 0.22°

Predator:
Angle = Atan(8.23/6000) = 0.08°

So from the length, both aircraft should be visible. However, that doesn't seem to make sense, because they need to be wide enough as well. So for the body width's I get:
A320:
Angle = Atan(3.96/9753) = 0.024°

Predator:
Angle = Atan(0.83/6000) = 0.008°

So the A320 should be visible quite comfortably, while the drone should be invisible to the naked eye.

But
This is all theoretical. I don't know the operation of the predator, especially how high it flies. I also don't know what really determines visibility. Does the wingspan alter the numbers?
Can anyone share any actual insight?

I think those drone figures are not even an exaggeration. Exaggerations are based in fact; John Oliver has no idea how many American drones are in Yemen. By comparison, I understand that fewer than 1 million people have registered their hobby drones in the US so far.

This seems to be a problem of optics, not aviation. That said the resolution is dependent on the the diameter of the lens. The larger the lens, the better the resolution, but there are limits. See this question on Space.SE: Were the Apollo lunar activities observed from Earth?

Thank you for your input @mins. The resolution of the eye is quite clear, given at 0.5-1 arc minute. I thought about Physics SE, but given that the question contains some parts about operating conditions of drones that I am unsure of and shape of aircraft (wings/body, instead of spherical approximation), I found it to be a better fit on Aviation. It's a corner case between the two in my opinion.

You may focus on the drone aspect here, and post the resolution question on Physics.SE. You may edit your question, which is about to be closed.

The airliner you see because the condensation trail is pointing at it. The drone flying at 3 or 5 km is inaudible and has no trail. If you knew where it is you might even see it, but without that knowledge you will be blind. The answer is no.

I'm pretty sure you can't see them but according to journalist Jere Van Dyk you can hear a Predator drone overhead.

Thank you for the article, this was very interesting @TomMcW. But that's why I was asking, as the article, written from first-hand experience, for example disagrees with Peter's comment above you. Anyways, probably not a perfect match here then. :)

I suspect that linear angles as you've calculated isn't really what matters most; solid angle probably matters more. Square meters seen as square (milli) radians, for lack of more precisse verbiage.  After all a 1000m of kite string is harder to see than the 2m height of the person flying the kite, or even the 1m height of the kite, the difference being area. I suspect the Predator, with an order of magnitude less visible surface area than the A320, similarly benefits.

I can't read the German link about the resolution of the eye, but the typical meaning of the resolution of an optical sensor comes from the ability to distinguish two nearby points.  Against a clear blue sky, you would be able to detect the presence of an object smaller than that because it makes the total light falling on the retina lower.  However, you would be unable to tell if it was one drone or two.


text:
Why do military jets seem to always take off using the afterburner?
I was wondering. At different places I heard that civilian airplanes often (or even most of the time?) take off at less than 100% thrust.
For example a question that tackles this is here:
Is it possible that derated thrust takeoffs are safer than normal takeoffs?
This makes a lot of sense to me.
However, whenever I see videos of fighter jets taking off (from normal runways, not from carriers), they always seem to use the afterburner. But surely they must have plenty of power to get to take-off speed without them, so doesn't this waste large amounts of fuel unneccessarily? What are the considerations for doing it?
Or is this just a "filter bubble" impression I got, because it just looks cooler and whenever those planes are filmed they know that they are and thus do it for the show?

Because they can? :-)

Or the filter bubble is the other way around: people mostly upload videos that look cool.

Filter bubble could also be that the planes are most filmed at air shows, where they perhaps use after burners for 'coolness'?

Military aircraft takeoff with afterburner when it is safer to do so with an exception- carrier pilots always light their cans while taking off (and also when the pilot wants to show off, but lets leave it at that).
The main consideration for using after burner in operational land based aircraft is the available runway length. When the aircraft is loaded heavily with ordnance, the runway required may be more depending on other factors (like OAT etc). In this case, it is better to go for afterburner takeoff. For example, Air Force Instruction 11- 2F- 16V3, F- 16 Operations Procedures specifically states:

3.6 Takeoff
3.6.6 Make an afterburner takeoff anytime the computed MIL power takeoff roll exceeds 50 percent of the available runway.

The same is true for other aircraft like the F-15 too:

3.7 Takeoff
3.7.2 ... For single ship takeoffs, if the  single ship computed  military power takeoff distance exceeds one-half of the available runway, takeoff using afterburner.

Another reason the pilots do it is to check the systems- it is better to check the afterburners on ground rather than finding any problems (like intermittent afterburner) in air. Of course in case of naval aircraft, the afterburners are on till the aircraft clears the ship.
Also, as @Jörg  pointed out, people upload videos that look 'cool'- hence the impression that they always use afterburners rather than the boring military power takeoff.

Tactical military aircraft hate the ground even more than other aircraft. I have even seen them shooting it and throwing things at it! So naturally they want to get away from it as quickly as possible.

I see. Good points. 50% of the runway is probably most often required. Is the required length calculated with or without AB?

@Jens from the either quote: "computed military power takeoff distance exceeds one-half of the available runway".


text:
Placement of positioning lights on A320 winglets
I was flying with an A320-214 that had big winglets (I think they were called Sharklets). I noticed that the positioning lights were facing forward on the leading edge of the winglet (the "notch" in the picture).

I was wondering why the light is placed there, because it seems to be very unoptimal.
Isn't the light mostly blocked when viewed from behind? Why is not not placed at the top of the winglet? Is that even a big concern?

There are three position lights. Red, Green and White. The red and green ones are placed on the wings and should be visible from the front and side up to an angle of ±110 degrees from the longitudinal axis. The white light is usually placed on the tail (or trailing edge of the wings) and should be visible from behind the aircraft, 70 degrees to either side.
Therefore: The red and green position lights on the wings should not even be seen from behind the aircraft, which is why they are positioned like that.
The reason this is done is because the angle on how you approach another aircraft defines who has right of way and who has to avoid the other aircraft.

Ah ok, that makes a lot of sense in combination with the right-of-way rules.

This is actually a throw back to nautical navigation. Boat/ship navigation lights are also positioned such that you can only see a red or green unless the other craft is coming almost directly at you. vessels have a white stern light that is required, and a mast light is optional.

@RowanHawkins: If you can only see the colourful lights from in front of the other vehicle, what's the point in having both red and green lights?  Wouldn't having both red and green only be useful if they can be seen from behind the aircraft (allowing one to tell whether the other aircraft is approaching or receding based on whether the green light is to the left or the right of the red)?

@Vikki-formerlySean Well simplified there are four options: directly towards you, left to right, right to left, away from you. Each of these can be identified as red+green, green, red, white. Saying: if you see green and red, you are most definitely in danger.

@Vikki-formerlySean You have many things to think about when navigating. It is much easier to remember 2 lights = possible problem than to try and remember which way around the two lights are for coming or going. Aircraft have one additional light that boats don't have. a red strobe on the bottom and a white one on top(boats call the top one a mast light). Those help you know if you are above or below the plane coming at you. Bogl's picture is not quite accurate in that the tail light beam is less wide.

Position lights are only visible in certain sectors (see image). The red and green lights on the wings are not supposed to be visible from behind.

