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# Universal Similarity Factorization Equalities over Real Clifford Algebras

Abstract. A variety of universal similarity factorization equalities over real Clifford algebras $`_{p,q}`$ are established. On the basis of these equalities, real, complex and quaternion matrix representations of elements in $`_{p,q}`$ can be explicitly determined.

Key words: Clifford algebras; similarity factorization equalities; matrix representations.
AMS subject classifications: 15A66, 15A23.

1. INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to establish universal similarity factorization equalities between elements of real Clifford algebras $`_{p,q}`$ and matrices with elements in $`,𝒞`$ and $`,`$ where $`,𝒞`$ and $``$ stand for real number field, complex number field and quaternion skew field, respectively. A direct motivation for considering this problem comes from the following basic universal similarity factorization equality for complex numbers:

$$\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& \hfill i\\ i& \hfill 1\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}a+bi& 0\\ 0& abi\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& \hfill i\\ i& \hfill 1\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& \hfill b\\ b& \hfill a\end{array}\right].$$
$`(1.1)`$
This equality clearly reveals three fundamental facts on the field of complex numbers

(a) $`𝒞`$ is algebraically isomorphic to the matrix algebra $`𝒜=\left\{\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& \hfill b\\ b& \hfill a\end{array}\right]\right|a,b\}`$ through the bijective map $`\varphi :a+bi\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& \hfill b\\ b& \hfill a\end{array}\right]`$.

(b) Every complex number $`p=a+bi`$ has a faithful matrix representation $`\varphi (p)=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& \hfill b\\ b& \hfill a\end{array}\right]`$ over the real number field $``$.

(c) All real matrices of the form $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& \hfill b\\ b& \hfill a\end{array}\right]`$ can uniformly be diagonalized over the complex number field $`𝒞`$.

Following Eq.(1.1), a natural equation can directly be asked: Can we extend Eq.(1.1) to any real Clifford algebra $`_{p,q}`$? The answer to this question is positive. In this paper, we shall present a set of general methods for establishing such kinds of universal similarity factorization equalities over all real Clifford algebras $`_{p,q}`$.

As is well known, the real Clifford algebra $`_{p,q}`$ is an associative algebra, with identity 1, defined on $`p+q=n`$ generators $`e_1,e_2,\mathrm{},e_n`$ subject to the multiplication laws

$$e_i^2=\{\begin{array}{c}+1fori=1,2,\mathrm{},p,\hfill \\ 1fori=p+1,p+2,\mathrm{},p+q=n,\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(1.2)`$
$$e_ie_j+e_je_i=0forij,i,j=1,2,\mathrm{},n.$$
$`(1.3)`$
and $`e_1e_2\mathrm{}e_n\pm 1`$. In that case $`_{p,q}`$ is spanned as a $`2^n`$-dimensional vector space with a basis $`\{e_A\}`$, where the multiindex $`A`$ ranges all naturally ordered subsets of the first positive integer set $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},n\}`$; the basis element $`e_A`$, where $`A=(i_1,i_2,\mathrm{},i_k)`$ with $`1i_1<i_2<\mathrm{}<i_kn`$, is defined as the product

$$e_A=e_{(i_1,i_2,\mathrm{},i_k)}e_{i_1}e_{i_2}\mathrm{}e_{i_k}.$$

In particular, $`e_A=1,`$ when $`A=\mathrm{}`$. For simplicity, a brief notation $`e_{[n]}=e_1e_2\mathrm{}e_n`$ will be adopted in the sequel. The square of $`e_{[n]}`$ is

$$e_{[n]}^2=(1)^{\frac{1}{2}n(n1)}e_1^2e_2^2\mathrm{}e_n^2.$$

Any element $`a_{p,q}`$ can be expressed as

$$a=\underset{A}{}a_Ae_A,a_A,$$

where $`A`$ ranges all naturally ordered subsets of $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},n\}`$. We shall also adopt the following notation in the sequel

$$_{p,q}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_p,\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _q|e_i^2=1,\epsilon _j^2=1,i=1,\mathrm{},p,j=1,\mathrm{},q\},$$

or simply

$$_{p,q}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_p,\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _q\},$$

and use

$$_{p,q}^{m\times n}=^{m\times n}\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_p,\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _q\}$$

to stand for the collection of all $`m\times n`$ matrices over $`_{p,q}.`$

As to the algebraic structure of the Clifford algebra $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=n`$, it is well-known(see, e.g., , , , ) that $`_{p,q}`$ satisfies the following algebraic isomorphisms

$$_{p,q}\{\begin{array}{c}(2^{n/2})ifqp0,6(mod8),\hfill \\ 𝒞(2^{(n1)/2})ifqp1,5(mod8),\hfill \\ (2^{(n2)/2})ifqp2,4(mod8),\hfill \\ {}_{}{}^{2}(2^{(n3)/2})ifqp3(mod8),\hfill \\ {}_{}{}^{2}(2^{(n3)/2})ifqp7(mod8),\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(1.4)`$
where $`(s),𝒞(s),(s)`$ stand for the matrix algebras $`^{s\times s},𝒞^{s\times s},^{s\times s}`$, respectively, and $`{}_{}{}^{2}(s),^2(s)`$ stand for the matrix algebras

$${}_{}{}^{2}(s)=\left\{\left[\begin{array}{cc}A& O\\ O& B\end{array}\right]\right|A,B^{s\times s}\},^2(s)=\left\{\left[\begin{array}{cc}A& O\\ O& B\end{array}\right]\right|A,B^{s\times s}\}.$$

For some low values of $`p`$ and $`q`$, Eq.(1.4) can be expressed as

$$_{1,0}^2,_{0,1}=𝒞,$$
$`(1.5)`$
$$_{2,0}^{2\times 2},_{1,1}^{2\times 2},_{0,2}=,$$
$`(1.6)`$
$$_{3,0}𝒞^{2\times 2},_{2,1}^2^{2\times 2},_{1,2}𝒞^{2\times 2},_{0,3}^2,$$
$`(1.7)`$
$$_{4,0}^{2\times 2},_{3,1}^{4\times 4},_{2,2}𝒞^{4\times 4},_{1,3}^{2\times 2},_{0,4}^{2\times 2}.$$
$`(1.8)`$
In addition, according to the periodicity theorem on Clifford algebras( see, e.g.,  and ), it is also well-known that

$$_{p+8,q}_{p,q}^{16\times 16},_{p,q+8}_{p,q}^{16\times 16}$$
$`(1.9)`$
hold for all finite $`p`$ and $`q`$.

The isomorphisms listed above imply that there exists a one-to-one correspondence, preserving algebraic operations, between elements of $`_{p,q}`$ and matrices with elements in $``$ or $`𝒞`$ or $``$, what we shall do in the present paper is to explicitly establish universal similarity factorization equalities between elements of $`_{p,q}`$ and matrices with elements in $`,`$ $`𝒞`$, and $`.`$

A key tool used in the sequel is given below.

Lemma 1.1. Let $`𝒜`$ be an algebra over an arbitrary field $`,`$ and let $`M_n(𝒜)`$ be the $`n\times n`$ total matrix algebra with elements in $`𝒜,`$ and with its basis $`\{\tau _{ij}\}`$ satisfying the multiplication rules

$$\tau _{ij}\tau _{st}=\{\begin{array}{c}\tau _{it}j=s,\\ 0js,\end{array}fori,j,s,t=1,2,\mathrm{},n.$$
$`(1.10)`$
Then any $`a=_{i,j=1}^na_{ij}\tau _{ij}M_n(𝒜),`$ where $`a_{ij}𝒜,`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P\left[\begin{array}{cccc}a& & & \\ & a& & \\ & & \mathrm{}& \\ & & & a\end{array}\right]P^1=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}a_{11}& a_{12}& \mathrm{}& a_{1n}\\ a_{21}& a_{22}& \mathrm{}& a_{2n}\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ a_{n1}& a_{n2}& \mathrm{}& a_{nn}\end{array}\right],$$
$`(1.11)`$
where $`P`$ has the following independent form

$$P=P^1=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\tau _{11}& \tau _{21}& \mathrm{}& \tau _{n1}\\ \tau _{12}& \tau _{22}& \mathrm{}& \tau _{n2}\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ \tau _{1n}& \tau _{2n}& \mathrm{}& \tau _{nn}\end{array}\right].$$
$`(1.12)`$
The correctness of this result can directly be verified by multiplying the left-hand side of Eq.(1.11). The significance of this result is in that if an algebra $``$ is known to be algebraically isomorphic to an $`n\times n`$ total matrix algebra over $`𝒜`$, then there exists an independent invertible matrix $`P`$ over $``$ such that $`P(aI_n)P^1𝒜^{n\times n}`$ holds for all $`a`$. The most part of the results in the paper are established through this basic identity.

2. UNIVERSAL SIMILARITY EQUALITIES OVER $`_{p,q}`$ WITH $`p+q8`$

This section is divided into eight subsections. In the first four of which, we present the universal similarity factorization equalities over $`_{p,q}`$ corresponding to $`p+q4`$ with proofs, and then list the universal similarity factorization equalities over $`_{p,q}`$ corresponding to $`5<p+q8`$.

2.1. The Cases $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=1`$

The two algebras $`_{p,q}`$ corresponding to $`p+q=1`$ are $`_{1,0}`$, the hyperbolic numbers, and $`_{0,1},`$ the complex numbers, respectively. The two fundamental universal similarity factorization equalities over them are very simple but crucial for the subsequent results.

Theorem 2.1.1. Let $`a=a_0+a_1e_1_{1,0}`$ be given, where $`a_0,a_1,e_1^2=1,`$ and denote its conjugate $`\overline{a}=a_0a_1e_1`$. Then $`a`$ and $`\overline{a}`$ satisfy the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{1,0}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill a& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill \overline{a}\end{array}\right]P_{1,0}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1& 0\\ 0& a_0a_1\end{array}\right]\varphi _{1,0}(a)^2,$$
$`(\mathrm{2.1.1})`$
where $`P_{1,0}`$ and $`P_{1,0}^1`$ have the independent forms $`(`$no relation with $`a)`$

$$P_{1,0}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+e_1& (1e_1)\\ 1e_1& 1+e_1\end{array}\right],P_{1,0}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+e_1& 1e_1\\ (1e_1)& 1+e_1\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.1.2})`$
Proof. Let $`s=1+e_1`$. Then $`\overline{s}=1e_1`$, and both of them satisfy $`s^2=2s,\overline{s}^2=2\overline{s}`$ and $`s\overline{s}=\overline{s}s=0.`$ Thus it follows that

$`P_{1,0}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& \overline{a}\end{array}\right]P_{1,0}^1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}s& \hfill \overline{s}\\ \overline{s}& \hfill s\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& \overline{a}\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}s& \overline{s}\\ \overline{s}& s\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}sas+\overline{s}\overline{a}\overline{s}& sa\overline{s}\overline{s}\overline{a}s\\ \overline{s}as& \overline{s}a\overline{s}+s\overline{a}s\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}as^2+\overline{a}\overline{s}^2& 0\\ 0& a\overline{s}^2+\overline{a}s^2\end{array}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}as+\overline{a}\overline{s}& 0\\ 0& a\overline{s}+\overline{a}s\end{array}\right],`$
where the two nonzero terms in it are

$$as+\overline{a}\overline{s}=(a_0+a_1e_1)(1+e_1)+(a_0a_1e_1)(1e_1)=2(a_0+a_1),$$

$$a\overline{s}+\overline{a}s=(a_0+a_1e_1)(1e_1)+(a_0a_1e_1)(1+e_1)=2(a_0a_1).$$

Hence we have Eq.(2.1.1). $`\mathrm{}`$

It is easily seen that

$$\overline{\overline{a}}=a,\overline{a+b}=\overline{a}+\overline{b},\overline{ab}=\overline{a}\overline{b},\overline{\lambda a}=\overline{a\lambda }=\lambda \overline{a}$$

hold for all $`a,b_{1,0},\lambda `$. Thus by Eq.(2.1.1) it follows that

(a) $`a=b\varphi _{1,0}(a)=\varphi _{1,0}(b).`$

(b) $`\varphi _{1,0}(a+b)=\varphi _{1,0}(a)+\varphi _{1,0}(b),\varphi _{1,0}(ab)=\varphi _{1,0}(a)\varphi _{1,0}(b),\varphi _{1,0}(\lambda a)=\lambda \varphi _{1,0}(a).`$

(c) $`\varphi _{1,0}(1)=I_2.`$

(d) $`a=\frac{1}{4}[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}+e_1,1e_1]\varphi _{1,0}(a)[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}+e_1,1e_1]^T.`$

(e) $`\mathrm{det}[\varphi _{1,0}(a)]=a_0^2a_1^2`$ for all $`a=a_0+a_1e_1_{1,0}.`$

(f) $`a`$ is invertible $`\varphi _{1,0}(a)`$ is invertible, in which case, $`\varphi _{1,0}(a^1)=\varphi _{1,0}^1(a).`$

(g) $`p_a(a)=0,`$ where $`p_a(\lambda )=\mathrm{det}[\lambda I_2\varphi _{1,0}(a)].`$
These properties imply that through the bijective map

$$\varphi _{1,0}:a_{1,0}\varphi _{1,0}(a)^2,$$

the Clifford algebra $`_{1,0}`$ is algebraically isomorphic to the matrix algebra $`{}_{}{}^{2}`$, and $`\varphi _{1,0}(a)`$ is a matrix representation of $`a_{1,0}`$ in $`{}_{}{}^{2}`$.

