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# MATRIX REPRESENTATIONS OF OCTONIONS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

## Abstract

As is well-known, the real quaternion division algebra $``$ is algebraically isomorphic to a 4-by-4 real matrix algebra. But the real division octonion algebra $`𝕆`$ can not be algebraically isomorphic to any matrix algebras over the real number field $``$, because $`𝕆`$ is a non-associative algebra over $``$. However since $`𝕆`$ is an extension of $``$ by the Cayley-Dickson process and is also finite-dimensional, some pseudo real matrix representations of octonions can still be introduced through real matrix representations of quaternions. In this paper we give a complete investigation to real matrix representations of octonions, and consider their various applications to octonions as well as matrices of octonions.

AMS Mathematics Subject Classification: 15A33; 15A06; 15A24; 17A35
Key Words: quaternions, octonions, matrix representations, linear equations, similarity, eigenvalues, Cayley-Hamilton theorem

1. Introduction

Let $`𝕆`$ be the octonion algebra over the real number field $``$. Then it is well known by the Cayley-Dickson process that any $`a𝕆`$ can be written as

$$a=a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e,$$
$`(1.1)`$
where $`a^{},a^{\prime \prime }=\{a=a_0+a_1i+a_2j+a_3k|i^2=j^2=k^2=1,ijk=1,a_0`$$`a_3\}`$, the real quaternion division algebra. The addition and multiplication for any $`a=a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e,b=b^{}+b^{\prime \prime }e𝕆`$ are defined by

$$a+b=(a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e)+(b^{}+b^{\prime \prime }e)=(a^{}+b^{})+(a^{\prime \prime }+b^{\prime \prime })e,$$
$`(1.2)`$
and

$$ab=(a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e)(b^{}+b^{\prime \prime }e)=(a^{}b^{}\overline{b^{\prime \prime }}a^{\prime \prime })+(b^{\prime \prime }a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }\overline{b^{}})e,$$
$`(1.3)`$
where $`\overline{b^{}},\overline{b^{\prime \prime }}`$ denote the conjugates of the quaternions $`b^{}`$ and $`b^{\prime \prime }`$. In that case, $`𝕆`$ is an eight-dimensional non-associative but alternative division algebra over its center field $``$, and the canonical basis of $`𝕆`$ is

$$1,e_1=i,e_2=j,e_3=k,e_4=e,e_5=ie,e_6=je,e_7=ke.$$
$`(1.4)`$
The multiplication rules for the basis of $`𝕆`$ are listed in the following matrix

$$E_8^TE_8=\left[\begin{array}{cccccccc}1& \hfill e_1& \hfill e_2& \hfill e_3& \hfill e_4& \hfill e_5& \hfill e_6& \hfill e_7\\ e_1& \hfill 1& \hfill e_3& \hfill e_2& \hfill e_5& \hfill e_4& \hfill e_7& \hfill e_6\\ e_2& \hfill e_3& \hfill 1& \hfill e_1& \hfill e_6& \hfill e_7& \hfill e_4& \hfill e_5\\ e_3& \hfill e_2& \hfill e_1& \hfill 1& \hfill e_7& \hfill e_6& \hfill e_5& \hfill e_4\\ e_4& \hfill e_5& \hfill e_6& \hfill e_7& \hfill 1& \hfill e_1& \hfill e_2& \hfill e_3\\ e_5& \hfill e_4& \hfill e_7& \hfill e_6& \hfill e_1& \hfill 1& \hfill e_3& \hfill e_2\\ e_6& \hfill e_7& \hfill e_4& \hfill e_5& \hfill e_2& \hfill e_3& \hfill 1& \hfill e_1\\ e_7& \hfill e_6& \hfill e_5& \hfill e_4& \hfill e_3& \hfill e_2& \hfill e_1& \hfill 1\end{array}\right],$$
$`(1.5)`$
where $`E_8=[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},e_1,\mathrm{},e_7]`$. Under Eq.(1.4) all elements of $`𝕆`$ take the form

$$a=a_0+a_1e_1+\mathrm{}+a_7e_7,$$
$`(1.6)`$
where $`a_0`$$`a_7`$, which can also simply be written as $`a=\mathrm{Re}a+\mathrm{Im}a,`$ where $`\mathrm{Re}a=a_0.`$ The conjugate of $`a`$ is defined to be

$$\overline{a}=\overline{a^{}}a^{\prime \prime }e=\mathrm{Re}a\mathrm{Im}a.$$
$`(1.7)`$
This operation satisfies

$$\overline{\overline{a}}=a,\overline{a+b}=\overline{a}+\overline{b},\overline{ab}=\overline{b}\overline{a}$$
$`(1.8)`$
for all $`a,b𝕆.`$ The norm of $`a`$ is defined to be $`|a|:=\sqrt{a\overline{a}}=\sqrt{\overline{a}a}=\sqrt{a_0^2+a_1^2+\mathrm{}+a_7^2}.`$ Although $`𝕆`$ is nonassociative, it is still an alternative, flexible, quadratic, composition and division algebra over $`,`$ that is, for all $`a,b𝕆`$, the following equalities hold:

$$\begin{array}{c}\text{ }a(ab)=a^2b,(ba)a=ba^2,(ab)a=a(ba):=aba,(1.9)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }a^1=\frac{\overline{a}}{|a|^2},(1.10)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }a^22(\mathrm{Re}a)a+|a|^2=0,(\mathrm{Im}a)^2=|\mathrm{Im}a|^2,(1.11)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }|ab|=|a||b|.(1.12)\text{ }\hfill \end{array}$$

As is well known, any finite-dimensional associative algebra over an arbitrary field $`𝔽`$ is algebraically isomorphic to a subalgebra of a total matrix algebra over the field. In other words, any element in a finite-dimensional associative algebra over $`𝔽`$ has a faithful matrix representation over the field. For the real quaternion algebra $``$, it is well known that through the bijective map

$$\varphi :a=a_0+a_1i+a_2j+a_3k\varphi (a)=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1\\ \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right],$$
$`(1.13)`$
$``$ is algebraically isomorphic to the matrix algebra

$$=\left\{\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1\\ \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right]\right|a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3\},$$
$`(1.14)`$
and $`\varphi (a)`$ is a faithful real matrix representation of $`a`$. Our consideration for matrix representations of octonions are based on Eqs.(1.1)—(1.3) and the result in Eq.(1.13).

We next present some basic results related to matrix representations of quaternions, which will be serve as a tool for our examination in the sequel.

Lemma 1.1. Let $`a=a_0+a_1i+a_2j+a_3k`$ be given, where $`a_0`$$`a_3`$. Then the diagonal matrix $`\mathrm{diag}(a,a,a,a)`$ satisfies the following unitary similarity factorization equality

$$Q\left[\begin{array}{cccc}a& & & \\ & a& & \\ & & a& \\ & & & a\end{array}\right]Q^{}=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1\\ \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right]^{4\times 4},$$
$`(1.15)`$
where the matrix $`Q`$ has the following independent expression

$$Q=Q^{}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill 1& \hfill i& \hfill j& \hfill k\\ \hfill i& \hfill 1& \hfill k& \hfill j\\ \hfill j& \hfill k& \hfill 1& \hfill i\\ \hfill k& \hfill j& \hfill i& \hfill 1\end{array}\right],$$
$`(1.16)`$
which is a unitary matrix over $``$.

Lemma 1.2. Let $`a,b`$, and $`\lambda `$. Then

(a) $`a=b\varphi (a)=\varphi (b).`$

(b) $`\varphi (a+b)=\varphi (a)+\varphi (b),\varphi (ab)=\varphi (a)\varphi (b),\varphi (\lambda a)=\lambda \varphi (a),\varphi (1)=I_4.`$

(c) $`a=\frac{1}{4}E_4\varphi (a)E_4^{},`$ where $`E_4:=[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},i,j,k]`$ and $`E_4^{}:=[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},i,j,k]^T.`$

(d) $`\varphi (\overline{a})=\varphi ^T(a).`$

(e) $`\varphi (a^1)=\varphi ^1(a),`$ if $`a0.`$

(f) $`\mathrm{det}[\varphi (a)]=|a|^4.`$

We can also introduce from Eq.(1.13) another real matrix representation of $`a`$ as follows

$$\tau (a):=K\varphi ^T(a)K=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1\\ \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right],$$
$`(1.17)`$
where $`K=\mathrm{diag}(\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},1,1,1)`$. Some basic operation properties on $`\tau (a)`$ are

$$\tau (a+b)=\tau (a)+\tau (b),\tau (ab)=\tau (b)\tau (a),\tau (\overline{a})=\tau ^T(a),$$
$`(1.18)`$
$$det[\varphi (a)]=|a|^4,\varphi (a^1)=\varphi ^1(a)\mathrm{if}a0.$$
$`(1.19)`$
Combining the two real matrix representations of quaternions with their real vector representations, we have the following important result.

Lemma 1.3.Let $`x=x_0+x_1i+x_2j+x_3k,`$ and denote $`\stackrel{}{x}=[x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3]^T,`$ called the vector representation of $`x`$. Then for all $`a,b,x`$, we have

$$\stackrel{}{ax}=\varphi (a)\stackrel{}{x},\stackrel{}{xb}=\tau (b)\stackrel{}{x},\stackrel{}{axb}=\varphi (a)\tau (b)\stackrel{}{x}=\tau (b)\varphi (a)\stackrel{}{x},$$
$`(1.20)`$
and the equality

$$\varphi (a)\tau (b)=\tau (b)\varphi (a)$$
$`(1.21)`$
always holds.

Proof. Observe that

$$\stackrel{}{x}=\varphi (x)\alpha _4^T,\stackrel{}{x}=\tau (x)\alpha _4^T,\alpha _4=[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},0,0,0].$$

We find by Lemma 1.1 and Eq.(1.2) that

$$\stackrel{}{ax}=\varphi (ax)\alpha _4^T=\varphi (a)\varphi (x)\alpha _4^T=\varphi (a)\stackrel{}{x},\stackrel{}{xb}=\tau (xb)\alpha _4^T=\tau (b)\tau (x)\alpha _4^T=\tau (b)\stackrel{}{x},$$

and

$$\stackrel{}{axb}=\stackrel{}{a(xb)}=\varphi (a)\stackrel{}{(xb)}=\varphi (a)\tau (b)\stackrel{}{x},\stackrel{}{axb}=\stackrel{}{(ax)b}=\tau (b)\stackrel{}{(ax)}=\tau (b)\varphi (a)\stackrel{}{x}.$$

These four equalities are exactly the results in Eqs.(1.20) and (1.21). $`\mathrm{}`$

Lemma 1.4. Let $`a,b,x𝕆`$ be given. Then

(a) $`\mathrm{Re}(ab)=\mathrm{Re}(ba),\mathrm{Re}((ax)b)=\mathrm{Re}(a(xb)).`$

(b) $`(aba)x=a(b(ax)),x(aba)=((xa)b)a.`$

(c) $`(ab)(xa)=a(bx)a,(bx)(ab)=b(xa)b.`$

(d) $`(a,b,x)=(a,x,b)=(x,a,b),`$ where $`(a,b,x)=(ab)xa(bx).`$

2. The real matrix representations of octonions

Based on the results on the real matrix representation of quaternions, we now can introduce real matrix representation of octonions.

Definition 2.1. Let $`a=a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e𝕆,`$ where $`a^{}=a_0+a_1i+a_2j+a_3k,a^{\prime \prime }=a_4+a_5i+a_6j+a_7k.`$ Then the $`8\times 8`$ real matrix

$$\omega (a):=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi (a^{})& \tau (a^{\prime \prime })K_4\\ \varphi (a^{\prime \prime })K_4& \tau (a^{})\end{array}\right],$$
$`(2.1)`$
is called the left matrix representation of $`a`$ over $`,`$ where $`K_4=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,1)`$. Written in an explicit form,

$$\omega (a)=\left[\begin{array}{cccccccc}a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_7\\ a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_6\\ a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_5\\ a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_4\\ a_4& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ a_5& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ a_6& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1\\ a_7& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right],$$
$`(2.2)`$
Theorem 2.1.Let $`x=x_0+x_1e_1+\mathrm{}+x_7e_7𝕆`$, and denote $`\stackrel{}{x}=[x_0,x_1,\mathrm{},x_7]^T,`$ called the vector representation of $`x`$. Then

$$\stackrel{}{ax}=\omega (a)\stackrel{}{x}$$
$`(2.3)`$
holds for $`a,x𝕆`$.

