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# Kinks from Dynamical Systems: Domain Walls in a Deformed 𝑂(𝑁) Linear Sigma Model

## 1 Introduction

We divide this Introduction into three parts: A. A brief history and the “state of the art”. B. New developments and results to be presented in this work . C. Scenarios of possible physical applications.

A.

Kinks are solitary (non-dispersive) waves arising in several one-dimensional physical systems. Here, we shall focus on the relativistic theory of $`N`$-interacting scalar fields built on a space-time that is the (1+1)-dimensional Minkowski space $`𝐑^{1,1}`$. In this context, kinks are finite energy solutions of the Euler-Lagrange equations, such that the time-dependence is dictated by the Lorentz invariance: $`\stackrel{}{\varphi }_K(x,t)=\stackrel{}{q}_K\left(\frac{xvt}{\sqrt{1v^2}}\right)`$. Thus, the search for kinks leads to the solving of a system of $`N`$-coupled non-linear ordinary differential equations and therefore becomes a very interesting problem in Mathematical Physics.

The study of topological defects began as an area of research in field theory by the mid-seventies; see . It was immediately recognized that defects of the kink type are in one-to-one correspondence with the separatrix trajectories between the bounded and unbounded motion of a mechanical system, for which the motion equations precisely form the non-linear system of differential equations mentioned above. The equivalent mechanical system is also Lagrangian and thus automatically integrable if $`N=1`$. For $`N2`$, complete integrability is generically non-guaranteed and the equivalence to a mechanical system is not useful. This circumstance has been emphasized by Rajaraman; see  pp. 23-24, and partially circumvented by himself: the trial orbit method allows one to guesstimate particular types of kink trajectories.

There are, nevertheless, theories with $`N=2`$-coupled scalar fields such that the equivalent dynamical system is completely integrable. The prototype of this kind of system is the MSTB model: in  this was proposed in the context of the search for non-topological solitons with stability provided by a $`U(1)`$ internal symmetry. In Reference , the model was considered as a classical continuum approximation to a 1D crystal with a two-component order parameter and it was shown that the search for kinks in this system requires that a completely integrable dynamical system be addressed. Ito, in a seminal paper , showed the Hamilton-Jacobi separability of the system of non-linear differential equations. He found all the kink trajectories and explained a very peculiar kink energy sum rule.

Very rich manifolds of kinks were discovered in two $`N=2`$ field theoretical models, close relatives to the MSTB system, in a recent research performed by the authors of the present work . The investigation of kink properties in these models requires the analysis of the separatrix trajectories in two related dynamical systems which are type I and III respectively in the classification of Liouville bidimensional $`(N=2)`$ completely integrable systems, see .

In fact, on choosing between the four types of Liouville dynamical systems those that meet appropriate critical point structure, one builds an enormous list of related $`N=2`$ field theoretical models exhibiting manifolds of kinks of growing complexity; see . The rôle of these models can be understood by noticing that the MSTB system is a deformation of the $`O(2)`$-linear sigma model. Instead of spontaneous symmetry breaking of $`O(2)`$ by a degenerated $`S^1`$ vacuum manifold, the $`O(2)`$ symmetry group is explicitly broken to $`𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2`$ by a mass term; only invariance under $`\varphi _a(1)^{\delta _{ab}}\varphi _a`$, for $`b=1,2`$, survives. From the point of view of quantum field theory, this deformation is very natural because in (1+1)-dimensions infrared divergences forbid the existence of Goldstone bosons, according to a theorem of Coleman . Even if it is absent in the classical action, a mass term will be generated by quantum corrections.

We interpret this as follows: in the parameter space of the $`N=2`$ relativistic scalar field theories invariant under the $`𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2`$ with generators mentioned above, and potential energy of the form

$$U(\stackrel{}{\varphi })=\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha _1\varphi _1^2+\alpha _2\varphi _2^2+\frac{\beta _1}{2}\varphi _1^4+\beta _{12}\varphi _1^2\varphi _2^2+\frac{\beta _2}{2}\varphi _2^4\right)+C$$

there are at least two distinguished points. There is a choice of coupling constants such that there is explicit $`O(2)`$ symmetry, which is spontaneously broken. This is the linear $`O(2)`$-sigma model. The other interesting point is the MSTB model where the explicit $`𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2`$ symmetry generated by $`\varphi _a(1)^{\delta _{ab}}\varphi _a`$, for $`b=1,2`$, breaks spontaneously to the $`𝐙_2`$ sub-group generated by $`\varphi _2\varphi _2`$. The key observation is that the renormalization group flow induced by quantum corrections in the parameter space avoids the $`O(2)`$-sigma system and instead leads to the MSTB model, which also offers a variety of kinks. All the other field theoretical models exhibiting an abundant supply of kinks also correspond to deformations of $`O(2)`$-symmetric systems with potential energies that depend on higher powers of $`\varphi _1`$ and $`\varphi _2`$, , .

There are strong analogies with the Zamolodchikov $`c`$-theorem, : deformations in the space of (1+1)-dimensional field theories leading from conformal to integrable systems are the most interesting ones. We meet an analogous finite dimensional situation: replace the (infinite dimensional) conformal group by the $`O(2)`$ group and integrability of one system with infinite degrees of freedom by integrability of a bidimensional mechanical system.

B.

This paper is devoted to investigating the kink solitary waves of the deformation of the linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model that generalize the MSTB system to the case of $`N`$-interacting scalar fields. Non-linear waves in relativistic field theories with $`N3`$ scalar fields were sketchily described for the first time in Reference . In this work, we offer a detailed analysis of this issue. The following points merit emphasis:

* a) The dynamical system that encodes the solitary waves of the model as separatrix trajectories has $`N`$ first integrals in involution and hence is completely integrable. Passing from Cartesian to Jacobi elliptic coordinates in the “internal” space, $`𝐑^N`$, the dynamical system becomes Hamilton-Jacobi separable. All the kink trajectories, and hence all the solitary waves, are then found by a special choice of the separation constants.
* b) Deep insight into the structure of the kink manifold is gained by focusing on the $`N=3`$ case. There are three kinds of kinks: 1. A two-parameter family of topological kinks with three non-null components that are “generic”, i.e. they are not fixed under the action of the $`𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2`$ group generated by $`\varphi _a(1)^{\delta _{ab}}\varphi _a`$, for $`b=1,2,3`$. 2. Four one-parameter families of “enveloping” non-topological kinks, also with three non-null components. The four families are related through the action of one $`𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2`$ sub-group and, together, form the envelop of the separatrix trajectories. 3. All the solitary waves of the $`N=2`$ MSTB model appear “embedded” twice; once in each plane containing the two ground states. Different $`𝐙_2`$ sub-groups leave these embedded kinks invariant.
* c) The structure of the kink manifold of the $`O(N)`$ system with both explicit and spontaneous symmetry breaking repeats the patterns shown in the $`N=2`$ (MSTB) model and its generalization for $`N=3`$. There are also generic, enveloping and embedded kinks, although when $`N`$ increases the complexity of the kink manifold also increases. For instance, the $`N1`$ kink manifold is embedded $`N1`$ times in the manifold of kinks of the deformed linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model.
* d) In a remarkable system obtained from the generalized MSTB model by also allowing asymmetries in the quartic terms of the potential, only the embedded and enveloping topological kinks living on singular edges survive as solitary wave solutions. In this system, proposed in Reference  for the $`N=2`$ case, the energy of all the above topological kinks is exactly the same. Together with vacuum degeneration, there is therefore kink degeneration, a phenomenon that deserves further analysis.

C.

Solitary waves of the kind that we are to describe play an important rôle in condensed matter physics. Phase transitions characterized through order parameters of the vector type are understood in terms of the linear (or non linear) $`O(N)`$-sigma model. The order parameter is organized in the fundamental representation of $`O(N)`$ and the system becomes non-linear when this $`N`$-vector is forced to take its values in the coset space $`=O(N)/O(N1)`$. In $`(1+1)`$-dimensional space-time, kinks are accompanied by the fermion fractionization phenomenon ; this describes the continuous approximation to the bizarre behaviour of certain one-dimensional polymers such as poly-acetilene. When the spatial dimension is 3, as in the real world, kinks become domain walls which are thus related to theories involving spontaneous breaking of discrete symmetries. This happens in the hot Big Bang cosmology, where domain wall topological defects can be formed in a phase transition occurring in the expansion of the very early Universe; see . More recently, domain walls have been characterized as BPS states of SUSY gluodynamics and the Wess-Zumino model, . In all these cases there are sets of scalar fields, as in our system, that presents a variety of domain walls with different characteristics when seen from a 3-dimensional perspective.

In quantum field theory, the linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model describes systems with spontaneous symmetry breakdown to an $`O(N1)`$ sub-group and $`N1`$ Goldstone bosons in the particle spectrum. At the beginning of the sixties Gell-Mann and Lèvy analyzed low energy hadronic phenomenology by introducing an effective Lagrangian field theory of this type . Besides becoming the central element of current algebra, linear sigma models also enter fundamental physics in the Higgs sector of gauge theories for elementary particle physics, see report  for a comprehensive review (of the perturbative sub-sector). For instance, the linear $`O(4)`$-sigma model corresponds to the Higgs sector of the electro-weak theory, while the $`O(24)\times O(5)`$ case provides the bosonic sector of the $`SU(5)`$ Grand Unified Theory.

Either considered on their own or forming part of Gauge theories, there are reasons to discuss deformations of the linear sigma model. In the phenomenological approach, pions are identified with the Goldstone bosons of the model; a deformation is then necessary to convert these massless excitations in pseudo-Goldstone particles, accounting for the pions light mass. Gauge theories are today found in the low energy limit of (fundamental) string theory. Even though deformations in the bosonic sector of gauge theories produced by small mass terms spoil renormalizability, the low energy features remain (almost) untouched and it is (almost) legitimate to trust them.

Here, we shall search for domain walls when these mild deformations are performed in the linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model. It is precisely in this kind of model where the cosmological problem of wall domination is avoided . Moreover, the system has a rich manifold of topological and non-topological solitons, allowing for topological defects with “internal” structure and leading to the existence of defects inside defects, a situation that generalizes a proposal of Morris .

The organization of the paper is as follows: In Section §2 we discuss the particle spectrum of the deformed linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model as well as the manifold of the solitary wave solutions of the system. Section §3 is devoted to the $`N=3`$ case, which is described in full detail. We describe the situation of the generalized MSTB model for any $`N`$ in Section §4 and briefly discuss the phenomenon of kink degeneration in the Bazeia system. Finally, some conclusions are drawn and some new prospects opened in Section §5. An appendix on elliptic Jacobi coordinates is also offered.

## 2 Kinks in the deformed linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model

In a generic sense we understand “kinks” as the solitary waves of a relativistic (1+1)-dimensional scalar field theory. We shall stick to the standard definition of solitary waves; see  and :

A solitary wave is a non-singular solution of the non-linear coupled field equations of finite energy such that their energy density has a space-time dependence of the form:

$$\epsilon (\stackrel{}{x},t)=\epsilon (\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{v}t)$$

where $`\stackrel{}{v}`$ is some velocity vector.

Given one $`N`$-component scalar field, which is a map from the $`𝐑^{1,1}`$ Minkowski space-time to $`𝐑^N`$, $`\stackrel{}{\chi }(x,t)(\chi _1(x,t),`$ $`\chi _2(x,t),\mathrm{},\chi _N(x,t))`$, the dynamics of the system is governed by the action:

$$S=d^2y\left\{\frac{1}{2}_\mu \stackrel{}{\chi }^\mu \stackrel{}{\chi }\overline{V}(\stackrel{}{\chi })\right\}$$

Here, $`\mu =0,1`$ are indices in the space-time and we shall use $`a=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$ to label components of the field in the “internal” $`𝐑^N`$ space in such a way that $`\stackrel{}{\chi }\stackrel{}{\chi }={\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\chi _a\chi _a`$. In $`𝐑^{1,1}`$ we choose the metric as $`g=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)`$ and the Einstein convention will be used throughout the paper only for the indices in $`𝐑^{1,1}`$. The potential energy density is:

$$\overline{V}(\chi _1,\mathrm{},\chi _N)=\frac{\lambda ^2}{4}\left(\stackrel{}{\chi }\stackrel{}{\chi }\frac{m^2}{\lambda ^2}\right)^2+\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\beta _a^2}{4}\chi _a^2$$

where $`\lambda ,m`$ and $`\beta _a`$ are coupling constants of inverse length. The linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model corresponds to the case $`\beta _a=0`$, $`a`$, which exhibits maximum $`O(N)`$ symmetry. We shall focus on the deformation of this system, which is maximally non-isotropic in the harmonic terms, i.e. $`\beta _a\beta _b`$, $`ab`$. Somehow, the deformation is natural from a quantum field theoretical vantage point as we shall explain later and, moreover, we shall stick to the range $`\beta _a^2<m^2`$, $`a`$, in the parameter space because in this regime the structure of the kink manifold is richer.