As to the algebra $`_{0,1}=𝒞`$, the following result is quite easy to verify .

Theorem 2.1.2. Let $`a=a_0+a_1\epsilon _1_{0,1}=𝒞,`$ where $`a_0,a_1,\epsilon _1^2=1,`$ and denote $`\overline{a}=a_0a_1\epsilon _1.`$ Then $`a`$ and $`\overline{a}`$ satisfy the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{0,1}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& \overline{a}\end{array}\right]P_{0,1}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0& \hfill a_1\\ a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right]\varphi _{0,1}(a)^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.1.3})`$
where $`P_{0,1}`$ has the independent form

$$P_{0,1}=P_{0,1}^1=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& \hfill \epsilon _1\\ \epsilon _1& \hfill 1\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.1.4})`$
Through the bijective map $`\varphi _{0,1}:a\varphi _{0,1}(a),`$ the algebra $`_{0,1}`$ is algebraically isomorphic to the matrix algebra $`𝒜=\left\{\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0& \hfill a_1\\ a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right]\right|a_0,a_1\}.`$

The two equalities in Eqs.(2.1.1) and (2.1.4) can be extended to all matrices over $`_{1,0}`$ and $`_{0,1}`$ as follows.

Theorem 2.1.3. Let $`A=A_0+A_1e_1_{1,0}^{m\times n},`$ where $`A_0,A_1^{m\times n}`$ and $`e_1^2=1.`$ Then $`A`$ and its conjugate $`\overline{A}=A_0A_1e_1`$ satisfy the following universal factorization equality

$$Q_{2m}\left[\begin{array}{cc}A& O\\ O& \overline{A}\end{array}\right]Q_{2n}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}A_0+A_1& O\\ O& A_0A_1\end{array}\right]\mathrm{\Phi }_{1,0}(A)^2^{m\times n},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.1.5})`$
where

$$Q_{2m}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_1)I_m& (1e_1)I_m\\ (1e_1)I_m& (1+e_1)I_m\end{array}\right],Q_{2n}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_1)I_n& (1e_1)I_n\\ (1e_1)I_n& (1+e_1)I_n\end{array}\right].$$

In particular, when $`m=n`$, Eq.(2.1.5) becomes a universal similarity factorization equality over $`_{1,0}`$.

Theorem 2.1.4. Let $`A=A_0+A_1\epsilon _1_{0,1}^{m\times n}=𝒞^{m\times n},`$ where $`A_0,A_1^{m\times n},\epsilon _1^2=1.`$ Then $`A`$ and its conjugate $`\overline{A}=A_0A_1\epsilon _1`$ satisfy the following universal factorization equality

$$K_{2m}\left[\begin{array}{cc}A& 0\\ 0& \overline{A}\end{array}\right]K_{2n}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}A_0& \hfill A_1\\ A_1& \hfill A_0\end{array}\right]\mathrm{\Phi }_{0,1}(A)^{2m\times 2n},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.1.6})`$
where

$$K_{2t}=K_{2t}^1=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}I_t& \hfill \epsilon _1I_t\\ \epsilon _1I_t& \hfill I_t\end{array}\right],t=m,n.$$

In particular, when $`m=n`$, Eq.(2.1.6) becomes a universal similarity factorization equality over $`_{0,1}=𝒞.`$

2.2. The Cases for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=2`$

The three algebraic isomorphisms for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=2`$ are shown in Eq.(1.6). Based on Lemma 1.1 and Theorem 2.1.1, we can establish universal similarity factorization equalities over them as follows.

Theorem 2.2.1. Let $`a_{2,0}=\{e_1,e_2|e_1^2=1,e_2^2=1\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as $`a=a_0+a_1e_1+a_2e_2+a_3e_{12},`$ where $`a_0`$$`a_3,`$ and $`aI_2`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{2,0}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& a\end{array}\right]P_{2,0}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1& a_2+a_3\\ a_2a_3& a_0a_1\end{array}\right]\varphi _{2,0}(a)^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.1})`$
where $`P_{2,0}`$ has the independent form

$$P_{2,0}=P_{2,0}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+e_1& e_2e_{12}\\ e_2+e_{12}& 1e_1\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.2})`$
Proof. By Lemma 1.1, we take the change of basis of $`_{2,0}`$ as follows

$$\tau _{11}=\frac{1}{2}(1+e_1),\tau _{12}=\frac{1}{2}(e_2+e_{12}),\tau _{21}=\frac{1}{2}(e_2e_{12}),\tau _{22}=\frac{1}{2}(1e_1).$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.3})`$
Then it is not difficult to verify that this new basis satisfies the multiplication laws in Eq.(1.10). In that case, every $`a=a_0+a_1e_1+a_2e_2+a_3e_{12}_{2,0}`$ can be rewritten as

$$a=(a_0+a_1)\tau _{11}+(a_2+a_3)\tau _{12}+(a_2a_3)\tau _{21}+(a_0a_1)\tau _{22}.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.4})`$
Substituting Eqs.(2.2.3) and (2.2.4) into Eqs.(1.11) and (1.12), we directly obtain Eqs.(2.2.1) and (2.2.2). $`\mathrm{}`$

It is easily seen from Eq.(2.2.1) that for all $`a,b_{2,0},\lambda `$, the following operation properties hold

(a) $`a=b\varphi _{2,0}(a)=\varphi _{2,0}(b).`$

(b) $`\varphi _{2,0}(a+b)=\varphi _{2,0}(a)+\varphi _{2,0}(b),\varphi _{2,0}(ab)=\varphi _{2,0}(a)\varphi _{2,0}(b),\varphi _{2,0}(\lambda a)=\lambda \varphi _{2,0}(a).`$

(c) $`\varphi _{2,0}(1)=I_2.`$

(d) $`a=\frac{1}{4}[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}+e_1,e_2e_{12}]\varphi _{2,0}(a)[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}+e_1,e_2e_{12}]^T.`$

(e) $`\mathrm{det}[\varphi _{2,0}(a)]=a_0^2a_1^2a_2^2+a_3^2,`$ for all $`a=a_0+a_1e_1+a_2e_2+a_3e_{12}_{2,0}.`$

(f) $`a`$ is invertible $`\varphi _{2,0}(a)`$ is invertible, in which case, $`\varphi _{2,0}(a^1)=\varphi _{2,0}^1(a).`$

(g) $`p_a(a)=0,`$ where $`p_a(x)=\mathrm{det}[xI_2\varphi _{2,0}(a)].`$

(h) $`a`$ is similar to $`b`$ over $`_{0,2}`$, i.e., there is an invertible $`x_{0,2}`$ such that $`xax^1=b`$ if and only if $`\varphi _{2,0}(a)`$ and $`\varphi _{2,0}(b)`$ are similar over $``$.

These properties show that through the bijective map $`\varphi _{2,0}:a_{2,0}\varphi _{2,0}(a)^{2\times 2},`$ the Clifford algebra $`_{2,0}`$ is algebraically isomorphic to the matrix algebra $`^{2\times 2}`$, and $`\varphi _{2,0}(a)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$.

Theorem 2.2.2. Let $`a_{1,1}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1|e_1^2=1,\epsilon _1^2=1\},`$ the split quaternion algebra. Then $`a`$ can factor as $`a=a_0+a_1e_1+a_2\epsilon _1+a_3e_1\epsilon _1,`$ where $`a_0`$$`a_3,`$ and $`aI_2`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{1,1}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& a\end{array}\right]P_{1,1}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1& (a_2+a_3)\\ a_2a_3& a_0a_1\end{array}\right]\varphi _{1,1}(a)^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.5})`$
where $`P_{1,1}`$ has the independent form

$$P_{1,1}=P_{1,1}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+e_1& \epsilon _1e_1\epsilon _1\\ (\epsilon _1+e_1\epsilon _1)& 1e_1\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.6})`$
Proof. By Lemma 1.1, we take the change of basis of $`_{1,1}`$ as follows

$$\tau _{11}=\frac{1}{2}(1+e_1),\tau _{12}=\frac{1}{2}(\epsilon _1+e_1\epsilon _1),\tau _{21}=\frac{1}{2}(\epsilon _1e_1\epsilon _1),\tau _{22}=\frac{1}{2}(1e_1).$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.7})`$
Then it is not difficult to verify that this new basis satisfies the multiplication laws in (1.10). In that case, every $`a=a_0+a_1e_1+a_2\epsilon _1+a_3e_1\epsilon _1,_{1,1}`$ can be rewritten as

$$a=(a_0+a_1)\tau _{11}(a_2+a_3)\tau _{12}+(a_2a_3)\tau _{21}+(a_0a_1)\tau _{22}.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.8})`$
Substituting Eqs.(2.2.7) and (2.2.8) into Eqs.(1.11) and (1.12), we directly obtain Eqs.(2.2.5) and (2.2.6). $`\mathrm{}`$

Similarly it is easy to verify that through the bijective map $`\varphi _{1,1}:a_{1,1}\varphi _{1,1}(a)^{2\times 2},`$ the Clifford algebra $`_{1,1}`$ is algebraically isomorphic to the matrix algebra $`^{2\times 2}`$, and $`\varphi _{1,1}(a)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$.

As to the Clifford algebra $`_{0,2}=`$, the ordinary quaternion division algebra, we have the following two results.

