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# H I Bright Galaxies in the Southern Zone of Avoidance

## 1 Introduction

The obscuration due to dust and the high stellar density in our Galaxy varies from place to place within the Milky Way. Overall, it blocks our optical view of the extragalactic Universe over $``$20% of the sky, somewhat less in the infrared. This “Zone of Avoidance” (ZOA) was recognized even before the nature of the spiral nebulae themselves was understood. This sky coverage limitation does not pose a problem for the study of galaxies themselves, as there is no reason to believe that the population of obscured galaxies should differ from those in optically unobscured regions. However, to understand the Local Group’s motion requires mapping the surrounding mass inhomogeneity, measured in practice by galaxy over- and under-densities, across the entire sky. In particular, the lack of a full census of nearby, hidden galaxies is troublesome, since the local galaxies should play a significant role in the Milky Way’s motion with respect to the microwave background (Kraan-Korteweg 1993).

The ZOA has been successfully narrowed by deep searches in the optical and infrared (see Kraan-Korteweg & Woudt 1999 for a comprehensive review of the various efforts). However, optical searches fail where the extinction exceeds 4 - 5 magnitudes, within about $`|b|<5^{}`$ of the Galactic plane. Near-infrared surveys, e.g. 2MASS (Skrutskie et al. 1997) and DENIS (Epchtein 1997), will eventually produce catalogs of galaxies closer to the plane than is possible with optical searches, but they do not recover the most heavily obscured galaxies, or galaxies of low surface brightness (Schröder, Kraan-Korteweg, & Mamon 1999). Far-infrared surveys become confusion limited by Galactic sources at low latitudes, and the remaining ZOA still covers $`10\%`$ of the sky.

Galaxies which contain H I can be found in the regions of thickest obscuration and IR confusion. The technique was pioneered over a decade ago by Kerr & Henning (1987) who showed through a small, pilot survey that completely optically-hidden galaxies could be readily uncovered through the detection of their 21-cm emission. Since then, a spatially complete survey for spirals out to 4000 km s-1 has been conducted over the northern ZOA ($`30^{}\mathrm{}220^{}`$, $`|b|`$ $``$ 5; rms noise 40 mJy beam-1) with the 25 m Dwingeloo telescope (Henning et al. 1998, Rivers et al. 1999). The survey uncovered no massive, “Andromeda”-type galaxy in the ZOA, indeed the nearest, previously unknown galaxy revealed by the survey was Dwingeloo 1, a likely member of the IC342/Maffei group (Kraan-Korteweg et al. 1994). The census for nearby, H I-bearing galaxies in the northern ZOA is complete, at least for those galaxies whose redshifts or blueshifts are sufficient to separate their H I signals from Galactic 21-cm emission, at $`0`$ $`\pm `$ $``$100 km s-1 .

We report here on a somewhat deeper survey (rms noise 15 mJy beam-1) for H I galaxies in the southern ZOA, conducted with the new multibeam receiver on the 64 m Parkes radiotelescope 111The Parkes telescope is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. . The angular coverage ($`212^{}\mathrm{}36^{}`$, $`|b|`$ $``$ 5) completes the survey of the great circle of the ZOA for relatively nearby, dynamically important HI galaxies. The present survey discussed here (the “shallow survey”) represents the first stage of an ongoing deeper search of the area with the multibeam system. The shallow survey is comprised of the first two scans of a planned 25 scans of the southern ZOA, estimated to be completed in mid-2000. (This full sensitivity survey will be sensitive to spirals to a redshift of $``$ 10,000 km s-1 ). In addition to the astronomical motivation outlined above, the shallow survey serves as a testbed of techniques for the full sensitivity survey.

An intermediate-depth survey consisting of four scans of the region $`308^{}\mathrm{}332^{}`$; $`|b|`$ $``$ 5, has been conducted (Juraszek et al. 2000). This region is of particular interest as it contains the predicted position of the core of the Great Attractor (Kolatt, Dekel, & Lahav 1995).

In § 2, the observations and data reduction will be described. The search method and galaxy H I parametrization procedure will be outlined in § 3. The resulting catalog is presented in § 4. Discussion of the galaxy distribution at low Galactic latitudes, the H I mass function derived for the sample, and predictions for the full sensitivity survey are contained in § 5.

## 2 Observations and Data Reduction

The observations for the survey commenced on 1997 March 22 and were made by scanning the Parkes multibeam receiver in strips of constant Galactic latitude, each of length 8°. The Parkes receiver has 13 independent beams, each with two orthogonal linear polarizations. The receiver rotation was fixed (with respect to the telescope which has an alt-az mount) during each scan such that the rotation angle of the receiver, relative to the scan direction, was 15° at the mid-point of the scan. This meant that the beams rotated on the sky during each scan. Nevertheless, there was sufficient overlap to obtain complete sampling of the entire southern Plane, with approximately uniform sensitivity (see Staveley-Smith 1997). The absence of continuous receiver rotation and axial focussing helped ensure maximum baseline stability. The telescope scan rate was 1 degree/min, so each scan took 8 min to complete. The observations were done in parallel with the H I Parkes All Sky Survey (HIPASS) and a deeper ZOA survey (see http://www.atnf.csiro.au/research/multibeam/ for current information regarding these surveys). Most observations for the shallow survey were completed by 1997 September 4, although some regions were re-scanned as recently as 1999 August 28, because of earlier pointing problems in a few fields.

The footprint of the multibeam receiver on the sky is $`1.7\mathrm{°}`$, so that each scan maps out an $`8\mathrm{°}\times 1.7\mathrm{°}`$ strip of longitude. To obtain full coverage of the southern ZOA, 34 scans were made between Galactic latitudes $`5\mathrm{°}`$ and $`+5\mathrm{°}`$ at each of 23 separate central longitudes from 216° to 32°. The observing parameters and the area mapped is summarized in Table 1. In total 782 scans, or $`104`$ hrs of data, were obtained for the 1840 deg2 comprising the survey region. This corresponds to an integration time, when integrated over all 13 beams, of 200 s beam-1, where the beam size, after gridding, has been taken to be 15$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5. (The full-sensitivity southern ZOA survey will comprise 425 scans at each longitude, or approximately 1300 hrs of integration time).

The average system temperature of the multibeam receiver during the observations was $`25`$ K. The average rms noise after Hanning smoothing and away from strong continuum and line sources was 15 mJy beam-1. The velocity range of the observations was $`1200`$ to 12700 km s-1. The channel spacing was 13.2 km s-1 and the resolution, after Hanning smoothing, was 27.0 km s-1.

The spectral data were bandpass-corrected, smoothed and Doppler-corrected using aips++ LiveData (Barnes 1998). For each beam and polarization, a template bandpass was calculated by taking the median of the surrounding data with $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{}=\pm 2\mathrm{°}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=\pm 120`$ s. The spectral data were then gridded into 23 cubes, each of size 10° in longitude by 8° in latitude with a pixel size of 4′ . Each output pixel consists of the median of approximately 30 independent (5 s) spectra which lie within a radius of 6′ of the center of the pixel. The use of the median statistic successfully removes the effect of outlyers, so that interference and bad data were rejected with good efficiency without manual editing of all spectra (which number about $`2\times 10^6`$ for the shallow survey). For more details, see Barnes et al. (2000).

## 3 Search Method and Profile Parametrization

The cubes were Hanning smoothed, and each of the 23 smoothed data cubes was searched by eye using the visualization tool karma kview (Gooch 1995). (Experiments with automatic galaxy detection algorithms have failed to date in the complicated ZOA, mainly due to baseline instabilities resulting from the presence of strong Galactic continuum sources. The eye/brain system is still far more effective for finding the H I signals). First, Right Ascension – velocity planes were examined, and candidates noted. The selection criterion was a minimum peak flux density of $``$ 75 mJy (5$`\sigma `$), with emission extended over two or more channels, or a minimum flux integral of $``$ 4 Jy km s-1 . The candidates were then checked at the corresponding positions in Right Ascension – declination planes. Candidates which were created by interference or increased noise at the edges of fields were culled. Finally, the one-dimensional profile, flux density versus velocity, was created for each source, and its shape was checked for good sense, since H I galaxies tend to have 2-horned, flat-topped, or Gaussian profiles.

To measure central positions and flux integrals, a zeroth moment map was first made by integrating the cubes in the full velocity range occupied by each galaxy. For most galaxies, which were unresolved, a Gaussian with the same FWHP diameter as the gridded telescope beam (15$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5) and a DC offset were simultaneously fitted to each zeroth moment map. Five galaxies were found to be significantly extended, and were fitted with Gaussians of arbitrary width. The positional accuracy is 2′-3′, depending on the S/N ratio, and the flux integral uncertainty is $`20`$%.

Using the best-fit position, spectra were then extracted from the cubes using the miriad task mbspect (Sault, Teuben, & Wright 1995). For the unresolved galaxies, this spectrum is a weighted average, with the weight dependent on the distance of each pixel from the fitted position. For resolved galaxies, the spectrum is spatially integrated across the galaxy. Velocity widths were then measured at the 20% and 50% levels ($`W_{20}`$ and $`W_{50}`$), relative to the peak signal, using a width-maximizing algorithm (Lewis 1983). In order to correct for the relatively coarse velocity resolution (27 km s-1) of the Hanning-smoothed spectra, downward corrections of 21 km s-1 and 14 km s-1 were applied to $`W_{20}`$ and $`W_{50}`$, respectively. A central velocity was also measured from the 50% values. All velocities quoted are in the optical ($`cz`$) convention.

## 4 The Catalog

The shallow survey detected 110 galaxies, whose H I parameters are listed in Table 2, and whose profiles are shown in Figure 1.

In Table 2, columns contain the following information:

Column 1a: Source name;

Column 1b: Indicates if the galaxy has an optical or IR counterpart within 6 arcmin listed in the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED). If the entry is followed by a colon, there is no redshift given in NED for the object, or, for IRAS 13413-6525 (HIZSS 083) and ESO 223-G012 (HIZSS 095), the HI redshift is just outside of the uncertainty indicated in NED;

Columns 2a & 2b: Equatorial coordinates (J2000) of the fitted position;

Columns 3a & 3b: Galactic coordinates;

Column 4: HI flux integral;

Column 5: Heliocentric velocity ($`cz`$), the midpoint at 50% of the profile’s peak flux density;

Columns 6 & 7: Velocity width at 50% of peak, and at 20% of peak flux density;

Column 8: Distance to the galaxy correcting the velocity to the Local Group frame, and taking H0 to be 75 km s-1 Mpc-1;

Column 9: Logarithm of the H I mass;

Column 10: Foreground extinction AB estimated from the IRAS/DIRBE maps of Schlegel, Finkbeiner, & Davis (1998).

### 4.1 Completeness and Reliability

Of these 110 galaxies, 29 have optical counterparts listed in NED with matching redshifts. Two more have counterparts in NED with redshifts just outside the quoted accuracy. A further 12 have a cataloged galaxy within 6 arcmin of the HI position, but with no redshift information. The extinction at the positions of each galaxy was estimated from the DIRBE/IRAS maps of Schlegel, Finkbeiner, & Davis (1998). Note that these maps are not calibrated this close to the Galactic plane, so extinction measurements are somewhat uncertain. However, as expected, the extinction is measured to be higher at the positions of the uncataloged galaxies: the median AB for the cataloged galaxies is 2.9 mag, versus 5.7 at the positions of the uncataloged objects.