Image source: Learn to fly

Thanks for the image, that explains the placement. The other answer provides a bit more detailed reasons, hence why I accepted it. Cheers.


text:
What do "AFS" and "LTAFYDYX" mean according to the image in the LTAF AIP document?
What do "AFS" and "LTAFYDYX" mean according to the image in the LTAF AIP document? I found that AFS stands for Aeronautical Fixed Service, but I don't know what it does and the meaning of the "LTAFYDYX" code in its description. (The texts I marked with yellow color in the image.)

AFS is indeed an Aeronatical Fixed Service
It appears that LTAFYDYX us a skype ID according to this courier tracking website.

Thanks for the answer. It is very weird and interesting to have a Skype ID belonging to an airport. I will accept your answer in 6 hours.

DHMI may reuse its AFS ID for its Skype account, but there is no link between AFS and Skype. The most probable is the site made an error replacing AFS by Skype.


text:
What do the "GP 330.5" and "CH24X" I marked in the picture below mean?
What do the "GP 330.5" and "CH24X" I marked in the picture below mean? I think 330.5 is localizer independent glidepath frequency but I have no idea what CH24X means. Does anyone know the details of every letter?
The image is from AIP TURKEY AD 2 LTAF ADC chart.

Seems like they ought to be frequencies for the ILS, but different than US frequencies for navaids.

Important part is CH24X for me now.

Does your ILS receiver use channels within that range?

24X might be a TACAN channel... those are one- to three-digit numbers plus an "X" or "Y" so it would fit, and it's believable a DME transmitter would be colocated with an ILS.

Thanks for the answer. As I understand it, the ILS device provides the Localizer (LOC) and Glidepath (GP) frequencies to pair on a 24X coded TACAN frequency channel. Is what we call 24X here exactly a frequency that acts as a pairing device in the ILS device? @RTO

The point that I find strange here is that there is a frequency range given as 24X, so I wanted to be sure.


text:
How can I check before my flight that the cloud separation requirements in VFR flight rules are met?
How can I check before my flight that the cloud separation requirements in VFR flight rules are met? As it is known, in order to fly VFR, the rules of 1000 feet vertical and 1500 meters horizontal cloud separation must be met. Although I can learn the visibility from the METAR weather report or other weather reports, there is no information about cloud separations. The only information given about the clouds is the phrases such as FEW, SCT, BKN, and OVC indicating the amount and altitude of the cloud. Is it possible to ensure that the VFR requirements are met by using the cloud information provided in METAR (FEW, SCT, BKN, and OVC)? If possible, for example: I learn from METAR that there is BKN or SCT clouding at the altitude I will fly How will I interpret VFR conditions? How do we understand this?

Make it simple:

OVC: It's a ceiling. The only thing you're concerned about is the altitude of the base.

BKN: It's also considered a ceiling. The only thing you're concerned about is the  altitude of the base.

SCT: SCT is a level of cloud cover that assumes that the gaps are large enough to maintain lateral separation while flying around them, and thus it's not a ceiling, but you are either going to be cruising below the cloud base, or above the could tops (to get to smooth air), and your only concern is maintaining lateral separation on the way up or down. That's something you deal with when the time comes. You aren't going to be cruising at the cloud level, because you will be constantly weaving around them. If the SCT becomes BKN later in a TAF, or somewhere on your route, or it's just late afternoon where the temperatures are going to be dropping and SCT may turn into BKN without warning, you're wise to stay below them.

FEW: Not a concern normally, except where conditions are such that FEW may progress to SCT or BKN. Same as with SCT, you take into account what FEW may progress into later in the day, or at the other end of your trip. But in the short run, FEW can be treated same as SKC, because it's just going to be random clouds here and there.

So really, all you really want to know is the base of the lowest cloud layer for SCT, BKN and OVC. For FEW, not an issue unless conditions are forecast to deteriorate.
For SCT, the question is, if I want to cruise above the cloud base, which will mean above the tops to avoid having to weave around them maintaining lateral separation, what is the risk of SCT closing in on me and turning into BKN, or worse, OVC?
To assess that, you look at the TAFs along your route and consider the overall air mass conditions like humidity, and also the time of day. If you're flying in the morning, cloud conditions will generally improve as the temperature warms up, unless there are convective conditions that cause cumulus clouds to grow. In the afternoon, it's the opposite, anticipate that SCT can turn to BKN.
If in any doubt about what SCT conditions could become on your route, you just stay below the cloud base and live with the bumps. If you do decide you can cruise above the tops of the lowest cloud layer, you still pay careful attention to signs that SCT is turning into BKN while flying, and if it's happening, you get the heck down through it right away.
In stable-air weather conditions where humidity is high and temperatures are dropping, cloud can form under you pretty quickly as the dew point spread closes to zero, and moves lower, so keep that in mind.
As for the maintaining actual lateral separation, you just eyeball it when the time comes. There is nobody with a tape measure to work it out exactly and as I said, SCT conditions represent a level of sky cover that assumes lateral separation can be maintained by maneuvering.

I suspect that the short answer is no, met reports indicate current conditions and possible future conditions but can’t reliably predict separation.  You can make your own prediction based on local knowledge but it’s unlikely to be 100% reliable.  As cloud base etc will change throughout the day it’s up to you to observe and learn what you can as you go.

Unfortunately, "visibility" is the only data we can evaluate before performing the flight related to VFR conditions. So how can we rationally evaluate cloud separation before flight? If this is not possible, isn't there a situation where a pilot who wants to fly VFR will evaluate cloud separation?

+1  You make the best evaluation with the information you have on the ground and adjust your plans once you're up there, if necessary.  I'm VFR only and many times I've had to re-route or cancel the flight.

1.5km isn't that big in the scheme of things. To put it into context, that's 0.8 nautical miles, and the typical GA aircraft will cruise at about 1nm every 30 seconds.
Weather forecasts/reports can't be that precise. Typically clouds form in uneven clusters, and it's impossible to identify precisely when clusters will appear and how far apart they will be from another. But, even BKN can be enough to provide that 1.5km space.
In any case, the point of visual flight rules is that the primary information source on things like these are the pilots eyes. Weather reports help decision-making, but don't go blindly flying just because a weather report said it was clear.


text:
What is the function of the pipe referred to as "Venting Pipe" in the picture and how is it different from the exhaust pipe?
What is the function of the pipe referred to as "Venting Pipe" in the picture and how is it different from the exhaust pipe? The two photos you see in the picture are the "Venting Pipe" and "Exhaust Pipe" of the DA40NG aircraft, respectively. The exhaust pipe is in the lower right part of the cowling of the aircraft, but this pipe is located in the lower left part of the cowling, and there is a gascolator structure between these two pipes. What is the function of the "Venting Pipe" in this picture that I took a screenshot of and how is it different from the "Exhaust Pipe"?

That's the breather line I was mentioning on the post about cold weather. If it doesn't have an alternate exit for winter ops, it can freeze over. There was a Cirrus that went down in the North Atlantic on a ferry flight when it ran out of engine oil just S of the Greenland coast. The pilot wore a summer sailing dry suit, not a proper immersion suit, and he died of the cold water just before a helicopter which just happened to be about 45 min away from his pos, reached him. The family sued Cirrus claiming the breather had not been winterized with an alternate port. Dunno how it turned out.

