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# The resistance anomaly in the surface layer of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x single crystals under radio-frequency irradiation

## I INTRODUCTION

Recently, the resistance anomaly (RA) characterized by a pronounced resistance enhancement above the normal-state value $`R_N`$ near the superconducting transition has been observed in various systems such as superconducting aluminum wires  and structures including artificial normal-metal/superconductor (NS) interfaces. Most of the previous studies on this novel phenomenon indicate that the resistance enhancement takes place either in quasi-one-dimensional structures or in thin films in their superconducting state when the voltage is probed within the range comparable to the characteristic length scales governing the superconducting transition. More recently, it has been found that radio frequency (rf) irradiation controls the appearance and the magnitude of the RA. This leads to explanations for the RA in terms of nonequilibrium superconductivity, such as charge-imbalance phenomenon arising either from rf-excited phase-slip centers or artificial NS interfaces, mixing of extrinsic rf noise, etc.

In this study we have observed similar resistance enhancement in $`c`$-axis conduction measurements on small (junction area of $`25\times 35`$ $`\mu `$m2) stacks of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x (Bi2212) single crystals irradiated by rf waves, near or below the dc superconducting transition. The RA is observed only for a three-probe measurement configuration, where the voltage measurement includes the surface CuO2 layer which is in contact with a normal-metal (Au) electrode. The RA in this system resembles the one observed in the conventional aluminum wires in that an excess resistance occurs near or below the superconducting transition and current-voltage ($`IV`$) characteristics exhibit a nonlinear excess voltage at zero bias. Since the anomaly occurs in the $`c`$-axis resistance of a structure including a NS interface (in this case, the interface consists of a Au electrode and the surface CuO2 layer of Bi2212 single crystals) we believe the RA is related to the charge-imbalance nonequilibrium state produced by rf-induced “hot” quasiparticles injected from the normal-metal region into the superconducting region. We assume that the rf irradiation excites quasiparticles to higher energy states above the gap of the surface superconducting layer. The enhanced accumulation of charge-imbalanced quasiparticles in the surface CuO2 layer upon rf irradiation increases the chemical potential of quasiparticles in the layer, which can lead to the enhancement of the measured voltage across the NS interface. The charge-imbalanced nonequilibrium state is known to relax to charge-balanced state within the characteristic time $`\tau _Q^{}=(4/\pi )\tau _i[k_BT/\mathrm{\Delta }(T)]`$ at temperatures near the superconducting transition, where $`\tau _i`$ is the inelastic scattering time, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$ the energy gap. The resulting excess resistance due to the charge imbalance becomes most prominent near the superconducting transition, because the relaxation becomes significantly slower as the fraction of the effective states participating in the relaxation, $`\mathrm{\Delta }/k_BT`$, is reduced near the transition.

To our knowledge, no experimental observations of charge-imbalance phenomena of this kind have been reported before in high-$`T_c`$ superconductors (HTSC). This lack of the observation of the phenomena may result from the high phonon-induced inelastic scattering rate near the superconducting transition of HTSC. The electron-phonon scattering rate $`\tau _{eph}^1(\tau _i^1)`$, depending on the quadratic power of the temperature in the two-dimensional clean limit which may be relevant to the surface conduction layer, can be a few hundred times larger in HTSC than in conventional superconductors near the transition. Thus, the probability of HTSC being in a charge-imbalance nonequilibrium state is reduced as much and to date no RA has been reported for the materials. As we reported previously, however, the $`d`$-wave superconductivity of the surface CuO2 conduction layer in Bi2212 single crystals in contact with a normal-metal electrode is suppressed due to the proximity effect. The superconducting transition temperature of the surface layer, $`T_c^{^{}}`$, is reduced accordingly to at least about one-third of the transition temperature of the inner CuO2 layers, $`T_c`$. The resultant reduced electron-phonon scattering rate near $`T_c^{^{}}`$ in the surface CuO2 layer enhances the possibility of observing the nonequilibrium RA effect under rf-wave irradiation.

## II EXPERIMENT

Bi2212 single crystals were grown by the standard solid-state-reaction method. Upon cleaving a Bi2212 single crystal a 50 nm-thick layer of Au was thermally deposited on the top of the crystal to protect the surface from contamination during the further fabrication process as well as to obtain a clean interface between the normal-metal electrodes and the Bi2212 single crystal. Stacks with junction area of $`25\times 35`$ $`\mu `$m2 and the thickness of about $`15`$ nm were then patterned using the conventional photolithography and Ar-ion-beam etching. A stack of that thickness contains about 10 CuO2 layers. Further details of the sample fabrication are described elsewhere.

The temperature dependence of the $`c`$-axis resistance $`R_c(T)`$ of a stack was measured by the conventional lock-in technique and $`IV`$ data by a dc method. The schematic measurement configuration is shown in the inset of Fig. 1(a). All measurements were done in a three-terminal configuration with a low pass filter being connected to each measurement electrode. Three-terminal configuration was adopted to probe the surface junction by intentionally including the potential drop across the surface layer. The contact resistance between the Au electrode and the surface CuO2 layer was less than 0.1 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. An rf wave with frequency of 70 MHz was transmitted through coaxial cables to the current leads as shown schematically in the inset of Fig. 1(a). A capacitor was inserted between the specimen and the rf generator to separate the rf signal from the dc probing current. Because of the uncertainty in the rf coupling we were not able to determine the actual rf power transmitted to the specimen. Therefore the power levels specified below are the nominal values.

## III RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 1(a) shows the typical $`c`$-axis resistance of a stack of intrinsic junctions, $`R_c(T)`$, in the three-probe configuration with the rf irradiation being turned on (open triangle) or off (open circle). The dc bias current was 500 nA, which corresponds to almost zero bias in the $`IV`$ curves shown in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b). The frequency and the power of the rf wave were 70 MHz and -20 dBm, respectively. In the absence of the rf irradiation it is known that the $`R_c(T)`$ for a stack on the Bi2212 single crystal as illustrated in the inset of Fig. 1(a) exhibits a double superconducting transition; the upper transition at $`T_c`$ ($`90`$ K) is the one for the inner CuO2 layers and the lower one at $`T_c^{^{}}`$ is for the top-most CuO2 layer in contact with the Au electrode. The superconductivity in the thin CuO2 surface layer is suppressed by the proximity contact to the thick normal-metallic Au electrode. Although all the inner layers are Josephson coupled in the temperature range of $`T_c^{^{}}<T<T_c`$, $`R_c(T)`$ remains finite because the surface layer is in the normal state. The value of $`T_c^{^{}}`$ varies from sample to sample. It was 35 K for our specimen in this study.

When an rf wave is irradiated the $`R_c(T)`$ curve deviates below $`T_c^{^{}}`$ from the one in the absence of rf irradiation. Instead of dropping, the $`R_c(T)`$ keeps increasing rapidly below $`T_c^{^{}}`$, before eventually showing a superconducting transition at a temperature further below $`T_c^{^{}}`$. The superconducting transition for a given rf power is much sharper than in the absence of rf irradiation. The $`R_c(T)`$ curve above $`T_c^{^{}}`$ is, however, insensitive to the rf irradiation, which indicates that the excess resistance is caused by the surface CuO2 layer. As the rf power increases the superconducting transition temperature of the surface CuO2 layer decreases, along with an increase in the peak value of the RA as shown in Fig. 1(b). For rf power of -20 dBm the RA becomes about 7 times higher than the normal-state resistance at 100 K, which cannot be explained by local heating due to rf irradiation. Since the rf frequency used in this experiment was far lower than the plasma frequency $`\omega _p`$ the rf irradiation may have acted as a dc bias and suppressed the transition temperature. It is also possible that the rf-induced pair breaking across the significantly reduced superconducting gap near $`T_c^{^{}}`$ suppressed the superconducting transition.

We also plotted (dotted line) in Fig. 1(a) the expected $`R_c(T)`$ at temperatures below $`T_c^{^{}}`$ for the normal-metal/insulator/$`d`$-wave superconductor (NID) junction formed by the surface CuO2 layer in its normal state and the neighboring inner superconducting CuO2 layer with $`d`$-wave symmetry. A noticeable feature is that the observed resistance enhancement near and below the superconducting transition is far above the estimated tunneling resistance for a NID-junction configuration. The RA, thus, cannot be simply explained by the equilibrium tunneling consideration.

Fig. 2(a) shows the $`IV`$ characteristics at various temperatures below $`T_c^{^{}}`$ when the rf irradiation of frequency 70 MHz and power -20 dBm is on (solid line) or off (dotted line). For 29.8 K data the dotted line is not discernible because of the high overlap of the two sets of curves. Both the $`IV`$ curves at $`T=4.2`$ K and $`T=29.8`$ K show DID and NID tunneling characteristics, respectively, regardless of the rf irradiation. On the other hand, near the superconducting transition (14.9 K - 23.9 K) the $`IV`$ curves in the presence of the rf irradiation show multiple-transition features. For instance, the $`IV`$ curve at 14.9 K shows a double transition, one below and the other above the critical current $`I_c^{^{}}`$ of the intrinsic surface junction in the absence of rf irradiation.

In Figure 2(b) we show a close up view of the zero-bias region of the $`IV`$ characteristics for the three temperatures near the superconducting transition. The $`IV`$ characteristics at $`T=18.9`$ K and $`T=23.9`$ K exhibit excess resistances above the normal-state resistance near the zero bias, which correspond to the RA in the $`R_c(T)`$ near the transition. A resistance enhancement due to the appearance of rf-induced phase-slip centers in only 0.3-nm-thick conducting layer is inconceivable. Burk et al. has proposed  that RA can be generated when the high-frequency signal is mixed with the low-frequency or dc measuring current for samples exhibiting nonlinear $`IV`$ characteristics. Since $`IV`$ characteristics of our sample become nonlinear near $`T_c`$ of inner junctions as well as near $`T_c^{^{}}`$ of the surface junction, the model predicts the appearance of the RA near the two temperatures. Since the RA appeared only below $`T_c^{^{}}`$ in our sample, however, we exclude the possibility of external rf mixing, too.

We attribute the RA to the charge imbalance induced in the superconducting surface layer. The excess resistance $`R_{exc}`$ due to the charge imbalance at an interface consisting of a normal metal and a conventional s-wave superconductor is given by

$$R_{exc}=\frac{Z(T)\tau _Q^{}}{2e^2N(0)\mathrm{\Omega }},$$
(1)
where

$$Z(T)=2_\mathrm{\Delta }^{\mathrm{}}N_s(E)\left[\frac{f}{E}\right]𝑑E,$$
(2)
$`N(0)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ are the quasiparticle density of states of S electrode at the Fermi level in its normal state and the volume of the S electrode, respectively. $`\tau _Q^{}=(4/\pi )\tau _i[k_BT/\mathrm{\Delta }(T)]`$ is the charge-imbalance relaxation time introduced above. It should be noted, however, that Eq. (1) is applicable to a homogeneous superconducting electrode with its length much longer than the charge-imbalance relaxation length $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_Q^{}[=\sqrt{D\tau _Q^{}}50\mu `$m if we assume the diffusivity $`D`$ to be 31 cm2/sec\].

We use Eq. (1) to estimate the excess resistance in our specimen, assuming that the charge imbalance is confined in the superconducting surface CuO2 layer, i.e., $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_Q^{}`$ is set to be the thickness of the surface layer, 0.3 nm. The assumption may be justified by the existence of a strong scattering barrier between the surface and the inner CuO2 layers. The almost full opening of the superconducting gap in the inner CuO2 layers in the temperature range near $`T_c^{^{}}`$ also reduces the probability of quasiparticle injection into the inner layers from the surface layer. For the normalized density of states of S, $`N_s(E)`$, we use the angle-averaged expression for the $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ symmetry as $`N_s(E)=Re\left[\frac{1}{2\pi }_0^{2\pi }\frac{E}{\sqrt{E^2[\mathrm{\Delta }(T)\mathrm{cos}(2\theta )]^2}}𝑑\theta \right]`$ by assuming that the surface CuO2 layer also has the $`d_{x^2y^2}`$-wave symmetry. Fig. 3 shows the best fit to the tail of the resistive transition as a function of reduced temperature under rf irradiation of three different power levels. In calculation we adopted $`\mathrm{\Delta }(0)/k_BT_c^{^{}}=3.85`$ as obtained previously and assumed that $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$ follows the BCS gap equation. We also set $`N(0)`$ to be 0.8 states/\[eV\]\[Cu-atom\] and adopt the nominal value for the effective volume of the superconducting electrode, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$=25 $`\mu `$m$`\times `$35 $`\mu `$m$`\times `$0.3 nm. The inelastic scattering time $`\tau _i`$ is taken as the fitting parameter. The best fit values of $`\tau _i`$ depend on the rf irradiation power and turn out to be $`2.7\times 10^8`$ sec, $`2.0\times 10^8`$ sec, and $`4.6\times 10^9`$ sec for the power of -20 dBm, -23 dBm, and -30 dBm, respectively. $`\tau _i`$ gets longer as the transition temperature decreases for higher rf power. Fits below the superconducting transition with only one fitting parameter $`\tau _i`$ turn out to be reasonably good.