Proof. Write $`a,x𝕆`$ as $`a=a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e,x=x^{}+x^{\prime \prime }e,`$ where $`a^{},a^{\prime \prime },x^{},x^{\prime \prime }`$. We know by Eq.(1.3) that $`ax=(a^{}x^{}\overline{x^{\prime \prime }}a^{\prime \prime })+(x^{\prime \prime }a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }\overline{x^{}})e.`$ Thus it follows by Eq.(1.20) that

$`\stackrel{}{ax}=\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{a^{}x^{}\overline{x^{\prime \prime }}a^{\prime \prime }}\\ \stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }\overline{x^{}}}\end{array}\right]`$ $`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{a^{}x^{}}\stackrel{}{\overline{x^{\prime \prime }}a^{\prime \prime }}\\ \stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }a^{}}+\stackrel{}{a^{\prime \prime }\overline{x^{}}}\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{c}\varphi (a^{})\stackrel{}{x^{}}\tau (a^{\prime \prime })K_4\stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }}\\ \tau (a^{})\stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }}+\varphi (a^{\prime \prime })K_4\stackrel{}{x^{}}\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cc}\varphi (a^{})& \tau (a^{\prime \prime })K_4\\ \varphi (a^{\prime \prime })K_4& \tau (a^{})\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{x^{}}\\ \stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }}\end{array}\right],`$
as required for Eq.(2.3). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.2.Let $`a𝕆`$ be given. Then

$$aE_8=E_8\omega (a),andE_8^{}a=\omega (a)E_8^{},$$
$`(2.4)`$
where $`E_8:=[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},e_1,\mathrm{},e_7],`$ and $`E_8^{}:=[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},e_1,\mathrm{},e_7]^T.`$

Proof. Follows from a direct verification. $`\mathrm{}`$

We can also introduce from Eq.(2.1) another matrix representation for an octonion as follows.

Definition 2.2.  Let $`a=a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e=a_0+a_1e_1+\mathrm{}+a_7e_7𝕆`$ be given, where $`a^{},a^{\prime \prime }`$. Then we call the $`8\times 8`$ real matrix

$$\nu (a):=K_8\omega ^T(a)K_8=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\tau (a^{})& \varphi (\overline{a^{\prime \prime }})\\ \varphi (a^{\prime \prime })& \tau (\overline{a^{}})\end{array}\right],$$
$`(2.5)`$
the right matrix representation of $`a`$, where $`K_8=\mathrm{diag}(K_4,I_4),`$ an orthogonal matrix. Written in an explicit form,

$$\nu (a)=\left[\begin{array}{cccccccc}a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_7\\ a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_6\\ a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_5\\ a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_4\\ a_4& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ a_5& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ a_6& \hfill a_7& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_0& \hfill a_1\\ a_7& \hfill a_6& \hfill a_5& \hfill a_4& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_0\end{array}\right].$$
$`(2.6)`$
Theorem 2.3.Let $`a,x𝕆`$ be given. Then

$$\stackrel{}{xa}=\nu (a)\stackrel{}{x}$$
$`(2.7)`$
holds.

Proof. Write $`a,x𝕆`$ as $`a=a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e,x=x^{}+x^{\prime \prime }e,`$ where $`a^{},a^{\prime \prime },x^{},x^{\prime \prime }`$. we know by (1.3) that $`xa=(x^{}a^{}\overline{a^{\prime \prime }}x^{\prime \prime })+(a^{\prime \prime }x^{}+x^{\prime \prime }\overline{a^{}})e.`$ Thus we find by Eq.(1.20) that

$`\stackrel{}{xa}=\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{x^{}a^{}\overline{a^{\prime \prime }}x^{\prime \prime }}\\ \stackrel{}{a^{\prime \prime }x^{}+x^{\prime \prime }\overline{a^{}}}\end{array}\right]`$ $`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{x^{}a^{}}\stackrel{}{\overline{a^{\prime \prime }}x^{\prime \prime }}\\ \stackrel{}{a^{\prime \prime }x^{}}+\stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }\overline{a^{}}}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}\tau (a^{})\stackrel{}{x^{}}\varphi (\overline{a^{\prime \prime }})\stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }}\\ \varphi (a^{\prime \prime })\stackrel{}{x^{}}+\tau (\overline{a^{}})\stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\tau (a^{})& \varphi (\overline{a^{\prime \prime }})\\ \varphi (a^{\prime \prime })& \tau (\overline{a^{}})\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{x^{}}\\ \stackrel{}{x^{\prime \prime }}\end{array}\right],`$
as required for Eq.(2.7). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.4.Let $`a𝕆`$ be given. Then

$$aF_8=F_8\nu ^T(a),andF_8^{}a=\nu ^T(a)F_8^{},$$
$`(2.8)`$
where $`F_8:=[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},e_1,\mathrm{},e_7]`$ and $`F_8^{}:=[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},e_1,\mathrm{},e_7]^T.`$

Proof. Follows from a direct verification. $`\mathrm{}`$

Observe from Eqs.(2.1) and (2.5) that the two real matrix representations of an octonion $`a=a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e`$ are in fact constructed by the real matrix representations of two quaternions $`a^{}`$ and $`a^{\prime \prime }`$. Hence the operation properties for the two matrix representations of octonions can easily be established through the results in Lemmas 1.2 and 1.3.

Theorem 2.5.Let $`a,b𝕆,\lambda `$ be given. Then

(a) $`a=b\omega (a)=\omega (b).`$

(b) $`\omega (a+b)=\omega (a)+\omega (b),\omega (\lambda a)=\lambda \omega (a),\omega (1)=I_8.`$

(c) $`\omega (\overline{a})=\omega ^T(a).`$

Proof. Follows from a direct verification. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.6.Let $`a,b𝕆,\lambda `$ be given. Then

(a) $`a=b\nu (a)=\nu (b).`$

(b) $`\nu (a+b)=\nu (a)+\nu (b),\nu (\lambda a)=\lambda \nu (a),\nu (1)=I_8.`$

(c) $`\nu (\overline{a})=\nu ^T(a).`$

Proof. Follows from a direct verification. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.7.Let $`a𝕆`$ be given. Then

$$a=\frac{1}{8}E_8\omega (a)E_8^{},anda=\frac{1}{8}F_8\nu ^T(a)F_8^{},$$
$`(2.9)`$
where $`E_8,E_8^{},F_8`$ and $`F_8^{}`$ are as in Eqs.(2.4) and (2.8).

Proof. Note that $`\omega (a)`$ and $`\nu (a)`$ are real matrices. Thus we get from Eqs.(2.4) and (2.8) that

$$E_8(E_8^{}a)=E_8[\omega (a)E_8^{}]=E_8\omega (a)E_8^{},andF(F_8^{}a)=F_8[\nu ^T(a)F_8^{}]=F_8\nu ^T(a)F_8^{}.$$

On the other hand, note that $`𝕆`$ is alternative. It follows that

$$E_8(E_8^{}a)=ae_1(e_1a)\mathrm{}e_7(e_7a)=ae_1^2a\mathrm{}e_7^2a=8a,$$

and

$$F_8(F_8^{}a)=ae_1(e_1a)\mathrm{}e_7(e_7a)=ae_1^2a\mathrm{}e_7^2a=8a.$$

Thus we have Eq.(2.9). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.8.Let $`a𝕆`$ be given. Then

$$\mathrm{det}[\omega (a)]=\mathrm{det}[\nu (a)]=|a|^8.$$
$`(2.10)`$
Proof. Write $`a=a^{}+a^{\prime \prime }e`$. Then we easily find by Eqs.(1.21) and (2.5) that

$`\mathrm{det}[\omega (a)]=\mathrm{det}[\nu (a)]=\left|\begin{array}{cc}\tau (a^{})& \varphi (\overline{a^{\prime \prime }})\\ \varphi (a^{\prime \prime })& \tau (\overline{a^{}})\end{array}\right|`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{det}[\tau (a^{})\tau (\overline{a^{}})+\varphi (a^{\prime \prime })\varphi (\overline{a^{\prime \prime }})]`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{det}[\tau (\overline{a^{}}a^{})+\varphi (a^{\prime \prime }\overline{a^{\prime \prime }})]`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{det}[|a^{}|^2I_4+|a^{\prime \prime }|^2I_4]`$
$`=`$ $`(|a^{}|^2+|a^{\prime \prime }|^2)^4=|a|^8,`$
as required for Eq.(2.10). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.9.Let $`a𝕆`$ be given. Then the two matrix representations of $`a`$ satisfy the following three identities

$$\omega (a^2)=\omega ^2(a),\nu (a^2)=\nu ^2(a),\omega (a)\nu (a)=\nu (a)\omega (a).$$
$`(2.11)`$
Proof. Applying Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7) to the both sides of the three identities in Eq.(1.9) leads to

$$\omega ^2(a)\stackrel{}{b}=\omega (a^2)\stackrel{}{b},\nu ^2(a)\stackrel{}{b}=\nu (a^2)\stackrel{}{b},\omega (a)\nu (a)\stackrel{}{b}=\nu (a)\omega (a)\stackrel{}{b}.$$

Note that $`\stackrel{}{b}`$ is an arbitrary $`8\times 1`$ real vector when $`b`$ runs over $`𝕆`$. Thus Eq.(2.11) follows. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.10.Let $`a𝕆`$ be given with $`a0`$. Then

$$\omega (a^1)=\omega ^1(a),and\nu (a^1)=\nu ^1(a).$$
$`(2.12)`$
Proof. Note from Eqs.(1.10) and (1.11) that

$$a^1=\frac{\overline{a}}{|a|^2}=\frac{1}{|a|^2}[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}(\mathrm{Re}a)a]$$

and

$$a^22\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}a+|a|^2=0.$$

Applying Theorems 2.5 and 2.6, as well as the first two equalities in Eq.(2.11) to the both sides of the above two equalities, we obtain

$$\omega (a^1)=\frac{1}{|a|^2}[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}(\mathrm{Re}a)I_8\omega (a)],\nu (a^1)=\frac{1}{|a|^2}[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}(\mathrm{Re}a)I_8\nu (a)]$$

and

$$\omega ^2(a)2(\mathrm{Re}a)\omega (a)+|a|^2I_8=0,\nu ^2(a)2(\mathrm{Re}a)\nu (a)+|a|^2I_8=0.$$

Contrasting them yields Eq.(2.12). $`\mathrm{}`$

Because $`𝕆`$ is non-associative, the operation properties $`\omega (ab)=\omega (a)\omega (b)`$ and $`\nu (ab)=\nu (b)\nu (a)`$ do not hold in general, otherwise $`𝕆`$ will be algebraically isomorphic to or algebraically anti-isomorphic to an associative matrix algebra over $``$, this is impossible. Nevertheless, some other kinds of identities on the two real matrix representations of octonions can still be established from the identities in Lemma 1.4(a)—(d).

