arithmetic, branch of mathematics in which numbers, relations among numbers, and observations on numbers are studied and used to solve problems.
Arithmetic (a term derived from the Greek word arithmos, “number”) refers generally to the elementary aspects of the theory of numbers, arts of mensuration (measurement), and numerical computation (that is, the processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to powers, and extraction of roots). Its meaning, however, has not been uniform in mathematical usage. An eminent German mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss, in Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801), and certain modern-day mathematicians have used the term to include more advanced topics. The reader interested in the latter is referred to the article number theory.
In a collection (or set) of objects (or elements), the act of determining the number of objects present is called counting. The numbers thus obtained are called the counting numbers or natural numbers (1, 2, 3, …). For an empty set, no object is present, and the count yields the number 0, which, appended to the natural numbers, produces what are known as the whole numbers.
If objects from two sets can be matched in such a way that every element from each set is uniquely paired with an element from the other set, the sets are said to be equal or equivalent. The concept of equivalent sets is basic to the foundations of modern mathematics and has been introduced into primary education, notably as part of the “new math” (see the ) that has been alternately acclaimed and decried since it appeared in the 1960s. See set theory.
Combining two sets of objects together, which contain a and b elements, a new set is formed that contains a + b = c objects. The number c is called the sum of a and b; and each of the latter is called a summand. The operation of forming the sum is called addition, the symbol + being read as “plus.” This is the simplest binary operation, where binary refers to the process of combining two objects.
From the definition of counting it is evident that the order of the summands can be changed and the order of the operation of addition can be changed, when applied to three summands, without affecting the sum. These are called the commutative law of addition and the associative law of addition, respectively (see the table).
If there exists a natural number k such that a = b + k, it is said that a is greater than b (written a > b) and that b is less than a (written b < a). If a and b are any two natural numbers, then it is the case that either a = b or a > b or a < b (the trichotomy law).
From the above laws, it is evident that a repeated sum such as 5 + 5 + 5 is independent of the way in which the summands are grouped; it can be written 3 × 5. Thus, a second binary operation called multiplication is defined. The number 5 is called the multiplicand; the number 3, which denotes the number of summands, is called the multiplier; and the result 3 × 5 is called the product. The symbol × of this operation is read “times.” If such letters as a and b are used to denote the numbers, the product a × b is often written a∙b or simply ab.
If three rows of five dots each are written, as illustrated below,
it is clear that the total number of dots in the array is 3 × 5, or 15. This same number of dots can evidently be written in five rows of three dots each, whence 5 × 3 = 15. The argument is general, leading to the law that the order of the multiplicands does not affect the product, called the commutative law of multiplication. But it is notable that this law does not apply to all mathematical entities. Indeed, much of the mathematical formulation of modern physics, for example, depends crucially on the fact that some entities do not commute.
By the use of a three-dimensional array of dots, it becomes evident that the order of multiplication when applied to three numbers does not affect the product. Such a law is called the associative law of multiplication. If the 15 dots written above are separated into two sets, as shown,
then the first set consists of three columns of three dots each, or 3 × 3 dots; the second set consists of two columns of three dots each, or 2 × 3 dots; the sum (3 × 3) + (2 × 3) consists of 3 + 2 = 5 columns of three dots each, or (3 + 2) × 3 dots. In general, one may prove that the multiplication of a sum by a number is the same as the sum of two appropriate products. Such a law is called the distributive law.
Subtraction has not been introduced for the simple reason that it can be defined as the inverse of addition. Thus, the difference a − b of two numbers a and b is defined as a solution x of the equation b + x = a. If a number system is restricted to the natural numbers, differences need not always exist, but, if they do, the five basic laws of arithmetic, as already discussed, can be used to prove that they are unique. Furthermore, the laws of operations of addition and multiplication can be extended to apply to differences. The whole numbers (including zero) can be extended to include the solution of 1 + x = 0, that is, the number −1, as well as all products of the form −1 × n, in which n is a whole number. The extended collection of numbers is called the integers, of which the positive integers are the same as the natural numbers. The numbers that are newly introduced in this way are called negative integers.
Just as a repeated sum a + a + ⋯ + a of k summands is written ka, so a repeated product a × a × ⋯ × a of k factors is written ak. The number k is called the exponent, and a the base of the power ak.
The fundamental laws of exponents follow easily from the definitions (see the table), and other laws are immediate consequences of the fundamental ones.
