format: text

text:
# Photometry of Nova V 1493 Aql Based on data collected at the Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, stazione M. G. Fracastoro, Serra la Nave (Etna), Italia

## 1 Introduction

V 1493 Aql (= Nova Aql 1999 n. 1) was discovered by Tago (1999) as an 8.8 mag object on two films taken on July 13.56 UT with a 55-mm f/3 camera lens. Nothing was visible on a film taken 4 days before. The precursor of the nova was too faint in quiescence to be recorded by the 1.2 m Palomar Schmidt, which sets the amplitude of the outburst in the $`\delta \mathrm{m}12`$ mag range (Moro et al, 1999). Low-resolution spectra taken on July 14.6 UT by Ayani and Kawabata (1999) showed strong, broad Balmer lines with FWHM about 3400 $`\mathrm{kms}^1`$. Similar values are reported by Tomov et al (1999) on July 15.9 UT who, in addition, remark the presence of FeII emission lines and the lack of absorption components in the Balmer emission lines. The decline of the nova was very fast and already on July 17.02 UT was fainter than 11.0, thus indicating a $`t2`$ of the order of 3 days. On August 3.89 the nova was already at $`V=13.0`$ (Lehky, 1999). We took advantage of an observing run at the Catania Observatory to monitor the following stages in the decline of the nova. The object underwent a secondary outburst which began shortly before our observations. In this letter we report our and other photometric observations of V 1493 Aql and discuss the implication of these data in the context of the classical nova phenomenon.

## 2 Observations and data reduction

From August 5th 1999 to August 15th we observed V 1493 Aql with the 91 cm telescope of the Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania at the M. G. Fracastoro mountain station on Mt. Etna, equipped with a single channel photometer with $`UBV`$ filters. Standard stars from the lists of Landolt (1983,1992) were observed each night for calibration purposes. The full data, as well as further details on the observations, are available in electronic form.

Each night we observed at least two among four stars which are angularly near to V 1493 Aql (GSC 01048-0098, GSC 01048-01359, HD 230704, HD 178263) for comparison. Unfortunately all the four stars showed variations in our photometry which were above the expected measurement errors. The Tycho Catalogue (Perryman et al 1997) reports a photometric variability for all of them. We made no use of the differential photometry, although all the data is available electronically. Figure 1 shows photometric data from the present work and from the IAU circulars, while Figure 2 shows the Serra La Nave data in more detail. In the time span by our observations V 1493 Aql showed a brightening of about 0.4 mag. Fluctuations from night to night and even within the night were larger than the estimated errors. We searched for a periodicity in the photometric data and may safely exclude the presence of periodicities of 5 days, or shorter. The periodograms relative to $`U`$, $`B`$ and $`V`$ are very similar.

## 3 The photometric behavior during decline

It is well known that each nova has its own individuality and that no two novae are completely alike in their photometric behavior (Payne–Gaposhkin 1957; Mc Laughlin 1960; Duerbeck 1981; Van den Bergh and Younger 1987). Light curves tend to differ from each other immediately after the first phase of near exponential decay from maximum light showing either regular or irregular variations with oscillations, rapid decline (absorption) followed by recovery, re-brightening, and in many cases even a continuous nearly exponential smooth decline. See also Bianchini and Friedjung (1992) for an interpretation of the oscillatory behaviour.

The light curve of V 1493 Aql is characterized, after the first rapid decline to $`V12`$, by some evidence of the onset of small amplitude oscillations with the presence of two local minima at $`V=12.4`$ (JD 381.904, Reszelski 1999) and at $`V=13.0`$ (JD 394.89 Lehky, 1999). Then a conspicuous re-brightening, with some indication of a secondary oscillation takes place, almost in coincidence with our observations. The secondary maximum reaches $`V=11.5`$ on JD $`420`$ (Hanzl, 1999). AAVSO data confirm the general trend near the secondary maximum, but do not show any clear evidence of oscillations in the previous phase. It is possible that the rather large scatter in these data has masked oscillations of small amplitude. If we consider the whole light curve, the brightening looks like a secondary outburst with an increase in $`V1.5`$ mag with respect to the local minimum of $`V=13.0`$. From another perspective the secondary maximum at $`V=11.5`$ falls about 2.5 mag above the curve which corresponds to a smooth decline. The total duration of the secondary outburst is of the order of 40 days.

We have examined several light curves of novae in outburst, looking for similarities with V 1493 Aql and found only a marginal evidence for a similar behaviour. While the presence of more or less coherent oscillations is a characteristic shared by about 15 % of novae (with V 603 Aql and GK Per as prototypes), the long lasting re-brightening “profile” of V 1493 Aql is quite rare, if not unique. To the best of our knowledge, only a few objects bear some resemblance to V 1493 Aql: 1) N Dor 1971a (Van den Bergh & Younger 1987), but the brightening was of much shorter duration and smaller range in magnitude, and $`t2`$ much longer; 2) N Cep 1971 (ibidem) , similar to N Dor 1971 but with some evidence of an another small amplitude brightening; 3) N Her 1963 = V533 Her, the same, with additional small amplitude brightenings; 4) DK Lac (very long $`t2`$) presented many brightening peaks of very short duration at semiregular time intervals; 5) the recurrent nova T CrB showed a secondary maximum that took place about 100 days after the principal eruption.

Also the $`(BV)`$ observations, despite their coverage of the time interval of the nova decline being only partial, indicate a peculiar behaviour. Other novae generally become bluer as they evolve :$`(BV)`$ smoothly decreases indicating that the shrinking in radius of the emitting “photosphere” is accompanied by a gradual increase in temperature. This is generally interpreted as a gradual decrease in the opacity, due to a decrease in density, and the gradual uncovering of the hotter internal layers in the burning shell. Instead, V 1493 Aql is hotter at maximum light ( $`(BV)<0.4`$) than in the following phases: $`(BV)1`$ near the secondary maximum and $`0.7`$ in the following decline. This clearly indicates that the secondary maximum corresponds to a relative increase of the size of the “photosphere” and a decrease in temperature. Only five points, quite well spaced from the beginning of the outburst up to late stages, are available for the R band (Fig. 2), although, none is near the secondary maximum. Remarkably, they define a curve which has a similar slope as the $`V`$ curve. Actually, at a more accurate inspection (V-R) shows a decrease with time, a behavior that contrasts with that generally observed in other novae, e.g. Nova Vul 1984 ( Robb and Scarfe , 1995), where $`(VR)`$ steadily increases with the progress of the outburst.

## 4 Absolute magnitude, reddening and distance

Nova distances can be derived from a comparison between their intrinsic and observed luminosities and therefore require that the latter are corrected for the effect of interstellar extinction. Van den Bergh and Younger (1987) from an exhaustive $`UBV`$ study of novae at maximum, found that after correction for reddening, the intrinsic color $`(BV)_0`$ of novae two magnitudes below maximum, i.e. at time $`t2`$, is $`(BV)_0=0.02\pm 0.04`$, with an rms of 0.12. Comparison with the measured $`(BV)`$ allows to estimate $`E(BV)`$. For V 1493 Aql we have two points near $`t2`$ with $`(BV)=0.24`$ and $`(BV)=0.39`$ respectively. If we assume $`(BV)0.32`$ at $`t2`$ we obtain $`E(BV)0.33\pm 0.1`$ i.e. $`A_V1.04\pm 0.3`$, assuming $`R_V=3.15`$. Tomov et al. (1999) noted the presence of strong NaI D interstellar lines indicative of a large reddening and consistent with the above value.

At such low galactic latitudes ($`b=+2^{}.16`$) the use of the dust maps of Schlegel et al (1998), to estimate reddening is limited because for $`|b|<5^{}`$ the contaminating sources have not been removed from the maps, so that they provide at best an upper limit to the the reddening. The value derived for V 1493 Aql is $`E(BV)=1.67`$, which appears completely inconsistent with the observed colors.. We shall therefore adopt $`E(BV)=0.33`$ and $`A_V=1.04`$.

