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# The regular representations and the 𝐴_𝑛(𝑉)-algebras

## 1. Introduction

In \[Li2\], for a vertex operator algebra $`V`$ and a nonzero complex number $`z`$, a weak $`VV`$-module $`𝒟_{P(z)}(V)`$ was constructed out of the dual space $`V^{}`$, and certain results of Peter-Weyl type were obtained. The weak $`VV`$-modules $`𝒟_{P(z)}(V)`$ were referred as regular representations. In \[Li3\], as a generalization, weak $`VV`$-modules $`𝒟_{P(z)}(V,U)`$ were constructed for any vector space $`U`$. Furthermore, Zhu’s $`A(V)`$-theory (\[Z1\], \[FZ\]) was related to the regular representations in the spirit of the induced module theory for a Lie group (cf. \[Ki\]), and a notion of an induced $`V`$-module from an $`A(V)`$-module was formulated in terms of the regular representations. The induced $`V`$-module from an $`A(V)`$-module $`U`$ was defined in \[Li3\] as follows: First consider linear functions from $`V`$ to $`U`$, which are lifted from linear functions from $`A(V)`$ to $`U`$, or simply just linear functions from $`A(V)`$ to $`U`$. Second, it was shown that $`\mathrm{Hom}(A(V),U)`$ is a subspace of $`𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U)`$, and what is more, $`\mathrm{Hom}(A(V),U)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }(𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U))`$ $`(\mathrm{Hom}(V,U))`$ coincide as natural $`A(V)A(V)`$-modules. Meanwhile, all the (left) $`A(V)`$-invariant functions from $`A(V)`$ to $`U`$ give us the space $`\mathrm{Hom}_{A(V)}(A(V),U)`$, which is canonically isomorphic to $`U`$ as an $`A(V)`$-module. Third, the induced module $`\mathrm{Ind}_{A(V)}^VU`$ was defined to be the submodule of $`𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U)`$, generated by $`\mathrm{Hom}_{A(V)}(A(V),U)`$ $`(=U)`$ under the action of $`V`$.

In \[DLM2\], as a generalization of Zhu’s $`A(V)`$-theory, a family of associative algebras $`A_n(V)`$ were constructed and a family of functors $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n`$ from the category of weak $`V`$-modules to the category of $`A_n(V)`$-modules and a family of functors $`M_n`$ (with certain properties) from the category of $`A_n(V)`$-modules to the category of $``$-graded weak $`V`$-modules were constructed. By definition, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$ consists of each $`w`$ such that $`v_mw=0`$ for homogeneous $`vV`$ and for $`m\mathrm{wt}v+n`$. (Of course, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$ can also be considered as the invariant space with respect to a certain Lie algebra.) In the case that $`W`$ is a lowest weight generalized irreducible $`V`$-module, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$ is the sum of the first $`n`$ lowest weight subspaces.

In 1993, Zhu \[Z2\] gave a general construction of associative algebras from a vertex operator algebra for a certain purpose. The algebras $`A_n(V)`$ might be related to those algebras in a certain way.

In this paper, we shall relate $`A_n(V)`$-theory to the (generalized) regular representations of $`V`$ on $`𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U)`$. When $`n1`$, unlike the $`n=0`$ case \[Li3\], there are certain complicated factors. It is proved (Propositions 3.11, 3.15, and Corollary 3.17) that as vector spaces, $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n(V),U)`$ is a subspace of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U))`$. However, as natural $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-modules, $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n(V),U)`$ is not a submodule. It turns out that the $`A_nA_n(V)`$-module structure on $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n(V),U)`$ coincides with a twisted or deformed $`A_nA_n(V)`$-module structure on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U))`$ with respect to a certain linear automorphism on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U))`$ (Theorem 3.18). Using this connection we formulate a notion of induced $`V`$-module from an $`A_n(V)`$-module and we show that the induced modules are lowest weight generalized $`V`$-modules if the given $`A_n(V)`$-modules are irreducible.

An induced module theory from modules for a vertex operator subalgebra was established in \[DLin\]. As mentioned in \[Li3\], the notion of induced module defined here and the notion of induced module defined in \[DLin\] are different in nature.

This paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, we review the construction of the weak $`VV`$-module $`𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$. In Section 3, we relate $`A_n(V)`$-modules $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n(W),U)`$ with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U))`$, and we define the induced $`V`$-module $`\mathrm{Ind}_{A_n(V)}^VU`$ for a given $`A_n(V)`$-module $`U`$.

## 2. The weak $`VV`$-module $`𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$

In this section we shall recall from \[Li3\] the construction of the weak $`VV`$-module $`𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$ and there are nothing new.

We use standard definitions and notations as given in \[FLM\] and \[FHL\]. A vertex operator algebra is denoted by $`(V,Y,\mathrm{𝟏},\omega )`$, where $`\mathrm{𝟏}`$ is the vacuum vector and $`\omega `$ is the Virasoro element, or simply by $`V`$. We also use the notion of weak module as defined in \[DLM2\]—A weak module satisfies all the axioms given in \[FLM\] and \[FHL\] for the notion of a module except that no grading is required.

We typically use letters $`x,y,x_1,x_2,\mathrm{}`$ for mutually commuting formal variables and $`z,z_0,\mathrm{}`$ for complex numbers. For a vector space $`U`$, $`U[[x,x^1]]`$ is the vector space of all (doubly infinite) formal series with coefficients in $`U`$, $`U((x))`$ is the space of formal Laurent series in $`x`$, and $`U((x^1))`$ is the space of formal Laurent series in $`x^1`$. We emphasize the following standard formal variable convention:

(2.1) $`(x_1x_2)^n={\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}(1)^i\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{i}}\right)x_1^{ni}x_2^i,`$
(2.2) $`(xz)^n={\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}(z)^i\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{i}}\right)x^{ni},`$
(2.3) $`(zx)^n={\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}(1)^iz^{ni}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{i}}\right)x^i`$
for $`n,z^\times `$.

For vector spaces $`U_1,U_2`$, a linear map $`f\mathrm{Hom}(U_1,U_2)`$ extends canonically to a linear map from $`U_1[[x,x^1]]`$ to $`U_2[[x,x^1]]`$. We shall use this canonical extension without any comments.

Let $`V`$ be a vertex operator algebra. For $`vV`$, we set (cf. \[FHL\], \[HL1\])

(2.4) $`Y^o(v,x)=Y(e^{xL(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}v,x^1).`$
For a weak $`V`$-module $`W`$, because $`e^{xL(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}vV[x,x^1]`$ and $`Y(u,x^1)wW((x^1))`$ for $`uV,wW`$, $`Y^o(v,x)`$ lies in $`\mathrm{Hom}(W,W((x^1)))`$. More generally, for any complex number $`z_0`$, $`Y^o(v,x+z_0)`$ lies in $`\mathrm{Hom}(W,W((x^1)))`$, where by definition

(2.5) $`Y^o(v,x+z_0)w=(Y^o(v,y)w)|_{y=x+z_0}`$
for $`wW`$. Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module and let $`U`$ be a vector space, e.g., $`U=`$. For $`vV,f\mathrm{Hom}(W,U)`$, the compositions $`fY^o(v,x)`$ and $`fY^o(v,x+z_0)`$ for any complex number $`z_0`$ are elements of $`(\mathrm{Hom}(W,U))[[x,x^1]]`$.

Let $`(x)`$ be the algebra of rational functions of $`x`$ (and $`[[x,x^1]]`$ be the vector space of all doubly infinite formal series in $`x`$ with complex coefficients). The $`\iota `$-maps $`\iota _{x;0}`$ and $`\iota _{x;\mathrm{}}`$ from $`(x)`$ to $`[[x,x^1]]`$ are defined as follows: for any rational function $`f(x)`$, $`\iota _{x;0}f(x)`$ is the Laurent series expansion of $`f(x)`$ at $`x=0`$ and $`\iota _{x;\mathrm{}}f(x)`$ is the Laurent series expansion of $`f(x)`$ at $`x=\mathrm{}`$. These are injective $`[x,x^1]`$-linear maps. In terms of the formal variable convention, we have

(2.6) $`\iota _{x;0}\left((xz)^nf(x)\right)=(z+x)^n\iota _{x;0}f(x),`$
(2.7) $`\iota _{x;\mathrm{}}\left((xz)^nf(x)\right)=(xz)^n\iota _{x;\mathrm{}}f(x)`$
for $`n,z^\times ,f(x)(x)`$.

###### Definition 2.1.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module, $`U`$ a vector space and $`z`$ a nonzero complex number. Define $`𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$ to be the subspace of $`\mathrm{Hom}(W,U)`$, consisting of each $`f`$ such that for $`vV`$, there exist $`k,l`$ such that

(2.8) $`(xz)^kx^lu^{},fY^o(v,x)w[x]`$
for all $`u^{}U^{},wW`$, or what is equivalent, for all $`u^{}U^{},wW`$, the formal series

$$u^{},fY^o(v,x)w,$$

an element of $`((x^1))`$, absolutely converges in the domain $`|x|>|z|`$ to a rational function of the form $`x^l(xz)^kg(x)`$ for $`g(x)[x]`$.