Introducing non-dimensional variables $`\chi \frac{m}{\lambda }\varphi `$, $`y_\mu \frac{\sqrt{2}}{m}x_\mu `$ and $`\frac{\beta _a^2}{m^2}\sigma _a^2`$, we find our expression for the action to be:

$`S={\displaystyle \frac{m^2}{\lambda ^2}}{\displaystyle d^2x\left\{\frac{1}{2}_\mu \stackrel{}{\varphi }^\mu \stackrel{}{\varphi }V(\varphi _1,\mathrm{},\varphi _N)\right\}}`$
(1)
$`V(\varphi _1,\mathrm{},\varphi _N)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(\stackrel{}{\varphi }\stackrel{}{\varphi }1\right)^2+{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma _a^2\varphi _a^2`$
### 2.1 Configuration space and particle spectrum

The Cauchy problem for the field equations

$$\mathrm{}\varphi _a=\frac{V}{\varphi _a},a=1,2,\mathrm{},N$$
(2)
is fixed by choosing a “point” $`\stackrel{}{\varphi }(x,t_0)\mathrm{Maps}(𝐑,𝐑^N)`$ in the configuration space $`𝒞`$ , and its “tangent”, $`\dot{\stackrel{}{\varphi }}(x,t_0)T_\stackrel{}{\varphi }\mathrm{Maps}(𝐑,𝐑^N)`$, as initial conditions to solve the system (2) of non-linear PDE .

The configuration space itself is isomorphic to the space of finite energy static configurations; if $`\stackrel{}{\varphi }(x,t)=\stackrel{}{q}(x)`$, $`𝒞`$ is the set of continuous maps $`\stackrel{}{q}:𝐑𝐑^N`$ ($`\stackrel{}{q}(q_1,\mathrm{},q_N)`$) such that the (static) energy is finite:

$$E=\frac{m^3}{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}𝑑x\left\{\frac{1}{2}\frac{d\stackrel{}{q}}{dx}\frac{d\stackrel{}{q}}{dx}+V(\stackrel{}{q})\right\}<+\mathrm{};$$
(3)
thus, $`𝒞=\left\{\stackrel{}{q}(x)/E[\stackrel{}{q}]<+\mathrm{}\right\}`$. $`\stackrel{}{q}(x)𝒞`$ only if $`\stackrel{}{q}`$ satisfies the asymptotic conditions:

$$\underset{x\pm \mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{dq_a}{dx}=0,\underset{x\pm \mathrm{}}{lim}q_a(x)=v_a,a=1,\mathrm{},N$$
(4)
where $`\stackrel{}{v}(v_1,\mathrm{},v_N)`$ is a constant vector that belongs to the set $``$ of vectors annihilating $`V`$. We assume, without loss of generality, the following ordering in the space of parameters: $`\sigma _1=0<\sigma _2<\mathrm{}<\sigma _N<1`$. $``$ is thus formed by two vectors

$$=\left\{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm =(\pm 1,0,\mathrm{},0)\right\}$$
(5)
which are the absolute minima of $`V`$.

We refer to $``$ as the vacuum manifold because in the quantum version of the theory points in $``$ are the expectation values of the quantum field operators $`\widehat{\varphi }_a`$ at the ground states (“vacua”) of the system. The vacuum degeneration - i.e.the existence of more than one vector in $``$ \- is related to the breaking of symmetry. Besides two-dimensional Poincaré invariance, there is a “internal” symmetry with respect to the discrete group $`G=𝐙_2\times \stackrel{N}{\mathrm{}}\times 𝐙_2=𝐙_2^{\times N}`$ generated by $`\varphi _a(1)^{\delta _{ab}}\varphi _a`$, for $`b=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$, $`a=1,\mathrm{},N`$. The vacuum manifold is the orbit of one element by the group action

$$=G/H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }=𝐙_2,H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }\stackrel{}{v}^\pm =\stackrel{}{v}^\pm $$

$`H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }=𝐙_2\times \stackrel{N1}{\mathrm{}}\times 𝐙_2`$ is the little group of the vacuum $`\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$. The generators of $`H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }`$ are the transformations $`\varphi _a(1)^{\delta _{ab}}\varphi _a`$, for $`b=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$, and $`a=2,3,\mathrm{},N`$, so that $`H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }`$ survives as a symmetry group when quantizing around $`\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$. We can understand the internal parity group $`G`$ as the discrete “gauge” symmetry: in (1+1)-dimensions no dynamical degrees of freedom related to gauge potentials appear.

Vectors in $``$ are critical points of $`V`$ satisfying $`\frac{V}{\varphi _a}|_{\stackrel{}{\varphi }=\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }=0`$ and therefore constant solutions of the field equations (2). The plane wave expansion around $`\stackrel{}{\varphi }^\pm (x,t)=\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$

$$\varphi _{v_a^\pm }(x,t)=v_a^\pm +\underset{k}{}A_a^\pm (k)e^{i\omega tikx}$$

is a solution of (2) if the dispersion relation

$$\delta _{ab}\omega ^2=\delta _{ab}k^2+M_{ab}^2(\stackrel{}{v}^\pm ),M_{ab}^2=\frac{^2V}{\varphi _a\varphi _b}(\stackrel{}{v}^\pm )$$
(6)
holds.

In the quantum theory, these plane waves become the fundamental quanta with mass matrix $`M_{ab}^2(\stackrel{}{v}^\pm )`$ and one reads the particle spectrum at a chosen critical point of $`V`$ from (6). Because $`\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$ are minima of $`V`$ there are no negative eigenvalues of $`M_{ab}^2(\stackrel{}{v}^\pm )`$ and the dependence on time of the plane waves around $`\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$ is bounded: $`e^{i\omega t}`$. The choice of $`\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$ as the starting point of the quantization procedure “spontaneously” breaks the symmetry $`G=𝐙_2^{\times N}`$ of the action to $`H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }=𝐙_2^{\times (N1)}`$, which is the remaining one that survives in the particle spectrum.

In our model, we read the particle spectrum from:

$$M^2(\stackrel{}{v}^\pm )=\frac{m^2}{2}\left(\begin{array}{cccc}4& 0& \mathrm{}& 0\\ 0& \sigma _2^2& \mathrm{}& 0\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ 0& 0& \mathrm{}& \sigma _N^2\end{array}\right)$$
(7)
Considering this system as a physical description of the continuum approximation to a one-dimensional crystal with an $`N`$-component order parameter, the particle spectrum describes a single phase with $`N`$ phonon branches. We see explicitly how the symmetry group $`G=𝐙_2^{\times N}`$ is “broken” by the choice of the $`\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$ vacuum to the $`H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }=𝐙_2^{\times (N1)}`$ sub-group: the $`N`$ phonon branches have different masses or “energy gaps”. From the point of view of particle physics we can say that there are no tachyons; only a pseudo-Goldstone particle becomes a Goldstone boson if the corresponding $`\sigma _a`$ goes to zero.

It is interesting to see the model as a member of the family characterized by the potential energy densities:

$$V=\frac{1}{2}\left(\underset{a,b=1}{\overset{N}{}}\alpha _{ab}\varphi _a\varphi _b\gamma ^2\right)^2+\underset{a,b=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\sigma _{ab}}{2}\varphi _a\varphi _b$$

where $`\alpha _{ab},\sigma _{ab}`$ and $`\gamma ^2`$ are “bare” non-dimensional parameters. Ultraviolet divergences are controlled by normal ordering in the quantum theory, but the need arises to introduce a renormalization ‘point’ $`\mu ^2`$, and the dependence of the renormalized parameters on $`\mu ^2`$ is determined by the renormalization group equation. One special solution, a specific renormalization group flow, might lead to the “point”:

$$\alpha _{ab}^R(\mu ^2)=\delta _{ab};\sigma _{ab}^R(\mu ^2)=0;\gamma ^R(\mu ^2)=1$$

in the space of quantum field theory models in the family. This point is the linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model which has $`G=O(N)`$ as the (continuous) symmetry group. The vacuum orbit is, however, $`=O(N)/O(N1)=S^{N1}`$, the $`(N1)`$-dimensional sphere, and thus there is no unbroken symmetry left: there are $`N1`$ massless particles. If the only modification of the renormalized parameters is to allow for non-zero values of $`\sigma _{ab}^R(\mu ^2),a=b=r+1,\mathrm{},N`$ there are still $`r1`$ Goldstone bosons.

Coleman  established that in $`(1+1)`$-dimensions the infrared asymptotics of the two-point Green functions of a quantum scalar field forbids poles at $`\omega ^2=k^2`$; there are no Goldstone bosons in $`(1+1)`$-dimensions. It is thus impossible to reach the $`O(N)`$-sigma model or its deformation with the $`O(r)`$ symmetry spontaneously broken to $`O(r1)`$ in the renormalization group flow. The closest admissible points are the models characterized by:

$$\alpha _{ab}^R(\mu ^2)=\delta _{ab},\gamma ^R(\mu ^2)=1,\sigma _{ab}^R=0,ab$$

$$\sigma _{11}^R(\mu ^2)=0<\sigma _{22}^R(\mu ^2)=\sigma _2^2\mathrm{}\sigma _{NN}^R(\mu ^2)=\sigma _N^2<1$$

In this paper we shall focus on the case of maximal explicit symmetry breaking; i.e. when strict inequalities in the parameter space occur. Nevertheless, we shall comment on the allowed situation characterized by

$$\sigma _1^2=0<\sigma _2^2=\mathrm{}=\sigma _{r_1}^2<\sigma _{r_1+1}^2=\mathrm{}=\sigma _{r_2}^2<\mathrm{}<\sigma _{r_k+1}^2=\mathrm{}=\sigma _N^2<1$$

when there is degeneration in the spectrum but no Goldstone bosons. Note that the generators of the $`O(r_11)\times O(r_2r_1)\times \mathrm{}\times O(Nr_k)`$ symmetry sub-group are in the little group of the vacuum. The symmetry group is $`G=𝐙_2\times O(r_11)\times O(r_2r_1)\times \mathrm{}\times O(Nr_k)`$, $`H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }=O(r_11)\times O(r_2r_1)\times \mathrm{}\times O(Nr_k)`$ and the vacuum orbit is $`=G/H_{\stackrel{}{v}^\pm }=𝐙_2`$.

### 2.2 Configuration space topology: kinks and dynamical systems

The configuration space of the model is the union of topologically disconnected sectors: $`𝒞={\displaystyle \underset{\alpha ,\beta =1}{\overset{2}{}}}𝒞^{\alpha \beta }`$; thus, $`\pi _0(𝒞)=𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2`$ and $`|\pi _0(𝒞)|=4`$ are respectively the zeroth-order homotopy group of $`𝒞`$ and its order. This comes from the asymptotic conditions (4) and the continuity of the time evolution . There are topological charges defined for each configuration in $`𝒞`$ as:

$$Q_a^T=\frac{1}{2}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑x\frac{d\varphi _a}{dx}=\frac{1}{2}\left(\varphi _a(+\mathrm{},t)\varphi _a(\mathrm{},t)\right)$$

It should be noted that $`Q_a^T`$ is independent of $`t`$, $`a`$, and in our system equal to zero if $`a2`$. Therefore the four sectors $`𝒞^{\alpha \beta }`$ are labelled by the values $`\alpha ,\beta `$ of the fields at infinity compatible with finite energy and $`Q_1^T`$ determines the homotopy class in $`\pi _0(𝒞)=𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2`$.

The critical points of $`E`$ are time-independent finite-energy solutions of the field equations. If they are not spatially homogeneous, the critical points correspond to solitary waves that are therefore related to the topological structure of $`𝒞^{\alpha \beta }`$. Besides complying with (4), solitary waves satisfy the system of ordinary differential equations:

$$\frac{d^2q_a}{dx^2}=\frac{V}{q_a}$$
(8)
Recall that $`\varphi _a(x,t)=q_a(x)`$. Solving the system (8) is tantamount to finding the solutions of the Lagrangian dynamical system in which $`x=\tau `$ plays the rôle of time, the “particle” position is determined by $`q_a(\tau )`$, and the potential energy of the particle is $`U(\stackrel{}{q})=V(\stackrel{}{q})`$. From this perspective the static field energy $`E`$ is seen as the particle action:

$$E=J=𝑑\tau \left\{\frac{1}{2}\frac{d\stackrel{}{q}}{d\tau }\frac{d\stackrel{}{q}}{d\tau }U(\stackrel{}{q})\right\}$$
(9)
Trajectories that behaves asymptotically in the $`\tau `$-time as ruled by (4) have a finite action, $`J`$, in the mechanical problem and are in one-to-one correspondence with solitary waves/kinks that have energy $`E=J`$ in the field theoretical system.

The mechanical analogy is very helpful when one is dealing with a real scalar field theory because, then, a first integral is all that we need to find all the solutions. Vector scalar fields of $`N`$ components lead to $`N`$-dimensional dynamical systems which are seldom solvable. Magyari and Thomas  realized that the two-dimensional dynamical system arising in connection with the MSTB model is a completely integrable one in the Liouville sense; there are two first integrals in involution. Moreover, Ito  has shown that the mechanical system is Hamilton-Jacobi separable, finding all the trajectories and hence all the kinks of the MSTB model. In a recent publication , we have developed this procedure for two $`N=2`$ models with interesting features: the first system is a deformation of the (1+1)-dimensional scalar field theory, where the potential energy density is the Chern-Simons-Higgs potential arising in self-dual planar gauge theories. The second one is a deformation of the linear $`O(2)`$-sigma model, which is different from the MSTB model.

