This paper describes the current status of keyboard-only access to Windows 95 for single-digit typists — individuals who operate a computer with one finger, toe, or stump; or who use a head-stick, mouth-stick or similar appliance. The analysis emerged while planning and implementing an accommodation for an adult who types with one toe. The paper asks whether keyboard shortcuts are useable in practice; establishes requirements for Windows-compatible expanded keyboards; and highlights barriers faced by anyone who demands keyboard-only access to Windows.
Manipulating a mouse or other pointing device may be difficult for people who type with a single finger, toe, or stump; or who use a head-stick, mouth-stick or similar appliance. Computer accommodations for these people — who henceforth will be referred to as single-digit typists — generally include a regular or modified keyboard; key latch software; and perhaps mouse emulation software or a pointing device. Most single-digit typists use sticky keys to capitalize letters, and many have difficulties using conventional pointing devices.
For better or worse, Windows 95 (and its inevitable successors and spin-offs) seems destined to become the standard personal computer (PC) operating system (OS). A number of related developments give rise to the hope that the Windows environment will be fully accessible to keyboard-only users:
Notwithstanding these recent trends, questions remain about the viability of keyboard-only access to Windows 95 for single-digit typists. This paper explores three issues:
I conducted this research while providing accommodation services to an adult with cerebral palsy. He was enrolled in a training program to upgrade his computer skills. His most reliable control site is his left foot, and he prefers to type with his big toe. He cannot easily manipulate a pointing device. I was assigned to select and adapt a Windows 95 computer system, and train him to use it. Over eight weeks I taught him Windows 95 basics, a word processor, an e-mail program, a Web-browser, and access software.
Keyboard-only access to Windows is possible with a standard keyboard using MouseKeys. However, not everybody can use MouseKeys, and the technique is extremely cumbersome. A simple drag and drop operation may require ten different keys and 30 or more keystrokes. Choosing an item from a pull-down menu is easier, but still tedious.
Keyboard equivalents, on the other hand, are quick and positive. For example, in Word 7, pressing a three-key sequence selects Page Setup… from the File menu: Alt, F, U (or F10, F, U). Clearly, single-digit typists benefit from using these shortcuts whenever possible.
Not all expanded keyboards are equal to the task of keyboard-only access. A single-digit typist can take full advantage of Windows 95's keyboard interface only if all keys on the standard keyboard are available. In addition, the keyboard must support latched and locked modifier keys, singly and in combination, with all keys, including the mouse keys. Unless these criteria are met, functionality will be compromised.
My client and I considered three expanded keyboard systems: the Intellitools IntelliKeys; the TASH WinKing; and the Unicorn Model II keyboard/Darci Too Computer Control Device. Neither the WinKing nor the Unicorn/Darci met these criteria. The IntelliKeys satisfied both.
Other factors (relating to the size and spacing of the keys and his seating posture) compelled us to choose the Unicorn/Darci Too system. He liked the bigness of the Unicorn, and was willing to trade a modicum of function for long-term physical comfort.
There is no "perfect" expanded keyboard for single-digit computer work. When helping a single-digit typist select a new keyboard, tradeoffs must be made between productivity, technical features, health and safety factors, and personal preferences.
Keyboard-only access to Windows 95 is problematic. The keyboard interface appears to be an afterthought, and consequently, is poorly integrated into the overall design. Although keyboard access is almost always possible, it is not particularly useable.
Paciello (3) defines product usability in terms of five factors: how easy it is to learn, how easy it is to remember, whether the product promotes productivity, whether the product tends to produce errors, and user satisfaction. In terms of keyboard-only access, the OS fails on many counts. A few examples:
Significant barriers to keyboard-only access stem from developers who ignore keyboard interface design standards, such as those set out by Vanderheiden & Lee (4), Microsoft (2), and others. Ironically, Microsoft's own software products occasionally miss the mark. For example, in Word 7: certain help screens ignore navigational keystrokes; files displayed by the Open and Save As… dialog boxes cannot be sorted without a pointing device; and the Open dialog box is difficult to use because keyboard navigation begins near the bottom of the box instead of the usual position near the top. These barriers are maddening to users and completely unnecessary, given that the principles of accessible software design are widely known.
The keyboard-only interface of Windows 95 is basically accessible, but not especially useable. It could be better. However, improving the interface is more than a matter of fixing programming errors and inconsistencies. In light of the fact that keyboard-only access continues to be problematic, I recommend that existing standards be reconsidered and revised. Significant improvements to the interface are achievable — if developers and manufacturers collaborate with people who demand keyboard-only access to Windows.
1. Snyder, Maryanne K. & Lowney, Gregory C. Microsoft Windows Keyboard Guide. E-mail message. 16 October 1996.
2. No author. The Microsoft® Windows® Guidelines for Accessible Software Design: Designing and Building Applications that are Usable by People with Disabilities. Redmond, WA.: Microsoft Corporation. 1995:12.
3. Paciello, Michael. Accessibility By Any Other Name Is ...Usability. EIA/CEG "CE Network News." December 1993.
4. Vanderheiden, G. C. & Lee, C. C. Considerations in the Design of Computers and Operating Systems to Increase their Accessibility to Persons with Disabilities (Version 4.2). Madison, WI.: Trace R&D Center. 1988.
I thank Penny Parnes, David Graham, Barbara Roberts and Christina Tracy for sharing their ideas with me on this subject; and the staff of The Training Coordinating Group for Persons with Disabilities, Toronto, for making this project possible.