The following are equivalent definitions of $`𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$ in terms of formal series:

###### Lemma 2.2.

Let $`f\mathrm{Hom}(W,U)`$. Then the following statements are equivalent:

(a) $`f𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$.

(b) For $`vV`$, there exist $`k,l`$ such that

(2.9) $`(xz)^kx^lfY^o(v,x)(\mathrm{Hom}(W,U))[[x]].`$
(c) For $`vV`$, there exist $`k,l`$ such that for each $`wW`$,

(2.10) $`(xz)^kx^lfY^o(v,x)wU[x].`$
Let $`vV,f𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$ and let $`k,l`$ be such that (2.10) holds. Then by changing variable we get

(2.11) $`x^k(x+z)^lfY^o(v,x+z)wU[x]`$
for $`wW`$.

###### Definition 2.3.

Let $`W,U`$ and $`z`$ be given as before. For

$$vV,f𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U),$$

we define two elements $`Y_{P(z)}^L(v,x)f`$ and $`Y_{P(z)}^R(v,x)f`$ of $`(\mathrm{Hom}(W,U))[[x,x^1]]`$ by

(2.12) $`(Y_{P(z)}^L(v,x)f)(w)`$ $`=`$ $`(z+x)^l\left((x+z)^lf(Y^o(v,x+z)w)\right)`$
(2.13) $`(Y_{P(z)}^R(v,x)f)(w)`$ $`=`$ $`(z+x)^k\left((xz)^kf(Y^o(v,x)w)\right)`$
for $`wW`$, where $`k,l`$ are any pair of (possibly negative) integers such that (2.9) holds.

First, in view of (2.10) and (2.11), both $`(z+x)^l\left((x+z)^lf(Y^o(v,x+z)w)\right)`$ and $`(z+x)^k\left((xz)^kf(Y^o(v,x)w)\right)`$ lie in $`U((x))`$, so that $`Y_{P(z)}^L(v,x)f`$ and $`Y_{P(z)}^R(v,x)f`$ make sense. However, we are not allowed to remove the left-right brackets to cancel $`(xz)^k`$ or $`(x+z)^l`$ because of the nonexistence of $`(z+x)^lf(Y^o(v,x+z)w)`$ and $`(z+x)^kf(Y^o(v,x)w)`$. Second, they are also well defined, i.e., they are independent of the choice of the pair of integers $`k,l`$. Indeed, if $`k^{},l^{}`$ are another pair of integers such that (2.9) holds, say for example, $`kk^{}`$, then

$`(z+x)^k\left((xz)^kfY^o(v,x)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`(z+x)^k\left((xz)^{kk^{}}(xz)^k^{}fY^o(v,x)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`(z+x)^k(xz)^{kk^{}}\left((xz)^k^{}fY^o(v,x)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`(z+x)^k^{}\left((xz)^k^{}fY^o(v,x)w\right).`$
From definition we immediately have:

###### Lemma 2.4.

For $`vV,f𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$,

(2.15) $`(z+x)^lY_{P(z)}^L(v,x)f=(x+z)^lfY^o(v,x+z),`$
(2.16) $`(z+x)^kY_{P(z)}^R(v,x)f=(xz)^kfY^o(v,x),`$
where $`k,l`$ are any pair of (maybe negative) integers such that (2.9) holds.

From the definition, $`u^{},fY^o(v,x)w`$ lies in the range of $`\iota _{x;\mathrm{}}`$ for $`u^{}U^{},f𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U),vV,wW`$. Then $`\iota _{x;\mathrm{}}^1u^{},fY^o(v,x)w`$ is a well defined element of $`(x)`$. In terms of rational functions and the $`\iota `$-maps we immediately have:

###### Lemma 2.5.

For $`vV,f𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U),u^{}U^{},wW`$,

(2.17) $`u^{},(Y_{P(z)}^L(v,x)f)(w)=\iota _{x;0}\iota _{x;\mathrm{}}^1u^{},fY^o(v,x+z)w,`$
(2.18) $`u^{},(Y_{P(z)}^R(v,x)f)(w)=\iota _{x;0}\iota _{x;\mathrm{}}^1u^{},fY^o(v,x)w.`$
###### Theorem 2.6.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module, $`U`$ a vector space and $`z`$ a nonzero complex number. Then the pairs $`(𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U),Y_{P(z)}^L)`$ and $`(𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U),Y_{P(z)}^R)`$ carry the structure of a weak $`V`$-module and the actions $`Y_{P(z)}^L`$ and $`Y_{P(z)}^R`$ of $`V`$ on $`𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$ commute. Furthermore, set

(2.19) $`Y_{P(z)}=Y_{P(z)}^LY_{P(z)}^R.`$
Then the pair $`(𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U),Y_{P(z)})`$ carries the structure of a weak $`VV`$-module.

The following relation among $`fY^o(v,x),Y^L(v,x)f`$ and $`Y^R(v,x)f`$ holds \[Li3\]:

###### Proposition 2.7.

Let $`vV,f𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$. Then

$`x_0^1\delta \left({\displaystyle \frac{xz}{x_0}}\right)fY^o(v,x)x_0^1\delta \left({\displaystyle \frac{zx}{x_0}}\right)Y_{P(z)}^R(v,x)f`$
$`=`$ $`z^1\delta \left({\displaystyle \frac{xx_0}{z}}\right)Y_{P(z)}^L(v,x_0)f.`$
## 3. The associative algebras $`A_n(V)`$ and induced modules $`\mathrm{Ind}_{A_n(V)}^VU`$

In this section, the nonzero complex number $`z`$ in the notion of weak $`VV`$-module $`𝒟_{P(z)}(W,U)`$ will be specified as $`1`$. We shall simply use $`Y^L`$ and $`Y^R`$ for $`Y_{P(1)}^L`$ and $`Y_{P(1)}^R`$. Throughout this section, $`n`$ will represent a nonnegative integer.

We shall need the following notions. A generalized $`V`$-module \[HL1\] is a weak $`V`$-module on which $`L(0)`$ semisimply acts. Then for a generalized $`V`$-module $`W`$ we have the $`L(0)`$-eigenspace decomposition: $`W=_hW_{(h)}`$. Thus, a generalized $`V`$-module satisfies all the axioms defining the notion of a $`V`$-module (\[FLM\], \[FHL\]) except the two grading restrictions on homogeneous subspaces. If a generalized $`V`$-module furthermore satisfies the lower truncation condition (one of the two grading restrictions), it is called a lower truncated generalized module \[H1\].

A lowest weight generalized $`V`$-module is a generalized $`V`$-module such that $`W=_nW_{(h+n)}`$ for some $`h`$ and $`W_{(h)}`$ generates $`W`$ as a weak $`V`$-module. Furthermore, if $`W0`$, we call the unique $`h`$ the lowest weight of $`W`$.

Now we recall the construction of $`A_n(V)`$ algebra and some basic results from \[DLM2\].

###### Definition 3.1.

Let $`V`$ be a vertex operator algebra and let $`n`$. Define a subspace $`O_n(V)`$ of $`V`$, linearly spanned by elements

(3.1) $`(L(1)+L(0))v,`$
(3.2) $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \frac{(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}u+n}}{x^{2n+2}}}Y(u,x)v`$
for homogeneous $`u,vV`$. Define

$`u_nv`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}(1)^m\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{m+n}{n}}\right)\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \frac{(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}u+n}}{x^{n+m+1}}}Y(u,x)v`$
$`\left(={\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \frac{(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}u+n}}{x^{n+m+1}}}Y(u,x)v\right).`$
We have:

###### Lemma 3.2.

\[DLM2\] Let $`u,vV`$ be homogeneous. Then

$`u_nv{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{nm}\mathrm{Res}_xx^{nm1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+m1}Y(v,x)uO_n(V).`$
Set $`A_n(V)=V/O_n(V)`$.

###### Proposition 3.3.

\[DLM2\] Let $`(V,Y,\mathrm{𝟏},\omega )`$ be a vertex operator algebra. Then

(a) $`O_n(V)`$ is a two-sided ideal of the nonassociative algebra $`(V,_n)`$ and the quotient algebra $`A_n(V)`$ is an associative algebra with $`\mathrm{𝟏}+O_n(V)`$ as its identity element, with $`\omega +O_n(V)`$ being central and with an involution (anti-automorphism)

(3.4) $`\theta :v+O_n(V)e^{L(1)}(1)^{L(0)}v+O_n(V).`$
(b) For each $`n0`$, the identity map of $`V`$ gives rise to an algebra homomorphism $`\psi _n`$ from $`A_{n+1}(V)`$ onto $`A_n(V)`$.