An intermediate-depth survey conducted with the multibeam system in a similar way, but with four scans compared to the two discussed here, of the region $`308^{}\mathrm{}332^{}`$; $`|b|`$ $``$ 5, detected 42 galaxies (Juraszek et al. 2000). The intermediate-depth cubes and the shallow survey cubes were searched independently. All 24 of the shallow survey galaxies in this longitude range were recovered by Juraszek et al. , as they should have been, owing to their $`\sqrt{2}`$ improved sensitivity. Of the 18 other galaxies found by this deeper survey, 14 fell well below the selection criteria of the shallow survey. There were four, however, which Juraszek et al. determined to have peak fluxes just at or above the shallow survey flux density cutoff (J1414-62, J1417-55, J1526-51, and J1612-56; cf. Fig 2. in Juraszek et al. ). Two of these, J1414-62 and J1612-56, were noted as possible detections in the course of examining the shallow survey cubes, but it was felt they were not quite secure enough for inclusion in the present catalog, the philosophy being that false detections are extremely undesirable. The other two objects were missed. One, J1417-55, while determined to be a broad-profiled galaxy in the intermediate-depth survey, was not recognized as a galaxy by the present work, since only one horn of the profile exceeds 75 mJy, and so appears as a random spike, too narrow for inclusion in this sample. The other, J1526-51, peaks above 100 mJy in the intermediate-depth survey, but has a linewidth of only W50 = 21 km s-1 , and did not satisfy the condition of appearing in at least two channels. Thus the stated selection criteria of the shallow survey are consistent with the results of the intermediate-depth survey in this region.

As a check on the accuracy of the measured parameters, the 21-cm properties of HIZSS 005 (IRAS 07112-0746), HIZSS 008 (IRAS 07232-2422), HIZSS 018 (IRAS 07395-2224), HIZSS 024 (ESO 493-G016), HIZSS 027 (ESO 430-G001), HIZSS 028 (ESO 561-G002), HIZSS 029 (ESO 494-G007), HIZSS 032 (ESO 494-G026), HIZSS 034 (ESO 430-G020), HIZSS 036 (ESO 430-G026), HIZSS 037 (AM 0813-284), HIZSS 038 (ESO 430-G030), HIZSS 039 (NGC 2559), HIZSS 040 (ESO 431-G001), HIZSS 041 (UGCA 137), and HIZSS 044 (ESO 370-G015) were compared with values found in the literature (Garcia et al. 1994, Huchtmeier & Richter 1986, Kraan-Korteweg & Huchtmeier 1992, Staveley-Smith & Davies 1987, 1988, Takata et al. 1994, and Theureau et al. 1998). There is excellent agreement amongst measurements of Vhel, W20, and W50, typically within a few km s-1 and only rarely differing by more than the velocity resolution. There is more significant scatter amongst H I flux integral measurements, reflecting the measurement uncertainty of the shallow survey ($`20\%`$) and in literature values. The HIZSS flux integrals are neither systematically higher nor lower than previously published values.

## 5 Discussion

### 5.1 Nearby, H I Bright Galaxies in the Southern ZOA

The shallow survey’s rms noise of 15 mJy is equivalent to a 5$`\sigma `$ HI mass detection limit of $`4\times 10^6`$ d$`{}_{\mathrm{Mpc}}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}`$ M (for a galaxy with the typical linewidth of 200 km s-1 ). Thus, the sensitivity to normal spirals falls rapidly beyond about 40 Mpc, and the survey is not well suited to discuss large-scale structure behind the southern Milky Way beyond a few tens of Mpc. The full survey will be sensitive to spirals to a much larger redshift, $``$10,000 km s-1 , and will be able to address issues such as the Great Attractor, predicted to lie at (l, b, v) $``$ (320, 0, 4500 km s-1 ) (Kolatt, Dekel, & Lahav 1995), and other features which may lie hidden (see Kraan-Korteweg & Woudt 1999 for a review of these structures, and Kraan-Korteweg & Juraszek 2000 for preliminary analysis of multibeam full-sensitivity survey detections in the Great Attractor region). However, the shallow survey does now complete the census of nearby, HI bright galaxies which lie at redshifts away from Galactic HI. Sixteen of the 110 galaxies lie at redshifts less than 1000 km s-1 and are, therefore, fairly nearby. However, all of the shallow survey galaxies have HI flux integrals an order of magnitude or more below that of the Circinus galaxy, a nearby, massive, low-Galactic latitude galaxy, which is cataloged here as HIZSS 086. One can estimate the dynamical importance of each hidden galaxy without knowledge of its inclination or precise distance by realizing that if the galaxies in the catalog have similar MHI / Mtotal, the gravitational force on the Milky Way due to one of these galaxies is proportional to its HI flux integral. The closest rival in the catalog to Circinus is ESO 494-G026 (Lauberts 1982), listed here as HIZSS 032. It has only about 10% of Circinus’s HI flux. (Dynamical analysis of this object to estimate its total mass will be conducted using HI synthesis data obtained with the VLA). All of the newly discovered galaxies have even lower HI flux integrals. No single, previously unknown, dynamically important HI galaxy was found. Five of the 110 galaxies are extended objects at the multibeam resolution, and of these, three were previously cataloged: Circinus, ESO 494-G026, and IRAS 15109-5248. 21-cm follow-up synthesis mapping has been done for IRAS 15109-5248 and the two uncataloged, extended objects, HIZSS 097 and HIZSS 102 by Staveley-Smith et al. (1998). Rotation curve analysis indicates the IRAS galaxy is a massive disk system, estimated Mtot = 6 $`\times `$ 1011 M. The other two are moderate to low mass systems, which under the higher resolution scrutiny of the synthesis observations (synthesized beam FWHM $``$ 2.2 - 4.5 arcmin) were seen to break up into apparently interacting systems of low H I column density. H I synthesis observations of all of the shallow survey detections using the Australia Telescope Compact Array and the NRAO Very Large Array have been completed or are planned. Identifications on the currently available strips of the southern sky NIR survey DENIS (DEep NIR southern sky Survey; Epchtein 1997) show that many of the shallow survey sources are visible on the NIR images (Schröder, Kraan-Korteweg, & Mamon 1999; Schröder et al. in prep.).

### 5.2 Large-Scale Structure in the Shallow Survey

Figure 2 shows the distribution on the sky of the shallow survey detections, and galaxies from the literature within a redshift of 4000 km s-1 .

The shallow survey now fills in the southern ZOA within about 40 Mpc for the first time, with minimal dependence of detection-rate on Galactic latitude (Fig. 3).

The Local Void is clearly evident in the distribution of both the optically-cataloged objects, and the shallow survey detections. It is also apparent in Figure 4, the longitude-velocity distribution of the HI detected objects.

The three shallow survey objects on the border of the Local Void at l $``$ 30 all have redshifts $``$ 1500 km s-1 , consistent with their being members of the group proposed by Roman et al. (1998). Two of these galaxies lie within the survey boundary of the Dwingeloo Obscured Galaxies Survey, and were also detected by this survey (Rivers, Henning, & Kraan-Korteweg 1999).

The most obvious overdensity of the low latitude galaxies apparent in Figure 2 occurs at l $``$ 245. Figure 4 reveals the overdensity is caused by two groupings of galaxies, at (l, v) $``$ (245, 800 km s-1 ) and (l, v) $``$ (245, 1500 km s-1 ). The latter corresponds to the location of the moderately obscured, nearby cluster in Puppis (l, b, v) $``$ (245, 0, 1500 km s-1 ) (Kraan-Korteweg & Huchtmeier 1992). This overdensity of galaxies was deduced by Scharf et al. (1992) through a spherical harmonic analysis of IRAS galaxies. The nearer group was also recovered by Kraan-Korteweg & Huchtmeier (1992). There is no evidence of any other nearby, unrecognized clusters of galaxies in the survey region. Except near the Galactic center where continuum emission decreased the sensitivity of the survey somewhat, the survey was uniformly sensitive to spirals with MHI = $`2\times 10^9`$ M at 1500 km s-1 (H0 = 75 km s-1 Mpc-1) across the entire southern ZOA, so any hidden overdensities within this redshift range should have been easily detected.

Structures at v $``$ 4000 km s-1 are not well probed by this survey, however we can see the relative overdensity of galaxies toward the general Great Attractor region, and galaxy underdensity behind the Puppis cluster, broadly consistent with the theoretical mass density reconstructions of Kolatt, Dekel, & Lahav (1995) and Webster, Lahav, & Fisher (1997). The deep survey should definitively confirm or refute the predictions of these and other mass density reconstructions in the ZOA.

### 5.3 H I Mass Function

To determine the number density of galaxies as a function of H I mass (the H I mass function), the sensitivity of the survey must be carefully determined to be able to apply appropriate volume corrections. Near strong continuum sources, galaxies which would otherwise be detected are hidden in the increased noise. Over the search area, $`212^{}\mathrm{}36^{}`$, $`|b|`$ $``$ 5, 7.7% of the data were disturbed by strong continuum emission, and had rms noise fluctuations a factor of three or more above the quoted sensitivity of 15 mJy. In the volume correction calculations, we take the survey area to be 92.3% of the area covered by the telescope.

The galaxy selection function for the shallow survey is not based simply on peak flux, but is determined empirically to involve both total flux and linewidth in the following way: $``$ S dv $`\times `$ W$`{}_{}{}^{0.7}{}_{50}{}^{}`$ $`>`$ 0.3. Schneider, Spitzak, & Rosenberg (1998) find a very similar functional form for the completeness limit of two previous blind 21-cm surveys done at Arecibo, $``$ S dv $`\times `$ W$`{}_{}{}^{0.75}{}_{50}{}^{}`$. With this description, the maximum volume in which each galaxy could be detected is calculated. The average value of V / Vmax = 0.58, is quite close to the theoretical value of 1/2 for a correctly determined completeness. The resulting number density of H I masses with each galaxy weighted by the inverse of its maximum detectable volume is shown in Figure 5.

This H I mass function is well fit by a Schechter function (Schechter 1976) with parameters $`\alpha `$ = 1.51 $`\pm `$ 0.12, $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}`$ = 0.006 $`\pm `$ 0.003, and log M = 9.7 $`\pm `$ 0.10. Note that the Schechter function was not used as an a priori assumption of the shape of the H I mass function. The low-mass slope is significantly steeper than the $`\alpha `$ = 1.20 suggested by Zwaan et al. (1997). The densities at the lowest mass bins are consistent with the higher densities found by Schneider, Spitzak, & Rosenberg (1998). The main difficulty remains small number statistics, with the three lowest mass bins of Figure 5 containing a total of six galaxies. With the increased search volume of the HIPASS and full sensitivity ZOA surveys, the statistical robustness of the mass function parametrization will be improved.

