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# WMAP and Inflation

\[

BUHEP-03-05

MADPH-03-1321

NSF-KITP-03-16

hep-ph/0302150

## Abstract

We assay how inflationary models whose properties are dominated by the dynamics of a single scalar field are constrained by cosmic microwave background (CMB) data from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). We classify inflationary models in a plane defined by the horizon-flow parameters. Our approach differs from that of the WMAP collaboration in that we analyze only WMAP data and take the spectral shapes from slow-roll inflation rather than power-law parameterizations of the spectra. The only other information we use is the measurement of $`h`$ from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Key Project. We find that the spectral index of primordial density perturbations lies in the $`1\sigma `$ range $`0.94n_s1.04`$ with no evidence of running. The ratio of the amplitudes of tensor and scalar perturbations is smaller than $`0.61`$ and the inflationary scale is below 2.8$`\times 10^{16}`$ GeV, both at the 2$`\sigma `$ C. L. No class of inflation or ekpyrotic/cyclic model is excluded. The $`\lambda \varphi ^4`$ potential is excluded at $`3\sigma `$ only if the number of e-folds is assumed to be less than 45.

\]

That there are multiple peaks in the CMB has recently been reinforced by data from the WMAP satellite . This establishes that the curvature fluctuations which seed structure formation were generated at superhorizon scales. The inflationary paradigm , which hinges on this very fact , is therefore vindicated. Other generic predictions of inflation, including approximate scale-invariance of the power spectra, flatness of the Universe and adiabaticity and gaussianity of the density perturbations are also fully consistent with WMAP data .

Given this supporting evidence for inflation, we adopt the full set of predictions of slow-roll inflation and obtain constraints on inflationary models imposed by WMAP’s data. Studies of this type have been carried out in the past with less precise data  and with the simple parameterization of the power spectra as power laws . It has been emphasized that to extract precise information from data of WMAP’s quality, high-accuracy predictions of the power spectra resulting from slow-roll inflation should be used . There is a wealth of cosmological information in the CMB , and our approach is to employ precise theoretical expectations in its extraction.

Since the WMAP collaboration has considered what implications their data have for inflation , we describe at the outset the differing elements between our analysis and theirs. We elaborate on these differences later. WMAP include CBI , ACBAR , 2dFGRS  and Lyman-$`\alpha `$ power spectrum  data in addition to their own data. We restrict ourselves to WMAP data with a top-hat prior on the Hubble constant $`h`$ ($`H_0=100h`$ km/s/Mpc), from the HST . While we use the actual theoretical predictions for the primordial power spectra from single-field slow-roll inflation, WMAP parameterize the spectra with power-laws and a running spectral index. As a result, the spectral shapes we use are different from those of WMAP and we directly fit to slow-roll parameters, while WMAP fit to derivative quantities. There are different virtues of the two approaches, and a comparison of the results obtained from them serve as a check of the robustness of the conclusions reached.

Primordial spectra:

The primordial scalar and tensor power spectra to $`𝒪(\mathrm{ln}^2k)`$ are***$`\chi `$ is the intrinsic curvature perturbation and $`h_{ij}`$ is the transverse traceless part of the metric tensor.

$`P_\chi `$ $`=`$ $`A_s\left(a_0+a_1\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_{}}}+a_2\mathrm{ln}^2{\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_{}}}\right),`$ (1)
$`P_h`$ $`=`$ $`A_t\left(b_0+b_1\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_{}}}+b_2\mathrm{ln}^2{\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_{}}}\right),`$ (2)
where the pivot $`k_{}`$ typifies scales probed by the CMB. The constants $`a_i`$ and $`b_i`$ are functions  of the horizon-flow parameters, $`ϵ_i`$ of Ref. , that are defined by

$`ϵ_{i+1}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}|ϵ_i|}{dN}},i0`$ (3)
$`ϵ_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{H_I}{H}}.`$ (4)
Here, $`N`$ is the number of e-folds since some moment $`t_I`$ during inflation, when the Hubble parameter was $`H_I`$.

Note that to $`𝒪(ϵ^2)`$, the $`b_i`$ depend only on $`ϵ_1`$ and $`ϵ_2`$, while the $`a_i`$ depend on $`ϵ_1`$, $`ϵ_2`$ and $`ϵ_3`$. We initially set $`ϵ_3=0`$, but we then later demonstrate that the fit to the WMAP data is essentially not improved by including nonzero $`ϵ_3`$. The reason for not simply using the $`ϵ_3`$-independent $`𝒪(ϵ)`$ expressions is that the $`𝒪(ϵ^2)`$ expressions are more accurate far from the pivot, and for a wider range of $`ϵ_1`$ and $`ϵ_2`$ . It is uncertain that even high-precision data from the Planck satellite  can constrain $`ϵ_3`$ to be small. Including $`ϵ_3`$ in our analysis would simply enlarge the allowed parameter space to include models which are not inflationary in the sense that the horizon-flow parameters are not small.