I think there was an engine oil problem due to freezing. But I couldn't understand what this has to do with the breath system. Was there an oil problem in this accident because the breath system did not work due to the freezing? Is this the quote you're talking about? = "To protect the breather system from blockage due to icing of moist blow by gases an engine integrated over pressure valve is provided below the injector cover."

Exactly.  Without that, ice can form right at the breather outlet until it covers it over. All that combustion blow-by going past the piston rings into the crankcase has to go somewhere, so it forces its way past the next easiest exit, usually the main crank seal behind the propeller.  It may take a couple of hours to push enough oil out that seal, and all over the windshield, to finally unport the engine oil pump suction line, but eventually you have a glider.

Got it, thanks for the example. I hope the deceased pilot rests in peace, unfortunately the aviation rules are written in blood.

The “venting pipe” vents engine crankcase gases outside the aircraft. In the service manual it is called the “drain collector”.

Thank you so much, captain!

Cars have that too, but it's recirculated into the air intake via the PCV valve, so it's not a separate exhaust pipe.

And if you have a newer car with gasoline direct injection, crankcase goo builds up on the intake valves until the engine starts to run terribly and you have to take it in to have the intake manifold removed and the valves walnut shell blasted, for a thousand bucks. For this reason I stick to Toyotas and Fords, which have a dual GDI/Port system.


text:
Why are the numbers without decimals in the LEP table not the same but different? Shouldn't it be the same according to the rule I marked in red?
I don't understand the text I framed in red. Because according to the logic of without decimal in the LEP table below, shouldn't the number without decimal be common to every non-decimal?

Diamond aircraft have multiple variants under the DA40.  If there is a checklist change that affects all those variants it will get a major number bump.  The next major revision would be 18.
If there is a change that only affects a subset of the aircraft a minor revision is issued with a dot notation.  The next minor revision would be 17.1.

Let's say for page 4, a new revision is made after the 17.9th edit on a single type of DA40NG. In this case, what will they write in the edition as they cannot write 18?

@pilot162  that would be the 17.10th edition. This is a very common approach in software release numbering, called semantic versioning and sometimes also adopted in documentation versioning. Try not to see the the version number as a decimal number, but as two numbers separated by a period (.)

According to what you said, I think it is necessary to think that it can continue as 17.99999... but it never turns 18? Sorry, I couldn't open the "semantic versioning" link.

What I want to know is, why the heck is "for" in German on an english language page lol

@pilot162 If a new revision affects all types, it will become version "18". If it doesn't, the version following "17.9" will be "17.10", then "17.11", then "17.12" and so on. Technically it could go on to "17.99999" and then "17.100000", but realistically there will be a change affecting all versions before, which is version "18".

Got the logic, thank you Bianfable. By the way, believe me, why "für" is written in German instead of "for", I question it every day ahahahaha @John K.


text:
Protocol for emergency evacuation of atc tower
What is the protocol if the ATC tower needs to be evacuated for some emergency, for example a fire? How can operations continue if there aren't any controllers?


text:
How many fuel vents are there in DA40NG airplanes? (Tank Air Outlet)
How many fuel vents (Tank Air Outlet) are there in DA40NG airplanes? I wonder how many there are under each wing surface. I know that the hole on the round cover we see in the first photo is "Fuel Vent". But is it true that the part covered with a triangle in the second photo is also "Fuel Vent"? In this case, are there 2 fuel vents under one wing and 4 fuel vents in total?

You are correct.  The DA-40NG fuel system has four (4) vents.  The main tank contains two (2) vents and the auxiliary tank has two (2) vents as well.  These vent hoses terminate on the underside of the wing approx 2 m (7 ft) from the tip.  See the DA-40 NG AFM, pp 7-32.
As to your question about the location of the outer fuel vent opening, yes, the vents are on the aft side of that triangular fairing.  They are pointed out in the preflight walk-around below at 12:00 and 20:05.


text:
Is the green route on the airport chart drawn correctly according to the pilot-tower conversations? I do not think so
I think the green route in the tower pilot conversations is drawn incorrectly. Here the "UNTIL LEFT HOLD SHORT FOR M29" part confuses me. I would be glad if you help.

Your picture is too poor of a resolution to be able to answer.  My first impression is that if M29 is the NW to SE section of taxiway that the left fork towards the West end of M could be labeled "Left M29".  The route as drawn makes sense.

Yes, but I confused about the holding point. If the ground says "UNTIL LEFT HOLD SHORT FOR M29", where should the pilot stop and wait for the next instruction?

Because pilot does not turn into the M29 holding line with left turn in the picture.

@MichaelHall Here is a higher resolution picture of the area in question.

@Bianfable Thank you for high-resolution chart.

I agree it looks confusing.  Maybe the controller wanted them to stop adjacent to the M29 hold point and not proceed all the way up to hold for Y10?

This is exactly what needs to be said. But I am confused as it is not found in pilot-atc conversation. If it happened as you said, they should have also joined the conversation above. Thanks for your opinion, sir.

But I think that's exactly what they are saying, just not in a way that either you or I might have phrased it.  That happens.  Someone familiar with the airport and any local practices may be able to actually answer, otherwise we can only make an educated guess.

What is the source of the transcript? It is clearly inaccurate. The controller probably said "continue to the left," not "until left," and there may be other errors. What is the 3rd language that appears in a few places in parentheses?

The source is one of the instructors from my Flight School who I can not contact, so routes and conversations may be incorrectly worded or specified. That's why I am asking. The language in parentheses is Turkish, the language spoken in the country I live in. Some greetings in local languages have been translated into parentheses so that we can understand them.

@pilot162 OK, thanks. (Odd that "vielen Dank" is spelled correctly in one place but then wrongly ["filen dank"] in another. I think the transcript has to be considered unreliable.)

Unless the transcript is reliable, this question is meaningless. What is the source of the transcript and the sketch - some unreachable somebody?? Why would the question even matter? Far too many comments & unanswered questions with far too little relevant substance - VTC.

I'm with you Ralph, I think we can only speculate.

It is missing punctuation.
"CONTINUE UNTIL LEFT HOLD SHORT FOR M29"
should be
"CONTINUE UNTIL LEFT-HOLD-SHORT FOR M29"
It is a reminder to watch for the holding intersection on the left. As a minor intersection, it might not have a stop line.


text:
What does "/" (slash) mean in the picture below?
What does the slash mark between R/V mean? Should both RVR and visibility be at least 400m, or should only one of the two values be at least 400m (ie the other could be lower)? If summarized to simplify, does the "/" sign mean "or" or "and"? The table also uses the symbol "&" in the RL & RCLM expression which means "and". The term "or" is also used for RL or RCLM. But I don't know what "/" (slash) means from these two.

According to the Introduction to Jeppesen Navigation Charts, it means that RVR and meteorological visibility are equivalent here:

3 — Visibility values in meters are labeled with an "m" while values in
kilometers are labeled with a "km". When an RVR value is not
equivalent to the associated meteorological visibility, both are shown
and labeled "R" and "V".’ When RVR and MET VIS are equivalent,
the visibility is shown once, ’and labeled as R/V, meaning either
RVR or MET VIS.


text:
Why is there a FAF database identifier with the code [FS044] even though it says no FAF and why is there an RNAV fix symbol for that point?
Why is there a FAF database identifier with the code [FS044] even though it says no FAF and why is there an RNAV fix symbol for that point? The code [FS044] means FAF for the approach (What is the difference between VOR(D), VOR(V) and VOR(S) seen in the table?). Also, why there is no FAF in VOR A, B, and C charts, what is the reason for this?