We use three methods to estimate the absolute magnitude of the nova in outburst:

1. the empirical relation between absolute magnitude at maximum and rate of decline (MMRD, Zwicky 1936; Della Valle & Livio 1995). Taking $`\mathrm{log}t20.5`$, ( which is likely to be an upper limit) from the MMRD relation of Della Valle & Livio (1995), we obtain $`M_V8.97`$. We point out that at very short $`t2`$ , as in our case, the relation is rather flat and produces changes on $`M_V`$ less than 0.1 mag. The observed maximum was at $`V=8.8`$ but we allow for a slightly brighter $`V`$ at maximum ( $`V8.3`$), since it seems reasonable that the real maximum has been missed. Adopting $`A_V=1.04`$ it is straightforward to obtain $`d=17.6\pm 3.2`$Kpc.
2. The absolute magnitude 15 days after maximum light appears to be independent of the speed class (Buscombe & de Vaucoleurs 1955) and is a good standard candle. As absolute magnitude at day 15 we take $`M_V(15)5.47\pm 0.2`$ as the average value of various estimates reported in Warner (1995, p.266). At day 15 we have $`V=12.6`$ implying $`d=25.5\pm 3.5`$ Kpc. We point out that day 15 lies inside the secondary maximum. Had we used the $`V13.6`$ value corresponding with the smooth (unperturbed) decline then $`d=40.4`$ Kpc.
3. Another estimate of the nova distance can be obtained on the basis of the “theoretical” assumption that the nova luminosity at maximum is close to or exceeds the Eddington luminosity ($`L_{edd}`$) for a 1 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ object. In this framework fast novae should reach the highest peaks, up to $`4.7\times 10^5L_{}`$ (Warner 1995). If we take $`L_{max}6L_{edd}2\times 10^5L_{}`$ as a representative value for V 1493 Aql, we obtain M$`{}_{bol}{}^{}=8.55`$. Near maximum light novae radiate mostly in the optical and the bolometric correction BC is quite small and close to $`0.2`$. If we take $`M_V=8.35`$ together with $`A_V=1.04`$ and $`V=8.3`$ we obtain $`d=13.2`$Kpc.

It is disturbing that the absolute visual magnitude obtained with the MMRD method ($`M_V=8.95`$) is smaller than the absolute bolometric magnitude obtained in the assumption $`L6L_{edd}(M_{bol}=8.5)`$. We recall however that the intrinsic dispersion in the MMRD curve of Della Valle and Livio (1995) is of the order of $`0.4`$ magnitudes. The two estimates can be reconciled if a bolometric luminosity close to 10 $`L_{edd}`$ is assumed (this gives $`M_V=8.95`$, if $`BC0.2`$ ). We recall that Duerbeck (1981) indicated that very fast novae should radiate at this high rate . Also Livio (1992), on the basis of numerical calculations, suggested $`L_{max}/L_{edd}4.63\times M_{wd}^3`$. Since a rather massive white dwarf ($`1.2`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$) is theoretically required to produce a very fast nova such as V 1493 Aql, then also Livio’s relation points to $`L_{max}/L_{edd}10`$. By these arguments the distance $`d=13.2`$Kpc obtained with method 3. should be considered as a lower limit and the unweighted average, $`d=18.8\pm 3.6`$ Kpc of the three different estimates is rather conservative.

We have tried to estimate the total amount of the “excess” energy associated with the secondary outburst by measuring the area of the region delimited by the observed luminosity curve and the curve corresponding to a smooth, near exponential decline. The total time interval of the secondary brightening is 40 days and the extra energy contained in the bump associated with the secondary outburst is of the order of $`2\times 10^{43}`$ erg . We point out, however, that this value may be affected by a non negligible error because of the uncertainty in the estimate of the curve corresponding to the “smooth” decline.

## 5 Discussion

The very fast character of the light curve of V 1493 Aql associated with the conspicuous re-brightening (peak increase in $`V2.5`$ mag with respect to the smoothed V curve and total duration of about 40 days) is not common in novae. This, together with the fact that V 1493 Aql is hotter at maximum light ($`(BV)<0.4`$) than in the following phases: $`(BV)1`$ near the secondary maximum and $`0.7`$ in the following decline) makes V 1493 Aql quite peculiar among novae. We considered the possibility that the rapid reddening of V 1493 Aql in the early phases might be due to the formation of dust, however we regard this unlikely because dust formation is associated with the presence of a “deep minimum” in the light curve, which is not observed. Moreover dust is generally found in slow novae.

The large distance we have derived requires a comment. Clearly $`d`$ would be significantly reduced if the apparent magnitude at maximum were much brighter than 8.8. If $`V_{max}6.0`$ the distance would be reduced to a more comfortable 6.2 Kpc. However, we consider it very unlikely that a $`V=6`$ object might have escaped the attention of vigilant sky-watchers during a few days. The lack of detection on films taken on 9.9 July UT (Tago 1999), implies that even if the nova managed to escape the attention of the astronomers, it had to decline by $`3`$ mag in an extremely short time. Considering that the observed decline already suggests a $`t2`$ less than 3 days, this would imply a decay by about 5 magnitudes in less than 6 days, thus making of V 1493 Aql the fastest known nova. The photometric and spectroscopic behaviour of V 1493 Aql is that of a nova; the presence of an emission line spectrum near the maximum of the outburst (Ayani & Kawabata 1999; Tomov et al 1999; Lynch et al 1999) is generally associated with the very fast character in the light curve. We are therefore reluctant to accept that this is a unique object which does not obey the empirical MMRD-like relations found for other members of its class.

The three distance estimates are compatible, within 1.7 $`\sigma `$. Although the distances estimated from the magnitude at maximum are uncertain, to the extent that the “true” maximum may have been missed, the fact that assuming $`V_{max}=8.3`$ we obtain distances which are compatible with the estimate from $`V`$ at day 15, suggests that the maximum may not have been missed by more than a few tenths of magnitude.

A distance of $`18.8`$ Kpc places V 1493 Aql at over 14 Kpc from the Galactic centre, thus the star is at the outskirts of our own galaxy. If however the distance is 25.5 Kpc, as derived from the magnitude at day 15, then the distance from the Galactic centre is about 20 Kpc and thus the nova is outside the Galaxy. In this case it would fall in a Local Group galaxy, which could be called the Aquila galaxy. That a Local Group galaxy at such low Galactic latitudes could have gone undetected is not implausible, so the fact that no Local Group galaxy is known in that direction does not allow to rule out this possibility. The existence of the Aquila galaxy may be disproved by number counts and/or radial velocity surveys.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to G. Carbonaro, A. Di Stefano and M. Puleo for the assistance during the observations. We wish to thank G. Masi for kindly providing an unpublished measure. We acknowledge with thanks use of the data from the AAVSO International Database .


text:
# The head-tail structure of high-velocity clouds

## 1 Introduction

HVCs – first discovered by Muller et al. (muller (1963)) – are defined as neutral atomic hydrogen clouds with unusual high radial velocities (relative to the local–standard–of–rest frame, LSR) which deviate significantly from a simple galactic rotation model.

Despite 36 years of eager investigations there is no general consensus on the origin and the basic physical parameters of HVCs. This is mainly because HVCs are difficult to detect in emission other than H i 21-cm line radiation. HVCs mostly appear as “pure” neutral atomic hydrogen clouds. Absorption line studies provide information on the ionization state and the metalicity of HVCs. Their results indicate that the bright and very extended HVC complexes consist (at least partly) of processed material, having $``$ 1/3 of the solar abundances (see Wakker & van Woerden wakker-rev (1997) for a recent review). Recent observational results present evidence for emission of ionized atoms associated with HVCs. Tufte et al. (tufte (1998)) for instance presented H$`\alpha `$ emission associated with the HVC complexes M, A and C. Also the Magellanic Stream was found to be bright in the H$`\alpha `$ line emission (Weiner & Williams weiner (1996)). In the soft X-ray regime evidence is presented that the HVC complexes M, C, D and GCN are associated with excess soft X-ray radiation, produced by a plasma of a temperature $`T_{\mathrm{plasma}}=10^{6.2}`$ K (Herbstmeier et al. herbstmeier (1995), Kerp et al. kerp (1999)). Also in the $`\gamma `$-ray regime the detection of excess $`\gamma `$-ray emission is claimed towards the HVC complex M (Blom et al. blom (1997)).

However, the most critical issue of HVC research is the distance uncertainty to the HVCs. Danly et al. (danly (1993)), Keenan et al. (keenan (1995)) and Ryans et al. (ryans (1997)) consistently determined an upper distance limit of z $``$ 3.5 kpc to HVC complex M. The most important step forward is the very recently determined distance bracket of 2.5 $``$ z $``$ 7 kpc towards HVC complex A by van Woerden et al. (van Woerden (1999)). These results clearly indicate that the HVC complexes M and A belong to the Milky Way and its gaseous halo.