Theorem 2.2.3. Let $`a=a_0+a_1\epsilon _1+a_2\epsilon _2+a_3\epsilon _{12}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2|\epsilon _1^2=1,\epsilon _2^2=1\},`$ where $`a_0`$$`a_3.`$ Then $`aI_2`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{0,2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill a& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill a\end{array}\right]P_{0,2}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1\epsilon _1& (a_2+a_3\epsilon _1)\\ a_2a_3\epsilon _1& a_0a_1\epsilon _1\end{array}\right]\varphi _{0,2}(a)𝒞^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.9})`$
where $`P_{0,2}`$ has the independent form

$$P_{0,2}=P_{0,2}^1=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \hfill \epsilon _1\\ \hfill \epsilon _2& \hfill \epsilon _{12}\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.10})`$
Proof. Note that $`a\epsilon _1a\epsilon _1=2(a_0+a_1\epsilon _1)`$ and $`a+\epsilon _1a\epsilon _1=2(a_2\epsilon _2+a_3\epsilon _{12}).`$ We find

$`P_{0,2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill a& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill a\end{array}\right]P_{0,2}^1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a\epsilon _1a\epsilon _1& a\epsilon _2+\epsilon _1a\epsilon _{12}\\ \epsilon _2a+\epsilon _{12}a\epsilon _1& (\epsilon _2a\epsilon _2+\epsilon _{12}a\epsilon _{12})\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a\epsilon _1a\epsilon _1& (a+\epsilon _1a\epsilon _1)\epsilon _2\\ \epsilon _2(a+\epsilon _1a\epsilon _1)& \epsilon _2(a\epsilon _1a\epsilon _1)\epsilon _2\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1\epsilon _1& (a_2\epsilon _2+a_3\epsilon _{12})\epsilon _2\\ \epsilon _2(a_2\epsilon _2+a_3\epsilon _{12})& \epsilon _2(a_0+a_1\epsilon _1)\epsilon _2\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1\epsilon _1& (a_2+a_3\epsilon _1)\\ a_2a_3\epsilon _1& a_0a_1\epsilon _1\end{array}\right],`$
which is exactly the desired result. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.2.4. Let $`a=a_0+a_1\epsilon _1+a_2\epsilon _2+a_3\epsilon _{12},`$ where $`a_0`$$`a_3`$. Then $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$Q_{0,2}\left[\begin{array}{cccc}a& & & \\ & a& & \\ & & a& \\ & & & a\end{array}\right]Q_{0,2}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1\\ \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right]\phi _{0,2}(a)^{4\times 4},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.11})`$
where $`Q_{0,2}`$ has the independent form

$$Q_{0,2}=Q_{0,2}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cccc}1& \epsilon _1& \epsilon _2& \epsilon _{12}\\ \epsilon _1& 1& \epsilon _{12}& \epsilon _2\\ \epsilon _2& \epsilon _{12}& 1& \epsilon _1\\ \epsilon _{12}& \epsilon _2& \epsilon _1& 1\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.12})`$
Proof. It is easy to verify that

$$\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 1\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}x_0& x_1\\ x_1& x_0\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 1\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{cc}x_0+x_1& 0\\ 0& x_0x_1\end{array}\right]$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.13})`$
holds for any $`x_0,x_1`$. On the basis of (2.2.13), we further obtain

$$\left[\begin{array}{cccc}x_0& x_1& x_2& x_3\\ x_1& x_0& x_3& x_2\\ x_2& x_3& x_0& x_1\\ x_3& x_2& x_1& x_0\end{array}\right]=V\left[\begin{array}{cccc}d_1& & & \\ & d_2& & \\ & & d_3& \\ & & & d_4\end{array}\right]V,$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.14})`$
where $`x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,`$ and

$$d_1=x_0+x_1+x_2+x_3,d_2=x_0+x_1x_2x_3,$$

$$d_3=x_0x_1+x_2x_3,d_4=x_0x_1x_2+x_3,$$

$$V=V^T=V^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill 1\end{array}\right].$$

Replacing $`x_0`$$`x_3`$ in Eq.(2.2.14) now by $`a_0,a_1\epsilon _1,a_2\epsilon _2`$ and $`a_3\epsilon _{12}`$, respectively, we obtain

$$A\left[\begin{array}{cccc}a_0& a_1\epsilon _1& a_2\epsilon _2& a_3\epsilon _{12}\\ a_1\epsilon _1& a_0& a_3\epsilon _{12}& a_2\epsilon _2\\ a_2\epsilon _2& a_3\epsilon _{12}& a_0& a_1\epsilon _1\\ a_3\epsilon _{12}& a_2\epsilon _2& a_1\epsilon _1& a_0\end{array}\right]=V\left[\begin{array}{cccc}d_1& & & \\ & d_2& & \\ & & d_3& \\ & & & d_4\end{array}\right]V,$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.15})`$
where

$$d_1=a_0+a_1\epsilon _1+a_2\epsilon _2+a_3\epsilon _{12}=a,d_2=a_0+a_1\epsilon _1a_2\epsilon _2a_3\epsilon _{12},$$

$$d_3=a_0a_1\epsilon _1+a_2\epsilon _2a_3\epsilon _{12},d_4=a_0a_1\epsilon _1a_2\epsilon _2+a_3\epsilon _{12}.$$

It is easy to verify that $`d_2=\epsilon _1a\epsilon _1^1,d_3=\epsilon _2a\epsilon _2^1`$ and $`d_4=\epsilon _{12}a\epsilon _{12}^1.`$ Thus

$$\mathrm{diag}(d_1,d_2,d_3,d_4)=J\mathrm{diag}(a,a,a,a)J^1,$$
$`(\mathrm{2.2.16})`$
where $`J=\mathrm{diag}(\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _{12}).`$ On the other hand, it is easy to verify that

$$J^1AJ=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}a_0& a_1\epsilon _1\epsilon _1& a_2\epsilon _2\epsilon _2& a_3\epsilon _{12}\epsilon _{12}\\ a_1\epsilon _1^1\epsilon _1& a_0\epsilon _1^1\epsilon _1& a_3\epsilon _1^1\epsilon _{12}\epsilon _2& a_2\epsilon _1^1\epsilon _2\epsilon _{12}\\ a_2\epsilon _2^1\epsilon _2& a_3\epsilon _2^1\epsilon _{12}\epsilon _1& a_0\epsilon _2^1\epsilon _2& a_1\epsilon _2^1\epsilon _1\epsilon _{12}\\ a_3\epsilon _{12}^1\epsilon _{12}& a_2\epsilon _{12}^1\epsilon _2\epsilon _1& a_1\epsilon _{12}^1\epsilon _1\epsilon _2& a_0\epsilon _{12}^1\epsilon _{12}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1\\ \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right]=\varphi (a).$$

Putting Eqs.(2.2.15) and (2.2.16) in it yields

$$\varphi (a)=J^1AJ=J^1V\mathrm{diag}(d_1,d_2,d_3,d_4)VJ=(J^1VJ)\mathrm{diag}(a,a,a,a)(J^1VJ).$$

Let $`P=J^1VJ.`$ Then we have Eqs.(2.2.11) and (2.2.12). $`\mathrm{}`$

Just as the results in Theorems 2.1.3 and 2.1.4, the universal similarity factorization equalities in Theorems 2.2.1—2.2.4 can also be extend to all matrices over $`_{2,0},_{1,1}`$ and $`_{0,2}`$, respectively. We leave them to the reader.

2.3. The Cases for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=3`$

According to the multiplication laws in Eqs.(1.2) and (1.3) we know that for all algebras $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=n`$ odd, the commutative rule

$$ae_1e_2\mathrm{}e_n=e_1e_2\mathrm{}e_na$$

holds for all $`a_{p,q}`$. Based on this simple fact, we can write all elements of $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=3`$ in the form

$$a=a_0+a_1e_{[3]},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.1})`$
where $`a_0,a_1\{e_1,e_2\},`$ or $`a_0,a_1\{e_1,e_3\},`$ or $`a_0,a_1\{e_2,e_3\}`$. From (2.3.1) we can introduce the conjugate of $`a`$ as follows

$$\overline{a}=a_0a_1e_{123}.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.2})`$
Then it is easy to verify that for all $`a,b_{p,q}`$ and $`\lambda `$,

$$\overline{\overline{a}}=a,\overline{a+b}=\overline{a}+\overline{b},\overline{ab}=\overline{a}\overline{b},\overline{\lambda a}=\overline{a\lambda }=\lambda \overline{a}.$$

In this subsection we combine Eqs.(2.3.1) and (2.3.2) with the results in Subsection 2.2 to establish four universal similarity factorization equalities over $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=3`$.

Theorem 2.3.1. Let $`a_{3,0}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1e_{[3]},`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{2,0}=\{e_1,e_2\},e_{[3]}^2=1.$$

Then $`aI_2`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{3,0}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& a\end{array}\right]P_{3,0}^1=\varphi _{2,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)e_{[3]}\varphi _{3,0}(a)𝒞^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.3})`$
where $`\varphi _{2,0}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.2.1) and $`P_{3,0}`$ has the independent form

$$P_{3,0}=P_{3,0}^1=P_{2,0}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+e_1& e_2e_{12}\\ e_2+e_{12}& 1e_1\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.4})`$
Proof. Writing $`aI_2`$ as $`aI_2=a_0I_2+a_1e_{[3]}I_2`$ and multiplying $`P_{2,0}`$ and $`P_{2,0}^1`$ on its both sides, we obtain

$`P_{2,0}(aI_2)P_{2,0}^1`$ $`=`$ $`P_{2,0}(a_0I_2)P_{2,0}^1+P_{2,0}(a_1e_{[3]}I_2)P_{2,0}^1`$
$`=`$ $`P_{2,0}(a_0I_2)P_{2,0}^1+P_{2,0}(a_1I_2)P_{2,0}^1e_{[3]}`$
$`=`$ $`\varphi _{2,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)e_{[3]}=\varphi _{3,0}(a).`$
Note that $`\varphi _{2,0}(a_t)^{2\times 2}`$ and $`e_{[3]}^2=1.`$ Thus (2.3.3) follows. $`\mathrm{}`$

Obviously, through the bijective map $`\varphi _{3,0}:a_{3,0}\varphi _{3,0}(a)𝒞^{2\times 2},`$ the Clifford algebra $`_{3,0}`$ is algebraically isomorphic to the matrix algebra $`𝒞^{2\times 2}`$, and $`\varphi _{3,0}(a)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a`$ in $`𝒞^{2\times 2}`$.

Theorem 2.3.2. Let $`a_{2,1}=\{e_1,e_2,\epsilon _1\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1e,`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{1,1}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1\},e=e_1e_2\epsilon _1,e^2=1.$$

Then the diagonal matrix $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(aI_2,\overline{a}I_2)`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{2,1}D_aP_{2,1}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{1,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{1,1}(a_0)\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{2,1}(a)^2^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.5})`$
where $`\varphi _{1,1}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.2.5), and

$$P_{2,1}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e)P_{1,1}& (1e)P_{1,1}\\ (1e)P_{1,1}& (1+e)P_{1,1}\end{array}\right],P_{2,1}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{1,1}^1(1+e)& P_{1,1}^1(1e)\\ P_{1,1}^1(1e)& P_{1,1}^1(1+e)\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.6})`$
$`P_{1,1}`$ and $`P_{1,1}^1`$ are given by Eq.(2.2.6).