At this point an interesting development occurs, for, so long as only additions and multiplications are performed with integers, the resulting numbers are invariably themselves integers—that is, numbers of the same kind as their antecedents. This characteristic changes drastically, however, as soon as division is introduced. Performing division (its symbol ÷, read “divided by”) leads to results, called quotients or fractions, which surprisingly include numbers of a new kind—namely, rationals—that are not integers. These, though arising from the combination of integers, patently constitute a distinct extension of the natural-number and integer concepts as defined above. By means of the application of the division operation, the domain of the natural numbers becomes extended and enriched immeasurably beyond the integers (see below Rational numbers).
The preceding illustrates one of the proclivities that are often associated with mathematical thought: relatively simple concepts (such as integers), initially based on very concrete operations (for example, counting), are found to be capable of assuming novel meanings and potential uses, extending far beyond the limits of the concept as originally defined. A similar extension of basic concepts, with even more powerful results, will be found with the introduction of irrationals (see below Irrational numbers).
A second example of this pattern is presented by the following: Under the primitive definition of exponents, with k equal to either zero or a fraction, ak would, at first sight, appear to be utterly devoid of meaning. Clarification is needed before writing a repeated product of either zero factors or a fractional number of factors. Considering the case k = 0, a little reflection shows that a0 can, in fact, assume a perfectly precise meaning, coupled with an additional and quite extraordinary property. Since the result of dividing any (nonzero) number by itself is 1, or unity, it follows that am ÷ am = am−m = a0 = 1.Not only can the definition of ak be extended to include the case k = 0, but the ensuing result also possesses the noteworthy property that it is independent of the particular (nonzero) value of the base a. A similar argument may be given to show that ak is a meaningful expression even when k is negative, namely, a−k = 1/ak. The original concept of exponent is thus broadened to a great extent.
If three positive integers a, b, and c are in the relation ab = c, it is said that a and b are divisors or factors of c, or that a divides c (written a|c), and b divides c. The number c is said to be a multiple of a and a multiple of b.
The number 1 is called the unit, and it is clear that 1 is a divisor of every positive integer. If c can be expressed as a product ab in which a and b are positive integers each greater than 1, then c is called composite. A positive integer neither 1 nor composite is called a prime number. Thus, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, … are prime numbers. The ancient Greek mathematician Euclid proved in his Elements (c. 300 bc) that there are infinitely many prime numbers.
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic was proved by Gauss in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. It states that every composite number can be expressed as a product of prime numbers and that, save for the order in which the factors are written, this representation is unique. Gauss’s theorem follows rather directly from another theorem of Euclid to the effect that if a prime divides a product, then it also divides one of the factors in the product; for this reason the fundamental theorem is sometimes credited to Euclid.
For every finite set a1, a2, …, ak of positive integers, there exists a largest integer that divides each of these numbers, called their greatest common divisor (GCD). If the GCD = 1, the numbers are said to be relatively prime. There also exists a smallest positive integer that is a multiple of each of the numbers, called their least common multiple (LCM).
A systematic method for obtaining the GCD and LCM starts by factoring each ai (where i = 1, 2, …, k) into a product of primes p1, p2, …, ph, with the number of times that each distinct prime occurs indicated by qi; thus,
Then the GCD is obtained by multiplying together each prime that occurs in every ai as many times as it occurs the fewest (smallest power) among all of the ai. The LCM is obtained by multiplying together each prime that occurs in any of the ai as many times as it occurs the most (largest power) among all of the ai. An example is easily constructed. Given a1 = 3,000 = 23 × 31 × 53 and a2 = 2,646 = 21 × 33 × 72, the GCD = 21 × 31 = 6 and the LCM = 23 × 33 × 53 × 72 = 1,323,000. When only two numbers are involved, the product of the GCD and the LCM equals the product of the original numbers. (See the table for useful divisibility tests.)
If a and b are two positive integers, with a > b, two whole numbers q and r exist such that a = qb + r, with r less than b. The number q is called the partial quotient (the quotient if r = 0), and r is called the remainder. Using a process known as the Euclidean algorithm, which works because the GCD of a and b is equal to the GCD of b and r, the GCD can be obtained without first factoring the numbers a and b into prime factors. The Euclidean algorithm begins by determining the values of q and r, after which b and r assume the role of a and b and the process repeats until finally the remainder is zero; the last positive remainder is the GCD of the original two numbers. For example, starting with 544 and 119:
Thus, the GCD of 544 and 119 is 17.
