text: In this paper, we introduce an alternative approach, namely GEN (Genetic Evolution Network) Model, to the deep learning models. Instead of building one single deep model, GEN adopts a genetic-evolutionary learning strategy to build a group of unit models generations by generations. Significantly different from the wellknown representation learning models with extremely deep structures, the unit models covered in GEN are of a much shallower architecture. In the training process, from each generation, a subset of unit models will be selected based on their performance to evolve and generate the child models in the next generation. GEN has significant advantages compared with existing deep representation learning models in terms of both learning effectiveness, efficiency and interpretability of the learning process and learned results. Extensive experiments have been done on diverse benchmark datasets, and the experimental results have demonstrated the outstanding performance of GEN compared with the state-of-the-art baseline methods in both effectiveness of efficiency.
  @cite_33: Network embedding is an important method to learn low-dimensional representations of vertexes in networks, aiming to capture and preserve the network structure. Almost all the existing network embedding methods adopt shallow models. However, since the underlying network structure is complex, shallow models cannot capture the highly non-linear network structure, resulting in sub-optimal network representations. Therefore, how to find a method that is able to effectively capture the highly non-linear network structure and preserve the global and local structure is an open yet important problem. To solve this problem, in this paper we propose a Structural Deep Network Embedding method, namely SDNE. More specifically, we first propose a semi-supervised deep model, which has multiple layers of non-linear functions, thereby being able to capture the highly non-linear network structure. Then we propose to exploit the first-order and second-order proximity jointly to preserve the network structure. The second-order proximity is used by the unsupervised component to capture the global network structure. While the first-order proximity is used as the supervised information in the supervised component to preserve the local network structure. By jointly optimizing them in the semi-supervised deep model, our method can preserve both the local and global network structure and is robust to sparse networks. Empirically, we conduct the experiments on five real-world networks, including a language network, a citation network and three social networks. The results show that compared to the baselines, our method can reconstruct the original network significantly better and achieves substantial gains in three applications, i.e. multi-label classification, link prediction and visualization.
  @cite_8: Prediction tasks over nodes and edges in networks require careful effort in engineering features used by learning algorithms. Recent research in the broader field of representation learning has led to significant progress in automating prediction by learning the features themselves. However, present feature learning approaches are not expressive enough to capture the diversity of connectivity patterns observed in networks. Here we propose node2vec, an algorithmic framework for learning continuous feature representations for nodes in networks. In node2vec, we learn a mapping of nodes to a low-dimensional space of features that maximizes the likelihood of preserving network neighborhoods of nodes. We define a flexible notion of a node's network neighborhood and design a biased random walk procedure, which efficiently explores diverse neighborhoods. Our algorithm generalizes prior work which is based on rigid notions of network neighborhoods, and we argue that the added flexibility in exploring neighborhoods is the key to learning richer representations. We demonstrate the efficacy of node2vec over existing state-of-the-art techniques on multi-label classification and link prediction in several real-world networks from diverse domains. Taken together, our work represents a new way for efficiently learning state-of-the-art task-independent representations in complex networks.
  @cite_9: This paper studies the problem of embedding very large information networks into low-dimensional vector spaces, which is useful in many tasks such as visualization, node classification, and link prediction. Most existing graph embedding methods do not scale for real world information networks which usually contain millions of nodes. In this paper, we propose a novel network embedding method called the LINE,'' which is suitable for arbitrary types of information networks: undirected, directed, and or weighted. The method optimizes a carefully designed objective function that preserves both the local and global network structures. An edge-sampling algorithm is proposed that addresses the limitation of the classical stochastic gradient descent and improves both the effectiveness and the efficiency of the inference. Empirical experiments prove the effectiveness of the LINE on a variety of real-world information networks, including language networks, social networks, and citation networks. The algorithm is very efficient, which is able to learn the embedding of a network with millions of vertices and billions of edges in a few hours on a typical single machine. The source code of the LINE is available online https: github.com tangjianpku LINE .
  @cite_3: We consider the problem of embedding entities and relationships of multi-relational data in low-dimensional vector spaces. Our objective is to propose a canonical model which is easy to train, contains a reduced number of parameters and can scale up to very large databases. Hence, we propose TransE, a method which models relationships by interpreting them as translations operating on the low-dimensional embeddings of the entities. Despite its simplicity, this assumption proves to be powerful since extensive experiments show that TransE significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods in link prediction on two knowledge bases. Besides, it can be successfully trained on a large scale data set with 1M entities, 25k relationships and more than 17M training samples.
  @cite_39: Knowledge graph completion aims to perform link prediction between entities. In this paper, we consider the approach of knowledge graph embeddings. Recently, models such as TransE and TransH build entity and relation embeddings by regarding a relation as translation from head entity to tail entity. We note that these models simply put both entities and relations within the same semantic space. In fact, an entity may have multiple aspects and various relations may focus on different aspects of entities, which makes a common space insufficient for modeling. In this paper, we propose TransR to build entity and relation embeddings in separate entity space and relation spaces. Afterwards, we learn embeddings by first projecting entities from entity space to corresponding relation space and then building translations between projected entities. In experiments, we evaluate our models on three tasks including link prediction, triple classification and relational fact extraction. Experimental results show significant and consistent improvements compared to state-of-the-art baselines including TransE and TransH. The source code of this paper can be obtained from https: github.com mrlyk423 relation_extraction.
  @cite_19: We deal with embedding a large scale knowledge graph composed of entities and relations into a continuous vector space. TransE is a promising method proposed recently, which is very efficient while achieving state-of-the-art predictive performance. We discuss some mapping properties of relations which should be considered in embedding, such as reflexive, one-to-many, many-to-one, and many-to-many. We note that TransE does not do well in dealing with these properties. Some complex models are capable of preserving these mapping properties but sacrifice efficiency in the process. To make a good trade-off between model capacity and efficiency, in this paper we propose TransH which models a relation as a hyperplane together with a translation operation on it. In this way, we can well preserve the above mapping properties of relations with almost the same model complexity of TransE. Additionally, as a practical knowledge graph is often far from completed, how to construct negative examples to reduce false negative labels in training is very important. Utilizing the one-to-many many-to-one mapping property of a relation, we propose a simple trick to reduce the possibility of false negative labeling. We conduct extensive experiments on link prediction, triplet classification and fact extraction on benchmark datasets like WordNet and Freebase. Experiments show TransH delivers significant improvements over TransE on predictive accuracy with comparable capability to scale up.
  @cite_31: We present DeepWalk, a novel approach for learning latent representations of vertices in a network. These latent representations encode social relations in a continuous vector space, which is easily exploited by statistical models. DeepWalk generalizes recent advancements in language modeling and unsupervised feature learning (or deep learning) from sequences of words to graphs. DeepWalk uses local information obtained from truncated random walks to learn latent representations by treating walks as the equivalent of sentences. We demonstrate DeepWalk's latent representations on several multi-label network classification tasks for social networks such as BlogCatalog, Flickr, and YouTube. Our results show that DeepWalk outperforms challenging baselines which are allowed a global view of the network, especially in the presence of missing information. DeepWalk's representations can provide F1 scores up to 10 higher than competing methods when labeled data is sparse. In some experiments, DeepWalk's representations are able to outperform all baseline methods while using 60 less training data. DeepWalk is also scalable. It is an online learning algorithm which builds useful incremental results, and is trivially parallelizable. These qualities make it suitable for a broad class of real world applications such as network classification, and anomaly detection.
  @cite_13: The recently introduced continuous Skip-gram model is an efficient method for learning high-quality distributed vector representations that capture a large number of precise syntactic and semantic word relationships. In this paper we present several extensions that improve both the quality of the vectors and the training speed. By subsampling of the frequent words we obtain significant speedup and also learn more regular word representations. We also describe a simple alternative to the hierarchical softmax called negative sampling. An inherent limitation of word representations is their indifference to word order and their inability to represent idiomatic phrases. For example, the meanings of "Canada" and "Air" cannot be easily combined to obtain "Air Canada". Motivated by this example, we present a simple method for finding phrases in text, and show that learning good vector representations for millions of phrases is possible.
  @cite_12: Data embedding is used in many machine learning applications to create low-dimensional feature representations, which preserves the structure of data points in their original space. In this paper, we examine the scenario of a heterogeneous network with nodes and content of various types. Such networks are notoriously difficult to mine because of the bewildering combination of heterogeneous contents and structures. The creation of a multidimensional embedding of such data opens the door to the use of a wide variety of off-the-shelf mining techniques for multidimensional data. Despite the importance of this problem, limited efforts have been made on embedding a network of scalable, dynamic and heterogeneous data. In such cases, both the content and linkage structure provide important cues for creating a unified feature representation of the underlying network. In this paper, we design a deep embedding algorithm for networked data. A highly nonlinear multi-layered embedding function is used to capture the complex interactions between the heterogeneous data in a network. Our goal is to create a multi-resolution deep embedding function, that reflects both the local and global network structures, and makes the resulting embedding useful for a variety of data mining tasks. In particular, we demonstrate that the rich content and linkage information in a heterogeneous network can be captured by such an approach, so that similarities among cross-modal data can be measured directly in a common embedding space. Once this goal has been achieved, a wide variety of data mining problems can be solved by applying off-the-shelf algorithms designed for handling vector representations. Our experiments on real-world network datasets show the effectiveness and scalability of the proposed algorithm as compared to the state-of-the-art embedding methods.
summary: In recent years, many research works propose to embed network data into a low-dimensional feature space, i.e., the network embedding problem, in which nodes are represented as feature vectors. In graphs, the relation can be treated as a translation of the entities, and many translation based embedding models have been proposed, like TransE @cite_3 , TransH @cite_19 and TransR @cite_39 . At the same time, many network embedding works based on random walk model and deep learning models have been introduced, like Deepwalk @cite_31 , LINE @cite_9 , node2vec @cite_8 , HNE @cite_12 and DNE @cite_33 . extends the word2vec model @cite_13 to the network scenario and introduce the Deepwalk algorithm @cite_31 . @cite_9 propose to embed the networks with LINE algorithm, which can preserve both the local and global network structures. @cite_8 introduce a flexible notion of a node's network neighborhood and design a biased random walk procedure to sample the neighbors.