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# Computational probes of Collective excitations in low-dimensional magnetism

## 1 Introduction

Notwithstanding the fact that experimental and theoretical studies of condensed matter systems are fundamentally complementary to each other, they share important features, which we wish to illuminate here in the context of quantum many-body dynamics. The object of study is a sample for experimental probes and a model for computational probes. Whether the model is regarded as a mathematical idealization of a real chunk of matter or whether the sample is viewed as a physical realization of a system defined with mathematical rigor may be a matter of perspective, but the influence exerted by theory and experiment is mutual. Any observation of note calls for an explanation, while any prediction of substance brings into motion attempts at verification.

When performing experimental or computational probes in quantum many-body dynamics, the goal of researchers is very much the same, namely trying to make sense of what, in general, is a jumble of fluctuations to which the fundamental degrees of freedom contribute in various combinations and configurations. Experimental probes begin with a measurement and computational probes with a calculation. The results of either probe then require an interpretation in terms and concepts that are common to both approaches.

Qualitatively, the specification of a quantum many-body system involves information on composition, interaction, and environment. Theoretically this information is encoded in the Hamiltonian and in the density operator, whereas experimentally part of this information is manifest or hidden in the sample and other parts are controlled by the instrumental setup.

Any system thus specified is subject to fluctuations, of which we distinguish three kinds. Depending on the circumstances, each kind may govern the dynamical properties of the system. Thermal fluctuations are likely to be dominant in any statistical ensemble at elevated temperatures. Parametric fluctuations are manifestations of quenched random inhomogeneities in composition (e.g. dilution) or interaction (e.g. random bonds or fields), leaving distinct marks in dynamical properties, especially at low temperatures.

In the absence of thermal and parametric fluctuations, quantum fluctuations remain present. They are a direct consequence of the (autonomous) quantum time evolution and the time-delayed projections that are part of any dynamical probe, be it experimental or computational. No zero point motion exists in classical Hamiltonian systems. Here the ground state corresponds to a stable fixed point in phase space, and all dynamical variables are constant.

Consider a (non-random) quantum many-body system in a pure quantum state. The quantum fluctuations then depend on three quantities: (i) the Hamiltonian $`H`$, (ii) the state, which we take here to be the ground state $`|G`$, and (iii) some dynamical variable, here expressed by operator $`A`$. The Hamiltonian governs the dynamics deterministically for as long as the system can be regarded in isolation. It makes no difference whether this time evolution is viewed in the Schrödinger or Heisenberg representation:

$`i\mathrm{}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}|\psi =H|\psi `$ $``$ $`|\psi (t)=e^{iHt/\mathrm{}}|\psi ,|\psi A|G`$ (1)
$`i\mathrm{}{\displaystyle \frac{dA}{dt}}=[A,H]`$ $``$ $`A(t)=e^{iHt/\mathrm{}}Ae^{iHt/\mathrm{}}.`$ (2)
The statistical element is introduced when we subject the time evolved state $`|\psi (t)`$ or, equivalently, the time evolved dynamical variable $`A(t)`$, to an observation. In practice, this step involves the observation or evaluation of a dynamic correlation function, which can then be viewed either as the projection of the time evolved state $`|\psi (t)`$ or as the product of the dynamical variable $`A(t)`$ at two different times evaluated in the stationary state $`|G`$:

$$A(t)A\stackrel{\mathrm{equil}.}{=}AA(t)=\{\begin{array}{cc}e^{iE_Gt/\mathrm{}}\psi (0)|\psi (t)\hfill & \\ G|Ae^{iHt/\mathrm{}}Ae^{iHt/\mathrm{}}|G.\hfill & \end{array}$$
(3)
The sum total of quantum fluctuations in a typical many-body system contains many different dynamical modes no matter in which state the system happens to be. Only once we pick a set of dynamical variables (one variable at a time) do we begin to gain insight into the role of specific modes taken from a multitude of quantum fluctuations. Criteria for choosing dynamical variables include experimental accessibility, computational amenability, or any specific purpose like the study of ordering tendencies or phase transitions.

On the microscopic level, dynamical probes are bound to be somewhat heavy-handed. No observation without perturbation! However, in all situations considered here, we shall assume that the interaction between the probe and the sample takes place in the regime of linear response. This assumption is quite realistic for neutron scattering under most circumstances. Consider the weakly perturbed Hamiltonian $`H(t)=H_0b(t)B`$, where the external field $`b(t)`$ couples to the dynamical variable $`B`$ of the system $`H_0`$. The linear response of any other dynamical variable $`A`$ to that perturbation,

$$A(t)A_0=_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}𝑑t^{}\stackrel{~}{\chi }_{AB}(tt^{})b(t^{}),$$
(4)
is then determined by Kubo’s formula for the response function,

$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_{AB}(tt^{})=\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Theta }(tt^{})[A(t),B(t^{})]_0.$$
(5)
Its Fourier transform, the generalized susceptibility $`\chi _{AB}(\omega +iϵ)`$, has (for $`ϵ0`$) a symmetric real part and an antisymmetric imaginary part: $`\chi _{AB}(\omega )=\chi _{AB}^{}(\omega )+i\chi _{AB}^{\prime \prime }(\omega )`$. The latter is related to the Fourier transform of the correlation function $`A(t)A`$, named the structure function

$$S_{AA}(\omega )_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}𝑑te^{i\omega t}A(t)A=\frac{2\mathrm{}\chi _{AA}^{\prime \prime }(\omega )}{1e^{\beta \mathrm{}\omega }},$$
(6)
via the fluctuation-dissipation theorem. The spectral representation of this function, in particular the expression resulting in the limit $`T0`$, where thermal fluctuations are absent,

$$S_{AA}(\omega )\stackrel{T=0}{=}2\pi \underset{\lambda }{}|G|A|\lambda |^2\delta \left(\omega (E_\lambda E_G)/\mathrm{}\right),$$
(7)
demonstrates that observing quantum fluctuations in the linear response regime means observing collective modes and their transition rates from the ground state. In the following, we look at quantum fluctuations and the associated collective modes from this particular angle for a number of situations as investigated by a variety of methods.111From here on we set $`\mathrm{}=1`$ to simplify the notation.

## 2 Magnons Excited from Valence-Bond-Solid State

Consider the one-dimensional (1D) $`s=1`$ Heisenberg model with bilinear and biquadratic exchange

$$H_\theta =J\underset{n=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left[\mathrm{cos}\theta (𝐒_n𝐒_{n+1})+\mathrm{sin}\theta \left(𝐒_n𝐒_{n+1}\right)^2\right].$$
(8)
At $`T=0`$ it has a phase with ferromagnetic long-range order (LRO) ($`\pi <\theta <3\pi /4`$ or $`\pi /2<\theta \pi `$), a phase with dimer LRO ($`3\pi /4<\theta <\pi /4`$), the Haldane phase with hidden topological LRO ($`\pi /4<\theta <\pi /4`$), and an obscure phase ($`\pi /4<\theta <\pi /2`$) that was named trimerized. These ordering tendencies help us choose suitable dynamical variables when we explore the spectrum of collective excitations. All dynamical variables used for this purpose will have the form of fluctuation operators,

$$F_Q^A\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{N}{}}e^{iQn}A_n,$$
(9)
where the operator $`A_n`$ acts locally at or near lattice site $`n`$. The associated structure function (7) is called the dynamic structure factor:

$$S_{AA}(Q,\omega )_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}𝑑te^{i\omega t}F_Q^A(t)F_Q^A^{}\stackrel{T=0}{=}\underset{\lambda }{}W_\lambda ^A\delta (\omega \omega _\lambda ),$$
(10)
where the sum runs over the dynamically relevant excitations $`|\lambda `$ with energy $`\omega _\lambda =E_\lambda E_G`$ and spectral weight $`W_\lambda ^A=2\pi |G|F_Q^A|\lambda |^2`$. To calculate $`S_{AA}(Q,\omega )`$ for $`H_\theta `$ we can employ special methods at the parameter values $`\theta =\pm \pi /4`$ where it is completely integrable or general methods otherwise. One suitable general method in the present context is the recursion method in combination with a finite-size continued-fraction analysis.

Here we introduce four different fluctuation operators $`F_Q^A`$. The local operators $`A_n`$ from which they are constructed are listed in Table 1.

$``$The spin fluctuations, probed by $`F_Q^S`$, represent Néel order parameter fluctuations for $`Q=\pi `$. They are expected to be strongest at the critical point $`\theta =\pi /4`$, where the $`Q=\pi `$ excitations are gapless.
$``$The dimer fluctuations, probed by $`F_Q^D`$, are also expected to be strongest (for $`Q=\pi `$) at $`\theta =\pi /4`$, which marks the onset of dimer LRO.
$``$The trimer fluctuations, probed by $`F_Q^T`$, are constructed from projection operators $`P_n^T`$ onto local trimer states $`|[1,2,3]`$. The state $`|[1,2,3]`$ happens to be the ground state of $`H_\theta `$ with $`N=3`$ for $`\mathrm{arctan}\frac{1}{3}\theta \pi /2`$, which was interpreted as suggesting that a trimerized phase might exist for $`N\mathrm{}`$.
$``$The center fluctuations, probed by $`F_Q^Z`$, are constructed from a modified spin operator and tune into existing period-three $`(+,0,)`$ or $`(,0,+)`$ patterns of local spin states. Finite-$`N`$ data indicate that for $`\pi /4\theta \pi /2`$, the fluctuations probed by $`F_{2\pi /3}^Z`$ are the strongest of all the ones listed.

The order parameters associated with the four fluctuation operators defined by Eq. (9) and the entries of Table 1 can be written in the form

$$P_A=\frac{1}{N}\underset{n=1}{\overset{N}{}}e^{iQ_An}A_n,$$
(11)
where $`Q_S=Q_D=\pi `$, and $`Q_T=Q_Z=2\pi /3`$. Each order parameter $`P_A`$ has a set of eigenvectors $`|\mathrm{\Phi }_k^A,k=1,2,\mathrm{},K`$ which represent the associated LRO in its purest form. The degree of degeneracy is $`K=2`$ for the Néel and dimer states, $`K=3`$ for the trimer states, and $`K=6`$ for center states.

The physical vacuum chosen here is very unlike any of the states $`|\mathrm{\Phi }_k^A`$. Within the Haldane phase, at the parameter value $`\theta _{VBS}=\mathrm{arctan}\frac{1}{3}`$, the ground state of $`H_\theta `$ is a realization of the valence-bond solid (VBS) wave function, which is non-degenerate and in which the Néel, dimer, trimer, and center ordering tendencies are all imperceptibly weak. In the VBS state, the spin 1 at each lattice site is expressed as a spin-1/2 pair in a triplet state. The singlet-pair forming valence bond involves one fictitious spin 1/2 from each of two neighboring lattice sites. The VBS state, which has total spin $`S_T=0`$, can then be regarded as a chain of valence bonds linking successive spin-1/2 pairs in this manner.

The topological LRO present in the Haldane phase and known to be strongest in the VBS state provides an environment, where a specific kind of elementary excitations can propagate freely and where the associated stationary states form a branch with well defined dispersion. We now probe these elementary excitations and composites thereof from different angles by the four fluctuation operators $`F_Q^A`$ defined in Table 1.

Only two of the $`F_Q^A`$ are fully rotationally invariant, $`[F_Q^D,S_T^i]=[F_Q^T,S_T^i]=0`$ for $`i=x,y,z`$. This produces the selection rules $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_T=0`$ in the dynamic dimer and trimer structure factors. The corresponding selection rules for the dynamic spin and center structure factors are $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_T=0,1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_T=0,1,2`$, respectively, with the further restriction that transitions between singlets ($`S_T=0`$ states) are prohibited. At the VBS point, $`S_{DD}(Q,\omega )`$ and $`S_{TT}(Q,\omega )`$ thus couple exclusively to the $`S_T=0`$ excitation spectrum, and $`S_{SS}(Q,\omega )`$ exclusively to the $`S_T=1`$ excitation spectrum, whereas $`S_{ZZ}(Q,\omega )`$ couples to the $`S_T=1`$ and $`S_T=2`$ spectra.

In Fig. 1 we display $`\omega _\lambda ^A`$ versus $`Q`$ of the dynamically relevant spin, center, dimer, and trimer excitation spectra as obtained from the finite-size continued-fraction analysis.

The filtered access to the spectrum afforded by the four fluctuation operators gives us valuable clues about the nature of the elementary excitations that thrive in the VBS environment. The low-frequency region at $`Q\pi /2`$ in the spin and center spectra is dominated by a branch of states with $`S_T=1`$. They carry more than 95% of the spectral weight in $`S_{SS}(Q,\omega )`$ and $`S_{ZZ}(Q,\omega )`$. These triplets, which have been named magnons, remain invisible in the dimer and trimer spectra. Only composites of the magnon states may be observable in $`S_{DD}(Q,\omega )`$ and $`S_{TT}(Q,\omega )`$.