### 5.4 Predictions for the Full Sensitivity Survey

We now estimate how many galaxies should be uncovered by the full sensitivity ZOA survey, to be completed in the year 2000. The deep survey will consist of 435 scans at each longitude, compared with the 34 of the shallow survey. This factor of 12.5 increase in integration time will lead to a $`\sqrt{12.5}`$ = 3.5 improvement in sensitivity. For a galaxy of a given MHI and velocity linewidth, the distance to which it could be detected will increase by a factor of $`\sqrt{3.5}`$. Thus, the volume increase of the deep survey over the shallow survey is about a factor of 6.5, leading to a rough estimate of $`6.5\times 110700`$ galaxies to be detected by the deep survey. Indeed, a portion of the deep survey is completed, and the four data cubes in the region of the supposed Great Attractor have been inspected, and about 300 galaxy candidates noted (S. Juraszek, private communication). Extrapolation over the full spatial extent of the survey leads to an estimate of about 1700 galaxies. However, this region of space contains a significant overdensity of galaxies, and much of the final survey volume will contain the Local Void, so the total tally may be closer to 1000 galaxies.

Efforts are underway to develop software tools which model and remove strong continuum sources from the data, which should decrease the effective noise even further, increasing the survey sensitivity and the number of detected objects.

## Acknowledgements

We thank the HIPASS team (PI: Rachel Webster) for assisting with the observing, and the staff at Parkes for their support. We also acknowledge the aips++ group for the development of the basis of the data reduction software and some of the observing software. David Barnes contributed very useful software for the analysis of cube statistics. We are grateful to the multibeam instrument teams, headed by Warwick Wilson, Mal Sinclair, and Trevor Bird.

This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Caltech, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We have also made use of the Lyon-Meudon Extragalactic Database (LEDA), supplied by the LEDA team at the Centre de Recherche Astronomique de Lyon, Observatoire de Lyon. The research of P.H. is supported by NSF Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) Program award AST 95-02268. P.H. warmly thanks the ATNF for the hospitality and support during her sabbatical stay.


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# The extinction curve of the lensing galaxy of B1152+199 at 𝑧=0.44Nordic Optical Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma jointly by Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias.

## 1 Introduction

Dust is ubiquitous in the Universe and is responsible for extinction of the light from distant sources. The type of dust (composition, grain sizes and shape) determines the amount of extinction as a function of wavelength – the extinction curve $`A_\lambda `$. Extinction curves almost certainly evolve with redshift since the metallicity, elemental abundance ratios, mean star-formation rate, and energy-injection rates that determine the structure and evolution of the dust are all strong functions of redshift. The extinction in our Galaxy has been well studied (Cardelli et al. 1989), but very little is known about extinction in other galaxies, especially at higher redshifts. This is unfortunate as dust plays an increasingly important role in contemporary cosmology.

Recently the use of multiply imaged QSOs has been explored as a means of inferring differential extinction curves for distant galaxies (Nadeau et al. nadeau (1991); Malhotra et al. malhotra (1997); Falco et al. Falco (1999)). The idea behind this approach is that a lensed QSO can be used as a ‘standard beacon’, shining through different paths of the lensing galaxy. If one of the images suffers negligible extinction, or if the extinction curve is the same throughout the galaxy, then the relative intensity ratios of any two images as a function of wavelength is a direct measure of the extinction curve.

As a part of the CLASS radio survey, Myers et al. (Myers (1999)) reported the discovery of a new gravitational lens candidate, CLASS B1152+199, with an image separation of $`\theta =1\stackrel{}{.}56`$ and a flux ratio of $`3.03\pm 0.03`$ at 8.46 GHz. Spectra obtained with the Keck II telescope revealed a background quasar at $`z=1.019`$ and a foreground galaxy at $`z=0.439`$. Optical follow-up observations revealed a bright unresolved object ($`g16.5`$ and $`i16.6`$) located at the radio position, presumably the brighter of the two lensed images. The non-detection of the weak image in $`g`$ and $`i`$ is indicative of a large color difference between the two images. If B1152+199 is indeed a gravitationally lensed system this could be attributed to differential extinction caused by dust in the lens, making B1152+199 a well-suited system for studying the extinction law of the lensing galaxy.

## 2 Observations and reduction

We have performed multiwavelength $`UBVRIz^{}`$ photometry on data of B1152+199 obtained with the ALFOSC instrument at the 2.56-m Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT). The ALFOSC instrument is equipped with a Loral/Lesser CCD with an approximate gain of $`q=1e^{}/\mathrm{ADU}`$ and $`\mathrm{RON}=6\mathrm{e}^{}/\mathrm{pixel}`$ and a pixel scale of $`0\stackrel{}{.}188/\mathrm{pixel}`$. The observations were performed within the span of a few days to avoid time delay and variability effects. The observing log is given in Table 1. The conditions were photometric with average seeing ranging from $`0\stackrel{}{.}8`$ in the $`z^{}`$ band to $`1\stackrel{}{.}3`$ in the $`U`$ band. The CCD frames were reduced (overscan subtracted, trimmed and flatfielded) using an IRAF-based pipeline.111developed by Andreas O. Jaunsen

On June 25 1999 UT, we also obtained photometric $`UBVRI`$ observations of standard stars in M92. Using these and calibrated photometry by Davis (private communication) we fitted the transformation equations to 19 stars in M92 to derive the color, extinction and zero-point terms for the calibration to the Johnson–Kron–Cousins system.

## 3 Deconvolution of B1152+199

The two QSO images together with the lens galaxy were deconvolved with the MCS deconvolution algorithm (Magain et al. Magain (1998)). This method is based on the principle that the resolution of a deconvolved image must be compatible with its sampling, which is limited by the Nyquist frequency. In order to improve the sampling of the images we adopted a pixel size in the deconvolved images as half the pixel size of the original frames ($`0\stackrel{}{.}188/2=0\stackrel{}{.}094`$). (See Burud et al. burud (1998) for more details on the implementation of the MCS algorithm).

In order to successfully deconvolve the images, the point-spread function (PSF) must be bright and located close to B1152+199 to minimize the photon noise and to avoid PSF variation as a function of the position on the chip. We used the bright star 13$`\mathrm{}`$ South West of B1152+199 as a PSF star (Fig. 1).

Careful examination revealed that this star had a faint red companion. By deconvolving this star with another PSF in the field we were able to resolve the red companion star and subtract it, before using the bright star as a model for the PSF. We compared the star to other stars in the field to check that the companion star was correctly subtracted. The best fitting positions of the weak QSO image relative to the strong QSO image returned from the MCS algorithm is given in Table 2. These yield a smaller separation that expected from the radio positions (Myers et al. Myers (1999)). The deconvolution code is very sensitive to PSF variations, and small residuals from the subtraction of the red companion could explain the discrepancies between the fitted positions and the radio position of the weak QSO image.

In order to improve the photometry we fixed the position of the weak QSO image relative to the bright QSO image to the radio coordinates. The quality of the results was checked from the residual maps, as explained by Courbin et al. (Courbin (1998)). During the deconvolution the lens galaxy can be modeled numerically or by an analytical function (e.g., de Vaucouleurs, exponential-disk law). The lens galaxy in B1152+199 was well fitted by the numerical model and an exponential disk law, whereas a de Vaucouleurs model gave significantly bad residuals. The best fitting exponential disk law was centered at $`(\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha ,\mathrm{\Delta }\delta )=(0\stackrel{}{.}29\pm 0\stackrel{}{.}02,0\stackrel{}{.}89\pm 0\stackrel{}{.}04)`$ relative to the bright QSO image.

Both components of B1152+199 were resolved in the $`V`$, $`R`$, $`I`$ and $`z^{}`$ bands (Fig. 2). Following Myers et al. (Myers (1999)) we will refer to the bright component as “A” and the weak component as “B”. In the $`U`$ and $`B`$ bands we failed to detect the B image due to the increasing size of the seeing disc with shorter wavelength and the large differential extinction of the system (see Sect. 5). The lens galaxy was detected in the $`R`$, $`I`$ and $`z^{}`$ bands. We performed aperture photometry of the galaxy on the deconvolved images with an aperture diameter of $`2\stackrel{}{.}26`$. The $`U`$, $`B`$, $`V`$, $`R`$ and $`I`$ band magnitudes of the A and B images and the galaxy (G) were calibrated (Table 3) whereas no standard photometry was available in the $`z^{}`$ band.

Additional extended signal was observed just South East of the B image (notably in the $`I`$ band). We discuss this further in Sect. 4.

## 4 PSF photometry of B1152+199

In addition to the deconvolution we performed PSF photometry on the system with the IRAF DAOPHOT package (Stetson stetson (1987)). As PSF star we used the same star as in the deconvolution, with the faint red companion removed with the IRAF task substar. Again we fixed the position of the B image relative to the A image on the the radio position to ensure the correct separation. The results from this analysis is not as robust as the results from the deconvolution since it does not simultaneously fit a model for the galaxy, but the differences between the results of the two approaches is indicative of the magnitude of the systematic photometric uncertainties.

The two QSO images were resolved in the $`B`$, $`V`$, $`R`$, $`I`$ and $`z^{}`$ bands. The results from the PSF photometry is given in Table 2. After subtracting the scaled PSFs we detected the lensing galaxy in the $`B`$, $`R`$, $`I`$ and $`z^{}`$ band residual images (Fig. 3). The $`I`$ and $`z^{}`$ band images indicates that the extended flux South East of the B image, detected in the deconvolved images, stems from the lensing galaxy. The light from the B component passes through the galaxy close to its center, and in the deconvolution process some of the light from the galaxy may have been attributed to the B image.

To test the results from the deconvolution we performed aperture photometry with the SExtracter software (Bertin & Arnouts bertin (1996)) on the images cleaned with DAOPHOT. The residual images in Fig. 3 show artifacts of the PSF subtraction (seen as circular dark spots). These affect the aperture photometry which should therefore be considered rather uncertain. In the $`I`$ and $`B`$ bands we obtain $`I=19.43\pm 0.03`$ and $`B=20.24\pm 0.02`$ with an aperture diameter of $`2\stackrel{}{.}26`$. In the $`R`$ band the signal is rather weak, and thus in the outer parts dominated by the PSF subtraction artifacts. We can however obtain a color by comparing the $`R`$ and $`I`$ flux within an aperture of $`1\stackrel{}{.}13`$. This yields $`RI=0.80\pm 0.05`$. The color of the galaxy from the deconvolution $`(RI)_{\mathrm{MCS}}=0.43\pm 0.06`$ or from PSF photometry $`(RI)_{\mathrm{PSF}}=0.80\pm 0.05`$ are consistent with the lensing galaxy being a irregular or late type galaxy at $`z=0.439`$ (Fukugita et al. fukugita (1995)). By comparing the photometric results from the two approaches we estimate the magnitude of the systematic photometric errors due to the limited quality of the data to be in the order of 0.4 mag for galaxy magnitudes and 0.2 mag for the QSO magnitudes.

## 5 Galaxy extinction

Significant differential extinction of the B image relative to the A image was observed (Tables 2 and 3). The A image, however, does not appear to be significantly reddened. In what follows we assume that the A image is unaffected by extinction by dust in the lensing galaxy. The Galactic extinction curve is fairly well known, with $`A_\lambda `$ well parameterized as a function of a single parameter, $`R_V`$, defined as the ratio between the $`V`$ extinction, $`A_V`$, and the color index $`E(BV)`$ (Cardelli et al. Cardelli (1989); Fitzpatrick fitz (1999)). This parameterization is valid over the observed $`R_V`$ values ranging from $`2.5`$ to $`6`$, with a mean (canonical) Galactic value of $`R_V=3.1`$. Large $`R_V`$ give flat UV extinction curves due to large grains whereas small $`R_V`$ and small grains lead to large UV extinctions.