Proof. Writing $`aI_2`$ as $`aI_2=a_0I_2+a_1eI_2`$ and multiplying $`P_{1,1}`$ and $`P_{1,1}^1`$ in Eq.(2.2.6) on its both sides, we get

$`P_{1,1}(aI_2)P_{1,1}^1`$ $`=`$ $`P_{1,1}(a_0I_2)P_{1,1}^1+P_{1,1}(a_1eI_2)P_{1,1}^1`$
$`=`$ $`P_{1,1}(a_0I_2)P_{1,1}^1+P_{1,1}(a_1I_2)P_{1,1}^1e=\varphi _{1,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)e=\psi (a),`$
where $`\varphi _{1,1}(a_t)^{2\times 2}(t=0,1).`$ Here we denote $`\overline{\psi }(a)=\varphi _{1,1}(a_0)\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)e.`$ Then $`\psi (\overline{a})=\overline{\psi }(a)`$. Note that $`e^2=1.`$ Thus by Theorem 2.2.1, we can build a matrix and its inverse as follows

$$V=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e)I_2& (1e)I_2\\ (1e)I_2& (1+e)I_2\end{array}\right],V^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e)I_2& (1e)I_2\\ (1e)I_2& (1+e)I_2\end{array}\right].$$

Now applying them to diag$`(\psi (a),\psi (\overline{a}))`$ we obtain

$`V\left[\begin{array}{cc}\psi (a)& O\\ O& \psi (\overline{a})\end{array}\right]V^1`$ $`=`$ $`V\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{1,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)e& O\\ O& \varphi _{1,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)e\end{array}\right]V^1`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{1,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{1,1}(a_0)\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)\end{array}\right].`$
Finally substituting $`\psi (a)=P_{1,1}(aI_2)P_{1,1}^1`$ and $`\psi (\overline{a})=P_{1,1}(\overline{a}I_2)P_{1,1}^1`$ into the left-hand side of the above equality yields Eq.(2.3.5). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.3.3. Let $`a_{1,2}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1e,`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{1,1}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1\},e=e_1\epsilon _1\epsilon _2,e^2=1.$$

Then $`aI_2`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{1,2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& a\end{array}\right]P_{1,2}^1=\varphi _{1,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)e\varphi _{1,2}(a)𝒞^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.7})`$
where $`\varphi _{1,1}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.2.5), and

$$P_{1,2}=P_{1,2}^1=P_{1,1}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+e_1& \epsilon _1e_1\epsilon _1\\ (\epsilon _1+e_1\epsilon _1)& 1e_1\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.8})`$
Proof. Writing $`aI_2=a_0I_2+a_1eI_2`$ and multiplying $`P_{1,1}`$ and $`P_{1,1}^1`$ on its both sides, we get

$`P_{1,1}(aI_2)P_{1,1}^1`$ $`=`$ $`P_{1,1}(a_0I_2)P_{1,1}^1+P_{1,1}(a_1I_2)P_{1,1}^1`$
$`=`$ $`P_{1,1}(a_0I_2)P_{1,1}^1+P_{1,1}(a_1I_2)P_{1,1}^1e=\varphi _{1,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)e.`$
Note that $`\varphi _{1,1}(a_t)^{2\times 2}`$ and $`e^2=1.`$ Thus Eq.(2.3.7) follows. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.3.4. Let $`a_{0,3}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1\epsilon _{[3]},`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{0,2}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\}=,\epsilon _{[3]}^2=1.$$

Then $`a`$ and $`\overline{a}=a_0a_1\epsilon _{[3]}`$ satisfy the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{0,3}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& \overline{a}\end{array}\right]P_{0,3}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1& 0\\ 0& a_0a_1\end{array}\right]\varphi _{0,3}(a)^2,$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.9})`$
where

$$P_{0,3}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+\epsilon _{[3]}& (1\epsilon _{[3]})\\ 1\epsilon _{[3]}& 1+\epsilon _{[3]}\end{array}\right],P_{0,3}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+\epsilon _{[3]}& 1\epsilon _{[3]}\\ (1\epsilon _{[3]})& 1+\epsilon _{[3]}\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.3.10})`$
The derivation of Eq.(2.3.5) is much analogous to that of Eq.(2.1.1). So we omit it here.

2.4. The Cases for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=4`$

The five algebraic isomorphisms for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=4`$ are shown in Eq.(1.7). Without much effort we can extend the results in Subsection 2.2 to these five algebras.

Theorem 2.4.1. Let $`a_{4,0}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,e_4\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1e_{123}+a_2e_{124}+a_3e_{34},$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{2,0}=\{e_1,e_2\},$$

$$e_{123}^2=1,e_{124}^2=1,e_{34}=e_{123}e_{124}=e_{124}e_{123}.$$

In that case $`aI_2`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{4,0}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& 0\\ 0& a\end{array}\right]P_{4,0}^1=\varphi _{2,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)e_{123}+\varphi _{2,0}(a_2)e_{124}+\varphi _{2,0}(a_3)e_{34}\varphi _{4,0}(a),$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.1})`$
where

$$\varphi _{4,0}(a)^{2\times 2}\{e_{123},e_{124}\}=^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.2})`$
$`\varphi _{2,0}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.2.1), and $`P_{4,0}=P_{4,0}^1=P_{2,0},`$ the matrix in Eq.(2.2.2).

Proof. Note that the commutative rules $`be_{[3]}=e_{[3]}b,be_{124}=e_{124}b`$ and $`be_{34}=e_{34}b`$ hold for all $`b_{2,0}=\{e_1,e_2\}.`$ Thus we immediately obtain

$`P_{2,0}(aI_2)P_{2,0}^1`$
$`=`$ $`P_{2,0}(a_0I_2)P_{2,0}^1+P_{2,0}(a_1I_2)P_{2,0}^1e_{[3]}+P_{2,0}(a_2I_2)P_{2,0}^1e_{124}+P_{2,0}(a_3I_2)P_{2,0}^1e_{34}`$
$`=`$ $`\varphi _{2,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)e_{123}+\varphi _{2,0}(a_2)e_{124}+\varphi _{2,0}(a_3)e_{34},`$
which is exactly the result in Eq.(2.4.1). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.4.2. Let $`a_{3,1}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,\epsilon _1\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1(e_{12}\epsilon _1)+a_2e_{[3]}+a_3(e_3\epsilon _1),$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{2,0}=\{e_1,e_2\},$$

$$(e_{12}\epsilon _1)^2=1,e_{[3]}^2=1,e_3\epsilon _1=(e_{12}\epsilon _1)e_{[3]}=e_{[3]}(e_{12}\epsilon _1).$$

In that case $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{3,1}(aI_4)P_{3,1}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{2,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)& [\varphi _{2,0}(a_2)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{2,0}(a_2)\varphi _{2,0}(a_3)& \varphi _{2,0}(a_0)\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{3,1}(a)^{4\times 4},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.3})`$
where $`\varphi _{2,0}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.2.1) and

$$P_{3,1}=P_{3,1}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{12}\epsilon _1)P_{2,0}& (e_{[3]}e_3\epsilon _2)P_{2,0}\\ (e_{[3]}e_3\epsilon _1)P_{2,0}& (1+e_{12}\epsilon _1)P_{2,0}\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.4})`$
where $`P_{2,0}`$ is given in Eq.(2.2.2).

Proof. Note that the following commutative laws $`be_{[3]}=e_{[3]}b,be_{124}=e_{124}b`$ and $`be_{34}=e_{34}b`$ hold for all $`b_{2,0}=\{e_1,e_2\}.`$ Thus it follows from (2.2.1) that

$`P_{2,0}(aI_2)P_{2,0}^1`$
$`=`$ $`P_{2,0}(a_0I_2)P_{2,0}^1+P_{2,0}(a_1I_2)P_{2,0}^1(e_{12}\epsilon _1)+P_{2,0}(a_2I_2)P_{2,0}^1e_{[3]}+P_{2,0}(a_3I_2)P_{2,0}^1(e_3\epsilon _1)`$
$`=`$ $`\varphi _{2,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)(e_{12}\epsilon _1)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_2)e_{[3]}+\varphi _{2,0}(a_3)(e_3\epsilon _1)`$
$``$ $`\psi (a)^{2\times 2}\{e_{12}\epsilon _1,e_{[3]}\}.`$
Next building a matrix and its inverse from the basis $`1,e_{12}\epsilon _1,e_{[3]}`$ and $`e_3\epsilon _1`$ as follows

$$V=V^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{12}\epsilon _1)I_2& (e_{[3]}e_3\epsilon _1)I_2\\ (e_{[3]}+e_3\epsilon _1)I_2& (1e_{12}\epsilon _1)I_2\end{array}\right],$$

and applying them to the matrix $`\psi (a)`$ given above, we obtain

$$V\left[\begin{array}{cc}\psi (a)& O\\ O& \psi (a)\end{array}\right]V^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{2,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)& [\varphi _{2,0}(a_2)+\varphi _{2,0}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{2,0}(a_2)\varphi _{2,0}(a_3)& \varphi _{2,0}(a_0)\varphi _{2,0}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{3,1}(a).$$

Finally substituting $`\psi (a)=P_{2,0}(aI_2)P_{2,0}^1`$ into the left-hand side of the above equality yields Eqs.(2.4.3) and (2.4.4). $`\mathrm{}`$

Similarly we have the following.

Theorem 2.4.3. Let $`a_{2,2}=\{e_1,e_2,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\},`$ the split Clifford algebra. Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1(e_{12}\epsilon _1)+a_2(e_1\epsilon _{12})+a_3(\epsilon _2e_2),$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{1,1}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1\},$$

$$(e_{12}\epsilon _1)^2=1,(e_1\epsilon _{12})^2=1,\epsilon _2e_2=(e_{12}\epsilon _1)(e_1\epsilon _{12})=(e_1\epsilon _{12})(e_{12}\epsilon _1).$$

In that case $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{2,2}(aI_4)P_{2,2}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{1,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)& [\varphi _{1,1}(a_2)+\varphi _{1,1}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{1,1}(a_2)\varphi _{1,1}(a_3)& \varphi _{1,1}(a_0)\varphi _{1,1}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{2,2}(a)^{4\times 4},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.5})`$
where $`\varphi _{1,1}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ given in (2.2.1) and

$$P_{2,2}=P_{2,2}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{12}\epsilon _1)P_{1,1}& (e_1\epsilon _{12}e_2\epsilon _2)P_{1,1}\\ (e_1\epsilon _{12}e_2\epsilon _2)P_{1,1}& (1+e_{12}\epsilon _1)P_{1,1}\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.6})`$
where $`P_{1,1}`$ is given in Eq.(2.2.6).

Theorem 2.4.4. Let $`a_{1,3}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1\epsilon _{[3]}+a_2e_1(\epsilon _{12})+a_3(e_1\epsilon _3),$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{0,2}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\}=,$$

$$\epsilon _{[3]}^2=1,(e_1\epsilon _{12})^2=1,e_1\epsilon _3=\epsilon _{[3]}(e_1\epsilon _{12})=(e_1\epsilon _{12})\epsilon _{[3]}.$$

In that case $`aI_2`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{1,3}(aI_2)P_{1,3}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1& (a_2+a_3)\\ a_2a_3& a_0a_1\end{array}\right]\varphi _{1,3}(a)^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.7})`$
where

$$P_{1,3}=P_{1,3}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+\epsilon _{[3]}& e_1\epsilon _{12}e_1\epsilon _3\\ (e_1\epsilon _{12}e_1\epsilon _3)& 1\epsilon _{[3]}\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.8})`$
Proof. Note that the following commutative laws $`b\epsilon _{[3]}=\epsilon _{[3]}b,b(e_1\epsilon _{12})=(e_1\epsilon _{12})b,`$ $`b(e_1\epsilon _3)=(e_1\epsilon _3)b`$ hold for all $`b_{0,2}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\}.`$ Thus by Theorem 2.2.2 we can build the matrix $`P_{1,3}`$ in Eq.(2.4.8) such that $`aI_2`$ satisfies Eq.(2.4.7). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.4.5. Let $`a_{0,4}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3,\epsilon _4\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1\epsilon _{123}+a_2\epsilon _{124}+a_3\epsilon _{43},$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{0,2}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\}=,$$

$$\epsilon _{123}^2=1,\epsilon _{124}^2=1,\epsilon _{43}=\epsilon _{123}\epsilon _{124}=\epsilon _{124}\epsilon _{123}.$$

In that case $`aI_2`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{0,4}(aI_2)P_{0,4}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a_0+a_1& a_2+a_3\\ a_2a_3& a_0a_1\end{array}\right]\varphi _{0,4}(a)^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.9})`$
where

$$P_{0,4}=P_{0,4}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1+\epsilon _{123}& \epsilon _{124}\epsilon _{43}\\ \epsilon _{124}\epsilon _{34}& 1\epsilon _{123}\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{2.4.10})`$
Proof. Follows from the fact $`b\epsilon _{123}=\epsilon _{123}b,b\epsilon _{124}=e_1\epsilon _{124}b,b\epsilon _{43}=\epsilon _{43}b`$ for all $`b_{0,2}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\}`$ and Theorem 2.2.1. $`\mathrm{}`$

2.5. The Cases for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=5`$

Just as for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=3`$, we can write all elements of $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=5`$ in the following form

$$a=a_0+a_1e_{[5]}=a_0+e_{[5]}a_1,$$

where $`a_0,a_1`$ are the elements of the Clifford algebras defined on any four generators of $`e_1,e_2,\mathrm{},e_5`$. Besides we can also introduce the conjugate of $`a`$ as follows

$$\overline{a}=a_0a_1e_{[5]}.$$

Then it is easy to verify that for all $`a,b_{p,q}`$ and $`\lambda `$,

$$\overline{\overline{a}}=a,\overline{a+b}=\overline{a}+\overline{b},\overline{ab}=\overline{a}\overline{b},\overline{\lambda a}=\overline{a\lambda }=\lambda \overline{a}.$$

According to the table in Eq.(1.4), we know that the six Clifford algebras $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=5`$ satisfy the following algebraic isomorphisms

$$_{5,0}^2^{2\times 2},_{4,1}𝒞^{4\times 4},_{3,2}^2^{4\times 4},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.1})`$
$$_{2,3}𝒞^{4\times 4},_{1,4}^2^{2\times 2},_{0,5}𝒞^{4\times 4}.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.2})`$
Based on the results in previous subsection we can establish six universal similarity factorization equalities between elements of $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=5`$ and matrices of the six matrix algebras in Eqs.(2.5.1) and (2.5.2).