The values of $`\tau _i`$ determined in this way appear unreasonably long compared to the ones obtained from the $`R(T)`$ data above $`T_c`$ based on the two-dimensional superconducting fluctuation theory. For instance, the authors of Ref.  estimated $`\tau _i`$ to behave as $`\tau _i=0.75\times 10^{13}`$(100 K/$`T)^2`$ sec for Bi2212 whiskers, which would give a few orders of magnitude shorter inelastic scattering time in the temperature range used in this experiment. As described below we believe this long inelastic scattering time stems from the two impeding mechanisms, both spatial and temporal, for effective charge-imbalance relaxation. In general, a charge-imbalanced nonequilibrium state relaxes to a charge-balanced nonequilibrium state, where pairs of conjugate electron- and hole-like quasiparticles relax to the paired ground state within the quasiparticle recombination time, $`\tau _{rec}`$, which is essentially given by $`\tau _r=3.7\tau _i[k_BT/\mathrm{\Delta }(T)]`$. In addition to this temporal relaxation, in conventional quasi-one-dimensional systems including a NS interface with homogeneous S electrode, any local nonequilibrium state in S can diffuse away within the characteristic length scale, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_Q^{}`$, which is the spatial relaxation. In our highly anisotropic Bi2212 system, however, the spatial relaxation is hampered because the tunneling of qusiparticles in the surface CuO2 layer to the neighboring inner CuO2 layer is effectively blocked by the presence of the finite gap in the inner layer near $`T_c^{^{}}`$. In addition, the recombination rate of the quasiparticles within the surface CuO2 layer becomes significantly slower as the gap shrinks as it approaches $`T_c^{^{}}`$. As a result of these two mechanisms the low-lying quasiparticle energy levels are highly occupied by the accumulating quasiparticles, blocking the further relaxation of the charge-imbalance nonequilibrium. Thus, in this situation, even the charge-balanced state is in nonequilibrium and the relaxation of the charge imbalance itself may slow down in the surface layer. It significantly enhances the charge-imbalance-induced RA in the surface layer and may explain the very long charge-imbalance relaxation time we obtained. In this sense, the quasiparticle recombination time is the bottleneck in the effective relaxation of the charge-imbalance nonequilibrium in the surface layer. Thus, one can conclude that what was actually measured in this experiment was the quasiparticle recombination time. In fact, our values from the fit above are in a reasonable range if we compare them with the quasiparticle recombination time, 0.8 ns and 2 $`\mu `$s, obtained in stacks of Bi2212 single crystals by Tanabe et al. and Yurgens et al., respectively, from fits to the back-bending of $`IV`$ characteristics, another nonequilibrium effect in dc measurements.

Although we take into account the $`d_{x^2y^2}`$-wave symmetry of the superconducting state of the surface CuO2 layer by adopting angle-averaged quasiparticle density of states for the fit, the effect of the existence of nodes in the gap is not directly taken into account. No microscopic theory on the generation and the relaxation of the charge-imbalance nonequilibrium state for a NS interface where S has a $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ order-parameter symmetry is available to date. Naive consideration may lead to a conclusion that the exsistence of nodes makes the generation of the charge imbalance easier near the node region in the $`k`$ space. It may also slow down the relaxation process near the node region at any temperatures below the superconducting transition. Theoretical studies are required on the systems involving superconductors with $`d_{x^2y^2}`$-wave symmetry.

## IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We appreciate the useful discussion with Prof. Soon-Gul Lee on the charge-imbalance phenomena. This work was supported by BSRI, MARC, KOSEF, and POSTECH.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Interest in wavelet theory and its applications in multi-resolution analysis  has grown over the last decade, involving new and linking disparate fields of research from pure mathematics and physics to down-to-earth signal engineering. It is being widely applied in signal processing and data compression \[2-4\], pattern recognition , statistical physics and turbulence , jet dynamics , field theory , solid state physics \[10-12\], quantum mechanical applications \[13-16\], non-linear dynamics , soliton theory , etc.

The rise in interest in wavelet theory is motivated by the fact that Fourier analysis is ineffective when dealing with non-linear models and localize sharp features \[6-18\]. A central property of wavelets is their ability to expand and analyze functions with respect to a set of self-similar localized basis functions (scaling functions and wavelets) and to processes them locally without affecting the scale. The wavelet method is recursive and therefore ideal for computational applications. Moreover, the scaling functions and the corresponding wavelets are very well localized both in the time and frequency domains, and hence wavelets are ideal for an analysis of phenomena where different space/time scales occur. They also provide mathematical representations that can handle both analytical and numerical difficulties due to singular phenomena . Like Fourier analysis, wavelet theory uses basis functions with different characteristic scales. However, Fourier analysis has the advantage of being build upon a simple and solid mathematical foundation . The challenge is to create such a platform for wavelet theory.

This paper is a first step in that direction. It focuses on obtaining a closed algebraic method for the construction of the scaling and wavelet functions. Results for the Haar and B-wavelets are given. The results show that in addition to providing a multi-resolution basis of self-similar functions, wavelets display a definite non-linear symmetry which can be associated with a q-deformation of the Fourier series generating algebra. In a second paper we will show that wavelets also have variational properties: all multi-scale equations follow from Hamilton’s equation of an infinite-dimensional Hamiltonian system.

The two-scale equation, which is the central object of wavelet theory, is also shown to have an algebraic structure that is associated with a quantum algebra . Applications of this result can be realized using supercomputers and efficient numerical schemes which, in turn, can be used to model complex continuous systems or genuine discrete systems defined on lattices. The symmetries related to complete solvability  or to discrete-continuous transitions , and their basic tools, the finite difference equations, are new and key elements in any analysis of discrete systems. On uniform lattices the symmetry algebras of partial differential equations is left unchanged by the discretization . In the case of non-uniform lattices one needs to introduce generalized symmetries, like quantum algebras . This is an example of when the q-deformation of some initial symmetries can play an important role. An outcome of the present paper is an extension of traditional Fourier analysis towards wavelet expansions by means of q-deformation.

The finite-difference and scaling operators involved in the dilation equation are algebraically closed with respect to certain non-linear commutation relations. This symmetry is seen most simply when the operators are realized in terms of q-deformed derivatives . By expressing the translation and dilation operators as q-deformed derivatives, the scaling and difference operators can be mapped onto the generators of a non-linear algebra and the action of the q-deformed derivatives is extended to non-differentiable functions. Moreover, such non-linear algebras can be un-deformed to the Fourier series generating algebra or can be mapped onto the $`su_q(2)`$ algebra.

After introducing notation and basic definitions in Section 2, we present in Section 3 the deformation of a Fourier algebra into a scaling function generating algebra, and identify a spectral problem with the Haar dilation equation. In Section 4, we introduce the definition of the most general scaling function and wavelet algebra and prove that the algebraic formulation of the dilation equation is unique. A duality relation is obtained: for any scaling function there is a non-linear algebra; and for special algebras one can find a corresponding wavelet structure. In Section 5 we give examples of scaling function algebras for the Haar and the B-wavetes. We use new limiting procedures to solve the q-difference and finite-difference equations. In Section 6 we use a variant and extension of the deforming functional technique  to obtain a mapping of the generators of non-linear algebras to those of $`su_q(2)`$. Concluding comments, further extensions, and other remarks are given in Section 7.

## 2 Basic elements

An algebraic structure can be built for any scaling function system and wavelet basis. In order to realize this construction, three basic building blocks are needed: the algebraic structure of the Fourier system (starting point), the wavelet theory (final objective), and q-deformation (intermediate tool).

### 2.1 Fourier algebras

In order to demonstrate our approach, consider algebras which have Fourier series as the basis of their representation spaces . In the following we shall denote $`^kf/x^k=_kf=f^k`$. The trigonometric (Fourier) system $`\{|k>=e^{ikx}\}_{kZ}`$ diagonalizes all translation invariant operators acting on $`L^2([0,2\pi ])`$. We introduce three generators within a differential realization $`J_0=i`$, $`J_\pm =e^{\pm ix}(i)^p`$, satisfying the commutation relations

$`[J_0,J_\pm ]=\pm J_\pm ,[J_+,J_{}]=1(12i)^p.`$ (1)
For $`p=0`$, eqs.(1) describe an algebra, denoted $`_0`$, that is isomorphic to an analytical prolongation, $`e(2,C)`$, of the Euclidean algebra $`e(2,R)`$ of rigid motions in the plane. The algebra $`e(2,R)`$, generated by $`P_x=P_x^{}`$, $`P_y=P_y^{}`$ and $`R=R^{}`$, with the commutators $`[R,P_{x,y}]=\pm P_{y,x}`$, $`[P_x,P_y]=0`$, is realized through the mapping

$$J_0=iR,J_\pm =P_x\pm iP_y,$$

onto the $`_0`$ algebra. The unitary irreducible representations (unirreps) of $`_0`$ are based on the eigenvectors of the self-adjoint operator $`J_0`$, $`J_0|n>=n|n>`$. For any two distinct eigenstates, $`|n>`$ and $`|n^{^{}}>`$, by using the first commutator in eq.(1), we obtain $`n^{^{}}=n+1`$ and hence the spectrum of $`J_0`$ is unbounded, discrete and consists in equidistant eigenvalues. Hence the space of representations is generated by the Fourier system, and the other generators $`J_\pm |n>=|n\pm 1>`$ act like ladder operators on the $`|n>`$ states, increasing/decreasing the scale by unity. For $`p=1`$ eqs.(1) describe another Lie algebra, $`_1`$, isomorphic with the symplectic algebra $`sp(2,R)su(1,1)so(2,1)`$. This differential realization has the same representation space as $`_0`$ but it is not irreducible. The action of the generators of $`_1`$ is similar to that of the generators of $`_0`$ for $`n0`$. Unlike the $`_0`$ case, however, we have that $`J_\pm |1>=|0>`$ and the sub-spaces $`\{e^{inx}\}_{nN}`$ and $`\{e^{inx}\}_{nN}`$ are invariant subspaces of $`_1`$. The $`_{0,1}`$ examples suggest the possibility of other constructions in terms of the operator $``$ and the complex exponential functions of different scales.

### 2.2 Scaling functions and wavelets

Wavelets are able to reconstruct a signal through regular sampling, namely, by analyzing the signal at different scales (which increase/decrease exponentially) with the step size between each scale being the same. Different from the ordinary Fourier transform, which reproduces a function as a superposition of complex exponentials, or from the windowed Fourier transform, which introduces a scale into the analysis of signals, multi-resolution analysis processes the signal locally, using the appropriate local scale. Basically, wavelets are constructed with a pair of operators: the dilation (scaling) and finite-difference (combinations of translations) operators, acting on $`L^2(R)`$ and defined, respectively, by $`T^\alpha f(x)=f(x+\alpha )`$, $`D^\beta f(x)=2^\beta f(2^\beta x)`$, with $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$ arbitrary real numbers. They are invertible, unitary, and fulfill $`T^\alpha D^\beta =D^\beta T^{2^\beta \alpha }`$, $`T^\alpha T^\beta =T^{\alpha +\beta }`$, $`D^\alpha D^\beta =D^{\alpha +\beta }`$. The formal Taylor series representation of these operators are $`T^\alpha =e^\alpha `$ and $`D^\beta =2^\beta e^{\beta ln2x}`$. On the space of compact supported or rapidly decreasing functions, any holomorphic function $`f(T)`$ is locally polynomial. Indeed, if $`f`$ is holomorphic, and its action is taken on the compact supported function subspace of $`\mathrm{\Phi }L^2(R)`$, then the action of $`f(T)=_{kZ}C_kT^k`$ reduces to that of a Laurent polynomial by keeping only a finite number of terms in the sum.