When you fly this approach with old school radio based navigation, you turn from the VOR onto a 224° track and maintain this track for 3 min (for CAT A & B aircraft) or 2 min (for CAT C & D aircraft). Then you turn left to intercept the 044° course towards the VOR (the 224° radial). The final approach starts once you are established on the VOR radial and you are now allowed to descend from 2300' to the MDA. But notice that there is no fixed point, where this happens. The exact location depends on the exact ground speed (and therefore wind) during the outbound leg and how exactly the turn onto final is flown. There is therefore no FAF for this approach.
In the US, the point where you are established would be called the FAP (final approach point), but this terminology is used only for precision approaches under ICAO rules (see e.g. this answer).
However, if you fly this approach in a modern aircraft with RNAV capabilities (e.g. using a FMS), the computer needs to know how to establish the aircraft onto final approach. It does not receive the VOR information (the pilot can and should still cross-check it), so the computer needs the fix [FS044] to define the final approach segment between this fix and the runway. The fix is stored in the database as a FAF, but it does not legally form the FAF for this approach because it is not required to use it (and non-RNAV equipped aircraft could not even identify it).

I understand what you mean, but how do we define a non-fixed waypoint? In the profile section, the distance to the threshold is given as 6.2 DME and I think the point is defined that way, but I guess that's just the case on FMS, right? If so, wouldn't it be a problem for airplanes using RNAV to fly different racetrack legs for 2 or 3 minutes for this descent, in terms of flying over this point defined as FAF in the FMS system? Because the distance the plane will fly may not be enough to catch this point.

@pilot162 The fix [FS044] is at a fixed location, 6.2NM from the VOR (in the database its exact coordinates will be stored). If you are non-RNAV, then you don't have to fly over this point, you just turn after 2/3 min and use the VOR to align with the runway. If you are RNAV, you can ignore the 2/3 min. The FMS will compute an outbound leg followed by a turn that ends up at [FS044], regardless of the timing for the outbound leg.

Thank you very much!


text:
What is the difference between VOR(D), VOR(V) and VOR(S) seen in the table?
What is the difference between VOR(D), VOR(V) and VOR(S) seen in the table? What do the letters D, V and S stand for or represent?

Those letters are different ARINC 424 Route Type identifiers for instrument approaches:

5.7 Route Type (RT TYPE)
Definition/Description: The “Route Type” field defines
the type of Enroute Airway, Preferred Route, Airport and
Heliport SID/STAR/Approach Routes of which the record
is an element. [...]
Source/Content: The content of this field (for approach
procedures) will be as indicated in the following tables: [...]

Approach Route Type Description
Route Type Field Content

Approach Transition
A

Localizer/Backcourse Approach
B

VORDME Approach
D

Flight Management System (FMS) Approach
F

Instrument Guidance System (IGS) Approach
G

Instrument Landing System (ILS) Approach
I

GNSS Landing System (GLS) Approach
J

Localizer Only (LOC) Approach
L

Microwave Landing System (MLS) Approach
M

Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) Approach
N

Global Positioning System (GPS) Approach
P

Non-Directional Beacon + DME (NDB+DME) Approach
Q

Area Navigation (RNAV) Approach
R

VOR Approach using VORDME/VORTAC
S

TACAN Approach
T

Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) Approach
U

VOR Approach
V

Microwave Landing System (MLS), Type A Approach
W

Localizer Directional Aid (LDA) Approach
X

Microwave Landing System (MLS), Type B and C Approach
Y

Missed Approach
Z

(ARINC 424 - 5.0 NAVIGATION DATA - FIELD DEFINITIONS)
So in your case, the V is a VOR approach without DME, the D includes DME and the S is for combined VOR/DME and TACAN (VORTAC).
Similarly, the ILS I, L and B correspond to regular ILS, localizer and backcourse approaches respectively.


text:
Does this symbol in the pictures below represent height above ground level or altitude above sea level?
Does this symbol in the pictures below represent height above ground level or altitude above sea level? There are huge differences between them and the Grid MORA values, so I think there may be heights from the ground, but I couldn't find the answer from the sources.

The Jeppesen Charts legend explains the symbol as follows:

17 — Some, but not all, terrain high points and man-made structures are depicted along with their elevations.
Generally only high points 400’ or more above the airport elevation are shown.
18 — Arrow indicates the highest of the portrayed high points within the planview area only.

(emphasis mine)
So these numbers correspond to the elevation above mean sea level (AMSL) of the terrain high point or man-made structure in feet.


text:
How do modern avionics work without vacuum pumps or gyroscopes?
I'm going to be taking my checkride soon on a Skycatcher 162. It has an all glass cockpit utilizing the Garmin G300, and its my understanding that it does not utilize gyroscopes or vacuum pumps for any of its instruments.
Seeing that if I were in something like a Cessna 172L, which uses both gyros and vacuum pumps for many of its instruments, questions such as "how does the attitude indicator work?" are fair game, I assume that the same questions are fair game for avionics like the Garmin G300.
The problem, I don't know how they work and its looking like the top google result for "garmin g300 gyroscope" returns a 404 error.
Also, do digital pitot/static systems work in essentially the same way as the old school ones in planes like the C172L? I'd hate to tell my examiner anything along the lines of "I have no idea".

These sound like questions for your flight instructor

My flight instructor is now an airline pilot but fair point.

A helpful term to search for is "laser gyro"

@DJClayworth I doubt that the Garmin 300 system uses a laser or fiber optic gyro. I've used FO gyros and the sensors alone cost $50,000.

Here is a recent article from Flying magazine: How It Works: Attitude and Heading Reference System

If Google returns a "404 error" then you have a problem with your connection.

There still are gyroscopes in modern aircraft, they're just built using different techniques from the old ones.

If you haven't already done so, you should have a look at section 7 of the C162 POH. That section gives an overview of all the aircraft's systems and the information is at a good level of detail for a checkride (at least at the private level). The examiner isn't expecting you to explain how a ring laser gyro works, but he probably will expect you to be able to give an explanation like this (from the POH):

AIR DATA, ATTITUDE AND HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (ADAHRS) AND MAGNETOMETER (GRS)
The ADAHRS provides airplane attitude and flight characteristics
  information to the G300 displays integrated avionics units. The ADAHRS
  unit, located behind the instrument panel, contains accelerometers,
  tilt sensors and rate sensors that replace spinning mass gyros used in
  other airplanes. The magnetometer, located in the tailcone, interfaces
  with the ADAHRS to provide heading information.
The air data portion of the ADAHARS compiles information from the
  airplane's pitot-static system to calculate pressure altitude,
  airspeed, true airspeed, vertical speed and outside air temperature.
  An outside air temperature probe, mounted on top of the cabin, is
  connected to the ADAHRS.

The G300 Pilot's Guide goes into more detail about the system's components (see Section 1), although it's still at a fairly high level.