Theorem 2.11.Let $`a,b𝕆`$ be given. Then their matrix representations satisfy the following two identities

$$\omega (aba)=\omega (a)\omega (b)\omega (a),and\nu (aba)=\nu (a)\nu (b)\nu (a).$$
$`(2.13)`$
Proof. Follows from applying Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7) to the Moufang identities in Lemma 1.4(b) . $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.12.Let $`a,b𝕆`$ be given. Then their matrix representations satisfy the following identities

$$\begin{array}{c}\text{ }\omega (ab)+\omega (ba)=\omega (a)\omega (b)+\omega (b)\omega (a),(2.14)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }\nu (ab)+\nu (ba)=\nu (a)\nu (b)+\nu (b)\nu (a),(2.15)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }\omega (ab)+\nu (ab)=\omega (a)\omega (b)+\nu (b)\nu (a),(2.16)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }\omega (a)\nu (b)+\omega (b)\nu (a)=\nu (a)\omega (b)+\nu (b)\omega (a),(2.17)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }\omega (ab)=\omega (a)\omega (b)+\omega (a)\nu (b)\nu (b)\omega (a),(2.18)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }\nu (ab)=\nu (b)\nu (a)+\omega (b)\nu (a)\nu (a)\omega (b).(2.19)\text{ }\hfill \end{array}$$

Proof. The identities in Lemma 1.4(d) can clearly be written as the following six identities

$$(ab)xa(bx)=(ba)x+b(ax),(xa)bx(ab)=(xb)a+x(ba),$$

$$(ab)xa(bx)=(bx)a+b(xa),(ab)xa(bx)=(xa)b+x(ab),$$

$$(ab)xa(bx)=(ax)b+a(xb),(xa)bx(ab)=(ax)b+a(xb).$$

Applying Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7) to the both sides of the above identities, we obtain

$$\begin{array}{c}\text{ }[\omega (ab)\omega (a)\omega (b)]\stackrel{}{x}=[\omega (ba)+\omega (b)\omega (a)]\stackrel{}{x},\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }[\nu (b)\nu (a)\nu (ab)]\stackrel{}{x}=[\nu (a)\nu (b)+\nu (ba)]\stackrel{}{x},\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }[\nu (b)\omega (a)\omega (a)\nu (b)]\stackrel{}{x}=[\nu (a)\omega (b)+\omega (b)\nu (a)]\stackrel{}{x},\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }[\omega (ab)\omega (a)\omega (b)]\stackrel{}{x}=[\nu (b)\nu (a)+\nu (ab)]\stackrel{}{x},\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }[\omega (ab)\omega (a)\omega (b)]\stackrel{}{x}=[\nu (b)\omega (a)+\omega (a)\nu (b)]\stackrel{}{x},\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }[\nu (b)\nu (a)\nu (ab)]\stackrel{}{x}=[\nu (b)\omega (a)+\omega (a)\nu (b)]\stackrel{}{x}.\text{ }\hfill \end{array}$$

Notice that $`\stackrel{}{x}`$ is an arbitrary real $`8\times 1`$ real matrix when $`x`$ runs over $`𝕆`$. Therefore Eqs.(2.14)—(2.19) follow. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 2.13.Let $`a,b𝕆`$ be given with $`a0,b0.`$ Then their matrix representations satisfy the following two identities

$$\omega (ab)=\nu (a)[\omega (a)\omega (b)]\nu ^1(a),and\nu (ab)=\omega (b)[\nu (b)\nu (a)]\omega ^1(b).$$
$`(2.20)`$
which imply that

$$\omega (ab)\omega (a)\omega (b),and\nu (ab)\nu (b)\nu (a).$$
$`(2.21)`$
Proof. Applying Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7) to the both sides of the two identities in Lemma 1.4(c), we obtain

$$\omega (ab)\nu (a)\stackrel{}{x}=\nu (a)\omega (a)\omega (b)\stackrel{}{x},and\nu (ab)\omega (b)\stackrel{}{x}=\omega (b)\nu (b)\nu (a)\stackrel{}{x},$$

which are obviously equvalent to Eq.(2.20). $`\mathrm{}`$

Note from Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7) that any linear equation of the form $`axxb=c`$ over $`𝕆`$ can equivqlently be written as $`[\omega (a)\nu (b)]\stackrel{}{x}=\stackrel{}{a}`$, which is a linear equation over $``$. Thus it is necessary to consider the operation properties of the matrix $`\omega (a)\nu (b)`$, especially the determinant of $`\omega (a)\nu (b)`$ for any $`a,b𝕆`$. Here we only list the expression of the determinant of $`\omega (a)\nu (b)`$. Its proof is quite tedious and is, therefore, omitted here.

Theorem 2.14.Let $`a,b𝕆`$ be given and define $`\delta (a,b):=\omega (a)\nu (b).`$ Then

$$\begin{array}{c}\text{ }\mathrm{det}[\delta (a,b)]=|a\overline{b}|^4[s^2+(|\mathrm{Im}a||\mathrm{Im}b|)^2][s^2+(|\mathrm{Im}a|+|\mathrm{Im}b|)^2](2.22)\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }\mathrm{det}[\delta (a,b)]=(s^2+|\mathrm{Im}a+\mathrm{Im}b|^2)^2[s^4+2s^2(|\mathrm{Im}a|^2+|\mathrm{Im}b|^2)+(|\mathrm{Im}a|^2|\mathrm{Im}b|^2)^2],(2.23)\text{ }\hfill \end{array}$$

where $`s=\mathrm{Re}a\mathrm{Re}b.`$ The characteristic polynomial of $`\delta (a,b)`$ is

$$\begin{array}{c}\text{ }|\lambda I_8\delta (a,b)|\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }=[(\lambda s)^2+|\mathrm{Im}a+\mathrm{Im}b|^2]^2[(\lambda s)^2+(|\mathrm{Im}a||\mathrm{Im}b|)^2][(\lambda s)^2+(|\mathrm{Im}a|+|\mathrm{Im}b|)^2].(2.24)\text{ }\hfill \end{array}$$

In particular, if $`\mathrm{Re}a=\mathrm{Re}b`$ and $`|\mathrm{Im}a|=|\mathrm{Im}b|,`$ but $`a\overline{b},`$ then

$$\mathrm{rank}\delta (a,b)=6.$$
$`(2.25)`$
Theorem 2.15.Let $`a,b𝕆`$ be given with $`a0`$ and $`b0.`$ Then $`\delta (a,b)=\omega (a)\nu (b)`$ is a real normal matrix over $`,`$ that is, $`\delta (a,b)\delta ^T(a,b)=\delta ^T(a,b)\delta (a,b)`$.

Proof. Follows from

$`\delta (a,b)+\delta ^T(a,b)`$ $`=`$ $`\omega (a)\nu (b)+\omega ^T(a)\nu ^T(b)`$
$`=`$ $`\omega (a)\nu (b)+\omega (\overline{a})\nu (\overline{b})`$
$`=`$ $`\omega (a+\overline{a})\nu (b+\overline{b})=2(\mathrm{Re}a\mathrm{Re}b)I_8.\mathrm{}`$
Theorem 2.16.Let $`a𝕆`$ be given with $`a`$. Then

$$\delta ^3(a,a)=4|\mathrm{Im}a|^2\delta (a,a),$$
$`(2.26)`$
and $`\delta (a,a)`$ has a generalized inverse as follows

$$\delta ^{}(a,a)=\frac{1}{4|\mathrm{Im}a|^2}\delta (a,a).$$
$`(2.27)`$
Proof. Observe that $`\delta (a,a)=\omega (a)\nu (a)=\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)`$ and $`(\mathrm{Im}a)^2=|\mathrm{Im}a|^2`$. Thus we find that

$`\delta ^2(a,a)`$ $`=`$ $`[\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)]^2`$
$`=`$ $`[\omega ^2(\mathrm{Im}a)2\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)+\nu ^2(\mathrm{Im}a)]`$
$`=`$ $`[\omega ((\mathrm{Im}a)^2)2\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)+\nu ((\mathrm{Im}a)^2)]`$
$`=`$ $`2[|\mathrm{Im}a|^2I_8+\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)],`$
and

$`\delta ^3(a,a)`$ $`=`$ $`2[|\mathrm{Im}a|^2I_8+\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)][\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)]`$
$`=`$ $`4|\mathrm{Im}a|^2[\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)]=4|\mathrm{Im},a|^2\delta (a,a),`$
as required for Eq.(2.26). $`\mathrm{}`$

3. Some linear equations over $`𝕆`$

The matrix expressions of octonions and their properties introduced in Section 2 enable us to easily deal with various problems related to octonions. One of the most fundamental topics on octonions is concerning solutions of various linear equations over $`𝕆`$. In this section, we shall give a complete discussion for this problem. Our first result is concerning the linear equation $`ax=xb`$, which was examined by the author in .

Thoerem 3.1. Let $`a=a_0+a_1e_1+\mathrm{}+a_7e_7,b=b_0+b_1e_1+\mathrm{}+b_7e_7𝕆`$ be given. Then the linear equation $`ax=xb`$ has a nonzero solution if and only if

$$\mathrm{Re}a=\mathrm{Re}band|\mathrm{Im}a|=|\mathrm{Im}b|.$$
$`(3.1)`$
(a) In that case, if $`b\overline{a},`$ i. e., $`\mathrm{Im}a+\mathrm{Im}b0,`$ then the general solution of $`ax=xb`$ can be expressed as

$$x=(\mathrm{Im}a)p+p(\mathrm{Im}b),$$
$`(3.1)`$
where $`p𝒜(a,b)`$, the subalgebra generated by $`a`$ and $`b`$, is arbitrary. or equivalently

$$x=\lambda _1(\mathrm{Im}a+\mathrm{Im}b)+\lambda _2[|\mathrm{Im}a||\mathrm{Im}b|(\mathrm{Im}a)(\mathrm{Im}b)],$$
$`(3.2)`$
where $`\lambda _1,\lambda _2`$ are arbitrary.

(b) If $`b=\overline{a},`$ then the general solution of $`ax=xb`$ is

$$x=x_1e_1+x_2e_2+\mathrm{}+x_7e_7,$$
$`(3.3)`$
where $`x_1`$$`x_7`$ satisfy $`a_1x_1+a_2x_2+\mathrm{}+a_7x_7=0.`$

The correctness of this result can be directly verified by substitution.

Based on the equation $`ax=xb`$, we can define the similarity of two octonions. Two octonions are said to be similar if there is a nonzero $`p𝕆`$ such that $`a=pbp^1`$, which is written as $`ab`$. Theorem 3.1 shows that two octonions are similar if and only if $`\mathrm{Re}a=\mathrm{Re}b`$ and $`|\mathrm{Im}a|=|\mathrm{Im}b|`$. Thus the similarity defined here is also an equivalence relation on octonions. In addition, we have the following.

Theorem 3.2.Let $`a,b𝕆`$ be given with $`b\overline{a}`$. Then

$$ab\omega (a)\omega (b).$$
$`(3.4)`$
Proof. Suppose first that $`ab`$. Then it follows by Eq.(1.11) that

$$a^22(\mathrm{Re}a)a=|a|^2=|b|^2=b^22(\mathrm{Re}b)b.$$

Applying Theorem 2.5(a) and Eq.(2.11) to the both sides of the above equality and we get

$$\omega ^2(a)2(\mathrm{Re}a)\omega (a)=\omega ^2(b)2(\mathrm{Re}b)\omega (b).$$

Thus

$$\omega ^2(a)+\omega (a)\omega (b)2(\mathrm{Re}a)\omega (a)=\omega ^2(b)+\omega (a)\omega (b)2(\mathrm{Re}b)\omega (b),$$

which is equivalent to

$$\omega (a)[\omega (a)+\omega (b)2(\mathrm{Re}a)I_8]=[\omega (a)+\omega (b)2(\mathrm{Re}b)I_8]\omega (b),$$

or simply

$$\omega (a)\omega (\mathrm{Im}a+\mathrm{Im}b)=\omega (\mathrm{Im}a+\mathrm{Im}b)\omega (b).$$

Note that $`\mathrm{Im}a+\mathrm{Im}b0`$. Thus $`\omega (\mathrm{Im}a+\mathrm{Im}b)`$ is invertible. The above equality shows that $`\omega (a)\omega (b)`$. Conversely, if $`\omega (a)\omega (b)`$, then trace $`\omega (a)=`$ trace $`\omega (b)`$ and $`|\omega (a)|=|\omega (b)|`$, which are equivalent to Eq.(3.1). $`\mathrm{}`$

Next we consider some nonhomogeneous linear equations over $`𝕆`$.

Theorem 3.3.Let $`a,b𝕆`$ be given with $`a`$. Then the linear equation $`axxa=b`$ has a solution in $`𝕆`$ if and only if The equality $`ab=b\overline{a}`$ holds. In this case, the general solution of $`axxa=b`$ is

$$x=\frac{1}{4|\mathrm{Im}a|^2}(baab)+p\frac{1}{|\mathrm{Im}a|^2}(\mathrm{Im}a)p(\mathrm{Im}a),$$
$`(3.5)`$
where $`p𝕆`$ is arbitrary.