The primary advantage of the horizon-flow parameters is that accurate predictions of the shapes and normalizations of the power spectra can be made independent of parameters describing cosmic evolution. The horizon-flow parameters $`ϵ_1`$ and $`ϵ_2`$ are related to the usual slow-roll parameters

$`ϵ`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{M_{Pl}^2}{16\pi }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{V^{}}{V}}\right)^2,`$ (5)
$`\eta `$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{M_{Pl}^2}{8\pi }}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{V^{\prime \prime }}{V}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{V^{}}{V}}\right)^2\right],`$ (6)
via the first order relations

$$ϵ_1ϵ,ϵ_22(ϵ\eta ).$$
(7)
The normalizations of the spectra are given by

$$A_s=\frac{H_I^2}{\pi ϵ_1M_{Pl}^2},A_t=\frac{16H_I^2}{\pi M_{Pl}^2},$$
(8)
and the ratio of the amplitudes of the spectra at the pivot $`k=k_{}`$, is

$`R`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{A_tb_0}{A_sa_0}}=16ϵ_1[1+Cϵ_2`$ (10)
$`+(C{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2}{2}}+5)ϵ_1ϵ_2+({\displaystyle \frac{C^2}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2}{8}}+1)ϵ_2^2],`$
where $`C\gamma _E+\mathrm{ln}220.7296`$. Note that $`a_0`$ and $`b_0`$ are $`𝒪(1)`$ and $`|a_0b_0|`$ is $`𝒪(ϵ_2)`$. The spectral indices and their running can be expressed in terms of $`ϵ_1`$, $`ϵ_2`$ and $`ϵ_3`$:

$`n_s`$ $`=`$ $`12ϵ_1ϵ_22ϵ_1^2(2C+3)ϵ_1ϵ_2Cϵ_2ϵ_3,`$ (11)
$`n_t`$ $`=`$ $`2ϵ_12ϵ_1^22(C+1)ϵ_1ϵ_2,`$ (12)
$`\alpha _s`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{dn_s}{d\mathrm{ln}k}}=2ϵ_1ϵ_2ϵ_2ϵ_3,`$ (13)
$`\alpha _t`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{dn_t}{d\mathrm{ln}k}}=2ϵ_1ϵ_2.`$ (14)
We set $`ϵ_i=0`$, $`i3`$. $`R`$, $`n_s`$ are $`n_t`$ are interdependent and the following consistency condition on single-field slow-roll inflation applies:

$$R8n_t$$
(15)
By our choice of formalism, we implicitly assume this condition to be satisfied.

Note that the six inflationary parameters, $`A_s`$, $`A_t`$, $`n_s`$, $`n_t`$, $`\alpha _s`$ and $`\alpha _t`$ are determined by just three parameters, $`A_s`$, $`ϵ_1`$ and $`ϵ_2`$ in our analysis. In contrast, the WMAP collaboration parameterize the power-spectra with

$$P_\chi =A_s\left(\frac{k}{k_{}}\right)^{n_s1+\frac{1}{2}\alpha _s\mathrm{ln}\frac{k}{k_{}}},P_h=A_t\left(\frac{k}{k_{}}\right)^{n_t}.$$
(16)
They eliminate $`n_t`$ as a free parameter by using the consistency condition Eq. (15). Thus, they have four free parameters, $`A_s`$, $`A_t`$, $`n_s`$ and $`\alpha _s`$ and set $`\alpha _t=0`$.

A convenient classification of models based on the separate regions in the $`Rn_s`$ plane they populate, or equivalently relationships between the slow-roll parameters, was introduced in Ref. . This classification becomes particularly simple in the $`ϵ_2ϵ_1`$ plane, as discussed in the following section and shown in Fig. 3.

Inflation models:

In what follows we use the common jargon, “red-tilt” for $`n_s<1`$ and “blue-tilt” for $`n_s>1`$.

a) Canonical potentials of large-field models are the monomial potential,

$$V(\varphi )=V_0(\varphi /\mu )^p,p2,$$
(17)
and the exponential potential $`V(\varphi )=V_0e^{\varphi /\mu }`$ of power-law inflation. They are typical of chaotic inflation  and have $`V^{\prime \prime }>0`$. The value of the scalar field falls $`𝒪(M_{Pl})`$ while the relevant perturbations are generated and thereby offer a glimpse into Planckian physics. In terms of the horizon-flow parameters, large-field models satisfy

$$0ϵ_2<4ϵ_1.$$
(18)
They have large $`R`$ and predict a red tilt.

b) Generic small-field potentials are of the form

$$V(\varphi )=V_0[1(\varphi /\mu )^p],p2,$$
(19)
and are therefore characterized by $`V^{\prime \prime }<0`$. The scalar field rolls from an unstable equilibrium at the origin towards a non-zero vacuum expectation value. Models relying on spontaneous symmetry breaking yield such potentials . For small-field models

$$ϵ_2>4ϵ_1.$$
(20)
The tensor fraction is small and the scalar spectrum is red-tilted.