Looks like the following link takes you to the G300 user manual. You'll find your answers here, and this document would be a good one to be familiar with for exactly the sorts of questions you're anticipating.
G300
The short answer is, the G300 has, instead of mechanical gyros, an AHRS -- "attitude and heading reference system", which is essentially an INS but without the navigation function. And, the same unit also includes an air data computer to process the pitot/static inputs. So, "it's all done in the GSU-73" -- GSU standing for Garmin Sensor Unit.

Source: the above manual, page 4 (page 22 of the PDF file)
There is more in the linked document on this, and the more comfortable you are explaining it, the better. Hopefully, though, nobody will ask you to explain "how to build" the GSU! But having a good idea of what components are in the system, what each does, and what the expected (possible) failure modes are, is probably fair game.

"Its all done in the GSU-73". Roger

Its fair to note that the AHRS still has a gyro, just not an older spinning mechanical one. It uses MEMS sensors to achieve the same (or close enough to the same) effect.

http://www.flyingmag.com/how-it-works-attitude-and-heading-reference-system

@abelenky  Good find, thanks -- added the link into the answer.

I can't say for certain what is actually inside a G300, but it seems likely that it uses a set of MEMS solid-state gyros, accelerometers, and magnetometers to sense

three axes of acceleration (including gravity)
three axes of rotation
three axis of earth's magnetic field lines

Using these inputs, sometimes helped with GPS inputs, you can mathematically estimate the full orientation of the aircraft similar to the way an artificial horizon maintains its reference over the course of a flight -- but without moving parts.
Additionally, inputs from static pressure, pitot pressure, and external air temperature are used to determine altimeter altitude, indicated, and true airspeed. These sensors are electronic transducers that output a voltage for a given input, so there are no moving parts for these systems either.
All of these inputs are fed into essentially a computer, which is estimating the state of the system, taking new inputs into account, adjusting its state, etc etc and continuously displaying this state estimate on the instrument panel.
Note that you need to draw a distinction between the estimated state and actual state, because even with an electronic system, it's possible to 'tumble' the artificial horizon under certain conditions. Some units are better than others!

To expand on Daniel's answer -- a modern ADAHRS consists of three sections:

An inertial-magnetic sensor frontend, referred to as a 9DoF or MARG (magnetic, angular rate, gravitation) sensor package.  Older or higher precision units (such as those which support inertial navigation) use stuff like the ring laser gyros Pondlife mentioned, while simpler AHRS units can use MEMS 9DoF frontends -- they are available in integrated circuit form from several manufacturers.
A processor that takes the raw 9DoF data and converts it into attitude and heading information.  This is a mathematically complex operation; in the past, Kalman filtering has been used for this, but Kalman filters are quite computationally intensive and can be vulnerable to singularities if implemented naively.  More advanced algorithms, such as Madgwick's work, that use quarternion techniques to simplify the calculations are available -- this also eliminates problems with singularities, which manifest themselves as "tumbling" or "gimbal lock" type phenomena (or simply a red X, for that matter).  Error processing is also found here -- some AHRS implementations will simply reject attitudes beyond certain limits, which is something you should be familiar with for the sake of unusual attitude recovery/training if nothing else.
Finally, there is the air data sensor frontend.  Simpler units simply have two pressure sensors -- one senses static pressure for altitude and vertical rate measurement, while the other can either sense the difference between pitot and static pressures or simply sense pitot pressure directly in order to measure airspeed.  This air data section would also include an angle of attack vane frontend and air temperature probe interfaces, if the unit supports such functionality.

All of this is plugged into the avionics communications bus in your airplane, where it provides attitude, heading, and air data info to whatever subsystems need it, as well as error flags to allow the displays to show you the red X instead of bogus garbage from a busted sensor.

Kalman filtering can be done with Euler angles or quaternions. Madgwick's algorithm is less computational intensive, but also less capable once the Kalman filter has been tuned to the application. I would bet that the G300 uses Kalman filters, but have no inside information.

@PeterKämpf -- yeah, Euler angles are the "naive" implementation of Kalman filtering, if you will.


text:
During an engine restart procedure, what are the purposes of a.) throttle back to idle and b.) primer "in and locked"?
I was making some study flashcards today for Emergency Procedures in the Cessna 162 POH, and realized that I don't quite understand steps 2 and 6 of the ENGINE FAILURE DURING FLIGHT (Restart Procedures):
  1. Airspeed .................. 70 KIAS (best glide speed)
//2. THROTTLE Control .......... IDLE (pull full out)
  3. CARB HEAT Control Knob .... ON (pull full out)
  4. FUEL SHUTOFF Valve ........ ON (push full in)
  5. MIXTURE Control ........... RICH (if restart has not occurred)
//6. PRIMER (if installed) ..... IN and LOCKED
  7. MAGNETOS Switch ........... BOTH (or START if propeller is stopped)

I think understanding the why behind all of the checklist procedures will help me remember them better.


text:
What is the "Change Notices Available" information on the airport information page of the Jeppesen chart?
What is the "Change Notices Available" information on the airport information page of the Jeppesen chart? For some, none is specified, and sometimes different numbers such as four and sometimes two are used. What do these mean? I have shared the airport information page of LTAF and LTBU airports below.

In short, it means there have been some number of changes made since the last publication, and those changes are detailed in change notices.
If you get a copy of the change notice you can find out what changed so that you can answer questions like this one:  What is the change of "Airspace" here? Does it mean the airspace class of the airport has changed?

So, as far as I understand, what we call change notices actually means a document that explains the changes in newly published charts since the previous charts. So what exactly do these numbers mean? Does it indicate how many pages or chapters the document describing the changes consists of? I don't think it indicates the total number of changes because when I compare the previous and new charts, I usually see that there are 10s of new changes.


text:
What do ENR,TERM and APR mean in the HSI? Also how may I call this part on the HSI?
How should I answer when my instructor asks me what it means during the flight? I searched but couldn't find a definitive answer.

Why can you not ask your instructor?  These are reasonable questions here, but even more so to ask the person you're paying to INSTRUCT you.

As a matter of fact, things are not going as well as you think in the flight schools in my country, Ralph. The student has to research and investigate and come ready to fly in every sense. Since my flight instructor gave me this question as an assignment and I could not find it after searching, I am writing the question here. I should also mention that I do not pay a fee because I am taking flight training with a 100% scholarship. If I am sharing my question here, I want you to know that I am sharing it because I want to get an answer...

...I am an individual with the capacity to consider asking this question to the instructor.

-1 because I am confident the documentation on that instrument/display will describe the things it displays.

ENR, TERM and APR are required navigational performance for the phase of flight you are in.  It is used when navigating with GPS.
On a flight from Airport A (AAA) to Airport B (BBB).
The non-WAAS GPS receiver will start out in DPRT (departure) mode. This mode requires the GPS verify it knows its position with ±0.3 NM 95% of the time. The CDI will also show full scale deflection at 0.3 NM.
At a certain point the GPS will switch to TERM (terminal) mode.  This mode requires the GPS verify it knows its position with ±1 NM. The CDI will also show full scale deflection at 1 NM.
The GPS stays in TERM mode until passing more than 30 NM from AAA.  At this point, it will transition into ENR (enroute) or OCN (oceanic) mode.  This mode requires the GPS verify it knows its position with ±2 NM 95% of the time. The CDI will also show full scale deflection at 2 NM.
As the airplane flies within 30 NM from BBB.  The GPS will transition back into TERM mode.
When the approach is manually activated or automatically activated at the capture fix, the GPS will transition into APR (approach) mode.  The accuracy and sensitivity requirements are ±0.3 NM.
If the positional error exceeds the value above, the GPS will alert the pilot with another annunciator.  I am unsure what that is for a Garmin G1000 pictured above.