Proof. According to Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7), the equation $`axxa=b`$ can equivalently be written as

$$[\omega (a)\nu (a)]\stackrel{}{x}=\delta (a,a)\stackrel{}{x}=\stackrel{}{b}.$$
$`(3.6)`$
This equation is solvable if and only if $`\delta (a,a)\delta ^{}(a,a)\stackrel{}{b}=\stackrel{}{b}.`$ In that case, the general solution of Eq.(3.6) can be expressed as

$$\stackrel{}{x}=\delta ^{}(a,a)\stackrel{}{c}+2[I_8\delta ^{}(a,a)\delta (a,a)]\stackrel{}{p},$$

where $`\stackrel{}{p}`$ is an arbitrary real vector. Substituting

$$\delta ^{}(a,a)=\frac{1}{4|\mathrm{Im}a|^2}\delta (a,a),and\delta ^2(a,a)=2[|\mathrm{Im}a|^2+\omega (\mathrm{Im}a)\nu (\mathrm{Im}a)]$$

in the above two equalities and then returning them to octonion forms by Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7) produce the equality in Part (b) and Eq.(3.5). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 3.4.Let $`a=a_0+a_1e_1+\mathrm{}+a_7e_7,b=b_0+b_1e_1+\mathrm{}+b_7e_7𝕆`$ be given with $`a.`$ Then the equation

$$axx\overline{a}=b$$
$`(3.7)`$
has a solution if and only if there exist $`\lambda _0,\lambda _1`$ such that

$$b=\lambda _0+\lambda _1a,$$
$`(3.8)`$
in which case, the general solution of Eq.(3.7) is

$$x=\frac{\lambda _1}{2}+x_1e_1+\mathrm{}+x_7e_7,$$
$`(3.9)`$
where $`x_1`$$`x_7`$ satisfy

$$a_1x_1+\mathrm{}+a_7x_7=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{Re}b.$$
$`(3.10)`$
Proof. According to Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7), the equation (3.7) is equivalent to

$$[\omega (a)\nu (\overline{a})]\stackrel{}{x}=\delta (a,\overline{a})\stackrel{}{x}=\stackrel{}{b},$$
$`(3.11)`$
namely

$$\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0& 2a_1& \mathrm{}& 2a_7\\ 2a_1& 0& \mathrm{}& 0\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ 2a_7& 0& \mathrm{}& 0\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}x_0\\ x_1\\ \mathrm{}\\ x_7\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}b_0\\ b_1\\ \mathrm{}\\ b_7\end{array}\right].$$

Obviously, this equation is solvable if and only if there is a $`\lambda _1`$ such that

$$b_1=\lambda _1a_1,b_2=\lambda _1a_2,\mathrm{},b_7=\lambda _1a_7,$$

i. e., $`\mathrm{Im}\mathrm{b}=\lambda _1\mathrm{Im}\mathrm{a}`$, which is equivalent to Eq.(3.8). In that case, the solution to $`x_0`$ is $`x_0=\frac{\lambda _1}{2}`$, and $`x_1`$$`x_7`$ are determined by Eq.(3.9). $`\mathrm{}`$

Next we consider the linear equation

$$axxb=c$$
$`(3.12)`$
under the condition $`ab`$. Clearly Eq.(3.12) is equivalent to

$$[\omega (a)\nu (b)]\stackrel{}{x}=\delta (a,b)\stackrel{}{x}=\stackrel{}{c}.$$
$`(3.13)`$
Under $`ab`$, we know by Theorem 3.3 that $`ax=xb`$ has a nonzero solution. Hence $`\delta (a,b)`$ is singular under $`ab`$. In that case, Eq.(3.12) is solvable if and only if

$$\delta (a,b)\delta ^{}(a,b)\stackrel{}{c}=\stackrel{}{c},$$
$`(3.14)`$
and the general solution of Eq.(3.13) is

$$\stackrel{}{x}=\delta ^{}(a,b)\stackrel{}{c}+2[I_8\delta ^{}(a,b)\delta (a,b)]\stackrel{}{p},$$
$`(3.15)`$
where $`\stackrel{}{p}`$ is an arbitrary real vector. If $`a`$ is not not similar to $`b`$. Clearly Eq.(3.13) has a unique solution

$$\stackrel{}{x}=\delta ^1(a,b)\stackrel{}{c}$$
$`(3.16)`$
Eqs.(3.15) and (3.16) show that the solvability and solution of the octonion equation (3.12) can be completely determined by its real adjoint linear system of equations (3.13). Through the characteristic polynomial (2.24), one can also retern Eqs.(3.15) and (3.16) to octonion forms. But their expressions are quite tedious in form, and are omitted here.

Another instinctive linear equation over $`𝕆`$ is

$$a(xb)(ax)b=c,$$
$`(3.17)`$
which is also equivalent to

$$(ab)xa(bx)=c,$$
$`(3.18)`$
as well as

$$x(ab)(xa)b=c,$$
$`(3.19)`$
because $`(ab)xa(bx)=(ab)xa(bx)=x(ab)(xa)b`$ hold for all $`a,b,x𝕆`$. Now applying Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7) to the both sides of Eq.(3.17), we obtain an equivalent equation

$$[\omega (a)\nu (b)\nu (b)\omega (a)]\stackrel{}{x}=\stackrel{}{c}.$$
$`(3.20)`$
Here we set $`\mu (a,b)=\omega (a)\nu (b)\nu (b)\omega (a)`$. Then it is easy to see that Eq.(3.20) is solvable if and only if

$$\mu (a,b)\mu ^{}(a,b)\stackrel{}{c}=\stackrel{}{c},$$

where $`\mu ^{}(a,b)`$ is a generalized inverse of $`\mu (a,b)`$. In that case, the general solution of Eq.(3.20) is

$$\stackrel{}{x}=\mu ^{}(a,b)\stackrel{}{c}+[I_8\mu ^{}(a,b)\mu (a,b)]\stackrel{}{p},$$
$`(3.21)`$
where $`\stackrel{}{p}`$ is an arbitrary real vector. Numerical computation for Eq.(3.21) can reveal some interesting facts on Eq.(3.17). The reader can try to find them.

Theoretically speaking, any kind of two-sided linear equations or systems of linear equations over $`𝕆`$ can be equivalently transformed into systems of linear equations over $``$ by the two equalities in Eqs.(2.3) and (2.7). Thus the problems related to linear equations over $`𝕆`$ now have a complete resolution.

4. Real adjoint matrices of octonion matrices

In this section, we consider how to extend the work in Sections 2 and 3 to octonion matrices and use them to deal with various octonion matrix problems. Since octonion algebra is non-associative, the matrix operations in $`𝕆`$ is much different from what we are familiar with in an associative algebra. Even the simplest matrix multiplication rule $`A^2A=AA^2`$ does not hold over $`𝕆`$, that is to say, multiplication of matrices over $`𝕆`$ is completely not associative. Thus nearly all the known results and methods on matrices over associative algebras can hardly be extended to matrices over $`𝕆`$. In that case, a unique method available to deal with matrices over $`𝕆`$ is to establish real matrix representations of octonion matrices, and then to transform matrix problems over $`𝕆`$ to various equivalent real matrix problems.

Based on the two matrix representations of octonions shown in Eqs.(2.2) and (2.6), we now introduce two adjoints for a octonion matrix as follows.

Definition 4.1. Let $`A=(a_{st})𝕆^{m\times n}`$ be given . Then the left adjoint matrix of $`A`$ is defined to be

$$\omega (A)=[\omega (a_{st})]=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\omega (a_{11})& \mathrm{}& \omega (a_{1n})\\ \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}\\ \omega (a_{m1})& \mathrm{}& \omega (a_{mn})\end{array}\right]^{8m\times 8n},$$
$`(4.1)`$
the right adjoint matrix of $`A`$ is defined to be

$$\nu (A)=[\nu (a_{ts})]=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\nu (a_{11})& \mathrm{}& \nu (a_{m1})\\ \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}\\ \nu (a_{1n})& \mathrm{}& \nu (a_{mn})\end{array}\right]^{8n\times 8m},$$
$`(4.2)`$
and the adjoint vector of $`A`$ is defined to be

$$\mathrm{vec}A:=[\stackrel{}{a_{11}}^T,\mathrm{},\stackrel{}{a_{m1}}^T,\stackrel{}{a_{12}}^T,\mathrm{},\stackrel{}{a_{m2}}^T,\mathrm{},\stackrel{}{a_{1n}}^T,\mathrm{},\stackrel{}{a_{mn}}^T]^T.$$
$`(4.3)`$
Definition 4.2. Let $`A=(A_{st})_{m\times n}`$ and $`B=(B_{st})_{p\times q}`$ are two block matrices over $``$, where $`A_{st},B_{st}^{8\times 8}`$. Then the left and right block Kronecker products of $`A`$ and $`B`$, denoted respectively by $`A\widehat{}B`$ and $`A\stackrel{~}{}B`$, are defined to be

$$A\widehat{}B=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}A_{11}_LB& \mathrm{}& A_{1n}_LB\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ A_{m1}_LB& \mathrm{}& A_{mn}_LB\end{array}\right]^{8mp\times 8nq},$$
$`(4.4)`$
and

$$A\stackrel{~}{}B=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}A_RB_{11}& \mathrm{}& A_RB_{1q}\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ A_RB_{p1}& \mathrm{}& A_RB_{pq}\end{array}\right]^{8mp\times 8nq},$$
$`(4.5)`$
where

$$A_{st}_LB=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}A_{st}B_{11}& \mathrm{}& A_{st}B_{1q}\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ A_{st}B_{p1}& \mathrm{}& A_{st}B_{pq}\end{array}\right]^{8p\times 8q},$$
$`(4.6)`$
$$A_RB_{st}=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}A_{11}B_{st}& \mathrm{}& A_{1n}B_{st}\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ A_{m1}B_{st}& \mathrm{}& A_{mn}B_{st}\end{array}\right]^{8m\times 8n}.$$
$`(4.7)`$
Noticing the equality (2.5), we see the two adjoint matrices $`\omega (A)`$ and $`\nu (A)`$ of an octonion matrix $`A`$ satisfy the following equality

$$\nu (A)=K_{8n}\omega ^T(A)K_{8m},$$
$`(4.8)`$
where

$$K_{8t}=\mathrm{diag}(K_8,\mathrm{},K_8),K_8=\mathrm{diag}(\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},1,\mathrm{},1),t=m,n.$$
$`(4.9)`$
It is easy to see from Eqs.(4.4) and (4.5) that the two kinds of block Kronecker products are actually constructed by replacing all elements in the standard Kronecker product of matrices with $`8\times 8`$ matrices. Hence the operation properties on these two kinds of products are much similar to those on the standard Kronecker product of matrices. We do not intend to list them here.

We next present some operation properties on the two real matrix representations of octonion matrices.

Theorem 4.1.Let $`A,B𝕆^{m\times n},\lambda `$ be given. Then

(a) $`A=B\omega (A)=\omega (B)\nu (A)=\nu (B),`$ i. e., $`\omega `$ and $`\nu `$ are 1-1.

(b) $`\omega (A+B)=\omega (A)+\omega (B),and\nu (A+B)=\nu (A)+\nu (B).`$

(c) $`\omega (\lambda A)=\lambda \omega (A),and\nu (\lambda A)=\lambda \nu (A).`$

(d) $`\omega (I_m)=I_{8m},and\nu (I_m)=I_{8m}.`$

(e) $`\omega (A^{})=\omega ^T(A),and\nu (A^{})=\nu ^T(A),`$ where $`A^{}=(\overline{a_{ts}})`$ is the conjugate transpose of $`A`$.

Theorem 4.2.Let $`A𝕆^{m\times n}`$ be given. Then

$$A=\frac{1}{8}E_{8m}\omega (A)E_{8n}^T,$$
$`(4.10)`$
where

$$E_{8t}=\mathrm{diag}(E_8,\mathrm{},E_8),andE_8=\mathrm{diag}(\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},e_1,\mathrm{},e_7),t=m,n.$$

Proof. Follows directly from Corollary 2.7. $`\mathrm{}`$

Since the multiplication of matrices over $`𝕆`$ is completely not associative, no identities on products of octonions matrices can be established over $`𝕆`$ in general. Consequently, no identities on products of the two kinds of real matrix representations of octonion matrices can be established. In spit of this, we can still apply Eqs.(4.1) and (4.2) to deal with various problems related to octonion matrices. Next are some results on the relationship of $`\omega ()`$, $`\nu ()`$ and vec$`()`$ for matrices over $`𝕆.`$

Lemma 4.3.Let $`A𝕆^{n\times 1},B𝕆^{1\times n}`$ and $`x𝕆`$ be given. Then

$$\mathrm{vec}(Ax)=\omega (A)\stackrel{}{x}and\mathrm{vec}(xB)=\nu (B^T)\stackrel{}{x}.$$
$`(4.11)`$
Proof. Let $`A=[a_1,\mathrm{},a_n]^T`$ and $`B=[b_1,\mathrm{},b_n]^T`$. Then by Eqs.(2.3), (2.7) and Eqs.(4.1)—(4.3) we find

$$\mathrm{vec}(Ax)=\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{a_1x}\\ \mathrm{}\\ \stackrel{}{a_nx}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}\omega (a_1)\stackrel{}{x}\\ \mathrm{}\\ \omega (a_n)\stackrel{}{x}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}\omega (a_1)\\ \mathrm{}\\ \omega (a_n)\end{array}\right]\stackrel{}{x}=\omega (A)\stackrel{}{x},$$

and

$$\mathrm{vec}(xB)=\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{xb_1}\\ \mathrm{}\\ \stackrel{}{xb_n}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}\nu (b_1)\stackrel{}{x}\\ \mathrm{}\\ \nu (b_n)\stackrel{}{x}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}\nu (b_1)\\ \mathrm{}\\ \nu (b_n)\end{array}\right]\stackrel{}{x}=\nu (B^T)\stackrel{}{x}.\mathrm{}$$

Lemma 4.4.Let $`A𝕆^{m\times n},X𝕆^{n\times 1}`$ and $`a𝕆`$ be given. Then

$$\mathrm{vec}(AX)=\omega (A)\mathrm{vec}Xand\mathrm{vec}(Xa)=[\nu (a)\widehat{}I_{8n}]\mathrm{vec}X=\nu (a)\widehat{}\mathrm{vec}X.$$
$`(4.12)`$
Proof. Let $`A=[A_1,\mathrm{},A_n]`$ and $`X=[x_1,\mathrm{},x_n]^T`$. Then by Eq.(4.11) we find

$`\mathrm{vec}(AX)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{vec}(A_1x_1+\mathrm{}+A_nx_n)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{vec}(A_1x_1)+\mathrm{}+\mathrm{vec}(A_nx_n)`$
$`=`$ $`\omega (A_1)\mathrm{vec}x_1+\mathrm{}+\omega (A_n)\mathrm{vec}x_n`$
$`=`$ $`[\omega (A_1),\mathrm{},\omega (A_n)]\left[\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{vec}x_1\\ \mathrm{}\\ \mathrm{vec}x_n\end{array}\right]=\omega (A)\mathrm{vec}X,`$
as required for the first equality in (4.12). On the other hand,

$$\mathrm{vec}(Xa)=\left[\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{x_1a}\\ \mathrm{}\\ \stackrel{}{x_na}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}\nu (a)\stackrel{}{x_1}\\ \mathrm{}\\ \nu (a)\stackrel{}{x_n}\end{array}\right]=[\nu (a)\widehat{}I_{8n}]\mathrm{vec}X=\nu (a)\widehat{}\mathrm{vec}X,$$

as required for the second equality in (4.12). $`\mathrm{}`$

Lemma 4.5.Let $`B𝕆^{p\times 1}`$ and $`X𝕆^{n\times p}`$ be given. Then

$$\mathrm{vec}(XB)=[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}]\mathrm{vec}X.$$
$`(4.13)`$
Proof. Let $`X=[X_1,\mathrm{},X_p]`$ and $`B=[b_1,\mathrm{},b_p]^T`$. Then it follows from the second equality in (4.12) that

$`\mathrm{vec}(XB)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{vec}(X_1b_1+\mathrm{}+X_pb_p)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{vec}(X_1b_1)+\mathrm{}+\mathrm{vec}(X_pb_p)`$
$`=`$ $`(\nu (b_1)\widehat{}I_{8n})\mathrm{vec}X_1+\mathrm{}+(\nu (b_p)\widehat{}I_{8n})\mathrm{vec}X_p`$
$`=`$ $`([\nu (b_1),\mathrm{},\nu (b_p)]\widehat{}I_{8n})\left[\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{vec}X_1\\ \mathrm{}\\ \mathrm{vec}X_p\end{array}\right]=[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}]\mathrm{vec}X,`$
as required for Eq.(4.13). $`\mathrm{}`$

Based on the above several lemmas, we can find the following three general results.

Theorem 4.6.Let $`A=(a_{st})𝕆^{m\times n}`$ and $`X𝕆^{n\times p}`$ be given. Then

$$\mathrm{vec}(AX)=[I_{8p}\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}X.$$
$`(4.14)`$
Proof. Let $`X=[X_1,\mathrm{},X_p]`$. Then we find by Eq.(4.12) that

$`\mathrm{vec}(AX)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{vec}[AX_1,\mathrm{},AX_p]`$
$`=`$ $`[\mathrm{vec}(AX_1),\mathrm{},\mathrm{vec}(AX_p)]`$
$`=`$ $`[\omega (A)\mathrm{vec}X_1,\mathrm{},\omega (A)\mathrm{vec}X_p]`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{diag}(\omega (A),\mathrm{},\omega (A))[\mathrm{vec}X_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{vec}X_p]=[I_{8p}\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}X,`$
establishing Eq.(4.14). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 4.7.Let $`B=(b_{st})𝕆^{p\times q}`$ and $`X𝕆^{n\times p}`$ be given. Then

$$\mathrm{vec}(XB)=[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}]\mathrm{vec}X.$$
$`(4.15)`$
Proof. Let $`B=[B_1,\mathrm{},B_q]`$. Then we find by Eq.(4.13) that

$`\mathrm{vec}(XB)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{vec}[XB_1,\mathrm{},XB_q]`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{vec}XB_1\\ \mathrm{}\\ \mathrm{vec}XB_q\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{c}\left[\nu (B_1^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}\right]\mathrm{vec}X\\ \mathrm{}\\ \left[\nu (B_q^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}\right]\mathrm{vec}X\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}\left[\nu (B_1^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}\right]\\ \mathrm{}\\ \left[\nu (B_q^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}\right]\end{array}\right]\mathrm{vec}X=[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}]\mathrm{vec}X,`$
as rerquired for Eq.(4.15). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 4.8.Let $`A=(a_{st})𝕆^{m\times n},B=(b_{st})𝕆^{p\times q},`$ and $`X𝕆^{n\times p}`$ be given. Then

$$\mathrm{vec}[(AX)B]=[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}X,and\mathrm{vec}[A(XB)]=[\omega (A)\stackrel{~}{}\nu (B^T)]\mathrm{vec}X.$$
$`(4.16)`$
Proof. According to Eqs.(4.14) and (4.15), we find that

$`\mathrm{vec}[(AX)B]`$ $`=`$ $`[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}I_{8m}]\mathrm{vec}(AX)`$
$`=`$ $`[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}I_{8m}][I_{8p}\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}X=[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}X,`$
and

$`\mathrm{vec}[A(XB)]`$ $`=`$ $`[I_{8p}\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}(XB)`$
$`=`$ $`[I_{8p}\widehat{}\omega (A)][\nu (B^T)\widehat{}I_{8n}]\mathrm{vec}X=[\omega (A)\stackrel{~}{}\nu (B^T)]\mathrm{vec}X,`$
as required for Eq.(4.16). $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 4.9.Let $`A=(a_{st})𝕆^{n\times n},X=(b_{st})𝕆^{n\times p},Y𝕆^{q\times n}`$ be given, and denote

$$A^{(k|}X=A(A\mathrm{}(AX)\mathrm{})),andYA^{|k)}=((\mathrm{}(YA)\mathrm{})A)A.$$

Then

$$\mathrm{vec}(A^{(k|}X)=[I_{8p}\widehat{}\omega ^k(A)]\mathrm{vec}X,and\mathrm{vec}(YA^{|k)})=[\nu ^k(A^T)\widehat{}I_{8q}]\mathrm{vec}Y.$$
$`(4.17)`$
Just as the standard Kronecker products for matrices over any field, the three formulas in Eqs.(4.14)—(4.16) can directly be used for transforming any linear matrix equations over $`𝕆`$ into an ordinary linear system of equation over $``$. For example,

$$\begin{array}{c}\text{ }AX=B[I\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}B,\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }XA=B[\nu (A^T)\widehat{}I]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}B,\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }A(BX)=C[I\widehat{}\omega (A)\omega (B)]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}C,\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }(XA)B=C[\nu (B^T)\nu (A^T)\widehat{}I]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}C,\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }(AX)B=C[\nu (B^T)\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}C,\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }A(XB)=C[\omega (A)\stackrel{~}{}\nu (B)]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}C,\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }AXXB=C[I\widehat{}\omega (A)\nu (B)\widehat{}I]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}C,\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }(AX)AA(XA)=B[\nu (A^T)\widehat{}\omega (A)\omega (A)\stackrel{~}{}\nu (A^T)]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}B.\text{ }\hfill \end{array}$$

Theoreticlly speaking, various problems related to linear matrix equations over the octonion algebra now have a complete resolution.

Below are several simple results related to solutions of linear matrix equations over $`𝕆`$.

Definition 4.3. Let $`A𝕆^{n\times n}`$ be given. If its left adjoint matrix $`\omega (A)`$ is invertible, then $`A`$ is said to be completely invertible.

Theorem 4.10.Let $`A=(a_{st})𝕆^{m\times m}`$ and $`B=(b_{st})𝕆^{m\times n}`$ be given. If $`A`$ is completely invertible, then the matrix equation

$$AX=B,$$
$`(4.18)`$
has a unique solution over $`𝕆`$. In that case, if the real characteristic polynomial of $`\omega (A)`$ is

$$p(\lambda )=\lambda ^t+r_{t1}\lambda ^{t1}+\mathrm{}+r_1\lambda +r_0,$$
$`(4.19)`$
where $`r_0`$ is the determinant of $`\omega (A),`$ then the unique solution of Eq.(4.18) can be expressed as

$$X=\frac{1}{r_0}[A^{(t1|}B+r_{t1}(A^{(t2|}B)+\mathrm{}+r_3A(AB)+r_2AB+r_1B].$$
$`(4.20)`$
Proof. According to Eq.(4.14), the matrix equation (4.18) is equivalent to

$$[I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}B.$$
$`(4.21)`$
Because $`\omega (A)`$ is invertible, $`I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega (A)`$ is also invertible. Hence the solution of Eq.(4.25) is unique and this solution is

$$\mathrm{vec}X=[I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega (A)]^1\mathrm{vec}B=[I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega ^1(A)]\mathrm{vec}B.$$

Observe that

$$\omega ^t(A)+r_{t1}\omega ^{t1}(A)+\mathrm{}+r_1\omega (A)+r_0I_{8m}=0$$

holds. We then have

$$\omega ^1(A)=\frac{1}{r_0}\left[\omega ^{t1}(A)+r_{t1}\omega ^{t2}(A)+\mathrm{}+r_2\omega (A)+r_1I_{8m}\right].$$

Thus

$$I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega ^1(A)=\frac{1}{r_0}[I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega ^{t1}(A)+r_{t1}(I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega ^{t2}(A))+\mathrm{}+r_2(I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega (A))+(r_1I_{8n}\widehat{}I_{8m})],$$

and

$`\mathrm{vec}X=[I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega (A)]^1\mathrm{vec}B`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r_0}}[(I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega ^{t1}(A))\mathrm{vec}B+r_{t1}(I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega ^{t2}(A))\mathrm{vec}B`$
$`+\mathrm{}+r_2(I_{8n}\widehat{}\omega (A))\mathrm{vec}B+r_1(I_{8n}\widehat{}I_{8m})\mathrm{vec}B].`$
Retuning it to octonion matrix expression by Eq.(4.17), we obtain Eq.(4.24). $`\mathrm{}`$

Similarly we have the following.

