text: Since the labelling for the positive images videos is ambiguous in weakly supervised segment annotation, negative mining based methods that only use the intra-class information emerge. In these methods, negative instances are utilized to penalize unknown instances to rank their likelihood of being an object, which can be considered as a voting in terms of similarity. However, these methods 1) ignore the information contained in positive bags, 2) only rank the likelihood but cannot generate an explicit decision function. In this paper, we propose a voting scheme involving not only the definite negative instances but also the ambiguous positive instances to make use of the extra useful information in the weakly labelled positive bags. In the scheme, each instance votes for its label with a magnitude arising from the similarity, and the ambiguous positive instances are assigned soft labels that are iteratively updated during the voting. It overcomes the limitations of voting using only the negative bags. We also propose an expectation kernel density estimation (eKDE) algorithm to gain further insight into the voting mechanism. Experimental results demonstrate the superiority of our scheme beyond the baselines.
  @cite_35: Multiple-instance learning (MIL) is a variation on supervised learning. Instead of receiving a set of labeled instances, the learner receives a set of bags that are labeled. Each bag contains many instances. The aim of MIL is to classify new bags or instances. In this work, we propose a novel algorithm, MIL-SKDE (multiple-instance learning with supervised kernel density estimation), which addresses MIL problem through an extended framework of ''KDE (kernel density estimation)+mean shift''. Since the KDE+mean shift framework is an unsupervised learning method, we extend KDE to its supervised version, called supervised KDE (SKDE), by considering class labels of samples. To seek the modes (local maxima) of SKDE, we also extend mean shift to a supervised version by taking into account sample labels. SKDE is an alternative of the well-known diverse density estimation (DDE) whose modes are called concepts. Comparing to DDE, SKDE is more convenient to learn multi-modal concepts and robust to labeling noise (mistakenly labeled bags). Finally, each bag is mapped into a concept space where the multi-class SVM classifiers are learned. Experimental results demonstrate that our approach outperforms the state-of-the-art MIL approaches.
  @cite_36: Insufficiency of labeled training data is a major obstacle for automatically annotating large-scale video databases with semantic concepts. Existing semi-supervised learning algorithms based on parametric models try to tackle this issue by incorporating the information in a large amount of unlabeled data. However, they are based on a "model assumption" that the assumed generative model is correct, which usually cannot be satisfied in automatic video annotation due to the large variations of video semantic concepts. In this paper, we propose a novel semi-supervised learning algorithm, named Semi Supervised Learning by Kernel Density Estimation (SSLKDE), which is based on a non-parametric method, and therefore the "model assumption" is avoided. While only labeled data are utilized in the classical Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) approach, in SSLKDE both labeled and unlabeled data are leveraged to estimate class conditional probability densities based on an extended form of KDE. We also investigate the connection between SSLKDE and existing graph-based semi-supervised learning algorithms. Experiments prove that SSLKDE significantly outperforms existing supervised methods for video annotation.
  @cite_21: Insufficiency of labeled training data is a major obstacle for automatic video annotation. Semi-supervised learning is an effective approach to this problem by leveraging a large amount of unlabeled data. However, existing semi-supervised learning algorithms have not demonstrated promising results in large-scale video annotation due to several difficulties, such as large variation of video content and intractable computational cost. In this paper, we propose a novel semi-supervised learning algorithm named semi-supervised kernel density estimation (SSKDE) which is developed based on kernel density estimation (KDE) approach. While only labeled data are utilized in classical KDE, in SSKDE both labeled and unlabeled data are leveraged to estimate class conditional probability densities based on an extended form of KDE. It is a non-parametric method, and it thus naturally avoids the model assumption problem that exists in many parametric semi-supervised methods. Meanwhile, it can be implemented with an efficient iterative solution process. So, this method is appropriate for video annotation. Furthermore, motivated by existing adaptive KDE approach, we propose an improved algorithm named semi-supervised adaptive kernel density estimation (SSAKDE). It employs local adaptive kernels rather than a fixed kernel, such that broader kernels can be applied in the regions with low density. In this way, more accurate density estimates can be obtained. Extensive experiments have demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed methods.
  @cite_32: A general non-parametric technique is proposed for the analysis of a complex multimodal feature space and to delineate arbitrarily shaped clusters in it. The basic computational module of the technique is an old pattern recognition procedure: the mean shift. For discrete data, we prove the convergence of a recursive mean shift procedure to the nearest stationary point of the underlying density function and, thus, its utility in detecting the modes of the density. The relation of the mean shift procedure to the Nadaraya-Watson estimator from kernel regression and the robust M-estimators; of location is also established. Algorithms for two low-level vision tasks discontinuity-preserving smoothing and image segmentation - are described as applications. In these algorithms, the only user-set parameter is the resolution of the analysis, and either gray-level or color images are accepted as input. Extensive experimental results illustrate their excellent performance.
  @cite_5: The insufficiency of labeled training data is a major obstacle in automatic image annotation. To tackle this problem, we propose a semi-supervised manifold kernel density estimation (SSMKDE) approach based on a recently proposed manifold KDE method. Our contributions are twofold. First, SSMKDE leverages both labeled and unlabeled samples and formulates all data in a manifold structure, which enables a more accurate label prediction. Second, the relationship between KDE-based methods and graph-based semi-supervised learning (SSL) methods is analyzed, which helps to better understand graph-based SSL methods. Extensive experiments demonstrate the superiority of SSMKDE over existing KDE-based and graph-based SSL methods.
summary: Since we derive a KDE interpretation for our voting scheme, we also make a literature review on this subject. KDE possesses the advantages of nonparametric method for unsupervised density estimation. @cite_35 propose a supervised KDE to make use of labels, and extend the mean shift @cite_32 to a supervised version to seek modes. In order to make full use of unlabelled data, @cite_36 @cite_21 propose a semi-supervised KDE to estimate class-specific density based on a little fraction of labelled data. SSKDE is later extended to a manifold structure @cite_5 .