A dispersion of the general form $`\omega _M(Q)=J(a+b\mathrm{cos}Q)`$ for the 1-magnon branch can be inferred from the single-mode approximation of $`S_{SS}(Q,\omega )`$. Under the assumption that in the VBS environment the magnons are weakly interacting point particles, we can expect the existence of three kinds of 2-magnon scattering states formed by pairs of 1-magnon triplets: states with $`S_T=1`$, which contribute to $`S_{SS}(Q,\omega )`$ and $`S_{ZZ}(Q,\omega )`$, states with $`S_T=0`$, which contribute to $`S_{DD}(Q,\omega )`$ and $`S_{TT}(Q,\omega )`$, and states with $`S_T=2`$, which are observable in $`S_{ZZ}(Q,\omega )`$ only. Free 2-magnon states form a two-parameter continuum $`\omega _{2M}(k,Q)\omega _M(Q/2k)+\omega _M(Q/2+k)`$ in $`(Q,\omega )`$-space. The resulting continuum boundaries are $`\omega _\pm (Q)=2J[a\pm b\mathrm{cos}(Q/2)]`$.

The predicted coalescence of the 2-magnon continuum into one spectral line at $`Q=\pi `$ follows from the symmetry property $`\omega _M(Q)+\omega _M(\pi Q)=\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡}`$ of the magnon dispersion. Interestingly, the finite-$`N`$ dimer spectrum does indeed collapse into a single spectral line at the $`N`$-independent excitation energy $`\omega _D=\sqrt{10}J`$, which carries all the spectral weight in $`S_{DD}(Q,\omega )`$.

We now use the exact 2-magnon excitation energy, $`\omega _\pm (\pi )=\omega _D`$, and the extrapolated value, $`\omega _M(\pi )=0.66433(2)J`$, of the 1-magnon excitation gap to fit the parameters $`a,b`$. The resulting values, $`a1.581,b0.917`$, used in $`\omega _M(Q)`$ and $`\omega _\pm (Q)`$ yield the dashed and solid lines in Fig. 1.

Both the 1-magnon dispersion and the 2-magnon spectral threshold are in very good agreement with all finite-$`N`$ data shown. Hence the magnon interaction is very weak at the bottom of the 2-magnon region in all three $`S_T`$ subspaces. The finite-$`N`$ data spilling out on top of the shaded areas in Fig. 1 suggest that at higher energies, the magnon interaction is repulsive, more strongly so in the $`S_T=0,2`$ subspaces than in the $`S_T=1`$ subspace.

This raises the possibility that bound 2-magnon states split off the top of the 2-magnon continuum of 2-magnon scattering states in the $`S_T=0,2`$ subspaces. The comparison of panels (a) and (b) at frequencies $`3\omega /J5`$ indeed suggests that the dynamically relevant finite-$`N`$ excitations are arranged in contrasting patterns. In panel (a) we have an arrangement of points which is typical of a two-parameter continuum. As $`N`$ increases, more points are added and spread roughly evenly along the frequency axis. In panel (b), by contrast, the data points are arranged in branches with an almost $`N`$-independent separation, which is characteristic for branches of bound states. The spin-1 compounds $`Ni(C_2H_8N_2)_2NO_2ClO_4`$ (NENP) and $`Ni(C_3H_{10}N_2)_2N_3(ClO_4)`$ (NINAZ), while not physical realizations of $`H_\theta `$ directly, nevertheless realize situations where the spectrum of collective excitations as probed by inelastic neutron scattering shares major features with the magnons excited from the VBS state.

## 3 Magnons Excited from Ferromagnetic State

We now turn to a more quantitative discussion of the difference between scattering states and bound states in the context of completely integrable situations, namely for the 1D $`s=\frac{1}{2}`$ Heisenberg ferromagnet:

$$H_F=J\underset{n=1}{\overset{N}{}}𝐒_n𝐒_{n+1}.$$
(12)
The ground state is $`(N+1)`$-fold degenerate. We select one of the ground-state eigenvectors, $`|F|\mathrm{}`$, as the physical vacuum for an exploration of collective excitations. As in the VBS case discussed in Sec. 2, the spin fluctuation operator probes transitions between the vacuum state and a branch of 1-magnon states. However, here the magnon dispersion is gapless: $`EE_F=J(1\mathrm{cos}k)`$.

Unlike in the VBS case, the 1-magnon states of $`H_F`$ are located in a separate invariant subspace. Only the 1-magnon states can contribute to the spin fluctuations. In the expression

$$|kS_k^{}|F,S_k^{}\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{N}{}}e^{ikn}S_n^{}$$
(13)
for the 1-magnon eigenvectors, the spin fluctuation operator plays the role of a magnon creation operator. That is not to say $`S_k^{}`$ is a true magnon creation operator. Multi-magnon superpositions, i.e. the states $`S_{k_1}^{}\mathrm{}S_{k_r}^{}|F`$, are a redundant set of non-orthogonal and non-stationary states, which are subject to two kinds of interactions:

$``$The kinematical interaction is caused by the restriction on the number of reversed spins at one lattice site.
$``$The dynamical interaction is caused by the off-diagonal part of $`H_F`$ in the basis of multi-magnon superpositions.

This distinction is quite natural in the framework of the Bethe ansatz as we shall see. The Bethe ansatz is an exact method for the calculation of eigenvectors and eigenvalues of completely integrable quantum many-body systems. The Bethe wave function of any eigenstate in the subspace with $`rN/2S_T^z`$ reversed spins relative to the magnon vacuum,

$$|\psi =\underset{1n_1<\mathrm{}<n_rN}{}a(n_1,\mathrm{},n_r)S_{n_1}^{}\mathrm{}S_{n_r}^{}|F.$$
(14)
has coefficients of the form

$`a(n_1,\mathrm{},n_r)={\displaystyle \underset{𝒫S_r}{}}\mathrm{exp}`$ $`\left(i{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}}k_{𝒫j}n_j+{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{i<j}{\overset{r}{}}}\theta _{𝒫i𝒫j}\right)`$ (15)
determined by $`r`$ magnon momenta $`k_i`$ and one phase angle $`\theta _{ij}=\theta _{ji}`$ for each magnon pair. The sum $`𝒫S_r`$ is over the permutations of the labels $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},r\}`$. The consistency requirements for the coefficients $`a(n_1,\mathrm{},n_r)`$ inferred from the eigenvalue equation $`H|\psi =E|\psi `$ and the requirements imposed on the same coefficients by translational invariance can be cast in a set of equations for the momenta $`k_i`$ and phase angles $`\theta _{ij}`$:

$$2\mathrm{cot}\frac{\theta _{ij}}{2}=\mathrm{cot}\frac{k_i}{2}\mathrm{cot}\frac{k_j}{2},Nk_i=2\pi \lambda _i+\underset{ji}{\overset{r}{}}\theta _{ij}.$$
(16)
Every solution of these equations is specified by a set of $`r`$ Bethe quantum numbers $`\lambda _i\{1,2,\mathrm{},N1\}`$. Given a solution, the energy and wave number of the state it describes are

$$EE_F=J\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}(1\mathrm{cos}k_j),k=\frac{2\pi }{N}\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}\lambda _i.$$
(17)
In the subspace with $`r=1`$, we thus recover all $`N`$ 1-magnon states, one for each of the allowed values of $`\lambda _1`$. There exist $`N(N+1)/2`$ distinct 2-magnon superpositions of the 1-magnon states thus identified. However, this set of states must be accommodated in the $`r=2`$ subspace, whose dimensionality is only $`N(N1)/2`$. Inspection shows that of the $`N(N+1)/2`$ pairs of Bethe quantum numbers in the allowed range $`0\lambda _1\lambda _2N1`$, $`N`$ pairs do indeed not produce a solution of (16). The missing solutions are a consequence of the kinematical interaction between magnons.

The consequences of the dynamical 2-magnon interaction are illustrated in Fig. 2, which shows the complete $`r=2`$ spectrum $`(EE_F)/J`$ versus $`k`$ for $`k0`$ and $`N=32`$. Also shown in Fig 2 are the (fictitious) 2-magnon superpositions, where the $`k_1,k_2`$ in Eq. (17) are replaced by all combination of 1-magnon wave numbers. There are three classes of states.

The class $`C_1`$ contains $`N`$ states for which one of the two Bethe quantum numbers is zero. This means that one of the magnons has zero wave number. Its effect is a slight rotation of the magnon vacuum, in which the other magnon is as free to propagate as in the original vacuum. There is no dynamical interaction. All states in this class are, effectively, 1-magnon states.

The class $`C_2`$ of states has nonzero Bethe quantum numbers $`\lambda _2\lambda _12`$. There are $`N(N5)/2+3`$ such pairs. All of them yield a solution with real $`k_1,k_2`$, which makes them 2-magnon scattering states. A measure of the dynamical magnon interaction in Fig. 2 is the vertical displacement of any true scattering state $`()`$ from the nearest free-magnon pair (+). As $`N`$ increases, the energy correction diminishes for all class $`C_2`$ states and vanishes in the limit $`N\mathrm{}`$. The 2-magnon scattering states and the free 2-magnon states then form two-parameter continua with identical boundaries $`EE_F=2J[1\pm \mathrm{cos}(k/2)]`$.

The class $`C_3`$ of states has nonzero Bethe quantum numbers which either are equal $`\lambda _2=\lambda _1`$, or differ by unity $`\lambda _2=\lambda _1+1`$. There exist $`2N3`$ such pairs, but only $`N3`$ pairs yield solutions of (16). For the class $`C_3`$ states, the effects of the dynamical magnon interaction are much more prominent, and the interaction energy does not disappear when $`N\mathrm{}`$. In Fig. 2, these states form a branch of 2-magnon bound states with dispersion $`EE_F=\frac{1}{2}J(1\mathrm{cos}k)`$ below the continuum of 2-magnon scattering states.

The bound state character of the class $`C_3`$ states manifests itself in the enhanced probability that the two flipped spins are on neighboring sites of the lattice. This property of the wave function is best captured in the weight distribution $`|a(n_1,n_2)|`$ of basis vectors with flipped spins at sites $`n_1`$ and $`n_2`$. In Fig. 3 we have plotted $`|a(n_1,n_2)|`$ versus $`n_2n_1`$ for a sequence of class $`C_3`$ states between $`k=0`$ and $`k=\pi `$. The distribution is peaked at $`n_2n_1=1`$. Its width is controlled by the imaginary parts of $`k_1,k_2`$ in (15). The smallest width is observed in the bound state at $`k=\pi `$. In this case, all coefficients with $`n_2n_1+1`$ are zero, which implies that the two down spins are tightly bound together and have the largest binding energy.

The width of the distribution $`|a(n_1,n_2)|`$ increases as $`k`$ decreases, and the binding of the two down spins loosens. For finite $`N`$, the Bethe ansatz solutions switch from complex to real when the distribution has acquired a certain width. In scattering states the distribution $`|a(n_1,n_2)|`$ is always broad and tends to oscillate wildly. Some scattering states have a smooth distribution with a maximum for $`n_2=n_1+N/2`$, when the two down spins are farthest apart. The formation of bound states and scattering states of elementary excitations exist in many different contexts. But only in rare cases such as this one can they be investigated on the level of detail presented here.

## 4 Spinons Excited from Spin-Fluid State

Turning our attention to the Heisenberg antiferromagnet, we consider the Hamiltonian $`H_AH_F`$ with $`H_F`$ defined in Eq. (12). All the eigenvectors remain the same, but the energy eigenvalues have the opposite sign. The magnon vacuum $`|F`$ now is at the top of the excitation spectrum. The ground state $`|A`$ of $`H_A`$ is located in the invariant subspace with $`S_T^z=0`$. This subspace also contains the two Néel states $`|𝒩_1|\mathrm{},|𝒩_2|\mathrm{}`$, which are not eigenstates of $`H_A`$. In the framework of the Bethe ansatz, $`|A`$ can be obtained from $`|F`$ by exciting $`r=N/2`$ magnons with momenta $`k_i`$ and (negative) energies $`J(1\mathrm{cos}k_i)`$. The Bethe quantum numbers for this state are $`\{\lambda _i\}_A=\{1,3,5,\mathrm{},N1\}`$.