Theorem 4.11.Let $`A=(a_{st})𝕆^{m\times m}`$ and $`B=(b_{st})𝕆^{n\times m}`$ be given. If $`A`$ is completely invertible, then the matrix equation $`XA=B`$ has a unique solution over $`𝕆`$. In that case, if the real characteristic polynomial of $`\omega (A)`$ is

$$p(\lambda )=\lambda ^t+r_{t1}\lambda ^{t1}+\mathrm{}+r_1\lambda +r_0,$$
$`(4.22)`$
then the unique solution of $`XB=A`$ can be expressed as

$$X=\frac{1}{r_0}[BA^{|t1)}+r_{t1}(BA^{|t2)})+\mathrm{}+r_3(BA)A+r_2BA+r_1B].$$
$`(4.23)`$
For simplicity, the two solutions in Eqs.(4.20) and (4.23) can also be written as

$$X=L_A^1B,X=BR_A^1,$$
$`(4.24)`$
where $`L_A^1`$ and $`R_A^1`$ are, respectively, called the left and the right inverse operators of the completely invertible octonion matrix $`A`$. Some properties on these two inverse operators are listed below.

Theorem 4.12.Let $`A𝕆^{m\times m}`$ be an completely invertible matrix, $`B𝕆^{m\times n}`$ and $`C𝕆^{n\times m}`$ be given. Then

$$A(L_A^1B)=B,A(L_A^1I_m)=I_m,$$
$`(4.25)`$
$$L_A^1(AB)=B,L_A^1A=I_m,$$
$`(4.26)`$
$$(CR_A^1)A=C,(I_mR_A^1)A=I_m,$$
$`(4.27)`$
$$(CA)R_A^1=C,AR_A^1=I_m.$$
$`(4.28)`$
Proof. Follows from Theorems 4.10 and 4.11. $`\mathrm{}`$

We can also consider the inverses of octonion matrices in the usual sense. Let $`A𝕆^{m\times m}`$ be given. If there are $`X,Y𝕆^{m\times m}`$ such that $`XA=I_m`$ and $`AY=I_m`$, then $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are, respectively, called the left inverse and the right inverse of $`A`$, and denoted by $`A_L^1:=X`$ and $`A_R^1:=Y`$. From Theorems 4.10 and 4.11, we know that a square matrix of order $`m`$ over $`𝕆`$ has a left inverse if and only if the equation $`[\nu (A^T)\widehat{}I_{8m}]\mathrm{vec}X=\mathrm{vec}I_m`$ is solvable, and $`A`$ has a right inverse if and only if the equation $`[I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega (A)]\mathrm{vec}Y=\mathrm{vec}I_m`$ is solvable. These two facts imply that the left and the right inverses of a square matrix may not be unique, even both of them exist. As two special cases, we have the following.

Theorem 4.13.Let $`A𝕆^{m\times m}`$ be given. Then the left and the right inverses of $`A`$ are unique if and only if $`A`$ is completely invertible. In that case, if the real characteristic polynomial of $`\omega (A)`$ is

$$p(\lambda )=\lambda ^t+r_{t1}\lambda ^{t1}+\mathrm{}+r_1\lambda +r_0,$$

then the unique left and the unique right inverses $`A`$ can be expressed as

$$A_L^1=\frac{1}{r_0}[A^{(t1|}+r_{t1}A^{(t2|}+\mathrm{}+r_3A(A^2)+r_2A^2+r_1I_m],$$

and

$$A_R^1=\frac{1}{r_0}[A^{|t1)}+r_{t1}A^{|t2)}+\mathrm{}+r_3(A^2)A+r_2A^2+r_1I_m],$$

where $`A^{(s|}:=A(A(\mathrm{}(AA)\mathrm{}))`$ and $`A^{|s)}:=((\mathrm{}(AA)\mathrm{})A)A.`$

Proof. Follows directly from Theorems 4.10 and 4.11. $`\mathrm{}`$

Based on Theorems 4.10 and 4.12, as well as Eqs.(4.25)—(4.28), we can also derive the following two simple results.

Corollary 4.14.If $`A𝕆^{m\times m}`$ is completely invertible, and $`AB_1=AC_1`$ and $`B_2A=C_2A,`$ then $`B_1=C_1`$ and $`B_2=C_2.`$ In other words, the left and the right cancellation rules hold for completely invertible matrices.

Corollary 4.15.Suppose that $`A𝕆^{m\times m},B𝕆^{n\times n}`$ are completely invertible and $`C𝕆^{m\times n}`$. Then

(a) The matrix equation $`A(XB)=C`$ has a unique solution $`X=(L_A^1C)R_B^1.`$

(b) The matrix equation $`(AX)B=C`$ has a unique solution $`X=L_A^1(CR_B^1),`$
where $`L_A^1`$ and $`R_B^1`$ are the left and the right inverse operators of $`A`$ and $`B`$ respectively.

Our next result is concerned with the extension of the Cayley-Hamilton theorem to octonion matrices, which could be regarded as one of most successful applications of matrix representations of octonions.

Theorem 4.16.Let $`A𝕆^{m\times m}`$ be given and suppose that the real characteristic polynomial of $`\omega (A)`$ is

$$p(\lambda )=\lambda ^t+r_{t1}\lambda ^{t1}+\mathrm{}+r_1\lambda +r_0.$$

Then $`A`$ satisfies the following two identities

$$A^{(t|}+r_{t1}A^{(t1|}+\mathrm{}+r_3A(AA)+r_2A^2+r_1A+r_0I_m=0,$$
$`(4.29)`$
$$A^{|t)}+r_{t1}A^{|t1)}+\mathrm{}+r_3(AA)A+r_2A^2+r_1A+r_0I_m=0.$$
$`(4.30)`$
Proof. Observe that $`p[\omega (A)]=0`$. It follows that

$$[I_{8m}\widehat{}p[\omega (A)]]\mathrm{vec}I_m=0.$$
$`(4.31)`$
On the other hand, it is east to see by Eq.(4.17) that

$$\mathrm{vec}A^{(s|}=\mathrm{vec}(A^{(s|}I_m)=[I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega ^s(A)]\mathrm{vec}I_m,s=1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{}.$$

Thus we find that

$$\begin{array}{c}\text{ }[I_{8m}\widehat{}p(\omega (A))]\mathrm{vec}I_m\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }=[I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega ^t(A)+r_{t1}(I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega ^{t1}(A))+\mathrm{}+r_1(I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega (A))+r_0(I_{8m}\widehat{}I_{8m})]\mathrm{vec}I_m\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }=(I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega ^t(A))\mathrm{vec}I_m+r_{t1}(I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega ^{t1}(A))\mathrm{vec}I_m+\mathrm{}+r_1(I_{8m}\widehat{}\omega (A))\mathrm{vec}I_m+r_0(I_{8m}\widehat{}I_{8m})\mathrm{vec}I_m\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }=\mathrm{vec}A^{(t|}+r_{t1}\mathrm{vec}A^{(t1|}+\mathrm{}+r_1\mathrm{vec}A+r_0\mathrm{vec}I_m\text{ }\hfill \\ \text{ }=\mathrm{vec}[A^{(t|}+r_{t1}A^{(t1|}+\mathrm{}+r_1A+r_0I_m].\text{ }\hfill \end{array}$$

The combination of this equality with Eq.(4.31) results in Eq.(4.29). The identity in Eq.(3.30) can be established similarly. $`\mathrm{}`$

Finally we present a result on real eigenvalues of Hermitian octonion matrices.

Theorem 4.17.Suppose that $`A𝕆^{m\times m}`$ is Hermitian, that is, $`A^{}=A`$. Then $`A`$ and its real adjoint $`\omega (A)`$ have identical real eigenvalues.

Proof. Since $`A=A^{}`$, we know by Theorem 4.1(e) that $`\omega (A)=\omega (A^{})=\omega ^T(A),`$ that is, $`\omega (A)`$ is a real symmetric matrix. In that case, all eigenvalues of $`\omega (A)`$ are real. Now suppose that

$$\omega (A)X=X\lambda ,$$
$`(4.32)`$
where $`\lambda `$ and $`X^{8m\times 1}`$. Then there is unique $`Y𝕆^{m\times 1}`$ such that $`\mathrm{vec}Y=X`$. In that case, it is easy to find by Theorem 4.1(a) and Eq.(4.12) that

$$\omega (A)X=X\lambda \omega (A)\mathrm{vec}Y=\mathrm{vec}Y\lambda \mathrm{vec}(AY)=\mathrm{vec}(Y\lambda )AY=Y\lambda ,$$
$`(4.33)`$
which implies that $`\lambda `$ is a real eigenvalue of $`A`$, and $`Y`$ is a eigenvector of $`A`$ corresponding to this $`\lambda `$. Conversely suppose that $`AY=Y\lambda ,`$ where $`\lambda `$, $`Y𝕆^{m\times 1}`$. Then taking vec operation on its both sides according to Eq.(4.12) yields

$$\omega (A)\mathrm{vec}Y=\mathrm{vec}Y\lambda .$$

This implies that $`\lambda `$ is also a real eigenvalue of $`\omega (A)`$ and $`\mathrm{vec}Y`$ is a real eigenvector of $`\omega (A)`$ associcated with this $`\lambda `$. $`\mathrm{}`$

The above result clearly shows that real eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of a Hermitian octonion matrix $`A`$ can all be determined by its real adjoint $`\omega (A)`$. Since $`\omega (A)`$ is a real symmetric $`8m\times 8m`$ matrix, it has $`8m`$ eigenvalues and $`8m`$ corresponding orthogonal eigenvectors.

Now a fundamental problem would naturally be asked: how many different real eigenvalues can a Hermitian octonion matrix $`A`$ have at most? For a $`2\times 2`$ Hermitian octonion matrix $`A=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ \overline{b}& c\end{array}\right]`$, where $`a,c`$, its real adjoint is

$$\omega (A)=\left[\begin{array}{cc}aI_8& \omega (b)\\ \omega ^T(b)& cI_8\end{array}\right].$$

Clearly the characteristic polynomial of $`\omega (A)`$ is

$$\mathrm{det}(\lambda I_{16}\omega (A))=[(\lambda a)(\lambda c)|b|^2]^8.$$

This shows that $`\omega (A)`$, and correspondingly $`A`$, has 2 eigenvalues, each of which has a multiplicity 8.

The eigenvalue problem for $`3\times 3`$ Hermitian octonion matrices was recently examined by Dray and Manogue  and Okubo . They showed by algebraic methods that every $`3\times 3`$ Hermitian octonion matrix has 24 real eigenvalues which are divided into 6 groups, each of them has multiplicity 4. Now according to Theorem 4.17, the real eigenvalues of any $`3\times 3`$ Hermitian octonion matrix

$$A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}a_{11}& a_{12}& a_{13}\\ \overline{a}_{12}& a_{22}& a_{23}\\ \overline{a}_{13}& \overline{a}_{23}& a_{33}\end{array}\right],a_{11},a_{22},a_{33},$$

can be completely determined by its real adjoint

$$\omega (A)=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\omega (a_{11})& \omega (a_{12})& \omega (a_{13})\\ \omega ^T(a_{12})& \omega (a_{22})& \omega (a_{23})\\ \omega ^T(a_{13})& \omega ^T(a_{23})& \omega (a_{33})\end{array}\right].$$

Obviously this matrix has 24 real eigenvalues and the $`24`$ corresponding real orthogonal eigenvectors. Numerical computation shows that these 24 eigenvalues are divided into 6 groups, each of them has multiplicity 4, which is consistent with the fact revealed in  and . Moreover the 24 real orthogonal eigenvectors can also be converted to octonion expressions by (4.33).

Furthermore, numerical computation reveals an interesting fact that the 32 real eigenvalues any $`4\times 4`$ Hermitian octonion matrix are divided into 16 groups, each of them has multiplicity 2; the 40 real eigenvalues of any $`5\times 5`$ Hermitian octonion matrix are divided into 20 groups, each of them has multiplicity 2.

In general, we guess that for any $`m\times m`$ Hermitian octonion matrix with $`m>3`$, its $`8m`$ real eigenvalues can be divided into $`4m`$ groups, each of them has multiplicity 2.