c) Potentials for hybrid inflation  are of the form

$$V(\varphi )=V_0[1+(\varphi /\mu )^p],p2.$$
(21)
Hybrid inflation models involve multiple scalar fields. One of the fields, $`\varphi `$, is the slowly rolling inflaton which does not carry most of the energy density ($`\varphi <\mu `$). Another field which has a fixed value during the slow-roll of $`\varphi `$ provides $`V_0`$. When $`\varphi `$ falls below a critical value, the other field is destabilized and promptly ends inflation. As a result the value of $`\varphi `$ at the end of inflation is very model-dependent, which makes the number of e-folds correspondingly uncertain. Hybrid models can be treated as single-field models because the only role of the second field is to end inflation, and the slow-roll dynamics is dominated by a single field. These potentials arise in supersymmetric and supergravity models of inflation. Hybrid models have

$$ϵ_2<0.$$
(22)
There is no robust prediction for $`R`$ as can be seen from the above $`ϵ_1`$-independent inequality. However, a unique prediction of these models is that the spectrum is blue-tilted if $`|ϵ_2|>2ϵ_1`$.

The line $`ϵ_2=0`$ ($`R=8(1n_s)`$) implies $`ϵ=\eta `$ which occurs for the exponential potential. Thus, power-law inflation marks the boundary between large-field and hybrid models.

c) Linear potentials,

$$V(\varphi )=V_0(\varphi /\mu ),V(\varphi )=V_0[1(\varphi /\mu )],$$
(23)
define the boundary between large and small field models and lie at

$$ϵ_2=4ϵ_1\mathrm{or}3R=8(1n_s).$$
(24)
Since $`ϵ_1`$ is a constant for such potentials, inflation ends only with the help of an auxiliary field or some other physics.

To avoid overstating the comprehensiveness of this classification of potentials, we list a few potentials of different forms , which however do fit into the large-field, small-field, hybrid or linear categories according to the relationships between the horizon-flow parameters. $`V(\varphi )=V_0[1\pm \mathrm{ln}(\varphi /\mu )]`$, $`V_0[1e^{\varphi /\mu }]`$ and $`V_0[1\pm (\varphi /\mu )^p]`$ are hybrid in the sense that an auxiliary field is needed to end inflation, but lead to $`ϵ_2>4ϵ_1`$ and therefore lie in the small-field region of the parameter space. Similarly, power-law inflation does not end without a hybrid mechanism, but lies in the large-field region. Finally, let us note that the simplest models of the ekpyrotic/cyclic  variety are small-field ; however, the prediction for $`n_s`$ in these models is controversial .

Analysis:

We compute the TT and TE power spectra $`\delta T_l^2=l(l+1)C_l/2\pi `$, using the Code for Anisotropies in the Microwave Background or CAMB  (which is a parallelized version of CMBFAST ) and a supporting module that calculates the inflationary predictions for the primordial scalar and tensor power spectra . We assume the Universe to be flat, in accord with the predictions of inflation, and that the neutrino contribution to the matter budget is negligible. The dark energy is assumed to be a cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. We calculate the angular power spectrum on a grid consisting of the parameters specifying the primordial spectraWe call these inflationary parameters., $`ϵ_1`$, $`ϵ_2`$ and $`A_s`$, and those specifying cosmic evolutionWe call these cosmological parameters., the Hubble constant $`h`$, the reionization optical depth $`\tau `$, the baryon density $`\omega _b=\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ and the total matter density $`\omega _M=\mathrm{\Omega }_Mh^2`$ (which is comprised of baryons and cold dark matter). We choose $`h`$ rather than $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ because it is directly constrained by the HST . We do not include priors from supernova , gravitational lensing  or large scale structure  data or nucleosynthesis constraints on $`\omega _b`$  although these would somewhat sharpen the cosmological parameter determinations.

We employ the following top-hat grid:

* $`0.0001ϵ_10.048`$ in steps of size 0.004
* $`0.18ϵ_20.14`$ in steps of size 0.02
* $`0.64h0.80`$ in steps of size 0.02
* $`\tau =`$0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.125, 0.15, 0.16, 0.17, 0.18, 0.19, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3
* $`0.018\omega _b0.028`$ in steps of size 0.001
* $`0.06\omega _M0.22`$ in steps of size 0.02
* $`A_s`$ is a continuous parameter.

The range of values chosen for $`h`$ correspond to the HST measurement, $`h=0.72\pm 0.08`$ . This serves to break the degeneracy between $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ without the need for supernova data . We place the pivot at $`k_{}=0.007`$ Mpc-1. The primordial spectra are evaluated to $`𝒪(\mathrm{ln}^2k)`$ (see Eqs. 1-2) with $`ϵ_3=0`$.