Parallel to the growing evidence that a significant fraction of the HVC complexes belong to the Milky Way and its halo, Blitz et al. (blitz (1999)) supported the hypothesis that some HVCs are of extragalactic origin. They argued, that it is reasonable to assume that primordial gas – left over from the formation of the Local Group galaxies – may appear as HVCs. Observational evidence for such a kind of HVC may be found by the detection of the highly ionized high-velocity gas clouds by Sembach et al. (sembach (1999)), because of its very low pressure of about 5 K $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

The Magellanic System is a special case outside both major approaches. The Magellanic Stream (MS) and the Leading Arm (LA) (Putman et al. putman (1998)) both form coherent structures over several tens of degrees having radial velocities in the HVC regime. Their gas represents most likely the debris caused by the tidal interaction of the Magellanic Clouds with the Galaxy at distances of tens of kpc.

The physical conditions of the HVCs located in the gaseous Galactic halo or in the intergalactic space as well as their chemical compositions should be significantly different. HVCs located in the intergalactic space are only exposed to the extragalactic radiation field. It is reasonable to assume that their column density distribution is dominantly modified by gravitational forces of the Local Group galaxies. In contrast, the gaseous distribution of the HVCs located within the neighborhood of the Milky Way is not only modified by gravitational forces but also by the ambient medium in the gaseous halo and by the strong radiation field consisting of stellar UV-photons, soft X-rays and cosmic-rays.

Meyerdierks (meyerdierks (1991)) detected a HVC that appears like a cometary shaped cloud with a central core and an asymmetric envelope of warm neutral atomic hydrogen (the particular HVC is denoted in literature as HVC A2). He interpreted this head-tail structure as the result of an interaction between the HVC and normal galactic gas at lower velocities. Towards HVC complex C Pietz et al. (pietz96 (1996)) discovered the so-called H i “velocity bridges” which seem to connect the HVCs with the normal rotating interstellar medium. The most straight forward interpretation for the existence of such structures is to assume that a fraction of the HVC gas was stripped-off from the main condensation.

In the present paper, we extend the investigations of Meyerdierks (meyerdierks (1991)) and Pietz et al. (pietz96 (1996)) over the entire sky covered by the new Leiden/Dwingeloo H i 21-cm line survey (henceforward abbreviated as LDS, Hartmann & Burton hartmann97 (1997)). For this aim, we investigated the shape and the column density distribution of a complete sample of HVCs to search for distortions in the HVC velocity fields accompanied by column density gradients.

In Sect. 2 we give a brief summary of observational parameters concerning the LDS. In Sect. 3 we present our HVC-sample selection and the characteristic parameters. In Sect. 4 we describe the detection process of head-tail structures in our sample and show the distribution of head-tail structures within the individual HVC complexes. In Sect. 5 we discuss possible implications for the existence of the head-tail structures. In Sect. 6 we summarize our results.

## 2 The Leiden/Dwingeloo survey

The Leiden/Dwingeloo survey of Galactic neutral atomic hydrogen (Hartmann & Burton hartmann97 (1997)) comprises observations of the entire sky north of $`\delta `$=$`30\mathrm{°}`$. It represents an improvement over earlier large-scale H i surveys by an order of magnitude or more in at least one of the principal parameters of sensitivity, spatial coverage or spectral resolution. Most important for our scientific aim is the correction of the LDS for the influence on stray radiation to the H i spectra (Kalberla et al. kalb (1980), Hartmann et al. hartmann96 (1996)). The survey parameters were compiled by Hartmann (hartmann (1994)) and Hartmann & Burton (hartmann97 (1997)). Here we summarize only the major properties important for this work.

The angular resolution of the survey is determined by the beam size of the 25-m Dwingeloo telescope to 36’. The observations were performed on a regular grid with a true-angle lattice spacing of $`0\stackrel{}{.}5`$ in both, $`l`$ and $`b`$. The velocity resolution was set to 1.03 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$per channel of the auto-correlator. The effective velocity coverage (measured with respect to the Local Standard of Rest, LSR) covers the range -450 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ 400 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The characteristic RMS limit of the evaluated brightness-temperature intensities is about 0.07 K. The residual uncertainties, introduced for instance by baseline fitting, are about 0.04 K.

## 3 The HVC-sample

### 3.1 Selection criteria

The aim of the present work is to perform a systematic search for HVCs with a head-tail structure in the entire data base of the LDS (Brüns bruens (1998)). For a statistical analysis we need a well defined and representative sample. Therefore we define three conditions which all have to be fulfilled by the HVCs under consideration.

* We identify H i emission lines as high-velocity H i profiles if their radial velocities are at least $`|v_{\mathrm{LSR}}|`$ 90 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and deviate at least 50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ from a simple galactic rotation model (the second condition is important for areas near the Galactic Plane).
* The HVC must be traceable within three individual H i spectra, to overcome residual baseline uncertainties and broad but faint residual interference signals. We demand further that the signal is not correlated with the observational grid. The minimum three H i spectra are discarded if they are aligned only in galactic longitude or latitude. Accordingly, the three spectra build up the smallest allowed map of a HVC of interest. This corresponds to cloud-sizes larger 1°.
* The minimum H i column density of the studied HVCs is $`N_\text{}\text{i}=110^{19}`$$`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ . This constraint is introduced to analyze only high-velocity H i profiles with a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio, allowing to study the shape of the H i emission lines in detail.

Applying the three conditions compiled above to the LDS data, we build up a new “bright source catalogue of extended HVCs” for the northern sky offering an angular resolution below $`1\mathrm{°}`$.

### 3.2 General properties of the HVC sample

Fig. 1 shows the distribution of the selected HVCs across the galactic sky. The dashed-dotted line represents the southern declination boundary of the LDS at $`\delta =30\mathrm{°}`$. Each individual marker represents a single HVC selected according to the three criteria mentioned above (Sect. 3.1). In total we identified 252 HVCs. Because of the applied selection criteria, each marker represents a unique line of sight to a HVC. The selected HVCs follow in detail the positional distribution of the well known HVC complexes (Wakker & van Woerden wakker-rev (1997)). The open circles mark the location of HVCs with a head-tail structure (see Sect. 4).

In Fig. 2a the radial velocity (in the local standard-of-rest frame) is plotted versus the galactic longitude. Most of the HVCs have velocities in the range of -200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ -100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$or +100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ +200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Only HVCs belonging to the Magellanic Stream, the anti-center complex and some clouds near the Galactic Center show radial velocities of v$`{}_{\mathrm{LSR}}{}^{}`$ -200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. All these more extreme velocity HVCs are located on the southern galactic sky. The absence of a significant number of HVCs with positive radial velocities is because of the limitation to $`\delta 30\mathrm{°}`$ of the LDS data. In particular the Magellanic Cloud System is traceable in H i 21-cm line radiation with positive $`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ velocities (see Putman et al. putman (1998) or Putman putman99 (1999) for a recent overview).

Fig. 2b shows the radial velocity (in the local standard of rest) as a function of the galactic latitude. In this figure the north/south asymmetry is visible, i.e. the HVCs in the northern galactic sky have relatively low radial velocities while the HVCs on the southern galactic sky show in general much higher radial velocities.

Figs. 2c and d show our HVC sample in a different representation: radial velocities are transformed into the galactic standard-of-rest frame.

$`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}=v_{\mathrm{LSR}}+220\mathrm{sin}(l)\mathrm{cos}(b)`$ (1)
In Fig. 2c the radial velocity (vGSR) is plotted versus the galactic longitude. The HVC complexes are grouped now to coherent structures, which are even larger than the extent of an individual HVC complex. For example, the HVC complexes M, A and C build up the largest coherent structure in this representation. Most of the HT HVCs belong to this structure. The Magellanic Stream forms a parallel shifted feature. There is one cloud complex that is clearly outside the main distribution: the Smith cloud (l = 38°, b = –13°, Smith smith (1963)) shows radial velocities v$`{}_{\mathrm{GSR}}{}^{}`$ +250 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$while all other clouds have v$`{}_{\mathrm{GSR}}{}^{}`$ +75 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. This may be a hint for a different origin of the Smith cloud. Bland-Hawthorn et al. (bland-hawthorn (1998)) claimed an association of the Smith cloud with the Sgr dwarf.
Fig. 2d shows the radial velocity (vGSR) as a function of the galactic latitude. The north/south asymmetry is still visible.