As a subsequent work of Thereom 4.17, one might naturally ask hwo to establish a possible factorization for a Hermitian octonion matrix using its real eigenvalues and corresponding octonion orthogonal eigenvectors, speak more precisely, for an $`m\times m`$ Hermitian octonion matrix $`A`$, how construct a complete invertible octonion matrix $`P`$ (unitary?) and a real diagonal matrix $`D`$ such that $`A=PDP^1`$ using its $`8m`$ real eigenvalues and $`8m`$ corresponding octonion orthogonal eigenvectors. However, this problem seems quite curious, because the number of different real eigenvalues of an Hermitian octonion matrix is more than its order. This problem is also quite challenging, because various traditional methods in associative matrix theory are not applicable to this non-associative case.

As pointed out in , Hermitian octonion matrices can also have non-real right eigenvalues. Theoretically speaking, the non-real eigenvalue problem of Hermitian octonion matrices may also be converted to a problem related to real representations of octonion matrices. In fact, suppose that $`AX=X\lambda ,`$ where $`\lambda 𝕆`$ and $`X𝕆^{m\times 1}`$. Then according to Eq.(4.12), it is equivalent to

$$\omega (A)\mathrm{vec}X=\nu (\lambda )\widehat{}\mathrm{vec}X,$$

or alternatively

$$[\omega (A)\mathrm{diag}(\nu (\lambda ),\mathrm{},\nu (\lambda )]\mathrm{vec}X=0.$$

How to find $`\nu (\lambda )`$ satisfying the equation remains to further study.

Conclusions. In this paper, we have introduced two pseudo real matrix representations for octonions. Based on them we have made a complete investigation to their operation properties and have considered their various applications to octonions and matrices of octonions. However our work could only be regarded as a first step in the research of octonion matrix analysis and its applications. Numerous problems related to matrices of octonions remain to further examine, such as:

* How to determine eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a square octonion matrix, not necessarily Hermitian, and what is the relationship of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a octonion matrix and its real adjoint matrices?
* Besides Eq.(4.29) and (4.30), how to establish some other identities for octonion matrices through their adjoint matrices?
* How to establish similarity theory for octonion matrices, and how to determine the relationship between the similarity of octonions matrices and the similarity of their adjoint matrices?
* How to consider various possible decompositions of octonion matrices, such as, LU decomposition, singular value decomposition and Schur decomposition?
* How to characterize various particular octonion matrices, such as, idempotent matrices, nipoltent matrices, involutary matrices, unitary matrices, normal matrices, and so on?
* How to define generalized inverses of octonion matrices when they are not completely invertible?

and so on. As mentioned in the beginning of the section, matrix multiplication for octonion matrices is completely not associative. In that case, any further research to problems related matrices of octonions is extremely difficult, but is also quite challenging. Any advance in solving the problems mentioned above could lead to remarkable new development in the real octonion algebra and its applications in mathematical physics.

Finally we should point out that the results obtained in the paper can use to establish pseudo matrix representations for real sedenions, as well as, in general, for elements in any $`2^n`$-dimensional real Cayley-Dickson algebras.


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# Magnetic Properties of HTSC with Weak Interlayer Coupling.

## I Introduction.

Scaling properties of layered high temperature superconductors (HTSC) around the mean–filed transition line $`H_{c2}(T)`$ has been under intensive experimental and theoretical study during the last decade. The layered YBa2Cu3O7-δ compounds exhibit 3D properties. All thermodynamic and transport quantities obey the 3D scaling law as a function of the scaling variable $`B(TT_{c2}(H))/(TH)^{2/3}`$, when the applied magnetic field is perpendicular to the layers plane. In the case of Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10 experimental results show 2D scaling behaviour with respect to the 2D scaling variable $`A(TT_{c2}(H))/(TH)^{1/2}`$. The fact that the phenomenon is observed in the vicinity of the mean–field upper critical field indicates that the problem can be studied in the framework of the Ginzburg–Landau (GL) theory with the order parameter projected onto the space of the lowest Landau levels (LLL). First calculations of the free energy scaling function were done perturbatively. The non-perturbative approach for pure 2D systems was developed by Tesanović et. al.. It was shown that around the mean–field transition line only the fluctuations of the total amplitude of the order parameter play important role in the superconductor thermodynamics. The remaining part, fluctuations in the position of the vortices enters through the dimensionless Abrikosov geometric factor $`\beta _A`$. In the most realistic cases this quantity weakly depends on the vortex configuration and can be taken as a constant from the very beginning. This approach was generalized for the layered 2D and 3D systems by Tesanović and Andreev. They showed that the system dimensionality depends on the strength of the interlayer coupling constant. When coupling is absent, the system becomes pure two dimensional. In the limit of strong interlayer coupling, when the superconducting correlation length $`\xi _c`$ along the $`c`$-axis direction becomes much larger then the effective interlayer separation $`s`$ the 3D description becomes appropriate. In the intermediate case $`\xi _c<s`$ the system becomes quasi two–dimensional for which scaling is impossible.

In this Paper we study quasi two dimensional layered superconductor in the region of the critical fluctuations. In this region we use GL-LLL description, which allows us to build a solvable model. The interlayer coupling is assumed to be small and therefore can be taken into account perturbatively. Within this approach we calculated the sample magnetization to the second order in the interlayer coupling constant. If this constant is extremely small one can consider only the first order correction. We show that because of the nearest neighboring coupling this correction leads to shift of the critical temperature, preserving the form of usual 2D scaling function of the magnetization. Only the next order correction destroys scaling and leads to disappearance of the magnetization crossing point. The effective interlayer coupling constant turns out to be proportional to the square root of the inverse applied field, which results in effective suppression of the interlayer interaction in high field region and, therefore, leads to recovering of the 2D scaling law.

## II The Model.

Consider a layered type II superconductor in the region of critical fluctuations around its mean-field transition line $`T_{c2}(H)`$ (or $`H_{c2}(T)`$). The applied magnetic field $`𝐇`$ is assumed to be normal to the layers plane: $`𝐇\widehat{c}`$. Then the superconductor thermodynamics at the temperature $`T`$ can be described by the following partition function:

$$𝒵𝒟[\mathrm{\Psi }]𝒟[𝐀]\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{[\mathrm{\Psi },𝐀]}{k_BT}\right\},$$
(1)
where $`[\mathrm{\Psi },𝐀]`$ is the GL free energy functional of the layered system with a nearest neighboring Josephson coupling between pancake vortices given by

$`[\mathrm{\Psi },𝐀]=s{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}{\displaystyle }d^2𝐫\{\alpha _0|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{2}}|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^4+`$ (2)
$`\gamma _{ab}|_n\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2+\gamma _c|\mathrm{\Psi }_n\mathrm{\Psi }_{n+1}|^2+{\displaystyle \frac{(𝐇𝐁_n)^2}{8\pi }}\}`$ (3)
and $`k_B`$ is the Boltzmann constant. The quantity $`s`$ is an effective interlayer spacing, $`\alpha _0=a(TT_{c0})`$ and $`\beta =const`$ are the first and the second GL coefficients correspondingly. The third GL coefficient $`\gamma `$ is assumed to be anisotropic, where the quantities $`\gamma _{ab}`$ and $`\gamma _c`$ define its value in the layer plane and $`\widehat{c}`$ direction correspondingly. In what follows, we refer to the quantity $`\gamma _c`$ as an interlayer coupling constant. The quantity $`\mathrm{\Psi }_n(𝐫)`$ is the order parameter of the $`n`$th layer and $`𝐁_n(𝐫)\widehat{c}`$ is the magnetic induction induced in the $`n`$th layer of the superconductor. Two-dimensional gauge invariant gradient $`_n`$ is defined as:

$$_n=i\mathrm{}\frac{}{𝐫}\frac{2e}{c}𝐀_n(𝐫),$$

where $`𝐀_n(𝐫)=\times 𝐁_n(𝐫)`$. The sample magnetization is given by

$$𝐌=\frac{1}{4\pi N_L}\underset{n}{}\frac{𝒟[\mathrm{\Psi },𝐀](𝐁_n𝐇)\mathrm{exp}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{}{k_BT}}\right\}}{𝒟[\mathrm{\Psi },𝐀]\mathrm{exp}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{}{k_BT}}\right\}},$$
(4)
where $`N_L`$ is the number of layers. In the weak coupling regime, it is convenient to introduce renormalized critical temperature:

$$T_c=T_{c0}2\frac{\gamma _c}{a}T_{c0}\delta T_c.$$
(5)
This modifies the expression (3) for the free energy, which now reads as

$`[\mathrm{\Psi },𝐀]=s{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}{\displaystyle }d^2𝐫\{\alpha |\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{2}}|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^4+`$ (6)
$`\gamma _{ab}|_n\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2\gamma _c\mathrm{\Psi }_n^{}(\mathrm{\Psi }_{n1}+\mathrm{\Psi }_{n+1})+{\displaystyle \frac{(𝐇𝐁_n)^2}{8\pi }}\},`$ (7)
where $`\alpha =a(TT_c)`$. Thus, in order to solve the problem one has to calculate extremely complicated integrals over the order parameter $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ and the vector potential $`𝐀`$ appearing in the expressions (1) and (4) for the partition function and the magnetization. However, there are number of simplifications, which can be done.

In the limit of large values of the GL parameter $`\kappa `$ ($`\kappa 100`$ for the most HTSC) one can neglect fluctuations of the magnetic induction $`𝐁_n`$ . Then we minimize the last expression (7) for the GL free energy with respect to the vector potential $`𝐀_n`$ as it is done in the case of conventional superconductor. This leads to the set of decoupled (with respect to the layer index) GL equations for the vector potential $`𝐀_n`$ and the order parameter $`\mathrm{\Psi }_n(𝐫)`$. In general, the order parameter can be expanded over the electron eigenfunctions of the Landau levels in the applied magnetic field $`H`$. However, close to the mean-field transition line $`H_{c2}(T)=\alpha (T)c/(2\mathrm{}e\gamma _{ac})`$ one can restrict oneself to the zeroth Landau level only. This approximation can be used, at least, if $`H>1/3H_{c2}(T)`$, until the first Landau level becomes important. Recently, it was shown  that the lowest Landau level (LLL) approximation works good even if $`HH_{c2}(T)`$ for $`\kappa 1`$. In the LLL approximation the equations, described above, can be solved analytically . After substituting these solutions into the expression (7) for the free energy, we finally obtain:

$`=sS{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}\{\alpha (1{\displaystyle \frac{H}{H_{c2}}})\overline{|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2}+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{2}}\overline{|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^4}`$ (8)
$`\gamma _c\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }_n^{}(\mathrm{\Psi }_{n1}+\mathrm{\Psi }_{n+1})}\},`$ (9)
where the bar means averaging over the layer area $`S`$. In this case only the integrals over the order parameter $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ remain in the expression for the partition function (1):

$$𝒵𝒟[\mathrm{\Psi }]\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{[\mathrm{\Psi }]}{k_BT}\right],$$

where the quantity $`[\mathrm{\Psi }]`$ is given now by (9). In the LLL approximation the sample magnetization (4) can be calculated using the following formula:

$$M=\frac{\beta H_{c2}}{8\pi \alpha \kappa ^2}N_L^1\underset{n}{}\frac{𝒟[\mathrm{\Psi }]\overline{|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2}\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{}{k_BT}}\right)}{𝒟[\mathrm{\Psi }]\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{}{k_BT}}\right)}.$$
(10)
In order to proceed further, we define the Abrikosov geometric factor for each layer separately: $`\beta _A(n)\overline{|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^4}/\left(\overline{|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2}\right)^2`$, and its average $`\beta _A=N_L^1\beta _A(n)`$. Following the refs.  we assume that the quantity $`\beta _A(n)`$ only slightly depends on the actual vortex configuration and therefore we put $`\beta _A(1)=\beta _A(2)=\mathrm{}=\beta _A`$. Then we replace the quantities $`\overline{|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^4}`$ by $`\beta _A\left(\overline{|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2}\right)^2`$ in the expression (9) for the free energy. With this replacement the model becomes exactly solvable:

$`𝒵{\displaystyle }𝒟[\mathrm{\Delta }]\mathrm{exp}\{N_v{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}[x\overline{|\mathrm{\Delta }_n|^2}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left(\overline{|\mathrm{\Delta }_n|^2}\right)^2`$ (11)
$`\mu \overline{\mathrm{\Delta }_n^{}(\mathrm{\Delta }_{n+1}+\mathrm{\Delta }_{n1})}]\},`$ (12)
where $`N_v=\mathrm{\Phi }/\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is the number of vortices. The standard 2D scaling variable $`x`$ is given by

$$x=A\frac{TT_{c2}(H)}{\sqrt{TH}},$$

where $`A=\sqrt{s\mathrm{\Phi }_0/(16\pi \kappa ^2\beta _Ak_B)}H_{c2}^{}`$ and $`H_{c2}^{}=dH_{c2}(T)/dT|_{T=T_c}`$. The dimensionless coupling constant $`\mu `$ is

$$\mu =A\frac{\delta T_c}{2\sqrt{TH}}$$
(13)
and the dimensionless order parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }_n`$ reads as

$$|\mathrm{\Delta }_n|^2=A\frac{2\beta _A\beta }{a\sqrt{TH}}|\mathrm{\Psi }_n|^2.$$

With these new variables the sample magnetization (10) can be expressed as

$$\frac{M}{\sqrt{HT}}=\frac{k_BA}{s\mathrm{\Phi }H_{c2}^{}}N_L^1\frac{d\mathrm{ln}𝒵}{dx}.$$
(14)
## III Calculation of the Partition Function.

In order to compute magnetization of the superconductor we, first, have to calculate the partition function (12). This involves evaluation of the integrals over the order parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The main difficulty in such calculation is the quartic term appearing in the exponent of the right hand side of the formula (12). In order to decouple it, we introduce a set of additional integration variables $`\{\lambda _n\}`$:

$`𝒵{\displaystyle }𝒟[\mathrm{\Delta }]{\displaystyle _\mathrm{\Gamma }}𝒟[\lambda ]\mathrm{exp}\{N_v{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}[\lambda _n^2+`$ (15)
$`(x+i\lambda _n)\overline{|\mathrm{\Delta }_n|^2}\mu \overline{\mathrm{\Delta }_n^{}(\mathrm{\Delta }_{n+1}+\mathrm{\Delta }_{n1})}]\},`$ (16)
where

$$_\mathrm{\Gamma }𝒟[\lambda ]=\underset{n}{}_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_n}𝑑\lambda _n.$$

The contours $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_n`$ are parallel to the real axis, standing on some distance from it, in order to insure convergence of the integrals over the order parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The formula (16) is the result of use of the simplified version of the Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation, usually applied in the field theory. As it was explained above, the order parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }_n`$ is the linear combination of the electron eigenfunctions of the lowest Landau level:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_n(𝐫)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{N_v}{}}C_{nk}L_k(𝐫),$$

and

$$L_k(𝐫)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{k!}}\left(\frac{r}{l}\right)^k\mathrm{exp}\left\{ik\vartheta \frac{r^2}{2l^2}\right\},$$

where $`l`$ is the magnetic length corresponding to the charge $`2e`$. Then the meaning of the integration over the order parameter becomes clear:

$$𝒟[\mathrm{\Delta }]\underset{n,k}{}𝑑C_{nk}^{}𝑑C_{nk}.$$

The integrals over these expansion coefficients in (16) are of the generalized gaussian type and can be evaluated analytically. As a result, we obtain:

$$𝒵_\mathrm{\Gamma }𝒟[\lambda ]\mathrm{exp}\left\{N_v\right\}.$$
(17)
The action $``$ is given by

$$=\text{tr}\left[\widehat{\lambda }^2+\mathrm{ln}\left(x\widehat{\text{I}}+i\widehat{\lambda }\mu \widehat{\gamma }\right)\right],$$

where $`\widehat{\lambda }`$ is diagonal matrix, consisting from the elements $`\lambda _n`$. The matrix $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ is the real symmetric matrix, arising as a result of the interlayer coupling:

$$\gamma _{mn}=\delta _{m,n+1}+\delta _{m,n1}.$$
(18)
The integrals over the expansion coefficients $`C_{nk}`$ converge, if along the integration contours $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_n`$ the following inequality is satisfied:

$$\text{Re}(f_n)>0,$$
(19)
where $`f_n`$ are eigenvalues of the complex symmetric matrix $`x\widehat{\text{I}}+i\widehat{\lambda }\mu \widehat{\gamma }`$. In the thermodynamic limit $`N_v\mathrm{}`$ the integrals over $`\lambda _n`$ in the partition function (17) can be evaluated within saddle point approximation. It will be shown below that due to particular properties of the saddle-point manifold the condition (19) can be satisfied in the weak-coupling regime in rather large range of the scaling variable $`x`$.

The saddle point equation is found from the condition $`\delta =0`$ and reads as

$$\text{tr}\left\{\left[2\widehat{\lambda }+i\left(x\widehat{\text{I}}+i\widehat{\lambda }\mu \widehat{\gamma }\right)^1\right]\delta \widehat{\lambda }\right\}=0.$$
(20)
The position of the saddle point depends now on the temperature $`T`$ and the applied field $`H`$ via two parameters $`x(H,T)`$ and $`\mu (H,T)`$. In this case, 2D scaling of the magnetization (24) becomes impossible, as it was predicted in the ref. . If the coupling is weak $`2\mu <|x+i\lambda |`$ (this inequality is similar to Tesanović-Andreev criterion  for quasi 2D systems), the second term in the left hand side of the equation (20) can be expanded in the powers of $`\mu `$. Then the saddle point equation (20) can be rewritten as follows:

$`2\lambda _n+{\displaystyle \frac{i}{x+i\lambda _n}}+`$ (21)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{i\mu ^2}{(x+i\lambda _n)^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{2x+i(\lambda _{n1}+\lambda _{n+1})}{(x+i\lambda _{n1})(x+i\lambda _{n+1})}}+o(\mu ^4)=0.`$ (22)
The terms of the order of $`\mu `$ and $`\mu ^3`$ drop out in the right hand side of the last equation, since $`\text{tr}(\widehat{\gamma }^{2n+1})=0`$. The structure of the saddle point equation is such that, at least, up to the second order in $`\mu `$ the saddle point solution for $`\widehat{\lambda }`$ is proportional to the unit matrix, namely

$$\lambda _1=\lambda _2=\mathrm{}\lambda .$$

Then the equation (22) can be rewritten in the following simple form:

$$2\lambda +\frac{i}{x+i\lambda }+\frac{2i\mu ^2}{(x+i\lambda )^3}+o(\mu ^4)=0.$$
(23)
As soon as the saddle point solution is found, the sample magnetization (14) can be calculated using the following simple relation:

$$\frac{M}{\sqrt{HT}}=\frac{2Ak_B}{s\mathrm{\Phi }_0H_{c2}^{}}i\lambda .$$
(24)
From the last equation we conclude that the physically meaningful solution for $`\lambda `$ lies on the imaginary axis. Further, using the Rayleigh-Ritz theorem , one can show that both matrices $`2\widehat{\text{I}}\widehat{\gamma }`$ and $`2\widehat{\text{I}}+\widehat{\gamma }`$ are positive definite. Then the eigenvalues of the matrix $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ belong to the interval $`[2,2]`$. In this case, the conditions (19) for convergence of the integrals over expansion coefficients $`C_{kn}`$ in the partition function can be written as:

$$2\mu <|x+i\lambda |,$$
(25)
which is automatically satisfied in the weak coupling regime.

## IV Magnetic Properties.

In the previous section we derived the saddle point equation (23) for the layered superconductor under assumption that the interlayer coupling constant $`\mu `$ is small. The sample magnetization $`M(H,T)`$ is proportional to the saddle point solution and is given by the formula (24).

In the ”zeroth” approximation only one of the two saddle point solutions of the eq. (23) can be reached by allowed deformation of the integration contour:

$$\lambda _0(x)=\frac{i}{2}(x\sqrt{x^2+2}).$$

Then the magnetization preserves the 2D scaling law and is given by the same formula as in the noninteracting case :

$$\frac{M_0}{\sqrt{HT}}=\frac{Ak_B}{s\mathrm{\Phi }_0H_{c2}^{}}(x\sqrt{x^2+2}).$$
(26)
Actually, this ”zeroth” order result includes the first order correction in $`\mu `$ by means of the critical temperature shift (5). The second order correction to the saddle point solution is calculated as a small perturbation:

$$\lambda (x,\mu )=\lambda _0(x)\left(1+4\mu ^2\frac{i\lambda _0(x)}{\sqrt{x^2+2}}\right).$$
(27)
Then the sample magnetization is given by

$$M=M_0\left(12\mu ^2\frac{x\sqrt{x^2+2}}{\sqrt{x^2+2}}\right),$$
(28)
where $`M_0(H,T)`$ is the magnetization of the ”decoupled” sample given by the equation (26). Using the last formula, we plotted the quantity $`M/\sqrt{HT}`$ as a function of 2D scaling variable $`x`$ (see the figure 1) for five different values of the applied field $`H`$ between $`10`$ and $`50kOe`$. The interlayer coupling constant is chosen to be small, such that $`\delta T_c=1K`$(see the eq. 5 for definition of $`\delta T_c`$). We used $`T_c=111K`$, $`\kappa =100`$, $`H_{c2}^{}=40kOeK^1`$ and $`s=2nm`$, which are of the order of the typical experimental parameters . The whole range of the scaling variable $`x`$ in the fig. 1 satisfies the applicability condition of the theory (25). As it was expected, the 2D scaling is destroyed, due to the dimensionless coupling constant $`\mu (T,H)`$ appearing in the right hand side of the expression (28) for the magnetization.

The plot of the magnetization as a function of temperature can be found in the fig. 2, in which we used the same set of the phenomenological parameters, as for the fig. 1. Like in the previous case, the whole temperature range in this figure satisfies the applicability condition (25). Form this figure follows that even account of the small interlayer coupling destroys the magnetization crossing point, which is the property of the scaling form (26) (see ref. ). Actually, the crossing point is noticeably destroyed only in the low–field region. The higher the applied field, the better the crossing point is pronounced. This is the consequence of the specific form of the effective coupling constant $`\mu `$ (see eq. (13)). The interaction correction to the magnetization in the formula (28) is proportional to the square of this constant and therefore is proportional to $`H^1`$. Then, at the large values of the applied field interlayer interaction is effectively suppressed. Indeed, one can treat the magnetization data plotted in the figure 2 as if they were obtained from the experiment. Then, we try to fit them to 2D scaling form variating phenomenological parameters $`T_c`$ and $`H_{c2}^{}`$, as it is usually done in experiments. The fitting results are given in figure 3. The best fit is obtained for $`T_c111.5K`$. Like in the experiment, the scaling results are insensitive to the value of the phenomenological parameter $`\mu _0H_{c2}^{}`$ in relatively large range of its values around $`4TK^1`$. It can be observed from the figure 3 that the scaling is satisfactory good for fields larger than $`30kOe`$ and is destroyed in the weak-field region. It must be stressed that the mentioned above fit is made essentially by hand and without any error estimation. However, it can serve as demonstration of effective suppression of interlayer interaction in the high field region.

## V Summary.

In this paper we considered HTSC assuming weak interlayer nearest neighboring coupling. In the region of the critical fluctuations, close to the mean–field transition line $`H_{c2}(T)`$ the order parameter can be taken as a linear combination of the electron eigenfunctions of the lowest Landau level. This approximation together with the assumption that the Abrikosov geometric factor only weakly depends on the actual vortex configuration allows to reduce the problem to the simpler one, namely to the saddle point equation (23). This equation can be solved perturbatively. We calculated the magnetization of the superconducting sample to the second order in the effective coupling constant $`\mu (T,H)`$. If the coupling is sufficiently weak, one can consider the first order correction only. It turns out that this correction does not modify the scaling properties of the sample, leading to the trivial renormalization of the critical temperature (see eq. (5)). Account of the second order correction leads to violation of the 2D scaling and destroys the magnetization crossing point in the low field region. At sufficiently high values of the applied field the interlayer interaction is effectively suppressed. This leads to recovering of 2D scaling with a well pronounced crossing point.

## Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Sergey A. Gredeskul for helpful discussions.

The author gratefully acknowledges the MINERVA foundation for the financial support.