The WMAP data are in the form of 899 measurements of the TT power spectrum from $`l=2`$ to $`l=900`$  and 449 data points of the TE power spectrum . We compute the likelihood of each model of our grid using Version 1.1 of the code provided by the collaboration . The WMAP code computes the full covariance matrix under the assumption that the off-diagonal terms are subdominant. This approximation breaks down for unrealistically small amplitudes. We include the off-diagonal terms only when the first peak occurs between $`l=100`$ and $`l=400`$ with a height above 5000 $`\mu K^2`$ . The restriction on the peak location may at first appear irrelevant, but for very large tensor amplitudes, the maximum height of the scalar spectrum shifts to very small $`l`$. When the height of the first peak is below 5000 $`\mu K^2`$ (which is many standard deviations away from the data), we only use the diagonal terms of the covariance matrix to compute the likelihood. To obtain single-parameter constraints, we plot the relative likelihood $`e^{(\chi _{min}^2\chi ^2)/2}`$, for each parameter after maximizing over all the others. The $`x`$-$`\sigma `$ range is obtained for likelihoods above $`e^{x^2/2}`$. For 2-dimensional constraints, the $`1\sigma `$, $`2\sigma `$ and $`3\sigma `$ regions are defined by $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=2.3`$, 6.17 and 11.83, respectively, for two degrees of freedom.

Results:

Although our primary focus is to obtain constraints on the inflationary models, we display constraints on the cosmological parameters as a consistency check with the WMAP collaboration. This is pertinent because we have used a form for the primordial spectra (Eqs. 1-2) that is specific to single-field slow-roll inflation rather than the standard power-law form.

The best-fit parameters are $`ϵ_1=0.016`$, $`ϵ_2=0.02`$, $`\omega _b=0.023`$, $`\omega _M=0.12`$, $`\tau =0.125`$ and $`h=0.78`$ with normalization $`A_s=22.0\times 10^{10}`$ with $`\chi ^2=1428.88`$ for 1341 degrees of freedom§§§To check the validity of setting $`ϵ_i=0`$, $`i3`$, we enlarged the grid to include $`ϵ_3=\pm 0.1`$ and found the minimum $`\chi ^2`$ values to be $`\chi ^2(ϵ_3=0.1)=1428.80`$ and $`\chi ^2(ϵ_3=+0.1)=1429.05`$. The small changes in the $`\chi ^2`$ values confirm that it is not necessary to include $`ϵ_3`$ in the analysis.. The results from Fig. 1 are in good agreement with those obtained by the WMAP collaboration . This indicates that the choice of the spectral shapes does not matter at the present precision of the WMAP data.

Likelihood plots for the inflationary parameters are shown in Fig. 2. We do not show the result for $`n_t`$ because we have imposed the consistency condition, Eq. (15). The $`1\sigma `$ confidence limits on various parameters are provided in Table. I. We see that the spectra are consistent with scale-invariance and with a small tensor contribution; the best-fit scale-invariant spectrum with no tensor contribution has $`\chi ^2=1430.61`$. Also, running of the spectral indices is insignificant. (In our framework $`\alpha _{s,t}`$ are required to be consistent with inflationary predictions as dictated by Eqs. (13) and (14); they are not free parameters).

WMAP has provided important information about $`R`$ and the energy scale of inflation.

$$R0.61(2\sigma \mathrm{limit}),$$
(40)
and

$$\frac{H_I}{M_{Pl}}=\sqrt{\pi ϵ_1A_s}1.48\times 10^5(2\sigma \mathrm{limit}),$$
(41)
or equivalently,

$$V_I^{\frac{1}{4}}=\left(\frac{3}{8\pi }\frac{H_I^2}{M_{Pl}^2}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}}M_{Pl}2.8\times 10^{16}\mathrm{GeV}(2\sigma \mathrm{limit}).$$
(42)
Since $`V_I^{\frac{1}{4}}>10^{15}`$ GeV is consistent with data, it is still possible to detect inflationary gravity waves by measuring the curl component of CMB polarization .

Implications for models:

The allowed regions of $`ϵ_1`$ and $`ϵ_2`$ (and equivalently $`n_s`$ and $`R`$) are shown in Fig. 3. The different classes of inflationary models populate distinct regions of the $`ϵ_2ϵ_1`$ plane, as discussed above. The consistency of the models with the data can be judged from the figure.

Even with the high quality of the WMAP data, no class of models is excluded. As long as $`ϵ_11`$, $`ϵ_2=0`$ is consistent with data, this will remain the case. Moreover, the allowed range for $`\alpha _s`$ (see Table I) is consistent with the predictions of a wide spectrum of inflationary models, and so does not help in discriminating between them.

We now place some constraints on large-field and small-field models whose predictions do not involve too much freedom.

For the monomial potentials ($`p2`$) of large-field models,

$`ϵ_1`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{p}{4}}ϵ_2,`$ (43)
$`N`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{p}{4}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ_1}}1\right),`$ (44)
where $`N`$ is the number of e-folds of inflation from the time that scales probed by the CMB leave the horizon until the end of inflationWe are reverting to the conventional definition in which the number of e-folds is counted backward in time; in the definition of the horizon-flow parameters, e-folds are counted forward in time.. At least about 40 e-folds are needed for the Universe to be flat and homogeneous, and typically the largest value is 70 . Since $`ϵ_11`$, $`ϵ_2=0`$ is allowed, $`p`$ cannot be constrained independently of $`N`$.