For any weak $`V`$-module $`W`$ and any $`n`$, we define \[DLM2\]

(3.5) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)=\{wW|v_{\mathrm{wt}v+m}w=0\text{ for homogeneous }vV,mn\}.`$
For $`w\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$ and for homogeneous $`vV`$, we have $`x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y(v,x)wW[[x]]`$. When $`n=0`$, we have $`\mathrm{\Omega }(W)=\mathrm{\Omega }_0(W)`$. Clearly,

(3.6) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0(W)\mathrm{\Omega }_1(W)\mathrm{}.`$
We similarly define $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1(W),\mathrm{\Omega }_2(W),\mathrm{}`$. Since $`\mathrm{wt}\mathrm{𝟏}=0`$ and $`\mathrm{𝟏}_rw=\delta _{r,1}w`$, we have $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)=0`$ for $`n1`$.

The following result was proved in \[DLM2\]:

###### Proposition 3.4.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module and let $`n0`$. Then $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$ is an $`A_n(V)`$-module where $`v+O_n(V)`$ acts as $`v_{\mathrm{wt}v1}`$ for homogeneous $`vV`$.

Let $`W_1,W_2`$ be weak $`V`$-modules and let $`\psi `$ be a $`V`$-homomorphism from $`W_1`$ to $`W_2`$. It is clear that $`\psi (\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W_1))\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W_2)`$ and the restriction $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(\psi ):=\psi |_{\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W_1)}`$ is an $`A_n(V)`$-homomorphism. It is routine to check that we have obtained a functor $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n`$ from the category of weak $`V`$-modules to the category of $`A_n(V)`$-modules.

###### Lemma 3.5.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module and set

(3.7) $`𝒮(W)=_{n0}\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W).`$
Let $`uV`$ be homogeneous and let $`r`$. Then

(3.8) $`u_r\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$
if $`r\mathrm{wt}u1`$, and

(3.9) $`u_r\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)\mathrm{\Omega }_{n+\mathrm{wt}ur1}(W)`$
if $`r<\mathrm{wt}u1`$. In particular, $`𝒮(W)`$ is a sub-weak-module of $`W`$. Furthermore,

(3.10) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒮(W))=\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W).`$
###### Proof.

Let $`w\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$, let $`vV`$ be homogeneous and let $`m`$. By Borcherds commutator formula,

$`v_{\mathrm{wt}v+m}u_rw`$
$`=`$ $`u_rv_{\mathrm{wt}v+m}w+{\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{wt}v+m}{i}}\right)(v_iu)_{\mathrm{wt}v+m+ri}w`$
$`=`$ $`u_rv_{\mathrm{wt}v+m}w+{\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{wt}v+m}{i}}\right)(v_iu)_{\mathrm{wt}(v_iu)+m+r\mathrm{wt}u+1}w.`$
Then the first part follows immediately. Since $`𝒮(W)`$ is a submodule of $`W`$, we have $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒮(W))\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$. It is easy to see that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒮(W))`$. This completes the proof. ∎

We shall need the result that $`L(1)`$ is locally nilpotent on $`𝒮(W)`$ for any weak $`V`$-module $`W`$. To prove this result, we recall from \[Li3\] the following result, which is a reformulation of a result in \[DLM2\] (Remark 3.3):

###### Lemma 3.6.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module, $`wW`$. Let $`u,vV`$ and let $`k`$ be such that

(3.12) $`x^kY(u,x)wW[[x]],`$
or equivalently,

(3.13) $`u_{k+m}w=0\text{ for }m0.`$
Then for $`p,q`$,

(3.14) $`u_pv_qw={\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{s}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j0}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{pk}{i}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{k}{j}}\right)(u_{pki+j}v)_{q+k+ij}w.`$
where $`s`$ is any nonnegative integer such that $`x^{s+1+q}Y(v,x)wW[[x]]`$.

As an immediate consequence we have (\[DM\] and \[Li1\]):

###### Corollary 3.7.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module and let $`wW`$. Set

(3.15) $`w=\text{linear span }\{v_mw|vV,m\}.`$
Then $`w`$ is the sub-weak-module of $`W`$, generated by $`w`$.

###### Lemma 3.8.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module. Then for any $`r`$ homogeneous vectors $`v^1,\mathrm{},v^rV`$,

(3.16) $`v_{m_1}^1\mathrm{}v_{m_r}^r\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)=0`$
for $`m_i`$ with

$$m_1+\mathrm{}+m_r\mathrm{wt}v^1+\mathrm{}+\mathrm{wt}v^rr+n.$$

In particular, for homogeneous $`vV`$ and for $`m\mathrm{wt}v`$,

(3.17) $`(v_m)^n\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)=0.`$
###### Proof.

We shall prove the first part by induction on $`r`$. From the definition of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$, the lemma is true for $`r=1`$. Assume it is true for any $`r`$ homogeneous vectors in $`V`$. Now let $`v^1,\mathrm{},v^r,v^{r+1}V`$ be homogeneous and let $`m_i`$ with

(3.18) $`m_1+\mathrm{}+m_r+m_{r+1}\mathrm{wt}v^1+\mathrm{}+\mathrm{wt}v^{r+1}(r+1)+n.`$
Set

$$u=v^r,v=v^{r+1},p=m_r,q=m_{r+1}.$$

Since $`w\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$, in Lemma 3.6, we may take $`k=\mathrm{wt}u+n=\mathrm{wt}v^r+n`$. Let $`s`$ be any nonnegative integer such that $`x^{s+1+q}Y(v,x)wW[[x]]`$. By Lemma 3.6, we have

$`u_pv_qw`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{s}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j0}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{p\mathrm{wt}un}{i}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{wt}u+n}{j}}\right)(u_{p\mathrm{wt}uni+j}v)_{q+\mathrm{wt}u+n+ij}w.`$
Notice that

$`\mathrm{wt}(u_{p\mathrm{wt}uni+j}v)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{wt}u+\mathrm{wt}v+\mathrm{wt}u+n+ij1p`$
$`=`$ $`2\mathrm{w}\mathrm{t}v^r+\mathrm{wt}v^{r+1}+n+ij1p.`$
Thus

$`m_1+\mathrm{}+m_{r1}+(q+\mathrm{wt}u+n+ij)`$
$``$ $`\mathrm{wt}v^1+\mathrm{}+\mathrm{wt}v^{r+1}(r+1)+n+(q+\mathrm{wt}u+n+ij)m_rm_{r+1}`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{wt}v^1+\mathrm{}+\mathrm{wt}v^{r1}+\mathrm{wt}(u_{p\mathrm{wt}uni+j}v)r+n.`$
Then it follows from the inductive hypothesis that

$`v_{m_1}^1\mathrm{}v_{m_{k+1}}^{k+1}w`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{s}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j0}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{pk}{i}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{k}{j}}\right)v_{m_1}^1\mathrm{}v_{m_{k1}}^{k1}(u_{pki+j}v)_{q+k+ij}w`$
$`=`$ $`0.`$
This finishes the induction and concludes the proof. ∎

In view of Lemma 3.8, noticing that $`L(1)=\omega _2`$ and $`\mathrm{wt}\omega =2`$, we immediately have:

###### Corollary 3.9.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module, let $`vV`$ be homogeneous and let $`m\mathrm{wt}v`$. Then $`v_m`$ is locally nilpotent on $`𝒮(W)`$. In particular, $`L(1)`$ is locally nilpotent on $`𝒮(W)`$.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module. We define $`O_n^{}(W)`$ to be the subspace of $`W`$, linearly spanned by elements of the form:

(3.22) $`v_nw:=\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2n2}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y(v,x)w`$
for $`wW`$ and for homogeneous $`vV`$. The proof of Lemma 2.1.2 of \[Z1\] with minor necessary changes directly gives:

###### Lemma 3.10.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module, let $`wW`$, and let $`vV`$ be homogeneous. Then

(3.23) $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2n2r}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n+s}Y(v,x)wO_n^{}(W)`$
for $`rs0`$.

In the following there will be several module structures on a certain vector space. For this reason, we shall use $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W,Y_W)`$ including the vertex operator map $`Y_W`$ in the notation for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$. Since $`\mathrm{Hom}(,U)`$ is a contravariant functor for the category of vector spaces, for any vector spaces $`A,B`$ and any surjective linear map $`g\mathrm{Hom}(A,B)`$, we have an injective linear map $`\mathrm{Hom}(g,U)`$ from $`\mathrm{Hom}(B,U)`$ into $`\mathrm{Hom}(A,U)`$. In particular, if $`B`$ is a quotient space of $`A`$, we may naturally identify $`\mathrm{Hom}(B,U)`$ as a subspace of $`\mathrm{Hom}(A,U)`$.