For reasons of computational convenience we rewrite the Bethe ansatz equations (16) in terms of the variables $`z_i\mathrm{cot}(k_i/2)`$:

$$N\mathrm{arctan}z_i=\pi I_i+\underset{ji}{}\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{z_iz_j}{2}\right),i=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(18)
The associated Bethe quantum numbers $`N/2<I_iN/2`$ are integers for odd $`r`$ and half integers for even $`r`$. The relation between the sets $`\{\lambda _i\}`$ and $`\{I_i\}`$ depends on the configuration of the solution $`\{z_i\}`$ in the complex plane. Given the solution $`\{z_1,\mathrm{},z_r\}`$ of Eqs. (18) for a state specified by $`\{I_1,\mathrm{},I_r\}`$, its energy and wave number are

$$\frac{EE_F}{J}=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{2}{1+z_i^2},k=\pi r\frac{2\pi }{N}\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}I_i,$$
(19)
with $`E_F=JN/4`$. For states with real $`\{z_i\}`$, Eqs. (18) can be converted into a convergent iterative process:

$$z_i^{(n+1)}=\mathrm{tan}\left(\frac{\pi }{N}I_i+\frac{1}{N}\underset{ji}{\overset{r}{}}\mathrm{arctan}\left[\frac{z_i^{(n)}z_j^{(n)}}{2}\right]\right)$$
(20)
with starting values $`z_i^{(1)}=\pi I_i/N`$. For the ground state $`|A`$ we have

$$\{I_i\}_A=\{\frac{N}{4}+\frac{1}{2},\frac{N}{4}+\frac{3}{2},\mathrm{},\frac{N}{4}\frac{1}{2}\}.$$
(21)
High-precision solutions $`\{z_i\}`$ can be obtained with little computational effort. The ground-state energy per site for $`N=4096`$, for example, reproduces the exact result $`(E_AE_F)/JN=\mathrm{ln}2`$ of the infinite chain to within 1 part in a million. The distribution of magnon momenta in the ground state $`|A`$ is broad and peaked at $`k_i=\pi `$:

$$\rho _0(k_i)=\left[8\mathrm{sin}^2\frac{k_i}{2}\mathrm{cosh}\left(\frac{\pi }{2}\mathrm{cot}\frac{k_i}{2}\right)\right]^1.$$
(22)
This state, which has obviously a very complicated structure when described in terms of magnons, will now be configured as the physical vacuum of $`H_A`$ for a different kind of elementary particle called the spinon.

A useful way to characterize the new physical vacuum is through the perfectly regular array (21) of Bethe quantum numbers as illustrated in the first row of Fig. 4.

The spectrum of $`H_A`$ can then be generated systematically in terms of the fundamental excitations as characterized by elementary modifications of this vacuum array.

In the subspace with $`S_T^z=1`$, a two-parameter set of states is obtained by removing one magnon from the state $`|A`$. In doing so we eliminate one of the $`N/2`$ Bethe quantum numbers from the set in the first row of Fig. 4 and rearrange the remaining $`I_i`$ in all configurations over the expanded range $`|I_i|\frac{1}{4}N`$. Changing $`S_T^z`$ by one means that the $`I_i`$ switch from half-integers to integers or vice versa. The number of distinct configurations with $`I_{i+1}I_i1`$ is $`N(N+2)/8`$. A generic configuration consists of three clusters with two gaps between them as shown in the second row of Fig. 4. The position of the gaps between the $`I_i`$-clusters determine the momenta $`\overline{k}_1,\overline{k}_2`$ of the two spinons, which, in turn, add up to the wave number of the two-spinon state relative to the wave number of the vacuum: $`Qkk_A=\overline{k}_1+\overline{k}_2`$.

A plot of the 2-spinon energies $`EE_A`$ versus wave number $`kk_A`$ for $`N=16`$ as inferred via (19) from the solutions $`\{z_i\}`$ is shown in Fig. 5 ($``$). The dots, which represent the corresponding data for $`N=256`$, produce a sort of density plot for the 2-spinon continuum which emerges in the limit $`N\mathrm{}`$. The exact lower and upper boundaries of the 2-spinon continuum are

$$\omega _L(Q)=\frac{\pi }{2}J|\mathrm{sin}Q|,\omega _U(Q)=\pi J|\mathrm{sin}\frac{Q}{2}|.$$
(23)
Like magnons, spinons carry a spin in addition to energy and momentum. Unlike magnons, which have spin 1, spinons are spin-$`1/2`$ particles. For even $`N`$, where all eigenstates have integer-valued $`S_T^z`$, spinons occur only in pairs. The spins $`s_1,s_2=\pm 1/2`$ of the two spinons in a 2-spinon eigenstate of $`H_A`$ can be combined in four different ways to form a triplet state or a singlet state.

We have already analyzed the spectrum of the 2-spinon triplet states with $`s_1=s_2=+1/2`$ $`(S_T=1,S_T^z=+1)`$. The 2-spinon triplets with $`s_1=s_2=1/2`$ $`(S_T=1,S_T^z=1)`$ are obtained from these states by a spin-flip transformation. One set of 2-spinon states with $`s_1=s_2`$ are the triplets with $`S_T^z=0`$. They are obtained via Bethe ansatz by a simple modification of the $`\{I_i\}`$ configurations from the kind shown in the second row of Fig. 4 and yields an equal number of (real) solutions. Symmetry requires that all three triplet components $`(S_T^z=0,\pm 1)`$ are degenerate.

The 2-spinon singlet states $`(S_T^z=S_T=0)`$ are characterized by one pair of complex conjugate solutions $`z_1=z_2^{}`$ in addition to the real solutions $`z_3,\mathrm{},z_{N/2}`$. Finding the $`I_i`$-configurations for a particular set of eigenstates with complex solutions and then solving the associated Bethe ansatz equations is, in general, delicate task. The 2-spinon singlets for $`N=16`$ and $`0<Q\pi `$ are shown as open circles in Fig. 5. As $`N`$ grows large, the effect of the complex solutions $`z_1=z_2^{}`$ on the energy relative to that of the real solutions $`z_3,\mathrm{},z_{N/2}`$ diminishes. In the limit $`N\mathrm{}`$, the 2-spinon singlets also form a continuum with boundaries (23). Yet the effect of the complex solutions will remain strong for other quantities including selection rules and transition rates.

The 2-spinon triplets play an important role in the low-temperature spin dynamics of quasi-1D antiferromagnetic compounds such as $`KCuF_3`$, $`Cu(C_6D_5COO)_23D_2O`$, $`Cs_2CuCl_4`$, and $`Cu(C_4H_4N_2(NO_3)_2)`$. They are the elementary excitations of $`H_A`$ which can be directly probed via inelastic neutron scattering. The 2-spinon singlets, in contrast, cannot be excited directly from $`|A`$ by neutrons because of selection rules. The singlet excitations are important nevertheless, but in a different context. Some quasi-1D antiferromagnetic compounds like $`CuGeO_3`$ are susceptible to a spin-Peierls transition, which involves a lattice distortion accompanied by an exchange dimerization. The operator which probes the dimer fluctuations in the ground state of $`H_A`$ couples primarily to the 2-spinon singlets and not at all to the 2-spinon triplets.

## 5 Spinons Excited from Antiferromagnetic State

Although the computational application of the Bethe ansatz yields the exact wave functions of the 2-spinon states for very large systems with little effort, the very structure of the Bethe wave function makes it hard to use this knowledge for the calculation of the transition rates pertaining to any fluctuation operator of interest. Nevertheless, there exist ways to extract useful lineshape information from the Bethe wave function for specific situations. Here we discuss an alternative approach, which exploits the higher symmetry of $`H_A`$ in the limit $`N\mathrm{}`$, described by the quantum group $`U_q(sl_2)`$. For example, the asymptotic degeneracy of the 2-spinon triplets and singlets noted previously is attributable to this higher symmetry.

The algebraic analysis of a completely integrable spin chain employed for the purpose of calculating dynamic structure factors for specific fluctuation operators requires the execution of the following program:

$``$ Span the infinite-dimensional physically relevant Hilbert space in the form of a separable Fock space of multiple spinon excitations.
$``$Generate the eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian in this Fock space by products of spinon creation operators (so-called vertex operators) from the ground state (physical vacuum).
$``$Determine the spectral properties (energy, momentum) of the multiple-spinon states accessible from the ground state by the selected fluctuation operator.
$``$Express the fluctuation operator of interest in terms of vertex operators.
$``$Evaluate matrix elements of products of vertex operators as are needed for the selected fluctuation operator in the spinon eigenbasis.

In the following, we outline how this program was carried out for the calculation of the exact 2-spinon part of one dynamic structure factor for the 1D $`s=\frac{1}{2}`$ $`XXZ`$ model,

$$H_{XXZ}=J\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(S_n^xS_{n+1}^x+S_n^yS_{n+1}^y+\mathrm{\Delta }S_n^zS_{n+1}^z).$$
(24)
At $`T=0`$ $`H_{XXZ}`$ has a ferromagnetic phase for $`\mathrm{\Delta }1`$, a critical phase (spin-fluid) for $`1\mathrm{\Delta }<1`$, and an antiferromagnetic phase for $`\mathrm{\Delta }<1`$. The algebraic analysis operates in the massive phase stabilized by Néel LRO at $`\mathrm{\Delta }<1`$, but the isotropic limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }1^{}`$, which is equivalent to $`H_A`$, can be performed meaningfully.

Each spinon in the $`m`$-spinon eigenstate $`|\xi _m,ϵ_m;\mathrm{};\xi _1,ϵ_1_j`$ is characterized by a (complex) spectral parameter $`\xi _l`$ of unit length and a spin orientation $`ϵ_l=\pm 1`$. The spectral properties then follow from the rules governing the application of the translation operator and the Hamiltonian:

$`T|\xi _m,ϵ_m;\mathrm{};\xi _1,ϵ_1_j`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau (\xi _i)}}|\xi _m,ϵ_m;\mathrm{};\xi _1,ϵ_1_{1j},`$ (25)
$`H|\xi _m,ϵ_m;\mathrm{};\xi _1,ϵ_1_j`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m}{}}}e(\xi _i)|\xi _m,ϵ_m;\mathrm{};\xi _1,ϵ_1_j,`$ (26)
$`\tau (\xi )`$ $`=`$ $`e^{ip(\xi )}=\xi ^1{\displaystyle \frac{\theta _{q^4}(q\xi ^2)}{\theta _{q^4}(q\xi ^2)}},e(\xi )=J{\displaystyle \frac{1q^2}{4q}}\xi {\displaystyle \frac{d}{d\xi }}\mathrm{log}\tau (\xi ),`$ (27)
$$\theta _x(y)(x;x)(y;x)(xy^1;x),(y;x)\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1yx^n).$$
(28)
Here $`q`$ is the deformation parameter of the quantum group $`U_q(sl_2)`$. Its value is determined by the exchange anisotropy, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=(q+q^1)/2`$. The twofold degenerate vacuum is represented by the vectors $`|0_0,|0_1`$, which transform into each other via translation: $`T|0_j=|0_{1j}`$. In the Ising limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{}`$, they become the pure Néel states $`|\mathrm{}\mathrm{},|\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.

By eliminating $`\xi `$ from the relations (25) and (26) we obtain the spinon energy-momentum relation

$$e_1(p)=I\sqrt{1k^2\mathrm{cos}^2p},I\frac{JK}{\pi }\mathrm{sinh}\frac{\pi K^{}}{K},$$
(29)
which is independent of the spin orientation. The elliptic integrals $`KK(k),K^{}K(k^{})`$ and their moduli $`k,k^{}\sqrt{1k^2}`$ depend on the anisotropy via $`q=\mathrm{exp}(\pi K^{}/K)`$.

The of 2-spinon spectrum with energies $`E(\xi _1,\xi _2)=e(\xi _1)+e(\xi _2)`$ and momenta $`P(\xi _1,\xi _2)=p(\xi _1)+p(\xi _2)`$ is then a two-parameter set with fourfold spin degeneracy $`ϵ_1,ϵ_2=\pm 1`$. In the isotropic limit, they are the 2-spinon triplets and singlets discussed in Sec. 4. In a finite system, the singlet-triplet degeneracy is removed (see Fig. 5). Exchange anisotropy splits up the triplet levels as well.