The $`3\sigma `$ exclusion of the $`\lambda \varphi ^4`$ potential in Ref.  was based on an analysis of WMAP data in combination with higher $`l`$ CMB data and large scale structure data, assuming $`N=50`$ (for which $`n_s=0.94`$ and $`R=0.32`$). Their results are shown in the second row of their Fig. 4. Note that the point $`n_s=0.94`$, $`R=0.32`$ lies inside the $`3\sigma `$ region of our Fig. 3 and is therefore not excluded by WMAP data alone. If instead $`N`$ is 60, then $`n_s=0.95`$ and $`R=0.27`$; this point lies in the 95% C. L. allowed region of the second row of Fig. 4 of Ref.  and within the $`2\sigma `$ region of Fig. 3.

If $`ϵ_10`$ ($`ϵ_2>0`$), a lower bound (upper bound) $`p/4>ϵ_1^{min}/ϵ_2^{max}`$ ($`p/4<ϵ_1^{max}/ϵ_2^{min}`$) ensues; $`p`$ is determined if both conditions on the $`ϵ`$’s are simultaneously satisfied.

Since we expect $`p4N`$,

$$N>\frac{1}{ϵ_2^{max}}=12.5(2\sigma \mathrm{limit}),$$
(45)
and

$$p<4Nϵ_1^{max}=0.15N(2\sigma \mathrm{limit}).$$
(46)
For small-field models with $`p3`$ ,

$$ϵ_1ϵ_2=\frac{2}{N}\frac{p1}{p2}$$
(47)
The least stringent bound on $`N`$ occurs in the limit $`p\mathrm{}`$,

$$N\frac{2}{ϵ_2^{max}}=25(2\sigma \mathrm{limit}).$$
(48)
For the small-field quadratic potential ($`p=2`$),

$$ϵ_1ϵ_2=\frac{1}{2\pi }\frac{M_{Pl}^2}{\mu ^2}.$$
(49)
We find the $`2\sigma `$ bound

$$\mu >M_{Pl}/\sqrt{2\pi ϵ_2^{max}}=1.4M_{Pl}.$$
(50)
Similar constraints can be placed on other models, but unfortunately, they are not very enlightening.

Conclusions:

WMAP has provided compelling evidence for the inflationary paradigm. We have adopted the explicit predictions of single-field slow-roll inflation for the shapes of the power-spectra to analyze WMAP data. The fact that our parameter determinations are consistent with those obtained with the standard power-law parameterization by the WMAP collaboration provides further evidence for slow-roll inflation. Since exact scale-invariance and a negligible tensor contribution to the density perturbations are adequate to describe the data, it is not presently possible to exclude classes of inflationary models.

We have shown how different classes of inflationary models can be distinguished in the $`ϵ_2ϵ_1`$ plane of the horizon-flow parameters. If and when the horizon-flow parameters $`ϵ_1`$ or/and $`ϵ_2`$ are determined to be non-zero, large numbers of inflationary models will be ruled out. For that, we await even higher precision data from WMAP and eventually from Planck.

Acknowledgments: The computations were carried out on the CONDOR system at the University of Wisconsin, Madison with parallel processing on up to 200 CPUs. We thank S. Dasu, W. Smith, D. Bradley and S. Rader for providing access and assistance with CONDOR. We thank L. Verde for communications regarding the WMAP likelihood code. This research was supported by the U.S. DOE under Grants No. DE-FG02-95ER40896 and No. DE-FG02-91ER40676, by the NSF under Grant No. PHY99-07949 and by the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation. VB and DM thank the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara for hospitality.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

As exemplified by the presentations of this 2002 edition of the ”Beauty” Conference, CP violation is currently the focus of a great deal of attention. The results of the B-factories  measure $`\mathrm{sin}(2\beta )`$, where $`\beta `$ is the CP-phase between the top and charm sides of the (bd) unitarity triangle . To within the experimental sensitivity, the CKM mechanism  of the standard theory is verified. In this description, all the CP-violating observables depend on a unique phase in the quark mixing matrix. Any inconsistency between two independent determinations of the CP-phase is an indication for new physics. Two main reasons for the search of new physics in CP-violating observables are:

i) The dynamic generation of the baryonic asymmetry in the Universe requires CP-violation, and its magnitude in the standard model looks insufficient.

ii) Essentially all extensions of the standard model introduce new sectors with additional sources of CP-phases.

The examples that I will consider here to search for new physics are based on the following attitude: the decays dominated by standard model diagrams at tree level with W-exchange allow the extraction of $`\left|V_{ub}\right|`$, $`\left|V_{us}\right|`$ and $`\left|V_{cb}\right|`$. On the contrary, new physics will be apparent in processes which, for the standard model, are described by loop diagrams, like $`B_d\overline{B}_d`$ and $`B_s\overline{B}_s`$ mixing or penguin amplitudes. In so doing, I will cover cases which are appropriate for B-factories, as well as others which need hadronic machines.

In Section 2 I discuss coherent correlated decays of $`B_d`$’s in order to build (besides CP-odd asymmetries) T-odd and CPT-odd observables. Section 3 is devoted to temporal asymmetries which need absorptive parts and are a signal of a non-vanishing $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`B_d`$ decays. In Section 4 I discuss $`B_s`$-mixing. The decays $`B_sJ/\psi \varphi `$ and $`B\varphi K_S`$ are presented in Section 5 as ways to search for new physics. Some conclusions are drawn in Section 6.