The variation of the flux ratio with wavelength directly measures the extinction curve of the galaxy. We have assumed that the intrinsic flux ratio is given by the radio flux ratio (B$``$A=1.21).

The extinction curve of B1152+199 was well fitted by a Galactic extinction law, using either the flux ratios from the deconvolution or from the PSF photometry. However the best fitting values of the parameters $`R_V`$ and $`E(BV)`$ differ somewhat. We first discuss the fit to the deconvolution data. In the deconvolved $`U`$ and $`B`$ band images the galaxy and the B image were too weak to be separated. We can however obtain upper limits on the B image flux by using the total flux of the galaxy and the B image. These are $`B_{\mathrm{galaxy}+\mathrm{B}}=20.37`$ and $`U_{\mathrm{galaxy}+\mathrm{B}}=20.45`$. The best fitting restframe values of the parameters to the deconvolution flux ratios are $`R_V=2.04\pm 0.04`$ and $`E(BV)=0.89\pm 0.02`$ (Fig. 4, solid curve). The predicted magnitude of the B image from the observed A image magnitude and $`R_V=2.04`$ are $`B_\mathrm{B}=21.69`$ and $`U_\mathrm{B}=23.27`$. Furthermore the inferred $`B_{\mathrm{galaxy}+\mathrm{B}}`$ agree well with the $`B`$ band magnitude of the galaxy inferred from the PSF photometry (Sect. 4). It is therefore likely that the upper limits presented above are dominated by the galaxy flux rather than flux from the B image.

The PSF photometry detected the B component in the $`B`$ band which gives us another point on the extinction curve. The best fitting restframe values of the parameters to the PSF photometry flux ratios are $`R_V=1.32\pm 0.02`$ and $`E(BV)=1.13\pm 0.01`$ (Fig. 4, dashed curve). The extinction curves inferred from the two approaches are comparable. As discussed in Sect. 4 the systematic uncertainties in the photometry is of the order 0.2 magnitudes. This uncertainty is illustrated by the different slopes of the extinction curves derived from the two approaches. We conclude that the extinction curve of the lensing galaxy of B1152+199 is fitted by the Galactic extinction law and put the following constrains on the parameters: $`1.3R_V2.1`$ and $`0.9E(BV)1.1`$.

If the reddening is due to dust extinction in the lens galaxy we can derive the column density of neutral hydrogen from the observed $`E(BV)`$ by assuming a gas to dust ratio for the galaxy. For the Milky Way $`\mathrm{N}(\mathrm{H}\text{I})/\mathrm{E}(\mathrm{B}\mathrm{V})_{\mathrm{MW}}=4.93\times 10^{21}`$ cm -2 mag-1, (Diplas & Savage Diplas (1994)) while the value for Damped Lyman$`\alpha `$ Absorbers (DLAs) may be up to 20 times larger (Fall & Pei Fall (1993)). With the inferred $`E(BV)1`$ for the lens galaxy: $`\mathrm{N}(\mathrm{H}\text{I})_{\text{B1152+199}}=\mathrm{k}\times 10^{21}`$ cm -2, where $`5k100`$ is the parameterization of the range in the observed $`\mathrm{N}(\mathrm{H}\text{I})/\mathrm{E}(\mathrm{B}\mathrm{V})`$ in different systems. Thus, the lensing galaxy of B1152+199 would qualify as a DLA (N(H I)$`>2\times 10^{20}`$ cm -2) regardless of the value of $`k`$.

## 6 A simple model of B1152+199

A simple model with a dark halo, represented by

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }(R)=\mathrm{\Sigma }_0{\displaystyle \frac{r_{\mathrm{core}}r_{\mathrm{cut}}}{r_{\mathrm{cut}}r_{\mathrm{core}}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{(r_{\mathrm{core}}^2+R^2)}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(r_{cut}^2+R^2)}}\right),`$
as the dominating mass was fitted to the data (Kneib et al. kneib (1996)). Although the observational constraints available from our data were too poor to perform detailed modeling, a set of best-fitting parameters could be derived for the system (see Table 4). We used the radio positions and flux ratios for the two QSO components while we experimented with different positions for the lens galaxy. We found that the two-image configuration could not be reproduced with the galaxy in the position found from the deconvolved images. An improved fit was obtained by placing the galaxy closer to the B component. The position was chosen to be consistent with what is found in the PSF-subtracted images. This position means that the B component passes through the galaxy while the A component passes outside the galaxy, which is consistent with the large observed differential extinction. The model predicts a time delay of 59 days. In Fig. 5 we show the critical and caustic curves of the lens model overlaid the deconvolved $`R`$ image.

## 7 Discussion

Extinction curves have been derived for the Galaxy and the Magellanic Clouds, mainly through multi-color photometry of individual stars, for which the intrinsic luminosities is known from their spectral types (Cardelli et al. Cardelli (1989)). The extinction curves of the LMC and SMC can be fitted by the Galactic extinction law (see Mathis mathis (1990); Fitzpatrick fitz (1999)). The main difference is the 2175 Å bump (cf. Fig. 4) which is not observed in the LMC and SMC. At distances $``$ 10 Mpc study of individual stars is difficult and other methods must be considered. In this paper we have shown that accurate extinction curves of high-$`z`$ galaxies can be determined by studying gravitationally lensed systems. We have found that the extinction curve of B1152+199 is well fitted by the Galactic extinction law. It is interesting to note that the inferred $`1.3R_V2.1`$ in principle is outside the validity of the parameterization of Galactic extinction curve by Cardelli et al. (Cardelli (1989)). Note also that the differential extinction of B1152+199 $`0.9E(BV)1.1`$, is one of the largest observed to date (Falco et al. Falco (1999)).

The evidence for a Galactic extinction curve is intriguing, but $`U`$ and $`B`$ band observations with longer exposure times and better seeing are needed to rule out other extinction curves. These will sample the restframe UV radiation which is highly sensitive to dust extinction, and thus strongly constrain the shape of the extinction curve, and allow for the possible detection of the 2175 Å bump.

The predicted time delay of 59 days makes B1152+199 an interesting candidate for monitoring.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Andreas O. Jaunsen for providing the pipeline for the reduction, Jean-Paul Kneib for providing his Lens Tool software for modeling the system, and Lars Freyhammer for performing the observations. We thank Kirsten K. Knudsen and Anja C. Andersen for valuable discussions. IB is supported in part by contract ARC94/99-178 “Action de Recherche Concertée de la Communauté Française (Belgium)” and Pôle d’Attraction Interuniversitaire, P4/05 (SSTC, Belgium). The data presented here have been taken using ALFOSC, which is owned by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) and operated at the Nordic Optical Telescope under agreement between IAA and the Astronomical Observatory of Copenhagen. This work was supported by the Danish Natural Science Research Council (SNF).


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# Ground-State Magnetization in Disordered Systems : Exchange vs. Off-Diagonal Interaction Fluctuations

## Abstract

In a Hartree-Fock picture, itinerant ferromagnetism results from a competition between kinetic and exchange energy, with the magnetized state being favored at large interaction strength. In a recent paper  we showed that in contrast to this average effect, fluctuations of off-diagonal interaction matrix elements systematically reduce the ground-state magnetization. When the interaction dominates, the occurence of a non-zero ground-state magnetization depends on the ratio $`\lambda `$ between average exchange energy and the fluctuation amplitude of the off-diagonal matrix elements, and a nonzero critical value $`\lambda _c`$ is necessary to magnetize the ground-state. We extend these results by numerical studies of $`\lambda `$ for standard tight-binding models which indicate a regime of intermediate disorder where off-diagonal fluctuations should play an important role for ground-state magnetization. We also emphasize the presence of strong correlations between minimal eigenvalues of different magnetization blocks which further reduce the probability of a nonzero ground-state spin.

Itinerant ferromagnetism results from the interplay between the Pauli principle and the electronic interactions. The exchange energy can be minimized when the fermionic antisymmetry is supported by the spatial wavefunction and when the resulting energy gain exceeds the corresponding loss in kinetic energy, this implies spin alignment and a nonzero ground-state magnetization. Because of the locality of the Pauli principle, ferromagnetism is often studied in the framework of the Hubbard model for which a simple Hartree-Fock picture predicts ferromagnetism to occur when the Stoner criterion is satisfied $`U_c\rho (ϵ_F)=1`$, where $`\rho (ϵ_F)`$ is the one-particle density of states at the Fermi energy. Within perturbation theory, the effective interaction strength is enhanced by the presence of disorder  and this had led to recent predictions of the occurence of a ferromagnetic instability already below the Stoner threshold . However as we recently pointed out, there is a competing effect of the interaction manifested through the fluctuations of off-diagonal interaction matrix elements which suppresses magnetization. Indeed as is known from studies of models in nuclear physics, strong off-diagonal fluctuations can determine the variance of the Many-Body Density of States (MBDOS) . When one includes the spin degree of freedom within such models, the Hamiltonian splits into blocks of different total magnetization $`\sigma _z`$ and one finds that these fluctuations result in a broader MBDOS for the block with smallest magnetization, increasing thereby the probability of finding a non magnetized ground-state; therefore the average exchange effect must compete not just with the kinetic energy but with off-diagonal fluctuations.

To shortly summarize the results presented in , we start from a Hamiltonian for $`n`$ spin-$`1/2`$ particles distributed over $`m/2`$ one-particle orbitals $`ϵ_\alpha [m/2;m/2]`$ (the mean level spacing is then fixed as $`\mathrm{\Delta }1`$ with spin degeneracy)

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`H_0+H_U+H_S={\displaystyle ϵ_\alpha c_{\alpha ,s}^{}c_{\alpha ,s}}+{\displaystyle U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\gamma ,\delta }c_{\alpha ,s}^{}c_{\beta ,s^{}}^{}c_{\gamma ,t}c_{\delta ,t^{}}}\lambda U{\displaystyle \stackrel{}{s}_\alpha \stackrel{}{s}_\beta }`$ (1)
This Hamiltonian is a generic model of interacting fermions expressed in the basis of Slater determinants constructed from the eigenstates $`\psi _\alpha `$ of the corresponding free fermions model $`H_0`$. The interaction matrix elements are given by $`U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\gamma ,\delta }=𝑑\stackrel{}{r}𝑑\stackrel{}{r^{}}U(\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r^{}})\psi _\alpha ^{}(\stackrel{}{r})\psi _\beta ^{}(\stackrel{}{r^{}})\psi _\gamma (\stackrel{}{r})\psi _\delta (\stackrel{}{r^{}})`$, where $`U(\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r^{}})`$ is the interaction potential. Disorder results in a random character of the $`\psi _\alpha `$’s, leading to fluctuations in $`U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\gamma ,\delta }`$ around their average value. Only diagonal matrix elements have a nonzero average leading to mean-field charge-charge and spin-spin diagonal interactions. We neglect in (1) the mean-field charge-charge contribution since it has no influence on the magnetization and assume gaussian-distributed $`U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\gamma ,\delta }`$ : $`P(U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\gamma ,\delta })e^{(U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\gamma ,\delta })^2/2U^2}`$. $`\stackrel{}{s}_\alpha _{s,t}c_{\alpha ,s}^{}\stackrel{}{\sigma }_{s,t}c_{\alpha ,t}`$ are spin operators and the parameter $`\lambda >0`$ is given by $`\lambda U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\beta ,\alpha }/\left(2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{M}\mathrm{S}\left[U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\gamma ,\delta }\right]\right)`$, i.e. it is half the ratio of the average exchange interaction to the root mean square value of the off-diagonal matrix elements. Finally, the interaction commutes with the total magnetization so that the second sum on the right-hand side of (1) is restricted to spin indices satisfying $`s+s^{}=t+t^{}`$. The Hamiltonian acquires a block structure where blocks are labelled by their total magnetization. Each block’s size is given in term of binomial coefficients as $`N(\sigma _z)=({}_{n/2\sigma _z}{}^{m/2})({}_{n/2+\sigma _z}{}^{m/2})`$. Most importantly, the two-body interaction we consider connects only Slater determinants which differ by at most two one-particle indices and each magnetization block’s connectivity (the number of nonzero matrix elements per row) $`K(\sigma _z)`$ is a monotonously decreasing function of $`\sigma _z`$.