###### Proposition 3.11.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module and let $`U`$ be a vector space. Set $`A_n^{}(W)=W/O_n^{}(W)`$. Then

(3.24) $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)=\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R).`$
Furthermore, elements $`\alpha `$ of $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)`$, a natural subspace of $`\mathrm{Hom}(W,U)`$, are characterized by the following property:

(3.25) $`x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(v,x)(\mathrm{Hom}(W,U))[[x]]`$
for homogeneous $`vV`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`T`$ be the set defined by the property (3.25). We shall prove

$`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)T\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)`$
$`T\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U).`$
Let $`\alpha \mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)`$ and let $`vV`$ be homogeneous. Then for any $`m0`$,

$`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v+n+m}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(v,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v+n+m}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y(e^{xL(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}v,x^1)w`$
$`=`$ $`(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2n+m}(1+x^1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y(e^{xL(1)}v,x^1)w`$
$`=`$ $`(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2nm2}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y(e^{x^1L(1)}v,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`0`$
because (Lemma 3.10)

$`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2nm2}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y(e^{x^1L(1)}v,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{i!}}\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2nm2i}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}(L(1)^iv)+n+i}Y(L(1)^iv,x)w`$
$``$ $`O_n^{}(W).`$
This proves (3.25). Since $`Y^o(v,x)wW((x^1))`$ for $`wW`$, (3.25) implies

(3.28) $`x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(v,x)wU[x].`$
By changing variable we get

(3.29) $`(x1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(v,x1)(\mathrm{Hom}(W,U))[[x]].`$
By Lemma 2.2, $`\alpha 𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U)`$ and by Lemma 2.4

(3.30) $`x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y^R(v,x)\alpha =x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(v,x),`$
(3.31) $`(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y^L(v,x)\alpha =(x1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(v,x1).`$
Consequently,

(3.32) $`x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y^R(v,x)\alpha ,x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y^L(v,x)\alpha (\mathrm{Hom}(W,U))[[x]].`$
That is, $`\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R).`$

Conversely, let $`\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R).`$ Then (3.32) holds for each homogeneous $`vV`$. Recall (2.7) with $`f=\alpha ,z=1`$:

$`x_0^1\delta \left({\displaystyle \frac{x+1}{x_0}}\right)\alpha Y^o(v,x)x_0^1\delta \left({\displaystyle \frac{1+x}{x_0}}\right)Y_{P(z)}^R(v,x)\alpha `$
$`=`$ $`\delta (x+x_0)Y_{P(z)}^L(v,x_0)\alpha .`$
Applying $`\mathrm{Res}_{x_0}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}x_0^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}`$ to (3), then using (3.32) and the fundamental properties of delta function we get

$`x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(v,x)`$
$`=`$ $`x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y^R(v,x)\alpha `$
$`\mathrm{Res}_{x_0}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}x_0^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\delta (x+x_0)Y^L(v,x_0)\alpha `$
$`=`$ $`x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y^R(v,x)\alpha `$
$``$ $`(\mathrm{Hom}(W,U))[[x]].`$
Furthermore, for any $`wW`$,

$`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2n2}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y(v,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2n2}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(e^{xL(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}v,x^1)w`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{2n}(1+x^1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(e^{x^1L(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}v,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(e^{x^1L(1)}v,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{i!}}\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}vi+n}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\alpha Y^o(L(1)^iv,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{i!}}\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}(L(1)^iv)+n}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}(L(1)^iv)+n+i}\alpha Y^o(L(1)^iv,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`0.`$
Thus $`\alpha (O_n^{}(W))=0`$, hence $`\alpha \mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)`$. This completes the proof. ∎

It follows from Theorem 2.6 and Proposition 3.4 that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)`$ is a natural $`A_n(V)`$-module. Since $`Y^L`$ and $`Y^R`$ commute, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)`$ is also a weak $`V`$-module under the vertex operator map $`Y^L`$. Then it follows from Proposition 3.4 again that

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n(\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R),Y^L)$$

is an $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module. Clearly,

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R),Y^L)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R).`$
Thus, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)`$ is an $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module. For convenience, we refer to this $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module structure as the canonical module structure. From definition, we have

(3.36) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U))\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R).`$
(The equality of (3.36) holds when $`n=0`$, but the equality does not hold for $`n1`$.) It is easy to see that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U))`$ is an $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-submodule.

Motivated by \[Li3\] for $`n=0`$, we should identify $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)`$ with

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)$$

as natural $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-modules. We shall prove that $`A_n^{}(W)`$ just like $`A_n(V)`$ has a natural $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module structure and so does $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)`$. It turns out that the $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)`$ is naturally isomorphic to

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)$$

with a deformed $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module structure.

To achieve our goal we shall need the following result (cf. \[Li2\], Remark 2.10):

###### Proposition 3.12.

Let $`(E,Y_E)`$ be a weak $`V`$-module on which $`L(1)`$ is locally nilpotent, and let $`z_0`$ be any complex number. For $`vV`$, we define

(3.37) $`Y_E^{[z_0]}(v,x)=Y_E(e^{z_0(1+z_0x)L(1)}(1+z_0x)^{2L(0)}v,x/(1+z_0x)).`$
Then the pair $`(E,Y_E^{[z_0]})`$ carries the structure of a weak $`V`$-module and $`e^{z_0L(1)}`$ is a $`V`$-isomorphism from $`(E,Y_E)`$ to $`(E,Y_E^{[z_0]})`$. Furthermore, for homogeneous $`vV`$ and for $`m`$, we have

$`\mathrm{Res}_xx^mY_E^{[z_0]}(v,x)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^m(1z_0x)^{2\mathrm{w}\mathrm{t}vm2}Y_E(e^{z_0(1z_0x)^1L(1)}v,x).`$
In particular,

$`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v1}Y^{[z_0]}(v,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(1z_0x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}Y(e^{z_0(1z_0x)^1L(1)}v,x).`$
###### Proof.

Recall the conjugation formula (5.2.38) of \[FHL\]:

$`e^{x_1L(1)}Y(v,x)e^{x_1L(1)}`$
$`=`$ $`Y(e^{x_1(1+x_1x)L(1)}(1+x_1x)^{2L(0)}v,x/(1+x_1x)).`$
Because $`L(1)`$ is locally nilpotent on $`E`$, we may set $`x_1=z_0`$, so that we have

$`e^{z_0L(1)}Y_E(v,x)e^{z_0L(1)}`$
$`=`$ $`Y_E(e^{z_0(1+z_0x)L(1)}(1+z_0x)^{2L(0)}v,x/(1+z_0x))`$
$`=`$ $`Y_E^{[z_0]}(v,x).`$
Then the first part of the proposition follows immediately.

By changing variable $`x=y/(1z_0y)`$ we get

$`\mathrm{Res}_xx^mY_E^{[z_0]}(v,x)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^mY_E(e^{z_0(1+z_0x)L(1)}(1+z_0x)^{2L(0)}v,x/(1+z_0x))`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_yy^m(1z_0y)^{m2}Y_E(e^{z_0(1+z_0y)^1L(1)}(1z_0y)^{2L(0)}v,y)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_yy^m(1z_0y)^{2\mathrm{w}\mathrm{t}vm2}Y_E(e^{z_0(1z_0y)^1L(1)}v,y).`$
This completes the proof. ∎

By definition we have

$`(Y^{[z_0]})^{[z_0]}(v,x)`$
$`=`$ $`Y^{[z_0]}(e^{z_0(1z_0x)L(1)}(1z_0x)^{2L(0)}v,x/(1z_0x))`$
$`=`$ $`Y(e^{z_0(1+z_0x)L(1)}(1+z_0x)^{2L(0)}e^{z_0(1z_0x)L(1)}(1z_0x)^{2L(0)}v,x).`$
Recall (5.3.3) of \[FHL\]:

(3.43) $`x_1^{L(0)}L(1)x_1^{L(0)}=x_1L(1).`$
From this we immediately get

(3.44) $`x_1^{L(0)}e^{xL(1)}x_1^{L(0)}=e^{xx_1L(1)}.`$
In view of (3.44) we have

(3.45) $`e^{z_0(1+z_0x)L(1)}(1+z_0x)^{2L(0)}e^{z_0(1z_0x)L(1)}(1z_0x)^{2L(0)}=1,`$
hence

(3.46) $`(Y^{[z_0]})^{[z_0]}(v,x)=Y(v,x).`$
Continuing with Proposition 3.12 we have:

###### Proposition 3.13.

Let $`(E,Y_E)`$ be a weak $`V`$-module on which $`L(1)`$ is locally nilpotent and let $`z_0`$ be any complex number. Then

(3.47) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E,Y_E)=\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E,Y_E^{[z_0]}).`$
Furthermore, $`e^{z_0L(1)}`$ is an $`A_n(V)`$-isomorphism from $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E,Y)`$ to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E,Y^{[z_0]})`$.

###### Proof.

From (3.12) we easily get

(3.48) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E,Y_E)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E,Y_E^{[z_0]}).`$
Using this and the fact that $`Y_E=(Y_E^{[z_0]})^{[z_0]}`$, we get

(3.49) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E,Y_E^{[z_0]})\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E,Y_E).`$
This proves (3.47). The second part follows from Proposition 3.12 immediately. ∎

We shall use Proposition 3.13 for $`z_0=0,1,1`$. Let $`W`$ and $`U`$ be given as before. Set

(3.50) $`E=𝒮(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U)).`$
In view of Lemma 3.5 we have

(3.51) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U))=\mathrm{\Omega }_n(E)`$
and it follows from Corollary 3.9 that $`L(1)`$ is locally nilpotent on $`E`$, so that we can apply Propositions 3.12 and 3.13 to $`E`$.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module. For homogeneous $`vV`$ and for $`wW`$, we define

$`v_nw`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)\mathrm{Res}_xx^{nm1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y(v,x)w,`$
$`w_nv`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{nm}\mathrm{Res}_xx^{nm1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+m1}Y(v,x)w.`$
Then extend the definition by linearity.