## 2 Genuine Asymmetries from Entangled States

In a B-factory operating at the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ peak, correlated pairs of neutral B-mesons are produced. This permits the performance of either a flavour tag or a CP tag. To $`O(\lambda ^3)`$, where $`\lambda `$ is the Wolfenstein parameter  in the quark mixing matrix, the determination of the single $`B`$-state is possible and unambiguous . Any final configuration (X,Y), where X,Y are decay channels which are either flavour or CP conserving, corresponds to a single particle mesonic transition. The intensity for the final configuration

$$I(X,Y,\mathrm{\Delta }t)\frac{1}{2}_{\mathrm{\Delta }t}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑t^{}\left|(X,Y)\right|^2$$
(1)
is thus proportional to the time dependent probability for the meson transition.

The case $`(l^+,l^+)`$ associated with the $`\overline{B}^oB^o`$ transition is shown in Figure 1.

We consider genuine asymmetries for CP, T and CPT operations, in the sense that a non-vanishing value is a proof of the violation of the symmetry. Two cases are of particular interest:

i) Flavour-to-flavour transitions

The final configuration denoted by ($`l,l`$), with flavour definite (for example, semileptonic) decays detected on both sides of the detector, corresponds to flavour-to-flavour transitions at the meson level. The equivalence is shown in Table 1. The first two processes in the Table are conjugated under CP and also under T.

The corresponding Kabir asymmetry , to linear order in the CPT violating parameter $`\delta `$ of the meson mixing, is given by

$$A(l^+,l^+)\frac{4\frac{\text{Re}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}}{1+4\frac{\text{Re}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}}$$
(2)
where $`\epsilon `$ is the rephasing invariant  CP-odd, T-odd parameter in the neutral meson mixing. The asymmetry (2) does not depend on time. However, in the exact limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$, $`\text{Re}(\epsilon )`$ also vanishes and $`A`$ will be zero. For the $`B_d`$ system, experimental limits on $`\text{Re}(\epsilon )`$ are of few parts in a thousand . A second asymmetry arises from the last two processes in Table 1, related by a CP or a CPT operation.

$$A(l^+,l^{})2\frac{\text{Re}\left(\frac{\delta }{1\epsilon ^2}\right)\mathrm{sinh}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}\text{Im}\left(\frac{\delta }{1\epsilon ^2}\right)\mathrm{sin}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t\right)}{\mathrm{cosh}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}+\mathrm{cos}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t\right)}$$
(3)
which is an odd function of $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$. This asymmetry also vanishes with $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$, because then $`\text{Im}(\delta )=0`$ as well. Present limits on $`\text{Im}(\delta )`$ are at the level of few percent .

One discovers the weakness of these asymmetries to look for T-, and CPT- violation in the Bd-system. The reason is that one needs both the violation of the symmetry and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }0`$.

ii) CP-to-flavour transitions

Alternative asymmetries can be constructed making use of the CP eigenstates, which can be identified in this system by means of a CP tag. If the first decay product, X, is a CP eigenstate produced along the CP-conserving direction , the decay is free of CP violation. If Y is a flavour definite channel, then the mesonic transition corresponding to the configuration (X,Y) is of the type CP-to-flavour.

In Table 2 we show the mesonic transitions, with their related final configurations, connected by genuine symmetry transformations to $`B_+B^o`$.

Comparing the intensities of the four processes, we may construct three genuine asymmetries, namely A(CP), A(T) and A(CPT) :

$$A(CP)=2\frac{\text{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)+\frac{1\left|\epsilon \right|^2}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\frac{2\text{Re}(\delta )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}\right)$$
(4)
The CP-odd asymmetry, contains both T-violating and CPT-violating contributions, which are, respectively, odd and even functions of $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$. This asymmetry corresponds to the ”gold plate” decay  and has been measured recently . The result is interpreted in terms of the standard model $`\mathrm{sin}(2\beta )`$ with neither CPT-violation nor $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ . One finds

$$\frac{2\text{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}=\mathrm{sin}(2\beta )$$
(5)
The two T- and CPT-violating terms in Eq. (4) can be separated out by constructing other asymmetries

$$A(T)=2\frac{\text{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)\left[1\frac{1\left|\epsilon \right|^2}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\frac{2\text{Re}(\delta )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}\right)\right]$$
(6)
the T-asymmetry needs $`\epsilon 0`$ and turns out to be purely odd in $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ in the limit we are considering.

$$A(CPT)=\frac{1\left|\epsilon \right|^2}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\frac{2\text{Re}(\delta )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}\right)}{12\frac{\text{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)}$$
(7)
is the CPT asymmetry. It needs $`\delta 0`$ and includes both even and odd time dependences.

The expressions (4), (6) and (7) correspond to the limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$, but, being genuine observables, a possible absorptive part could not induce by itself a non-vanishing asymmetry.