In the $`(Q,\omega )`$ plane, each set of 2-spinon excitations forms a continuum (see Fig. 6) of two sheets $`𝒞_\pm `$ with boundaries

$$\omega _0(Q)=\frac{2I}{1+\kappa }\mathrm{sin}Q,\omega _\pm (Q)=\frac{2I}{1+\kappa }\sqrt{1+\kappa ^2\pm 2\kappa \mathrm{cos}Q},$$
(30)
where $`\kappa \mathrm{cos}Q_\kappa =(1k^{})/(1+k^{})`$ is a convenient anisotropy parameter. The evaluation of the dynamic structure factor of any fluctuation operator $`F_Q^A`$, Eq. (9), requires that we know exact matrix elements $`{}_{j}{}^{}0|A_l|\xi _m,ϵ_m,\mathrm{},\xi _1,ϵ_1_{j^{}}^{}`$ for the associated local operators. In principle, they can be calculated exactly if we are able to express $`A_l`$ in terms of vertex operators. In practice, the exact results available thus far are limited to the dynamic spin structure factors

$$S_{\mu \mu }(Q,\omega )=\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑te^{i(\omega t+Qn)}S_n^\mu (t)S_0^\mu ,\mu =x,z.$$
(31)
In the $`m`$-spinon expansion $`S_{zz}(Q,\omega )=S_{zz}^{(0)}(Q,\omega )+S_{zz}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )+\mathrm{}`$ we know the matrix elements that determine the leading term,

$$2{}_{j}{}^{}0|S_n^z|0_{j}^{}=\frac{(q^2;q^2)^2}{(q^2;q^2)^2}(1)^{n+j}=\frac{2\pi }{K}\sqrt{k^{}}=2\overline{m}_z,$$
(32)
yielding $`S_{zz}^{(0)}(Q,\omega )=4\pi ^2\delta (\omega )\delta (Q\pi )\overline{m}_z^2,`$ where $`\overline{m}_z`$ is the staggered magnetization. No exact transition rates have been evaluated for the 2-spinon part $`S_{zz}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )`$ or any higher order term in the $`m`$-spinon expansion.

The corresponding $`m`$-spinon expansion of $`S_{xx}(Q,\omega )`$ starts with $`m=2`$, because the operator $`S_n^x`$ does not connect the vacuum sector with itself. All non-vanishing matrix elements which are needed for $`S_{xx}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )`$ can be expressed, as it turns out, by a single function $`X^j(\xi _2,\xi _1){}_{j}{}^{}0|\sigma _0^+|\xi _2,;\xi _1,_{j}^{}`$, which was determined by Jimbo and Miwa:

$$X^j(\xi _2,\xi _1)=\varrho ^2\frac{(q^4;q^4)^2}{(q^2;q^2)^3}\frac{(q\xi _1\xi _2)^{1j}\xi _1\gamma (\xi _1^2/\xi _2^2)\theta _{q^8}(\xi _1^2\xi _2^2q^{4j})}{\theta _{q^4}(\xi _1^2q^3)\theta _{q^4}(\xi _2^2q^3)},$$
(33)
where $`(x;y;z)_{n,m=0}^{\mathrm{}}\left(1xy^nz^m\right)`$ and

$`\gamma (\xi )`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(q^4\xi ;q^4;q^4)(\xi ^1;q^4;q^4)}{(q^6\xi ;q^4;q^4)(q^2\xi ^1;q^4;q^4)}},\varrho (q^2;q^2)^2{\displaystyle \frac{(q^4;q^4;q^4)}{(q^6;q^4;q^4)}}.`$ (34)
These ingredients yield the following expression to be evaluated:

$`S_{xx}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\xi _1}{2i\xi _1}\frac{d\xi _2}{2i\xi _2}\delta [\omega E(\xi _1,\xi _2)]}`$ (35)
$`\times \{\delta [Q+P(\xi _1,\xi _2)]|X^0(\xi _2,\xi _1)+X^1(\xi _2,\xi _1)|^2`$
$`+\delta [Q\pi +P(\xi _1,\xi _2)]|X^0(\xi _2,\xi _1)X^1(\xi _2,\xi _1)|^2\}.`$
A compact rendition of the exact result reads

$$S_{xx}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )=\frac{\omega _0}{8I\omega }\left[1+\sqrt{\frac{\omega ^2\kappa ^2\omega _0^2}{\omega ^2\omega _0^2}}\right]\underset{c=\pm }{}\frac{\vartheta _A^2(\beta _{}^c)}{\vartheta _d^2(\beta _{}^c)}\frac{|\mathrm{tan}(Q/2)|^c}{W_c},$$
(36)
where

$$W_\pm =\sqrt{\frac{\omega _0^4}{\omega ^4}\kappa ^2\left(\frac{T}{\omega ^2}\pm \mathrm{cos}Q\right)^2},T=\sqrt{\omega ^2\kappa ^2\omega _0^2}\sqrt{\omega ^2\omega _0^2},$$
(37)
$$\beta _{}^c(Q,\omega )=\frac{1+\kappa }{2}F[\mathrm{arcsin}\left(\frac{2I\omega W_c}{\kappa (1+\kappa )\omega _0^2}\right),\kappa ],$$
(38)
$$\vartheta _A^2(\beta )=\mathrm{exp}\left(\underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{e^{\gamma l}}{l}\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(2\gamma l)\mathrm{cos}(t\gamma l)1}{\mathrm{sinh}(2l\gamma )\mathrm{cosh}(\gamma l)}\right),$$
(39)
$`\gamma =\pi K^{}/K`$, $`t2\beta /K^{}`$, and $`\vartheta _d(x)`$ is a Neville theta function. This function is plotted in Fig. 7 for $`(Q,\omega )𝒞_+`$. $`S_{xx}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )`$ has a square-root divergence at the portion $`\omega _0(Q)`$ of the spectral threshold. Along the portion $`\omega _+(Q)`$ of the lower boundary and along the entire upper boundary of $`𝒞_+`$, $`S_{xx}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )`$ has a square-root cusp. The line shapes for $`(Q,\omega )𝒞_{}`$ are inferred from the symmetry property $`S_{xx}^{(2)}(\pi Q,\omega )=S_{xx}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )`$.

The isotropic limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }1^{}`$ is delicate because of its singular nature. As the LRO in the spinon vacuum vanishes, the size of the Brillouin zone changes from $`(\pi /2,+\pi /2)`$ to $`(\pi ,+\pi )`$. A practical consequence of this phase transition is that we switch our perspective from considering both sheets $`𝒞_\pm `$ of 2-spinon excitations over the range $`(\pi /2,+\pi /2)`$ to considering only the sheet $`𝒞_+`$, now with boundaries (23), over the extended range $`(\pi ,+\pi )`$. With these subtleties taken into account, Eq. (36) reduces to

$$S_{xx}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )=\frac{1}{2}[\omega _U^2(Q)\omega ^2]^{1/2}e^{I(t)},$$
(40)
$$I(t)=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑x\frac{\mathrm{cosh}2x\mathrm{cos}xt1}{x\mathrm{sinh}2x\mathrm{cosh}x}e^x,\frac{\pi t}{4}=\mathrm{cosh}^1\sqrt{\frac{\omega _U^2(Q)\omega _L^2(Q)}{\omega ^2\omega _L^2(Q)}}.$$
(41)
This function, which is plotted in Fig. 8, has a square-root cusp at $`\omega _U(Q)`$ and a square-root divergence with logarithmic corrections at $`\omega _L(Q)`$.

## 6 Solitons Excited from Néel State

Near the Ising limit ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{}`$), the exact result (36) can be expanded in powers of the anisotropy parameter $`\kappa `$. To leading order, we obtain

$$S_{xx}^{(2)}(Q,\omega )\frac{1}{2\mathrm{cos}^2Q}\sqrt{\mathrm{cos}^2Q\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\kappa }\right)^2\mathrm{\Theta }(\kappa |\mathrm{cos}Q||\mathrm{\Omega }|)}$$
(42)
with $`\mathrm{\Omega }\omega /2I1`$, which is identical (in that order) to the result obtained by Ishimura and Shiba from a first-order perturbation calculation about the Ising limit. In their calculation, the two vacuum states are approximated by the pure Néel states (see Fig. 9). The spinons are kink solitons (domain walls), which produce two adjacent up or down spins in an otherwise unperturbed Néel configuration. The only states which contribute to $`S_{xx}(Q,\omega )`$ in leading order of the perturbation calculation are states which contain two solitons with equal spin orientation. The states with solitons of opposite spin orientation dominate the spectrum of $`S_{zz}(Q,\omega )`$ except for the central peak at $`\omega =0,Q=\pi `$, which involves a transition between the two vacuum states.

The 2-soliton spectrum with boundaries $`|\mathrm{\Omega }|\kappa \mathrm{cos}Q`$, is akin to the generic 2-spinon spectrum shown in Fig. 6, but it does not capture any of the features that characterize the regime $`Q_\kappa Q\pi Q_\kappa `$ around the Brillouin zone boundary. The limitations of the perturbation results are much less severe near the center of the Brillouin zone. This illustrated in Fig. 10, which compares the line shapes of Eq. (36) and (42) at $`Q=\pi `$. Here a fairly strong departure from the Ising limit is required before a significant difference between the two results is produced.

Two intensively studied physical realizations of $`H_{XXZ}`$ at $`\mathrm{\Delta }<1`$ are $`\mathrm{CsCoCl}_3`$ and $`\mathrm{CsCoBr}_3`$. Spectroscopic data which probe both the quantum and thermal fluctuations of those materials are available from several neutron scattering experiments.

## Acknowledgments

Financial support from the URI Research Office (for G.M.) and from the DFG Schwerpunkt Kollektive Quantenzustände in elektronischen 1D Übergangsmetallverbindungen (for M.K.) is gratefully acknowledged.


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# On mesogranulation, network formation and supergranulation

## 1 Introduction

In the traditional view of solar convection seen at the sun’s surface, three scales play the main roles: granulation (1 Mm) which shows up as an intensity pattern most probably first seen by Herschel in 1801 BLD84, supergranulation ($`1530`$ Mm) which appears in (but not only) dopplergrams of the full disk of the sun as a pattern of horizontal velocities and which was first noticed by HartHart56b and confirmed by Leighton et al. LNS62, and mesogranulation ($`310`$ Mm) observed by November et al. NTGS81 on Doppler measurements of vertical velocities.

While the dynamics of granulation is rather well understood, its scale being controlled by the balance of radiative diffusion of heat and convection, the origin of the two other scales remains largely mysterious. The ionization of helium was often invoked to explain these two scales since the first and second ionizations of this atom occur at depths similar to the mesogranular and supergranular scale respectively. However, this geometrical explanation is based on a “laminar view” of solar convection which is, on the contrary, very strongly turbulent.

The aim of the present paper is to investigate the dynamics of scales larger than that of the granulation, using the horizontal flows given by granular motions determined by the new algorithms described in Roudier et al. (1999). Briefly, these algorithms, Local Correlation Tracking on binarized images (LCTbin) or Coherent Structure Tracking (CST), allow us to increase noticeably the spatial and temporal resolutions of the surface velocity fields; typically, we can bring the spatial grid size down to 0″7 and the time step down to 5 mn.

Thus, we first concentrate on mesogranulation (Sect. 2) and show the major role played at this scale by strong positive divergences (SPDs) and by averaging procedures. It turns out, indeed, that what has been described in previous work as mesogranulation results from a combination of a physical phenomenon (SPDs among which are found exploding granules) and a data processing effect applied to a turbulent flow (averaging). Since each author had his own technique for averaging data, results have been rather confusing and no clear-cut description of mesogranulation has emerged. We show here that when averaging is properly controlled, no quasi-steady flow can be detected in the mesoscale range.

We then proceed (Sect. 3) with the investigation of the transport properties of the mesoscale flows and show that the supergranulation scale appears when the positions of concentrations of corks are compared to the positions of network bright points. We conclude the paper with a discussion of a model which seems to explain many of the observations and the interactions of the three scales.

## 2 Mesogranulation

Since its discovery by November et al. NTGS81, mesogranulation has been sought using many different techniques (Doppler measurements, intensity variations, horizontal velocity fields and their divergence) with the idea that one could exhibit a quasi-steady cellular motion as clearly as granulation. However, the reports of observations aimed at pointing out this new feature of solar convection have never been clear-cut and always difficult to compare to each other.

In Table LABEL:meso\_table we summarize all the previous studies on mesogranulation. A common result of these studies is that they always find some features in the mesogranulation range of scales, i.e. within length scales between 4″ and 12″ (or 3 Mm and 10 Mm) and on time scales between 30 mn and 6 h. The features are patterns either in intensity, or in radial velocity, or in horizontal divergence, for example. The picture left by mesogranulation observations is therefore fuzzy: neither its characteristic size or time is well established and vary from one author to another.

### 2.1 Spectra and correlations

In order to better understand the situation, it is useful to consider the physics which leads to the above mentioned observations. This is obviously turbulent convection: motions seen at the sun’s surface result from the superposition of a large number of scales constituting the turbulent spectrum. The relevant questions are therefore: why should a scale like mesogranulation single out among other scales? And if it does, how would we recognize and characterize it?

Concerning granulation, the answers are known: it is the balance between radiative diffusion and advection which determines the size of granules and it emerges from other scales as the one with the highest contrast in intensity and with the largest fluctuations of velocity. The spectrum of turbulent kinetic energy shows a maximum around this scale.