Similarly as in  we estimate the variance of each magnetization block’s MBDOS as

$$\frac{1}{N(\sigma _z)}\underset{I,J}{}H_{I,J}^2\delta (\sigma _I\sigma _z)K(\sigma _z)U^2$$
(2)
where $`H_{I,J}=I|H|J`$ and $`|I`$ is a Slater determinant. Hence each block’s bandwidth goes as $`\sqrt{K(\sigma _z)}U`$. Moreover, earlier work tells us that in such models as (1), the MBDOS is approximately gaussian with vanishing corrections in the dilute limit $`1nm`$ . We can therefore conclude that the full MBDOS is a sum of approximately gaussian contributions from each spin block with a variance proportional to the corresponding connectivity. The latter is a monotonously decreasing function of $`\sigma _z`$, hence the broadest MBDOS corresponds to the minimally magnetized block and the ground state will be found in this block with increased probability. For approximately gaussian distributions one may assume that the tail of each block’s MBDOS scales with its variance (up to a numerical factor $`\beta `$). Neglecting contributions from $`H_0`$, the typical spin gap can be estimated (for $`\lambda =0`$) as

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U\beta U[\sqrt{K(|\sigma _{min}|)}\sqrt{K(|\sigma _{min}|+1)}]$$
(3)
Switching on the mean-field spin-spin interaction $`H_S`$ induces shifts of the block’s MBDOS by energies of at most $`\lambda U\sigma _z^2`$ and the spin gap becomes on average

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_s=\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U\overline{\lambda }U$$
(4)
Results presented in  indicate only a very weak $`m`$-dependence of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U`$. It has however a strong even-odd dependence : $`\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U4U`$ (8$`U`$) for even (odd) number $`n`$ of electrons. This effect is nevertheless compensated by a twice larger antiferromagnetic shift between the two lowest magnetized blocks for odd $`n`$ ($`\sigma _z=1/2`$ and $`3/2`$) than for even $`n`$ ($`\sigma _z=0`$ and $`1`$). Hence we introduced $`\overline{\lambda }=(3(1)^n)\lambda /2`$ in (4) which results in a parity independent behavior of $`\lambda `$. Numerically we found a critical value of $`\lambda _c2`$ to have a non-negligible probability of magnetizing the ground-state. A larger value $`4`$ is then necessary to have $`\mathrm{\Delta }_s=0`$ resulting in a 50$`\%`$ probability of nonvanishing magnetization.

These points have been studied in details in . Here we first address the fact that equation (4) gives the average value of the spin gap, based on the assumption that the lowest levels $`E_0`$ and $`E_1`$ in the two blocks with lowest magnetization (they define the spin gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }_sE_1E_0`$) have uncorrelated distributions. To check this we study the following cross-correlation function

$$R(E_0,E_1)=\frac{(E_0E_0)(E_1E_1)}{\sqrt{(E_0E_0)^2(E_1E_1)^2}}$$
(5)
It is easily seen that if $`E_0`$ and $`E_1`$ fluctuate independently around their disorder averages $`E_0`$ and $`E_1`$, $`R(E_0,E_1)0`$ whereas strong correlations between $`E_0E_0`$ and $`E_1E_1`$ \- i.e. if a large (small) value of one of them corresponds to a large (small) value of the other - implies $`R(E_0,E_1)1`$. Fig.1 shows the $`U`$-dependence of $`R(E_0,E_1)`$ for the Hamiltonian (1) and $`n`$=4, 5 and 6 electrons on $`m=10`$ orbitals (the function is independent on $`\lambda `$). The numerical data show indeed strong correlations between extremal levels of the two lowest magnetized blocks. Even though $`R(E_0,E_1)`$ is somehow reduced by $`H_U`$, correlations still remain quite strong $`R(E_0,E_1)>0.8`$ up to very large $`U=10`$. This is understandable if we remember that all blocks, having $`K(\sigma _z)N(\sigma _z)`$ nonzero matrix elements, are constructed out of the same set of only $`(m(m1)/2)^2`$ different two-body interaction matrix elements. Extremal eigenvalues in the distribution are then due to special realizations of the latter inside the blocks. These realizations are presumably not very different in blocks with consecutive magnetization which results in strong eigenvalues correlations. The existence of these strong correlations is confirmed by the gap distribution $`P(\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U)`$ for $`H_U`$ plotted on Fig. 2. Indeed the probability to find a zero or negative gap is vanishingly small ($`_{\mathrm{}}^0P(\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U)d(\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U)=0`$ for $`n=5`$ and $`<0.002`$ for $`n=4`$ and 6), whereas even at large average gap, it would not vanish in the case of two independent distributions for $`E_0`$ and $`E_1`$. Fig. 2 indicates an effective repulsion between extremal eigenvalues of different random matrices, built however from the same (small) set of matrix elements. This repulsion results in a further decrease of the probability for a magnetized ground-state. Note that the even-odd dependence of the average of these distributions is removed due to the horizontal scaling $`\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U/\mathrm{\Delta }_s^U`$.

We now turn our attention to the microscopic computation of the magnetization parameter $`\lambda `$ for realistic solid-state models. Specifically, we concentrate on the two-dimensional Anderson lattice

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`V{\displaystyle \underset{i;j}{}}c_{i,s}^{}c_{j,s}+{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}W_ic_{i,s}^{}c_{i,s}`$ (6)
where $`i;j`$ restricts the sum to nearest neighbors, $`W_i[W/2;W/2]`$ and $`W`$ is the disorder strength. Also we consider different interaction potentials of the form

$$U(\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r^{}})=U_0\delta (\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r^{}})+U_1/\left|\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r^{}}\right|$$
(7)
Fig. 3 shows the disorder dependence of $`\lambda `$, for the Hubbard interaction case $`U_1=0`$ and different linear system size $`L`$=10, 20, 50 and 80. The data have been obtained from averages over 30 wavefunctions in the middle of the band $`E=0`$ and for 10 ($`L=80`$) to 200 ($`L=10`$) disorder realizations. Clearly, three regimes are distinguishable. ($`I`$) At low disorder, the one-electron dynamics undergoes a crossover from ballistic to diffusive regime as the linear system size is increased beyond the elastic mean-free path $`l_e50(V/W)^2`$. In the ballistic regime $`l_eL`$, wavefunctions are plane-waves. In this case, a Hubbard interaction gives $`\lambda L^2`$, since the $`\mathrm{RMS}\left[U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\gamma ,\delta }\right]L^4`$ and $`U_{\alpha ,\beta }^{\beta ,\alpha }L^2`$, whereas once the diffusive regime is reached, one expects $`\lambda \mathrm{\Delta }/(\mathrm{\Delta }/g)g`$ ($`g`$ is the conductance) . ($`II`$) In the regime of intermediate disorder, both off-diagonal fluctuations and exchange are increased by disorder, and apparently they compensate each other, resulting in a $`L`$-independent $`\lambda 4`$, i.e. close to the critical value to have a vanishing average gap (4). Therefore we can expect that in this regime, and even for very strong interaction, the probability for finite ground-state magnetization does not exceed 50$`\%`$. Note that for $`W/V=5`$, the localization length is slightly below the largest system size considered and one can expect finite-size effects to play only a minor role. ($`III`$) In the regime of strong disorder, one-particle wavefunctions are strongly localized on fewer and fewer sites, so that many of the interaction matrix elements are much smaller than $`U`$, the off-diagonal fluctuations are sharply reduced and again exchange dominates. Note that eventually, the latter disappears also, but at a lower rate than the fluctuations.

We finally evaluate the influence of the interaction range by considering $`U_10`$. The average exchange interaction term is explicitly given by

$$𝑑\stackrel{}{r}𝑑\stackrel{}{r^{}}U(\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r^{}})\psi _\alpha ^{}(\stackrel{}{r})\psi _\beta ^{}(\stackrel{}{r^{}})\psi _\beta (\stackrel{}{r})\psi _\alpha (\stackrel{}{r^{}})_{\alpha ,\beta }$$
(8)
$`\mathrm{}_{\alpha ,\beta }`$ is an average taken over one-particle wavefunctions close to the Fermi level. Due to their orthogonality, taking this average over the full set of wavefunctions gives a $`\delta `$-function so that only the on-site term contributes. This last procedure is exact if the one-body dynamics is described by Random Matrix Theory (RMT) for which the structure of the eigenstates is homogeneous all through the spectrum. In this case - which is relevant for irregular quantum dots with chaotic scattering at the boundary  \- only the on-site part of the interaction contributes to the exchange, whereas it is expectable that increasing the strength $`U_1`$ of the long-range terms leads to stronger off-diagonal fluctuations, and a reduction of $`\lambda `$. For the Anderson model however, one-particle wave-functions are different from RMT so that the average over wavefunctions close to the Fermi level leads only to a more or less sharply peaked function of $`(\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r^{}})`$ : there are also contributions to the exchange from the long-range terms, but still we expect that the average damps them with respect to their contribution to off-diagonal fluctuations (This damping of course depends on the disorder strength.) so that $`\lambda `$ should decrease with increasing interaction range. The validity of this reasoning is illustrated on Fig. 4 where we plot the evolution of $`\lambda `$ for different disorders as the long-range part of the interaction becomes more and more important. Clearly, $`\lambda `$ is increased by the screening of the electron-electron interaction, and therefore the Hubbard results presented on Fig. 3 give an upper boundary for $`\lambda `$. One thus expects the demagnetizing effect described here and in  to be more efficient at low filling when the screening length exceeds the elastic mean free path.

Numerical computations were performed at the Swiss Center for Scientific Computing. Work supported by the NSF grant PHY9612200 and the Swiss National Science Foundation. It is a pleasure to acknowledge interesting discussions with S. Åberg, I. Aleiner, Y. Alhassid, F. Izrailev and S. Tomsovic.


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# PHYSICAL MODEL OF HADRONS : BARIONS and MESONS. PHYSICAL ESSENCE of QUARKS and GLUONS AND PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THEIR PARAMETERS.