The wavelet system is given by a set of scaled and translated copies of a pair of functions: the scaling function $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and the mother wavelet $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$. The basic fact about wavelets is that both these fundamental functions are finite linear combinations of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, reflecting the self-similar character of the wavelet system. The defining equation for the scaling function (the dilation equation) is a linear finite-difference equation, including a scale change (q-difference )

$`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=D{\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}}C_kT^k\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=Dg(T)\mathrm{\Phi }(x),`$ (2)
where the RHS sum is a polynomial in $`T`$, $`g(T)`$. Eq.(2) is a fixed-point equation and consequently it has only one unique solution \[1-7,11,13\]. The scaling function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$, as a solution of eq.(2), is required to have two properties \[1-5\]:

1. $`_R\mathrm{\Phi }(x)𝑑x=1`$, the average value property;

2. $`<\mathrm{\Phi }_n,\mathrm{\Phi }>_R\mathrm{\Phi }(x+n)\mathrm{\Phi }(x)dx=\delta _{n,0}`$ for any $`nZ`$, the orthogonality condition. These conditions introduce restrictions on the coefficients $`C_k`$ in eq.(2) \[1-4\],

$`{\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}}C_k=2,{\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}}C_kC_{k+2l}=\delta _{0l},lZ.`$ (3)
The conditions expressed through eq.(3) yield a pattern of $`L^2(R)`$ as a chain of subspaces $`V_jV_{j+1}`$, each one being generated by all the translations of $`D^j\mathrm{\Phi }`$, $`jZ`$. By repeated application of $`D`$ and $`T`$ on $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, $`D^jT^n\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=\mathrm{\Phi }(2^jx+n)\mathrm{\Phi }_{j,n}`$, one obtains a non-orthogonal basis in $`L^2(R)`$. The action of the operator $`DT^\lambda g(T^1)`$ on $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, $`\lambda `$ being a unique odd integer, provides the mother wavelet function:

$`\mathrm{\Psi }(x)=T^\lambda Dg(T^1)\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=T^\lambda {\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}(1)^kC_{k+1}\mathrm{\Phi }(2xk).`$ (4)
The wavelet $`\mathrm{\Psi }(x)`$ has the property that $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }_{j,n}\}_{j,nZ}`$ is an orthonormal basis of $`L^2(R)`$ \[1-3\] and $`L^2(R)`$ is a direct sum of the orthogonal subspaces $`W_j`$ (the orthogonal complements of $`V_j`$), each of them generated by all possible translations of $`D^j\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{\Psi }_{j,0}`$ with integral m: $`L^2(R)=_{jZ}W_j`$, \[1-5\]. Hence translated and dilated copies of the mother wavelet, $`\mathrm{\Psi }(2^jx+k)`$, generate a true orthonormal basis. Recursively applications of the eqs.(2,4) relate all the scaling functions and wavelets.

The simplest example is provided by the Haar wavelet, defined by the scaling function $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{Haar}(x)=1`$ if $`|x1/2|1/2`$ and $`0`$ otherwise. In this case we have $`D(1+T^1)\mathrm{\Phi }_{Haar}=\mathrm{\Phi }_{Haar}`$ and $`g_{Haar}(T)=1+T^1`$ ($`C_0=C_1=1`$ and the rest $`0`$ in eq.(2)). The corresponding Haar wavelet is $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{Haar}=D(1T^1)\mathrm{\Phi }_{Haar}`$, i.e. $`\lambda =1`$ in eq.(4).

There are similarities and differences between the Fourier and the wavelet approaches. From an algebraic point of view, in both approaches, there are eigenfunction equations, which keep the scale constant, and the ladder operators, which change the scale. The dilation equation, eq.(2), has its analog in the Fourier formalism, though it is a fixed-point equation and has only one solution. The mother wavelet, eq.(4), has no analog in Fourier analysis. Each Fourier eigenfunction carries one scale; a wavelet function $`\mathrm{\Psi }(x)`$ involves two scales, e.g. $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{0,k}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{2,k}`$. Because of their localization, wavelets possess a degree of freedom beyond that of a Fourier system; namely, the width of the support of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. In the present approach this degree of freedom is associated with the deformation parameter, $`q`$.

### 2.3 Quantum deformations

A possibility for constructing scaling functions/wavelets within an algebraic approach is to deform the Fourier algebraic structure into a non-linear system. In general, the scaling functions and wavelets are not differentiable. This suggests the use of finite-difference operators instead of derivatives. Finite-difference operators are closed with respect to commutation but only within non-linear algebraic constructions. Consequently, it is natural to use q-deformed derivatives to find a foundation for wavelet theory in $`q`$-deformed algebras.

Quantum algebras refer to some specific deformations of Lie algebras, to which they reduce when the deformation parameter $`q`$ is set equal to unity (for a recent monograph see  and references therein). The simplest example of a $`q`$-algebra is suq(2) whose Jordan-Schwinger realization is given in terms of $`q`$-bosonic operators . The q-deformed algebras have been applied in various branches of physics like spin-chain models, non-commutative spaces, rotational spectra of deformed nuclei, Hamiltonian quantization, and dynamical symmetry breaking. The basic element is the q-deformation of a certain object $`x`$, which can be a number, an operator, or a function:

$$[x]_s=\frac{q^xq^x}{qq^1}\stackrel{s0}{}x,$$
(5)
where $`q=e^s`$. The Taylor expansion of $`T`$ and $`D`$ are related to the q-deformation of the derivative operator, according to the definition of the coordinate description of the q-deformed oscillator introduced in ,

$$[]_sf=\frac{T^sT^s}{2sinh(s)}f(x).$$
(6)
Analogously, we introduce the operator

$$[x]_{s\mathrm{ln}2}f(x)=\frac{f(2^sx)f(2^sx)}{2sinh(s\mathrm{ln}2)}=\frac{D^sD^s}{2sinh(s\mathrm{ln}2)}f(x).$$
(7)
When $`s0`$, $`[]_s`$ and $`[x]_{s\mathrm{ln}2}x`$. Eqs.(6,7) can be inverted and the occurrence of the q-deformed derivative and the translation/dilation operators becomes immediate

$$T^{\pm s}=\frac{1}{2}\left(\pm \frac{[]_s}{\eta (s)}+\frac{[]_{s/2}^2}{\eta ^2(s/2)}+2\right)$$
(8)
$$D^{\pm s}=\frac{1}{2}\left(\pm \frac{[x]_s}{\eta (s\mathrm{ln}2)}+\frac{[x]_{s/2}^2}{\eta ^2(s\mathrm{ln}2/2)}+2\right),$$
(9)
where $`sN`$ (or more general $`R`$) and $`\eta (s)=\frac{1}{e^se^s}`$. The q-deformed algebra $`su_q(2)`$, generated by $`\{J_0,J_\pm \}`$, is defined by the q-deformed version of the commutation relation

$$[J_+,J_{}]=[2J_0]_s$$

while the other two commutator relations remain undeformed, that is, they have the same form as for $`su(2)`$. In addition to this traditional version of $`su_q(2)`$, several generalized forms have been introduced through two different prescriptions: 1) by deforming the commutator $`[J_0,J_\pm ]`$ by using some arbitrary function $`G(J_0,q)`$, $`[J_0,J_+]=G(J_0,q)J_+`$ and $`[J_0,J_{}]=J_{}G(J_0,q)`$, independently proposed in ,  and ; and 2) by deformations involving all three commutation relations, using two functions $`G(J_0,q)`$ and $`F(J_0,q)=[J_+,J_{}]`$, introduced in . Unlike the former, for which the spectrum of $`J_0`$ is linear, the latter is characterized by an exponential spectrum for $`J_0`$. Since in wavelet theory the domains of analysis are divided exponentially, rather than linearly with bands of equal widths, such algebras are used in the following analyses.

## 3 Haar scaling function algebra, $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$

The aim in this section is to obtain operators depending on $`D`$ and $`T`$ that form a non-linear algebra. This structure must provide an algebraic form for eqs.(2,4) and map onto the Fourier algebra, $`_{0,1}`$. Consider an operator depending on $`T`$ and two real parameters $`s,\alpha `$:

$$W_0(s,\alpha )=\frac{T^{s\alpha }T^{s\alpha }\mathrm{cos}s\pi }{2\xi (\alpha )\mathrm{sinh}s},$$
(10)
where $`\xi (\alpha )=\frac{1}{\mathrm{sinh}(1)}\mathrm{sin}(\frac{\alpha \pi }{2})2i\mathrm{cos}(\frac{\alpha \pi }{2})`$. The $`(s,\alpha )`$ parameters allow $`W_0`$ to approach $``$ or combinations of $`T`$

$$W_0(0,\alpha )=\frac{\alpha }{\xi (\alpha )},$$
(11)
$$W_0(\frac{1}{2},\alpha )=\frac{1}{2\mathrm{sinh}(1/2)\xi (\alpha )}T^{\frac{\alpha }{2}},$$
(12)
$$W_0(1,\alpha )=\frac{T^\alpha +T^\alpha }{2\mathrm{sinh}(1)\xi (\alpha )},$$
(13)
$$W_0(2,\alpha )=\frac{T^{2\alpha }T^{2\alpha }}{2\mathrm{sinh}(2)\xi (\alpha )}.$$
(14)
In the limit $`s0,`$ $`W_0`$ reduces to the normal derivative with respect to $`x`$, eq.(11). In the limit $`s=\frac{1}{2}`$, we obtain a power of the translation operator $`T`$, eq.(12). Eq.(13) defines a q-deformation of unity, namely, $`W_0(1,0)=\frac{i}{4\mathrm{sinh}(1)}`$. $`W_0(s,\alpha )`$ can be a Hermitian or anti-Hermitian operator, $`W_0(1,\alpha )=\pm W_0(1,\alpha )^{}`$, depending on $`\alpha `$. The last limit, eq.(14), represents a finite-difference operator and is proportional to the q-derivative with respect to the $`\alpha `$-deformation $`[2]_\alpha `$, similar to eqs.(6-9). For $`\alpha =2k`$ in eq.(12), $`\alpha =k`$ in eq.(13) and $`\alpha =k/2`$ in eq.(14), the corresponding $`W_0(s,\alpha )`$ are Laurent polynomials in $`T`$, providing a direct connection to the wavelet operators. For some values of $`\alpha `$, eqs.(12-14) give invertible operators with respect to $`T`$, $`T=T(W_0)`$.

In order to introduce the dilation operator $`D`$, we define

$$W_\pm (s)=\frac{1}{2}e^{ix\frac{s1}{2}}D^se^{ix\frac{s1}{2}}(1+T^{\pm s}).$$
(15)
In order to fulfill the hermiticity condition $`(W_+)^{}=W_{}`$ on $`L^2(R)`$ these generators can be redefined in the form

$$W_\pm \stackrel{~}{W}_\pm =2^{1\frac{s}{2}}e^{ix\frac{s1}{2}}D^se^{ix\frac{s1}{2}}\left(1+e^{i\frac{s(s1)(1+2^s)}{4}}T^{\pm s(2^{\frac{s}{2}(11)})}\right).$$

By using the commutators relations between $`D`$ and $`T`$ and by performing an integration by parts, one has a direct check of the relation $`(\stackrel{~}{W}_+)^{}=\stackrel{~}{W}_{}`$

$$<f_1,\stackrel{~}{W}_+f_2>=_Rf_1^{}(x)\stackrel{~}{W}_+f_2(x)dx=<\stackrel{~}{W}_{}f_1,f_2>.$$

From eqs.(10,15) one obtains the commutators

$$[W_0(s,\alpha ),W_+(s)]=G(s,T)W_+(s),$$
(16)
$$[W_0(s,\alpha ),W_{}(s)]=W_{}(s)G(s,T),$$
(17)
$$[W_+(s),W_{}(s)]=F(s,T),$$
(18)
with

$$G(s,T)=W_0(s,\alpha )\frac{T^{2^ss\alpha }e^{is\alpha (1+2^s)\frac{s1}{2}}T^{2^ss\alpha }e^{is\alpha (1+2^s)\frac{s1}{2}}\mathrm{cos}s\pi }{2sinh(s)\xi (\alpha )}$$
(19)
and

$$F(s,T)=\frac{1}{4}\left((1+e^{is(1+2^s)\frac{s1}{2}}T^{2^ss})(1+T^s)(1+e^{is(1+2^s)\frac{s1}{2}}T^{2^ss})(1+T^s)\right).$$
(20)
Eqs.(10,15,16-20) describe a non-linear associative algebra, generated by $`T^\pm ,D^\pm `$, denoted $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$. The eigenvalue problem for $`W_\pm `$ provides the algebraic form for the scaling equation. When $`W_0(s,\alpha )`$ is invertible with respect to $`T`$, the algebra has $`W_0,W_\pm `$ as generators which depend on two parameters ($`s,\alpha `$) and is homomorphic with a special q-deformed algebra, namely, the two-color quasitriangular Hopf algebra $`𝒜^\pm `$ . The spectrum of $`W_0`$ is not equidistant because $`F(s,T)const.\times W_0`$. The Casimir operator of the algebra $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$ is given by \[28-31\]

$$C=W_{}W_++H(W_0)=W_+W_{}+H(W_0)F(W_0),$$
(21)
where $`H`$ is a real function, holomorphic in a neighborhood of $`0`$ and which must satisfy the functional equation

$$H(\xi )H(\xi G(\xi ))=F(\xi ).$$
(22)
with $`\xi `$ generic. The irreps of $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$ are labeled by the eigenvalues $`W_0|a>=a|a>`$. The commutator in eq.(16) can be written in the form

$$W_+W_0=(W_0G)W_+.$$
(23)
If $`|a>|a^{^{}}>`$ are eigenvectors of $`W_0`$, with corresponding eigenvalues $`a`$, $`a^{^{}}`$, we have from eq.(23) a non-linear recursion relation for all the eigenvalues

$$a^{^{}}=aG(a).$$
(24)
The algebra $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$ can be mapped into $`su(1,1)`$, the Lie algebra of a Fourier series, in the limit $`s0`$, $`\alpha 2`$: $`W_\pm e^{\pm ix}=J_\pm `$, $`W_0i=J_0`$, where we take these limits in the order $`𝒜_{s_0,\alpha _0}=lim_{\alpha \alpha _0}lim_{ss_0}𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$. The continuous mapping $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }𝒜_{0,2}su(1,1)`$ is an algebraic morphism and one can consider wavelets as q-deformed generalizations of the Fourier series, in the above sense.