Fig. 3 shows histograms of the HVC distribution for the parameters peak column density, $`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ and $`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$. The histogram of peak column density versus number distribution of the corresponding HVCs contain information on the studied ensemble. We evaluated the log($`N`$)-log($`S`$) correlation (where $`N`$ is the number of HVCs per flux interval and $`S`$ is the flux) and found a correlation coefficient of -0.91, clearly indicating a linear relation between both quantities. The linear equation is log($`N`$) = $`(0.53\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.07})\times `$ log($`S`$) + $`(3.00\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.06})`$. Within the uncertainties these numbers are equal to the values of Wakker & van Woerden (wakker91 (1991)) on the log($`N`$)-log($`S`$) of the population of positive and negative HVCs distributed across the northern sky. This result demonstrates, that our ensemble of HVCs is a representative flux-limited sample of HVCs.
Fig. 3b shows the number distribution with respect to the radial velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$). Most of the HVCs have velocities in the intervals centered on $`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = –150 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and –100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Fig. 3c shows the number distribution with respect to the velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$). The bulk of the studied HVCs reveal low radial velocities with respect to the galactic standard of rest frame. The mean $`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$ velocity is negative ($`\overline{v_{\mathrm{HVC}}}`$ = –62.3 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$`\pm `$ 7.5 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$), indicating that the majority of HVCs in our sample are moving towards the Galactic Disk. Wakker & van Woerden (wakker91 (1991)) showed that the inclusion of the southern hemisphere H i data on HVCs in their sample does not change this general $`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$ velocity behavior.

## 4 Head-Tail structures

Our HVC sample, selected according to the conditions compiled in Sect. 3, provide information on the distribution of the HVCs relative to the observational parameters galactic longitude and latitude, radial velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{LSR}},v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$) and peak column density.

In the following step we analyze each individual HVC of the sample with respect to the shape of its H i line profiles, for instance for the variation of the mean velocity and the variation of the column density across the HVC extent.

### 4.1 Velocity gradients

We find that about 40% of the HVCs show up with a significant velocity gradient. These velocity gradients are very frequently associated with a column density gradient (20%). The detected velocity gradients are by them-self not a priori indicators for an intrinsic distortion of the HVC velocity field. There are several effects that can produce a velocity gradient.

* The HVCs of our sample are, because of the applied selection criteria, extended objects. Accordingly, the angle between the line of sight and the solar velocity vector varies across the extent of the HVC. This effect can produce a velocity gradient of about 10 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$/$`[\mathrm{°}]`$.
* The same kind of velocity gradient is also expected from the HVC velocity vector, because the angle between the HVC velocity vector and the line of sight changes with position, too. This velocity gradient depends on the unknown 3D velocity of a HVC.
* Two or more HVCs may be superposed on the same line of sight with comparable group velocities. The probability for an accidental superposition of two independent HVCs is very low. Nevertheless it is known that HVCs consist of several clumps. The superposition of two clumps that belong to the same HVC has a much higher probability. High angular resolution H i studies may disclose this kind of arrangement.
* Even if there is no evidence for a rotating HVC so far, a rotating HVC would show up with a velocity gradient similar to rotation curves of galaxies. Revealing a red- and blue-shifted extension in the position-velocity diagram.

The effect related to the solar velocity vector is well defined and therefore easy to calculate according to Eq. 1. All other velocity gradients are related to the HVC phenomenon.

### 4.2 Definition of head-tail structures

Our aim was to search for real distortions in the velocity field of individual HVCs, which may be an indicator for an interaction of the HVC with the surrounding interstellar medium. Accordingly, we studied those HVCs which reveal a velocity and a column density gradient simultaneously. This kind of HVC appears like a comet in the position-velocity domain, and justifies the name head-tail HVC (HT HVC). The head is the region with the highest column density of the HVC, while the column density of the tail is in general much lower (by a factor of 2 - 4). Fig. 4 shows six examples of the studied HT HVCs: the HVC shown in Fig. 4a and b belong to the anti-center complex (HVC189-30-205 and HVC192-24-130). In Fig. 4c two HVCs of the Magellanic Stream are displayed. Both show a head-tail structure. The HVC displayed in Fig. 4d (HVC166+56-130) is a special HT HVC, because the HVC appears to be connected with the H i gas in the Galactic Disk; it forms a so called velocity bridge. Up to now it is unknown, whether the HVC gas is really physically connected to the Galactic Disk gas or just an accidental superposition on the same line of sight. Fig. 4e shows a HT HVC where the head has a relatively low intensity. Fig. 4f shows the HT HVC with the highest observed radial velocity in our sample (vLSR = –425 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$). The velocity resolution was reduced to 3 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$in this picture to give an idea of the extent of the tail. This HVC is a very-high-velocity cloud (VHVC) several degrees away from the galaxy M33 (–300 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$``$ v$`{}_{\mathrm{LSR}}{}^{}(\mathrm{M33})`$ –75 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$).

### 4.3 Results

In total, we found 45 HVCs associated with a HT structure in our HVC-sample containing 252 individual HVCs. The column density contrast between the head and the tail varies in general between factors 2 – 4. It is a general behavior that the column density maximum, the head, is located at higher radial velocities than the tail. The HT HVCs are extended objects and cover in general several square degrees.

Fig. 1 shows the distribution of the head-tail HVCs across the galactic sky. The HT HVCs are marked by open circles. Obviously all HVC complexes reveal HT HVCs, even in the northern part of the Magellanic Stream HT HVCs are present. Only in HVC complex L no HT HVCs were found. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the HT HVCs in comparison to the HVC sample in respect to the parameters galactic longitude, latitude and radial velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ and $`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$).

In Fig. 3 histograms are plotted for the whole HVC sample and the HT HVCs with respect to the parameters peak column density, $`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ and $`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$. We discuss these histograms further in the following subsections.

#### 4.3.1 Peak column density

Fig. 3a shows histograms for the number of HVCs per column density interval. The histogram for the entire HVC sample is plotted in light gray, the histogram for the HT HVCs is plotted in dark gray. It is obvious that there are only relatively few HT HVCs at lower column densities (relative to the HVC sample).
A detailed analysis of the histogram for the peak column density revealed a linear relation between the fraction of head-tail HVCs and the peak column density. Fig. 5 shows this relation. The vertical error-bars are calculated with respect to the low statistics (there are very few HT HVCs with a high column density), the horizontal error-bars indicate the size of the individual $`N_\text{}\text{i}`$ intervals. The solid line represents the linear regression fit:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\#}HTs}{\mathrm{\#}HVCs}}=(0.0317\pm 0.0028){\displaystyle \frac{N(\text{}\text{i})}{[10^{19}\mathrm{cm}^2]}}+`$
$`+(0.017\pm 0.012)`$ (2)
We like to emphasize that the lower limit of $`N_\text{}\text{i}=\mathrm{1\; 10}^{19}`$$`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ was chosen to derive statistical significant information on even the faintest HVCs in our sample (this limit is about a factor of 3 above the detection limit using the highest velocity resolution $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$v = 1.03 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$of the LDS data). The correlation displayed in Fig. 5 is not biased by a detection limit.
This empirical relation can be used to determine an expected number of HT HVCs for each individual HVC-complex in our sample. The comparison of the expected numbers of HT HVCs with the detected ones shows a good consistency. Only towards the Galactic Anti-Center a significantly larger number of HT HVCs is detected than expected. The correlation explains why we were not able to find HT HVCs in Complex L: this complex has only very few, faint HVCs (the expected number of HT HVCs for this complex is only 0.3).

#### 4.3.2 Radial velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$)

Fig. 3b shows histograms for the number of HVCs per velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$) interval. The histogram for the entire HVC sample is plotted in light gray, the histogram for the HT HVCs is plotted in dark gray.
A large number of HT HVCs have radial velocities in the intervals centered on –100 and –150 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$(62.2%). This is consistent with the fact that most HVCs have radial velocities in this regime (62.9%). The interval centered on –200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$contains a relatively large fraction of HT HVCs. The large number is expected because of the fact that there is a high percentage of high column density HVCs in this velocity interval, increasing the probability to detect a HT HVC according to Eq. 2. It remains unclear whether there are too many high column density HVCs or too few low column density HVCs in this velocity interval.

#### 4.3.3 Radial velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$)

Fig. 3c shows histograms for the number of HVCs per velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$) interval. The histogram for the entire HVC sample is plotted in light gray, the histogram for the HT HVCs is plotted in dark gray.
The mean radial velocity $`v_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$ of the HT HVCs is more negative than the mean radial velocity of the HVC sample. A Gaussian fit to the histograms revealed mean velocities of $`\overline{v_{\mathrm{HTHVC}}}`$ = –86.1 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$`\pm `$ 3.8 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and $`\overline{v_{\mathrm{allHVC}}}`$ = –62.3 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$`\pm `$ 7.5 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The difference between the mean velocities ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$v=23.8$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) is significant. The probability to find a HT HVC increases with negative GSR velocity. We checked that this result is not caused by the relation shown in Fig. 5.
The velocity dispersion in Fig. 3c is nearly identical for the HT HVCs (FWHM = 174.0 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$`\pm `$ 7.5 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) and the complete HVC sample (FWHM = 179.9 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$$`\pm `$ 15.1 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$).

## 5 Discussion

In the following subsections we discuss possible interpretations for HVCs with a head-tail structure at different distances from the Galactic Disk.

### 5.1 HVCs in the gaseous Galactic halo

The gaseous halo of the Milky Way has a vertical scale height of 4.4 kpc (Kalberla & Kerp kalberla (1998)). At least the HVC complexes M (z $``$ 3.5 kpc, Danly et al. danly (1993), Keenan et al. (keenan (1995)) and Ryans et al. (ryans (1997))) and A (2.5 $``$ z $``$ 7 kpc, van Woerden et al. van Woerden (1999)) are located within the gaseous halo. As a natural consequence some kind of interaction is expected when a cloud has a high velocity relative to the ambient medium. In a ram-pressure model the head is the interacting HVC and the tail is gas which was recently stripped off from the HVC. In an absolutely homogeneous halo medium there should be a constant interaction rate for all HVCs with similar distances and velocities. The HVC complexes form coherent structures in position and in velocity, i.e. they may form also coherent structures in space. Therefore one would expect naively that all HVCs of a complex should show up with a head-tail structure. This is obviously not observed.
Kalberla & Kerp kalberla (1998) estimate that $``$ 10 % of the halo gas is neutral, having higher density than the surrounding plasma. This implies that only those HVCs are expected to show up with a head-tail structure that are passing through an area with locally higher halo density. Accordingly there is a 10 % probability for the creation of a HT HVC. Thus at least 10 % of the HVCs should have a head-tail structure.

In the following we estimate the life-time of a head-tail structure. The HVC tails have on the average a column density of a few times $`10^{19}`$ $`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ . Because of the low dust abundance in galactic HVCs (in particular in case of the galactic HVC complex M, Wakker & Boulanger wakker86 (1986)) photoelectric heating can be neglected as an excitation process. Only the diffuse X-ray radiation of the galactic halo and the cosmic-rays heat the HVCs. According to Wolfire et al. (wolfirea (1995)a and b) column densities of a few $`N_\text{}\text{i}10^{19}`$ $`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ have a high ionization probability. This corresponds to a life-time in the neutral state of about $`10^5`$$`10^6`$ years. Compared to the free-fall time of a galactic HVC, of about $`10^7`$ years, the life-time of the stripped-off matter is very short. The tail of a high peak column density HVC contains more material and will survive significantly longer against the ionizing radiation of the diffuse X-rays and cosmic rays. This is consistent with the observational fact that the high peak column density HVCs reveal much more frequently a HT HVC (Fig. 5).
In addition, it is possible that the production or the life-time of a tail depends on the small scale structure of a HVC. HVCs consist of two components: cold clumps are surrounded by an envelope of warm gas. HT HVCs with clumps in their tails will survive much longer than tails that contain only diffuse warm gas. The angular resolution of the LDS is too low to resolve the inner parts of the HVCs. H i observations with high angular resolution are mandatory to study the effects of the small-scale structure.

### 5.2 The Magellanic Stream

The Magellanic Stream (MS) is the only HVC complex with a generally accepted origin: it is build up by gaseous debris caused by the tidal interaction between the Magellanic Clouds and the Milky Way. The distance of the southern end of the Magellanic Stream is assumed to be very similar to the distance to the Magellanic Clouds (D $``$ 50 kpc). In the opposite, the distance of the northern end is unknown. If it is located at low z-heights, i.e. in the gaseous halo, the observed head-tail structures may be produced by the same process as the HT HVCs in the complexes M and A. In this scenario the MS covers a large distance bracket of several tens of kpc. There should be no head-tail structures in the southern part of the stream. On the other hand, the northern part of the MS could have distances similar to the distance of the Magellanic Clouds. The existence of HT HVCs cannot be explained by an interaction with the gaseous halo, because it would be far outside the gaseous halo. A possible interaction partner could be the debris from previous revolutions of the Magellanic System. The ionizing radiation field is much weaker at these distances. Accordingly, the life-time of a tail in the MS is orders of magnitudes longer compared to HVCs in the lower Galactic halo.

### 5.3 HVCs at extragalactic distances

There is evidence that some HVCs are at intergalactic distances (Braun & Burton braun (1999), Blitz et al. blitz (1999), Sembach et al. sembach (1999)).
Sembach et al. (sembach (1999)) found highly ionized high-velocity gas clouds. Several lines of evidence, including very low thermal pressures (P/k $``$ 2 cm-3 K), favor a location for the highly ionised high-velocity gas clouds in the Local Group or very distant Galactic halo.
Braun & Burton (braun (1999)) searched for compact, isolated HVCs. They classified HVCs as compact if they have angular sizes less than 2 degrees FWHM. They are isolated in that sense, that they are are separated from neighboring H i emission by expanses where no emission is seen to the detection limit of the data. They found 66 of these compact, isolated HVCs. A comparison between their and our sample reveal that the sample of Braun & Burton is much more uniformly distributed in the parameter space (position vs. velocity) than the HVCs of our sample. The different distributions may be an indication for different objects in origin and evolution. Braun & Burton claimed, that their HVCs are most likely located at intergalactic distances. The HVCs of our sample probably contain a significant number of HVCs located in the gaseous halo of the Milky Way. 11 HVCs of their sample are also included in our sample. Moreover, two of them show up with a head-tail structure (HVC271+29+181 and HVC30-51-119).
If these HVCs are located in the intergalactic space, the life-time of the head-tail structures would be much longer because of the much weaker ionizing radiation field at these distances. On the other hand, it is not straight forward to explain what kind of interaction process may produce the observed features at distances of several hundreds of kpc. Especially these (probably very distant) head-tail HVCs should be observed with a higher angular resolution in the near future.

## 6 Summary and conclusion

We performed a systematic analysis of the HT HVCs across the whole sky that is covered by the LDS (about 75% of the entire sky). We selected a representative flux limited HVC sample with column densities $`N_\text{}\text{i}\mathrm{1\; 10}^{19}`$$`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ and minimum angular diameter $``$ 1°. In total we found 252 HVCs.

Each individual HVC was analyzed with respect to velocity gradients and asymmetries in the H i line profiles. The so called head tail HVCs have a cometary shape in the position-velocity domain. We found that 45 out of 252 HVCs show up with a head-tail structure. These HT HVCs are randomly distributed over the whole sky covered by the LDS.

A statistical evaluation of the HVC ensemble revealed that the probability to detect a HT structure increases linear with the peak column density and with increasing negative radial velocity in the GSR frame. There is no significant correlation between the other parameters like galactic longitude, latitude and $`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$.

The detection of HT HVCs in nearly all prominent HVC complexes implies qualitatively comparable physical processes in all of the HVC complexes. Individual HVC cores seem to interact with their ambient medium. In case of the HVC complexes located within the Galactic halo and the Magellanic Stream the interaction with the gaseous halo medium or gaseous debris distributed along the orbit of the Magellanic Clouds may serve as a straight forward explanation for the existence of the HT HVC. At intergalactic distances the detection of HT HVCs is difficult to interpret, because the characteristic time-scale for heating and cooling of the HVC matter is orders of magnitude shorter than the assumed age of these HVC complexes.

High angular resolution H i observations of the detected 45 HT HVCs in future will improve our knowledge on the temperature structure and small-scale column density distribution of this special kind of HVCs. In addition the comparison with other wavelengths, e.g. with H$`\alpha `$ emission, will help to understand the existence of HT HVCs.

###### Acknowledgements.

Part of this work was supported by the German *Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG* project number ME 745/19.


text:
# Phase-coherent effects in multiterminal superconductor/normal metal mesoscopic structures

## Abstract

In this report we analyse three effects which may arise in a mesoscopic multiterminal S/N structure (two normal and two superconducting reservoirs). We show that the Josephson critical current is a non-monotonic function of a voltage between the normal reservoirs. The influence of the spin-polarized electrons on the Josephson critical current was also studied. We show that if there is a temperature difference between the normal reservoirs, a voltage between the superconductors and normal conductors arises which oscillates as the phase difference varies. Its magnitude is much greater than the thermoemf in the case of the ordinary thermoelectric effect.

1. Introduction

In this report we present results of the theoretical study of transport in diffusive 4-terminal superconductor-normal metal (S/N) mesoscopic structures. A great deal of attention was paid recently to the problem of the influence a current between the N reservoirs has on the Josephson effect in the superconducting curcuit. This problem was analysed first in Ref. for a ballistic S/N system and in Ref.  for a diffusive system. It was shown that the Josephson critical current $`I_c`$ changes sign at a certain voltage $`V_\text{ }`$between the N reservoirs, and the Josephson junction switches into a $`\pi `$-state ($`\pi `$-junction). The reason for the sign reversal effect is that the distribution function in the N wire, which can have an equilibrium form, is shifted with respect to the distribution function in the superconductors by the value $`V`$. Later the dependence $`I_c(V)`$ was calculated in various models and approximations in Refs.  (diffusive case) and  (ballistic case). The sign reversal effect in a diffusive Au/Nb mesoscopic structure was observed by Baselmans et al. .

In multi-terminal S/N structures one can observe not only the sign reversal effect, but also a number of other interesting phenomena. It was shown in Refs.  that the measured critical current $`I_m`$ in a structure similar to that shown in Fig.1a may not only decrease, but also may increase with increasing voltage $`V`$. In particular one can observe the Josephson-like effects (plateau on the $`I_3(V_S)`$ curve, oscillations of the measured critical current $`I_m`$ in a magnetic field etc) even if the Josephson coupling between superconductors under equilibrium conditions is vanishing. The stimulation of the Josephson effect in this structure is related in particular to a phase dependence of the S/N interface or N wire conductance: $`\delta G\mathrm{cos}\phi .`$ It turns out that apart from the Josephson term $`I_c\mathrm{sin}\phi ,`$ an additional term $`I_{sg}\mathrm{cos}\phi `$ appears in a dynamic equation for $`\phi `$. This term leads to a change of the critical current from the value $`I_c`$ to a new (measured) value $`I_m=\sqrt{I_c^2+I_{sg}^2}`$,where $`I_{sg}`$ is the amplitude of the subgap current. The stimulation of the Josephson effect by a current between the N reservoirs was analysed in Refs. on a simplified model of gapless superconductors. Here we present results of the analysis for the real case where the superconductors have a gap and the density-of-states (DOS) has a singularity . We show that the measured critical current $`I_m`$ reaches a maximum at $`eV\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and depends weakly on the temperature $`T.`$ These results agree with recent observations of the stimulation of the Josephson critical current .

We also study the effect of the spin injection into the N wire from the ferromagnetic (F) reservoirs on the critical current $`I_c`$ for the structure shown in Fig.1b. If the magnetizations in the F reservoirs have the same direction, then there is no spin injection. In the case of antiparallel orientation, the total magnetization of the injected electrons in the N wire is finite. We show that in the case of a N wire short length $`2L`$ ($`L<\{L_ϵ,L_{sp}\}`$; here $`L_ϵ`$ and $`L_{sp}`$ are the energy and spin relaxation length) the spin injection does not affect the critical current and the dependence $`I_c(V)`$ is the same as in the case of normal (nonmagnetic) reservoirs. In a semi-mesoscopic structure $`(L_ϵ<L<L_{sp})`$ the $`\pi `$-junction is realised only in the case of the antiparallel orientation of the magnetizations in the F reservoirs when spins are accumulated in the N wire.

Finally we analyse the thermoelectric effect in the structure shown in Fig.1a. We assume that there is no current between the N reservoirs, but the reservoirs are maintained at different temperatures $`T=T_o\pm \delta T`$. It will be shown that the temperature gradient leads to a voltage difference $`V_{T\text{ }}`$between the normal and superconducting circuits. This voltage does not contain the small parameter $`T/ϵ_F`$ (as is the case for the ordinary thermoeffect in normal metals) and reaches a value of order $`\delta T/e`$. In addition, the voltage $`V_{T\text{ }}`$ depends on the phase difference $`\phi `$; it is zero at $`\phi =0`$ and oscillates with increasing $`\phi .`$

2. Basic equations

The Green’s function technique is perhaps the most convenient and powerful method for studing transport and nonequlibrium phenomena in S/N mesoscopic structures. If we are not interested in purely quantum interference effects arising as the result of multiple (non-Andreev) reflections, then we can use a simpler, well developed method of quasiclassical Green’s functions (see, for example, ). In this method the matrix Keldysh function $`\widehat{G}`$ is introduced along with the retarded (advanced) matrix Green’s functions $`\widehat{G}^{R(A)}=G^{R(A)}\widehat{\tau }_z+`$ $`\widehat{F}^{R(A)}`$, here $`\widehat{F}^{R(A)}`$ is the matrix condensate Green’s function. The functions $`\widehat{G}^{R(A)}`$determine the excitation spectrum and the DOS. The function $`\widehat{G}`$ describes the nonequilibrium properties and is related to the matrix distribution functions $`\widehat{f\text{ }}`$: $`\widehat{G}_\alpha =\widehat{G}_\alpha ^R\widehat{f\text{ }}_\alpha \widehat{f\text{ }}_\alpha \widehat{G}_\alpha ^A`$, where $`\widehat{f\text{ }}_\alpha =f_{\alpha +}\widehat{1}+f_\alpha \widehat{\tau }_z.`$ The components of $`\widehat{f\text{ }}_\alpha `$ can be expressed through the distribution functions of electrons $`n_\alpha `$ and holes $`p_\alpha `$ ($`\alpha `$ is the spin index). The function $`f_{\alpha +}`$ describes an electron and hole distribution symmetrical in branch populations: $`f_{\alpha +}=1(n_\alpha +p_{\overline{\alpha }})`$, here $`\overline{\alpha }=`$ if $`\alpha =`$. The function $`f_\alpha =(n_\alpha p_{\overline{\alpha }})`$ describes the branch imbalance and determines the electric potential.

The equations for $`\widehat{G}_\alpha `$ and $`\widehat{G}_\alpha ^{R(A)}`$ can be solved analitically in the case of a short structure ($`ϵ_{Th}D/L^2>>ϵ`$, where $`ϵ`$ is a characteristic energy; $`ϵ\mathrm{min}\{T,\mathrm{\Delta }\}`$). In the general case one needs to solve equations for the distribution functions $`f_{\alpha \pm }`$ and the Usadel equation . In the present paper we consider the case when the temperature may be both greater or less than the Thouless energy $`ϵ_{Th}`$ and the approximation of a short length is not valid. The distrubution functions in the structure shown in Fig.1a obey the kinetic equation (we consider only the dirty limit)

$$L_x[M_\pm _xf_\pm (x)+J_Sf_{}(x)\pm J_{an}_xf_{}(x)]=r[\stackrel{}{A_\pm }\delta (xL_1)+\stackrel{\mathrm{\_}}{A_\pm }\delta (x+L_1)].$$
(1)
where $`M_\pm =(1G^RG^A(\widehat{F}^R\widehat{F}^A)_1)/2;`$ $`J_{an}=(\widehat{F}^R\widehat{F}^A)_z/2,J_s=(1/2)(\widehat{F}^R_x\widehat{F}^R\widehat{F}^A_x\widehat{F}^A)_z,`$ $`A_\pm =(\nu \nu _S+g_1)(f_\pm f_{S\pm })(g_{z\pm }f_S+g_zf_{});g_{1\pm }=(1/4)[(\widehat{F}^R\pm \widehat{F}^A)(\widehat{F}_S^R\pm \widehat{F}_S^A)]_1;g_{z\pm }=(1/4)[(\widehat{F}^R\widehat{F}^A)(\widehat{F}_S^R\pm \widehat{F}_S^A)]_z;`$