Theorem 2.5.1. Let $`a_{5,0}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_5\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1e_{[5]},`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{4,0}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,e_4\},e_{[5]}^2=1.$$

Then the diagonal matrix $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(aI_2,\overline{a}I_2)`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{5,0}D_aP_{5,0}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{4,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{4,0}(a_0)\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{5,0}(a)^2^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.3})`$
where $`\varphi _{4,0}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in (2.4.1) and

$$P_{5,0}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[5]})P_{4,0}& (1e_{[5]})P_{4,0}\\ (1e_{[5]})P_{4,0}& (1+e_{[5]})P_{4,0}\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.4})`$
$$P_{5,0}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{4,0}^1(1+e_{[5]})& P_{4,0}^1(1e_{[5]})\\ P_{4,0}^1(1e_{[5]})& P_{4,0}^1(1+e_{[5]})\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.5})`$
$`P_{4,0}`$ is given in Theorem 2.4.1.

Proof. Note that $`be_{[5]}=e_{[5]}b`$ holds for all $`b_{4,0}`$. By applying (2.4.1) to $`aI_2=a_0I_2+a_1e_{[5]}I_2`$, we get

$`P_{4,0}(aI_2)P_{4,0}^1`$ $`=`$ $`P_{4,0}(a_0I_2)P_{4,0}^1+P_{4,0}(a_1I_2)P_{4,0}^1e_{[5]}=\varphi _{4,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)e_{[5]}=\psi (a),`$
and

$$P_{4,0}(\overline{a}I_2)P_{4,0}^1=\varphi _{4,0}(a_0)\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)e_{[5]}=\psi (\overline{a}).$$

By Theorem 2.1.1, we construct a matrix and its inverse as follows

$$V=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[5]})I_2& (1e_{[5]})I_2\\ (1e_{[5]})I_2& (1+e_{[5]})I_2\end{array}\right],V^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[5]})I_2& (1e_{[5]})I_2\\ (1e_{[5]})I_2& (1+e_{[5]})I_2\end{array}\right].$$

Now applying them to diag$`(\psi (a),\psi (\overline{a}))`$ we obtain

$`V\left[\begin{array}{cc}\psi (a)& O\\ O& \psi (\overline{a})\end{array}\right]V^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{4,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{4,0}(a_0)\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)\end{array}\right].`$
Finally substituting $`\psi (a)=P_{4,0}(aI_2)P_{4,0}^1`$ and $`\psi (\overline{a})=P_{4,0}(\overline{a}I_2)P_{4,0}^1`$ into the left-hand side of the above equality produces Eq.(2.5.3). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.5.2. Let $`a_{4,1}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,e_4,\epsilon _1\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1),`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{3,1}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,\epsilon _1\},(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)^2=1.$$

Then $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{4,1}(aI_4)P_{4,1}^1=\varphi _{3,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{3,1}(a_1)(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)\varphi _{4,1}(a)𝒞^{4\times 4},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.6})`$
where $`\varphi _{3,1}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{4\times 4}`$ given in (2.4.3) and $`P_{4,1}=P_{3,1},`$ the matrix given in (2.4.4).

Proof. Follows directly from Eq.(2.4.3). $`\mathrm{}`$

For economizing space, we omit the proofs of all the following several results.

Theorem 2.5.3. Let $`a_{3,2}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]}),`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{2,2}=\{e_1,e_2,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\},(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})^2=1.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.7})`$
Then the diagonal matrix $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(aI_2,\overline{a}I_2)`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{3,2}D_aP_{3,2}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{2,2}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,2}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{2,2}(a_0)\varphi _{2,2}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{3,2}(a)^2^{4\times 4},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.8})`$
where $`\varphi _{2,2}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{4\times 4}`$ defined in (2.4.5) and

$$P_{3,2}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})P_{2,2}& (1e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})P_{2,2}\\ (1e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})P_{2,2}& (1+e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})P_{2,2}\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.9})`$
$$P_{3,2}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{2,2}^1(1+e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})& P_{2,2}^1(1e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})\\ P_{2,2}^1(1e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})& P_{2,2}^1(1+e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.10})`$
$`P_{2,2}`$ and $`P_{2,2}^1`$ are given in Eq.(2.4.6).

Theorem 2.5.4. Let $`a_{2,3}=\{e_1,e_2,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]}),`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{2,2}=\{e_1,e_2,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\},(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})^2=1.$$

Then $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity equality

$$P_{2,3}(aI_4)P_{2,3}^1=\varphi _{2,2}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,2}(a_1)e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]}\varphi _{2,3}(a)𝒞^{4\times 4},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.11})`$
where $`\varphi _{2,2}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{4\times 4}`$ defined in Eq.(2.4.5) and $`P_{2,3}=P_{2,2},`$ the matrix given in Eq.(2.4.6).

Theorem 2.5.5. Let $`a_{1,4}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3,\epsilon _4\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1(e_1\epsilon _{[4]}),`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{1,3}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3\},(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})^2=1.$$

Then the diagonal matrix $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(aI_2,\overline{a}I_2)`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{1,4}D_aP_{1,4}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{1,3}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,3}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{1,3}(a_0)\varphi _{1,3}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{1,4}(a)^2^{2\times 2},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.12})`$
where $`\varphi _{1,3}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.4.7) and

$$P_{1,4}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_1\epsilon _{[4]})P_{1,3}& (1e_1\epsilon _{[4]})P_{1,3}\\ (1e_1\epsilon _{[4]})P_{1,3}& (1+e_1\epsilon _{[4]})P_{1,3}\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.13})`$
$$P_{1,4}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{1,3}^1(1+e_1\epsilon _{[4]})& P_{1,3}^1(1e_1\epsilon _{[4]})\\ P_{1,3}^1(1e_1\epsilon _{[4]})& P_{1,3}^1(1+e_1\epsilon _{[4]})\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.14})`$
$`P_{1,3}`$ and $`P_{1,3}^1`$ are given in Eq.(2.4.8).

Theorem 2.5.6. Let $`a_{0,5}=\{\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _5\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as $`a=a_0+a_1\epsilon _{[5]},`$ where

$$a_0,a_1_{2,2}=\{\epsilon _{1234},\epsilon _{1235},\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\},\epsilon _{[5]}^2=1.$$

Then there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{0,5}`$ over $`_{0,5}`$ such that $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity equality

$$P_{0,5}(aI_4)P_{0,5}^1=\varphi _{2,2}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,2}(a_1)\epsilon _{[5]}\varphi _{0,5}(a)𝒞^{4\times 4},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.5.15})`$
where $`\varphi _{2,2}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{4\times 4}`$ defined in Eq.(2.4.5).

2.6. The Cases for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=6`$

According to the table Eq.(1.4), we know that the seven algebraic isomorphisms for the Clifford algebras $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=6`$ are as follows

$$_{6,0}^{4\times 4},_{5,1}^{4\times 4},_{4,2}^{8\times 8},_{3,3}^{8\times 8},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.6.1})`$
$$_{2,4}^{4\times 4},_{1,5}^{4\times 4},_{0,6}^{8\times 8}.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.6.2})`$
For economizing space, we omit the proofs of all the results in this subsection.

Theorem 2.6.1. Let $`a_{6,0}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_6\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1(e_{[4]}e_5)+a_2(e_{[4]}e_6)+a_3e_{56}=a_0+(e_{[4]}e_5)a_1+(e_{[4]}e_6)a_2+e_{56}a_3,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{4,0}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,e_4\}$$

$$(e_{[4]}e_5)^2=1,(e_{[4]}e_6)^2=1,e_{56}=(e_{[4]}e_5)(e_{[4]}e_6)=(e_{[4]}e_6)(e_{[4]}e_5).$$

Moreover, there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{6,0}`$ over $`_{6,0}`$ such that $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{6,0}(aI_4)P_{6,0}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{4,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)& \varphi _{4,0}(a_2)+\varphi _{4,0}(a_3)\\ \varphi _{4,0}(a_2)\varphi _{4,0}(a_3)& \varphi _{4,0}(a_0)\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{6,0}(a)^{4\times 4},$$

where $`\varphi _{4,0}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in (2.4.1).

Theorem 2.6.2. Let $`a_{5,1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_5,\epsilon _1\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1e_{[5]}+a_2(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)+a_3(e_5\epsilon _1)=a_0+e_{[5]}a_1+(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)a_2+(e_5\epsilon _1)a_3,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{4,0}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,e_4\},$$

$$e_{[5]}^2=1,(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)^2=1,e_5\epsilon _1=e_{[5]}(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)=(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)e_{[5]}.$$

Moreover, there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{5,1}`$ over $`_{5,1}`$ such that $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{5,1}(aI_4)P_{5,1}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{4,0}(a_0)+\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)& [\varphi _{4,0}(a_2)+\varphi _{4,0}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{4,0}(a_2)\varphi _{4,0}(a_3)& \varphi _{4,0}(a_0)\varphi _{4,0}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{5,1}(a)^{4\times 4},$$

where $`\varphi _{4,0}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.4.1).

Theorem 2.6.3. Let $`a_{4,2}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_4,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\}.`$

$$a=a_0+a_1(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})+a_2(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)+a_3(e_4\epsilon _2)=a_0+(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})a_1+(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)a_2+(e_4\epsilon _2)a_3,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{3,1}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,\epsilon _1\},$$

$$(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})^2=1,(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)^2=1,e_4\epsilon _2=(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)=(e_{[4]}\epsilon _1)(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]}).$$

Morever, there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{4,2}`$ over $`_{4,2}`$ such that $`aI_8`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{4,2}(aI_8)P_{4,2}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{3,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{3,1}(a_1)& [\varphi _{3,1}(a_2)+\varphi _{3,1}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{3,1}(a_2)\varphi _{3,1}(a_3)& \varphi _{3,1}(a_0)\varphi _{3,1}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{4,2}(a)^{8\times 8},$$

where $`\varphi _{3,1}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{4\times 4}`$ defined in Eq.(2.4.3).

Theorem 2.6.4. Let $`a_{3,3}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3\}.`$ Then $`a`$ cn factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})+a_2(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})+a_3(e_3\epsilon _3)=a_0+(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})a_1+(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})a_2+(e_3\epsilon _3)a_3,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{2,2}=\{e_1,e_2,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2\},$$

$$(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})^2=1,(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})^2=1,e_3\epsilon _3=(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]})(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})=(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})(e_{[3]}\epsilon _{[2]}).$$

Moreover there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{3,3}`$ over $`_{3,3}`$ such that $`aI_8`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{3,3}(aI_8)P_{3,3}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{2,2}(a_0)+\varphi _{2,2}(a_1)& [\varphi _{2,2}(a_2)+\varphi _{2,2}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{2,2}(a_2)\varphi _{2,2}(a_3)& \varphi _{2,2}(a_0)\varphi _{2,2}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{3,3}(a)^{8\times 8},$$

where $`\varphi _{2,2}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{4\times 4}`$ defined in (2.4.5).