Now, we are in a position to prove our key result.

###### Proposition 3.14.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module and let $`U`$ be a vector space. Let

$$f\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)=\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)$$

and $`wW`$. Then

(3.54) $`\left(\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v}(Y^L)^{[1]}(v,x)f\right)(w)=f(w_nv)`$
(3.55) $`\left(\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v}(Y^R)^{[1]}(v,x)f\right)(w)=f(\theta (v)_nw)`$
for homogeneous $`vV`$, where

(3.56) $`\theta (v)=e^{L(1)}(1)^{L(0)}v`$
(cf. (3.4)).

###### Proof.

First, using (3.44) we get (\[FHL\], (5.3.1)):

(3.57) $`e^{xL(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}e^{x^1L(1)}=(x^2)^{L(0)},`$
(3.58) $`e^{xL(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}e^{(x+1)^1L(1)}=e^{x/(x+1)L(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}.`$
Because

(3.59) $`\left({\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{n+1m}x^m\right)(1+x)^{n+1}1+x^{n+1}[[x]],`$
for $`kn`$,

(3.60) $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v+k}Y^L(v,x)f=0.`$
Since for any homogeneous $`uV`$,

(3.61) $`(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}u+n}Y^L(u,x)f=(x1)^{\mathrm{wt}u+n}fY^o(u,x1)`$
(Proposition 3.11), we have

$`(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}Y^L(e^{(1+x)^1L(1)}v,x)f`$
$`=`$ $`(x1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}fY^o(e^{(x1)^1L(1)}v,x1),`$
noting that $`\mathrm{wt}L(1)^iv=\mathrm{wt}vi`$ for $`i0`$. Using (3.12) and all the above information we have

$`\left(\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(Y^L)^{[1]}(v,x)f\right)(w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}x^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}\left(Y^L(e^{(1+x)^1L(1)}v,x)f\right)(w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+nm}x^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}`$
$`\left(Y^L(e^{(1+x)^1L(1)}v,x)f\right)(w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+nm}x^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}(x1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}`$
$`f\left(Y^o(e^{(x1)^1L(1)}v,x1)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+nm}`$
$`\mathrm{Res}_x(x+1)^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}f\left(Y^o(e^{x^1L(1)}v,x)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+nm}`$
$`\mathrm{Res}_x(x+1)^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}f(Y(e^{xL(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}e^{x^1L(1)}v,x^1)w)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+nm}`$
$`\mathrm{Res}_x(x+1)^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}f(Y((x^2)^{L(0)}v,x^1)w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{nm}(x+1)^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}x^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}f(Y(v,x^1)w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{nm}(x^1+1)^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}x^{\mathrm{wt}vn2}f(Y(v,x)w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{nm}x^{nm1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+m1}f(Y(v,x)w)`$
$`=`$ $`f(w_nv).`$
Similarly, using the fact

(3.63) $`\left({\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)x^m\right)(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}1+x^{n+1}[[x]]`$
we have

$`\left(\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(Y^R)^{[1]}(v,x)f\right)(w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}\left(Y^R(e^{(1+x)^1L(1)}v,x)f\right)(w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)x^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}\left(Y^R(e^{(1+x)^1L(1)}v,x)f\right)(w)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)x^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}f\left(Y^o(e^{(x+1)^1L(1)}v,x)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)x^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}`$
$`f\left(Y(e^{xL(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}e^{(x+1)^1L(1)}v,x^1)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}x^{m\mathrm{wt}v1}(x+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}`$
$`f\left(Y(e^{x/(x+1)L(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}v,x^1)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}x^{m+\mathrm{wt}v1}(x^1+1)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}`$
$`f\left(Y(e^{(1+x)^1L(1)}(x^2)^{L(0)}v,x)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}x^{nm1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v+n}f\left(Y(e^{(1+x)^1L(1)}v,x)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{i0}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{i!}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n1}{m}}\right)(1)^{\mathrm{wt}v}`$
$`\mathrm{Res}_xx^{nm1}(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}(L(1)^iv)+n}f\left(Y(L(1)^iv,x)w\right)`$
$`=`$ $`f(\theta (v)_nw).`$
This completes the proof. ∎

One can in principle use similar arguments to those in \[Z1\], \[FZ\] and \[DLM2\] to show that the left and right actions of $`V`$ on $`W`$, defined by (3) and (3), give rise to an $`A_n(V)`$-bimodule structure on $`A_n^{}(W)`$, or $`A_n(W)`$ defined below. (From the proof of Theorem 2.3 of \[DLM2\], to prove the associativity for the right action it seems that we need to prove at least one more combinatorial identity in addition to those proved in \[DLM2\].) As a matter of fact, this easily follows from Proposition 3.14 and the (canonical and deformed) $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module structures on

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R).$$

###### Proposition 3.15.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module. Then the left and right actions of $`V`$ on $`W`$, defined by (3) and (3), give rise to an $`A_n(V)`$-bimodule structure on $`A_n^{}(W)`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`U=`$. For homogeneous $`vV`$ we set

(3.64) $`o_L^{[1]}(v)=\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(Y^L)^{[1]}(v,x),`$
(3.65) $`o_R^{[1]}(v)=\mathrm{Res}_xx^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(Y^R)^{[1]}(v,x).`$
Then extend the definition by linearity. It follows from Theorem 2.6 and Propositions 3.4, 3.12 and 3.13 that $`o_L^{[1]}o_R^{[1]}`$ gives rise to an $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-structure on

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,),Y^R)=\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),).$$

In particular,

(3.66) $`o_L^{[1]}(O_n(V))=o_R^{[1]}(O_n(V))=0.`$
The following arguments are classical and routine in nature. Let $`u,vV`$ be homogeneous and let $`wW`$. For any $`f\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),)`$, because

$$o_L^{[1]}(v)f\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),),$$

in view of Proposition 3.14 we have

(3.67) $`f((u_nw)_nv)=o_L^{[1]}(v)f,u_nw=0.`$
Since $`f`$ is arbitrary, we must have

(3.68) $`(u_nw)_nvO_n^{}(W).`$
Using Proposition 3.14 and (3.66) we have

(3.69) $`f,w_n(u_nv)=o_L^{[1]}(u_nv)f,w=0`$
for every $`f\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),)`$. Consequently,

(3.70) $`w_n(u_nv)O_n^{}(W).`$
Similarly, using the fact that $`\theta `$ gives rise to the involution $`\theta `$ of $`A_n(V)`$ (Proposition 3.3) we have

(3.71) $`v_n(u_nw),(u_nv)_nwO_n^{}(W).`$
Then the left action and right action of $`V`$ on $`W`$ give rise to a left action and right action of $`A_n(V)`$ on $`A_n^{}(W)`$. The rest can be proved similarly. ∎

Motivated by the definition of $`O_n(V)`$ we define

(3.72) $`O_n(W)=O_n^{}(W)+(L(1)+L(0))W.`$
The proof of of Lemma 2.1 of \[DLM2\] directly gives:

###### Lemma 3.16.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module, let $`wW`$ and let $`vV`$ be homogeneous. Then

(3.73) $`v_nww_nv\mathrm{Res}_x(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}Y(v,x)w\mathrm{mod}O_n(W).`$
Set

(3.74) $`A_n(W)=W/O_n(W).`$
Then we have:

###### Corollary 3.17.

The subspace $`O_n(W)`$ of $`W`$ is stable under the left and right actions of $`V`$ on $`W`$, defined by (3) and (3), and the quotient space $`A_n(W)`$ is an $`A_n(V)`$-bimodule which is the quotient module of $`A_n^{}(W)`$ modulo $`O_n(W)/O_n^{}(W)`$.

###### Proof.

In view of Proposition 3.15 we only need to prove

(3.75) $`(L(1)w+L(0)w)_nvO_n(W),`$
(3.76) $`v_n(L(1)w+L(0)w)O_n(W)`$
for $`vV`$, $`wW`$. Let us assume $`v`$ is homogeneous. First, from the proof of Lemma 2.2 in \[DLM2\] we have

(3.77) $`(L(1)v+L(0)v)_nw=(1)^n(2n+1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2n+1}{n}}\right)(v_nw)O_n(W).`$
Then using the fact

$`[L(1)+L(0),Y(v,x)]`$ $`=`$ $`(1+x)Y(L(1)v,x)+Y(L(0)v,x)`$
$`=`$ $`(1+x)(d/dx)Y(v,x)+(\mathrm{wt}v)Y(v,x),`$
we get

$`v_n(L(1)+L(0))w`$
$`=`$ $`(L(1)+L(0))(v_nw)+(L(1)v+L(0)v)_nwO_n(W).`$
Using Lemma 3.16 and (3), we get

$`(L(1)w+L(0)w)_nv`$
$``$ $`v_n(L(1)w+L(0)w)`$
$`\mathrm{Res}_x(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}Y(v,x)(L(1)w+L(0)w)\mathrm{mod}O_n(W)`$
$``$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}Y(v,x)(L(1)w+L(0)w)\mathrm{mod}O_n(W)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(L(1)+L(0))Y(v,x)w`$
$`+\mathrm{Res}_x(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v}(d/dx)Y(v,x)w+\mathrm{Res}_x(\mathrm{wt}v)(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}Y(v,x)w`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Res}_x(1+x)^{\mathrm{wt}v1}(L(1)+L(0))Y(v,x)w`$
$``$ $`0\mathrm{mod}O_n(W).`$
(This argument is also similar to one in the proof Lemma 2.2 of \[DLM2\].) ∎

Because $`A_n^{}(W)`$ is an $`A_n(V)`$-bimodule and $`\theta `$ is an involution of $`A_n(V)`$, from the classical fact $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)`$ becomes an $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module with

(3.81) $`((a_1,a_2)f)(w)=f(\theta (a_2)wa_1)`$
for $`a_1,a_2A_n(V),f\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U),wA_n(V)`$. We refer to this $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module structure as the canonical dual module structure.

Combining Propositions 3.14 with 3.13 we immediately have:

###### Theorem 3.18.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module and $`U`$ a vector space. Let

$$\eta :\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)$$

be the natural identification map (Proposition 3.11). Then the linear map

$$\sigma :=e^{L^R(1)L^L(1)}\eta $$

is an $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-isomorphism where $`\mathrm{Hom}(A_n^{}(W),U)`$ is equipped with the canonical dual $`A_n(V)A_n(V)`$-module structure and

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^L)\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(W,U),Y^R)$$

is equipped with the canonical module structure.

Let $`U`$ be an $`A_n(V)`$-module. Then $`U=\mathrm{Hom}_{A_n(V)}(A_n(V),U)`$. We also have the following $`A_n`$-module inclusion relations:

$$\mathrm{Hom}_{A_n(V)}(A_n(V),U)\mathrm{Hom}_{A_n(V)}(A_n^{}(V),U)\mathrm{Hom}_{}(A_n^{}(V),U).$$

With Theorem 3.18 we may and we should identify $`U`$ as a submodule of the $`A_n(V)`$-module $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U),Y^L)`$.

###### Definition 3.19.

Let $`U`$ be an $`A_n(V)`$-module. We define $`\mathrm{Ind}_{A_n(V)}^VU`$ to be the submodule of $`(𝒟_{P(1)}(V,U),Y^L)`$, generated by $`U`$ $`(=\mathrm{Hom}_{A_n(V)}(A_n(V),U))`$.

Using the proof of Lemma 3.14 in \[Li3\] with some minor changes, we have:

###### Proposition 3.20.

Let $`W`$ be a weak $`V`$-module and let $`U`$ be an irreducible $`A_n(V)`$-submodule of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n(W)`$. Then the weak submodule $`M`$ of $`W`$ generated by $`U`$ is a lowest weight generalized $`V`$-module such that $`M_{(h)}=U`$ for some $`h`$ and $`M_{(k+h)}=0`$ for $`k<n`$. In particular, if $`U`$ is an irreducible $`A_n(V)`$-module, then $`\mathrm{Ind}_{A_n(V)}^VU`$ is a lowest weight generalized $`V`$-module with $`U`$ being the homogeneous subspace of some weight $`h`$ such that the lowest weight is no smaller than $`hn`$.


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# Ly𝛼 Absorption Systems and the Intergalactic Medium

## 1 Introduction

The existence of a forest of absorption lines blueward of the Ly$`\alpha `$ emission line in quasar spectra has been known for over 30 years (Bahcall and Salpeter 1965; Lynds 1971). These lines arise from Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption by neutral hydrogen from intervening structure along the line-of-sight. Early theoretical models interpreted this structure as absorption caused by discrete gas clouds in the intergalactic medium (IGM), either pressure confined by a hot IGM (Sargent et al. 1980; Ostriker and Ikeuchi 1983) or confined by the gravity of dark matter ‘mini-halos’ (e.g. Rees 1986). Over the last few years our understanding of the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest has undergone a transformation for at least two reasons. Firstly, observations with the Keck telescope have produced almost noise-free spectra of quasars at high spectral resolution over the redshift range $`2\stackrel{<}{}z\stackrel{<}{}4`$. The exquisite quality of Keck spectra has allowed observers to resolve Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption lines at low column densities ($`10^{12.5}\mathrm{cm}^2`$) and to study their evolution. Secondly, hydrodynamic numerical simulations of structure formation in cold dark matter (CDM) universes with high spatial resolution are now possible and have proved remarkably successful in reproducing many observed properties of the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest (Cen et al. 1994; Zhang , Anninos and Norman 1995, 1997; Miralda-Escudé et al. 1996; Hernquist et al. 1996, Theuns et al. 1998a). These simulations have shown that most of the Ly$`\alpha `$ lines at column densities $`\stackrel{<}{}10^{14.5}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ arise from modest fluctuations in the baryon density in a space filling photoionized IGM, rather than from distinct clouds. The properties of the Ly$`\alpha `$ lines can therefore be used to probe the structure and thermal history of the diffuse IGM and of the background UV radiation that determines its ionization state. The key characteristics of the numerical simulations are described in the next Section. Section 3 summarizes a number of results from these simulations and describes how the Ly$`\alpha `$ lines can be used to study the IGM. In this paper we discuss only the properties of the low column density Ly$`\alpha `$ lines. For a discussion of damped Ly$`\alpha `$ systems and metal lines see Pettini’s contribution to these proceedings. For a recent review of observations and theoretical models of Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption lines see Rauch (1998).

## 2 Numerical Simulations of the IGM

The simplest cosmological hydrodynamical simulations follow the evolution of (optically thin) gas and dark matter assuming a uniform photoionizing background. The simulation is therefore specified by:

$``$ parameters defining the cosmological model and its matter content (e.g. $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`H_0100h\mathrm{kms}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$);

$``$ the amplitude and spectral shape of the mass fluctuations;

$``$ a model for the background UV flux as a function of redshift.

Here we will review the evolution of CDM universes with initially scale-invariant adiabatic fluctuations. The linear power spectrum for these models (in the limit of small baryon content) is given by Bardeen et al. (1986). We adopt a reference model (Model S) with parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, $`h=0.5`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b=0.05`$. The physical density in baryons in this model is $`\omega _b\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2=0.0125`$. The model is normalized so that the rms density fluctuations in spheres of radius $`8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ is $`\sigma _8=0.7`$. The photoionizing background radiation is assumed to originate from quasars according to the model of Haardt and Madau (1996, herafter HM). The photoionization rates for hydrogen and helium in this model are plotted in the left hand panel of Figure 1 as a function of redshift. With these photoionization rates, and assuming a uniform IGM, hydrogen is reionized at a redshift of $`z6`$ and HeII is reionized at $`z4.5`$.

The right hand panel of Figure 1 shows the distribution of gas elements in the temperature-density plane in a numerical simulation of our reference model S at a redshift of $`z=3`$. There is a plume of shock heated gas extending to temperatures $`\stackrel{>}{}10^5`$K, but most of the gas has a low overdensity and follows a power law-like ‘equation of state’

$$T=T_0\left(\frac{\rho _b}{\overline{\rho }_b}\right)^{\gamma 1},$$
(1)
(Hui and Gnedin 1997). At times long after reionization, the diffuse IGM will settle into a state in which adiabatic cooling is balanced by photoheating. The temperature of the IGM will therefore tend towards

$`T3.2\times 10^4\mathrm{K}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_bh(1+\delta )(1+z)^3}{(2+\alpha )E(z)}}\right]^{1/1.76},`$ (2)
$`E(z)={\displaystyle \frac{H_0}{H(z)}}=[\mathrm{\Omega }_m(1+z)^3+\mathrm{\Omega }_k(1+z)^2+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }]^{1/2}`$
where we have assumed a power-law photoionizing background

$$J_\nu =J_{\nu _L}\left(\frac{\nu }{\nu _L}\right)^\alpha .$$
(3)
In equation (2.2) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k=1\mathrm{\Omega }_m\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and the exponent $`1/1.76`$ arise from the temperature dependence of the HII and HeIII recombination coefficients.

Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of the gas in the simulation at $`z=3`$. The upper figure shows the gas with temperature $`T>10^5`$K. This hot gas fills a small fraction of the volume and is located in the dense knots and filaments corresponding to collapsed structures. In contrast, the cool gas with $`T<10^5`$K (shown in the lower figure) fills most of the computational volume. It is this diffuse low density gas which we believe accounts for the vast majority of the observed Ly$`\alpha `$ lines. Furthermore, because most of this gas is at low overdensities, $`\delta \stackrel{<}{}10`$, it is relatively easy to model numerically. By investigating the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest we can therfore hope to learn about the properties of the diffuse IGM, which at typical quasar redshifts of $`z24`$ contains most of the baryonic matter in the Universe. In particular:

$``$ the optical depth of HI and HeII absorption can set constraints on the baryonic density of the Universe and on the evolution, amplitude and spectrum of the photoionizing background;

$``$ the fluctuating optical depth of HI absorption can be used to construct the power spectrum of the matter fluctuations at redshifts $`z24`$;

$``$ the Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption line-widths can be used to infer the temperature and equation of state of the diffuse IGM and its evolution.

These topics will be discussed in more detail in the next section.

## 3 The Ly $`\alpha `$ forest as a probe of the IGM

### 3.1 Mean optical depth of HI and HeII absorption

The optical depth for HI Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption from an IGM in ionization equilibrium with density $`\rho _b`$ is given by

$$\tau (z)=6.5\times 10^4\left(\frac{\omega _b}{0.019}\right)^2\left(\frac{h}{0.65}\right)^1\frac{(1+z)^6}{E(z)}\frac{T_4^{0.76}}{(\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HI}}/10^{12}\mathrm{s}^1)}\left(\frac{\rho _b(z)}{\overline{\rho }_b(z)}\right)^2,$$
(4)
(e.g. Peebles 1993 §23), where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ is the photoionization rate for HI and $`T_4`$ is the temperature of the IGM in units of $`10^4`$ K. Variations in $`\rho _b(z)`$ along the line-of-sight will produce a ‘fluctuating Gunn-Peterson’ effect. An observed absorption line spectrum can therefore be inverted to infer the clustering of the baryon distribution as pioneered by Croft et al. (1998, see Section 3c below).

The mean HI and HeII optical depths as a function of redshift are plotted in Figure 3 for our fiducial model S. The open squares show the optical depths derived using half the amplitude of the HM UV background. With this choice of photoionizing background, the mean HI optical depth of the simulation matches observations quite well over the redshift range $`2`$$`4`$. Evidently, the amplitude of the photoionizing background can be balanced by variations in other cosmological parameters according to equation (4) to preserve the match to observations. The simulations thefore imply that

$$\left(\frac{\omega _b}{0.0125}\right)^2\left(\frac{h}{0.5}\right)^1\mathrm{\Omega }_m^{1/2}\left(\frac{0.5\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HM}}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HI}}}\right)\left(\frac{6\times 10^3}{T}\right)^{0.76}1.$$
(5)
This type of criterion has been used by Weinberg et al. (1997) to set a crude lower limit to the baryon density. At redshifts $`2`$$`3`$ one can be reasonably confident of the HM model of the photoionizing background at around the Lyman edge, because the quasar luminosity function is quite well determined at these redshifts (see Section 3 of Madau’s article in these proceedings). The HM model provides a lower limit to the photoionizing flux because it ignores additional photoionizing radiation from star formation. The temperature of a photoionized IGM cannot exceed a few times $`10^4`$K, but its precise value depends on the past thermal and ionization history of the IGM.111Although a highly ionized IGM is in ionization equilibrium, it is not in thermal equilibrium and so retains a memory of the way in which it was heated. Uncertainties in the temperature of the IGM lead to an additional source of uncertainty in using equation (5) to derive a bound on the baryon density. Nevertheless, equation (5) implies $`\omega _b\stackrel{>}{}0.02\mathrm{\Omega }_m^{1/2}`$, interestingly close to the baryon density of $`\omega _b=0.019`$ inferred from primorial nucleosynthesis and the deuterium abundances measured in quasar spectra (Burles and Tytler 1998, Burles, Kirkman and Tytler 1999). The observed HI optical depth therefore leads to a consistent picture in which most of the baryons in the Universe at $`z2`$$`4`$ belong to the diffuse photoionized IGM.

The HeII optical depth is shown in the lower panel of Figure 3. The open squares show $`\tau _{\mathrm{HeII}}`$ computed from the simulation using the same amplitude for the photoionizing background that provides a good match to $`\tau _{\mathrm{HI}}`$. The results from the simulation lie below the observations at all redshifts, suggesting that the photoinizing background has a softer spectrum than computed by HM. In photoionization equilibrium, the optical depth in HeII is related to the optical depth in HI by $`\tau _{\mathrm{HeII}}/\tau _{\mathrm{HI}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HI}}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HeII}}J_{\mathrm{HI}}/J_{\mathrm{HeII}}`$, and so $`\tau _{\mathrm{HeII}}`$ can be raised by softening the photoionizing spectrum appropriately. By lowering $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HeII}}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ by a factor of two compared to the HM model of Figure 1, model S can match the observations at $`z\stackrel{<}{}2.8`$, but cannot match the high HeII optical depths at $`z\stackrel{>}{}2.9`$ found in the recent HST-STIS observations of the quasar Q0302-003 by Heap et al. (2000).

One possible interpretation of these results is that the typical quasar spectrum adopted by HM is too hard and that HeII reionization is delayed until a redshift $`z3`$, corresponding to the abrupt change in HeII opacity observed by Heap et al. (2000). Additional arguments to support this picture are discussed in Section (3d). If this interpretation is correct, then AGN and ‘mini-quasars’ cannot produce much photoionizing radiation capable of doubly-ionizing helium at redshifts $`z\stackrel{>}{}3`$ (see the article by Rees in this volume).

### 3.2 Evolution of the column density distribution

It has been known for many years that Ly$`\alpha `$ forest shows strong cosmological evolution (e.g. Sargent et al. 1980). Over a narrow range in redshift the evolution can be approximated by a power law

$$\frac{dN}{dz}(1+z)^ϵ,$$
(6)
where $`N`$ is the number of lines above a threshold rest frame equivalent width (typically $`W>0.32\AA `$). From high resolution Keck observations, Kim et al. (1997) find $`ϵ=2.78\pm 0.71`$ in the redshift range $`2<z<3.5`$ . Williger et al. (1994) find that the evolution is still stronger at higher redshifts with $`ϵ>4`$ at $`z>4`$. In contrast, observations with the HST indicate much weaker evolution at low redshifts with $`ϵ=0.48\pm 0.62`$ for $`z<1`$ (Morris et al. 1991; Bahcall et al. 1991, 1993; Impey et al. 1996).

The evolution of the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest, including the low rates of evolution at redshifts $`z\stackrel{<}{}2`$ can be reproduced quite simply in CDM models (Theuns, Leonard and Efstathiou 1998b; Davé et al. 1999). This is illustrated in Figure 4 which shows the evolution of the number of Ly$`\alpha `$ lines within a given range of column density for our reference model S. (The lines are identified by fitting Voigt profiles to simulated Keck spectra using the line-fitting program VPFIT, Webb 1987). As in Section (3a) we adopt the HM model of the photoionizing background with an amplitude divided by a factor of $`2`$ to match the observed optical depth in HI absorption. This model reproduces the observed column density distribution accurately over the column density range $`10^{12.5}\mathrm{cm}^2\stackrel{<}{}N_{\mathrm{HI}}\stackrel{<}{}10^{15}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (see Figure 2 of Theuns et al. 1998b) and, as Figure 4 shows, also reproduces the observed rates of evolution as a function of column density. In particular, the decrease in the rate of evolution of the Ly$`\alpha `$ lines found from HST observations arises from the steep decline in the photoionizing background at $`z\stackrel{<}{}2`$ caused by the rapid drop in quasar numbers at low redshift.

### 3.3 Reconstruction of the matter power spectrum

Equations (2.1) and (3.1) can be combined to write the observed transmitted flux in terms of fluctuations in the baryon density,

$$F=\mathrm{exp}\left[A(\rho _b/\overline{\rho }_b)^\beta \right],\beta (2.760.76\gamma ).$$
(7)
Croft et al. (1998) have used this relation to infer the 1-dimensional power spectrum $`P_{1D}(k)`$ of the baryon fluctuations, from which the three-dimensional power spectrum can be recovered by differentiation,

$$P(k)=\frac{2\pi }{k}\frac{d}{dk}P_{1D}(k).$$
(8)
Croft et al. (1998) calibrate the amplitude of the matter power spectrum by comparing against numerical simulations. The procedure is not completely straightforward and we refer the reader to Croft et al. (1998) for details. By testing their inversion algorithm against numerical simulations these authors find that the amplitude and shape of the underlying matter power spectrum can be recovered accurately and that the recovery is insensitive to uncertainties in the equation of state. A variant of this technique, that incorporates a correction for the distortion of the clustering pattern by peculiar velocities, is described by Nusser and Haehnelt (1999).

Croft et al. (1999) describe an application of their method to a sample of $`19`$ quasar spectra spanning the redshift range $`2.08`$$`3.23`$. They recover $`P(k)`$ at $`z2.5`$ over the (comoving) wavenumber range $`2\pi /k2`$$`12h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and find that it is well fitted by a power law $`P(k)k^n`$ with $`n=2.25\pm 0.28`$, consistent with what is expected from CDM models. This important result is the first attempted determination of the matter power spectrum at high redshift. The amplitude of the inferred power spectrum is high compared to that expected for spatially flat CDM models with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$ normalized to reproduce the abundance of rich clusters at the present day. The best fitting CDM models have $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m+0.2\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }0.46`$ (Weinberg et al. 1999; Phillips et al. 2000), in agreement with the parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }0.7`$ derived from combining observations of anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background radiation and distant Type Ia supernovae (e.g. Efstathiou et al. 1999 and references therein). Constraints on neutrino masses from estimates of $`P(k)`$ at high redshift are discussed by Croft, Hu and Davé (1999).

### 3.4 Widths of the Ly$`\alpha `$ lines

The widths of the Ly$`\alpha `$ lines are usually characterised by the broadening parameter $`b`$ determined by fitting Voigt profiles. If the line width is caused by thermal broadening, the parameter $`b`$ is related to the temperature of the gas by

$$b=\left(\frac{2kT}{m_p}\right)^{1/2}=12.8T_4^{1/2}\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1.$$
(9)
In reality, a number of mechanisms in addition to thermal broadening contribute to the widths of the lines, e.g. the differential Hubble flow across the absorbing region and the smoothing of small scale fluctuations by gas pressure (Bryan et al. 1999; Theuns, Schaye and Haenhelt 2000).

The first sets of simulations of the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest in CDM models appeared to show good agreement with the observed $`b`$-parameter distributions. However, subsequent simulations with higher spatial resolution produced a larger fraction of narrower lines than observed (Theuns et al. 1998a; Bryan et al. 1999). This is illustrated in Figure 5 which shows observations of the $`b`$ distribution at $`z3`$ compared to the results from numerical simulations. The figure to the left shows the distribution derived by fitting Voigt profiles to simulated spectra from reference model S (solid line). The lines in this model are clearly too narrow, suggesting that the temperature of the IGM is too low. From the assymptotic relation (2.2) one can see that the temperature of the IGM can be raised by increasing the baryon density and by lowering $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ (the assymptotic temperature is extremely insentive to the amplitude of the photoionizing background long after reionization). The right hand panel shows the effect of increasing the baryon density to $`\omega _b=0.025`$. The dashed lines in each panel show the effect of lowering $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and introducing a cosmological constant so that the universe remains spatially flat. These variations in cosmological parameters can go some way to resolving the conflict with observations (Theuns et al. 1999), but cannot provide an exact match unless the baryon density is much higher than the value favoured from primordial nucleosythesis. This suggests that we are missing a significant heating source of the IGM. A number of mechanisms have been suggested that might boost the temperature of the IGM, e.g. photoelectric heating of dust grains (Nath, Sethi and Shchekinov 1999) and Compton heating by the hard X-ray background (Madau and Efstathiou 1999). However, the most plausible explanation (Abel and Haenhelt 1999) is that the simulations underestimate the temperature at $`z3`$ because they assume an optically thin IGM (and also a uniform photoionizing background that has already been reprocessed by Lyman $`\alpha `$ absorbing clouds, Haardt and Madau 1996). This is inconsistent and the simulations should properly include the effects of radiative transfer while the medium is still optically thick prior to complete reionization, because in this regime every photoionizing photon is absorbed and contributes to heating the IGM. Abel and Haehnelt estimate that correct inclusion of radiative transfer during the epoch of HeII reionization might increase the temperature of the IGM by a factor of $`2`$, perhaps enough to resolve the discrepancy with the observed $`b`$-parameter distributions illustrated in Figure 5. The idea that the temperature of the IGM at $`z3`$ is boosted by HeII reionization is supported by the analysis of the equation of state of the IGM described in the next subsection.

### 3.5 Constraining the equation of state of the IGM

As we have mentioned, a number of physical mechanisms contribute to the breadth of the $`b`$-distribution. However, the minimum line-width is set by the temperature of the gas, which in turn depends on the density (cf. Figure 1). By fitting the cut-off in the $`b`$-distribution as a function of column density (the ‘$`b(N)`$’ distribution) one can therefore reconstruct the effective equation of state of the IGM (Schaye, et al. 1999; Ricotti, Gnedin and Shull 2000; Bryan and Machacek 2000).

The method is illustrated by Figure 6 which shows the $`b(N)`$ distributions derived by applying the VPFIT line-fitting program to two cosmological simulations. Results for the standard reference model S are plotted in Figure (6b). Figure 6(a) shows a hotter model, which has the same parameters as model Lb plotted in Figure 5 but with the HeI and HeII photoheating rates doubled over those of the HM model (crudely representing ‘radiative transfer’ effects during the reionization of helium). The dashed line in the figure shows the best fit to the lower envelope of the $`b(N)`$ distribution of Figure (6a) determined by applying the iterative fitting algorithm of Schaye et al. (1999). The same line is plotted in Figure (6b) and passes almost through the middle of the $`b(N)`$ distribution of the colder model. The lower envelope of the $`b(N)`$ distribution is clearly a sensitive indicator of the characteristic temperature of the Ly$`\alpha `$ clouds and can be accurately determined from fits to high resolution quasar spectra.

What is more difficult is to convert the fit to the lower envelope of the $`b(N)`$ distribution, $`b=b_0(N/N_0)^{\mathrm{\Gamma }1}`$, into the parameters $`T_0`$ and $`\gamma `$ of the effective equation of state of the IGM (equation 2.1). This is done by calibrating $`b_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ against $`T_0`$ and $`\gamma `$ using numerical simulations with different equations of state (see Schaye et al. 1999 for details).

The results of applying this technique to nine high-quality quasar spectra spanning the redshift range $`2.0<z<4.5`$ are shown in Figure 7 (Schaye et al. 2000). Except for the two lowest redshift quasars, the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest spectra were divided in two to reduce the effects of redshift evolution and signal-to-noise variations across a single spectrum. From $`z3.5`$ to $`z3`$, the inferred temperature at the mean density of the IGM, $`T_0`$, increases and the gas is close to isothermal ($`\gamma 1`$). This behaviour differs markedly from that expected if helium were fully reionized at higher redshift. For example, the solid lines show the evolution of the equation of state in a simulation with the HM background. In this simulation, both hydrogen and helium are fully ionized by $`z4.5`$ and the temperature of the IGM declines slowly as the universe expands tending to the assymptotic form of equation (2.2). This model cannot account for the peak in the temperature at $`z3`$ inferred from the observations. Instead, we associate the peak in $`T_0`$, and the low value of $`\gamma `$, with reheating caused by the second reionization of helium (HeII $``$ HeIII). This interpretation is supported by the abrupt change in HeII opacity at $`z3`$ from the measurements of Heap et al. (2000) discussed in Section 3(a). It is also consistent with evidence from the ratio SiIV/CIV that the spectrum of the photoionizing background hardens abruptly at $`z3`$ (Songaila and Cowie 1996; Songaila 1998).222Note, however, that Boksenberg, Sargent and Rauch (1998) find a more gradual change of the SiIV/CIV ratio with redshift.

The dashed lines in Figure 7 show a ‘designer model’ with parameters tuned to fit the observations. This simulation has a much softer UV background at high redshift than the model shown by the solid line, and consequently HeII reionizes at $`z3.2`$. In addition, the photoheating rates have been enhanced during reionization to boost the temperature of the IGM (again, crudely modelling the heating of optically thick gas). This model is suggestive that the jump in temperature at $`z3`$ may be associated with HeII reionization, but clearly more realistic simulations that include radiative transfer are required to determine the evolution of the equation of state during the reionization phase more accurately. Further observations would also be useful to assess how steeply the IGM temperature changes between $`z=4`$ and $`z=3`$.

## 4 Summary and Outlook

The work reviewed in this article provides a powerful case that the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest arises from a space-filling, highly photoionized diffuse IGM that contains most of the baryonic material in the Universe at high redshift. This model is a natural outcome of CDM theories of structure formation and can account for many observed properties of the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest in quantitative detail. The general features of the model thus seem to us to be reasonably secure.

However, a more detailed analysis of the thermal history of the IGM requires simulations that incorporate radiative transfer and a model for the spatial distribution of ionizing sources. Such calculations are now being done (Abel, Norman and Madau 1999; Gnedin 2000; Madau these proceedings) but the computational problems are formidable. Some outstanding problems that deserve further attention include:

$``$ detailed simulations of the inhomogeneous reionization of hydrogen and helium;

$``$ extending the analysis of Ly$`\alpha `$ line widths to redshifts $`\stackrel{>}{}4`$, perhaps leading to constraints on the epoch of reionization of hydrogen;

$``$ analysis of inhomogeneities in the temperature of the IGM. Are there, for example, regions in the spectra of quasars in which Ly$`\alpha `$ line-widths are systematically broader or narrower than in other regions?

$``$ further observations of absorption gaps in HeII Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption (reported by Heap et al. (2000) and others) and the development of a model to understand their sizes;

$``$ searching for signatures of outflows around protogalaxies in the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest;

$``$ determining the mean metallicity of the IGM and understanding how the metals were transported from protogalaxies.

###### Acknowledgements.

J. Schaye thanks the Isaac Newton Trust for financial support and PPARC for the award of a studentship. We also thank Anthony Leonard, Michael Rauch and Wal Sargent for their contributions to this work.


text:
# About the Dirac Equation with a 𝛿 potential

## Acknowledgments

R. B. acknowledges support from Fondecyt, under grant 1990427. M. L. acknowledges support from Fondecyt, under grant 1980577. H. C. acknowledges financial support from a PUC fellowship.

## References