As a first example, the Haar scaling function can be associated with a particular case of $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$, namely, $`𝒜_{1,1}`$. In the algebra $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ the eigenproblem for $`W_{}`$ provides the dilation equation for the Haar scaling function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$ defined by eq.(2) with $`g(T)=1+T^1`$. We have in this case $`G=W_02W_0^2+1`$, and $`W_\pm =\frac{1}{2}D^1(1+T^{\pm 1})`$ and the commutators

$$[W_0,W_+]=(W_02W_0^2+1)W_+,$$

$$[W_0,W_{}]=W_{}(W_0W_0^2+1),$$
(25)
$$[W_+,W_{}]=\frac{1}{4}\left(T^2(W_0)T^{1/2}(W_0)T^{1/2}(W_0)+T^1(W_0)\right),$$

where $`T(W_0)`$ is the solution of the equation $`2W_0=T+T^1`$, a pseudo-differential operator. The Casimir operator of $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ is a constant. Indeed, eq.(22) for the general Casimir operator is given by

$$H(W_0)H(2W_0^21)=F(W_0),$$
(26)
and has, in terms of the $`T=T(W_0)`$ operator, the form

$$\chi (T)\chi (T^2)=\frac{1}{4}\left(T^2T^{1/2}T^{1/2}+T^1\right),$$
(27)
where $`\chi (T)=H(\frac{T+T^1}{2})`$. The unique analytical solution for eq.(27) reads

$$\chi (T)=\frac{1}{4}(const.TT^{1/2}T^{1/2}),$$
(28)
which gives for the Casimir operator a constant.

The spectrum of $`W_0`$ consists of periodic functions satisfying the equation $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x+1)+\mathrm{\Phi }(x1)=2\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$. This takes one back to Fourier analysis. The way to the Haar scaling function is to use the spectrum of $`W_\pm `$ since in $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ the eigenproblem for $`W_{}`$ gives the dilation equation for the Haar scaling function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$. Once $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is obtained from $`2W_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$ the generator $`W_0`$ carries $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ into an infinite sequence of functions $`W_0^n\mathrm{\Phi }`$. These functions are mutually orthogonal and generate the space $`V_0`$. The action of $`W_\pm `$ on $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ yields $`W_0^{2^n}\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Consequently, $`V_0`$ is an invariant space for all the generators of the algebra $`𝒜_{1,1}`$.

The spectrum of $`W_0`$ depends on the values of the parameters $`s,\alpha `$. In the case of $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ this relation is $`a^{^{}}=2a^21`$. The corresponding representations are infinite-dimensional and the eigenvalues of $`W_0|_{1,1}`$ are $`a_n=cosh(2^n\stackrel{~}{a})`$, $`nZ`$ for any $`\stackrel{~}{a}`$. The corresponding eigenfunctions have the form $`|a_n>_\pm =e^{\pm 2^n\stackrel{~}{a}x}`$ which results in an exponential spectrum for $`a_n`$ similar to the sequence of scales in wavelet theory. This is a self-similar spectrum with respect to $`\stackrel{~}{a}`$, like the sequence of scales in wavelet theory. A part of this spectrum is shown in Fig. 1. The action of $`W_\pm `$ is:

$`W_\pm |a_n>_\pm ={\displaystyle \frac{1+e^{\pm 2^n\stackrel{~}{a}}}{2}}|a_{n\pm 1}>_\pm .`$ (29)
Another basis for a representation of $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ is given by $`\underset{¯}{|k>}=e^{\frac{i\pi x}{k}}`$, $`kZ`$. We have the action

$$W_0\underset{¯}{|k>}=\mathrm{cos}\frac{\pi }{k}\underset{¯}{|k>},W_\pm \underset{¯}{|k>}=\frac{1}{2}\left(1+e^{\pm \frac{i\pi }{k}}\right)\underset{¯}{|2^{\pm 1}k>},$$

and on this basis $`(W_+)^{}=W_{}`$. There are two invariant spaces, $`\underset{¯}{|2^k>}`$ and $`\underset{¯}{|2^k>}`$, $`kN`$, with $`W_\pm \underset{¯}{|0>}=1`$.

The same procedure can be followed for any set of the parameters $`s,\alpha `$. For example, if we choose the algebra $`𝒜_{2,1/2}`$ with $`W_0`$ defined in eq.(12), we obtain the spectrum of $`W_0`$ described by the recursion relation:

$$a^{^{}}=a\left(a+\sqrt{a^2+1}+\frac{1}{a+\sqrt{a^2+1}}\right),$$
(30)
which also gives a non-linear, unbounded, discrete representation of $`𝒜_{2,1/2}`$.

The last thing to prove is the uniqueness of the two-scale equation in the $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ scaling function generating algebra. The two-scale equation, eq.(2), in its algebraic form $`2W_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is not unique in $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ if there exists an operator, similar with that occuring in the dilation equation, which commutes with $`W_{}`$. This operator should contain higher powers in $`T`$ and consequently is an element of $`U(𝒜_{1,1})`$.

Proposition 1: In $`U(𝒜_{1,1})`$ there exists a unique operator $`X=Dx(T^1)`$ such that $`[W_{},X]=0`$. The function $`x(\xi )`$ is integer, not polynomial, and unbounded, for generic $`\xi `$.

Proof: We take for $`X`$ a Laurent series $`x(T^1)=_{kZ}C_kT^k`$ then the condition $`[W_{},X]=0`$ results in a recursion relation for the coefficients $`C_k`$:

$`C_{2k+1}=C_kC_{2k1},C_{2k}=C_kC_{2k2},`$ (31)
for any $`kZ`$. Eqs.(31) have one trivial solution which reproduces $`W_{}`$, $`x(T^1)=C_1(1+T^1)`$ and only one other solution, with $`C_k=\pm C_1`$ or $`0`$, uniquely defined ($`C_2=C_{\pm 3}=C_4=C_5=C_6=C_7=C_8=C_{11}\mathrm{}=0`$, $`C_2=C_5=C_6=C_9=C_{10}=C_{10}=C_{11}=\mathrm{}=C_1`$ and $`C_1=C_4=C_7=C_8=C_9=C_{12}=C_{12}=\mathrm{}C_1`$, etc.). The sequence of non-zero coefficients is infinite, and $`\{C_k\}`$ is not a Cauchy sequence. (q.e.d.) We note that the $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ algebra is also a Hopf algebra, , defined by eqs.(25) and by the coproduct, counit and antipode in the form:

$$\mathrm{}T^\pm =T^\pm T^\pm ,\mathrm{}D^\pm =D^\pm D^\pm ,ϵ(T^\pm )=ϵ(D^\pm )=1,$$

$$S(T^\pm )=T^{},S(D^\pm )=D^{}.$$

All its generators are primitive elements.

## 4 General scaling and wavelet algebra

This algebraic approach for the Haar scaling function can be generalized to yield a non-linear algebra for any scaling function, and conversely, to find the dilation equation and scaling function for certain algebras. The procedure starts with an algebra generated by the dilation and translation operators and constructs, within this algebra, the two-scale equation. The generators of the $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$ algebra can be generalized as

$`W_0j_0(T),W_\pm j_\pm (D,T)=e^{ix\frac{s1}{2}}D^se^{ix\frac{s1}{2}}j(T^{\pm 1}),`$ (32)
with $`j_0(T)`$ and $`j(T)`$ being arbitrary functions of $`T`$ and $`s`$, holomorphic in a neighborghood of $`T=1`$, with their dependence on $`s`$ being such that in the limit $`s0`$, $`j_0(T)i`$, $`j(T)1`$. In this case the commutation relations, eqs.(16-20), become

$`[j_0,j_+]=\stackrel{~}{G}j_+,[j_0,j_{}]=j_{}\stackrel{~}{G},[j_+,j_{}]=\stackrel{~}{F}`$ (33)
with $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ depending on $`T`$ through $`j_0,j`$, respectively,

$`\stackrel{~}{G}=\stackrel{~}{G}(s,T)=j_0(s,T)j_0(s,T^{2^s}e^{i(1+2^s)\frac{s1}{2}}),`$ (34)
$`\stackrel{~}{F}=\stackrel{~}{F}(s,T)=j(s,e^{i\frac{s1}{2}(1+2^s)}T^{2^s})j(s,T^1)j(s,T^{2^s}e^{i\frac{s1}{2}(1+2^s)})j(s,T).`$ (35)
Eqs.(33-35) define a non-linear algebra denoted $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$ as a generalization of $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$. If the function $`j(T)`$ is invertible with respect to $`T`$, $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$ can be expressed in terms of the generators $`j_0,j_\pm `$ only and then $`\stackrel{~}{G}(T)=𝒢(j_0)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{F}(T)=(j_0)`$. The algebraic morphism $`j_0(T)W_0`$ and $`j(T)1+T^s`$ provides the mapping $`𝒜_{j_0,j}𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$. Since the first two commutators of $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$, eq.(33), do not depend on the function $`j(T)`$, and the third commutator in eq.(33) does not depend on the function $`j_0(T)`$, the closure condition for $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$ is independent of the functions $`j_0(T)`$ and $`j(T)`$ and hence they can be choosen in a convenient way to provide any dilation equation in the form of the eigenproblem for $`j_{}`$. The algebraic closure conditions for $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$, together with the definitions of $`j,j_0`$, require that

$`j_0(T^2)j_0(T)=𝒢(j_0(T^2)),`$ (36)
$`j(T^2)j(T^1)j(T^{1/2})j(T)=(j_0(T)).`$ (37)
Both eqs.(36,37) are non-linear, and in general, difficult to solve analytically. The unique solution for the dilation equation are $`j_\pm `$ since the Casimir operator of this algebra depends on $`T`$ only. Choosing $`g(T)=j(T)`$ yields the dilation equation in the form $`2j_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$. In the limit of $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$ this provides again the Haar two-scale equation. The corresponding scaling function belongs to the basis of the representation of $`j_{}`$ with eigenvalue $`1/2`$. The remaining arbitrary function $`j_0`$ can now be selected to obtain the wavelet generating operator $`j_{}j_0\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Psi }`$, in agreement with eq.(4). One can formally construct a basis of the representation for $`j_{}`$ with the functions $`|n>=(\mathrm{ln}T)^n\mathrm{\Phi }`$. The procedure is the following: for a given algebra $`𝒜_{j_0j}`$ (therefore given functions $`𝒢`$, $``$) solve eqs.(36,37) with respect to the functions $`j_0,j_\pm `$ and obtain the corresponding dilation equation in the form $`2j_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$. A certain combination of generators produces the corresponding wavelet equation for $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$. Conversely, given a scaling/wavelet function, and consequently its dilation equation and $`g(T)`$, one can choose $`j_{}=Dg(T)`$ and then solves the equation $`Dg(T^1)=j_{}j_0`$ with respect to $`j_0`$. With $`j_0,j_\pm `$ known one can solve eqs.(36,37) with respect to $`𝒢,`$ to construct the algebra.

This algebraic approach is in some sense universal. What is modified is the specific realization of the non-linear algebra in terms of $`D`$ and $`T`$. Constraints are imposed by the two limiting approaches (two-scale equation and Fourier limit). Loosley speaking, the closure of the algebra provides the fixed-point dilation equation and the non-linearity of the algebra provides the exponential scaling.

We also note that $`V_0=\{_kC_kT^k\mathrm{\Phi }\}`$,that is, the space generated by all the integer translations of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, and any other $`V_j=D^jV_0`$, is not invariant to the action of $`j_{}`$. For example, the condition $`j_{}D\mathrm{\Phi }=_kC_kT^kD\mathrm{\Phi }`$ implies the existence of an operator containing $`D`$, whose commutator with $`j_{}`$ is a function of $`T`$ only. From the definition of the algebra this is impossible, and consequently this proves the above conjecture. The $`V_j`$ spaces form, by recursion, a basis in $`L^2(R)`$.

In order to prove the uniqueness of the two-scale equation in the general case, we again use Proposition 1, for $`W_{}j_{}=Dj(T^1)=D_{kZ}j_kT^k`$. We have to solve the commutation equation $`[Dj(T^1),X)]=0`$ for $`x(T)=_{kZ}X_kT^k`$, $`X=Dx(T)`$. This implies that the arbitrary functions $`x(\xi )`$ and $`j(\xi )`$ must fulfill the functional condition ($`\xi `$ a generic variable)

$$x(\xi ^2)j(\xi )=x(\xi )j(\xi ^2).$$
(38)
Eq.(38) does not carry any restriction with respect to the values of the functions between $`0`$ and $`1`$. Since $`Dj(T)`$ represents a scaling operator we have, according to the dilation equation, $`j(1)=1`$, $`j(1)=0`$ which implies $`x(1)=0`$. If $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the corresponding scaling function for $`j_{}`$ then $`X\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is also an eigenfunction of $`j_{}`$, $`j_{}(X\mathrm{\Phi })=X\mathrm{\Phi }`$. In order for $`Dx(T)`$ to satisfy the average value property (1) in subsection 2.2, we impose the additional condition $`x(1)=1`$. The last condition require of for $`DX(T)`$, the orthogonality condition (2) of subsection 2.2, is equivalent with the condition \[1-4\]

$$|x(T)|^2+|x(T)|^2=1.$$
(39)
By introducing eq.(38) in eq.(39) we obtain $`X=j_{}`$ which provides the trivial indentity solution, and hence uniqueness.

## 5 Construction of the scaling and wavelet algebra

The link between the scaling function and wavelet, and the corresponding scaling algebra is supported by the solutions of eqs.(36,37). In the following we present a method for solving these equations, from the wavelets towards its algebra. The dilation equation eq.(2) has the form of a fixed-point equation. Therefore we must try to find its eigenvectors as limits of some functional sequences. The limits of these sequences should be compact supported or rapidly decreasing functions for two reasons: to obtain scaling functions with good localization, and to provide correct behaviour of the action of the operators $`f(T)`$. Since the scaling function will be expressed as a limit of a sequence, one has to look for operators which commute with the limit (are absorbed in the limit). We choose a test function $`\mathrm{}_0(x)`$ and a sequence of operators $`f_n`$ from the universal covering $`U(𝒜_{j_0,j})`$ of the scaling function algebra introduced in the preceding section, such that the limit $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=lim_n\mathrm{}f_n\mathrm{}_0(x)`$ exists in the weak topology  and it provides the scaling function.

In the following we show how to construct the scaling algebra $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$ from the dilation equation, written in the form $`j_{}(T,D,s)\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$. We have the following proposition in the framework of the algebra $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$, for $`s=1`$:

Proposition 2  Let $`f_n(j_0)`$ be a functional sequence in $`U(𝒜_{j_0,j})`$, $`s=1`$, $`\mathrm{}_0(x)`$ a (test) function and $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$ the scaling function. If the limit $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=lim_n\mathrm{}f_n(j_0)j_{}^n\mathrm{}_0(x)`$ exists, and $`lim_n\mathrm{}\frac{f_n(j_0𝒢(s,j_0))}{f_{n1}(j_0)}=1`$, then $`j_{}\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$.

Proof:

From the RHS of the first condition in the hypothesis and from eq.(33) we have

$$f_n(j_0)j_{}^n=j_{}f_n(j_0𝒢(s,j_0))j_{}^{n1}=j_{}\frac{f_n(j_0𝒢(s,j_0))}{f_{n1}(j_0)}f_{n1}(j_0)j_{}^{n1}.$$

It follows:

$$j_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}j_{}f_n(j_0)\mathrm{}_0(x)=\mathrm{\Phi },$$

q.e.d. It follows from Proposition 2 that for a given dilation equation $`j_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$, (both $`j_{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ given) we can find out a sequence $`f_n(j_0)`$, the operator $`𝒢(s,j_0)`$, and a test function $`\mathrm{}_0(x)`$, such that these objects satisfy the hypothesis of Proposition 2. Then it follows that one can construct the scaling algebra, since with $`j_0`$ and $`𝒢(s,j_0)`$ found, $`(s,j_0)`$ results from the last commutator in eq.(33). In general, one starts with $`j_0`$ as an arbitrary function of $`T`$ which can be deformed into $`i`$ when mapping $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$ to $`_{0,1}`$. As $`j_{}`$ is provided by the two-scale equation, $`j_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$, other solutions are forbiden. If $`lim_n\mathrm{}f_n(j_0)=f_{\mathrm{}}(j_0)const.`$, this limit should commute with $`j_{}`$ which is forbidden by Proposition 1. This procedure closes the construction of the algebra $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$.

In the following we give an algorithm for finding $`f_n(j_0)`$ and $`j_0(T)`$ and illustrate it with two examples. Since any mother scaling function is defined by the dilation equation ($`Dh(T)\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$ or $`j_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$) it is natural to search for solutions by using a recursion algorithm. For instance, we can find a test function $`\mathrm{}_0(x)`$ and a triplet of operators $`A,B,C`$ such that the limit $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=Blim_n\mathrm{}A^n\mathrm{}_0(x)`$ exists, and in addition, $`CB=BA^k`$ for a finite positive integer $`k`$. Then, we have the property $`C\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$. Indeed, $`C\mathrm{\Phi }=CBlim_n\mathrm{}A^n\mathrm{}_0=Blim_n\mathrm{}A^{n+k}\mathrm{}_0=Blim_n\mathrm{}A^n\mathrm{}_0=\mathrm{\Phi }`$. From the dilation equation we know that $`C`$ should have the form $`C=Dc(T)`$ with $`c(T)`$ a function of $`T`$. One of the simplest choices is to use $`A=D`$ and $`B=b(T)`$. Then we have $`CB=Dc(T)b(T)=c(T^{1/2})b(T^{1/2})D=b(T)A`$; that is, $`k=1`$ and a restriction for the arbitrary functions $`c(T)`$ and $`b(T)`$ arises:

$`c(T^{1/2})b(T^{1/2})=b(T)`$ (40)
This equation is useful in both directions (algebraic $``$ dilation equation), since one can start with a given scaling function (given $`c(T)`$) and find the operator $`b(T)`$ involved in the algebra and conversely.

Now consider the algorithm for the Haar scaling function, $`c(T)=1+T^1`$. We look for solutions of eq.(40) as Laurent series for $`b(T)=_{kZ}b_kT^k`$. In this case eq.(40) has an unique solution, $`b(T)=const.\times (1T^1)`$. This gives again an unique solution for $`\mathrm{\Phi }=(1T^1)lim_n\mathrm{}D^n\mathrm{}_0`$. We stress that $`Db(T)`$ is exactly the operator which gives the Haar wavelet. Further, we can express $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{Haar}`$ in the form $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=H(x)H(x1)`$, where $`H(x)`$ is the Heaviside distribution. For any sequence of $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ functions $`\delta _n(x)\delta (x)`$, we have $`\mathrm{\Delta }_n(x)=\delta _n(x)𝑑xH(x)`$ and we can write

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}(\mathrm{\Delta }_n(x)\mathrm{\Delta }_n(x1)).$$
(41)
For example, we can use the sequences $`\delta _n=\frac{1}{\pi }\frac{2^n}{x^2+2^{2n}}`$ or $`\delta _n=\frac{2^{n1}}{cosh^2(2^nx)}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_n=\frac{arctan(2^nx)}{\pi }`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_n=\frac{1}{2}tanh(2^nx)`$, respectively. The latter example is a soliton-like shape, having good localization. These sequences converge to $`\delta (x)`$, respectively. In this way we have selected subsequences that step in powers of $`2`$. Eq.(41) can be written as:

$`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}(1T^1)D^n\mathrm{}_0(x),`$ (42)
We can express this definition in terms of the algebra $`𝒜_{1,1}`$. By using eq.(25) and the properties of the operators $`D`$ and $`T`$, we can write eq.(42) in the form

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}(1T^{2^n})(2W_{})^n\mathrm{\Delta }_0(x).$$
(43)
Indeed, from the commutation relation between $`D`$ and $`T`$ and the definition of $`W_{}`$ we have

$`(2W_{})^n=(D(1+T^1))^n=D^n(1+T^1+\mathrm{}+T^{2^n+1})`$ (44)
$$=(1+T^{2^n}+(T^{2^n})^2+\mathrm{}+(T^{2^n})^{2^n1})D^n.$$

Hence, we can write $`(1T^1)D^n=(1T^{2^n})(2W_{})^n`$. Moreover, we can write, by using the inverted form for $`W_{}(T)`$, the dilation equation in a pure algebraic form:

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}(1T^{2^n}(W_0))(2W_{})^n\mathrm{\Delta }_0(x).$$
(45)
From this last equation it follows that $`2W_{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }`$, i.e., the Haar dilation equation. If the function $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(x)`$ is choosen from a class of suitable functions for a wavelet analysis then its scaling function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$, eq.(45), gives a rapidly convergent wavelet expansion. In order to demonstrate this procedure, we show in Fig. 2 scaling functions obtained in this way for different values of the parameter $`s`$ within $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$. For $`s=0`$ and $`1`$ this functions yields the Haar scaling function.

We give another example for the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_2`$ B-scaling function and the $`\mathrm{\Psi }_2`$ B-wavelet. We define

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_2(x)=4x\text{for}0<x<1/2;4x+4\text{for}1/2<x<1,`$ (46)
and 0 in the rest, or

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_2(x)=\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2^{n+1}}}(12T^{1/2}+T^1)D^n\mathrm{}_{0,tri}(x),`$ (47)
with

$`\mathrm{}_{0,tri}(x)={\displaystyle \frac{2x}{\pi }}arctan(2x){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{ln}(1+4x^2)}{2\pi }}={\displaystyle _0^{2\pi }}\mathrm{}_0(x)𝑑x`$ (48)
Following the above algorithm we obtain the corresponding dilation equation

$`j_{}|_{tri}\mathrm{\Phi }_2(x)={\displaystyle \frac{D}{2}}(1+T^{1/2})^2\mathrm{\Phi }_2(x).`$ (49)
By using the commutation relation $`D=2D`$ and the dilation equation eq.(49) we can obtain a self-contained equation for the wavelet:

$`\mathrm{\Psi }_{tri}(x)=D(1+2T^{1/2}+T^2)^2\mathrm{\Psi }_{tri}.`$ (50)
The corresponding algebras for Haar and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_2`$ B-scaling functions are different. For the B-wavelet we have, in $`𝒜_{1,1}`$

$`G(W_0)=W_0W_0^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}`$ (51)
This new algebra fulfills different commutation relations and consequently has a spectrum for $`W_0`$ which is different from that for the Haar scaling algebra. The algorithm introduced above can also be used to generate other scaling functions and their corresponding algebras. An interesting track is to obtain polygon-like wavelets or, by following the same procedure which guided us to obtain the B-scaling function from the Haar scaling function, to obtain smoother scaling functions.

## 6 The $`su_q(2)`$ limit of $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$

The quantum group $`su_q(2)`$, or its extensions \[21-26,28-31\], are associative algebras over $`C`$ generated by three operators, $`J_0=(J_0)^{}`$, $`J_+`$, and $`J_{}=(J_+)^{}`$, satisfying the commutation relations

$$[J_0,J_+]=J_+,[J_0,J_{}]=J_{},[J_+,J_{}]=[J_0]_s,$$
(52)
where $`[J_0]`$ is a deformation of $`J_0`$, that is, a real parameter-dependent function of $`J_0`$, holomorphic in the neighbourhood of zero, and approaching $`2J_0`$ in the limit $`s0`$. We have to find a deforming functional that transforms the $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$ generators into operators satisfying the commutation relations eq.(52). For this the first equation in eqs.(33) can be written as

$$\left(j_0𝒢(s,J_0)\right)j_+=j_+j_0,$$
(53)
and hence, for every entire function $`p(\xi )`$, we can write

$$p\left(j_0𝒢(s,j_0)\right)j_+=j_+p(j_0).$$
(54)
Let us consider the functional equation

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\xi 𝒢(s,\xi )\right)=\mathrm{\Gamma }(\xi )1$$
(55)
for a given function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\xi )`$ with $`\xi `$ generic. If this equation has a solution $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\xi )`$ that is an entire function, then eq.(55) can be written, for $`p(\xi )=\mathrm{\Gamma }(\xi )`$, in the form $`[\mathrm{\Gamma }(j_0),j_+]=j_+`$, and correspondingly $`[\mathrm{\Gamma }(j_0),j_{}]=j_{}`$. These equations give the correspondence between the wavelet algebras and the q-deformed algebras like $`su_q(2)`$ or other extensions of them. They map the structure of $`𝒜_{j_0,j_\pm }`$, eq.(33), onto the structure described by the first two equations in eq.(52). For the third commutator of each of these algebras we use the function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\xi )`$, which allows eqs.(33) to be reduced to the third equation in eqs.(52) through the mapping:

$$J_0=\mathrm{\Gamma }(j_0),J_\pm =j_\pm ,$$
(56)
If $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is invertible, the third equation in eqs.(33) in $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$ can be reduced to the third equation of eqs.(52) of an algebra defined by the function $`[J_0]`$ with the identification $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^1=[]`$ where $`[]\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ means the composition of the two functions, i.e., $`([]\mathrm{\Gamma })(\xi )=[\mathrm{\Gamma }(\xi )]`$. In the case of suq(2), i.e. $`[J_0[=[2J_0]_q`$, the function $`(s,j_0,s)`$ becomes:

$$(s,j_0)=\frac{\left(\varphi (j_0)\right)^2\left(\varphi (j_0)\right)^2}{qq^1},$$
(57)
where $`q=e^s`$, $`\varphi (\xi )q^{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\xi )}`$ has to satisfy the equation $`\varphi \left(\xi 𝒢(s,\xi )\right)=q\varphi (\xi )`$. Consequently, eqs.(53-55) provide the reduction of $`su_q(2)`$ into $`𝒜_{j_0,j}`$ through $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. For details of the above technique of mapping and reduction of non-linear algebras one can see examples in . In the case of the algebra $`𝒜_{1,1}`$, eqs.(53-55) give the condition

$$p(W_01)=W_0G(1,W_0),$$
(58)
which has the solution

$`J_0=p(W_0)|_{𝒜_{1,1}}=cosh(2^{W_0}b),`$ (59)
for any arbitrary constant $`b`$. By inverting eq.(59) we obtain

$$W_0=\frac{1}{ln(2)}ln(\frac{}{b}).$$
(60)
Conversely, starting from $`su_q(2)`$ and its deformation $`[]_q`$ one can map it into $`𝒜_{1,1}`$ where for the operator $`F(s,T)=F(s,T(W_0))`$ we have

$$F=f(\mathrm{\Gamma }(W_0))=f(p^1(W_0))=[2p^1(W_0)].$$
(61)
A diagram containing these algebraic morphisms is presented in Fig.3.

## 7 Further extensions, comments and conclusions

In this paper we present a method for connecting classes of non-linear (q-deformed) algebras with scaling functions and wavelets. The connection is reciprocal. The algebra $`𝒜_{j_0,j}|_{s=1}`$ allows the choice of different dilation equations, i.e., for different functions $`j(1,T)`$ one can obtain different scaling functions. The function $`j_0(1,T)`$ should be choosen in order to give the correct wavelet function through the action of $`j_0j_{}`$. The connection with quantum groups is more transparent if we choose for $`j_0=[]_{s=1/2}=W_0(2,1/2)`$, eq.(14), and for $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, the Haar scaling function, $`j_{}=D(1+T^1)`$. The action of the q-derivative $`[]_{1/2}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ gives exactly the Haar wavelet. In this example the operator $`j_0`$ is anti-Hermitian and we can identify its spectrum (imaginary eigenvalues) from the commutation relations. We also have the relation $`\mathrm{\Psi }=(j_0\stackrel{~}{G}(1,j_0)\mathrm{\Phi }`$, so that one can express the eigenvectors $`|a>`$ of $`J_0`$ in the wavelet basis of the algebra. If $`|a>=_{j,n}C_{j,n}\mathrm{\Phi }_{j,n}`$, we obtain a recursion relation for the coefficients of $`|a>`$ and for the eigenfunctions of $`j_0`$ $`_kC_{j,p2^jk}𝒞_k=aC_{j,p}`$ for any $`j`$ and $`p`$ integer, where $`𝒞_k`$ are the Taylor coefficients of the function $`\xi ^\lambda g(\xi )`$. We note that by using the q-derivative instead of a function of T we obtain exactly the same mother wavelet (Haar wavelet).

We note a natural extension of the above developments coming from a realization of $`sp(2,R)`$ in terms of the full algebra of the symmetry of the real line: $`X_0=x`$ (dilations), $`X_{}=`$ (translations), and $`X_+=x^2`$ (expansions). This is the maximal finitely generated real Lie algebra with generators in the form $`x^n`$. By exponentiation the generators $`X_0,X_{}`$ provide $`D`$ and $`T`$ and the last generator has the action $`E^a=e^{aX_+}f(x)=f(x/1ax)`$. For $`a>0`$ the action corresponds to a contraction of the function and for $`1<a<0`$ it is a dilation. But for $`a<1`$ and $`|a|1`$ we obtain a splitting of the function into two Heaviside distributions: $`E^af(x)=H(x)+H(x+1/a)`$. A possible closed non-linear algebra containing $`D,T`$ and $`E`$ might be an opportunity for the application of wavelets with multi-scale properties .

In conclusion, we have found that the operators of dilation and translation ($`D`$,$`T`$) can be combined in such a way as to generate non-linear algebras which depend on certain parameters ($`s`$,$`\alpha `$). We have investigated these algebras from the point of view of quantum groups, discussing their unirreps, Casimir operators, and reductions of these algebras to other q-deformed algebras, like $`su_q(2)`$ or to the Fourier series generating algebra. It has been shown that such algebras provide an appropriate framework for the foundation of wavelet analyses and for the obtaining the corresponding scaling functions. We have worked out two examples: the Haar and the B-scaling functions. The algorithm provides a general algebraic method for finding a specific scaling function. Direct applications of such an approach can be found in the theory of finite-difference equations and q-difference equations \[21-25,27\].

This study represents only a first step towards understanding the relation between the theory of non-linear algebras (having exponential spectra) and wavelets with their finite-difference equations. We conjecture that such an approach to scale invariant structures can lead to interesting mathematical constructions and tools for identifying isolated coherent structures associated with certain mother wavelets and limiting non-linear algebraic structures. The transition between such self-organized structures can be carried out through the modification of the deformation parameter $`q`$, with the intermediate domain representing “noise” (non-closed algebraic structures).

FIGURE CAPTIONS

1. The dependence on $`a_0`$ of three eigenvalues $`a_n`$ of $`W_0`$ in $`𝒜_{1,1}`$, for $`n`$ = 2 (the largest period), 4 and 6 (the smallest period). The three spectra have self-similar structure for $`a_0[0,1]`$.
2. The continuous deformation of the scaling function $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ in $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$ as a function of the parameter $`s`$. For $`s=0,1`$ this is the Haar scaling function.
3. A diagrammatic representation of the algebraic maps (arrows) and morphisms ($``$) of $`𝒜_{j_0j}`$, $`𝒜_{s,\alpha }`$, $`su_q(2)`$, $`su(2)`$ and $`_{0,1}`$.


text:
# 1. Introduction

## 1. Introduction

The AdS/CFT correspondence has improved considerably our understanding of strongly coupled large $`N`$ gauge theories , showing that the natural description of 4d theories in this regime is in terms of 5d gravity, where the extra dimension is related to the 4d energy scale. So far, strong evidence for the validity of the conjecture has come from the description of $`𝒩=4`$SYM in terms of IIB supergravity, while limited efforts have been devoted to the holographic description of non-supersymmetric non-conformal field theories. Moreover, the few examples analyzed were mostly based on the tachyonic (oriented) 0B string , where the presence of the tachyon complicates the gravity description  and leads to instabilities in the dual strongly coupled field theory .

The first attempt to find a non-tachyonic holographic description of non-supersymmetric gauge theories was recently made in . The analysis was still performed within the framework of 0B strings, but resorting to a particular orientifold projection  to eliminate the tachyon from the bulk and to avoid problems with the doubling of R-R sectors. Actually, the gauge theories that naturally emerge from (orientifolds of) type 0 models have the peculiar property of becoming conformal in the planar limit, and therefore several results can be mutuated from $`𝒩=4`$. In particular, the leading (planar) geometry is known to be of the form $`AdS_5\times X_5`$ with a constant dilaton field. For finite $`N`$, however, the gauge theory is no longer conformal and new features are expected in the gravity description. Indeed, a general property of non-supersymmetric theories seems to be the presence of a non-vanishing dilaton tadpole at genus one-half . On the other hand, supersymmetry relates R-R tadpoles to NS-NS ones, and thus demanding neutral configurations of orientifold planes and D-branes automatically ensures the vanishing of all massless tadpoles. However, whenever supersymmetry is not present one can find configurations for which the R-R and NS-NS tadpole conditions are incompatible . While uncanceled R-R tadpoles manifest themselves in pathologies of the string theory , NS-NS tadpoles are less problematic. They correspond to potential terms in the low-energy action and their main effect is to modify the vacuum. In our case this is precisely what one needs! Indeed, studying D3 branes in non-tachyonic orientifolds of type 0B (with $`\mathrm{O}^{}7`$-planes and D7-branes, where a prime indicates the non-tachyonic involution) we showed explicitly  how a genus one-half dilaton tadpole in the bulk theory does reproduce qualitatively and quantitatively the expected logarithmic gauge theory RG flow. (Recently, a logarithmic running of the gauge coupling was also found in the gravitational description of $`𝒩=2`$$`\mathrm{SU}(N)\times \mathrm{SU}(N+M)`$ gauge theory . See related discussion on dilaton-induced RG flow in .)

The purpose of this letter is to pursue this program further, studying the back-reaction on the metric induced by the presence of a dilaton tadpole. In particular, we compute the Wilson loop in string theory and find a quark anti-quark potential interpolating between a (logarithmically running) Coulomb phase and a confining phase in the IR, as expected from the field theory analysis. To the best of our knowledge, the interpolating solution that we find is the only known example in which a single solution describes the expected behavior in the entire energy regime. Although our analysis is quite general and applies to a vast class of non-supersymmetric non-conformal theories for which a non-vanishing dilaton tadpole is expected to develop , the simplest model one may conceive originates from D3-branes and $`\mathrm{O}^{}3`$-planes in type 0B. In the large $`N`$ limit the near horizon geometry is $`AdS_5\times \text{ℝℙ}^5`$ , where $`\text{ℝℙ}^5=S^5/\text{}_2`$, with $`\text{}_2`$ the non-tachyonic involution  associated to $`\mathrm{O}^{}3`$. Since the $`\text{}_2`$ acts freely on $`S^5`$, no open sector is present in the bulk and the spectrum of the model consists of all the $`\text{}_2`$-invariant harmonics of the 0B fields. In particular, the tachyon is projected out. Moreover, since two-cycles of $`\text{ℝℙ}^5`$ are unorientable, as for instance $`\text{ℝℙ}^2\text{ℝℙ}^5`$, new interactions in the low-energy action are expected to originate from unoriented world-sheet topologies. These are weighted by generic (not only even) powers of the dilaton, and in particular a dilaton tadpole can be generated. Unfortunately, an explicit computation of one-point amplitudes for the dilaton in the curved $`AdS_5\times \text{ℝℙ}^5`$ geometry seems out of reach within the actual (perturbative) definition of string theory, although such a term is expected from the above arguments, from our experience with non-supersymmetric theories, and from the results we are going to present here.

The organization of this letter is as follows: in section 2 we introduce the class of field theories we want to study, and present an explicit example from (unoriented) D-branes in the 0B string. In section 3 we turn to the gravity description and find an explicit solution for the dilaton and the metric up to next-to-leading order in $`1/N`$ expansion. In section 4 we extract the holographic quark anti-quark potential and compare it with the field theory analysis of section 2. Finally, section 5 contains our final comments about the validity of the gravity description.

## 2. Field theory considerations

One of the most remarkable results in field theory is the running of coupling constants

$$\frac{d\alpha (u)}{d\mathrm{log}u}=\beta (\alpha ),$$
(1)
where $`\alpha (u)=g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2(u)N`$ is the ’t Hooft coupling. The precise expression of the beta-function is model dependent and encodes the quantum corrections to the classical behavior $`\alpha (u)=\alpha _0`$. Whenever a quantum theory does not depend on any scale and thus is exactly conformally invariant, as for instance $`𝒩=4`$SYM, $`\beta (\alpha )`$ vanishes identically and the coupling constants take their classical values for all energy scales. Combining these two arguments, it is then evident that theories that are conformally invariant in the planar limit are governed by a RG equation

$$\frac{d\alpha (u)}{d\mathrm{log}u}=\frac{1}{N}\beta _1(\alpha )\frac{1}{N^2}\beta _2(\alpha )+\mathrm{},$$
(2)
so that one recovers the expected $`\alpha (u)=\alpha _0`$ result for $`N\mathrm{}`$. Here, $`\beta _i(\alpha )`$ do not represent the $`i^{\mathrm{th}}`$-loop contribution to the RG equation. Rather, they encode all the contributions at a given order in $`1/N`$.

To be concrete, the simplest prototype one can conceive is an $`\mathrm{SU}(N)`$ gauge theory with six real scalars in the adjoint and 4 Weyl spinors in the antisymmetric and antisymmetric-conjugate representations, arising from the non-tachyonic orientifold projection on type 0B D3 branes . This theory was shown to converge to the $`\mathrm{SU}(N)`$ $`𝒩=4`$SYM in the planar limit , and to have a one-loop beta-function suppressed by $`1/N`$ (with $`b_1=\frac{16}{3}`$), and a two-loop beta-function contributing both to $`\beta _1(\alpha )`$ and $`\beta _2(\alpha )`$ in (2) .

One can extract some interesting results from the RG equation (2). Since in (2) there is a natural small parameter, $`1/N`$, it is natural to solve this equation by iterations

$$\alpha (u)=\alpha _0+\frac{1}{N}\alpha _1+\mathrm{}.$$
(3)
The solution

$$\alpha (u)=\alpha _0\frac{1}{N}\beta _1(\alpha _0)\mathrm{log}u$$
(4)
that, to this order, can be equivalently written as

$$\frac{1}{\alpha (u)}=\frac{1}{\alpha _0}+\frac{1}{N}\frac{\beta _1(\alpha _0)}{\alpha _0^2}\mathrm{log}u,$$
(5)
leads then to a quark anti-quark potential

$$E(L)=\frac{\alpha (L)}{L}=\frac{\alpha _0}{L(1\frac{1}{N}\frac{\beta _1(\alpha _0)}{\alpha _0}\mathrm{log}L)},$$
(6)
as expected for asymptotically free theories. Actually, since for large $`N`$ the beta-function varies slowly, the logarithmic behavior (5) persists beyond the perturbative regime, up to energy scales such that $`\left|\frac{1}{N}\frac{\beta _1(\alpha _0)}{\alpha _0^2}\mathrm{log}u\right|1`$. Note that the expansion is not valid in the (extreme) IR.

The description of the (non-perturbative) IR regime is less straightforward. Although for the specific model we introduced previously the scalars do not acquire a potential at the one-loop level , in general one would not expect to find a moduli space of vacua for non-supersymmetric theories. Thus, a potential for the scalars should develop: the scalars might become massive, or tachyonic, and might also acquire a non-vanishing vacuum expectation value. Although the specific shape of the potential is model dependent, in the following we shall assume that the scalars become massive without acquiring any vev. As we shall see, the string theory description supports this assumption.

Once the massive scalars decouple, the IR degrees of freedom will consist of Yang-Mills theory with four massless spinors (a QCD like theory), and a confining potential is expected

$$E(L)=\sigma L,$$
(7)
where $`\sigma =\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2`$ is the QCD string tension. For pure (large $`N`$) Yang-Mills theory one expects a constant (finite) string tension $`\sigma _0`$. In the present case, however, one expects a different behavior. Since the theories we are describing are conformal in the planar limit, the string tension should to vanish accordingly. To estimate the $`N`$ dependence of the string tension, one can integrate the RG equation (2) from an arbitrary weak coupling scale ($`u_0`$ in the UV) to a strong coupling one ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}`$):

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}=u_0e^{N{\scriptscriptstyle {\scriptscriptstyle \frac{d\alpha }{\beta _1(\alpha )}}}},$$
(8)
that translates into an exponentially suppressed string tension

$$\sigma e^N.$$
(9)
## 3. The gravity solution

We now turn to a dual gravitational description of the gauge theories introduced in the previous section, in the spirit of the AdS/CFT correspondence . As discussed in , the dual gravity description involves the ten-dimensional metric, the dilaton and the R-R four-form potential (with self-dual field strength), whose dynamics is essentially encoded in the action333To be more precise one should use the PST action , since we are dealing with a self-dual 5-form $`F_5`$.

$$S=\frac{1}{(\alpha ^{})^4}d^{10}x\sqrt{g}\left[e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }}(R+4_\rho \mathrm{\Phi }^\rho \mathrm{\Phi })+\frac{1}{\alpha ^{}}Ce^\mathrm{\Phi }\frac{1}{4}(\alpha ^{})^4|F_5|^2\right],$$
(10)
or in its equations of motion

$`e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }}\left(8(\mathrm{\Phi })^28^2\mathrm{\Phi }2R\right)Ce^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (11)
$`e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }}\left(R_{\mu \nu }+2_\mu _\nu \mathrm{\Phi }\right)+\frac{1}{4}g_{\mu \nu }Ce^\mathrm{\Phi }`$
$`\frac{1}{96}(F_{\mu \rho \sigma \lambda \tau }F_\nu {}_{}{}^{\rho \sigma \lambda \tau }\frac{1}{10}g_{\mu \nu }F_{\rho \sigma \lambda \tau \eta }F^{\rho \sigma \lambda \tau \eta })`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (12)
The term $`Ce^\mathrm{\Phi }=Cg_s^1`$ corresponds to the dilaton tadpole expected from half-genus in string perturbation theory. Although the direct computation of this term is difficult, there are plausible arguments in favor of its presence, as discussed in the introduction.

In the spirit of AdS/CFT correspondence, we make for the metric the ansatz

$$ds^2=\alpha ^{}\left(d\tau ^2+e^{2\lambda (\tau )}\eta ^{ab}dx_adx_b+e^{2\nu (\tau )}d\mathrm{\Omega }_5^2\right),$$
(13)
compatible with four-dimensional Poincaré invariance and SU(4) flavor symmetry. Moreover, the five-form field strength has $`N\frac{1}{2}`$ units of flux induced by the $`N`$ D3 branes and the O$`{}_{}{}^{}3`$ plane. In the following we shall ignore the contribution of the orientifold plane, manifestly suppressed in the presence of a large number of branes.

Inserting the above ansatz in the eqs. (11) and (12) and allowing for a $`\tau `$ dependence of the various fields one obtains

$`2\ddot{\mathrm{\Phi }}4\ddot{\lambda }5\ddot{\nu }4\dot{\lambda }^25\dot{\nu }^2+\frac{1}{2}N^2e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }10\nu }\frac{1}{4}Ce^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (14)
$`\ddot{\lambda }(2\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}4\dot{\lambda }5\dot{\nu })\dot{\lambda }\frac{1}{2}N^2e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }10\nu }+\frac{1}{4}Ce^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (15)
$`\ddot{\nu }(2\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}4\dot{\lambda }5\dot{\nu })\dot{\nu }4e^{2\nu }+\frac{1}{2}N^2e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }10\nu }+\frac{1}{4}Ce^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (16)
$`12\dot{\lambda }^220\dot{\nu }^24\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}^2+20\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}\dot{\nu }+16\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}\dot{\lambda }40\dot{\lambda }\dot{\nu }`$
$`+20e^{2\nu }N^2e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }10\nu }+Ce^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (17)
As usual in General Relativity, the $`\tau \tau `$ component (17) of Einstein’s equations is not independent, and translates into a vanishing energy constraint for the associated mechanical system.

In order to better appreciate the role of the different contributions in the low-energy action, it is useful to redefine $`\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{log}N`$ , in order that $`e^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ be directly related to the ’t Hooft coupling. The (independent) field equations then read

$`2\ddot{\mathrm{\Phi }}4\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}^2+8\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}\dot{\lambda }+10\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}\dot{\nu }+3{\displaystyle \frac{C}{N}}e^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (18)
$`\ddot{\lambda }(2\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}4\dot{\lambda }5\dot{\nu })\dot{\lambda }\frac{1}{2}e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }10\nu }+\frac{1}{4}{\displaystyle \frac{C}{N}}e^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (19)
$`\ddot{\nu }(2\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}4\dot{\lambda }5\dot{\nu })\dot{\nu }4e^{2\nu }+\frac{1}{2}e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }10\nu }+\frac{1}{4}{\displaystyle \frac{C}{N}}e^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (20)
From these one can neatly understand the role of the dilaton tadpole: it represents a $`1/N`$ correction to the leading type IIB supergravity equations, and thus induces $`1/N`$ corrections to the $`AdS_5\times \text{ℝℙ}^5`$ leading geometry, in agreement with field theory expectations. Moreover, $`1/N`$ is a natural small parameter in the theory and suggests to solve the equations by iterations

$`\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0(\tau )+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}\mathrm{\Phi }_1(\tau )+\mathrm{},`$ (21)
$`\lambda (\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda _0(\tau )+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}\lambda _1(\tau )+\mathrm{},`$ (22)
$`\nu (\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`\nu _0(\tau )+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}\nu _1(\tau )+\mathrm{}.`$ (23)
The leading order equations

$`2\ddot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_04\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_0^2+8\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_0\dot{\lambda }_0+10\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_0\dot{\nu }_0`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (24)
$`\ddot{\lambda }_0(2\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_04\dot{\lambda }_05\dot{\nu }_0)\dot{\lambda }_0\frac{1}{2}e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }_010\nu _0}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (25)
$`\ddot{\nu }_0(2\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_04\dot{\lambda }_05\dot{\nu }_0)\dot{\nu }_04e^{2\nu _0}+\frac{1}{2}e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }_010\nu _0}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (26)
independent of the dilaton tadpole, are consistently solved by the expected (leading) $`AdS_5\times \text{ℝℙ}^5`$ geometry

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_0=\phi ,`$ (27)
$`\lambda _0=\sqrt[8]{8}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{4}}\phi }\tau ,`$ (28)
$`\nu _0=\frac{1}{8}\mathrm{log}8+\frac{1}{4}\phi .`$ (29)
The next-to-leading order equations then reduce to

$`\ddot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1+4\sqrt[8]{8}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{4}}\phi }\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1+\frac{3}{2}Ce^\phi =0,`$ (30)
$`\ddot{\lambda }_1+\sqrt[8]{8}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{4}}\phi }\left(2\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1+8\dot{\lambda }_1+5\dot{\nu }_1\right)8\sqrt[4]{8}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{2}}\phi }\left(\mathrm{\Phi }_15\nu _1\right)+\frac{1}{4}Ce^\phi =0,`$ (31)
$`\ddot{\nu }_1+4\sqrt[8]{8}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{4}}\phi }\dot{\nu }_1+8\sqrt[8]{8}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{2}}\phi }(\mathrm{\Phi }_15\nu _1)+\frac{1}{4}Ce^\phi =0,`$ (32)
and are solved by

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_1=\frac{3}{8\sqrt[8]{8}}Ce^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{5}{4}}\phi }\tau ,`$ (33)
$`\lambda _1=\frac{3}{64}Ce^\phi \tau ^2\frac{15}{256\sqrt[8]{8}}Ce^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{5}{4}}\phi }\tau ,`$ (34)
$`\nu _1=\frac{3}{32\sqrt[8]{8}}Ce^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{5}{4}}\phi }\tau \frac{1}{32}8^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{5}{4}}}Ce^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{3}{2}}\phi }.`$ (35)
In principle one should also consider the higher order iterations. However, we shall stop here since in the low energy action we are already neglecting contributions of higher order in $`1/N`$, as for example a cosmological constant.

Collecting the various contributions, one finds the following expressions for the dilaton

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=\phi \frac{3}{8}\frac{1}{\sqrt[8]{8}}\frac{C}{N}e^{\frac{5}{4}\phi }\tau ,$$
(36)
and for the metric tensor

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\alpha ^{}}}ds^2`$ $`=`$ $`d\tau ^2+\mathrm{exp}\left[2\sqrt[8]{8}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{4}}\phi }\tau +\frac{3}{32}{\displaystyle \frac{C}{N}}e^\phi \tau ^2\right]\eta _{ab}dx^adx^b`$ (37)
$`+\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{1}{4}\mathrm{log}8+\frac{1}{2}\phi \frac{3}{16\sqrt[8]{8}}{\displaystyle \frac{C}{N}}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{5}{4}}\phi }\tau \right]d\mathrm{\Omega }_5^2,`$
It is not hard to realize that the introduction of a dilaton tadpole results into a running dilaton and running radii for the $`AdS_5`$ and $`\text{ℝℙ}^5`$ spaces. This can be better appreciated if one parametrizes the metric as

$$\frac{1}{\alpha ^{}}ds^2=R^2(u)\frac{du^2}{u^2}+\frac{u^2}{R^2(u)}\eta _{ab}dx^adx^b+\stackrel{~}{R}^2(u)d\mathrm{\Omega }_5^2,$$
(38)
in terms of the energy scale

$$u=e^{\lambda (\tau )}𝑑\tau ,$$
(39)
with the radii

$$R(u)=\frac{d\tau }{d\mathrm{log}u},\stackrel{~}{R}(u)=e^{\nu (\tau (u))}.$$
(40)
Collecting our previous results, we find

$`\tau `$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{\sqrt[8]{8}}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{4}}\phi }\left(\mathrm{log}u\frac{3}{64}\frac{C}{N}e^\phi \mathrm{log}^2u\right),`$ (41)
$`R^2(u)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{\sqrt[4]{8}}}e^{\frac{1}{2}\phi }}{1+\frac{3}{16}\frac{C}{N}e^\phi \mathrm{log}u}},`$ (42)
$`\stackrel{~}{R}^2(u)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{\sqrt[4]{8}}}e^{\frac{1}{2}\phi }}{1+\frac{3}{16\sqrt[4]{8}}\frac{C}{N}e^{2\phi }\mathrm{log}u}},`$ (43)
$`e^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`e^\phi +\frac{3}{8\sqrt[4]{8}}\frac{C}{N}e^\phi \mathrm{log}u.`$ (44)
At this point, before we interpret these results, various comments are in order. First, in the above expressions we are repeatedly ignoring $`1/N^2`$ sub-leading terms. Moreover, the value of $`e^\phi `$ can not be interpreted any longer as the ’t Hooft coupling, since now the field theory is not conformal and the gauge coupling runs. In addition, from eqs. (42) and (43) one might argue that $`R`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{R}`$ develop singularities at some point in the IR (notice that for our model $`C`$ is positive and then singularity presents itself for $`\mathrm{log}u<0`$). This, however, is not the case. The singularities are at points beyond the validity of the $`1/N`$ approximation and are an artifact of our choice of coordinates. Note, in fact, that the metric (37) is well defined for every energy scale. Finally, contrary to the familiar $`𝒩=4`$ super-conformal case the radii $`R`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{R}`$ have now different values. This is expected since at order $`1/N`$ the dilaton tadpole behaves like an effective cosmological constant, and therefore (at that order) the overall curvature of the ten-dimensional space is no longer vanishing.

We can now turn to the interpretation of eqs. (42) and (44), in the spirit of AdS/CFT correspondence. The behavior of the dilaton is consistent with the fact that, in the dual gauge theory, no longer conformal, the coupling constant is expected to run. More precisely, once the dilaton is identified with the ’t Hooft coupling, $`e^{\mathrm{\Phi }(u)}\alpha (u)`$, eq. (44) reproduces precisely the logarithmic behavior (5) expected from the gauge theory side, as already shown in . Moreover, in the large $`N`$ limit the running of the coupling constant is suppressed, in agreement with the fact that in this limit the theory is conformal. Following , it would be interesting to compute also in this case the numerical value of the dilaton tadpole $`C`$ and compare it with the one-loop beta-function coefficient $`b_1=\frac{16}{3}`$. To this end, however, one should compute the contributions from closed strings in the $`AdS_5\times \text{ℝℙ}^5`$ background with unoriented world-sheet wrapping the $`\text{ℝℙ}^5`$. Unfortunately, computations in genuinely curved backgrounds are still an open problem in string perturbation theory.

Following  the running of the AdS radius plays a natural role in the computation of the quark anti-quark potential, the subject of the next section.

## 4. The Wilson loop

We can now use the “running” $`AdS_5\times \text{ℝℙ}^5`$ geometry to compute the quark anti-quark potential using the holographic Wilson loop (see  for a recent review). In  it was suggested that a natural description of the Wilson loop in terms of gravity is

$$W(𝒞)e^S,$$
(45)
where, in the limit of large ’t Hooft coupling, $`S`$ is the proper area of a string world-sheet

$$S=\frac{1}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}𝑑\tau 𝑑\sigma \sqrt{\mathrm{det}g_{\mu \nu }_\alpha X^\mu _\beta X^\nu }$$
(46)
describing the loop $`𝒞`$ on the boundary of AdS. The quark anti-quark potential can then be extracted choosing the standard rectangular loop with sides $`L`$ and $`T`$, with $`T\mathrm{}`$.

Using the parametrization (38) for the metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$, the Nambu-Goto action reads

$$S/T=E=𝑑x\sqrt{(_xu)^2+u^4/R^4(u)},$$
(47)
and thus the quark anti-quark separation and the interaction energy are

$$L\frac{R_0^2}{u_0}\frac{dy}{y^2\sqrt{y^4R_0^4/R^4(yu_0)}},$$
(48)
and

$$Eu_0\frac{y^2dy}{\sqrt{y^4R_0^4/R^4(yu_0)}},$$
(49)
with $`R_0=R(u_0)`$.

If the energy $`u_0`$ is within the range of validity of the expansion, $`\frac{1}{N}\mathrm{log}u_01`$, the ratio $`R_0^4/R^4(yu_0)`$ can be approximated by

$$\frac{R_0^4}{R^4(yu_0)}\frac{1+{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{3}{8}}{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{C}{N}}e^\phi \mathrm{log}yu_0}{1+\frac{3}{8}\frac{C}{N}e^\phi \mathrm{log}u_0}1+\frac{3}{8}\frac{C}{N}e^\phi \mathrm{log}y.$$
(50)
Thus, one has

$$L\frac{R_0^2}{u_0},\mathrm{and}Eu_0,$$
(51)
and the potential

$$E\frac{R_0^2}{L}\frac{R^2(1/L)}{L}=\frac{\frac{1}{\sqrt[4]{8}}e^{\frac{1}{2}\phi }}{L(1\frac{3}{16}\frac{C}{N}e^\phi \mathrm{log}L)}$$
(52)
can be expressed in terms of the running AdS radius, similarly to .

Eq. (52) reproduces precisely the behavior expected from the gauge theory side: at finite $`N`$ the Coulomb phase is characterized by a quark anti-quark potential (6) with a (logarithmically) running gauge coupling. The fact that the two prescriptions, the dilaton running

$$E=\frac{\alpha (L)}{L}=\frac{e^{\mathrm{\Phi }(L)}}{L}\frac{e^\phi }{L\left(1\frac{3}{8\sqrt[4]{8}}\frac{C}{N}e^{2\phi }\mathrm{log}L\right)}$$
(53)
and the Wilson loop (52), yield similar results (in contrast to tachyonic type 0 models ) is encouraging, although different powers of $`e^\phi `$ are still involved in the two cases. Note that (53) is a perturbative prescription in contrast to (52) that should, a priori, be applicable to the non-perturbative regime.

Finally, let us describe the IR behavior of the gauge theory. To this end, it is simpler to work with the metric in the form (37). The quark anti-quark energy is then

$$E=𝑑x\sqrt{e^{\lambda (\tau )}(_x\tau )^2+e^{2\lambda (\tau )}},$$
(54)
and, since

$$\lambda (\tau )=\alpha \tau +\frac{1}{N}\beta \tau ^2,$$
(55)
with $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ positive constants, $`e^\lambda `$ has a minimum at $`\tau _{\mathrm{min}}=\alpha N/2\beta `$, that corresponds to the IR, implying a confining long distance potential

$$Ee^{\lambda _{\mathrm{min}}}L=\sigma L.$$
(56)
The reason behind this result is rather simple to understand. For large enough separation, the string will prefer to stay at the minimum of $`\lambda `$, thus minimizing the action (54). Therefore the energy will be simply proportional to the separation on the AdS boundary. Moreover, the QCD string tension (measured in units of $`1/\alpha ^{}`$)

$$\sigma =\mathrm{exp}\lambda _{\mathrm{min}}=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{\alpha ^2N}{4\beta }\right)=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{16}{3}\sqrt[4]{8}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{3}{2}}\phi }C^1N\right)$$
(57)
is exponentially suppressed with $`N`$, in agreement with field theory analysis (9).

## 5. Comments

In conclusion, let us make a few comments about the validity of the holographic description that we have just presented. The holographic conjecture relates 4d strongly coupled gauge theories to 5d (super)gravity, and is thus valid, in principle, only within a certain range of energies. Moreover, the procedure of solving the gravitational equations by iterations further restricts the solution. First, we are taking into account only the next-to-leading contribution associated to the dilaton tadpole (a $`1/N`$ effect), and therefore we need $`N1`$ to be sure that higher order string loops be negligible. Moreover, the procedure of solving the differential equations by iterations is valid only when the expansion parameter is small. Since the expansion parameter is $`ϵ\frac{1}{N}e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{3}{2}}\phi }\mathrm{log}u`$, the solution is valid only in some regions of the $`(u,N)`$ space. Note, however, that for any given energy $`u`$ and initial AdS radius $`e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{4}}\phi }`$, it is always possible to find an $`N`$ such that $`ϵ`$ is small, compatibly with the previous requirement. Finally, the curvature of the space should be small enough to allow one to trust classical gravity and to neglect $`\alpha ^{}`$ corrections. Once the previous requirements are met, this last constraint simply translates into large $`e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{4}}\phi }`$, as in the $`𝒩=4`$case.

Let us now see whether our solution meets these requirements. It is not hard to see that large $`e^\phi `$ and small expansion parameter $`ϵ`$ translate into large ’t Hooft coupling. But, from the field theory considerations, one expects the logarithmic behavior for small and intermediate coupling (5). One should assume non-large $`e^\phi `$ and therefore $`\alpha ^{}`$ corrections should not be neglected, thus invalidating our solution. However, this is not the case. A more careful analysis reveals that our results depend only on the existence of an $`AdS_5\times \text{ℝℙ}^5`$ solution at infinite $`N`$. Now, since it is a common lore that $`\alpha ^{}`$ corrections do not change the geometry of the space  (namely, that $`𝒩=4`$is described by an $`AdS_5\times S^5`$ metric at any coupling), the logarithmic running should not be affected. Moreover, there seem to be problems in the computation of the short-distance Wilson loop. First, the direct Wilson loop computation results into a value for the one-loop beta-function different from that obtained by the running dilaton recipe. This is actually related to $`\alpha ^{}`$ corrections that, as in the $`𝒩=4`$case , are expected to affect the parameters, but not the qualitative picture. In addition, the string world-sheet “invades” also regions where $`ϵ`$ is not small. Namely, the holographic computation of the Wilson loop for a given quark anti-quark separation $`L`$ requires that the metric be known everywhere throughout the range $`(u1/L,\mathrm{})`$. In order to avoid this problem and thus be able to trust our solution, the world-sheet should extend deeply inside AdS, and thus the potential (52) applies only to not too small quark anti-quark separations (i.e. our results are not valid in the extreme UV). Finally, the confining phase for long distances relies on the existence of a minimum for $`\lambda (\tau )`$. However, at $`\tau =\tau _{\mathrm{min}}`$ the contribution of next-to-leading term $`\lambda _1`$ is of the same order as $`\lambda _0`$. Thus, we can not exclude that higher order contributions could eliminate the minimum, but hopefully the only effect of higher corrections could be simply to shift $`\tau _{\mathrm{min}}`$. However, a definite answer to this problem requires an exact solution to the exact low-energy action.

Acknowledgments. We are grateful to E. Gardi, A. Sagnotti, D. Seminara and especially to G. Grunberg and J. Sonnenschein for useful comments. A.A. thanks the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at Cambridge University for the warm hospitality while this work was being completed. This research was supported in part by EEC under TMR contract ERBFMRX-CT96-0090.