To extend this method of finding kinks to the linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model, $`N3`$, deformed in such a way that the $`O(N)`$ symmetry is explicitly broken to $`G=𝐙_2^{\times N}`$, we start from the “particle” action:

$$J=𝑑\tau \left\{\frac{1}{2}\frac{d\stackrel{}{q}}{d\tau }\frac{d\stackrel{}{q}}{d\tau }+\frac{1}{2}\left(\stackrel{}{q}\stackrel{}{q}1\right)^2+\frac{1}{2}\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\sigma _a^2q_a^2\right\}=𝑑\tau (\stackrel{}{q},\dot{\stackrel{}{q}})$$

The particle motion equations are:

$$\frac{d^2q_a}{d\tau ^2}=2q_a(\stackrel{}{q}\stackrel{}{q}1)+\sigma _a^2q_a,a=1,\mathrm{},N$$
(10)
which are mathematically identical to the field equations for static configurations. Finite action trajectories, kinks in the field theory, should also satisfy the asymptotic conditions:

$$\underset{\tau \pm \mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{dq_a}{d\tau }=0,\underset{\tau \pm \mathrm{}}{lim}q_a(\tau )=\pm \delta _{a1}$$
(11)
We shall use the Hamiltonian formalism to integrate the mechanical system. The canonical momenta $`p_a(\tau )=\frac{}{\dot{q}_a}=\frac{dq_a}{d\tau }(\tau )`$, together with the positions $`q_a(\tau )`$, form a system of local coordinates in phase space. We should bear in mind that $`p_a(\tau )=\frac{d\varphi _a}{dx}`$ when going back to the field theory. The mechanical Hamiltonian

$$I_1=\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{}{p}\stackrel{}{p}\frac{1}{2}\left(\stackrel{}{q}\stackrel{}{q}1\right)^2\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{2}\sigma _a^2q_a^2$$
(12)
leads to the system of canonical equations

$$\frac{dq_a}{d\tau }=\{I_1,q_a\},\frac{dp_a}{d\tau }=\{I_1,p_a\}$$

equivalent to (10). Given any two functions $`F(\stackrel{}{q},\stackrel{}{p})`$, $`G(\stackrel{}{q},\stackrel{}{p})`$ in phase space, the Poisson bracket is defined in the usual way:

$$\{F,G\}=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(\frac{F}{q_a}\frac{G}{p_a}\frac{F}{p_a}\frac{G}{p_a}\right)$$

Obviously $`\frac{dI_1}{d\tau }=0`$, but our mechanical system is full of other invariants. In fact, as early as 1919 Garnier  solved the motion equations and described periodic trajectories in terms of Theta functions: the kink trajectories of finite “action” correspond to a limiting case and are the separatrices between the periodic trajectories and unbounded motion. More recently Grosse, and other authors  have shown that the functions:

$$K_a=\underset{b=1,ba}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{\sigma _b^2\sigma _a^2}l_{ab}^2+p_a^2+(2\sigma _a^2)q_a^2q_a^2\underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}q_b^2$$
(13)
$$l_{ab}=p_aq_bp_bq_a$$

are first integrals in involution:

$$\{I_1,K_a\}=0\{K_a,K_b\}=0$$

There is a set of $`N+1`$ invariants in involution: $`I_1,K_1,K_2,\mathrm{},K_N`$. The dynamical system is not superintegrable, however, because there are only $`N`$-independent invariants: $`K_1+K_2+\mathrm{}+K_N=2I_1+1`$. According to the Liouville theorem, the $`N`$-dimensional mechanical system is completely integrable and all trajectories can be found, at least in principle.

At this point we pause to explain the singular nature of the deformation of the linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model chosen from among many possibilities. The $`\frac{\sigma _a^2}{2}\varphi _a^2`$ terms explicitly break the $`O(N)`$-symmetry of the linear sigma model; the case $`\sigma _a^2=0`$, $`a=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$. In the mechanical system the $`O(N)`$ internal transformations become ordinary rotations. The angular momentum components, $`l_{ab}`$, conserved in the limit $`\sigma _a^2=0`$, $`a`$, are no longer ‘time’-independent if $`\sigma _a^20`$. There are, however, $`N`$ invariants $`K_a`$, which in the limit $`\sigma _a=0`$, $`a`$, are given in terms of the $`O(N)`$-invariants: the $`r`$ Casimir invariants and the $`r`$ generators of the Cartan sub-algebra, where $`r=\frac{N}{2}`$ or $`\frac{N1}{2}`$ if $`N`$-even or -odd is the rank of the group. A warning: in the $`N=`$ odd case, the energy must be added to the other $`N1`$ invariants built from the Cartan sub-algebra and the Casimir invariants. For any $`N`$, the maximally asymmetric chosen deformation is special because it retains enough symmetry to solve the mechanical system. There is no Lie algebra associated with $`K_a`$ however; since the invariants are quadratic in $`q_a`$, $`p_a`$, the action of $`K_a`$ in the phase space, given by $`\{K_a,q_b\}`$ and $`\{K_a,p_b\}`$, is non-linear.

In (1+1)-dimensional field theory, the energy-momentum tensor:

$$T^{\mu \nu }=\frac{}{(_\mu \varphi _a)}^\nu \varphi _ag^{\mu \nu }$$

is divergenceless due to invariance under space-time translations. $`P^\mu =𝑑xT^{0\mu }`$ are thus conserved quantities whatever the values of $`\sigma _a^2`$. The $`O(N)`$ “isospin” currents however,

$$J_a^\mu =\underset{b,c=1}{\overset{N}{}}c_{abc}\varphi _b^\mu \varphi _c$$

are only divergenceless if $`\sigma _a=0`$, $`a`$. The $`c_{abc}`$ are the Lie $`O(N)`$ structure constants and the charges $`Q_a=𝑑xJ_a^0`$ are not conserved if there is no symmetry with respect to the transformation generated by them. For static configurations, we have

$$𝑑xT^{00}=E=J,T^{10}=T^{01}=0,T^{11}=I_1$$

$$J_a^0=0,J_a^1=\underset{b,c=1}{\overset{N}{}}c_{abc}l_{bc}$$

In terms of the ‘isospin’currents, the invariants $`K_a`$ can be written as:

$$K_a=\underset{b=1,ba}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{\sigma _b^2\sigma _a^2}\left(\underset{c=1}{\overset{N}{}}c_{abc}J_c^1\right)\left(\underset{d=1}{\overset{N}{}}c_{abd}J_d^1\right)+\left(\frac{\varphi _a}{x}\right)^2+(2\sigma _a^2)\varphi _a^2\varphi _a^2\underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}\varphi _b^2$$

We expect that the time-evolution occurs in such a way that there is some equation of non-linear character

$$F(\frac{L_a}{t},\frac{K_a}{x})=0$$

between $`K_a`$ and

$$L_a=\underset{b=1,ba}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{\sigma _b^2\sigma _a^2}\left(\underset{c=1}{\overset{N}{}}c_{abc}J_c^0\right)\left(\underset{d=1}{\overset{N}{}}c_{abd}J_d^0\right)+\left(\frac{\varphi _a}{t}\right)^2+(2\sigma _a^2)\varphi _a^2\varphi _a^2\underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}\varphi _b^2$$

which reduces to $`\frac{J_a^0}{t}=\frac{J_a^1}{x}`$ when $`\sigma _a=0`$, $`a`$. The situation is analogous to that occurring between conformal field theories and models with infinite-dimensional algebraic symmetry as in (1+1)-dimensional Toda field theories and Toda affine models . There are two differences: (1) the conformal group is infinite dimensional in (1+1)-dimensions. We have only one finite-dimensional group $`O(N)`$ and thus we can solve only the static limit of the field theory model. (2) Due to the non-linear character of the deformation of the $`O(N)`$ Lie generators, we do not even have a finite-dimensional Lie algebra.

### 2.3 The Hamilton-Jacobi equation and kink trajectories

The $`K_a`$ invariants defined in (13) are quadratic in the momenta, but not orthogonal (they contain terms in $`p_ap_b,ab`$). Therefore, the Stäckel theorem can not be applied to assure Hamilton-Jacobi separability. This problem is surpassed in our dynamical system with the choice of some suitable system of coordinates. The appropriate system is provided by elliptic Jacobi coordinates, with a choice of separation constants determined by the deformation parameters giving mass to the Goldstone bosons; $`\overline{\sigma }_a^2=1\sigma _a^2,a=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$. Thus we define:

$$q_a^2=\frac{{\displaystyle \underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(\overline{\sigma }_a^2\lambda _b)}{{\displaystyle \underset{b=1,ba}{\overset{N}{}}}(\overline{\sigma }_a^2\overline{\sigma }_b^2)}=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }(\overline{\sigma }_a^2)}{A^{}(\overline{\sigma }_a^2)}$$
(14)
ruling the change of coordinates from Cartesian, $`\stackrel{}{q}(q_1,\mathrm{},q_N)`$ to elliptic $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)`$. In the Appendix, it is explained how the elliptic variables are split:

$$\mathrm{}<\lambda _1<\overline{\sigma }_N^2<\lambda _2<\overline{\sigma }_{N1}^2<\mathrm{}<\overline{\sigma }_2^2<\lambda _N<1$$
(15)
Notice that formula (14) coincides with formula (71) in the Appendix if we change $`q_a`$ by $`q_{Na+1}`$ and choose $`r_{Na+1}=\overline{\sigma }_a^2`$.

Together with formula (14), this splitting means that the change of coordinates produces a map from a sub-space of $`𝐑^N`$, characterized as the set of points which are not invariants under the $`𝐙_2^{\times N}`$ group generated by $`q_a(1)^{\delta _{ab}}q_a,b=1,\mathrm{},N`$, to the interior of the infinite parallelepiped $`P_N(\mathrm{})`$ obtained by replacing the inequalities in (15) by equalities: $`\mathrm{}<\lambda _1\overline{\sigma }_N^2\mathrm{}\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _N1`$. Notice that in this map $`2^N`$ regular points in $`𝐑^N`$ go to a single point in the interior of $`P_N(\mathrm{})`$; Singular points lie in the $`𝐑^m`$, $`m=0,1,\mathrm{},N1`$, sub-spaces that are invariant under the action of some non-trivial element of $`G=𝐙^{\times N}`$. These singular sub-spaces are mapped into the boundary of $`P_N(\mathrm{})`$.

The standard length of an interval in Euclidean space is expressed in elliptic coordinates in the form

$$ds^2=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}dq_adq_a=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}g_{aa}(\stackrel{}{\lambda })d\lambda _ad\lambda _a$$

because the metric $`g_{aa}(\stackrel{}{\lambda })`$, as derived in the Appendix, is:

$$g_{aa}(\stackrel{}{\lambda })=\frac{1}{4}\frac{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}{A(\lambda _a)},g_{ab}(\stackrel{}{\lambda })=0,ab$$

where $`A(\lambda _a)={\displaystyle \underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(\lambda _a\overline{\sigma }_b^2)`$, and <sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1The standard notation in the literature on elliptic Jacobi coordinates is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)={\displaystyle \underset{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{b=1}{ba}}{\overset{N}{}}}(\lambda _a\lambda _b)`$, see Appendix. We shall use $`f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })`$ in the main text instead of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)`$, to stress the fact that this quantity depends on all the components of $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }`$

$$f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })=f_a(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)=\underset{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{b=1}{ba}}{\overset{N}{}}(\lambda _a\lambda _b)$$

Therefore, the Lagrangian reads:

$`L`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{dq_a}{d\tau }}\right)^2U(q_1,\mathrm{},q_N)`$ (16)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}g_{aa}(\stackrel{}{\lambda })\left({\displaystyle \frac{d\lambda _a}{d\tau }}\right)^2U_\lambda (\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)`$
where the potential in elliptic coordinates is:

$$U_\lambda (\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{2}\frac{\lambda _a^{N+1}(\alpha 1)\lambda _a^N+(1\alpha +\beta )\lambda _a^{N1}}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}$$
(17)
$$\alpha =\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\overline{\sigma }_a^2,\beta =\underset{a=1,a<b}{\overset{N}{}}\underset{b=2}{\overset{N}{}}\overline{\sigma }_a^2\overline{\sigma }_b^2$$

The computation of $`U_\lambda (\stackrel{}{\lambda })`$ is highly non-trivial and requires the use of formulas that follow the Jacobi Lemma, such as (76), (77), (78), etc.

The canonical momenta associated to the $`\lambda _a`$ variables are:

$$\pi _a=\underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}g_{ab}(\stackrel{}{\lambda })\frac{d\lambda _b}{d\tau }=g_{aa}(\stackrel{}{\lambda })\frac{d\lambda _a}{d\tau }$$

and, through the standard Legendre transformation, we write the Hamiltonian:

$$H=\frac{1}{2}\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{4A(\lambda _a)}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}\pi _a^2+U_\lambda (\stackrel{}{\lambda })$$
(18)
The key point is that $`H`$ can be written in Stäckel’s form:

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{H_a}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}}=`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\left[2A(\lambda _a)\pi _a^2\frac{1}{2}\left(\lambda _a^{N+1}(\alpha 1)\lambda _a^N+(1\alpha +\beta )\lambda _a^{N1}\right)\right]}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}}`$
such that the Hamilton-Jacobi equation

$$\frac{𝒮}{\tau }+H(\frac{𝒮}{\lambda _1},\mathrm{},\frac{𝒮}{\lambda _N},\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)=0$$
(20)
is completely separable. We now prove this last statement.

Fixing $`H=I_1`$, the first integral of energy, and having in mind the expression (2.3) of $`H`$, we write the solution of (20) as:

$$𝒮=I_1\tau +\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}S_a(\lambda _a).$$
(21)
Therefore, (20) reduces to :

$$I_1=H(\frac{dS_1}{d\lambda _1},\mathrm{},\frac{dS_N}{d\lambda _N},\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{H_a}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}$$
(22)
The Hamilton-Jacobi PDE equation (20) becomes equivalent to the system of non-coupled ordinary differential equations

$$H_a(\frac{dS_a}{d\lambda _a},\lambda _a)=\eta _1\lambda _a^{N1}+\eta _2\lambda _a^{N2}+\mathrm{}+\eta _{N1}\lambda _a+\eta _N$$
(23)
where

$$H_a(\frac{dS_a}{d\lambda _a},\lambda _a)=2A(\lambda _a)\left(\frac{dS_a}{d\lambda _a}\right)^2\frac{1}{2}\left(\lambda _a^{N+1}(\alpha 1)\lambda _a^N+(1\alpha +\beta )\lambda _a^{N1}\right),$$
(24)
due to the identity

$$I_1=I_1\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\lambda _a^{N1}}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}+\eta _2\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\lambda _a^{N2}}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}+\mathrm{}+\eta _N\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}$$

-observe that $`\eta _1=I_1`$\- which follows from the Jacobi Lemma and the subsequent relations (Appendix)

$$\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\lambda _a^{N1}}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}=1,\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\lambda _a^{Ni}}{f_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })}=0,i=2,\mathrm{},N$$

Alternatively, one could take a more direct approach to show formula (23). We start from (22), written explicitly as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{H_1(\lambda _1)}{(\lambda _1\lambda _2)(\lambda _1\lambda _3)\mathrm{}(\lambda _1\lambda _N)}}`$ $`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{H_2(\lambda _2)}{(\lambda _2\lambda _1)(\lambda _2\lambda _3)\mathrm{}(\lambda _2\lambda _N)}}+\mathrm{}`$ (25)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{H_N(\lambda _N)}{(\lambda _N\lambda _1)(\lambda _N\lambda _2)\mathrm{}(\lambda _N\lambda _{N1})}}=I_1`$
Here, each $`H_a(\lambda _a)`$ is of the form (24) due to the ansatz (21). Multiplying (25) by $`(\lambda _1\lambda _2)`$ and setting $`\lambda _1=\lambda _2`$ one sees that $`H_1(\lambda )H_2(\lambda )`$, and hence by symmetry, all $`H_a(\lambda )`$, $`a=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$ are identical. It suffices therefore to find $`H_1(\lambda )`$. Multiplying (25) by $`f_1(\stackrel{}{\lambda })`$ one obtains

$$H_1(\lambda _1)+P_2(\stackrel{}{\lambda })H_2(\lambda _2)+\mathrm{}+P_N(\stackrel{}{\lambda })H_N(\lambda _N)=I_1(\lambda _1\lambda _2)(\lambda _1\lambda _3)\mathrm{}(\lambda _1\lambda _N),$$
(26)
where each $`P_a(\stackrel{}{\lambda })`$, $`a=2,3,\mathrm{},N`$, is a polynomial of degree $`N1`$ in $`\lambda _1`$. Differentiating (26) $`N`$ times with respect to $`\lambda _1`$ yields

$$\frac{d^NH_1(\lambda _1)}{d\lambda _1^N}=N!I_1$$
(27)
whence it follows that $`H_1(\lambda )`$ is a degree $`N`$ polynomial in $`\lambda `$ with leading coefficient $`I_1`$, in agreement with equation (23).

The set of separation constants $`\eta _i,i=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$ is another system of first integrals in involution. They can be expressed in the elliptic phase space $`T^{}P_N(\mathrm{})`$ as functions of $`\lambda _a`$ and $`\pi _a=\frac{dS_a}{d\lambda _a}`$ by solving the linear system of equations (23) in the unknown $`\eta _i`$, which is a Vandermonde system. The $`N1`$ roots of the polynomial

$$\lambda _a^{N1}+\frac{\eta _2}{I_1}\lambda _a^{N1}+\mathrm{}+\frac{\eta _N}{I_1}=(\lambda _aF_2)(\lambda _aF_3)\mathrm{}(\lambda _aF_N)$$

together with the energy $`F_1=I_1`$ form another system of invariants in involution. Both systems are related through the identities $`\eta _1=I_1`$ and:

$$\eta _a=(1)^aI_1\underset{i_1<i_2<\mathrm{}<i_a}{}F_{i_1}F_{i_2}\mathrm{}F_{i_a},i_\alpha =2,3,\mathrm{},N$$

Therefore, all the separation constants $`\eta _a`$ are proportional to the “particle” energy $`I_1`$.

Defining the polynomial $`B(\lambda _a)`$ in the form:

$$B(\lambda _a)=\lambda _a^{N+1}(\alpha 1)\lambda ^N+(1\alpha +\beta +2\eta _1)\lambda _a^{N1}+2\eta _2\lambda _a^{N2}+\mathrm{}+2\eta _N$$

the solution of the differential equation (23) is a quadrature:

$$S_a(\lambda _a)=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{sign}\left(\frac{dS_a}{d\lambda _a}\right)\sqrt{\left|\frac{B(\lambda _a)}{A(\lambda _a)}\right|}𝑑\lambda _a$$
(28)
and the general solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation reads:

$$𝒮=\eta _1\tau +\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{sign}\left(\frac{dS_a}{d\lambda _a}\right)\sqrt{\left|\frac{B(\lambda _a)}{A(\lambda _a)}\right|}𝑑\lambda _a$$
(29)
The explicit integration of the quadratures in (28) requires the theory of Theta functions of genus depending on $`N`$. The action of the associated trajectories is infinite because they are either periodic or unbounded. The asymptotic conditions (4) that guarantee finite action to continuous trajectories satisfying them also require that the energy used by the particle in these trajectories should be zero. This is so because $`I_1|_{\tau =\pm \mathrm{}}=0`$ and, being an invariant of the evolution, $`I_1=0,\tau `$.

We recall that the trajectories of finite action in an evolution lasting an infinite time are the kinks of the parent field theory system: one just trades the finite action of the trajectory for finite energy of the non-linear wave. Therefore, the kinks are the trajectories obtained when all the separation constants in (23) are zero: $`\eta _a=0,a`$. These are the separatrices between bounded and unbounded motion and the integrals in (28) are easier to compute.

The explicit trajectories are also provided by the Hamilton-Jacobi principle, through the set of equations:

$$\gamma _a=\frac{𝒮}{\eta _a},a=1,2,\mathrm{},N$$

where the $`\gamma _a`$ are integration constants. In the hypersurface of the phase space determined by $`\eta _1=\mathrm{}=\eta _N=0`$, the first equation

$$\gamma _1=\tau +\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{sign}(\pi _a)\frac{\lambda _a^{N1}d\lambda _a}{\left|A(\lambda _a)\right|}\sqrt{\left|\frac{A(\lambda _a)}{\lambda _a^{N+1}(\alpha 1)\lambda _a^N+(1\alpha +\beta )\lambda _a^{N1}}\right|}$$
(30)
rules the time-dependence of the particle in its journey through the orbit. From the field theoretical point of view, it provides the kink form factor. The other $`N1`$ equations, $`i=2,3,\mathrm{},N`$,

$$\gamma _i=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{sign}(\pi _a)\frac{\lambda _a^{Ni}d\lambda _a}{\left|A(\lambda _a)\right|}\sqrt{\left|\frac{A(\lambda _a)}{\lambda _a^{N+1}(\alpha 1)\lambda _a^N+(1\alpha +\beta )\lambda _a^{N1}}\right|}$$
(31)
determine the orbit in $`P_N(\mathrm{})`$, the intersection of $`N1`$ hypersurfaces in the configuration space. Therefore, there is a $`N1`$-dimensional family of kinks parametrized by the finite values of $`\gamma _i`$.

Although (30) and (31) identify all the separatrix trajectories of the mechanical system and henceforth all the kink solutions of the deformed linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model, an explicit description of such solitary waves is difficult for two reasons: (1). (30) and (31) form a system of transcendent equations of impossible analytical resolution. (2). Even if it were possible, expressing back the solution in Cartesian coordinates through (71) for $`N3`$ is another impossible task by analytical means.

## 3 $`N`$=3

To gain insight into the nature of the different kinks of the model, in this Section we shall address in full detail the $`N=3`$ case. We shall deal with a (1+1)-dimensional field theory including three scalar fields which transform according to a vector representation of the $`O(3)`$ group. The structure of the solitary wave solutions of the $`N=3`$ system is extremely rich from different points of view and shows the behavioural pattern of the general case with $`N`$-component fields.

### 3.1 The general solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation

The Hamiltonian of the underlying dynamical system reads:

$$H=\frac{1}{2}\left(p_1^2+p_2^2+p_3^2\right)\frac{1}{2}\left(q_1^2+q_2^2+q_3^21\right)^2\frac{\sigma _2^2}{2}q_2^2\frac{\sigma _3^2}{2}q_3^2$$
(32)
in Cartesian coordinates. To write the Hamiltonian in elliptic coordinates, note that for $`N=3`$ we have:

$$\alpha =1+\overline{\sigma }_2^2+\overline{\sigma }_3^2,\beta =\overline{\sigma }_2^2\overline{\sigma }_3^2+\overline{\sigma }_2^2+\overline{\sigma }_3^2$$

$$A(\lambda _a)=(\lambda _a1)(\lambda _a\overline{\sigma }_2^2)(\lambda _a\overline{\sigma }_3^2)$$

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _1)=(\lambda _1\lambda _2)(\lambda _1\lambda _3);\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _2)=(\lambda _2\lambda _1)(\lambda _2\lambda _3);\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _3)=(\lambda _3\lambda _1)(\lambda _3\lambda _2)$$

Hence, $`H={\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{3}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)}}H_a`$, where

$$H_a=2A(\lambda _a)\pi _a^2\frac{1}{2}\left[\lambda _a^2(\lambda _a\overline{\sigma }_2^2)(\lambda _a\overline{\sigma }_3^2)\right]$$
(33)
The separatrix trajectories, those in one-to-one correspondence with solitary waves of kink type in the encompassing field theory, are fully determined by the equations (31) restricted to the $`N=3`$ case:

$`C_2=`$ $`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _2}}|^{\sigma _3\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _3}}|^{\sigma _2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}`$
$`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _2}}|^{\sigma _3\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _3}}|^{\sigma _2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}`$
$`\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _2}}\right|^{\sigma _3\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _3}}\right|^{\sigma _2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}`$
where $`C_2=\mathrm{exp}\{2\gamma _2\sigma _2\sigma _3(\sigma _2^2\sigma _3^2)\}`$ is constant, and:

$`C_3=`$ $`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+1}}|^{\sigma _2\sigma _3(\sigma _2^2\sigma _3^2)\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _2}}|^{\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_3^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}`$
$`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _3}}|^{\sigma _2\overline{\sigma }_2^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+1}}|^{\sigma _2\sigma _3(\sigma _2^2\sigma _3^2)\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}`$
$`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _2}}|^{\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_3^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _3}}|^{\sigma _2\overline{\sigma }_2^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}`$
$`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+1}}|^{\sigma _2\sigma _3(\sigma _2^2\sigma _3^2)\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _2}}|^{\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_3^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}`$
$`\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _3}}\right|^{\sigma _2\overline{\sigma }_2^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}`$
with $`C_3=\mathrm{exp}\{2\gamma _3\sigma _2\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_2^2\overline{\sigma }_3^2(\sigma _2^2\sigma _3^2)\}`$.

Integration of (30) in the $`N=3`$ case shows the time-table of the particle in each trajectory, or, the kink form factor:

$`C_1(\tau )=`$ $`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _2}}|^{\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_2^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _3}}|^{\sigma _2\overline{\sigma }_3^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}`$
$`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _2}}|^{\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_2^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _3}}|^{\sigma _2\overline{\sigma }_3^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}`$
$`\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _2}}\right|^{\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_2^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _3}}\right|^{\sigma _2\overline{\sigma }_3^2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}`$
if $`C_1(\tau )=\mathrm{exp}\{2(\gamma _1+\tau )(\sigma _3^2\sigma _2^2)\sigma _2\sigma _3\}`$. Therefore, there is a family of kinks parametrized by the integration constants $`\gamma _2`$, $`\gamma _3`$: it corresponds to the family of curves in $`P_3(\mathrm{})`$ determined by the intersection of the surfaces defined by (3.1) and (3.1). The third constant, $`\gamma _1`$, fixes the center of the kink, the point where the energy density reaches its maximum value.

Better intuition of the kink shapes requires an interpretation of the solutions described by equations (3.1) and (3.1) in Cartesian coordinates. We shall describe how is this achieved in the next sub-sections, but before this it is convenient to note some details of the change of coordinates from Cartesian to elliptic in $`𝐑^3`$:

$`q_1^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _2^2\sigma _3^2}}(1\lambda _1)(1\lambda _2)(1\lambda _3)`$
$`q_2^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _2^2(\sigma _3^2\sigma _2^2)}}(\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _1)(\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _2)(\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _3)`$ (37)
$`q_3^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _3^2(\sigma _2^2\sigma _3^2)}}(\overline{\sigma }_3^2\lambda _1)(\overline{\sigma }_3^2\lambda _2)(\overline{\sigma }_3^2\lambda _3)`$
The change of coordinates is singular at the three $`𝐑^2`$ coordinate planes; $`q_1=0`$, $`q_2=0`$ and $`q_3=0`$. The image of the $`q_1=0`$ plane is a unique face, $`\lambda _3=1`$, of the $`P_3(\mathrm{})`$ parallelepiped:

$$\mathrm{}<\lambda _1\overline{\sigma }_3^2\lambda _2\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _31$$
(38)
The $`q_2=0`$ plane, however, is mapped into faces $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$ and $`\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$, while the $`q_3=0`$ plane goes to faces $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$ and $`\lambda _1=\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$ of $`P_3(\mathrm{})`$. Observe that $`g_{11}(\overline{\sigma }_3^2,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)=g_{22}(\lambda _1,\overline{\sigma }_3^2,\lambda _3)=g_{22}(\lambda _1,\overline{\sigma }_2^2,\lambda _3)=g_{33}(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\overline{\sigma }_2^2)=g_{33}(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,1)=\mathrm{}`$. The whole $`𝐑^3`$ space is mapped in $`P_3(\mathrm{})`$. Due to the symmetry under the group $`G=𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2\times 𝐙_2`$ generated by $`q_aq_a`$, the mapping (37) is eight to one in regular points of $`𝐑^3`$: to any point in the interior of $`P_3(\mathrm{})`$ correspond eight points in $`𝐑^3`$ away from the coordinate planes. These planes are fixed loci of some subgroup of $`G`$.

The asymptotic conditions (4) in $`q_a`$ restrict the motion to the compact sub-space $`D^3`$ of $`𝐑^3`$ bounded by the tri-axial ellipsoid:

$$q_1^2+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}+\frac{q_3^2}{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}=1$$
(39)
and are satisfied by finite action and zero energy trajectories. Elliptic coordinates are best suited for demonstrating such a restriction. In this coordinate system $`D^3`$ is mapped to the finite parallelepiped $`P_3(0)`$:

$$0\lambda _1\overline{\sigma }_3^2\lambda _2\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _31$$
(40)
The unique non-singular face of $`P_3(0)`$ with respect to the change of coordinates is $`\lambda _1=0`$ and the inverse image of this face is the ellipsoid (39). The asymptotic conditions (4) force $`\eta _b=0,b`$, and thus, by (23), $`H_a=0,a`$, for the finite action solutions. $`\lambda _2`$ and $`\lambda _3`$ are bounded, see (40). Thus, we focus on,

$$H_1=0\frac{1}{2}\pi _1^2+\frac{1}{8}\frac{\lambda _1^2}{\lambda _11}=0$$
(41)
Equation (41) describes the motion of a particle with zero energy moving under the influence of a potential

$`𝒱(\lambda _1)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _1^2}{\lambda _11}},\mathrm{}<\lambda _1\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{},\overline{\sigma }_3^2<\lambda _1<\mathrm{}`$
$`𝒱(\lambda _1)`$ has a maximum at $`\lambda _1=0`$ and goes to $`\mathrm{}`$ when $`\lambda _1`$ tends to $`\mathrm{}`$; therefore, bounded motion occurs only in the $`\lambda _1[0,\overline{\sigma }_3^2]`$ interval and the trajectories giving rise to kinks lie in $`P_3(0)`$, seen in elliptic coordinates, or $`D^3`$ in Cartesian space.

In Figure 1 the whole picture is depicted and we notice the following important elements of the dynamics:

\- Points: (1) the origin. This is a fixed point of $`G=𝐙^{\times 3}`$ and thus only one point O in $`D^3`$ is mapped to the vertex O in $`P_3(\mathrm{})`$. (2) Points B, C, D: these are the intersection points of the three distinguished ellipses , $`q_1^2+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}=1`$, $`q_1^2+\frac{q_3^2}{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}=1`$ and $`\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}+\frac{q_3^2}{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}=1`$, in the ellipsoid (39). They are fixed points under the action of a sub-group $`𝐙_2^{\times 2}`$ of $`G`$ and thus, two points in the boundary of $`D^3`$ are mapped to a single point in the boundary of $`P_3(0)`$. D is the point where the two vacuum points $`\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$ are mapped and hence it is a very important point of the dynamics: every finite action trajectory starts and ends at D. (3) Points F<sub>1</sub>, F<sub>2</sub>, F<sub>3</sub>, the foci of the above ellipses. Again two points in $`D^3`$ are mapped in a unique point in $`P_3(0)`$. (4) The umbilicus A of the ellipsoid $`\lambda _1=0`$ is another characteristic point; in Cartesian coordinates A corresponds to four points in the boundary of $`D^3`$ because they are invariant only under a $`𝐙_2`$ sub-group of $`G`$.

\- Curves:

* The ellipse with foci F<sub>2</sub>

$$\frac{q_1^2}{\sigma _3^2}+\frac{q_2^2}{\sigma _3^2\sigma _2^2}=1$$
(42)
in the $`q_3=0`$ plane passing through F<sub>3</sub> and F<sub>1</sub>. This is the edge $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_3^2=\lambda _1`$ in $`P_3(0)`$. Observe that four points on the ellipse (42) are mapped to one point in the edge of $`P_3(0)`$, because it is invariant under a $`𝐙_2`$ sub-group of $`G`$. The map leading to F<sub>3</sub> and F<sub>1</sub> is, however, two to one: the invariance group of these points is bigger, $`𝐙_2^{\times 2}G`$.
* The hyperbola

$$\frac{q_1^2}{\sigma _2^2}\frac{q_3^2}{\sigma _3^2\sigma _2^2}=1$$
(43)
in the $`q_2=0`$ plane passing through F<sub>2</sub> and A and having foci F<sub>3</sub> (the edge $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_2^2=\lambda _3`$ in $`P_3(0)`$).

The above points and curves play a special rôle in the definition of the elliptic coordinates and are also “critical loci” of the dynamics.

### 3.2 Generic Kinks

The generic kinks of the $`N=3`$ system are the trajectories given by the solutions of (3.1)-(3.1) for non-zero finite values of $`C_2`$ and $`C_3`$. The solutions of the implicit equations (3.1)-(3.1) cannot be graphically represented by means of the built-in functions of Mathematica. We use a numerical algorithm implemented in Mathematica to obtain the graphic portrait of the trajectories. The algorithm allows us to calculate an arbitrary number of points on the orbit. These points joined by straight segments provide a visualization of the trajectory. There is a special step and an iteration of routine steps in the procedure, which is based on the Newton-Raphson method.

First step. Identification of two points on the trajectory.

For given values of $`C_2`$, $`C_3`$, $`\sigma _2`$, $`\sigma _3`$ and a choice of signs, we set the first variable to the “point” $`\lambda _1=\overline{\lambda }_1`$. (3.1)-(3.1) becomes a system of two equations in two unknowns that can be solved by the Newton-Raphson method with starting values $`(\lambda _2^0,\lambda _3^0)`$. The outcome is a point $`P_1(\overline{\lambda }_1,\overline{\lambda }_2,\overline{\lambda }_3)`$ on the trajectory. We repeat this operation starting from $`\lambda _1=\overline{\lambda _1}+ϵ=\overline{\lambda }_1^{}`$ to find a second point $`P_2(\overline{\lambda }_1^{},\overline{\lambda }_2^{},\overline{\lambda }_3^{})`$ on the orbit.

$`\overline{\lambda }_1`$, $`\overline{\lambda }_1^{}`$, $`\lambda _2^0`$ and $`\lambda _3^0`$ are chosen at random; good convergence is attained if these points belong to the middle zones of the variation ranges of $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$ and $`\lambda _3`$ or, at least, they are far away from the singularities on the faces of $`P_3(0)`$

Successive steps.

$`P_1`$ and $`P_2`$ provide an approximation of the curve by the secant line joining them. For some small $`\delta 𝐑^+`$, we choose $`P_3^0=P_1+\delta (P_2P_1)`$ as the starting value of the Newton-Raphson procedure applied to the solution of equations (3.1) and (3.1); we thus obtain the point $`P_3`$ on the curve. $`P_2`$ and $`P_3`$ lead to guesstimate by the same token another value $`P_4^0`$ that produce the next point $`P_4`$ on the orbit and now the iteration is obvious. Replacing $`\delta `$ by $`\delta `$ we travel along the opposite sense on the trajectory. The algorithm stops when one of the three variables $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _3`$ reaches its extreme value; it is applied independently on each stage, determined by the signs of $`\pi _a`$ and the global trajectory is obtained by the demand for continuity.

We now describe the portrait of these orbits. Having fixed $`\gamma _2`$ and $`\gamma _3`$, the corresponding kink trajectory is a non-plane curve in the interior of $`P_3(0)`$ that starts from the vacuum point D, reaches the top face BCF<sub>1</sub>O and hits the edge AF<sub>2</sub>. It then goes to the edge F<sub>1</sub>F<sub>3</sub>, back again to the top face, hits the edge AF<sub>2</sub> a second time, the top face a third time and ends at D: see Figure 2 and Figure 3. Varying $`\gamma _2`$ and $`\gamma _3`$ in the range of finite real numbers, other similar trajectories are obtained that hit the edges AF<sub>2</sub> and F<sub>1</sub>F<sub>3</sub> at different points. Given a sense of time there therefore exists a two-parameter family of kink trajectories in one-to-one correspondence with the points in the interior of AF<sub>2</sub> and F<sub>1</sub>F<sub>3</sub>. It should be mentioned that a whole congruence of trajectories parametrized by the interior of F<sub>1</sub>F<sub>3</sub> converges at one single point in the interior of AF<sub>2</sub> and viceversa.

The translation of a generic kink trajectory to Cartesian coordinates is a delicate matter; due to the non-uniqueness of the mapping implied by the change of coordinates special care is necessary in the analysis of the trajectory near the special conics (42)-(43) where several options are a priori possible. Since it requires continuity and derivability to the trajectories in the interior of the ellipsoid (39), the interior of $`D^3`$, the behaviour of the curve is mostly fixed. Two choices, the specification of D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^{}`$ as the starting point and the location of the intersection of the kink trajectory with the $`q_1=0`$ plane in the quadrant characterized by $`q_2>0`$, $`q_3>0`$, completely fix the itinerary.

There is a crossroad where the “particle” touches the $`q_1>0`$ branch of the hyperbola (43) and turns back towards the ellipse (42). There, the movement enters the $`q_3<0`$ half-space and the kink trajectory reaches the other branch, $`q_1<0`$, of the critical hyperbola after crossing the $`q_2=0`$ plane. At this stage, the particle makes its way for a third crossing of the $`q_2=0`$ plane and, finally, the journey ends at D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^+`$. This kind of kink trajectory is therefore heteroclinic: it starts and ends at different unstable points, so that:

$$Q_1^T=\frac{1}{2}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau \frac{dq_1}{d\tau }=\pm 1,Q_2^T=Q_3^T=0$$
(44)
We call these topological kinks TK3 because they have three non-null components:

$$q_1(\tau )=\varphi _1(x)0,q_2(\tau )=\varphi _2(x)0,q_3(\tau )=\varphi _3(x)0$$

It should be noted that a unique, apparently non-derivable, kink trajectory in elliptic coordinates corresponds to eight derivable trajectories in Cartesian coordinates: the choices of $`\stackrel{}{v}^{}`$ or $`\stackrel{}{v}^+`$ and $`q_3<0`$ or $`q_3>0`$, $`q_2<0`$ or $`q_2>0`$ as the starting point and initial quadrant give the eight possibilities.

The energy of a three-component topological kink is the action of the trajectory times $`\frac{m^3}{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}`$ and hence computable from formula (28) for the $`N=3`$ case:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}{m^3}}E_{\mathrm{TK3}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _1d\lambda _1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}}}+{\displaystyle _{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}^{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{2\lambda _2d\lambda _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}}}+{\displaystyle _{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}^1}{\displaystyle \frac{3\lambda _3d\lambda _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}\left[\sigma _3(3\sigma _3^2)+\sigma _2(3\sigma _2^2)\right]`$
It is independent of $`\gamma _2`$ and $`\gamma _3`$ and hence the same for every kink in the TK3 family.

### 3.3 Enveloping Kinks

There is another family of $`N=3`$ kinks living on the surface $`M_3\{(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)/`$ $`\lambda _1=0\}`$, the unique face of $`P_3(0)`$ where the elliptic coordinates are not singular. In $`M_3`$, the Hamiltonian becomes:

$$H=\underset{a=2}{\overset{3}{}}\frac{H_a}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)}=\underset{a=2}{\overset{3}{}}\left\{\frac{2A(\lambda _a)}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)}\pi _a^2\frac{1}{2}\frac{\lambda _a^2(\lambda _a\overline{\sigma }_2^2)(\lambda _a\overline{\sigma }_3^2)}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)}\right\}$$
(46)
and therefore there is a two-dimensional system hidden inside the $`N=3`$ model which is Hamilton-Jacobi separable. The orbit equations,

$`C`$ $`=`$ $`|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _2}}|^{\sigma _3\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _3}}|^{\sigma _2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}`$ (47)
$`\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _2}}\right|^{\sigma _3\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _3}}\right|^{\sigma _2\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}`$
are parametrized by only one real constant $`\gamma _2`$ ($`C=e^{\sigma _2\sigma _3(\sigma _3^2\sigma _2^2)\gamma _2}`$).

The Mathematica plot of these solutions is shown in Figure 4. Having fixed $`\gamma _2`$, the corresponding kink trajectory is a plane curve in $`M_3`$ that starts from the vacuum point D, reaches the top edge BC, goes to the umbilicus A and then back to the edge BC, to end finally in the vacuum point D. The value of $`\gamma _2`$ determines the points in BC where the trajectory bounces back and thus the one-parameter family of this kind of kink trajectories is in one-to-one correspondence with the points in the interior of BC.

In Cartesian coordinates the enveloping kinks are trajectories that unfold on the ellipsoid (39):

$$q_1^2+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}+\frac{q_3^2}{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}=1$$

The starting point is either D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^+`$ or D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^{}`$ and the trajectories also end in either D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^+`$ or D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^{}`$. Associated with “homoclinic” trajectories, the corresponding kinks are “non-topological”: $`Q_1^T=Q_2^T=Q_3^T=0`$. The three Cartesian components $`q_a`$ differ from zero and the appropriate name for this kind of solitary wave is a non-topological kink of three components, NTK3 for short. Every NTK3 trajectory on its way from D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$ to D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^\pm `$ crosses the umbilicus point of the ellipsoid. Note that, again, eight trajectories in the Cartesian space $`𝐑^3`$ correspond to one trajectory in $`P_3(0)`$: the particle has the freedom to choose the points $`\stackrel{}{v}^+`$ or $`\stackrel{}{v}^{}`$ as base points of the curve. Having fixed one of them, the trajectory may develop in the half-ellipsoids determined in (44) by $`q_30`$ or $`q_30`$ and, finally, there are two travelling senses in each orbit.

Also, the energy of a three-component non-topological kink is essentially the action of the NTK3 trajectory:

$$\frac{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}{m^3}E_{\mathrm{NTK3}}=_{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}^{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}\frac{\lambda _2d\lambda _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}}+_{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}^1\frac{2\lambda _3d\lambda _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}}=2\left(\sigma _2+\sigma _3\frac{\sigma _2^2+\sigma _3^2}{3}\right)$$
(48)
according to the Hamilton-Jacobi theory.

### 3.4 Embedded Kinks

Three-component topological and non-topological kinks arise as genuine solitary waves in the $`N=3`$ model. Restriction to the $`q_3=0`$ and/or $`q_2=0`$ planes shows that the $`N=2`$ system is included twice, once in each plane, in the $`N=3`$ model. Therefore, all the solitary waves of the $`N=2`$ model are embedded twice as kinks of the larger $`N=3`$ system. The embedded kinks live on the $`q_2=0`$ and $`q_3=0`$ planes, i.e. the faces of $`P_3(0)`$ where the elliptic coordinate system is singular.

#### I. Embedded kinks in the $`q_2=0`$ plane

Both $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$ and $`\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$ give $`q_3=0`$, see (37), and hence this coordinate plane in $`𝐑^3`$ is the union of the two faces, $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$ and $`\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$, of $`P_3(0)`$. Therefore, in

$$M_{2_{\sigma _3}}=\left\{(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)/\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_2^2\right\}\left\{(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)/\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_2^2\right\}=M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^1M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^2$$

we expect to find all the kinks of the $`N=2`$ case.

* In $`M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^1`$, $`\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$, we are in the face of $`P_3(0)`$ such that $`0<\lambda _1<\overline{\sigma }_3^2<\lambda _2<\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$, and

$$q_1^2=\frac{1}{\sigma _3^2}(1\lambda _1)(1\lambda _2),q_3^2=\frac{1}{\sigma _3^2}(\overline{\sigma }_3^2\lambda _1)(\overline{\sigma }_3^2\lambda _2^2)$$

The Hamiltonian also reduces to the $`N=2`$ Hamiltonian

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2A(\lambda _1)}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _1)}}\pi _1^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _1)}}\left(\lambda _1^2(\lambda _1\overline{\sigma }_2^2)(\lambda _1\overline{\sigma }_3^2)\right)`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{2A(\lambda _2)}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _2)}}\pi _2^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _2)}}\left(\lambda _2^2(\lambda _2\overline{\sigma }_2^2)(\lambda _2\overline{\sigma }_3^2)\right)`$
and the Hamilton-Jacobi method prescribes the equation

$`e^{2\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_3^2\gamma _2}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\right|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _3}}||{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}1}}|^{\sigma _3})^{\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}`$ (49)
$`\left(\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _3}}\right|\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}1}}\right|^{\sigma _3}\right)^{\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}`$
as ruling the portion of the trajectories at this face, bounded by the edges AD, AF<sub>2</sub>, F<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub> and F<sub>3</sub>D (see Figure 5).
* In $`M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^2`$, $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$ and the face in the boundary of $`P_3(0)`$ is $`0<\lambda _1<\overline{\sigma }_3^2<\overline{\sigma }_2^2<\lambda _3<1`$. The trajectory equations at this face are:

$`e^{2\sigma _3\overline{\sigma }_3^2\gamma _2}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\right|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _3}}||{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}1}}|^{\sigma _3})^{\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}`$ (50)
$`\left(\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _3}}\right|\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}1}}\right|^{\sigma _3}\right)^{\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}`$
and the boundary is formed by the edges AF<sub>2</sub>, F<sub>2</sub>O, OB and BA.

For finite values of $`\gamma _2`$, some kink trajectories given by (49)-(50) are depicted in Figure 5. It may be observed that the trajectory starts at D and then runs through the face $`M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^1`$ until the edge AF<sub>2</sub>. From this point, the particle enters the $`M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^2`$ face (here the path is not derivable), reaches the BO edge and comes back to the AF<sub>2</sub> edge. This is the second point of non-differentiability re-entering the trajectory the $`M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^1`$ face. All the trajectories then meet at the vertex F<sub>3</sub> and come back in a symmetric way to end in the D point. In Cartesian coordinates, these kink trajectories start and end in either D=$`\stackrel{}{v}^+`$ or D$`=\stackrel{}{v}^{}`$, do not leave the $`q_2=0`$ plane, and cross either the focus ($`q_1=\sigma _3`$, $`q_3=0`$) or ($`q_1=\sigma _3`$, $`q_3=0`$). We therefore call them NTK2$`_{\sigma _3}`$ because they are two-component non-topological kinks, merely the family of NTK2 kinks of the $`N=2`$ model, embedded this way within the manifold of kinks of the $`N=3`$ system. There are four trajectories of this kind inside the ellipsoid (44) in $`𝐑^3`$ per trajectory in the boundary of $`P_3(0)`$: there is freedom to choose $`\stackrel{}{v}^+`$ or $`\stackrel{}{v}^{}`$ and the sense of travel in each orbit. The NTK2$`_{\sigma _3}`$ kinks are fixed points of the $`𝐙_2`$ sub-group of $`G=𝐙_2^{\times 3}`$ generated by $`q_2q_2`$, that, however, does not leave invariant the TK3 and the NTK3 trajectories . The energy of these solutions is:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}{m^3}}E_{\mathrm{NTK2}_{\sigma _3}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _1d\lambda _1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}}}+{\displaystyle _{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}^{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{2\lambda _2d\lambda _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}}}+{\displaystyle _{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}^1}{\displaystyle \frac{2\lambda _3d\lambda _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}}}`$ (51)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}+2\sigma _3\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _3^2}{3}}\right)`$
There is a limiting case to this family of kinks: a trajectory along the DA and AB edges and back to D through the same way. Elliptic coordinates are even more singular on the edges, but the dynamical system reduces to a one-dimensional Hamiltonian system which can be integrated analytically. We have a two-step trajectory:

At the DA edge, $`\lambda _1=0`$ and $`\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$, the canonical equations (after use of the first integral) reduce to:

$$\frac{d\lambda _2}{d\tau }=\pm 2(\lambda _2\overline{\sigma }_3^2)\sqrt{1\lambda _2}$$
(52)
with the solution

$$\lambda _1^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )=0,\lambda _2^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )=1\sigma _3^2\mathrm{tanh}^2(\sigma _3\tau ),\lambda _3^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_2^2$$
(53)
for $`\tau (\mathrm{},\frac{1}{\sigma _3}arctanh\frac{\sigma _2}{\sigma _3}][\frac{1}{\sigma _3}arctanh\frac{\sigma _2}{\sigma _3},\mathrm{})`$. The second step occurs on the AB edge, where, again, the canonical equations reduce to a single differential equation: if $`\lambda _1=0`$ and $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$,

$$\frac{d\lambda _3}{d\tau }=\pm 2(\lambda _3\overline{\sigma }_3^2)\sqrt{1\lambda _3}$$
(54)
has the solution

$$\lambda _1^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )=0,\lambda _2^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_2^2,\lambda _3^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )=1\sigma _3^2\mathrm{tanh}^2(\sigma _3\tau )$$
(55)
for $`\tau [\frac{1}{\sigma _3}arctanh\frac{\sigma _2}{\sigma _3},\frac{1}{\sigma _3}arctanh\frac{\sigma _2}{\sigma _3}]`$. The corresponding kinks in Cartesian coordinates are TK2$`_{\sigma _3}`$ and TK2$`{}_{}{}^{}{}_{\sigma _3}{}^{}`$, the four two-component topological kinks of the $`N=2`$ model:

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}q_1^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )\\ q_2^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )\\ q_3^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(\tau )\end{array}\right)=\pm \left(\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tanh}(\sigma _3\tau )\\ 0\\ \pm \overline{\sigma }_3sech(\sigma _3\tau )\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _1^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(x,t)\\ \varphi _2^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(x,t)\\ \varphi _3^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}(x,t)\end{array}\right)=\pm \left(\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tanh}(\sigma _3x)\\ 0\\ \pm \overline{\sigma }_3sech(\sigma _3x)\end{array}\right)$$
(56)
Thus, the enveloping kinks of the $`N=2`$ model are also embedded in the $`N=3`$ system. The energy for these solutions and their anti-kinks is:

$$\frac{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}{m^3}E_{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _3}}=_{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}^{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}\frac{\lambda _2d\lambda _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}}+_{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}^1\frac{\lambda _3d\lambda _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}}=2\sigma _3\left(1\frac{\sigma _3^2}{3}\right)$$
(57)
In the $`q_2=0`$ plane there is still one trajectory that is even more singular: it is a three step path running on the edges DF<sub>3</sub>, F<sub>3</sub>F<sub>2</sub>, F<sub>2</sub>O and back to D through the same way. The canonical equations and its solutions in the three steps are:

1. $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$ and $`\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$.

$$\frac{d\lambda _1}{d\tau }=\pm 2\lambda _1\sqrt{1\lambda _1},\tau (\mathrm{},arctanh\sigma _3][arctanh\sigma _3,\mathrm{})$$

$$\lambda _1^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=1\mathrm{tanh}^2\tau ,\lambda _2^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_3^2,\lambda _3^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_2^2$$

2. $`\lambda _1=\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$ and $`\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$.

$$\frac{d\lambda _2}{d\tau }=\pm 2\lambda _2\sqrt{1\lambda _2},\tau [arctanh\sigma _3,arctanh\sigma _2][arctanh\sigma _2,arctanh\sigma _3]$$

$$\lambda _1^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_3^2,\lambda _2^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=1\mathrm{tanh}^2\tau ,\lambda _3^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_2^2$$

3. $`\lambda _1=\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$ and $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_2^2`$.

$$\frac{d\lambda _3}{d\tau }=\pm 2\lambda _3\sqrt{1\lambda _3},\tau [arctanh\sigma _2,arctanh\sigma _2]$$

$$\lambda _1^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_3^2,\lambda _2^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_2^2,\lambda _3^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )=1\mathrm{tanh}^2\tau $$

Only one Cartesian component is different from zero:

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}q_1^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )\\ q_2^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )\\ q_3^{\mathrm{TK1}}(\tau )\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\pm \mathrm{tanh}\tau \\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _1^{\mathrm{TK1}}(x,t)\\ \varphi _2^{\mathrm{TK1}}(x,t)\\ \varphi _3^{\mathrm{TK1}}(x,t)\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\pm \mathrm{tanh}x\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)$$
(58)
and hence the one-component topological kink of the $`N=1`$ model is embedded first in the manifold of kinks of the $`N=2`$ model, and then in the $`N=3`$ system. There are two kinks of this kind in Cartesian coordinates which are mapped in a unique trajectory in the boundary of $`P_3(0)`$. The TK1 trajectories are fixed points of the $`𝐙^{\times 2}`$ sub-group of $`G`$ generated by $`q_2q_2`$ and $`q_3q_3`$. The energy is

$$\frac{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}{m^3}E_{\mathrm{TK1}}=_0^{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}\frac{\lambda _1d\lambda _1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}}+_{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}^{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}\frac{\lambda _2d\lambda _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}}+_{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}^1\frac{\lambda _3d\lambda _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}}=\frac{4}{3}$$
(59)
#### Embedded Kinks in the $`q_3=0`$ plane

The DF<sub>3</sub>, F<sub>3</sub>F<sub>2</sub> and F<sub>2</sub>O edges form the intersection of the $`q_2=0`$ and $`q_3=0`$ planes. Therefore, the TK1 kinks also live in the $`q_3=0`$ plane. There is another maximally singular trajectory living on the “edge” in the $`q_3=0`$ plane:

At the DC edge, $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$ and $`\lambda _1=0`$, the canonical equations for the finite action trajectories are:

$$\frac{d\lambda _3}{d\tau }=\pm 2(\lambda _3\overline{\sigma }_2^2)\sqrt{1\lambda _3}$$
(60)
The path

$$\lambda _1^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(\tau )=0,\lambda _2^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(\tau )=\overline{\sigma }_3^2,\lambda _3^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(\tau )=1\sigma _2^2\mathrm{tanh}^2(\sigma _2\tau )$$
(61)
solves (60) and runs when $`\tau `$ goes from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`+\mathrm{}`$ from D to D passing through the vertex C at $`\tau =0`$. In Cartesian coordinates we recover the four two-component topological kinks of the $`N=2`$ model, now embedded in the $`q_3=0`$ plane:

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}q_1^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(\tau )\\ q_2^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(\tau )\\ q_3^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(\tau )\end{array}\right)=\pm \left(\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tanh}(\sigma _2\tau )\\ \pm \overline{\sigma }_2^2sech(\sigma _2\tau )\\ 0\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _1^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(x,t)\\ \varphi _2^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(x,t)\\ \varphi _3^{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}(x,t)\end{array}\right)=\pm \left(\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tanh}(\sigma _2x)\\ \pm \overline{\sigma }_2^2sech(\sigma _2x)\\ 0\end{array}\right)$$
(62)
These are heteroclinic trajectories that produce the TK2$`_{\sigma _2}`$ and TK2$`{}_{}{}^{}{}_{\sigma _2}{}^{}`$ topological kinks. The energy is:

$$\frac{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}{m^3}E_{\mathrm{TK2}_{\sigma _2}}=_{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}^1\frac{\lambda _3d\lambda _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}}=2\sigma _2\left(1\frac{\sigma _2^2}{3}\right)$$
(63)
Of course,the full manifold of kinks of the $`N=2`$ model is embedded in the $`q_3=0`$ plane : the set of kinks of the $`N=3`$ system is completed by the two-component non-topological kinks living in the $`q_3=0`$ plane, see Figure 6. The $`q_3=0`$ plane is mapped to the union of two faces in the boundary of $`P_3(0)`$:

$$M_{2_{\sigma _2}}=\left\{(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)/\lambda _1=\overline{\sigma }_3^2\right\}\left\{(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)/\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_3^2\right\}=M_{2_{\sigma _2}}^1M_{2_{\sigma _2}}^2$$

* 1. In $`M_{2_{\sigma _2}}^1`$, $`\lambda _1=\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$ implies $`q_3=0`$. Therefore:

$`q_1^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _2^2}}(1\lambda _2)(1\lambda _3)`$
$`q_2^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _2^2}}(\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _2)(\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _3)`$
is a well defined change of coordinates in the range $`\overline{\sigma }_3^2<\lambda _2<\overline{\sigma }_2^2<\lambda _3<1`$. In this region, the interior of the ellipse (42), the trajectories providing kinks are given by the equations:

$`e^{2\sigma _2\overline{\sigma }_2^2\gamma _2}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\right|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+\sigma _2}}||{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}+1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}1}}|^{\sigma _2})^{\mathrm{sign}(\pi _2)}`$ (64)
$`\left(\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _2}}\right|\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}1}}\right|^{\sigma _2}\right)^{\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}`$
* 2. In $`M_{2_{\sigma _2}}^2`$, $`\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_3^2`$ also implies $`q_3=0`$. In the range $`0<\lambda _1<\overline{\sigma }_3^2<\overline{\sigma }_2^2<\lambda _3<1`$ the change of coordinates is defined as

$`q_1^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _2^2}}(1\lambda _1)(1\lambda _3)`$
$`q_1^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _2^2}}(\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _1)(\overline{\sigma }_2^2\lambda _3)`$
The kink trajectories satisfy the equations:

$`e^{2\sigma _2\overline{\sigma }_2^2\gamma _2}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\right|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+\sigma _2}}||{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}+1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}1}}|^{\sigma _2})^{\mathrm{sign}(\pi _1)}`$ (65)
$`\left(\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}\sigma _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+\sigma _2}}\right|\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}+1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}1}}\right|^{\sigma _2}\right)^{\mathrm{sign}(\pi _3)}`$

The features of this kind of kinks are identical to the characteristics of the two-component non-topological kinks that exist in the $`q_2=0`$ plane. The only difference is that they have support in the faces $`M_{2_{\sigma _2}}^1`$ and $`M_{2_{\sigma _2}}^2`$ instead of $`M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^1`$ and $`M_{2_{\sigma _3}}^2`$ and we therefore call them NTK2$`_{\sigma _2}`$. They meet at the vertex F<sub>2</sub>, and therefore at the foci $`(q_1=\pm \sigma _2,0,0)`$ in $`𝐑^3`$; see Figure 6. The energy is:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda ^2\sqrt{2}}{m^3}}E_{\mathrm{NTK2}_{\sigma _2}}`$ $`=`$ $`2\left[{\displaystyle _0^{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _1d\lambda _1}{\sqrt{1\lambda _1}}}+{\displaystyle _{\overline{\sigma }_3^2}^{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _2d\lambda _2}{\sqrt{1\lambda _2}}}+{\displaystyle _{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}^1}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _3d\lambda _3}{\sqrt{1\lambda _3}}}\right]=`$ (66)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}+2\sigma _2\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _2^2}{3}}\right)`$
In sum: the manifold of kinks of the $`N=2`$ model is embedded twice in the $`N=3`$ system, once in the $`q_2=0`$ plane and other in the $`q_3=0`$ plane. They are sewn togehter by the common TK1, embedded from the $`N=1`$ model . The embedded kinks fill the gaps left by the TK3 families of kinks in the interior of the ellipsoid (44) and also develop through the curves left by the NTK3 families on the boundary of $`D^3`$. $`D^3`$ is thus a “totally” geodesic manifold with respect to the separatrices between bounded and unbounded motion in the $`N=3`$ dynamical system. The NTK3 family form the envelop of the separatrices and the NTK3 kinks are themselves separatrices.

## 4 Further Comments

We now infer the general structure of the kink manifold of the linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model from the pattern shown by the $`O(2)`$\- and $`O(3)`$-sigma models. We can safely state that all the kink trajectories live in the sub-manifold $`D^N𝐑^N`$ determined by the inequality:

$$q_1^2+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}+\mathrm{}+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_N^2}1$$

There are three categories:

1. Generic Kinks

* There exists a family of generic kinks parametrized by $`N1`$ real constants that live in the interior of $`D^N`$. The intersection loci of the generic kinks are the singular quadrics:

    $$\begin{array}{ccccc}\frac{q_1^2}{\overline{\sigma }_N^2}+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_N^2\overline{\sigma }_2^2}+\hfill & \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}+\frac{q_{N1}^2}{\overline{\sigma }_N^2\overline{\sigma }_{N1}^2}& =1,& q_N=0;\lambda _1=\lambda _2=\overline{\sigma }_N^2\hfill \\ \frac{q_1^2}{\overline{\sigma }_{N1}^2}+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_{N1}^2\overline{\sigma }_2^2}+\hfill & \mathrm{}& +\frac{q_{N2}^2}{\overline{\sigma }_{N1}^2\overline{\sigma }_{N2}^2}\frac{q_N^2}{\overline{\sigma }_N^2\overline{\sigma }_{N1}^2}& =1,& q_{N1}=0;\lambda _2=\lambda _3=\overline{\sigma }_{N1}^2\hfill \\ & \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}\hfill \\ \frac{q_1^2}{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}\frac{q_3^2}{\overline{\sigma }_3^2\overline{\sigma }_2^2}\hfill & \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\frac{q_N^2}{\overline{\sigma }_N^2\overline{\sigma }_2^2}& =1,& q_2=0;\lambda _{N1}=\lambda _N=\overline{\sigma }_2^2\hfill \end{array}$$
    * Generic kinks are non-topological- hence NTKN- if $`N`$ even, and topological- hence TKN- if N is odd.
2. Enveloping kinks.

* The restriction of the dynamical system to the boundary $`D^N`$ of $`D^N`$, the hyper-ellipsoid:

    $$q_1^2+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}+\mathrm{}+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_N^2}=1$$

    provides a family of enveloping kinks parametrized by $`N2`$ real constants. Recalling that in elliptic coordinates $`D^N`$ is characterized by the equation $`\lambda _1=0`$, the intersection loci of this congruence are the umbilical sub-manifolds:

    $$\lambda _1=0,\lambda _a=\overline{\sigma }_{Na+1}^2=\lambda _{a+1},a=2,3,\mathrm{},N1$$

    of dimension $`N3`$ of the hyper-ellipsoid $`D^N`$.
    * Enveloping kinks are topological, hence TKN, if $`N`$ is even, and non-topological, hence NTKN, if $`N`$ is odd.
3. Embedded Kinks.

On the $`N1`$ $`𝐑^{N1}`$ sub-manifolds determined by the conditions $`q_a=0`$, if $`a=2`$ or $`3`$ or $`\mathrm{}`$ or $`N`$, the dynamical system reduces to the mechanical system that arises in the linear $`O(N1)`$-sigma model. Thus, the kink manifold of the $`N1`$ case is included $`N1`$ times in the $`O(N)`$-model, filling the holes left in the interior of $`D^N`$ by the generic kinks, and also covering in $`D^N`$ the sub-spaces which are not covereded by the enveloping kinks. Each $`N1`$ kink sub-manifold is not, however, included $`(N1)\times (N2)`$ times in the $`O(N)`$-model because the $`𝐑^{N2}`$ sub-spaces are intersections of the $`N1`$ $`𝐑^{N1}`$, defined above. The $`N1`$ kink manifolds are not separated but sewn togehter through the $`N2`$ kink sub-manifolds. This is a iterative process in such a way that the kink manifold of the $`O(Nr)`$-sigma model is included $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}N1& \\ r& \end{array}\right)`$ times in the kink manifold of the $`O(N)`$ system.

One can ask what happens if a continuous sub-group $`O(r)`$ of $`O(N)`$ survives as symmetry group of the system. This happens if the deformation is chosen in such a way that $`0<\sigma _2^2=\sigma _3^2=\mathrm{}=\sigma _r^2<\sigma _{r+1}^2<\mathrm{}<\sigma _N^2<1`$. In this case we obtain a sub-manifold of kinks from $`O(r)`$ rotations around the $`q_1`$ axis of the kink manifold of the $`N=2`$ system that lives in the $`q_1:q_2`$ plane. The remaining kinks correspond to the solitary waves of the $`N=r1`$ system defined in the orthogonal $`𝐑^{Nr+1}`$ sub-space. Also the deformations where $`1<\sigma _{r+1}^2<\mathrm{}<\sigma _N^2`$ are easy to understand. Finite action trajectories spread out in the domain in $`𝐑^N`$ bounded by the hyper-hyperboloid:

$$q_1^2+\frac{q_2^2}{\overline{\sigma }_2^2}+\mathrm{}+\frac{q_r^2}{\overline{\sigma }_r^2}\frac{q_{r+1}^2}{|\overline{\sigma }_{r+1}^2|}\mathrm{}\frac{q_n^2}{|\overline{\sigma }_N^2|}=1.$$

The kink manifold of this system is the kink manifold of the $`N=r`$ model defined in the sub-space $`𝐑^r𝐑^N`$ such that $`q_{r+1}=\mathrm{}=q_N=0`$.