The parameter $`r=R/R_b`$ is the ratio of the resistance of the N wire $`R`$ and S/N interface resistance $`R_b`$; the functions $`\stackrel{\mathrm{\_}}{A_{}}`$ and $`\underset{+}{\overset{\mathrm{\_}}{A}}`$ coincide with $`\stackrel{\mathrm{\_}}{A_{}},\underset{+}{\overset{\mathrm{\_}}{A}}`$ if we make a substitution $`\phi \phi `$. We introduced above the following notations $`(\widehat{F}^R\widehat{F}^A)_1=Tr(\widehat{F}^R\widehat{F}^A),`$ $`(\widehat{F}^R\widehat{F}^A)_z=Tr(\widehat{\tau }_z\widehat{F}^R\widehat{F}^A)`$ etc.; $`\nu ,`$ $`\nu _S`$ are the DOS in the N film at $`x=L_1`$ and in the superconductors. The functions $`f_{S\pm }`$ are the distribution functions in the superconductors which are assumed to have equilibrium forms. This means that $`f_{S+}f_{eq}=\mathrm{tanh}(ϵ\beta )`$ (here $`\beta =1/(2T)`$) and $`f_S=0`$, because we set the potential of the superconductors equal to zero (no branch imbalance in the superconductors). We assumed that the width of the S/N interface $`w`$ is much less than $`L_{1,2}`$ and introduced the $`\delta `$functions. Note that in some papers the last term in the left-hand side of Eq.(1) is missing. One can solve Eq.(1) and express the distribution functions $`f_{\alpha \pm }`$ in terms of the retarded (advanced) Green’s functions which should be found from the Usadel equation. Integrating Eq.(1) once, we obtain

$$M_\pm _xf_\pm (x)+J_Sf_{}(x)\pm J_{an}_xf_{}(x)=J_{1,2\pm }$$
(2)
where the indeces $`1,2`$ relates to the intervals $`(0,L_1)`$,$`(L_1,L)`$ and the constants $`J_{1,2\pm }`$ are partial flows. For example, the partial flow $`J_{1,2}`$ determines the electrical current in the intervals $`(0,L_1)`$,$`(L_1,L)`$

$$I_{1,2}=\sigma _0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑ϵJ_{1,2}$$
(3)
Here $`\sigma `$ is the conductivity of the N wire. As it follows from Eq.(1), the flows $`J_{1,2\pm }`$ are connected with each other

$$J_{2\pm }J_{1\pm }=rA_\pm $$
(4)
The functions $`rA_\pm `$ are the flows through the S/N interface. In particular, $`rA_{}`$ is the partial electrical current through the S/N interface. The first term $`(\nu \nu _S+g_{1+})f_{}`$ in the expression for $`A_{}`$ is the quasiparticle current (the term $`g_{1+}f_{}`$ contributes to the subgap current), and the second term $`(g_{z+}f_{S+}+g_zf_+)`$ is related to the supercurrent. One can show that the partial supercurrent $`J_S`$ is a constant in the interval $`(0,L_1)`$ and equals zero outside this interval.

We can solve Eqs.(2) and express the distribution functions $`f_\pm `$ through the constants $`J_{1,2\pm }.`$ At $`x=\pm L`$ the functions $`f_\pm `$ are equal to equilibrium distribution functions in the N reservoirs. Therefore we can find the functions $`f_\pm (x)`$ and substituting them into Eq.(4) determine $`f_\pm (L_1)`$ and $`J_{1,2\pm }`$. Thus the problem is reduced to solving the Usadel equation. The solution of the Usadel equation can be found either numerically or analitically in limiting cases. In the next sections we will employ this method to study the dependence of the critical current on the voltage between the N reservoirs and the thermoeffect.

3. Suppression and enhancement of the critical current

In this section we consider a symmetrical structure shown in Fig.1a. We assume that the electric potential at the N reservoirs is $`V`$ and at the superconductors is zero (the quasiparticle currents flow from the N reservoirs to the superconductors and the supercurrent flows between the superconductors). The distribution functions in the reservoirs have the equilibrium form: $`F_{V\pm }=[\mathrm{tanh}((ϵ+eV)\beta )\pm \mathrm{tanh}((ϵeV)\beta )]/2.`$

First we consider the case of a small $`r,`$ that is, the interface resistance is large and the condition

$$(ϵ\tau _ϵ)^1<<r<<1$$
(5)
should be satisfied. The first condition ensures that inelastic collision term can be neglected (here $`\tau _ϵ`$ is the energy relaxation time, $`ϵ\mathrm{min}\{T,ϵ_{Th}\}`$). Then the distribution function $`f_+`$ is constant and in the main approximation is $`f_+(F_{V+}+f_{eq}(r_2\nu \nu _s))/(1+r_2\nu \nu _s),`$ here $`r_2=rL_2/L`$. The function $`f_{}`$ is constant in the interval $`(0,L_1)`$ and in the main approximation equals $`f_{}F_V/(1+r_2\nu \nu _s)`$. Outside this interval the function $`f_{}`$ increases linearly to the value $`F_V.`$ Following the method presented above, we find the current through the S/N interface

$$I_3(V)=I_2I_1=I_o(V)+I_{sg}(V)\mathrm{cos}\phi I_c(V)\mathrm{sin}\phi $$
(6)
The first two terms are the quasiparticle current and the last term is the Josephson supercurrent. All the components of the current depend on $`V`$. This expression shows that at a given control voltage $`V`$ and zero voltage difference between superconductors ($`\phi `$ is constant in time) the current $`I_3`$ may vary with changing $`\phi `$ in some limits:$`I_3(V)I_o(V)I_m(V)`$. This means a plateau on the $`V_S(I_3)`$ characteristics (see ); here $`V_S=(\mathrm{}/2e)_t\phi `$ is the voltage difference between superconductors. We can write the phase-dependent part of $`I_3`$ in the form $`I_{3\phi }=I_m\mathrm{sin}(\phi +\alpha )`$, where $`I_m=\sqrt{I_c^2+I_{sg}^2}`$ is the measured critical current, $`\mathrm{cos}\alpha =I_c/I_m`$. In Fig.2 we plot the dependence of the measured critical current $`I_m`$ on the control voltage $`V`$ for different temperatures. It is seen that the temperature dependence of the maximum of $`I_m`$ which is achieved at $`eV\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is much weaker than the $`I_c(T)`$ dependence. These results qualitatively agree with the experimental data .

4. Spin injection and the critical Josephson current.

In this section we present results of the study of spin injection on the critical Josephson current $`I_c`$ for the structure shown in Fig.1b . We calculate the distribution function $`f_+`$ which determines $`I_c`$ for parallel $`()`$ and antiparallel $`()`$ orientations of the magnetization in the ferromagnetic (F) reservoirs. It is assumed that the voltage $`2V`$ is applied between the F reservoirs and a current flows between the N reservoirs. We consider different limits of the length of the N wire.

4.1. Mesoscopic limit: $`L<\{L_ϵ,L_{sp}\}.`$

In this limit the function $`f_+(f_++f_+)/2`$ does not depend on mutual orientation of ferromagnets and has the same form as in the nonmagnetic case: $`f_+=F_{V+}.`$ The conductance $`G`$ and magnetic moment of injected spins $`M`$ (per unit volume of the N wire) depend on mutual orientation of the ferromagnetic domains. In the case of the parallel orientation $`()`$ we obtain $`G=(2R_b+R_L)^1+(2R_b+R_L)^1`$ and $`M=0`$. In the case of the antiparallel orientation $`()`$ we have $`G=2/(R_b+R_b+R_L)`$ and $`M=4\mu (R_bR_b)V\beta /\sigma ^2(2R_b+R_L)(2R_b+R_L)(R_b+R_2+R_L).`$ Here $`R_{b,}`$ and $`R_L`$ are the F/N interface and the N wire resistances for electrons with up and down spins . Since the interface conductances $`R_{b,}^1`$ differ from each other (they are proportional to different density of states in the ferromagnets $`\nu _{F,}`$), spin injection takes place in the antiparallel $`()`$ configuration. However the critical current $`I_c`$ is the same for both configurations. Its dependence on $`V`$ is similar to that found for the structure under consideration with normal (nonmagnetic) reservoirs .

4.1. Semi-mesoscopic limit: $`L_ϵ<L<L_{sp}.`$

In this limit there is no spin relaxation in the N wire and the magnetization $`M`$ is determined again by formulae presented above. On the other hand the magnetization is related to a potential $`V_{sp}`$ which determines an imbalance between the spin subsystems in the N wire: $`M=2\mu \nu eV_{sp}`$. The function $`f_+(f_++f_+)/2`$ has an equilibrium form corresponding to the potential $`V_{sp}:f_+=[\mathrm{tanh}(ϵ+eV_{sp})\beta +\mathrm{tanh}(ϵeV_{sp})\beta ]/2`$. Therefore in the case of parallel $`()`$ orientation $`I_c`$ does not depend on $`V`$ as $`V_{sp}=0`$ ($`V`$ is proportional to $`V_{sp}`$). In the case of antiparallel $`()`$ orientation $`I_c`$ does depend on $`V_{sp}`$ in the same way as in the section 4.1. A similar effect of spin injection into a supereconductor on the energy gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ was analysed in Ref. . The critical Josephson current is more sensitive to the form of the distribution function than the energy gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Therefore the effect considered here allows one to realise the $`\pi `$junction and to make certain conclusions about the energy and spin relaxation rate.

5. Giant thermoelectric effect

It is well known that if the terminals of a normal conductor are maintained at different temperatures $`\delta T=T_o\pm \delta T`$, then in the absence of the current an thermoemf $`V_{emf}`$ appears at the terminals. The magnitude of $`V_{emf}`$ is equal to: $`eV_{emf}=c_1(T/ϵ_F)\delta T,`$ where $`c_1`$ is a factor of the order 1 and $`ϵ_F`$ is the Fermi energy. In this report we study the thermoelectric effect in the mesoscopic structure shown in Fig.1a. It will be shown that a temperature difference between the normal (N) reservoirs leads to a voltage between normal and superconducting curcuits $`V_T`$. The magnitude of this voltage does not contain the small parameter $`(T/ϵ_F),`$ and besides it oscillates with a variation of the phase difference $`\phi `$ between the superconductors.

We assume that the superconductors are connected via a superconducting loop and the phase difference between them $`\phi `$ is controlled by an applied magneitic field. The N reservoirs are disconnected and maintained at different temperatures $`T(\pm L)=T_o\pm \delta T`$. We will calculate the electric potential in the N film and in particular the potential $`V_T`$ in the N reservoirs . Since we set the potential in the superconductors equal to zero, the potential $`V_T`$ is the voltage difference between the N reservoirs and superconductors which arises in the presence of the temperature difference $`\delta T.`$ In the limit of high interface resistance (see condition (5)) we obtain from Eq.(2) in the main approximation in $`r:`$ $`f_+(x)J_+x+f_+(0),`$ where $`f_+(0)=f_{eq}\mathrm{tanh}(\beta _oϵ),`$ and $`J_+=\delta \beta ϵ/L\mathrm{cosh}^2(\beta _oϵ),`$ $`\delta \beta =\beta \delta T/T_o.`$ We assumed the ratio $`\delta T/T_o`$ to be small and expant the distribution functions in the N reservoirs.

In order to find the function $`f_{},`$ we consider Eq.(2) and take into account that $`J_2`$ is zero (no current through the N reservoirs). In the absence of the temperature gradient we obtain from this equation

$$f_{}=0,\text{ }J_Sf_{eq}=J_{1eq}=r(g_z+g_{z+})f_{eq}$$
(7)
The temperature gradient leads to the non-zero function $`f_{}(x)`$ which determines the electrical potential $`V_T(x)`$. We find from Eq.(2)

$$f_{}(x)=f_{}(0)+\delta J_1x+_0^x𝑑x_1[J_{an}_x\delta f_+(x_1)J_s\delta f_+(x_1)]$$
(8)
where $`\delta f_+(x)f_+(x)f_{eq}`$. From Eq.(1) we obtain for $`\delta J_1J_1J_{1eq}`$

$$\delta J_1=\pm r[g_{z+}\delta f_+(\pm L_1)g_{1+}f_{}(\pm L_1)]$$
(9)
Here the signs $`\pm `$ relate to the points $`\pm L_1`$. From Eqs.(8) and (9) it follows that $`\delta J_1=0,`$ and in the main approximation in $`r`$ the distribution function is $`f_{}(0)\delta f_+(\pm L_1)g_{z+}/g_{1+},`$ where $`\delta f_+(\pm L_1)=\pm J_+L_1`$. The electric potential $`V_T`$ is related to the function $`f_{}`$ and is an even function of $`x`$

$$eV_T=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑ϵf_{}=\frac{L_1}{L}\frac{\delta T}{T_o}\beta _0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑ϵ\frac{g_{z+}}{g_{1+}}\frac{ϵ}{\mathrm{cosh}^2(\beta _oϵ)}$$
(10)
Here we substitute the function $`f_{}(0)`$ which is the main contribution to the function $`f_{}(x).`$ Therefore the potential $`V_T`$ arising in the presence of the temperature gradient is almost constant along the N wire. This potential equals approximately the voltage difference $`V_T`$ between the N reservoirs and superconducting loop. It is worth noting that $`V_T`$ determined by Eq.(10) does not depend on the small parameter $`r`$ (however one should have in mind that the condition (5) imposes limits on this parameter). We calculated the integrand using both analytical an numerical solutions of the Usadel equation. In Fig.3 we show the temperature dependence of $`V_T`$ for $`\phi =\pi /2`$. We see that the dependence $`V_T(T)`$ is nonmonotonic (reentrant behaviour). One can easily estimate $`V_T`$ on the order of magnitude. We obtain

$$eV_T=\delta T(L_1/L)\mathrm{sin}\phi \{\begin{array}{c}(T/ϵ_{Th})C_1(\phi ),\text{ }T<<ϵ_{Th}\\ (ϵ_{Th}/T)^2C_2(\phi ),\text{ }T>>ϵ_{Th}\end{array}$$
(11)
Here $`C_{1,2}(\phi )`$ are periodic functions of the phase difference $`\phi `$; they are of order 1 and are not zero at $`\phi =0.`$ If the ratio $`T/ϵ_{Th}`$ is of order 1, then the thermoemf is of the order $`\delta T`$, that is, several orders greater than the thermoemf in the normal metals.

The physical explanation of the effect is the following. The temperature gradient creates a deviation of the distrubtion function $`\delta f_+=\delta (n+p)`$ from equilibrium. On the other hand the superconductors do not affect this function because complete Andreev reflections conserve the total number of excess electrons and holes. The function $`\delta f_+`$ has different signs at $`\pm L_1`$ and leads to an additional Josephson current $`\delta J_S=rg_{z+}\delta f_+(L_1)`$ of the same sign at $`\pm L_1`$(sign of the function $`g_{z+}`$ is different at these points). In order to compensate these additional currents, the potential $`V_T`$ arises in the N wire producing a subgap current $`\delta J_{sg}=rg_{1+}f_{}(\pm L_1)`$ which compensates the current $`\delta J_S`$.

We have neglected the ordinary thermoelectric current $`I_T`$ in the N wire because it contains a small parameter $`(T/ϵ_T)`$ and leads to a small contribution to $`V_T.`$ Recently the influence of the proximity effect on the ordinary thermoelectric effect in the mesoscopic S/N structure was studied both theoretically  and experimentally . The effect analysed here is much stronger.

In simplified models we have analysed three possible effects in the 4-terminals S/N mesoscopic structures; one of them (see section 3) has been observed experimentally. Further theoretical studies of these and other effects are needed to account for processes which were neglected in our analysis. It is interesting, for example, to investigate how the obtained results are changed by the energy relaxation in the N wire which seems to be faster than it was expected

We are grateful to the EPSRC for their financial support.

FIG. Phase-coherent effects in multiterminal superconductor/normal metal mesoscopic structures Schematic view of the 4-terminal S/N/S structure under consideration.

FIG. Phase-coherent effects in multiterminal superconductor/normal metal mesoscopic structures The measured critical current ($`I_m`$) vs $`V`$ for different temperatures: $`\beta =ϵ_{Th}/2T`$. The parameters are: $`\mathrm{\Delta }=10ϵ_{Th},L_1/L=0.3,r=0.3`$.

FIG. Phase-coherent effects in multiterminal superconductor/normal metal mesoscopic structures The dependence of the normalised voltage $`\stackrel{~}{V_T}`$ on inverse temperature $`\beta `$ at $`\phi =\pi /2`$ (the parameters are $`\mathrm{\Delta }/ϵ_{Th}=10,L_1/L=0.5`$).