From a less abstract point of view, the notion of division, or of fraction, may also be considered to arise as follows: if the duration of a given process is required to be known to an accuracy of better than one hour, the number of minutes may be specified; or, if the hour is to be retained as the fundamental unit, each minute may be represented by 1/60 or by
In general, the fractional unit 1/d is defined by the property d × 1/d = 1. The number n × 1/d is written n/d and is called a common fraction. It may be considered as the quotient of n divided by d. The number d is called the denominator (it determines the fractional unit or denomination), and n is called the numerator (it enumerates the number of fractional units that are taken). The numerator and denominator together are called the terms of the fraction. A positive fraction n/d is said to be proper if n < d; otherwise it is improper.
The numerator and denominator of a fraction are not unique, since for every positive integer k, the numerator and denominator of a fraction can each simultaneously be multiplied by the integer k without altering the fractional value. Every fraction can be written as the quotient of two relatively prime integers, however. In this form it is said to be in lowest terms.
The integers and fractions constitute what are called the rational numbers. The five fundamental laws stated earlier with regard to the positive integers can be generalized to apply to all rational numbers.
From the definition of fraction it follows that the sum (or difference) of two fractions having the same denominator is another fraction with this denominator, the numerator of which is the sum (or difference) of the numerators of the given fractions. Two fractions having different denominators may be added or subtracted by first reducing them to fractions with the same denominator. Thus, to add a/b and c/d, the LCM of b and d, often called the least common denominator of the fractions, must be determined. It follows that there exist numbers k and l such that kb = ld, and both fractions can be written with this common denominator, so that the sum or difference of the fractions is obtained by the simple operation of adding or subtracting the new numerators and placing the value over the new denominator.
In order to multiply two fractions—in case one of the numbers is a whole number, it is placed over the number 1 to create a fraction—the numerators and denominators are multiplied separately to produce the new fraction’s numerator and denominator: a/b × c/d = ac/bd. In order to divide by a fraction, it must be inverted—that is, the numerator and denominator interchanged—after which it becomes a multiplication problem: a/b ÷ c/d = a/b × d/c = ad/bc.
A method of introducing the positive rational numbers that is free from intuition (that is, with all logical steps included) was given in 1910 by the German mathematician Ernst Steinitz. In considering the set of all number pairs (a, b), (c, d), … in which a, b, c, d, … are positive integers, the equals relation (a, b) = (c, d) is defined to mean that ad = bc, and the two operations + and × are defined so that the sum of a pair (a, b) + (c, d) = (ad + bc, bd) is a pair and the product of a pair (a, b) × (c, d) = (ac, bd) is a pair. It can be proved that, if these sums and products are properly specified, the fundamental laws of arithmetic hold for these pairs and that the pairs of the type (a, 1) are abstractly identical with the positive integers a. Moreover, b × (a, b) = a, so that the pair (a, b) is abstractly identical with the fraction a/b.
It was known to the Pythagoreans (followers of the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras) that, given a straight line segment a and a unit segment u, it is not always possible to find a fractional unit such that both a and u are multiples of it (see incommensurables). For instance, if the sides of an isosceles right triangle have length 1, then by the Pythagorean theorem the hypotenuse has a length the square of which must be 2. But there exists no rational number the square of which is 2.
Eudoxus of Cnidus, a contemporary of Plato, established the technique necessary to extend numbers beyond the rationals. His contribution, one of the most important in the history of mathematics, was included in Euclid’s Elements and elsewhere, and then it lay dormant until the modern period of growth in mathematical analysis in Germany in the 19th century.
It is customary to assume on an intuitive basis that, corresponding to every line segment and every unit length, there exists a number (called a positive real number) that represents the length of the line segment. Not all such numbers are rational, but every one can be approximated arbitrarily closely by a rational number. That is, if x is a positive real number and ε is any positive rational number—no matter how small—it is possible to find two positive rational numbers a and b within ε distance from each other such that x is between them; in symbols, given any ε > 0, there exist positive rational numbers a and b such that b − a < ε and a < x < b. In problems in mensuration, irrational numbers are usually replaced by suitable rational approximations.
A rigorous development of the irrational numbers is beyond the scope of arithmetic. They are most satisfactorily introduced by means of Dedekind cuts, as introduced by the German mathematician Richard Dedekind, or sequences of rationals, as introduced by Eudoxus and developed by the German mathematician Georg Cantor. These methods are discussed in analysis.
The employment of irrational numbers greatly increases the scope and usefulness of arithmetic. For instance, if n is any whole number and a is any positive real number, there exists a unique positive real number n√a, called the nth root of a, whose nth power is a. The root symbol √ is a conventionalized r for radix, or “root.” The term evolution is sometimes applied to the process of finding a rational approximation to an nth root.