Finally we consider a mild deformation of our model by introducing asymmetries in the non-harmonic terms of the potential energy and also adapting the quadratic terms in a suitable manner:

$`V`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(\varphi _1^2+(1+\epsilon _2)\varphi _2^2+\mathrm{}+(1+\epsilon _N)\varphi _N^21\right)^2+`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _2^2}{2}}\varphi _2^2+\mathrm{}+{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _N^2}{2}}\varphi _N^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\delta _2}{4}}\varphi _2^4+\mathrm{}+{\displaystyle \frac{\delta _N}{4}}\varphi _N^4`$
The new non-dimensional constants $`\epsilon _a`$ and $`\delta _a`$ are defined in terms of the old $`\sigma _a`$’s through:

$$1+\epsilon _a=\frac{\sigma _a(\sigma _a+1)}{2},\delta _a=\frac{\sigma _a^3(2+\sigma _a)}{2},a=2,3,\mathrm{},N$$

Among the kinks of the deformed linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model only the following survive as solitary wave solutions of this perturbed system:

1. The TK1.

    $$\varphi _1=\mathrm{tanh}x,\varphi _2=\mathrm{}=\varphi _N=0$$
    2. All the TK2 kinks. On the ellipse,

    $$\varphi _1^2+\frac{1+\epsilon _a}{1\sigma _a^2}\varphi _a^2=1$$

    the TK2$`\sigma _a`$ and TK2$`{}_{}{}^{}\sigma _{a}^{}`$ configurations,

    $$\varphi _1=\mathrm{tanh}\sigma _ax,\varphi _a=\pm \sqrt{\frac{1\sigma _a^2}{1+\epsilon _a}}\mathrm{sech}\sigma _ax,\varphi _b=0,ba,b1$$

    are solutions of the field equations. The amazing fact is that in this deformation of the $`O(N)`$-linear sigma model, discussed by Bazeia et al. if $`N=2`$ , the energy of all these kinks is the same:

    $$E_{\mathrm{TK1}}=E_{\mathrm{TK2}\sigma _2}=\mathrm{}=E_{\mathrm{TK2}\sigma _N}=\frac{4}{3\sqrt{2}}\frac{m^3}{\lambda ^2}$$

    On one hand, we have a deformation of the linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model that exhibits a complex variety of kinks; on the other hand, another deformation of the $`O(N)`$-model rejects almost every kink but the simplest ones as solutions, and all of the surviving kinks are degenerated in energy.

## 5 Outlook

The developments disclosed in this paper suggest a general strategy in the search for kinks in two space-time dimensional field theories. When the fields have $`N`$ components assembled in a vector representation of the $`O(N)`$ group, we focus on systems with symmetry breaking to a discrete sub-group of $`O(N)`$ which has more than one element. If the dynamical system that determines the localized static solutions is completely integrable, all the solitary waves can be found, at least in principle. Particularly interesting is the situation where the $`N1`$ invariants in involution with the mechanical energy act non-trivially on the manifold of localized solutions and the orbit is a continuous space. One can then perturb such a system, loosing in the perturbation many of the solitary wave solutions: only few of the localized static solutions survive as kinks of the perturbed (more realistic) model.

We finally list several interesting questions that will be postponed for future research:

* study of the structure of the kink manifold of the deformed linear $`O(N)`$-sigma model as a moduli space seems to be worthwhile.
* A detailed analysis of the sum rules between the energies of the different kinds of kinks is necessary to fix the structure mentioned above.
* A treatment à la Bogomolny is also possible. This allows for a supersymmetric extension of the model in such a way that the kinks become BPS states.
* The difficult problem remains of determining the stability of the different kinds of kinks. Application of the Morse index theorem helps in finding the stability properties,which in turn provide information about the quantization of these topological defects.

## 6 Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Askold Perelomov for teaching them the magic of the elliptic Jacobi coordinates and their relationship to dynamical problems on ellipsoids.

## Appendix: Elliptic coordinates

Given any set of $`N`$ real positive numbers such that $`0<r_1<r_2<\mathrm{}<r_N`$, let us consider the equation:

$$\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{q_a^2}{r_a\lambda }=1$$
(67)
The left-hand member $`Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{q})={\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{q_a^2}{r_a\lambda }}`$ of this equation can be understood either as a function of $`𝐑^N`$, for fixed $`\lambda 𝐂`$, or as a function of the complex variable $`\lambda `$, for fixed $`\stackrel{}{q}𝐑^N`$. From (67) one immediately deduces:

$$1Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{q})=1+\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{q_a^2}{\lambda r_a}=\frac{{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(\lambda \lambda _a)}{{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(\lambda r_a)}=0$$
(68)
Therefore, the $`N`$ roots $`\lambda _a`$ of the polynomial in the numerator of $`1Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{q})`$, a rational function of $`\lambda `$, are the roots of equation (67). The roots $`\lambda _a`$ are also real numbers and $`1Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{q})`$ is a rational function such that $`\lambda _1<r_1<\lambda _2<\mathrm{}<r_{N1}<\lambda _N<r_N`$, see Figure 8. To prove this point one needs to study $`1Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{\mathrm{q}})`$ along the $`\lambda `$-real axis, near the poles $`\lambda =r_a`$, using Bolzano’s theorem.

Definition. The elliptic coordinates of the point $`\stackrel{}{q}(q_1,\mathrm{},q_N)𝐑^N`$ are the roots $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }_E(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)P^N(\mathrm{})`$ of $`Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{q})=1`$.

$`P^N(\mathrm{})𝐑^N`$ is the open sub-space of $`𝐑^N`$ given by: $`\mathrm{}<\lambda _1<r_1`$, $`r_1<\lambda _2<r_2`$, $`\mathrm{}`$, $`r_{N1}<\lambda _N<r_N`$. The solution of (67) for $`\lambda =\lambda _1`$constant $`(\mathrm{},r_1)`$ is, geometrically, a quadric surface, a hyperellipsoid, when $`\stackrel{}{q}`$ varies in $`𝐑^N`$. The family of quadrics obtained by taking $`\lambda =\lambda _a`$ constant $`(r_{a1},r_a)`$, $`a2`$, corresponds to a family of hyper-hyperboloids of every possible signature in $`𝐑^N`$, if $`Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{q})`$ is considered as a function of $`\stackrel{}{q}`$.

It is convenient to denote the products in (68) as:

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(\lambda )=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}(\lambda \lambda _a),A(\lambda )=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}(\lambda r_a)$$

so that

$$1+\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{q_a^2}{\lambda r_a}=\frac{{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(\lambda \lambda _a)}{{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(\lambda r_a)}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }(\lambda )}{A(\lambda )}$$
(69)
An explicit formula for defining $`q_a^2`$ as a function of the $`\lambda `$’s , $`a`$, is obtained by applying the residue theorem to both members of the equation (69):

$`\mathrm{Res}\left(1Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{\mathrm{q}})\right)|_{\lambda =r_a}=q_a^2`$
(70)
$`\mathrm{Res}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }(\lambda )}{A(\lambda )}}\right)|_{\lambda =r_a}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }(r_a)}{A^{}(r_a)}},A^{}(r_a)={\displaystyle \frac{dA(\lambda )}{d\lambda }}|_{\lambda =r_a}`$
Therefore:

$$q_a^2=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }(r_a)}{A^{}(r_a)}=\frac{{\displaystyle \underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(r_a\lambda _b)}{{\displaystyle \underset{b=1,ba}{\overset{N}{}}}(r_ar_b)}$$
(71)
and we see that the transformation $`(q_1,\mathrm{},q_N)(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)`$ is $`2^N`$ to 1.

Inverting (71) to express $`\lambda _a`$ as a function of the $`q`$’s, $`a`$, requires one to solve an algebraic equation in $`\lambda _a`$ with powers up to $`\lambda _a^N`$. This is easy for $`N=2`$, possible, but very difficult for $`N=3,4`$ using Cardano’s formulas, and impossible if $`N5`$. For this reason, another derivation of (71) is useful, which in passing allows one to show identities between Cartesian and elliptic coordinates that make practical computations possible. To do this, notice that (69) implies:

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(\lambda )=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}(\lambda r_a)+\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}q_a^2\underset{b=1,ba}{\overset{N}{}}(\lambda r_b)$$
(72)
Setting $`\lambda =r_c`$ in (72) one immediately derives (71). More important, expanding the two members of (72) in a power series in $`\lambda `$ , we obtain:

$$\lambda ^N+\lambda ^{N1}\left(\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}r_a+\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}q_a^2\right)+\lambda ^{N2}\left(\underset{b<a}{\overset{N}{}}r_ar_b\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}q_a^2\underset{b=1,ba}{\overset{N}{}}r_b\right)+\mathrm{}$$

$$=\lambda ^N\left(\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\lambda _a\right)\lambda ^{N1}+\left(\underset{b<a}{\overset{N}{}}\lambda _a\lambda _b\right)\lambda ^{N2}+\mathrm{}+(1)^N\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\lambda _a$$

Equalizing the coefficients of the terms with the same power of $`\lambda `$ in the last equation we have $`N`$ non trivial identities. We shall use the equalities between the coefficients of $`\lambda ^{N1}`$ and $`\lambda ^{N2}`$:

$$\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\lambda _a=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}r_a\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}q_a^2$$
(73)
$$\underset{b<a}{\overset{N}{}}\lambda _a\lambda _b=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}r_aq_a^2\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}q_a^2\underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}r_b+\underset{b<a}{\overset{N}{}}r_br_a$$
(74)
Another important tool using elliptic coordinates is the Jacobi lemma:

Lemma. The expression

$$\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\alpha _a^s}{(\alpha _a\alpha _1)(\alpha _a\alpha _2)\mathrm{}\stackrel{(a)}{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}(\alpha _a\alpha _N)}$$

where $`(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _N)`$ are $`N`$ real numbers such that $`\alpha _1<\alpha _2<\mathrm{}<\alpha _N`$ is equal to 0 if $`sN2`$ and $`1`$ for $`s=N1`$.

Proof:

Consider the function

$$f_s(z)=\frac{z^s}{{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(z\alpha _a)}$$

which has $`N`$ poles in the complex plane at $`z=\alpha _a`$, $`a`$, and another pole at infinity. If $`\gamma `$ is a closed curve which is the boundary of a region $`D`$ of the complex plane containing all the finite poles of $`f_s(z)`$, the residue theorem tells us that:

$$\frac{1}{2\pi i}_\gamma f_s(z)𝑑z=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\mathrm{Res}(f_s)(\alpha _a)=\mathrm{Res}(f_s)(\mathrm{})=\frac{1}{2\pi i}_\gamma f_s(z)𝑑z$$

Also,

$`{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\mathrm{Res}(f_s)(\alpha _a)={\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _a^s}{(\alpha _a\alpha _1)(\alpha _a\alpha _2)\mathrm{}\stackrel{(a)}{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}(\alpha _a\alpha _N)}}`$
$`\mathrm{Res}(f_s)(\mathrm{})=\{\begin{array}{c}0,s<N1\hfill \\ 1,s=N1\hfill \end{array}`$
and the lemma is proved.

Applying this result to the choice $`\alpha _a=\lambda _a`$, $`a=1,\mathrm{},N`$, we obtain new identities

$`{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _a^s}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)}}=0,s<N1`$ (76)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _a^{N1}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)}}=1`$ (77)
because $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)=(\lambda _a\lambda _1)(\lambda _a\lambda _2)\mathrm{}\stackrel{(a)}{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}(\lambda _a\lambda _N)`$. Alternatively if we take $`\alpha _a=r_a`$, the lemma implies that:

$$\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{r_a^s}{A^{}(r_a)}=0,s<N1;\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{r_a^{N1}}{A^{}(r_a)}=1$$
(78)
An important identity obtained from the lemma is:

$$\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{q_a^2}{(r_a\lambda _b)(r_a\lambda _c)}=0,b,c$$
(79)
The normal vectors to the family of quadrics (67)

$$Q_\lambda (\stackrel{}{q})=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{q_a^2}{r_a\lambda }=1$$

at the point $`\stackrel{}{q}(q_1,\mathrm{},q_N)`$, are

$$\stackrel{}{n}(\lambda )(n_1(\lambda ),\mathrm{},n_N(\lambda ))=(\frac{q_1}{r_1\lambda },\mathrm{},\frac{q_N}{r_N\lambda })$$

Observe that (79) implies

$$\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}n_a(\lambda _b)n_a(\lambda _c)=0,a,b$$

Therefore, all the quadrics are orthogonal with each other and the elliptic coordinates form an orthogonal system. The standard Euclidean metric in Cartesian coordinates can be expressed in elliptic coordinates in the form:

$$ds^2=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}dq_a^2=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}g_{ab}(\stackrel{}{\lambda }_E)d\lambda _ad\lambda _b$$

Derivation of the two members of equation (71) leads to:

$$\frac{2dq_a}{q_a}=(1)^N\underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{d\lambda _b}{r_a\lambda _b}$$

and, using the Jacobi Lemma,

$$4dq_a^2=q_a^2\underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{d\lambda _b^2}{r_a\lambda _b}$$

Finally, we have:

$$g_{aa}=\frac{1}{4}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)}{A(\lambda _a)}=\frac{1}{4}\frac{{\displaystyle \underset{ba,b=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(\lambda _a\lambda _b)}{{\displaystyle \underset{b=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(\lambda _ar_b)},g_{ab}=0,ab$$
(80)
The kinetic energy of a natural dynamical system in elliptic coordinates is;

$$T=\frac{1}{2}\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\dot{q}_a^2=\frac{1}{2}\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}g_{aa}\dot{\lambda }_a^2$$
(81)
In terms of the canonical momentum $`\pi _a=\frac{T}{\dot{\lambda }_a}`$, $`T`$ reads:

$$T=\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\pi _a\dot{\lambda }_aT=\frac{1}{2}\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{g_{aa}}\pi _a^2=2\underset{a=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{A(\lambda _a)}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(\lambda _a)}\pi _a^2$$
(82)