At mesoscale, we do not know which mechanism could distinguish any particular scale; we may, however, try to recognize a scale which stands out and therefore search for a peak or a break of the slope in the kinetic energy spectrum. Such a feature in the spectrum is indeed the signature that some physical mechanism is injecting energy at a specific scale.

In previous work EMRN93, spectra of kinetic energy have not shown any characteristic feature at scales larger than granulation. In fact, large-scale features appear in turbulent flows with time averages. Indeed, let us suppose that the kinetic energy spectrum varies as $`E(k)k^\alpha `$ in the mesoscale range; using dimensional arguments, it turns out that the typical lifetime of structures of wavenumber $`k`$ is $`\tau _kk^{(\alpha 3)/2}`$ which means that the lifetime of turbulent structures increases with their size since $`\alpha <3`$111The case $`\alpha =3`$ corresponds to a two-dimensional turbulence; the turnover time of eddies is then fixed by the background vorticity. In three-dimensional turbulence, scales outside the dissipative range are such that $`\alpha 5/3`$.. In other words, long time-averages show large-scale features and the longer the average the larger the scale. This point is clearly illustrated in Fig. 1 where we have computed kinetic energy spectra of the horizontal flow derived from granule tracking in Pic du Midi data RRMV99. These spectra $`E_\tau (k)`$ are defined as follows: The mean kinetic energy (defined by a time window of length $`\tau `$) at one point of the field reads:

$$\frac{1}{2}v^2_\tau =_0^{\mathrm{}}E_\tau (k)𝑑k$$

where $`E_\tau (k)`$ is related to the Fourier transform of the velocity components $`\stackrel{~}{v}_x`$, $`\stackrel{~}{v}_y`$ by

$$E_\tau (k)=_0^{2\pi }\left(|\stackrel{~}{v}_x|^2+|\stackrel{~}{v}_y|^2\right)k𝑑\theta ,$$

where $`k_x=k\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ and $`k_y=k\mathrm{sin}\theta `$ are the components of the wave vector. In this figure we clearly see the build-up of large-scales and the disappearance of small scales when the time averaging window is made longer. The average of the spectra of the velocity fields determined by LCTbin and a 15mn-window clearly shows a peak at a scale of $``$5″ (3500 km); this peak is the signature of the most energetic horizontal flows.

To further emphasize the turbulent nature of mesoscale features, we compute the correlation between successive time-averaged velocity fields as a function of time; we compute

$$C_x=\frac{\overline{\left(v_x_\tau \overline{v_x_\tau }\right)(t)\left(v_x_\tau \overline{v_x_\tau }\right)(t+n\tau )}}{\sqrt{\overline{\left(v_x_\tau \overline{v_x_\tau }\right)^2(t)}\overline{\left(v_x_\tau \overline{v_x_\tau }\right)^2(t+n\tau )}}}$$

as a function of $`n`$ ($`t`$ is arbitrary); in this expression overbars indicate spatial averages and $`_\tau `$ stands for a time average of length $`\tau `$. Results are plotted in Fig. 2. They show that the autocorrelation of the mean velocity fields is halved after one time step. This again emphasizes the role played by the time window which selects a spatial structure whose lifetime is precisely of the order of the time window, thus showing that no quasi-steady flow exists on a time scale longer than 15 mn.

### 2.2 Pitfalls of data processing

Turbulence, however, is not the only difficulty of this problem; data processing may also interfere and contribute to blur the results.

As a first instance, let us compute the kinetic energy spectra of horizontal flows, but using a larger spatial window (than in Fig. 1) for the determination of the velocity field. The result is shown in Fig. 4 for a 2″-resolving window. Very clearly the peak is now shifted to 12″ (8.7 Mm). This emphasizes the high sensitivity of the velocity field patterns (scales) to the choice of the sampling window.

Finally, we would like to mention another effect of data processing which can unduly extend the lifetime of mesoscale features. This is the use of sliding time windows. Indeed, as illustrated in Fig. 3 such windows can transform two independent time-evolving structures into a single moving structure. This is what happened when Muller et al. (1992) described a three-hour-living mesogranule which was used to show the supergranular flow. In fact, as shown by Fig. 5, an independent time sampling shows that no coherent structure lasts such a long time but new structures emerge after $``$30 mn.

We therefore interpret the results of previous work on mesogranulation as a consequence of uncontrolled averaging procedures. This explains the large variability of results which have been published on mesogranulation: they are all dependent on the way authors have combined their averages.

### 2.3 Strong positive divergences (SPDs)

The foregoing results, however, leave unanswered the question of the origin of kinetic energy in the mesoscale range; we may indeed wonder which flow patterns are contributing to the spectral peak at $`5`$″ in Fig. 1. A plot of the velocity field along with its divergence (Fig. 7) shows that the strong horizontal flows are generally associated with strong positive divergences (SPDs) among which the exploding granules are the most energetic. This is well illustrated by the two time sequences in Fig. 7 and Fig. 7. From Fig. 7, it is quite clear that the divergence field is highly variable, showing patterns which may extend up to 10″ (7.3 Mm). A histogram of the lifetime of these patterns (Fig. 8) gives a mean lifetime of 15 mn which is short.

Ending this section, we are therefore lead to the conclusion that no specific scale exists in the mesogranulation range except the scale of horizontal flows featured by SPDs. Hence we confirm the conclusion of Straus and Bonaccini SB97 that no gap in the kinematic energy spectrum separates granulation from mesogranulation which therefore must be considered just as the large-scale extension of granulation.

## 3 Supergranulation

### 3.1 Mean flows and SPDs

We may now wish to know whether supergranulation plays some part in the motion of granules. A first look at the spectrum of the 3-hour-average velocity field (Fig. 1) shows some energy at $`30`$″ (22 Mm). However, this spectral peak is only suggestive since the field of view is just 47.6″. Turning to real space (as opposed to spectral space), a plot of the velocity field (Fig. 9) shows that indeed a large-scale velocity field may exist. The rms velocity of the 3-hour-average field is $`230`$ m/s. On the unfiltered field we clearly see the imprint of SPDs with their typical size of 5″; this indicates that the origin of the mean flow may be found in the cumulative effects of SPDs. Furthermore, if this mean field is identified with supergranulation, we have at hand its origin: correlated SPDs.

### 3.2 Network formation from measured velocity fields

One way to confirm the view that a three-hour time average of horizontal flows shows the supergranulation scale, is to focus on its transport properties. This technique was already used in the past by Simon and Weiss SW89. It consists of integrating the trajectories of floating corks, initially uniformly distributed, and characterizing their spatial distribution after some time. Simon and Weiss used the SOUP data sequence, which lasted 28 mn, to determine a kinematic model of the horizontal velocity field. Then, they integrated the cork trajectories during a time very much longer (up to 16 h) than the data sequence. Our method is much closer to the data: with the techniques described in Roudier et al. (1999), we determine the velocity field evolution of the Pic du Midi data set with a high spatial and temporal resolution (0″7 and 5 mn). We then use this field to integrate the cork trajectories during the three hours of recorded data.

As shown in Fig. 10, corks are expelled from certain regions, whose size varies between 5 Mm and 15 Mm and again SPDs seem to play a major role. We cannot say that the cells thus formed are “supergranules” since they would continue to evolve if our data set were longer. If the concentration of corks is plotted, however, the supergranulation scale already appears. The clearest evidence of this is given by the remarkable coincidence between the regions with a high density of corks and the positions of network bright points (Fig. 11). This result should be compared with the one of Brandt et al. BRST94 who found a similarity between cork distribution and the Ca-network.

Referring back to the mean divergence field (Fig. 9), we also see that the regions with negative divergence are the ones where corks and network bright points tend to concentrate.

Finally, we also used corks to estimate a horizontal diffusivity $`D=<r^2>/4t`$ following Berger et al. BLST98. We found values between 50 km2/s and 100 km2/s but, as this diffusivity did not reach an asymptotic value at the end of our time-sequence, we think that the aforementioned values only show the amplitude of the transport but nothing about its physical origin (advection, diffusion, abnormal or turbulent diffusion).

### 3.3 Network formation from simulated velocity fields

In order to show the leading role of SPDs, we extracted from the data their positions in space and time as well as their mean radii. We used them to determine the amplitudes ($`V_n`$) of the model flow used by Simon and Weiss (1989) and Simon et al. STW91, namely

$$v=\underset{n}{}V_n\frac{|rr_n|}{R}e^{|rr_n|^2/R^2}e_n$$

where $`r_n`$ designates the position of SPDs, $`R`$ their range of influence, which lies between 0.5″ and 3″ with a mean value of 2.3″, and $`e_n`$ the direction of their flow.

Using such a model flow, we have repeated the calculation for the advection of corks and found a distribution very similar to the one obtained when using the full data (see Fig. 10).

It therefore turns out that SPDs give the main contribution to the horizontal transport of passive scalars.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Mesoscale flows

The analysis of flow motions at mesoscale that we presented in Sect. 3 has shown that the scale of flow patterns is controlled by the size of the averaging time window. We interpret this result as evidence of the turbulent nature of the kinetic energy spectrum in this range of scales. We therefore refute the idea that some quasi-steady flow exists at mesoscale and show that previous identifications of mesogranules advected by a supergranular flow, as shown by Muller et al. (1992) for instance, are an artefact of the averaging procedure. We identify the only mechanism able to structure the horizontal flow field as being SPDs among which we find exploding granules. However, the scale controlled by SPDs is rather centered around 5″ (3.5 Mm) which is small compared to the scale generally attributed to mesogranulation (5-10 Mm); we conjecture that these latter scales are in fact built up by the nonlinear interactions of the former ones and form the (turbulent) continuation of the granular motion spectrum. Using two-dimensional simulations Ploner Ploner98 also concludes that mesoscale flows can result from nonlinear interactions of granular flows.

We have shown subsequently that the use of Pic du Midi velocity fields in computing trajectories of floating corks, shows that at the end of the time integration, which we take equal to the length of the data set, corks concentrate in regions which coincide with those occupied by network bright points. It thus turns out that in a rather short time the supergranulation scale emerges from the flow delineated by granule motions.

These results show that the traditional view which assumes supergranulation as a quasi-steady horizontal flow driven by the ionization of helium is certainly too simple. Obviously the build-up of the supergranulation scale as far as magnetic flux tubes are concerned, results from a process of turbulent transport in which SPDs play an important part.

### 4.2 A model for supergranulation

In order to explain the above mentioned observations and some others, we now present a model which seems to square with all the known constraints of supergranulation.

Let us consider the surface convection of the sun as a set of granules. Assume that each granule interacts nonlinearly, mainly with its nearest neighbours. The set of granules behave like a set of nonlinearly coupled oscillators. A general behaviour of such a system is that its energy can be focused on one or very few oscillators whose motion is then very much enhanced DP93. Such oscillators collecting the kinetic energy of the others would appear, in the solar context, as SPDs or even exploders. This may also be seen as a manifestation of intermittency of the turbulent solar flow. Now it has been noticed that such exploding granules appear generally in neighbouring places (see the mean divergences) which means that some temporal and spatial correlations exist between them, namely that a large-scale flow organizes their appearance (or vice-versa). This large-scale flow is obviously supergranulation; its origin should be found in a large-scale instability of the flow expressed by the set of granules.

Recent theoretical work GVF94; SSSF89 on turbulent flows has indeed shown that a large-scale perturbation of some given steady spatially periodic flow can be unstable in some bandwidth of wavenumbers. Typically two kinds of situations may occur: the original small-scale flow is invariant with respect to parity or not. If it is not, large-scale instabilities occur through an AKA222Anisotropic Kinematic Alpha effect: it is the Reynolds stress dependence with respect to the mean velocity field; it occurs when the turbulence has helicity, i.e. lacks parity invariance. effect which is the equivalent of the $`\alpha `$-effect of turbulent MHD flows; if it is parity invariant, which is the case of solar granulation (flows are hardly helical), then instability appears through a negative eddy viscosity; a range of large-scale modes is then destabilized and some large-scale coherent flow starts. However, this new flow is rapidly hindered by the motions it induces: as the Reynolds stress distribution is modified, usually the turbulent viscosity comes back to positive values; in our case we are considering turbulent convection and any flow increasing the convective heat flux will be slowed by the overcooled material. A similar scenario was also envisaged by Krishan Krish91 using arguments based on inverse cascade of two-dimensional turbulence; indeed, large-scale instabilities are a way of realizing an inverse cascade. However, the mechanism invoked by Krishan is rather close to the AKA-effect which requires helical motions at supergranular scales; such motions do not seem to be observed. On the other hand, higher in the atmosphere, the stratification stabilizes the fluid and may produce two-dimensional motions which can ease energy transfer to large scales.

We therefore understand why large-scale (with respect to granulation scale) flows like supergranulation will appear. We also understand why supergranulation does not realize a perfect pavement of the whole sun as does granulation. The development of the large-scale instability is a stochastic process which results from a given arrangement of the granular flow. It has not the constraint, as any convective flow, to transport heat.

We also understand why the main downflows of a supergranule are not at its boundary as revealed by the MDI instrument on board of SOHO (see http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/gallery/MDI/ mdi009.html,mdi009.ps or Zahn 1999). They are in fact associated with the most energetic granules i.e. the exploders, and therefore occur mainly in the bulk of the supergranule. The downflows on the boundaries should not be very intense since the supergranular flow must remain weak compared to the granular flows.

Hence, this model explains an interesting number of observations. Essentially, it states that supergranular flows are surface flows which do not result from a large-scale thermal instability.

## 5 Conclusion

To conclude this paper we would like to emphasize the point that the picture of surface solar convection which has been popular in the literature and where supergranulation advects mesogranulation which in turn advects granulation is too simple and misleading. It is obviously too simple because it tentatively describes turbulent convection with three scales instead of a continuous spectrum of scales. It is misleading as it reduces the nonlinear interaction between scales to a simple advection as for instance the kinematic models of Simon et al. 1991.

We have shown here that no quasi-steady flow could be identified at the mesogranulation scale and that after a three hour averaging the mean flow shows a component at the supergranulation scale while it keeps a small-scale (5″) component. This latter component seems to be the source of the former large-scale flow.

Our results therefore suggest a scenario where the large-scale supergranular flow is generated directly by the granular flow through a large-scale instability which fixes the scale, in space and time, of supergranulation. We thus conjecture that nonlinear interaction between flows at the granulation scale, in other words Reynolds stresses, are sufficient to drive flows at the supergranulation scale and that the energy released by the recombination of ionized helium plays no part. This scenario needs now to be tested for its various implications, theoretical as well as observational.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank very much Peter Brandt for very fruitful and helpful comments on the manuscript. We also appreciated the discussions and comments of our colleagues Keith Aldridge, Gérard Coupinot, Richard Muller and Sylvie Roques. We are very grateful to Richard Muller for providing us with the three-hour sequence of Pic du Midi. Special thanks are due to the Pic du Midi Observatory staff for their technical assistance.


text:
# A generalization of Hagopian’s theorem and exponents

## 1. Introduction

A space $`X`$ is a *continuum* if it is compact, connected and metrizable, and $`X`$ is *homogeneous* if given any $`x,yX`$ there is a homeomorphism $`h:XX`$ with $`h\left(x\right)=y`$. We show that if $`X`$ is a homogeneous continuum which (for some countable $`\kappa 1`$) admits a fiber bundle projection $`p:X𝐓^\kappa =\left(𝐑/𝐙\right)^\kappa `$ with totally disconnected fibers, then $`X`$ also admits a compatible abelian topological group structure. This generalizes a weakened version of the following theorem of Hagopian: If every subcontinuum of the homogeneous continuum $`X`$ is an arc, then $`X`$ is homeomorphic to a solenoid (which includes the circle as a possibility) \[H\]. For $`\kappa =1`$, the theorem currently under consideration follows from Hagopian’s theorem and applies to all compact one–dimensional minimal sets of flows (see \[AM\]). In higher dimensions, spaces admitting such a fiber bundle structure arise naturally in two settings: as the minimal sets of foliations and as the limit sets of discrete dynamical systems (see \[W\]).

A good example of an $`S^1`$ fiber bundle which is not homogeneous is the minimal set of a Denjoy flow on a torus: the path components are not “evenly spaced,” and so there is no Effros homeomorphism for sufficiently small numbers. If one follows path components far enough along, eventually they will spread apart. Our result shows that this situation persists in higher dimensions.

We then generalize the exponent group introduced in \[Cl\] to higher dimensions. In what follows we use the terminology and results of \[S\], and $`\pi ^\kappa :𝐑^\kappa 𝐓^\kappa `$ denotes the standard fibration with unique path lifting $`t_i_{i=1}^\kappa t_i\text{mod }1_{i=1}^\kappa `$ and $`d`$ is a metric for $`X.`$

## 2. Homogeneity

###### Theorem 2.1.

If $`X`$ is a homogeneous continuum and if $`X`$ admits a fiber bundle projection $`p:X𝐓^\kappa `$ with totally disconnected fibers, then $`X`$ admits an abelian topological group structure.

Proof: Suppose $`p:X𝐓^\kappa `$ is a fiber bundle projection with totally disconnected fiber $`F`$ for some $`\kappa >1`$. Then $`p`$ is a fibration with unique path lifting (see \[S\] 2.2.5, 2.7.14) and so the natural group action

$$\alpha :𝐑^\kappa \times 𝐓^\kappa 𝐓^\kappa $$

given by

$$\alpha (s,x)=\pi ^\kappa \left(s\right)+x$$

lifts uniquely to an action $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ on $`X`$

$$\begin{array}{ccc}𝐑^\kappa \times X\hfill & \stackrel{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }}{}\hfill & X\hfill \\ id\times p\hfill & & p\hfill \\ 𝐑^\kappa \times 𝐓^\kappa \hfill & \stackrel{\alpha }{}\hfill & 𝐓^\kappa \hfill \end{array}.$$

For, given any $`(s,x)𝐑^\kappa \times X`$, we have the interval $`I=[ts,\left(1t\right)s]`$ ($`t[0,1]`$) and the following commutative diagram

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}\left\{\mathrm{𝟎}\right\}\times X\hfill & & \stackrel{\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}id\mathrm{"}}{}\hfill & \stackrel{}{}\hfill & X\hfill \\ \hfill & & & & p\hfill \\ I\times X\hfill & \stackrel{id\times p}{}\hfill & I\times 𝐓^\kappa \hfill & \stackrel{\alpha }{}\hfill & 𝐓^\kappa \hfill \end{array},$$

and so the fibration property allows us to define $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }I\times X`$ as needed. To see that $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ is continuous, we can replace $`I`$ in the diagram with increasing open connected subsets of $`𝐑^\kappa `$ whose union is all of $`𝐑^\kappa `$.

Then for a given point $`eX`$,

$$\pi ^\kappa =p\stackrel{~}{\alpha }𝐑^\kappa \times \left\{e\right\}$$

is a fibration and $`p`$ has unique path lifting, and so it follows from lemma 2.1 of \[C\] that $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }𝐑^\kappa \times \left\{e\right\}`$ is a fibration. Hence, the $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ trajectory of $`e`$ is the path component of $`e`$ in $`X`$, \[S\] 2.3.1. We now proceed to show that the path components of $`X`$ are dense in $`X`$.

The proof is similar to the proof of a related fact for matchbox manifolds given in \[AHO\]. Each point of $`X`$ is contained in an open set homeomorphic to $`V\times F`$ for some open subset $`V`$ of $`𝐓^\kappa `$. Since $`F`$ is compact and totally disconnected, there is a basis $``$ for $`X`$ consisting of sets homeomorphic to $`U\times Z`$ with $`U`$ open and connected in $`𝐓^\kappa `$ and $`Z`$ a closed and open subset of $`F.`$ Let $`BU\times Z`$ be any element of $``$. We wish to show that $`PC\left(B\right)`$ (the union of all the path components of $`X`$ which meet $`B`$) is both open and closed in $`X`$. For $`t𝐑^\kappa \left\{\mathrm{𝟎}\right\}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ induces the non-singular flow

$$\stackrel{~}{\alpha }\left[t\right]:𝐑\times XX;\text{ }\stackrel{~}{\alpha }\left[t\right](r,x)=\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(tr,x)\text{ (and similarly for }\alpha \text{).}$$

For $`xPC\left(B\right)`$ we may then choose $`s𝐑^\kappa `$ so that $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x)=yB`$ and so that the corresponding linear flow $`\alpha \left[s\right]`$ (and hence $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }\left[s\right]`$) is aperiodic, which is possible since $`\kappa >1`$ and since the collection of $`t𝐑^\kappa \left\{\mathrm{𝟎}\right\}`$ for which $`\alpha \left[t\right]`$ is aperiodic is dense. By a theorem of Bebutov (see \[NS\] V.2.15) we may construct a flow box joining $`y`$ and $`x`$ which contains both points in its interior. Hence, all points in a neighborhood of $`x`$ are also in $`PC\left(B\right)`$, demonstrating that it is open.

Suppose then that $`x\overline{PC\left(B\right)}`$ with $`\left(x_n\right)_nx`$ and $`\left\{x_n\right\}PC\left(B\right).`$ The path component of $`x_n`$ meets $`B`$ in a point $`b_n(u_n,z_n)`$ and since $`U`$ is path connected, we may assume that $`u_n=u`$ for some $`uU`$ and for all $`n`$. The compactness of $`Z`$ allows us to find a subsequence of $`\left(z_n\right)`$ converging to some $`zZ`$ with $`b(u,z)B`$. Then there is some $`\epsilon >0`$ so that $`B_d(b,\epsilon )B`$. Applying the Effros theorem \[E\],\[U\] to $`H\left(X\right)`$, the group of homeomorphisms of $`X`$ in the $`sup`$ metric, there is a $`\delta >0`$ so that for any $`v,wX`$ with $`d(v,w)<\delta `$ there is an $`h^{[v,w]}H\left(X\right)`$ with $`h^{[v,w]}\left(v\right)=w`$ and $`d(p,h^{[v,w]}\left(p\right))<\epsilon /2`$ for all $`pX`$ (denoted: $`\delta \stackrel{\text{ Eff}}{}\epsilon /2`$). We now choose $`n`$ so that $`d(b_n,b)<\epsilon /2`$ and $`d(x_n,x)<\delta `$ and a corresponding homeomorphism $`h^{[x_n,x]}`$. Then $`h^{[x_n,x]}\left(b_n\right)B_d(b,\epsilon )B`$ is a point in the path component of $`x`$, demonstrating that $`xPC\left(B\right),`$ and so $`PC\left(B\right)=X`$. Since $`B`$ was any such basis element, each path component of $`X`$ is dense.

With $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_x:𝐑^\kappa X`$ denoting the $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$orbit of $`xX`$ and giving

$$A\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_xxX\}$$

the topology it inherits from the collection of all maps $`𝐑^\kappa X`$ in the $`sup`$ metric, we proceed to show that $`h:XA;`$ $`h\left(x\right)\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_x`$ is a homeomorphism. Since $`h`$ is clearly a bijection and $`X`$ is compact, it suffices to show that $`h`$ is continuous. Given $`\left(x_n\right)_nx`$ in $`X`$ and $`\epsilon >0`$ we need to find an $`N`$ so that $`\underset{s𝐑^\kappa }{sup}d(\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_{x_n}\left(s\right),\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_x\left(s\right))<\epsilon `$ for all $`nN`$.

Let $`d_\kappa `$ be a translation invariant metric for $`𝐓^\kappa `$. First we find a Lebesgue number $`\lambda >0`$ for a covering $`𝒪`$ of $`𝐓^\kappa `$ by open sets $`V`$ satisfying

$$p^1\left(V\right)V\times F\text{ }$$

and $`p\left(y\right)=v`$ for $`y(v,f).`$ Since $`X`$ and $`𝐓^\kappa `$ are compact, we may find a connected neighborhood $`U`$ of $`\mathrm{𝟎}𝐑^\kappa `$ so that

$$\underset{y𝐓^\kappa }{sup}\left\{\text{diam}\alpha \left(U\times \left\{y\right\}\right)\right\}<\lambda \text{ and }\underset{yX}{sup}\left\{\text{diam}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }\left(U\times \left\{y\right\}\right)\right\}<\frac{\epsilon }{3}$$

and so that $`\alpha \left(U\times \left\{e\right\}\right)`$ is the $`\eta `$neighborhood of $`e`$ in $`𝐓^\kappa `$ for some $`\eta >0`$. The translation invariance of $`d_\kappa `$ yields that $`\alpha \left(U\times \left\{y\right\}\right)`$ is the $`\eta `$neighborhood of $`y𝐓^\kappa `$. Since $`p`$ is uniformly continuous, there is a $`\tau >0`$ so that

$$d(y,y^{})<\tau d_\kappa (p\left(y\right),p\left(y^{}\right))<\eta .$$

Next we find

$$0<\delta \stackrel{\text{Eff}}{}\mathrm{min}\{\frac{1}{2}\epsilon ,\tau \}\text{ and }N\text{ so that }\left\{x_n\right\}_{nN}B_d(x,\delta ).$$

Given $`nN`$ there is an $`h^{[x_n,x]}H\left(X\right)`$ within $`\mathrm{min}\{\frac{1}{2}\epsilon ,\tau \}`$ of $`id_X`$. And so

$$p\left(x\right)=p\left(h^{[x_n,x]}\left(x_n\right)\right)\alpha \left(U\times \left\{p\left(x_n\right)\right\}\right)$$

since $`d(x_n,x)<\tau .`$ For $`s𝐑^\kappa `$, the translation invariance of $`d_\kappa `$ yields that $`d_\kappa (\alpha (s,p\left(x\right)),\alpha (s,p\left(x_n\right)))<\eta `$, while the choice of $`h^{[x_n,x]}`$ and the equality $`\alpha (s,p\left(x_n\right))=p\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x_n)`$ yields that

$$d_\kappa (\alpha (s,p\left(x_n\right)),ph^{[x_n,x]}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x_n\right)))<\eta .$$

Combining this with the equality $`\alpha (s,p\left(x\right))=p\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x),`$ we obtain

$$()\{p\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x),ph^{[x_n,x]}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x_n\right))\}\alpha \left(U\times \left\{\alpha (s,p\left(x_n\right))\right\}\right)\text{ for all }s𝐑^\kappa .$$

For $`s𝐑^\kappa `$ let

$$U\left(s\right)\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}p^1\left(\alpha \left(U\times \left\{\alpha (s,p\left(x_n\right))\right\}\right)\right).$$

By its size, we know that $`\alpha \left(U\times \left\{\alpha (s,p\left(x_n\right))\right\}\right)`$ fits inside some $`V𝒪`$, and so

$$U\left(s\right)\alpha \left(U\times \left\{\alpha (s,p\left(x_n\right))\right\}\right)\times F$$

and for $`y(v,f)`$, $`p\left(y\right)=v`$. Then by $`()`$ we have

$$\{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x),h^{[x_n,x]}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x_n\right))\}U\left(s\right).$$

Let

$$W\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\{s𝐑^\kappa \stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x\right))\text{ and }h^{[x_n,x]}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x_n\right))\text{ are in the same component of }U\left(s\right)\}.$$

By construction, both $`W`$ and $`𝐑^\kappa W`$ are open in $`𝐑^\kappa `$ since the components of $`U\left(s\right)`$ are homeomorphic to $`U`$. Since $`h^{[x_n,x]}\left(x_n\right)=x`$, $`\mathrm{𝟎}W`$ and since $`𝐑^\kappa `$ is connected, $`W=𝐑^\kappa `$. Thus, with $`C\left(s\right)`$ denoting the component of $`U\left(s\right)`$ containing both $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x\right))`$ and $`h^{[x_n,x]}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x_n\right))`$, and with

$$f_s\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}C\left(s\right)p^1\left(\alpha (s,p\left(x_n\right))\right)$$

we have that

$$\{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x),h^{[x_n,x]}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x_n\right))\}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }\left(U\times \left\{f_s\right\}\right),$$

implying that $`d(\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x),h^{[x_n,x]}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x_n\right)))<\epsilon /3`$ by our initial choice of $`U`$. The choice of $`h^{[x_n,x]}`$ yields that $`d(\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x),\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,\left(x_n\right)))<5\epsilon /6`$ . Since $`s`$ was any point of $`𝐑^\kappa `$ , we may finally conclude that

$$\underset{s𝐑^\kappa }{sup}d(\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_{x_n}\left(s\right),\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_x\left(s\right))<\epsilon \text{ for all }nN.$$

And so $`h`$ is a homeomorphism. It follows easily that $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ is uniformly Lyapunov stable in the strongest sense: for any given $`\epsilon >0`$ there is a $`\delta >0`$ so that

$$d(x,y)<\delta d(\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,x),\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(s,y))<\epsilon \text{ for all }s𝐑^\kappa .$$

Fixing a point $`eX`$, the density of the orbit of $`e`$ means that any $`a,bX`$ may be represented in the form $`a=lim_i\left\{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(t_i^a,e)\right\}`$ and $`b=lim_i\left\{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(t_i^b,e)\right\}`$. The operations

$$a=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(t_i^a,e)\right\}\text{ and }a+b=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(t_i^a+t_i^b,e)\right\}$$

then give $`X`$ a well-defined, abelian topological group structure compatible with the original topology of $`X`$. The proof is essentially identical with that found in \[NS\] V, 8.16 and is therefore omitted. $`\mathrm{}`$

It follows that such an $`X`$ is homeomorphic to either $`𝐓^\kappa `$ or the inverse limit of an inverse sequence of $`𝐓^\kappa `$ with epimorphic bonding maps (see \[C\]). And it follows directly that any such $`X`$ is bihomogeneous: the homeomorphism

$$x\left(a+b\right)x$$

switches $`a`$ and $`b`$.

## 3. Exponents

We now define the exponent group and explore its topological significance. In what follows, $`Hom(𝐑^\kappa ,𝐑^\kappa )`$ denotes the group of continuous homomorphisms $`𝐑^\kappa 𝐑^\kappa `$ with point-wise addition and $`[X;Y]`$ denotes the group of homotopy classes of maps $`XY`$, and $`\left[f\right]`$ denotes the homotopy class of $`f:XY`$.

###### Definition 3.1.

*Given a map* $`f:WX`$*, we define* $`\left\{w_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}W`$ *to be an* $`f`$–sequence *if* $`\left\{f\left(w_i\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ *converges in* $`X`$.

###### Definition 3.2.

*Given a map* $`f`$ *of* $`𝐑^\kappa `$ *into a metric space* $`X`$*, the* exponent group of$`f`$ , *denoted* $`_f,`$ *is*

$$\{AHom(𝐑^\kappa ,𝐑^\kappa )\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}\text{ }\text{converges in}\text{ }𝐓^\kappa \text{for all}\text{ }f\text{ –}\text{sequences}\text{ }\left\{t_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}\}.$$

###### Lemma 3.3.

$`_f`$ is a subgroup of $`Hom(𝐑^\kappa ,𝐑^\kappa )`$.

Proof: The zero homomorphism is trivially in $`_f`$. If $`A`$ and $`B`$ are in $`_f`$ and if $`\left\{t_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is an $`f`$sequence, then $`\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(B\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converge in $`𝐓^\kappa `$. And since $``$ is continuous on $`Hom(𝐑^\kappa ,𝐑^\kappa )\times Hom(𝐑^\kappa ,𝐑^\kappa )`$, this implies that $`\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(\left(AB\right)\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges in $`𝐓^\kappa `$. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 3.4.

Given a map $`f`$ of $`𝐑^\kappa `$ into a metric space $`X`$, with

$$\iota :_f[\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)};𝐓^\kappa ]$$

given by

$$A\stackrel{\iota }{}\left[f_A\right]\text{, where }f_A:\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}𝐓^\kappa \text{ sends }\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(t_i\right)\right\}\text{ to }\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}$$

we have:

1. $`\iota `$ is a homomorphism (we give $`[\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)};𝐓^\kappa ]`$ the group operation induced by point-wise addition of maps).
2. If $`\iota \left(A\right)=\iota \left(B\right)`$ and if $`𝒞`$ is any contractible topological subspace of $`𝐑^\kappa `$ satisfying the condition that the map $`\left(AB\right)_𝒞:𝒞\left(AB\right)\left(𝒞\right)`$; $`t\left(AB\right)\left(t\right)`$ has a continuous inverse, then for any $`f`$ –sequence $`\left\{t_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}𝒞`$, the sequence $`\left\{\left(AB\right)\left(t_i\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges in $`𝐑^\kappa `$.
3. If $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is compact, then $`\iota `$ is an embedding and $`_f`$ is countable.
4. If $`\iota \left(A\right)=\iota \left(B\right)`$ and if $`\kappa =n<\mathrm{}`$ and if there is an unbounded $`f`$–sequence $`\left\{t_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$, then $`AB`$ is not invertible.

Proof: $`(1)`$ Let $`A_f`$ be given. If $`\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(s_i\right)\right\}=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(t_i\right)\right\}=x`$ are two representations of a point in $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$, then $`\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(s_i\right)\right)\right\}=\sigma `$ and $`\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}=\tau `$ both exist by the definition of $`_f`$. Then for $`i\{1,2,\mathrm{}\}`$ if we define $`u_{2i1}=s_i`$ and $`u_{2i}=t_i`$, we have that $`\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(u_i\right)\right\}=x`$, implying that $`\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(u_i\right)\right)\right\}`$ exists, which is only possible if $`\sigma =\tau `$. Thus, $`f_A`$ is a well–defined function. To see that $`f_A`$ is continuous, consider a convergent sequence $`\left\{\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(t_i^j\right)\right\}\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}=\left\{x^j\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}x`$. Then with $`d`$ denoting a metric for $`X`$ and with $`d_\kappa `$ denoting a metric for $`𝐓^\kappa `$, for each $`j\{1,2,\mathrm{}\}`$ choose $`i_j`$ so that:

$$d(f\left(t_{i_j}^j\right),x^j)<\frac{1}{j}\text{ and }d_\kappa (f_A\left(x^j\right),\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_{i_j}^j\right)\right))<\frac{1}{j}.$$

Then $`\underset{j}{lim}\left\{f\left(t_{i_j}^j\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}=x`$ and

$$f_A\left(x\right)=\underset{j}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_{i_j}^j\right)\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}=\underset{j}{lim}\left\{f_A\left(x^j\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}},$$

demonstrating that $`f_A`$ is continuous. And if $`A,B_f`$ we have for $`x=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(t_i\right)\right\}`$

$$f_{A+B}\left(x\right)=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(\left(A+B\right)\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}+\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(B\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}=f_A\left(x\right)+f_B\left(x\right)\text{,}$$

demonstrating that $`\iota `$ is a homomorphism.

$`(2)`$ Since $`\left[f_A\right]=\left[f_B\right]`$, we have that $`\left[f_{\left(AB\right)}\right]=\left[\text{constant map}\right]`$, and so there is a map $`g:(\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)},f\left(\mathrm{𝟎}\right))(𝐑^\kappa ,\mathrm{𝟎})`$ lifting $`f_{\left(AB\right)}`$ making the following diagram commute

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}& & 𝐑^\kappa & & \\ & {}_{}{}^{g}& & ^{\pi ^\kappa }& \\ \overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}& & \stackrel{f_{\left(AB\right)}}{}& & 𝐓^\kappa \end{array}.$$

Then for any $`t\left(AB\right)\left(𝒞\right)`$ we have

$$f_{\left(AB\right)}f\left(AB\right)_𝒞^1\left(t\right)=\pi ^\kappa \left(\left(AB\right)\left(AB\right)_𝒞^1\left(t\right)\right)=\pi ^\kappa \left(t\right),$$

and so we are led to the following commutative diagram:

$$\begin{array}{ccccccc}\left(AB\right)\left(𝒞\right)& \stackrel{\left(AB\right)_𝒞^1}{}& 𝒞& \stackrel{f}{}& f\left(𝒞\right)& \stackrel{g}{}& 𝐑^\kappa \\ \pi ^\kappa & & & & & f_{\left(AB\right)}& \pi ^\kappa \\ 𝐓^\kappa & & \stackrel{id}{}& & & & 𝐓^\kappa \end{array}\text{.}$$

And since, $`gf\left(AB\right)_𝒞^1`$ and $`id_{𝐑^\kappa }`$ both map $`\mathrm{𝟎}`$ to $`\mathbf{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$, we have that $`gf\left(AB\right)_𝒞^1=id_{𝐑^\kappa }`$ since both provide a lift of $`id_{𝐓^1}\pi ^\kappa _{\left(AB\right)\left(𝒞\right)}`$ and such a lift is uniquely determined. And so if $`\left\{t_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}𝒞`$ is an $`f`$–sequence with $`\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(t_i\right)\right\}=x\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$, we must have

$`g\left(x\right)`$ $`=`$ $`g\left(\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(AB\right)_𝒞^1\left(\left(AB\right)_𝒞\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\underset{i}{lim}\left\{gf\left(AB\right)_𝒞^1\left(\left(AB\right)_𝒞\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\left(AB\right)_𝒞\left(t_i\right)\right\}\text{ in }𝐑^\kappa `$
by the continuity of $`g`$.

$`(3)`$ Suppose then that $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is compact and that $`\iota \left(A\right)=\left[f_A\right]=\left[\text{ constant map}\right]`$ and that $`v𝐑^\kappa \mathrm{ker}A`$. Then with $`𝒞`$ denoting the vector subspace $`𝐑v𝐑^\kappa `$, we have that $`A_𝒞=\left(A0\right)_𝒞`$ is an isomorphism onto $`𝐑A\left(v\right)`$. And since $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is compact, there is a subsequence $`\left\{f\left(n_iv\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ of the sequence $`\left\{f\left(nv\right)\right\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ which converges to some $`x\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$. But then by the above, we must have that $`\left\{n_iA\left(v\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges in $`𝐑^\kappa `$. And so if $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ is any non-zero component of $`A\left(v\right)=w_i_{i=1}^\kappa `$ , we would then have that $`\left\{n_iw_{\mathrm{}}\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges in $`𝐑`$, which is impossible since $`\left\{n_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is unbounded. Thus, we must have $`\mathrm{ker}A=𝐑^\kappa `$ and $`A`$ is the zero map. That $`_f`$ is countable then follows from the fact that $`[\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)};𝐓^\kappa ]`$ is countable.

$`\left(4\right)`$ If $`\kappa <\mathrm{}`$ and if $`\left\{t_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is an unbounded $`f`$–sequence, then $`\left\{\left(AB\right)\left(t_i\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ would be unbounded if $`\left(AB\right)`$ were invertible. $`\mathrm{}`$

We know that when $`f`$ has an image which is not compact, $`_f`$ may not be countable and $`\iota `$ may not be an embedding. For example, for $`f:𝐑^2𝐑\times 𝐓^1;`$ $`t_{1,}t_2t_1,\pi ^1\left(t_2\right)`$, making the identification of $`Hom(𝐑^2,𝐑^2)`$ with $`Mat(2,𝐑)`$ (the group of $`2\times 2`$ matrices with real entries under component–wise addition), we have

$$\{\left(\begin{array}{cc}c\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & z\hfill \end{array}\right)Mat(2,𝐑)c𝐑\text{ and }z𝐙\}_f$$

and $`\iota \left(\left(\begin{array}{cc}c\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & z\hfill \end{array}\right)\right)=\iota \left(\left(\begin{array}{cc}c^{}\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & z\hfill \end{array}\right)\right)`$ for any $`c`$ and $`c^{}`$ in $`𝐑`$. And since there are unbounded $`f`$–sequences, we know that $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}c\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & z\hfill \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}c^{}\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & z\hfill \end{array}\right)`$ is not invertible.

###### Theorem 3.5.

If $`f:𝐑^\kappa X`$ has exponent group $`_f=\{A_\lambda \lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }\}`$, we have the map

$$h_f:\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}\underset{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}{}𝐓^\kappa ;\text{ }xf_{A_\lambda }\left(x\right)_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},$$

and $`h_ff`$ is a homomorphism of $`𝐑^\kappa `$ into $`\underset{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}{}𝐓^\kappa `$. And if $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is compact, then $`h_f\left(\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}\right)`$ is a subgroup of $`\underset{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}{}𝐓^\kappa `$.

Proof: Since each $`f_{A_\lambda }`$ is continuous, we know that $`h_f`$ is also continuous. When we give $`\underset{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}{}𝐓^\kappa `$ the group structure of component–wise addition, it is a topological group with the product (Tychonoff) topology and

$`h_ff\left(s+t\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\pi ^\kappa A_\lambda \left(s+t\right)_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}=\pi ^\kappa A_\lambda \left(s\right)_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}+\pi ^\kappa A_\lambda \left(t\right)_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$
$`=`$ $`h_ff\left(s\right)+h_ff\left(t\right),`$
and so $`h_ff`$ is a homomorphism. When $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is compact, we have that $`h_f\left(\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}\right)=\overline{h_ff\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ (recall that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is countable when $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is compact). We now know that $`h_ff\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)`$ is a subgroup of $`\underset{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}{}𝐓^\kappa `$, and so $`\overline{h_ff\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is also a subgroup. $`\mathrm{}`$

We are now in a position to give a generalization of almost periodic maps $`𝐑X`$ to almost periodic maps $`𝐑^\kappa X`$.

###### Definition 3.6.

*A map* $`f:𝐑^\kappa X`$ *is* almost periodic *if* $`_f`$ *is countable and if the following condition* *is satisfied*:

$$()\left[\left\{t_i\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}\text{ is an}\text{ }f\text{}\text{sequence}\right]\left[\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}\text{ converges for all}\text{ }A_f\right].$$

It is known that any classically defined almost periodic function satisfies $`()`$ when $`\kappa =1`$ and $`X`$ is complete, see \[Cl\] . And below we shall see that any map satisfying $`()`$ is indeed almost periodic in the classical sense when $`\kappa =1`$ and similar techniques may be used to show that generally the above definition coincides with Bochner’s \[B\].

###### Theorem 3.7.

If $`f`$ is almost periodic, then $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is compact, and $`h_f`$ as in Theorem 3.5 is a homeomorphism of $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ onto the subgroup $`h_f\left(\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}\right)`$ of $`\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝐓^\kappa `$.

Proof: Let $`\left\{x^j\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence in $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$. Choose a subsequence of $`\left\{h_f\left(x^j\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ which converges in $`\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝐓^\kappa `$ and which we label $`\left\{h_f\left(y^j\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ for convenience. With $`y^j=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(t_i^j\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ and with $`_f=\{A_1,A_2,\mathrm{}\},`$ for each $`j\{1,2,\mathrm{}\}`$ choose $`t_{i_j}^j`$ such that

$$d(f\left(t_{i_j}^j\right),y^j)<\frac{1}{j}\text{ and }\mathrm{max}\left\{d_{𝐓^\kappa }(\pi ^\kappa \left(A_n\left(t_{i_j}^j\right)\right),f_{A_n}\left(y^j\right))n\{1,\mathrm{},j\}\right\}<\frac{1}{j}\text{.}$$

Since we have that $`\left\{f_{A_n}\left(y^j\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges for each $`n\{1,2,\mathrm{}\}`$, we must then have that $`\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A\left(t_{i_j}^j\right)\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges for all $`A_f`$, and so $`\left\{t_{i_j}^j\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is an $`f`$–sequence by $`()`$, say $`\left\{f\left(t_{i_j}^j\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}yX`$. And so we also have $`\left\{f\left(y^j\right)\right\}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}y`$, demonstrating that $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ is compact. Now suppose that $`h_f\left(x\right)=h_f\left(y\right)`$ with $`x=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(s_i\right)\right\}`$ and $`y=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{f\left(t_i\right)\right\}`$. We then have that for each $`n\{1,2,\mathrm{}\}`$

$$f_{A_n}\left(x\right)=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A_n\left(s_i\right)\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}=\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A_n\left(t_i\right)\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}=f_{A_n}\left(y\right),$$

and so with $`u_{2i1}=s_i`$ and $`u_{2i}=t_i`$ for $`i\{1,2,\mathrm{}\},`$ we have that $`\underset{i}{lim}\left\{\pi ^\kappa \left(A_n\left(u_i\right)\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}=f_{A_n}\left(x\right)`$ for each $`n\{1,2,\mathrm{}\}.`$ Then by $`()`$ we have that $`\left\{f\left(u_i\right)\right\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges in $`X`$, which is only possible if $`x=y`$. Thus, $`h_f`$ is one–to–one and so is a homeomorphism onto its image. $`\mathrm{}`$

When $`f`$ is almost periodic, there is a topological isomorphism $`𝔦_f`$ from $`h_f\left(\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}\right)`$ onto some $`\lambda `$–solenoid $`_{\overline{M}}`$ $`\left(\lambda \mathrm{}\right)`$ since $`h_f\left(\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}\right)`$ is a compact connected abelian group; see \[P\] Thm 68, \[NS\] V,8.16 \[C\] and \[Cl\]. Then, using the notation of \[C\], we have a map $`𝔥:(𝐑^\kappa ,\mathrm{𝟎})(𝐑^\lambda ,\mathrm{𝟎})`$ making the following diagram commute:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}& & 𝐑^\lambda \\ & 𝔥& \pi _{\overline{M}}\\ 𝐑^\kappa & \stackrel{𝔦_fh_ff}{}& _{\overline{M}}\end{array}$$

since $`\pi _{\overline{M}}`$ is a fibration with unique path lifting. Then for $`s,t𝐑^\kappa `$, since $`𝔦_fh_ff`$ and $`\pi _{\overline{M}}`$ are homomorphisms, we have

$`\pi _{\overline{M}}\left(𝔥\left(s\right)+𝔥\left(t\right)\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(s\right)+\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(t\right)=𝔦_fh_ff\left(s\right)+𝔦_fh_ff\left(t\right)`$
$`=`$ $`𝔦_fh_ff\left(s+t\right)=\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(s+t\right),`$
and so $`𝔥\left(s\right)+𝔥\left(t\right)𝔥\left(s+t\right)\mathrm{ker}\pi _{\overline{M}}`$, implying that $`𝔥\left(s\right)+𝔥\left(t\right)=𝔥\left(s+t\right)`$ for all $`s,t𝐑^\kappa `$, see \[C\] 3.4. Hence, $`𝔥\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)`$ is a subgroup of $`𝐑^\lambda `$. And so we may think of $`\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)`$ as a “linear subspace” of $`_{\overline{M}}`$.

###### Theorem 3.8.

If $`f:𝐑^\kappa X`$ is almost periodic, then $`f`$ may be extended to a continuous group action of $`(𝐑^\kappa ,+)`$ on all of $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}:`$

$$\alpha _f:𝐑^\kappa \times \overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)},\text{ where }\alpha _f(t,f\left(0\right))=f\left(t\right).$$

Proof: We have the group action

$$\varphi _f:𝐑^\kappa \times _{\overline{M}}_{\overline{M}};(t,x)\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(t\right)+x.$$

For $`x_{\overline{M}}`$, we have $`\varphi _f(\mathrm{𝟎},x)=\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(\mathrm{𝟎}\right)+x=e_{\overline{M}}+x=x`$ and for $`s,t𝐑^\kappa `$ we have

$`\varphi _f(s+t,x)`$ $`=`$ $`\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(s+t\right)+x=\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(s\right)+\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(t\right)+x`$
$`=`$ $`\varphi _f(s,\varphi _f(t,x)),`$
and so $`\varphi _f`$ is indeed a group action. We then define

$$\alpha _f(s,x)\stackrel{def}{=}\left(𝔦_fh_f\right)^1\left(\varphi _f(s,𝔦_fh_f\left(x\right))\right),$$

i.e., the action conjugate via $`𝔦_fh_f`$ to $`\varphi _f`$. It then follows directly that $`\alpha _f`$ is a group action, and

$`\alpha _f(t,f\left(0\right))`$ $`=`$ $`\left(𝔦_fh_f\right)^1\left(\varphi _f(t,𝔦_fh_f\left(f\left(0\right)\right))\right)=\left(𝔦_fh_f\right)^1\left(\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(t\right)+e_{\overline{M}}\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\left(𝔦_fh_f\right)^1\left(𝔦_fh_ff\left(t\right)\right)=f\left(t\right).\mathrm{}`$
And when $`\kappa =1`$, $`\alpha _f`$ is a flow on $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ and $`𝔦_fh_f`$ provides an equivalence of $`\alpha _f`$ and an almost periodic linear flow as described in \[C\] , implying that $`f`$ is itself almost periodic in the classical sense since it is an orbit of this flow.

Generally, it is now clear that all $`\varphi _f`$–orbits are translates of $`\pi _{\overline{M}}𝔥\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)`$, and so we consider the decomposition of $`_{\overline{M}}`$ determined by $`\varphi _f`$ as a decomposition into “linear subspaces.” Thus, $`f`$ determines a group action on $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}`$ which is equivalent to a “linear foliation” of $`_{\overline{M}}`$. It then follows that if $`f:𝐑^nM`$ is a smooth almost periodic map onto a leaf of an $`n`$–dimensional foliation $``$ of the manifold $`M`$ that $`𝔦_fh_f`$ then provides an equivalence of $`_{\overline{f\left(𝐑^n\right)}}`$ with the linear foliation $`\varphi _f`$ since the leaves of $`_{\overline{f\left(𝐑^n\right)}}`$ will coincide with the orbits of $`\alpha _f`$ due to the density of $`f\left(𝐑^n\right)`$ in $`\overline{f\left(𝐑^n\right)}`$.

Given $`𝐯𝐑^\kappa `$, any map $`f:𝐑^\kappa X`$ induces the map

$$𝐑t𝐯𝐑^\kappa \stackrel{f}{}X$$

and the one–dimensional exponent group of this map $`𝐑X`$ is frequently sufficient to determine as much about $`\stackrel{ˇ}{H}^1\left(\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)}\right)[\overline{f\left(𝐑^\kappa \right)};𝐓^1]`$ as $`_f`$ reveals. But when $`f`$ extends to a group action, $`f_A`$ will be a fiber bundle projection, and some of the bundle structure is lost in considering only the one–dimensional maps. Thus, the higher dimensional groups have content not captured in the one-dimensional exponent group.