Thank you so much, sir.

The circled area in the bottom photo is called a "soft key". The button is a physical button, but the label ("CDI" in the example) is part of the display. Thus the buttons across the top, bottom, and sides of the display can have different functions depending on the context of what's displayed. As this Wikipedia article notes, one also encounters softkeys like this in ATMs and self-service gas pumps.


text:
What do "NAC Dynamic" and "ASFT" mean according to the image in the LTAF AIP document?
What do "NAC Dynamic" and "ASFT" mean according to the image in the LTAF AIP document? I found out that ASFT stands for "Airport Surface Friction Tester" but I don't know what "NAC Dynamic" is and I don't know what "NAC" stands for. If it is an acronym and you know what it stands for, the acronym for "NAC" is important.


text:
What does the expression (For VOR/ILS/MLS, give VAR) in the table mean? Because VAR (magnetic variation) value is not given in the table
What does the expression (For VOR/ILS/MLS, give VAR) in the table mean? Because the VAR (magnetic variation) value is not given in the table. The table image was taken from the AIP Turkey document for Adana LTAF airport.

I checked it now, but I think it is not related to what you said because, in the ENR 4.1 section of the AIP, there is only information about Adana VOR that I have seen before. But thanks anyway.

In short: According to ICAO Annex 15, declination should be provided in this column for certain navaids. The mention "give VAR" is part of the template used, and originally found in the ICAO template (actually this template contains "give declination").
This information is not systematically provided in AIPs over the world.

ICAO SARPS
ICAO SARPS regarding AIP are found in Annex 15 AIS. Its appendix 1 describes the information to be provided in section AD 2.19 of the AIP:

AD 2.19 Radio navigation and landing aids
Detailed description of radio navigation and landing aids associated with the instrument approach and the terminal area procedures at the aerodrome, including:

type of aids, magnetic variation to the nearest degree, as appropriate, and type of supported operation for ILS/MLS, basic
GNSS, SBAS and GBAS,
and for VOR/ILS/MLS station declination to the nearest degree used for technical line-up of the aid;

(This wording is confusing, variation and declination are strictly equivalent.)
ICAO specimen AIP
ICAO provides a specimen AIP (also part of Doc 8126). In this template for the sections AD 2 and AD 3, there are tables with standard column headers:

The mention "give declination" is already included. Turkey has customized the specimen and used the synonym "var", more familiar to the aeronautical community.
Obviously they do not provide systematically the declination as expected. Declination appears in some AIPs, and not in other. Randomly: UK/EGLL (yes), Korea/RKJK (no), Slovenia/LJPZ (yes), Bahrain/OBBS (yes), France/LFPG (no).
Implication of missing information
There is no practical consequence of not providing the declination of a navaid, as long as we are considering human interaction. Crew work using magnetic bearings only.
However for navigation computers this information is of prime importance, since they work using the true north and need to know the individual declination of the navaids in order, e.g. to continuously determine a RNAV position from VOR/DME intersection.
Indeed computers are loaded with a navigation database containing the information (ARINC 424 format or similar).

Thank you for your explanation, if they are not going to give such information, I don't understand why they are stating it. It can be confusing when things aren't clear. Like the lack of information here. Anyway, I understood what the template meant, thank you again.

Yes, it's confusing. Normally this exception to the SARPS should be mentioned in GEN 1.7 of the AIP, but it isn't.


text:
What altitude does the "Apt Elev" on the Jeppesen charts represent?
What altitude does the "Apt Elev" on the Jeppesen charts represent?
According to my research, the height we call "airport elevation" indicates the highest altitude on the landing surface at the airport. I think that what is meant by the landing surface is the runways. In the chart given below, we see that the "Apt Elev" height is higher than the highest runway threshold altitude. When this is the case, I think that the highest point on the runway is not at the end of the runway and at the beginning of the runway, but in this case, can there be curved runways with the highest point in the middle? As a result, I sometimes see that "Airport Elevation" is given higher or lower than the highest runway threshold heights on some charts. Is it because the definition isn't correct or is it because I'm missing something? I'm also asking because I see the definitions are the same: Are "Field Elevation" and "Airport Elevation" the same thing?

-Images from LTCN Jeppesen charts-
Also about definitions:

What you mean is that the runway has a wavy structure rather than a straight one? So the runway can be vertically curved?

I agree with what you said. Then I answer the question by saying that the height value, which we call airport elevation, is the highest point on the runway.

So this is right in my line of work. The discrepancies you see may be indicative of sloped runway profiles (with the higher elevation being in the middle). More likely however, it’s because not every country follows the ICAO recommendation for reporting airport elevation.
Jeppesen publishes what the host nation publishes for airport elevation, regardless of whether that meets the standard, ICAO/FAA definition (i.e., the highest elevation of a landing surface). Japan is a good example of this. To Japan’s credit, they mention this exception in their AIP, GEN section 1.7.
There are other examples where a nation will publish the runway profile elevations but then list a different (higher) airport elevation. They are clearly not following the ICAO standard. I recently saw this where the field elevation was at the airport reference point (ARP), but that ARP was not on a landing surface. It was located on a former, permanently closed runway.
Of note, you should never seen an airport elevation lower than any published elevation for a runway (threshold elevation, runway end elevation, midpoint elevation, etc.)

Nice insights, and welcome to Av.SE!

Thank you so much!


text:
What do the white circle and black arrow on the airport chart mean? (VOR identifier and frequency written)
What do the white circle and black arrow on the airport chart mean? (VOR identifier and frequency written) There are 2 on the chart. Also, is there a document where I can find the meanings of the symbols on the airport chart? The document is from Turkey AIP.


text:
Which of the FLS, SLS and GLS approach types are precision and which are non-precision?
Which of the FLS, SLS and GLS approach types are precision and which are non-precision? Also, what is the main factor that causes this difference? It is generally said that vertical guidance is required for precision to be considered, but I think the situation is a little different here.
FLS (FMS Landing System)
SLS (SBAS Landing System)
GLS (GBAS Landing System)

FLS (or IAN on a Boeing) is a mode used to fly non-precision approaches using the same symbology and modes as a precision approach. FLS is never used for precision approaches. It is equivalent to flying an RNP approach to LNAV/VNAV minima. The vertical navigation is typically based on baro VNAV and therefore does not count as external vertical guidance. ICAO now calls this a 3D approach or APV (approach with vertical guidance).
SLS is used to fly LPV approaches. These are now considered Cat I precision approaches. They used to be classified under APV, but ICAO changed the classification sometime around 2012/2013. I'm not sure if the FAA changed their definition as well.
GLS has always been classified as a precision approach. Initially, only Cat I was used for GLS, but since then we also got Cat II GLS approaches, e.g. at Frankfurt (EDDF). GLS approaches are also certified for autolands.

References:

Is LPV considered a precision approach?

Why isn't an LPV SBAS approach considered a precision approach according to ICAO?

While this is all correct I would make one clarification: while GLS and SLS modes are tied exclusively on approaches based on GBAS and SBAS, respectively, and are required to fly that kind of approaches, FLS is merely and overlay guidance calculated by FMS to fly different kind of NPAs. Only APV Baro-VNAV requires use of FLS modes while other NPAs can be also flown with different AP/FD modes. In itself, FLS is not a ”non-precision approach”. It is an aid that can be used to fly several different types of approaches.

@busdriver That's correct, my phrasing was a bit sloppy there. I updated the answer to clarify.

@Bianfable Is it now technically incorrect for them to be called precision or non-precision approaches. For example, should all Operations Manuals now have these phrases removed? What do the parentheses infer in the diagram above?


text:
What is the "Model TA-M" I marked in yellow in the table?
What is the "Model TA-M" I marked in yellow in the table? I think it represents a weather chart, but I don't know if it's an abbreviation or what the explanation is. The table image was taken from the AIP Turkey document for Adana LTAF airport.

Thank you very much!

Model TA-M is another briefing and flight planning weather report used by military.

The Turkish State Meteorological Service (MGM) prepares weather data for civil and military aviation users. These data are computed from various sources, and formatted and displayed using a software application called METCAP+, developed by this service:

(Source)
The output can be formatted to correspond to TAF, METAR, SIGMET, etc. In addition METCAP+ can provide data conforming to the NATO model TA-M. From METCAP+ User Manual, a partial view of this form:


text:
Why are the symbols of the markings on the ground given differently on two different charts of the same AIP?
Why are the symbols of the signs on the ground given differently on two different charts of the same AIP? As can be seen in the images below, the ground markings in the same region on the airport chart and parking chart are different. Runway/Runway Approach Holding Position Marking, which includes 2 straight and 2 dash lines, is used on the Airport chart. On the Parking chart, Non-Movement Area Boundary Marking, which includes 1 flat and 1 dash line, is used. Why are different sign symbols used and how can I find out what the real signs are used on the airport surface?
Names of airport chart and parking chart in TURKEY AIP, respectively:
"AD 2 LTAF ADC" and "AD 2 LTAF PRKG-1"

I'm sorry but I couldn't figure out what you wanted me to check.

There is 1 year between the publication and effective date of the charts, and there has been no such change during this time.

Either symbol is appropriate:

It's hard to know why two depictions of the same thing are shown differently, I suspect it has something to do differing departments/processes used to create the content. Furthermore, the decision of which symbol to use may have changed over time: The airport chart is dated 05/20 whereas the parking chart is dated 11/22.
As for knowing what the real thing actually looks like, you could always use google maps

Looks like 1 solid and 1 dashed line.

--Thanks a lot!


text:
What do "Secondary power supply/switch-over time" and the corresponding values in the table mean?
What do "Secondary power supply/switch-over time" and the corresponding values in the table mean? I have no idea about the statements I marked in yellow in the table. I would be glad if you explain in detail. The table is from the Turkey AIP document.

Secondary power supply refers to alternate electricity source for runway lights in case the main power supply is interrupted at facility or larger scale.
Switch over time refers to time it takes to switch over to the backup power source. Zero seconds means there is no interruption in lighting.
Zero switch over time requires a battery system (UPS) to deliver power while generator is starting. Batteries alone will not be able to keep the lights on for very long, basically the alternate power source is always a generator.

A very logical, simple and descriptive answer. I am grateful.

@pilot162 as a sidenote, I can tell you it's quite a spectacle when such a UPS battery system suddenly decides to identify as smoke and fire instead of a solid

I hope the system doesn't want to identify itself this way all of a sudden :D

That has actually happened

Of course, we don't know where and when, I hope it was solved in a short time without any problems :)


text:
Are departure briefing and take-off briefing the same thing? If the same, when is it appropriate to brief?
Are departure briefing and take-off briefing the same thing? If the same, when is it appropriate to brief? (before starting the engine, while taxiing, just before takeoff) I am asking the question as a student pilot, so I'd appreciate it if you could answer the question assuming I'm flying a light aircraft.

This would depend mostly on academy/company procedure.
For me, the departure review or briefing is a preflight item that revolves around an IFR clearance, the initial routing, and navigation setup.
Takeoff briefing can be an abbreviated repetition of the runway safety items prior to receiving a takeoff clearance.  Depending on the operation, it can be normal for an hour or two to elapse between the first departure review and the takeoff briefing.

I see them as being separate.  Back when I am gathering ATIS I am thinking about direction of departure, which runway, does that runway have a run up pad, pattern direction.  It’s so casual I hesitate to call it a brief.  But then, at the run up pad,  I have a more formal takeoff briefing than any GA pilot I have ever known.  It only takes me 5-10 seconds longer than most others.

Based on my weight, performance, and recency of practice, what is the lowest altitude I will ever consider the return-to-field “impossible turn” on loss of takeoff thrust.

At that altitude, based on wind and terrain, will my turn be left or right, and I note the target bank and speed.

What is my DMMS (Minimum Maneuver Speed or 1.4 Vs), a speed below which I will not perform any maneuver that increases wing loading, decreases speed, or increases lift demand.  (Banking, pulling back on yoke, retracting flaps)

What is my best glide, at my weight.

“I’m on Rwy 14 and I have 3,000 feet.  Rotate at 50, no maneuver below 59.  LOTOT above x00 feet, I will turn left at X degrees bank and X KIAS.”  Literally takes me 5-6 seconds.
BTW, I also re-arrange my checklist a bit from the POH.  GA POHs almost have you do things like set TO flaps and TO trim before doing quite a few other things, including an autopilot function check.  That’s a hard no from me.  Setting my final takeoff configuration for flaps, gear handle, prop, and mixture are at the bottom of my checklist, after any test of them is complete.  Example, testing the autopilot’s pitch servo after setting the takeoff trim, that’s a non-starter for me.


text:
Why are the height values different although the altitude values in the "straight-in approach" and "circling" minimums are the same?
Why are the height values different although the altitude values in the "straight-in approach" and "circling" minimums are the same? For Adana airport, the minimum altitudes of the 05 runway VOR Z approach are the same (1200) but the heights are different (1148-1137). What is the reason for this? Is it due to the elevation of the region where the minimums are located? So where is the "circling" minimum accepted? The name of the chart document in Turkey AIP for LTAF airport is "AD 2 LTAF IAC - 2".

Straight-in is referenced to a particular runway, while circling is referenced to the airport elevation. The same elevation MSL is thus a different height above the referenced elevation.
The "runway elevation" for a particular runway is generally defined either as the highest point in the touchdown zone for that runway, or the elevation of the threshold. Thus the runway elevation can differ at opposite ends of the same physical runway. And the airport elevation, being the highest of these (or perhaps the highest landable surface - if a runway slopes down from the center in both directions), will often differ from several of the runway elevations on that airfield.
The salient point, though, isn't in the specific definition of each concept, but in the fact that a straight-in approach is referenced to its runway, while a circling approach, being not-runway-specific, is referenced to the airport.