Theorem 2.6.5. Let $`a_{2,4}=\{e_1,e_2,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3,\epsilon _4\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})+a_2(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})+a_3(e_4\epsilon _2)=a_0+(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})a_1+(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})a_2+(e_4\epsilon _2)a_3,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{1,3}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3\},$$

$$(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})^2=1,(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})^2=1,e_4\epsilon _2=(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})=(e_{[2]}\epsilon _{[3]})(e_1\epsilon _{[4]}).$$

Moreover, there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{2,4}`$ over $`_{2,4}`$ such that $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{2,4}(aI_4)P_{2,4}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{1,3}(a_0)+\varphi _{1,3}(a_1)& [\varphi _{1,3}(a_2)+\varphi _{1,3}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{1,3}(a_2)\varphi _{1,3}(a_3)& \varphi _{1,3}(a_0)\varphi _{1,3}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{2,4}(a)^{4\times 4},$$

where $`\varphi _{1,3}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.4.7).

Theorem 2.6.6. Let $`a_{1,5}=\{e_1,\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _5\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})+a_2\epsilon _{[5]}+a_3(e_1\epsilon _5)=a_0+(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})a_1+\epsilon _{[5]}a_2+(e_1\epsilon _5)a_3,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{0,4}=\{\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2,\epsilon _3,\epsilon _4\},$$

$$(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})^2=1,\epsilon _{[5]}^2=1,e_1\epsilon _5=(e_1\epsilon _{[4]})\epsilon _{[5]}=\epsilon _{[5]}(e_1\epsilon _{[4]}).$$

Moreover, there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{1,5}`$ over $`_{1,5}`$ such that $`aI_4`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{1,5}(aI_4)P_{1,5}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{0,4}(a_0)+\varphi _{0,4}(a_1)& [\varphi _{0,4}(a_2)+\varphi _{0,4}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{0,4}(a_2)\varphi _{0,6}(a_3)& \varphi _{0,4}(a_0)\varphi _{0,4}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{1,5}(a)^{4\times 4},$$

where $`\varphi _{0,4}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2\times 2}`$ defined in Eq.(2.4.9).

Theorem 2.6.7. Let $`a_{0,6}=\{\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _6\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _6)+a_2(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _5)+a_3\epsilon _{56}=a_0+(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _6)a_1+(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _5)a_2+\epsilon _{56}a_3,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{3,1}=\{\epsilon _{124},\epsilon _{134},\epsilon _{234},\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _{56}\},$$

$$(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _6)^2=1,(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _5)^2=1,\epsilon _{56}=(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _6)(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _5)=(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _5)(\epsilon _{[3]}\epsilon _6).$$

Moreover, there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{0,6}`$ over $`_{0,6}`$ such that $`aI_8`$ satisfies the following universal similarity equality

$$P_{0,6}(aI_8)P_{0,6}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{3,1}(a_0)+\varphi _{3,1}(a_1)& \varphi _{3,1}(a_2)+\varphi _{3,1}(a_3)\\ \varphi _{3,1}(a_2)\varphi _{3,1}(a_3)& \varphi _{3,1}(a_0)\varphi _{3,1}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{0,6}(a)^{8\times 8},$$

where $`\varphi _{3,1}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{4\times 4}`$ defined in Eq.(2.4.3).

2.7. The Cases for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=7`$

According to the table (1.4), the eight algebraic isomorphisms for the Clifford algebras $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=7`$ are as follows

$$_{7,0}𝒞^{8\times 8},_{6,1}^2^{4\times 4},_{5,2}𝒞^{8\times 8},_{4,3}^2^{8\times 8},$$
$`(\mathrm{2.7.1})`$
$$_{3,4}𝒞^{8\times 8},_{2,5}^2^{4\times 4},_{1,6}𝒞^{8\times 8},_{0,7}^2^{8\times 8}.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.7.2})`$
The derivation of the universal similarity equalities between elements of $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=7`$ and the eight matrix algebras are much analogous to those in Subsection 2.5. Here we only present the results for $`_{7,0}`$ and $`_{0,7}`$.

Just as for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=5`$, we can decompose $`a_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=7`$ into the following general form

$$a=a_0+a_1e_{[7]}=a_0+e_{[7]}a_1,$$
$`(\mathrm{2.7.3})`$
where $`a_0,a_1`$ are elements of the Clifford algebras defined on any six generators of $`e_1,e_2,\mathrm{},e_7`$. and from this decomposition, we introduce the conjugate of $`a`$ as follows

$$\overline{a}=a_0a_1e_{[7]}.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.7.4})`$
Then it is easy to verify that for all $`a,b_{p,q},`$ and $`p+q=7,\lambda `$,

$$\overline{\overline{a}}=a,\overline{a+b}=\overline{a}+\overline{b},\overline{ab}=\overline{a}\overline{b},\overline{\lambda a}=\overline{a\lambda }=\lambda \overline{a}.$$
$`(\mathrm{2.7.5})`$
Theorem 2.7.1. Let $`a_{7,0}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_7\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1e_{[7]},`$ where $`e_{[7]}^2=1`$, and

$$a_0,a_1_{4,2}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,e_4,e_{[5]}e_6,e_{[5]}e_7\}.$$

Then there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{7,0}`$ over $`_{7,0}`$ such that $`aI_8`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{7,0}(aI_8)P_{7,0}^1=\varphi _{4,2}(a_0)+\varphi _{4,2}(a_1)e_{[7]}\varphi _{7,0}(a)𝒞^{8\times 8},$$

where $`\varphi _{4,2}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{8\times 8}`$ defined in Theorem 2.6.3.

Theorem 2.7.2. Let $`a_{0,7}=\{\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _7\},`$ and write $`a`$ as $`a=a_0+a_1\epsilon _{[7]},`$ where $`\epsilon _{[7]}^2=1`$, and

$$a_0,a_1_{0,6}=\{\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _6\}.$$

Then there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{0,7}`$ over $`_{0,7}`$ such that the diagonal matrix $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(aI_8,\overline{a}I_8)`$ satisfies the following similarity equality

$$P_{0,7}D_aP_{0,7}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{0,6}(a_0)+\varphi _{0,6}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{0,6}(a_0)\varphi _{0,6}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{0,7}(a)^2^{8\times 8},$$

where $`\varphi _{0,6}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{8\times 8}`$ defined in Theorem 2.6.7.

2.8. The Cases for $`_{p,q}`$ with $`p+q=8`$

Just as in subsection 2.7, we only examine the two particular cases over $`_{8,0}`$ and $`_{0,8}`$.

Theorem 2.8.1. Let $`a_{8,0}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_8\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1e_{4567}+a_2e_{4568}+a_3e_{78}=a_0+e_{4567}a_1+e_{4568}a_2+e_{78}a_3,$$

where

$$a_t_{3,3}=\{e_1,e_2,e_3,e_{[3]}e_{478},e_{[3]}e_{578},e_{[3]}e_{678}|1,1,1,11,1\},$$

$$e_{4567}^2=1,e_{4568}^2=1,e_{78}=(e_{4567})(e_{4568})=(e_{4568})(e_{4567}),$$

$`t=0`$$`3`$. In that case, there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{8,0}`$ over $`_{8,0}`$ such that $`aI_{16}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{8,0}(aI_{16})P_{8,0}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{3,3}(a_0)+\varphi _{3,3}(a_1)& \varphi _{3,3}(a_2)+\varphi _{3,3}(a_3)\\ \varphi _{3,3}(a_2)\varphi _{3,3}(a_3)& \varphi _{3,3}(a_0)\varphi _{3,3}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{8,0}(a)^{16\times 16},$$

where $`\varphi _{3,3}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{8\times 8}`$ defined in Theorem 2.6.4.

Theorem 2.8.2. Let $`a_{0,8}=\{\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _8\},`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _8)+a_2(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _7)+a_3\epsilon _{78}=a_0+(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _8)a_1+(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _7)a_2+\epsilon _{78}a_3$$

where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{0,6}=\{\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _6\},$$

and

$$(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _8)^2=1,(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _7)^2=1,\epsilon _{78}=(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _8)(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _7)=(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _7)(\epsilon _{[6]}\epsilon _8).$$

In that case, there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{0,8}`$ over $`_{0,8}`$ such that $`aI_{16}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{0,8}(aI_{16})P_{0,8}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{0,6}(a_0)+\varphi _{0,6}(a_1)& \varphi _{0,6}(a_2)+\varphi _{0,6}(a_3)\\ \varphi _{0,6}(a_2)\varphi _{0,6}(a_3)& \varphi _{0,6}(a_0)\varphi _{0,6}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{0,8}(a)^{16\times 16},$$

where $`\varphi _{0,6}(a_t)(t=0`$$`3)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{8\times 8}`$ defined in Theorem 2.6.7.

3. UNIVERSAL SIMILARITY EQUALITIES OVER $`_{n+p,n}`$ AND $`_{n,n+q}`$ WITH $`0p,q6`$

On the basis of the results in Section 2, we present in this section several induction formulas for the universal similarity factorization equalities over $`_{n+p,n}`$ and $`_{n,n+q}`$ with $`0p,q6`$.

3.1. The Cases for $`_{n,n}`$

We have shown in Theorems 2.2.2, 2.4.3 and 2.6.4 that for all $`a_{n,n}`$ with $`n=1,2,3`$, the corresponding $`aI_2,aI_4,aI_8`$ are uniformly similar to their real matrix representations, respectively. By induction, we can establish the following general result for the split Clifford algebra $`_{n,n}`$.

Theorem 3.1.1. Suppose that there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{n1,n1}(n1)`$ over $`_{n1,n1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n1},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _{n1}\}`$ such that

$$P_{n1,n1}(aI_{2^{n1}})P_{n1,n1}^1\varphi _{n1,n1}(a)^{2^{n1}\times 2^{n1}}$$
$`(\mathrm{3.1.1})`$
holds for all $`a_{n1,n1}`$. Now let $`a_{n,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_n,\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\}.`$ Then it can factor as

$`a`$ $`=`$ $`a_0+a_1(e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})+a_2(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]})+a_3\mu _{n,n}`$
$`=`$ $`a_0+(e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})a_1+(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]})a_2+\mu _{n,n}a_3,`$
where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{n1,n1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n1},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _{n1}\},$$

$$(e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})^2=1,(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]})^2=1,$$

$$\mu _{n,n}=(e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]})=(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]})(e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})=(1)^{n1}e_n\epsilon _n.$$

In that case, $`aI_{2^n}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$\begin{array}{c}\text{ }P_{n,n}(aI_{2^n})P_{n,n}^1\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_0)+\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_1)& [\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_2)+\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{n1,n1}(a_2)\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_3)& \varphi _{n1,n1}(a_0)\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }\varphi _{n,n}(a)^{2^n\times 2^n},(\mathrm{3.1.2})\text{ }\hfill \end{array}$$

where

$$P_{n,n}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})P_{n1,n1}& (e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]}\mu _{n,n})P_{n1,n1}\\ (e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]}+\mu _{n,n})P_{n1,n1}& (1e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})P_{n1,n1}\end{array}\right],$$
$`(\mathrm{3.1.3})`$
$$P_{n,n}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{n1,n1}^1(1+e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})& P_{n1,n1}^1(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]}\mu _{n,n})\\ P_{n1,n1}^1(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]}+\mu _{n,n})& P_{n1,n1}^1(1e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})\end{array}\right].$$
$`(\mathrm{3.1.4})`$
Proof. Applying Eq.(3.1.1) to $`aI_{2^{n1}}`$, we obtain

$`P_{n1,n1}(aI_{2^{n1}})P_{n1,n1}^1`$ $`=`$ $`\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_0)+\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_1)(e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})`$
$`+\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_2)(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]})+\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_3)\mu _{n,n}\psi (a).`$
Next setting

$$V=V^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})I_{2^{n1}}& (e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]}\mu _{n,n})I_{2^{n1}}\\ (e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n]}+\mu _{n,n})I_{2^{n1}}& (1e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n1]})I_{2^{n1}}\end{array}\right].$$

and applying it to $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(\psi (a),\psi (a))`$, we find

$$VD_aV^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_0)+\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_1)& [\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_2)+\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{n1,n1}(a_2)\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_3)& \varphi _{n1,n1}(a_0)\varphi _{n1,n1}(a_1)\end{array}\right].$$

Finally substituting $`\psi (a)=P_{n1,n1}(aI_{2^{n1}})P_{n1,n1}^1`$ into its left-hand side yields the desired result. $`\mathrm{}`$

3.2. The Cases for $`_{n+1,n}`$

For $`_{n+1,n}`$ with $`n=0,1,2,`$ we have the corresponding universal similarity factorization equalities in Theorems 2.1.1, 2.2.2 and 2.3.3. In general, we have the following.

Theorem 3.2.1. Let $`a_{n+1,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+1},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\}`$ be given. Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1e=a_0+ea_1,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1_{n,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_n,\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\},$$

$$e=e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]},e^2=1.$$

Moreover define $`\overline{a}=a_0a_1e`$. In that case, $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(aI_{2^n},\overline{a}I_{2^n})`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{n+1,n}D_aP_{n+1,n}^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{n,n}(a_0)+\varphi _{n,n}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{n,n}(a_0)\varphi _{n,n}(a_1)\end{array}\right]\varphi _{n+1,n}(a)^2^{2^n\times 2^n},$$

where $`\varphi _{n,n}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2^n\times 2^n}`$ defined in Eq.(3.1.3) and

$$P_{n+1,n}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e)P_{n,n}& (1e)P_{n,n}\\ (1e)P_{n,n}& (1+e)P_{n,n}\end{array}\right],P_{n+1,n}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{n,n}^1(1+e)& P_{n,n}^1(1e)\\ P_{n,n}^1(1e)& P_{n,n}^1(1+e)\end{array}\right],$$

$`P_{n,n}`$ and $`P_{n,n}^1`$ are the matrices in Eqs.(3.1.4) and (3.1.5).

Proof. Applying Eq.(3.1.3) to $`aI_{2^n}=a_0I_{2^n}+a_1eI_{2^n}`$ gives

$`P_{n,n}(aI_{2^n})P_{n,n}^1`$ $`=`$ $`P_{n,n}(aI_{2^n})P_{n,n}^1+P_{n,n}(a_1I_{2^n})P_{n,n}^1e`$
$`=`$ $`\varphi _{n,n}(a_0)+\varphi _{n,n}(a_1)e\psi (a).`$
Next setting

$$V=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e)I_{2^n}& (1e)I_{2^n}\\ (1e)I_{2^n}& (1+e)I_{2^n}\end{array}\right],V^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e)I_{2^n}& (1e)I_{2^n}\\ (1e)I_{2^n}& (1+e)I_{2^n}\end{array}\right],$$

and applying them to $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(\psi (a),\psi (\overline{a}))`$, we get

$$V\left[\begin{array}{cc}\psi (a)& O\\ O& \psi (\overline{a})\end{array}\right]V^1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{n,n}(a_0)+\varphi _{n,n}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{n,n}(a_0)\varphi _{n,n}(a_1)\end{array}\right].$$

Finally substituting $`\psi (a)=P_{n,n}(aI_{2^n})P_{n,n}^1`$ and $`\psi (\overline{a})=P_{n,n}(\overline{a}I_{2^n})P_{n,n}^1`$ into its left-hand side yields the desired result. $`\mathrm{}`$

3.3. The Cases for $`_{n+2,n}`$

For $`_{n+2,n}`$ with $`n=0,1,2,`$ we have the corresponding universal similarity equalities in Theorems 2.2.1, 2.4.2 and 2.6.3. In general, we have the following.

Theorem 3.3.1. Suppose that there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{n+1,n1}(n1)`$ over $`_{n+1,n1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+1},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _{n1}\}`$ such that

$$P_{n+1,n1}(aI_{2^n})P_{n+1,n1}^1\varphi _{n+1,n1}(a)^{2^n\times 2^n}$$

holds for all $`a_{n+1,n1}`$.Now let $`a_{n+2,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+2},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$`a`$ $`=`$ $`a_0+a_1(e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]})+a_2(e_{[n+2]}\epsilon _{[n1]})+a_3\mu _{n+2,n}`$
$`=`$ $`a_0+(e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]})a_1+(e_{[n+2]}\epsilon _{[n1]})a_2+\mu _{n+2,n}a_3,`$
where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{n+1,n1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+1},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _{n1}\},$$

$$(e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]})^2=1,(e_{[n+2]}\epsilon _{[n1]})^2=1,$$

$$\mu _{n+2,n}=(e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]})(e_{[n+2]}\epsilon _{[n1]})=(e_{[n+2]}\epsilon _{[n1]})(e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]})=(1)^{n+2}e_{n+2}\epsilon _n.$$

In that case, $`aI_{2^{n+1}}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$`P_{n+2,n}(aI_{2^{n+1}})P_{n+2,n}^1`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{n+1,n1}(a_0)+\varphi _{n+1,n1}(a_1)& [\varphi _{n+1,n1}(a_2)+\varphi _{n+1,n1}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{n+1,n1}(a_2)\varphi _{n+1,n1}(a_3)& \varphi _{n+1,n1}(a_0)\varphi _{n+1,n1}(a_1)\end{array}\right]`$
$``$ $`\varphi _{n+2,n}(a)^{2^{n+1}\times 2^{n+1}},`$
where

$$P_{n+2,n}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]})P_{n+1,n1}& (e_{[n+2]}\epsilon _{[n1]}\mu _{n+2,n})P_{n+1,n1}\\ (e_{[n+2]}\epsilon _{[n1]}+\mu _{n+2,n})P_{n+1,n1}& (1e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]})P_{n+1,n1}\end{array}\right],$$

$$P_{n+2,n}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{n+1,n1}^1(1+e_{[n]}\epsilon _{[n]})& P_{n+1,n1}^1(e_{[n1]}\epsilon _{[n1]}\mu _{n+2,n})\\ P_{n+1,n1}^1(e_{[n+2]}\epsilon _{[n1]}+\mu _{n+2,n})& P_{n+1,n1}^1(1e_{[n+1]}\epsilon _{[n]})\end{array}\right].$$

The proof of this result is much analogous to that of Theorem 3.1.1. so we omit it here, and the proofs of next several results are also omitted .

3.4. The Cases for $`_{n+3,n}`$

For $`_{n+3,n}`$ with $`n=0,1,`$ we have the corresponding universal similarity factorization equalities in Theorems 2.3.1 and 2.5.2. In general, we have the following.

Theorem 3.4.1. Let $`a_{n+3,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+3},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1e=a_0+ea_1,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1_{n+2,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+2},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\},$$

$$e=e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]},e^2=1.$$

In that case, $`aI_{2^{n+1}}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{n+3,n}(aI_{2^{n+1}})P_{n+3,n}^1=\varphi _{n+2,n}(a_0)+\varphi _{n+2,n}(a_1)\varphi _{n+3,n}(a)𝒞^{2^{n+1}\times 2^{n+1}},$$

where $`\varphi _{n+2,n}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2^n\times 2^n}`$ defined in Theorem 3.3.1 and $`P_{n+3,n}=P_{n+2,n},`$ the matrix given in Theorem 3.3.1.

3.5. The Cases for $`_{n+4,n}`$

For $`_{n+4,n}`$ with $`n=0,1,`$ we have the corresponding universal similarity factorization equalities in Theorems 2.4.1 and 2.6.2. In general, we have the following.

Theorem 3.5.1. Suppose that there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{n+3,n1}(n1)`$ over $`_{n+3,n1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+3},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _{n1}\}`$ such that

$$P_{n+3,n1}(aI_{2^n})P_{n+3,n1}^1\varphi _{n+3,n1}(a)^{2^n\times 2^n}$$

holds for all $`a_{n+3,n1}`$. Now let $`a_{n+4,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+4},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$`a`$ $`=`$ $`a_0+a_1(e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})+a_2(e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]})+a_3\mu _{n+4,n}`$
$`=`$ $`a_0+(e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})a_1+(e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]})a_2+\mu _{n+4,n}a_3,`$
where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{n+3,n1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+3},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _{n1}\},$$

$$(e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})^2=1,(e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]})^2=1,$$

$$\mu _{n+4,n}=(e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})(e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]})=(e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]})(e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})=(1)^{n+3}e_{n+4}\epsilon _n.$$

In that case, $`aI_{2^{n+1}}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$`P_{n+2,n}(aI_{2^{n+1}})P_{n+2,n}^1`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{n+3,n1}(a_0)+\varphi _{n+3,n1}(a_1)& [\varphi _{n+3,n1}(a_2)+\varphi _{n+3,n1}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{n+3,n1}(a_2)\varphi _{n+3,n1}(a_3)& \varphi _{n+3,n1}(a_0)\varphi _{n+3,n1}(a_1)\end{array}\right]`$
$``$ $`\varphi _{n+4,n}(a)^{2^{n+1}\times 2^{n+1}},`$
where

$$P_{n+4,n}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})P_{n+3,n1}& (e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]}\mu _{n+4,n})P_{n+3,n1}\\ (e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]}+\mu _{n+4,n})P_{n+3,n1}& (1e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})P_{n+3,n1}\end{array}\right],$$

$$P_{n+4,n}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{n+3,n1}^1(1+e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})& P_{n+3,n1}^1(e_{[n+3]}\epsilon _{[n]}\mu _{n+4,n})\\ P_{n+3,n1}^1(e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n]}+\mu _{n+4,n})& P_{n+3,n1}^1(1e_{[n+4]}\epsilon _{[n1]})\end{array}\right].$$

3.6. The Cases for $`_{n+5,n}`$

For $`_{n+5,n}`$ with $`n=0,`$ we have the corresponding universal similarity factorization equality in Theorem 2.5.1. In general, we have the following.

Theorem 3.6.1. Let $`a_{n+5,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+5},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=a_0+a_1e=a_0+ea_1,$$

where

$$a_0,a_1_{n+4,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+4},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\},$$

$$e=e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]},e^2=(e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})^2=1.$$

Moreover define $`\overline{a}=a_0a_1e`$. In that case, $`D_a=\mathrm{diag}(aI_{2^n},\overline{a}I_{2^n})`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$`P_{n+5,n}D_aP_{n+5,n}^1`$ $`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{n+4,n}(a_0)+\varphi _{n+4,n}(a_1)& O\\ O& \varphi _{n+4,n}(a_0)\varphi _{n+4,n}(a_1)\end{array}\right]`$
$``$ $`\varphi _{n+5,n}(a)^2^{2^{n+1}\times 2^{n+1}},`$
where $`\varphi _{n+4,n}(a_t)(t=0,1)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_t`$ in $`^{2^n\times 2^n}`$ defined in Theorem 3.5.1 and

$$P_{n+5,n}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e)P_{n+4,n}& (1e)P_{n+4,n}\\ (1e)P_{n+4,n}& (1+e)P_{n+4,n}\end{array}\right],$$

$$P_{n+5,n}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill P_{n+4,n}^1(1+e)& P_{n+4,n}^1(1e)\\ \hfill P_{n+4,n}^1(1e)& P_{n+4,n}^1(1+e)\end{array}\right],$$

$`P_{n+4,n}`$ and $`P_{n+4,n}^1`$ are the matrices given in Theorem 3.5.1.

3.7. The Cases for $`_{n+6,n}`$

For $`_{n+6,n}`$ with $`n=0,`$ we have the corresponding universal similarity factorization equality in Theorem 2.6.1. In general, we have the following.

Theorem 3.7.1. Suppose that there is an independent invertible matrix $`P_{n+5,n1}(n1)`$ over $`_{n+5,n1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+5},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _{n1}\}`$ such that

$$P_{n+5,n1}(aI_{2^{n+1}})P_{n+5,n1}^1\varphi _{n+5,n1}(a)^{2^{n+1}\times 2^{n+1}}$$

holds for all $`a_{n+5,n1}`$. Now let $`a_{n+6,n}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+6},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$`a`$ $`=`$ $`a_0+a_1(e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})+a_2(e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]})+a_3\mu _{n+6,n}`$
$`=`$ $`a_0+(e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})a_1+(e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]})a_2+\mu _{n+6,n}a_3,`$
where

$$a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3_{n+5,n1}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_{n+5},\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _{n1}\},$$

$$(e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})^2=1,(e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]})^2=1,$$

$$\mu _{n+6,n}=(e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})(e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]})=(e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]})(e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})=(1)^{n+5}e_{n+6}\epsilon _n.$$

In that case, $`aI_{2^{n+2}}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$`P_{n+6,n}(aI_{2^{n+2}})P_{n+6,n}^1`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _{n+5,n1}(a_0)+\varphi _{n+5,n1}(a_1)& [\varphi _{n+5,n1}(a_2)+\varphi _{n+5,n1}(a_3)]\\ \varphi _{n+5,n1}(a_2)\varphi _{n+5,n1}(a_3)& \varphi _{n+5,n1}(a_0)\varphi _{n+5,n1}(a_1)\end{array}\right]`$
$``$ $`\varphi _{n+6,n}(a)^{2^{n+2}\times 2^{n+2}},`$
where

$$P_{n+6,n}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}(1+e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})P_{n+5,n1}& (e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]}\mu _{n+6,n})P_{n+5,n1}\\ (e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]}+\mu _{n+6,n})P_{n+5,n1}& (1e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})P_{n+5,n1}\end{array}\right],$$

$$P_{n+6,n}^1=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}P_{n+5,n1}^1(1+e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})& P_{n+5,n1}^1(e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]}\mu _{n+6,n})\\ P_{n+5,n1}^1(e_{[n+6]}\epsilon _{[n1]}+\mu _{n+6,n})& P_{n+5,n1}^1(1e_{[n+5]}\epsilon _{[n]})\end{array}\right].$$

In the same manner it is not difficult to give the induction formulas for the universal similarity factorization equalities over $`_{n,n+q}`$ with $`1q6,`$ we leave them to the reader. As to $`_{n+7,n}`$ and $`_{n,n+7}`$ with $`n=0`$, the corresponding universal similarity factorization equalities have been given in Subsection 2.7, the general results corresponding to nonzero $`n`$ will be included in the next two sections.

4. UNIVERSAL SIMILARITY EQUALITIES OVER $`_{p+8,0}`$ AND $`_{0,q+8}`$

According to the two formulas in (1.9), we know that

$$_{p+8,0}_{p,0}^{16\times 16},_{0,q+8}_{0,q}^{16\times 16}$$

hold for all finite $`p`$ and $`q`$. Now applying the theorems in Subsection 2.8, we have the following two general results on the universal similarity factorization equalities over $`_{p+8,0}`$ and $`_{0,q+8}.`$

Theorem 4.1. Let

$$a_{p+8,0}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_8,\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _p|e_i^2=\alpha _j^2=1,i=1,\mathrm{},8,j=1,\mathrm{},p\}.$$

Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=\underset{A}{}a_A(e_{[8]}\alpha )_A_{8,0}\{e_{[8]}\alpha _1,\mathrm{},e_{[8]}\alpha _p|(e_{[8]}\alpha _j)^2=1,j=1,\mathrm{},p\},$$

where $`A=(j_1,j_2,\mathrm{},j_k)`$ with $`1j_1<j_2<\mathrm{}<j_kp`$ ranging all naturally ordered subsets of $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},p\};`$ $`a_A`$ has the form

$$a_A_{8,0}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_8\};$$

$`(e_{[8]}\alpha )_A`$ is defined to be

$$(e_{[8]}\alpha )_A=(e_{[8]}\alpha )_{(j_1,j_2,\mathrm{},j_k)}(e_{[8]}\alpha _{j_1})(e_{[8]}\alpha _{j_2})\mathrm{}(e_{[8]}\alpha _{j_p}),(e_{[8]}\alpha )_{A=\mathrm{}}e_{[8]};$$

both of which satisfy

$$a_A(e_{[8]}\alpha )_A=(e_{[8]}\alpha )_Aa_A.$$

In that case, $`aI_{16}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{8,0}(aI_{16})P_{8,0}^1=\underset{A}{}\varphi _{8,0}(a_A)(e_{[8]}\alpha )_A\varphi _{p+8,0}(a),$$
$`(4.1)`$
where $`\varphi _{8,0}(a_A)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_A`$ in $`^{16\times 16}`$ defined in Theorem 2.8.1, $`P_{8,0}`$ is the independent invertible matrix mentioned in Theorem 2.8.1, meanwhile,

$$\varphi _{p+8,0}(a)^{16\times 16}\left\{e_{[8]}\alpha _1,\mathrm{},e_{[8]}\alpha _p\right|(e_{[8]}\alpha _j)^2=1,j=1,\mathrm{},p\}=_{p,0}^{16\times 16},$$
$`(4.2)`$
called the matrix representation of $`a_{p+8,0}`$ in $`_{p,0}^{16\times 16}`$.

If $`1p8`$ in $`_{p+8,0}`$, applying the results in Section 2 to the $`16\times 16`$ matrix $`\varphi _{p+8,0}(a)`$ in Eq.(4.1) we can establish a universal similarity factorization equality between elements of $`_{p+8,0}`$ and matrices with elements in $``$, or $`𝒞`$, or $`.`$

Similarly we have the following.

Theorem 4.2. Let

$$a_{0,q+8}=\{\tau _1,\mathrm{},\tau _8,\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _q|\tau _i^2=\epsilon _j^2=1,i=1,\mathrm{},8,j=1,\mathrm{},q\}.$$

Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=\underset{A}{}a_A(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon )_A_{0,8}\{\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _q|(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _j)^2=1,j=1,\mathrm{},q\},$$

where $`A=(j_1,j_2,\mathrm{},j_k)`$ with $`1j_1<j_2<\mathrm{}<j_kq`$ ranges all naturally ordered subsets of $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},q\};`$ $`(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon )_A`$ and $`a_A`$ are

$$(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon )_A=(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon )_{(j_1,j_2,\mathrm{},j_k)}(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _{j_1})(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _{j_2})\mathrm{}(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _{j_k}),(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon )_{A=\mathrm{}}\tau _{[8]},$$

$$a_A_{0,8}=\{\tau _1,\mathrm{},\tau _8,|\tau _i^2=1,i=1,\mathrm{},8\},$$

and both of them satisfy

$$a_A(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon )_A=(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon )_Aa_A.$$

In that case, $`aI_{16}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{0,8}(aI_{16})P_{0,8}^1=\underset{A}{}\varphi _{0,8}(a_A)(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon )_A\varphi _{0,q+8}(a),$$
$`(4.3)`$
where $`\varphi _{0,8}(a_A)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_A`$ in $`^{16\times 16}`$ defined in Theorem 2.8.2, $`P_{0,8}`$ is the independent invertible matrix mentioned in Theorem 2.8.2, meanwhile,

$$\varphi _{0,q+8}(a)^{16\times 16}\left\{\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _q\right|(\tau _{[8]}\epsilon _j)^2=1,j=1,\mathrm{},q\}=_{0,q}^{16\times 16},$$
$`(4.4)`$
called the matrix representation of $`a_{0,q+8}`$ in $`_{0,q}^{16\times 16}`$.

If $`1q8`$ in $`_{0,q+8}`$, then by applying the results in Section 2 to the $`16\times 16`$ matrix $`\varphi _{0,q+8}(a)`$ in Eq.(4.3) we can establish a universal similarity factorization equality between elements of $`_{0,q+8}`$ and matrices over $``$ or $`𝒞`$ or $`.`$

5. UNIVERSAL SIMILARITY EQUALITIES OVER $`_{p+8,q}`$ AND $`_{p,q+8}`$

For the two algebraic isomorphisms in Eq.(1.8), we have the following two general results.

Theorem 5.1. Let $`a_{p+8,q}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_8,\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _p,\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _q|e_i^2=\alpha _j^2=\epsilon _k^2=1,i=1,\mathrm{},8,j=1,\mathrm{},p,k=1,\mathrm{},q\}.`$ Then $`a`$ can factor as

$$a=\underset{A}{}a_A(e_{[8]}\alpha \epsilon )_A_{8,0}\{e_{[8]}\alpha _1,\mathrm{},e_{[8]}\alpha _p,e_{[8]}\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},e_{[8]}\epsilon _q\},$$

where

$$(e_{[8]}\alpha _j)^2=1,(e_{[8]}\epsilon _k)^2=1,j=1,\mathrm{},p,k=1,\mathrm{},q;$$

$`A=(A_1,A_2)`$ is the combination of the two ordered multiindices $`A_1`$ and $`A_2`$

$$A_1=(j_1,j_2,\mathrm{},j_s),A_2=(k_1,k_2,\mathrm{},k_t),$$

with $`1j_1<j_2<\mathrm{}<j_sp`$ and $`1k_1<k_2<\mathrm{}<k_tq`$ ranging all natually ordered subsets of $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},p\}`$ and $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},q\},`$ respectively;

$$(e_{[8]}\alpha \epsilon )_A(e_{[8]}\alpha )_{A_1}(e_{[8]}\epsilon )_{A_2}=(e_{[8]}\alpha _{j_1})(e_{[8]}\alpha _{j_2})\mathrm{}(e_{[8]}\alpha _{j_s})(e_{[8]}\epsilon _{k_1})(e_{[8]}\epsilon _{k_2})\mathrm{}(e_{[8]}\epsilon _{k_t}),$$

$$(e_{[8]}\alpha \epsilon )_{A=\mathrm{}}e_{[8]},$$

$$a_A_{8,0}=\{e_1,\mathrm{},e_8|e_i^2=1,i=1,\mathrm{},8\},$$

with

$$a_A(e_{[8]}\alpha \epsilon )_A=(e_{[8]}\alpha \epsilon )_Aa_A$$

always holding. In that case, $`aI_{16}`$ satisfies the following universal similarity factorization equality

$$P_{8,0}(aI_{16})P_{8,0}^1=\underset{A}{}\varphi _{8,0}(a_A)(e_{[8]}\alpha \epsilon )_A\varphi _{p+8,q}(a),$$
$`(5.1)`$
where $`\varphi _{8,0}(a_A)`$ is the matrix representation of $`a_A`$ in $`^{16\times 16}`$ defined in Theorem 2.8.1, $`P_{8,0}`$ is the independent invertible matrix mentioned in Theorem 2.8.1, meanwhile,

$$\varphi _{p+8,q}(a)^{16\times 16}\{e_{[8]}\alpha _1,\mathrm{},e_{[8]}\alpha _p,e_{[8]}\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},e_{[8]}\epsilon _q\}=_{p,q}^{16\times 16}.$$
$`(5.2)`$
If $`1p8`$ and $`1q8`$ a in $`_{p+8,q}`$, then by applying the results in Section 2 to the $`16\times 16`$ matrix $`\varphi _{p+8,q}(a)`$ in Eq.(5.1) we can establish a universal similarity factorization equality between elements of $`_{p+8,q}`$ and matrices over $``$ or $`𝒞`$ or $`.`$

The result for $`_{p,q+8}`$ is much similar to that of Theorem 5.1, so we omit it here.