## 3 $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and Non-genuine Asymmetry

The construction of the quantities described above requires to tag both B+ and B- states, and thus the reconstruction of both $`BJ/\psi K_S`$ and $`BJ/\psi K_L`$ decays. One can consider non-genuine asymmetries from $`BJ/\psi K_S`$ only: they involve  the discrete transformation, denoted by $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$, consisting in the exchange in the order of appearance of decay products X and Y, which cannot be associated with any fundamental symmetry.

Table 3 shows the different transitions we may study from such final states. Besides the genuine CP asymmetry, there are two new quantities that can be constructed from the comparison between $`(J/\psi K_S,l^+)`$ and the processes in the Table 3.

In the exact limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ and T operations, although different (compare the second lines of Tables 2 and 3), are found to become equivalent, so that the temporal asymmetries satisfy $`A(\mathrm{\Delta }t)=A(T)`$ and $`A(CP\mathrm{\Delta }t)=A(CPT)`$.

The asymmetries $`A(\mathrm{\Delta }t)`$ and $`A(CP\mathrm{\Delta }t)`$ are non-genuine, so that the presence of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }0`$ may induce non-vanishing values for them, even in the absence of true T or CPT violation. These effects can be calculated and are thus controllable. This reasoning leads to an interesting suggestion: there are linear terms in $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ inducing a non-vanishing asymmetry $`𝐀(\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}𝚫𝐭)`$. This last asymmetry is particularly clean, under the reasonable assumption that $`A(CPT)=0`$. Explicit calculations  show that, even in the limit of perfect symmetry, i.e., $`\epsilon =0`$ besides $`\delta =0`$, one finds a non-vanishing $`(CP\mathrm{\Delta }t)`$-asymmetry, given by

$$A(l^{},J/\psi K_S)=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}\text{}\epsilon =\delta =0$$
(8)
The simple result (8) is modified under the realistic $`\epsilon 0`$ situation. One has, if only $`\delta =0`$, the result

$$A(l^{},J/\psi K_S)=\frac{1}{1\frac{2\text{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)}$$
(9)
$$\left\{\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}\frac{1\left|\epsilon \right|^2}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}+\frac{4\text{Re}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}\right)\frac{2\text{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\frac{2\text{Re}(\epsilon )}{1+\left|\epsilon \right|^2}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)\right\}$$

The three terms of Eq. (9) contain different $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$-dependences, so that a good time resolution will allow the determination of the parameters. Taking into account that $`\text{Re}(\epsilon )=x\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, all of the three terms are linear in $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. We conclude that the comparison between the channels $`(l^{},J/\psi K_S)`$ and $`(J/\psi K_S,l^+)`$ is a good method to obtain information on $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, due to the absence of any non-vanishing difference when $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$.

## 4 $`B_s`$ Mixing

$`B^o`$ and $`\overline{B}^o`$ are not mass eigenstates, so that their oscillation frequency is governed by their mass-difference. The measurement by the UA1 collaboration  of a large value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_d`$ was historically the first indication of the heavy top quark mass. This is so because of non-decoupling effects of the heavy-mass exchange in the Box Diagram. For $`B_smixing`$ , it is shown in Figure 2.

To avoid many hadronic uncertainties, it is interesting to consider the ratio between $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_d`$, given by

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }M_s}{\mathrm{\Delta }M_d}=\left|\frac{V_{ts}}{V_{td}}\right|^2\frac{M_{Bd}}{M_{Bs}}\xi ^2$$
(10)
where $`\xi ^2\frac{f_{B_s}^2B_{B_s}}{f_{B_d}^2B_{B_d}}`$ is the flavour-SU(3) breaking parameter in terms of the meson decay constants and the bag factors. $`B_{B_q}=1`$ if one uses a vacuum saturation of the hadronic matrix element. The great advantage of Eq. (10) is that, in the ratio, different systematics in the evaluation of the matrix element tends to cancel out. However, unlike $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_d=0.479(12)`$ $`ps^1`$, which is measured with a good precision , the determination of $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ is an experimental challenge due to the rapid oscillation of the $`B_ssystem`$. At present , $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s>13.1ps^1`$, with 95% C.L., but this bound already provides a strong constraint on $`\left|V_{td}\right|`$. The use of QCD spectral sum rules leads to .

$$\xi 1.18\pm 0.03\mathrm{\Delta }M_s18.6(2.1)\text{ps}^1$$
(11)
in agreement with the present experimental lower bound and within the reach of the proposed experiments.

Ali and London  have examined the situation for SUSY theories with minimal flavour violation. In this class of models, the SUSY contributions to $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_d`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ can both be described by a single common parameter $`f`$.

$`\mathrm{\Delta }M_d`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_d(SM)[1+f]`$ (12)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s(SM)[1+f]`$ (13)
The parameter $`f`$ is positive definite, so that the SUSY contributions add constructively to the SM contributions in the entire allowed supersymmetric parameter space. The size of $`f`$ depends, in general, on the parameters of the SUSY model. They conclude that, if $`M_s`$ is measured to be near its lower limit, SUSY with large $`f`$ is disfavoured.