Those are of course accurate statements, but the question is conceptual: how can these 2 values be different? To which the answer is, they're different because they're referenced to two different things.  How those 2 different values are generated is a little beside the point. What matters is, there are two of them, and they're often different.

Thank you for your answer! But by the way, I didn't quite understand the comment of @RTO. What do you mean with this part:  "for straight-in minimums the AGL altitude is measured above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown zone - HAT".

Rwy 05 threshold altitude is 52 feet and rwy 23 threshold altitude is 63 feet at Adana airport. Since the altitude of the highest usable landing area is 63 feet, the airport elevation is also considered to be 63 feet.

FWIW, I am in agreement with @RTO's since deleted suggestion.  (The OP's query in comments backs the point.)  I'm all for brevity and not over-answering, but I don't understand why there might be resistance to a very minor edit to add a few standard phrases for completeness that would make a good answer even better...


text:
Why is the highest point value (6681') lower than the contour interval value of 7000'?
Why is the highest point value (6681') lower than the contour interval value of 7000'? As seen on the chart, the orange areas represent 7000 feet, but there is an obstacle with an altitude lower than 7000 feet in the orange area. If this elevation is not the highest point on the SID chart, why is it shown with the highest point arrow? Detailed information about the Jeppesen chart is available at the top right of the image.

The orange area on the chart means elevation is between 5000 and 7000 ft AMSL according to the contour intervals legend. The white area is anything below 5000 ft AMSL. So the highest point of 6681' is within the range for the orange area.


text:
Why are some of the boxes with VOR information thick (like IST VOR) but some of the boxes are thin (like UHM VOR)?
Why are some of the boxes with VOR information thick (like IST VOR) but some of the boxes are thin (like UHM VOR)?

According to this document the shadowed area to the right and the bottom of the box denotes that it is part of an airway.

Low and High/Low charts include a Compass Rose with VHF Navaids. Shadow box indicates navaid is airway component, with frequency, identifier, Morse code and INS coordinates

Another place in the same document also has a different but similar use of the shadow box

A shadowed navaid box indicates the primary navaid upon which lateral course guidance for the final approach segment is predicated.


text:
What is "two letter identification code" and how is this code sent as a signal with light by flashing?
What is "two letter identification code" and how is this code sent as a signal with light by flashing?

What is the source of the quoted text, please?   Sounds almost like a visual version of the old A-N range, which haven't been used in a long, long time.

This quote is from the mid-ACE document, which is a summary of the ACE (Airline Pilot Interview Questions) resource. Whole article on the subject: Two types of beacon: Identification Beacon and the Location Beacon. An Identification Beacon flashing a two letter identification code in green. Where the aerodrome is also situated well away from areas of high background lighting, the Location Beacon would display a flashing White light. Where the aerodrome is situated in an area where there is a high level of background lighting, such as in the vicinity of a city...

...where a flashing white light would be difficult to see, the Location Beacon would display a green light flashing alternately with a white light.

Is there any reason to believe it would not be Morse code?

Previously answered (the two beacons, identifying vs. non identifying, morse code) in: What is a "BEACON"?. This is also part of CAP 637 for UK.


text:
instructor cleared me for checkride but didn't sign paperwork
took last ride with instructor and he cleared me for private pilot check and helped me set up check ride.  He forgot to sign endorsement and left for airlines, He is not answering my calls and the company he worked for, Oracle, is telling me I will have to fly with new instructor charging me for 3 hours to get endorsement.  what recourse do I have besides small claims court to finish this out?

When you come here to ask for assistance, it really looks bad that you can't use capitalization and small things like articles (the endorsement, the airlines, etc)  correctly. Yes, someone else can (and possibly may) edit your post to clean this up, but they shouldn't have to. This isn't a text message thread.

Life lesson:  The easiest solution is to do the three hours and get it behind you.  We too often consume ourselves with wanting things to be made right, instead of laser-focusing on what is the best outcome for us.  In life, when jilted, seek your own best interest, not fairness—they are rarely the same.  If you do decide to pursue it, it matters whether you paid him or Oracle.  Whoever’s customer you were is the party that “owes” you flight instruction in return your $, and owes you resolution.  If he was an employee, your gripe is with them, and their gripe is with him.

@RalphJ, good points, but there are far worse offenders on this site...

I'm sorry to hear about this, Jake, but you should know after having received probably a good half-dozen or so endorsements for your knowledge test, solo, x/c solos, and more that if your instructor didn't endorse your logbook for the practical test, you are not "cleared", regardless what he may have told you. Assuming this was done under Part 61 there are only the minimums in 14 CFR 61.109. Similarly if the instruction was done under Part 141. I'd continue to try other ways to get a hold of your previous primary instructor and get that endorsement.
Aside from that, I'd raise the issue with Oracle and see what they can do to help you on the cost piece. However, I'd strongly advise approaching this conversation less confrontationally than this post - I don't see raising the threat of small claims court doing you any favors. To set expectations, I'd also not assume that 3 hours is what it will take to earn the practical test endorsement from a new CFI. That endorsement is theirs to give, and if they feel your previous instructor did not adequately prepare you, they may want to spend more time with you before they endorse you. Of course it could be fewer than 3 hours too.
IANAL but should you choose to go to take this to small claims, I struggle to see how this would turn out favorably for you. There is too much missing context, but I think the likely response from your primary instructor and the flight school would simply be that you had not earned the endorsement. I don't think any court could force the endorsement to be given. On receiving any kind of compensation, I think they would argue that any decisions you made stemming from the alleged promise would be considered unreasonable reliance on said promise.


text:
Can I use my US CPL to join airlines or Cadet programs in other countries?
I am currently about to complete my CPL in the United States, can I join a cadet program in Europe or in the UAE with my current License and ratings? I will have a CPL with instrument rating and am thinking about completing my CFI and Multi engine add ons.
Can I join a cadet program in the UAE once I have? Or do I have to transfer my license to work in the UAE or even in the UK?

The general idea of a cadetship is that they are designed for those with little to no flying experience. For those with a license already, they must go through the direct entry process.
Except in specific circumstances, you can't fly for a foreign airline with your FAA license. For most other countries you will have to convert your license to that country first. The conversion process usually involves some theory exams, a bit of remedial training and a flight test. At least you won't need to repeat all the hours you've already done - they are credited anywhere.
The other part to consider is having the right to work in the foreign country. In places like Europe it will be difficult to get an airline to sponsor you because they already have so many local pilots they need to employ first. But it's easier in places like the UAE, Hong Kong and Singapore to name a few.

This was really helpful! So just a back story here, my dad is currently a pilot for emirates airlines and I already have a UAE residents visa. By May 2023, I will have my FAA license (CPL) and a Bachelors degree. So I guess my question would be, how would I go about applying for a cadet program in Dubai? As well as what else would I need to do in order to join?

How would I go about a direct entry?

@AnayaSingh With every cadet program I have inquired with, having a CPL means you are NOT eligible to join, because they are designed for people with no flying experience. The Emirates program may be different but I doubt it. The best way to find out is to ask them directly rather than asking someone on the internet.

For direct entry you just go on their website for first officers. For Emirates you need 2000 hours in a jet - https://www.emiratesgroupcareers.com/pilots/