## Abstract

The physical model (PhsMdl) of the hadrons is offered by means of the obvious analogy with the transparent surveyed PhsMdls of the vacuum and leptons in our recent works. It is assumed that the vacuum is consistent by dynamides, streamlined in junctions of some tight crystalline lattice. Every dynamide contains a neutral pair of massless contrary point-like (PntLk) elementary electric charges (ElmElc Chrgs): electrino $`()`$ and positrino $`(+)`$. By means of the existent fundamental analogy between their properties and behaviour we can understand the similarity and difference between them and assume that the quark parameter aroma is determined by the value of its size of its circular two-dimensional motion, while the quark parameter colour is determined by orientation of the flat of the same circular two-dimensional motion in the space. The colorless of the barions is explained by distribution of the same circular two-dimensional motion of its elementary electric charge within three mutually perpendicular flats. Then the exchange of the colors between two quarks with different colors within some hadron can be interpretated as some twisting of same hadron in the space. We give a new obvious physical interpretation of the charge values of quarks, which gives some explanation of angles of Cabibo and Weynberg. By some physical supposition about the structure of charged intermediate vector bozon $`W`$ and uncharged intermediate vector bozon $`Z`$ we have possibility to explain as the physical essence of the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions, so the outline of all births, transformations and decays of the ElmPrts.

Although up to the present nobody of scientists distinctly knows are there some elementary micro particles (ElmMicrPrts) as a stone of the micro world and what the elementary micro particle (ElmMicrPrt) means, there exists an essential possibility for clear and obvious scientific consideration of the unusual behaviour of the quantized micro particles (QntMicrPrts). It is well known that the physical model (PhsMdl) presents at us as an actual ingradient of every good physical theory. It may be used as for an obvious visual teaching the occurred physical processes within the investigated phenomena, so for doing with them a bigger capacity of its physical understanding and mathematical description. All scientists think that the ElmMicrPrt display itself as united and indivisible everywhere and always, but nobody demand for ElmMicrPrt to have no structure. About thirty years ago in the early theory of the ElmMicrPrt some theoretical physicists assumed that all the ElmMicrPrts have point-like (PntLk)-fashion and their behaviour are no dependent on the presence of other ElmMicrPrt as neighbors. In further it was turned out that the existence of the strong interaction between hadrons and of their own magnetic dipole moment (MgnDplMmn) is caused by existence and exchange of the virtual pions between them. Really, the strong interaction between nearest hadrons is provided by the electromagnetic interaction, which is transferred by frequent exchanging a virtual charged pion ($`\pi ^\pm `$-meson). The virtual charged pions ($`\pi ^\pm `$-mesons), owing of its smallest mass between all other mesons, are most probable for a frequent birth from all other virtual ElmMicrPrts, which are caused by exchanged gluon within the quantized electromagnetic field (QntElcMgnFld).

We can assume without restriction that if the fine spread (FnSpr) elementary electric charge (ElmElcChrg) of every charged lepton participates in isotropic three-dimensional (IstThrDmn) relativistic quantized Schrodinger (RltQntSchr) self-consistent strong-correlated (SlfCnsStrCrr) solitary fermion vortical harmonic oscillations (SltFrmVrtHrmOscs) within its volume, then the FnSpr ElmElcChrg of every charged hadron participates successive in three anisotropic two-dimensional (AnIstTwoDmn) relativistic quantized (RltQnt) self-consistent strong-correlated (SlfCnsStrCrr) solitary fermion circular harmonic oscillations (SltFrmCrcHrmOscs) within its volume. If the RltQntSchr SlfCnsStrCrr SltFrmVrtHrmOscs can be approximately described by the orbital wave function (OrbWvFnc) of s-state ItsThrDmnNrlQnt boson harmonic oscillator (BsnHrmOsc), the AnIstTwoDmn RltQnt SlfCnsStrCrr FrmCrcHrmOscs can be approximately described by OrbWvFnc of p-state of AnIstThrDmn NrlQnt boson harmonic oscillator (BsnHrmOsc). Therefore we can assume that if the averaged FnSpr ElmElcChrg of charged lepton has one maximum, then the averaged FnSpr ElmElcChrg of charged hadron has three maximums, which can be identified as three FnSpr ElmElcChrgs of three quarks. But in a reality their is only one FnSpr ElmElcChrg within every charged hadron, which is determined by electric interaction only with the FnSpr ElmElcChrg of one maximum at a dispersion of passing charged leptons. Indeed, at every dispersion of some FnSpr ElmElcChrg of leptons from every hadron the FnSpr ElmElcChrg electromagnetically interacts (ElcMgnIntAct) only by one maximum of FnSpr ElmElcChrg of same hadron.

The existence of essential analogy between leptons and hadrons allows us to assume that the quarks for the hadrons are analogous of the neutrinos for the leptons. Therefore the physical means of the aroma of the quarks is analogous of the physical means of the aroma of the neutrinos, which is determined by the sizes of the vortical harmonic excitation of the neutral but fluctuating vacuum (FlcVcm). Because of that we can suppose that if the neutrino is an isotropic three dimensional solitary vortical excitation of a spherical symmetry of the neutral vacuum, then the quark is a two-dimensional flat circular soliton excitation of cylindrical symmetry of the same neutral vacuum. But if all the neutrino are very stable excitation without elementary electric charge (ElmElcChrg) and have unlimited time of live, all the quarks are unstable without ElmElcChgr and have limited time of live. Moreover we may assume also that if within some massive lepton (electron, muon ($`\mu `$-meson), tauon ($`\tau `$-meson)) its point-like (PntLk) ElmElcChrg takes part simultaneously in three one-dimensional very strongly correlated self-consistent fermion vortical harmonic oscillations along three axes, orientired mutually perpendicular one to another in the space, then within some massive charged hadron its PntLk ElmElcChrg or within other massive ,,uncharged” hadron its two opportunity PntLk ElmElcChrgs, take part successive in three two-dimensional very strongly correlated self-consistent fermion circular harmonic oscillations along three planes, orientired mutually perpendicular one to another in the space. Therefore we may naturally assume that three colours of the quark state correspond to three planes of motion of the PntLk ElmElcChrg, orientired mutually perpendicular one to another in the space.

If the lepton state of its PntLk ElmElcChrg is determined by one spherical state, describing the self- consist motion (Zitterbewegung) of its PntLk ElmElcChrg by one s-OrbWvFnc, then the hadron state of its PntLk ElmElcChrg is determined by three flat states, describing its three dimension motion, composed by three flat cylindrical harmonic motions by three p-OrbWvFnc. Moreover, each p-state correspond to one quark state with one of three colours. Therefore the physical incomprehencible demand about colourless of the hadrons obtains quite obvious and clear physical interpretation about the demand of the spherical symmetry of three mutual perpendicular orientated flats of two-dimensional fermion circular harmonic oscillations in our PhsMdl. The change of the quark colour of the PntLk ElmElcChrg flat circular harmonic motion occurs through emission or absorption of some gluon ($`\delta `$). When the PntLk ElmElcChrg of some hadron, moving within quark of some colour, absorbs some gluon (a quantized quasi-plane magnetic field), then this quarks changes his colour and the hadron as whole twists the flat of the two-dimensional fermion circular harmonic oscillations of his PntLk ElmElcChrg.

In the beginning for an explanation of the existent experimental date some theoretical physicists suppose that there are only three quarks and the same number antiquarks. But for physical explanation of new experimental date which are obtained during the carrying the following experiments, the scientists had need from new three quarks and the same number antiquarks. There are a common agreement that the existence of six quark (d,u,s,c,b,t) and the same number antiquark ($`\stackrel{~}{d},\stackrel{~}{u},\stackrel{~}{s},\stackrel{~}{c},\stackrel{~}{b},\stackrel{~}{t}`$) is firmly determined by experimental research. Coming out from the supposed symmetry between leptons and quarks some theoretical physicists very frequently suppose a following list of their distribution on aroma:

$`\left|\begin{array}{ccc}\nu _e& \nu _\mu & \nu _\tau \\ e^{}& \mu ^{}& \tau ^{}\\ u& c& t\\ d& s& b\end{array}\right|\left|\begin{array}{ccc}\stackrel{~}{\nu }_e& \stackrel{~}{\nu }_\mu & \stackrel{~}{\nu }_\tau \\ \stackrel{~}{e}^{}& \stackrel{~}{\mu }^{}& \stackrel{~}{\tau }^{}\\ \stackrel{~}{u}& \stackrel{~}{c}& \stackrel{~}{t}\\ \stackrel{~}{d}& \stackrel{~}{s}& \stackrel{~}{b}\end{array}\right|`$ (1)
Indeed, we can suppose that owing of the strong localization of the PntLk ElmElcChrg of any massive hadron allow one to participate in very high frequency oscillations within very small area of the space, what secures the obtaining its QntElcMgnFld with very high electric and magnetic intensities and very dense electromagnetic energy, which same FnSpr ElmElcChrg borrows from the FlcVcm at its electromagnetic interaction with it by stochastic exchanging the virtual photons (VrtPhtns). Then it is obviously that the existence of the QntElcMgnFld with very high electric and magnetic intensities and very dense electromagnetic energy can secures the need probability for frequently births of virtual charged pions pairs within the immediate neighborhood of the PntLk ElmElcChrg’s position. Therefore we mast suppose that the interacting hadrons are very quite near one to others. At these conditions we may suppose also that when some hadron (for example some proton) takes place in some nucleus and has as neighbors other hadrons with other isotopic spin (neurtons) then during the time of the motion of its PntLk ElmElcChrg within some $`u`$ quark without changing its color, the hadron is visited by negative charged virtual pion ($`\pi ^{}`$-meson), emitted by neighbor neutrons. Then both the free u-quark from the proton and the u-antiquark ($`\overline{u}`$\- quark) annihilated and negative PntLk ElmElcChrg shifts from its d-quarks to the free d-quarks of the visited proton. After some time some gluon from FlcVcm generates another pair of u-quark and u-antiquark with another colour from the fluctuating vacuum (FlcVcm). Then the negative PntLk ElmElcChrg shifts itself from d-quark of the visited proton on the new born u-antiquark, which together with the d-quark of the old transferring negative charged pion ($`\pi ^{}`$-meson) build a new negative charged pion. In the time of such a visit the positive PntLk ElmElcChrg uninterruptedly participated within the flat two-dimensional fermion circular harmonic oscillations within the u-quark of the visited proton. After the departure of the negative PntLk ElmElcChrg from the new neutron the positive PntLk ElmElcChrg shifts into the new born u-quark, which have the colour, different from the colour of old quark, from which it left. After such an exchange twisted proton is ready for a new visit from another negative virtual pion ($`\pi ^{}`$\- meson). In such a natural way the exchange of the negative virtual pion between some pair of proton and neutron causes the existence of the strong interaction.

If the three different aroma of leptons correspond to three different sizes of the isotropic three dimensional relativistic quantized (IstThrDmnRltQnt) Schrodinger self-consistent strongly correlated (SchrSlfCnsStrCrr) solitary fermion vortical harmonic oscillations (SltFrmVrtHrmOscs) of its FnSpr ElmElcChrg, composed by three SlfCnsStrCrr one-dimensional relativistic quantized harmonic oscillations, then the three different aroma of hadron quark state correspond to three sizes of three two-dimensional relativistic quantized fermion circular harmonic oscillations of its FnSpr ElmElcChrg. Therefore we may suppose that if within the massive lepton its averaged (over spread (OvrSpr)) ElmElcChrg has one maximum only, then within the massive hadron its averaged OvrSpr ElmElcChrg has three maximums only, each of which may be identified by us as the ElcChrg of the quark or parton. The exchange of the FnSpr ElmElcChrg of its quark colour state occurs through absorption or emission of some gluon ($`\delta `$).

The gluons are hypothetical particle, which exchange between two quarks with different colors (space orientations) achieve the strong interaction between them. It is turn out that they have not a ElmElcChrg and rest mass, but have a proper mechanical moment (spin) and quantized magnetic field with a proper magnetic dipole moment (MgnDplMmn). Therefore in magnetic interaction (MgnIntAct) between the QntMgnFlds of the gluon and quarks ensures the turn of space orientation (change of color) of gluon. It is turn that the impulse (mechanical momentum) sum of all gluons within some hadron is equal of the impulse sum of all quarks within same hadron. As the gluon spin is 1$`\mathrm{}`$, therefore at its habitual virtual decay within hadron one can turn into pair virtual quark and antiquark with paralel spins. But such a virtual pair is no virtual meson, as more mesons with small mass have a spin with a zero value. Therefore such a decay of some gluon into a pair of some virtual quark and antiquark could effectively turn upsite-down the spin of one of meson quark and in such a way enssure the decay of this meson in first into charged intermediate vector bozon $`W`$ and in second into massive and massless leptons of equal aromas. The behavior of eight gluons can be described by eight Gell-Man’s mathrices of SU(3) space.

We must note that the PntLk ElmElcChrg of the charged admeson is moving successively in two opposite orientated flats. As in positive $`\pi `$-meson its positive PntLk ElmElcChrg (positrino) is successively moving in an u-quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{d}`$-antiquark state, which have an opposite parallel orientations, then in negative $`\pi `$-meson its negative PntLk ElmElcChrg (electrino) is successively moving in a d-quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$ -antiquark state, which have opposite parallel orientations. In same way in the positive K-meson its positive massless PntLk ElmElcChrg (positrino) is successively moving in an u quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{s}`$-antiquark state, which have opposite parallel orientations, and in the negative K-meson its negative PntLk ElmElcChrg (electrino) is successively moving in a s-quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$-antiquark state, which have opposite parallel orientations. However in the neutral admesons two opposite charged PntLk ElmElcChrgs (electrino and positrino) are moving in four flats, which have in pair opposite parallel orientations, where are moving separately two opposite charged PntLk ElmElcChrgs. For instance in $`\pi ^o`$-meson its massless electrino is moving in d-quark state and in $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$-antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, and its positrino is moving in u quark state and in $`\stackrel{~}{d}`$ antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, mutually perpendicular orientated to the first pair flats. In such a fashion in $`K^o`$ -meson its electrino is moving in a d quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$-antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, and its positrino is moving in an u quark state and in $`\stackrel{~}{s}`$ antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, but the second are mutual perpendicular oriented to the first pair flats of moving electrino. In such a fashion in $`\stackrel{~}{K}^o`$\- meson its electrino is moving in a s-quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$ antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, and its positrino is moving in an u quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{d}`$-antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, but the second are mutual perpendicular oriented to first pair flats of moving electrino. Owing of a small difference between the compositions of quarks, from which are built the $`K^o`$-meson and the $`\stackrel{~}{K}^o`$-meson the some fluctuations in the FlcVcm have energy, enough for their conversion one meson in its antimeson.

$`K^o(d,\stackrel{~}{s})=(u,W^{},\stackrel{~}{s})=(u,\stackrel{~}{c})=(s,W^+,\stackrel{~}{c})=\stackrel{~}{K}^o(s,\stackrel{~}{d})`$ (2)
In a result of such mutual conversions are obtained short-lived and long-lived $`K^o`$-mesons with different parameters and scheme of decay.

$`K_l^o={\displaystyle \frac{(K^o+\stackrel{~}{K}^o)}{\sqrt{2}}}\mathrm{𝐚𝐧𝐝}K_s^o={\displaystyle \frac{(K^o\stackrel{~}{K}^o)}{\sqrt{2}}}`$ (3)
The similar fashion of the meson construction we may find in the $`D^o`$-mesons, where its positive PntLk ElmElcChrg is successively moving in an u-quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{d}`$-antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, and its negative PntLk ElmElcChrg is successively moving in a d-quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{c}`$-antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, but the second are mutually perpendicular to first pair flats. In such a fashion in $`\stackrel{~}{D}^o`$-meson its electrino is moving in a d-quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$-antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, and its positrino is moving in a c quark state and in a $`\stackrel{~}{d}`$-antiquark state, which both have opposite parallel orientations, but the second are mutually perpendicular to first pair flats.

$`D^o(u,\stackrel{~}{c})=(d,W^+,\stackrel{~}{c})=(d,\stackrel{~}{s})=(c,W^{},\stackrel{~}{s})==\stackrel{~}{D}^o(c,\stackrel{~}{u})`$ (4)
As for the radiation of the spontaneous real photon (RlPhtn) from the excitative atom it is necessary the presence of the virtual photon (VrtPhtn) for the creation of the electric dipole moment (ElcDplMm), so for the decay of a charged $`\pi `$-meson it is necessary the presence of a virtual gluon for an overturning of the spin of one of its quarks, by which charged $`\pi `$-meson turns into charged virtual $`\rho `$-meson, which can immediately decay into charged intermediate vector boson $`W`$. At the subsequent transfer of the in a pair of massive and massless leptons of equal aroma the participating in the decay gluon go back in the FlcVcm. Indeed, I think that instead of the equations of the incomprehencible decay :

$`\pi ^+W^+\mu ^++\nu _\mu ,`$ (5)
$`\pi ^{}W^{}\mu ^{}+\stackrel{~}{\nu }_\mu ,`$ (6)
$`\pi ^+W^+e^++\nu _e,`$ (7)
$`\pi ^{}W^{}e^{}+\stackrel{~}{\nu }_e,`$ (8)
$`\pi ^oW^++W^{}\gamma +\gamma ,`$ (9)
$`\pi ^oW^++W^{}\gamma +e^++e^{},`$ (10)
we must used the following equations :

$`\pi ^++\delta W^+\mu ^++\nu _\mu ,`$ (11)
$`\pi ^{}+\delta W^{}\mu ^{}+\stackrel{~}{\nu }_\mu ,`$ (12)
$`\pi ^++\delta W^+e^++\nu _e,`$ (13)
$`\pi ^{}+\delta W^{}e^{}+\stackrel{~}{\nu }_e,`$ (14)
$`\pi ^oW^++W^{}\gamma +\gamma ,`$ (15)
$`\pi ^oW^++W^{}\gamma +e^++e^{},`$ (16)
As it is easy to see from eqns.$`(\text{15})`$ and $`(\text{16})`$ that there is no necessity for participating some gluon $`\delta `$ in decay of the $`\pi ^o`$-meson. For certain of that the half-life time ($`\tau _\pi ^+=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.6}\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{}8s`$) of the charged $`\pi `$-mesons is very different from the half-life time ($`\tau _\pi ^o=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}8.3}\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{}17s`$) of the neutral $`\pi `$-mesons.

It seems to me the existance of two very interesting facts, having common physical cause.The first is concurrence of the energy of one degree of freedom in charged lepton $`\mu `$-meson and in charged admeson $`\pi `$-meson. Indeed, if in isotropic three dimensional solitary vortical harmonic ocsillations of FnSpr ElmElcChrg of $`\mu `$-meson have three degrees of freedom and therefore $`3\mathrm{}\omega =2mC^2=213.2`$Mev. Hence the energy of one degree of freedom can be determined $`\frac{\mathrm{}\omega }{2}=35.5`$Mev. If we take into consideration that the FnSpr ElmElcChrg of $`\pi `$-meson takes participation in two quasi-plane circular harmonic oscillations with opportunity orientations and therefore has energy 2$`\mathrm{}\omega =139.6`$Mev. Hence the energy of one degree of freedom can be determined $`\frac{\mathrm{}\omega }{2}=34.9`$Mev. As we can see by comparision of two results this coincidence is very accurate. On this reason we can assume that the areas of their oscillations must also coincidence and therefore the OrbWvFnc of both FnSpr ElmElcChrg. May be therefore the decay of the positive (negative) charged $`\pi `$-meson in $`100\%`$ occurs through the positive (negative) $`\mu `$-meson and $`\mu `$-neutrino (antineutrino) as we can see from (5, 6, 11, 12). This second coincidence gives us many correct answer of the question for inner structure of the elementary micro particles (ElmMicrPrts).

It is useful to remember that the existence of some analogy between leptons and hadrons allows us to assume that the quarks for the hadrons are analogous of the neutrinos for the leptons. Therefore the physical means of the aroma of the quarks is analogous of the physical means of the aroma of the neutrinos, which determines the sizes of the type excitation of the neutral but fluctuating vacuum (FlcVcm). Because of that we can suppose that if the neutrino is three dimensional spherical soliton seclusion excitation of the neutral vacuum, then the quark is the sum of two two-dimensional flat soliton excitation of same neutral vacuum. As the vacuum is formed by neutral dynamides, which are made from two contrary massless electric charges ((-) electrino and (+) positrino) through their dense streamlining, then its solution seclusion oscillation secures the joint motion of the oscillating FlcVcm and the PntLk ElmElcChrg. However if the neutrino can accept the PntLk ElmElcChrg for an unlimited time at a creation of the massive lepton, then the quark can accept the PntLr ElmElcChrg only for a limited time t or 2t at every its visit, after which the PntLk ElmElcChrg must leave it and go on to another quark. In this a way every PntLk ElmElcChrg in every hadron continuously and alternately changes the quarks of the hadron, in which it temporary pass into. Therefore as we could see the average distribution of the spread electric charge, we think that the electric charge of one type quark is $`\frac{1e}{3}`$ and the electric charge of an other type quark is $`\frac{2e}{3}`$. The time of pass $`\tau `$ or $`2\tau `$ of the PntLk ElmElcChrg within some quark area is determined in depending on the kind (symmetric or antisymmetric) of the neutral flat vortical oscillation of the FlcVcm. So any flat oscillation can be presented as a sum of two different flat oscillations, orientated in opposite directions. Therefore two kind of the quarks could be presented as symmetrical and antisymmetrical sums of two one-sided orientated protoquarks $`\left|PK\right|`$ and other-sided orientated antiprotoquark $`\left|APK\right|`$ :

$`\left|\begin{array}{c}SC\\ ASC\end{array}\right|=\left|\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{cos}(\theta _o)& \mathrm{sin}(\theta _o)\\ \mathrm{sin}(\theta _o)& \mathrm{cos}(\theta _o)\end{array}\right|\times \left|\begin{array}{c}PQ\\ APQ\end{array}\right|`$ (17)
where the $`\left|SC\right|`$ means a symmetric combination of one-side flat oscillation of protoquark $`\left|PQ\right|`$ and of one-side flat oscillation of antiprotoquark $`\left|APQ\right|`$ , while the $`\left|ASC\right|`$ means an antisymmertic combination of one-side flat oscillation of protoquark $`\left|PQ\right|`$ and of one-side flat oscillation of antiprotoquark $`\left|APQ\right|`$. If we assume that $`\theta _o=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}30}^o`$ then $`\mathrm{sin}(\theta _o)=\frac{1}{2}`$ and $`\mathrm{cos}(\theta _o)=\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}`$. Therefore in this case we can obtain from $`(\text{17})`$ the following equation :

$`\left|\begin{array}{c}SC\\ ASC\end{array}\right|=\left|\begin{array}{cc}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{1}{2}\\ \frac{1}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\end{array}\right|\times \left|\begin{array}{c}PQ\\ APQ\end{array}\right|`$ (18)
Hence the angle $`\theta _o`$ determine the ratio of the participation of two oscillations. This interpretations help us to understand the physical mean of number $`\frac{1}{3}`$ and $`\frac{2}{3}`$. Indeed, if the $`\left|SC\right|`$ means the symmetric combination of two opposite orientated oscillations then the probability to find the PntLk ElcChrg in this state is determined by the difference of the quadrats of its amplitudes $`\frac{3}{4}`$ and $`\frac{1}{4}`$. By this natural way we have obtain the number $`\frac{2}{4}=\frac{1}{2}`$. Then, if the $`\left|ASC\right|`$ means the antisymmetric combination of two opposite orientated oscillations then the probability to find the PntLk ElcChrg in this state is determined by sum of the quadrats of its amplitudes $`\frac{3}{4}`$ and $`\frac{1}{4}`$. By this natural way we have obtain the number $`\frac{4}{4}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$. Consequently the number $`\frac{1}{3}`$ and the number $`\frac{2}{3}`$ mean that the probability of finding the PntLk ElmElcChrg in the state of the SC is $`\frac{1}{3}`$ and the probability of finding the PntLk ElmElcChrg in the state of the ASC is $`\frac{2}{3}`$ . Therefore we think that the values of the electric charges are $`\frac{1e}{3}`$ and $`\frac{2e}{3}`$.

By means of this our interpretation of our PhsMdl we can obtain the real values of the Weinberg angle and of the Cabibo angle. Indeed, in the probability of the finding the PntLk ElmElcChrg in the $`d`$ quark state is equal of $`\frac{1}{3}`$ and the probability of the finding same PntLk ElmElcChrg in the $`u`$ quark state is equal of $`\frac{2}{3}`$, then it is obviously clearly that the transition probability from one kind of the quark to another kind of quark is equal of their product. Therefore we have obtained that $`\mathrm{sin}(\theta _w)^2=\frac{2}{9}`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}(\theta _w)=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{3}`$. Consequently, $`\theta _w=\mathrm{arcsin}\frac{\sqrt{2}}{3}`$ or $`\theta _w=28^o\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}8}^,`$.

In such a naturally easy, physically substantiated and mathematically correct way we have achieved Weinberg’s angle values, which very well coincides with its value, determined by the experiment. It is very important that the value, $`\stackrel{~}{\theta }_w=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}38}^o`$, which is determined by means of the $`SU(2)\times SU(1)`$ group method, is very different from the experimental value.

We have explained that besides the colour the quark state has also the aroma, which difference ensures perfectly different properties of the quark state. We have supposed, that three different aroma of the quark correspond to three sizes of the two-dimensional flat fermion harmonic oscillations of its PntLk ElmElcChrg. It turns out that there are possibility enough to give us clear physical interpretation and mathematical substantiation for obtaining the Cabibo angle value, determined by experiment. Indeed, we may assume, that in a result of the different cover of the OrbWvFncs of different aroma of quarks, there will be different possibility for a transition of one aroma of quark in another aroma of quark with same ClcChrg. Some times this possibility is interpreted as a reflection of some mutual influence between them. Therefore we may assume that each quark is consists from quarks of different aroma but of same ElcChrg. In this supposing we may roughly write the following equations :

$$d_1=d_o\mathrm{cos}\alpha +s_o\mathrm{sin}\alpha ;s_1=s_o\mathrm{cos}\alpha d_o\mathrm{sin}\alpha ;$$
(19)
$$u_1=u_o\mathrm{cos}\beta +c_o\mathrm{sin}\beta ;c_1=c_o\mathrm{cos}\beta u_o\mathrm{sin}\beta ;$$
(20)
It is easy to verify that :

$$\stackrel{~}{u}_1d_1+\stackrel{~}{c}_1s_1=(\stackrel{~}{u}_od_o+\stackrel{~}{c}_os_o)\mathrm{cos}(\alpha \beta )+(\stackrel{~}{u}_os_o\stackrel{~}{c}_od_o)\mathrm{sin}(\alpha \beta );$$
(21)
$$\stackrel{~}{u}_1s_1\stackrel{~}{c}_1d_1=(\stackrel{~}{u}_os_o\stackrel{~}{c}_od_o)\mathrm{cos}(\alpha \beta )(\stackrel{~}{u}_od_o+\stackrel{~}{c}_os_o)\mathrm{sin}(\alpha \beta );$$
(22)
If we present the difference $`(\alpha \beta )`$ as Cabibo angle $`\theta _c`$ then from eqns.$`(\text{21})`$ and $`(\text{22})`$ one becomes clear that at the participation of the quarks of equal aroma $`(\stackrel{~}{u}_1d_1+\stackrel{~}{c}_1s_1)`$ and different aroma $`(\stackrel{~}{u}_1s_1\stackrel{~}{c}_1d_1)`$ in the weak interaction reaction, then Cabibo angle determines the decay probabilities with the hypercharge change and hypercharge conservation. Therefore Cabibo angle value is determined by equation $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _c=\frac{2}{9}`$ and $`\theta _c=\mathrm{arcsin}\frac{2}{9}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}12}^o\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}50}^,`$. In such a naturally, physically clear and mathematically substantiated way we have easy achieved Cabibo angle value $`12.84^o`$ which very well coincides with the value $`12.7^o`$, determined by the experiment.

We assume that the proton is composed from one free positive PntLk ElmElcChrg, which visits consecutively two states of $`u`$-quark.The free $`u`$-quark and the $`\stackrel{~}{d}`$-antiquark are frequently visited by negative PntLk ElmElcChrg of virtual negative charged $`\pi ^{}`$-mesons and the neutron is composed from two free opposite charged PntLk ElmElcChrgs, the positive one is oscillating in a state of $`u`$-quark and the negative one is oscillating in a state of two $`d`$-quarks. Very frequently the negative PntLk ElmElcChrg after forming the virtual negative charged point ($`\pi ^{}`$-meson) by means of birthed pair of $`u`$-quark and $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$-antiquark owing of an absorption of some virtual gluon. The birthed by this way virtual negative pion can participate in strong interaction between very close neighbor proton and neutron by its exchanging.

However I have possibility to show and you to understand by means of some decay relation that negative charged intermediate vectorial boson $`W^{}`$ has spin minus $`\mathrm{}`$,and the positive charged intermediate vectorial boson $`W^+`$ have a spin $`\mathrm{}`$, while the neutral intermediate vectorial boson $`Z^o`$ have a spin zero $`\mathrm{}`$. Therefore the PntLk ElmElcChrg during the exchange of its self-consistent motions within one ElmMicrPrt and within other ElmMcrPrt transfers in a form of charged intermediate vectorial boson $`W`$. Indeed, the observing the law of total spin conservation at all decay with participating the weak interaction, when the PntLk ElmElcChrg takes the form of the charged intermediate vector boson $`W^\pm `$, causes fulfillment of some strong selection rules from all ElmMicrPrt. The consideration of spins of the quarks and charged intermediate vector bozon $`W`$ allow us to understand why the positive charged intermediate vectorial boson $`W^+`$ emits only right quarks and selects only left quarks for participating with them in a weak interacting, while the negative charged intermediate vectorial boson $`W^{}`$ emits only left quarks and selects only right quarks for participating with them in a weak interaction. The neutral intermediate vector boson $`Z^o`$ don’t select the polarization of the quarks with which it participate in the weak interaction.

The weak interaction performs an important role in the relation between hadrons and leptons as it is display in nuclear $`\beta `$ decay. Indeed, it is possible some a negative PntLk ElmElcChrg (electrino) of any neutron, which takes part within the oscillations of $`d`$-quark, to change its self-consistent motion and moves on the oscillations of $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$-quark, which are unstable and therefore it decay in a negative charged intermediate vector boson $`W^{}`$ and $`u`$-quark. In such a naturally way the neutron transforms itself in proton and the residual the negative charged intermediate vector boson $`W^{}`$ after its incorporation with some new created electron neutrino $`\nu _e`$ form the electron, while the other new created antineutrino $`\stackrel{~}{\nu }_e`$ go a free away. When some positive PntLk ElmElcChrg (positrino) of any proton, which takes part in the oscillations of the $`u`$-quark, changes his self-consistent motion and moves on the oscillations of the $`\stackrel{~}{d}`$-quark, which are unstable and therefore it decay in positive charged intermediate vector boson $`W^+`$ and $`d`$-quark. In such a naturally way the proton transforms itself in a neutron and the residual the positive charged intermediate vector boson $`W^+`$ after its incorporation with some new created electron antineutrino $`\stackrel{~}{\nu }_e`$ form the positron, while the other new created neutrino $`\nu _e`$ go a free away. Therefore the described $`\beta `$-transitions can be written in the following form :

$$n(u,d,d)=p(u,u,d)+W^{}=p(u,u,d)+e^{}+\stackrel{~}{\nu }_e$$
(23)
$$p(u,u,d)=n(u,d,d)+W^+=n(u,d,d)+e^++\nu _e$$
(24)
As within the areas of every nucleon there are two virtual opposite charged $`\pi `$-mesons, at decreasing the distance between nucleons begins the creation of some correlation between their motions, which creates some decreasing of their total energy. At a rather decreasing of the distance between the nucleons begins some collectivization of all virtual charged $`\pi `$-meson. In this way we understand that internucleonic forces are analogous of interatomic Van-der- Waals force between neutral atoms.

Our PhsMdls explain as the structure of hadrons and the nature of their interaction so the existence of a possibility for joint description of a field and substantial form of the matter as unity whole in the physical science, which are submitted to an united, fundamental and invariable laws of nature.

As all existent ElmMicrPrts are excitement of the vacuum then all of them will move freely through one without any damping, that is to say without to feel the existence of the vacuum. Moreover, the existence of some McrPrt in the vacuum twists its cristalline lattice.This twist of the neutral vacuum excites the gravitation field of the ElmMicrPrt’s mass, which will influence by using of some force upon mass of another ElmMicrPrt and upon its behaviour.

We can understand the physical essence of the hadrons and their structure and characteristics on these obvious representations. Our physical model explains as the structure of hadrons and the nature of their three type of interactions, so the existence of the possibility for a joint description of a field and substantial form of the matter as unity whole in the physical science, which are submitted to an united, fundamental and invariable laws of nature. By this natural way we can see the unity of the field charged and neutral excitations within the vacuum and its substantial charged excitations, offered by modernity relativistic quantum mechanics (RltQntMch), quantum electrodynamics (QntElcDnm) and quantum theory of field (QntThrFld).

I cherish the hope that this consideration of my physical model of the hadrons from my new point of view will be of great interest for all scientists. My very quality and good interpretation of behaviour and structure of hadrons and their interactions with its corresponding experimentally determined values gives us the hope for correctness of our beautiful, simple and preposterous physical model of hadrons and fine,extraordinary ideas,which have been inserted at its construction.