With respect to the values of the CP phases $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$ and $`\gamma `$ of the unitarity triangle, the key observation is that a measurement of $`\beta `$ will not distinguish among the various values of $`f`$, i.e., $`\beta `$ is rather independent of $`f`$. If one wants to distinguish among the various SUSY models, it will be necessary to measure $`\gamma `$ and/or $`\alpha `$ independently.

Contrary to these SUSY models, in which the ratio $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s/\mathrm{\Delta }M_d`$ remains that of the Standard Model, Left-Right-Symmetric Models with Spontaneous CP Violation modify $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_d`$ with different phases relative to the SM contribution. One has

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }M_s}{\mathrm{\Delta }M_d}=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }M_s(SM)}{\mathrm{\Delta }M_d(SM)}\left|\frac{1+\kappa e^{i\sigma _s}}{1+\kappa e^{i\sigma _d}}\right|$$
(14)
As a consequence, the ratio is modified with respect to the SM. In Ref. , an analysis of the joint constraints imposed by $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_K`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_B`$ is performed, with the conclusion that the Left-Right Model favours opposite signs of $`ϵ_K`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}(2\beta )`$ and it would be disfavoured for $`\mathrm{sin}(2\beta )>0.1`$. A test of the $`B_smixing`$ would be crucial in this context.

## 5 Two Decays: $`B_sJ/\psi \varphi `$, $`B_d\varphi K_S`$

The general argument of considering CP-Violation in $`B_smixing`$ as a prime candidate for New Physics is well defined. In $`B_dJ/\psi K_S`$, the SM amplitudes of mixing (dominated by the virtual top quark) $`V_{bt}V_{td}^{}\lambda ^3`$ and decay $`V_{bc}V_{cd}^{}\lambda ^3`$ define a relative phase $`\beta `$ of the order of one, because the corresponding unitarity triangle satisfies the scales of figure 3.

Contrary to this standard $`\beta `$, the SM amplitudes for $`B_sJ/\psi \varphi `$ satisfy that $`V_{bt}V_{ts}^{}\lambda ^2`$, $`V_{bc}V_{cs}^{}\lambda ^2`$, so that the corresponding unitarity triangle is shown in figure 4 and the relative phase $`\chi `$ is tiny, of the order of $`\lambda ^2`$. It does not take much New Physics to change the tiny standard $`\chi `$!

In hadronic machines, substantial number of $`B_sJ/\psi \varphi `$ events are expected. The decay process is described by three Lorentz invariant terms, two CP-even terms and one CP-odd term. The joint angular distibution with $`J/\psi l^+l^{}`$ and $`\varphi K^+K^{}`$ has been described in Ref. , with the aim of separating out the definite CP eigenstates and thus recovering a CP asymmetry free of cancellations.

Following the argument of the Introduction, candidates for New Physics are processes which, in the SM, are described by either mixing or penguin amplitudes in the decay. In Left-Right models, the gluonic penguin contribution to $`bs\overline{s}s`$ transition is enhanced by $`m_t/m_b`$ due to the presence of right-handed currents. This may overcome the suppression due to small left-right mixing angle. Two new phases  in the $`B\varphi K_S`$ decay amplitude may therefore modify the time dependent CP asymmetry in this decay mode by O(1). This scenario implies also large CP asymmetry in the decay $`B_s\varphi \varphi `$ which can be tested in hadronic machines.

## 6 Conclusions

The prospects for an experimental study of the Flavour Problem in the next coming years are much interesting, from CP-violating observables in B-factories and hadronic machines. The (bd) Unitarity Triangle will be tested, with separate determinations of the CP-phases ($`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$, $`\gamma `$), after the present establishment of CP-Violation in $`B_d`$ -physics.

New phenomena are probably around the corner. Discoveries like T-violation in B-physics, without any contamination of absorptive parts, and sensitive limits (or spectacular surprises) for CPT-violation are expected. Temporal asymmetries in B-decays are a good method to search for linear terms in $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The intensities $`I(l^{}`$, $`J/\psi K_S)`$ and $`I(J/\psi K_S`$, $`l^+)`$ are predicted to be equal under CPT invariance and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$. Linear terms in $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ induce a non-vanishing asymmetry for this CP $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ transformation.

$`B_smixing`$ is considered to be of prime importance for the search of new physics, particularly in its CP-violating component. Extended models modify the tiny phase between the top and charm sides of the standard (bs) unitarity triangle. The non-decoupling effects of new physics can be put under control by the cancellation of hadronic matrix element uncertainties in the ratio $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s/\mathrm{\Delta }M_d`$. The interest in a detailed analysis of $`B_sJ/\psi \varphi `$ is apparent in this context.

New physics in penguin-mediated decays, like $`B_d\varphi K_S`$ and $`B_s\varphi \varphi `$, is also expected, with information complementary to that of mixing.

All in all, we can expect a beautiful future in front of us!

## Acknowledgements

I would like to thak E. Alvarez, P. Ball, D. Binosi, F.Botella, J. Matias, M.Nebot and J. Papavassiliou for interesting discussions and to the Organizers of ”Beauty 2002” for their invitation to such a beautiful event in Santiago. This work has been supported by the Grant AEN-99/0692 of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology.