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# Classification of integrable quadratic Hamiltonians on e(3)

## 1 Introduction.

In this work we consider quadratic Hamiltonians of the form

$$H=(M,AM)+(M,B\gamma )+(\gamma ,C\gamma )+(P,M)+(Q,\gamma ).$$
(1)
where $`M=(M_1,M_2,M_3),\gamma =(\gamma _1,\gamma _2,\gamma _3)`$ and $`A,C`$ are constant symmetric matrices, $`B`$ is a general constant matrix and $`P,Q`$ are constant vectors. Without loss of generality we choose

$$A=\text{diag}(a_1,a_2,a_3).$$
(2)
The equations of motion are given by

$$\frac{dM_i}{dt}=\{H,M_i\},\frac{d\gamma _i}{dt}=\{H,\gamma _i\}$$

where Poisson brackets are defined by

$$\{M_i,M_j\}=\epsilon _{ijk}M_k,\{M_i,\gamma _j\}=\epsilon _{ijk}\gamma _k,\{\gamma _i,\gamma _j\}=0$$
(3)
with $`\epsilon _{ijk}`$ being the totally anti-symmetric tensor. These linear Poisson brackets are related to the Lie algebra $`e(3)`$.

Because they admit the two Casimir functions

$$J_1=(\gamma ,\gamma ),J_2=(\gamma ,M)$$
(4)
we need only one additional first integral for Liouville integrability . In our paper we restrict ourselves to polynomial first integrals. The relevance of the combination of quadratic Hamiltonians (1) with Poisson brackets (3) arises from the Euler-Poinsot model describing motion of a rigid body around a fixed point under gravity and from the Kirchhoff model describing the motion of a rigid body in ideal fluid .

In section 2 we give a list of known integrable quadratic Hamiltonians with additional polynomial integrals of motion. Results of our search are given in section 3.

It is known from literature that for pairwise non-equal $`a_1,a_2,a_3`$ in (2) no extra integrable cases besides those mentioned in section 2 exist. In addition all Hamiltonians (1) with linear or quadratic first integral are known too. Hamiltonians with cubic first integral are discussed in . We therefore study first integrals $`I`$ of fourth degree and consider the case $`a_1=a_2a_3`$.

The motivation for a systematic investigation of this ansatz arose from the recent finding of V. Sokolov of a new integrable Hamiltonian of this form with a fourth degree first integral. Our investigation is in so far more general as we consider quadratic Hamiltonians with linear terms. Our complete classification of this problem resulted in new integrable Hamiltonians with complex coefficients. The simplest example of such a kind is

$$H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+iM_1+M_2$$

which commutes with some fourth degree polynomial under $`so(3)`$-brackets.

We also were inspired by the Goryachev-Chaplygin Hamiltonian  which admits a fourth degree integral exclusively on the Casimir level $`J_2=0`$. Unfortunately our complete classification did not result in new integrable cases.

In section 4 we follow  and consider the quantum counterpart

$$[M_i,M_j]=\epsilon _{ijk}M_k,[M_i,\gamma _j]=\epsilon _{ijk}\gamma _k,[\gamma _i,\gamma _j]=0$$
(5)
of the Poisson bracket (3). Here $`M_i,\gamma _j`$ are elements of an associative algebra with commutator relations (5). The Hamiltonian is a (non-commutative) polynomial of second degree and first integrals are polynomials which commute with the Hamiltonian. Also here we classify quadratic Hamiltonians with linear terms having a fourth degree first integral and obeying the restriction $`a_1=a_2a_3`$. We find four cases, among them the quantum analogue of the above mentioned integrable Hamiltonian of V. Sokolov.

In all three investigations an ansatz for the Hamiltonian and an ansatz for a fourth degree polynomial were made, the Poisson bracket or commutator were computed and set to zero, resulting in large non-linear over-determined algebraic systems. Although they are linear in the coefficients of $`H`$ and linear in the coefficients of the first integral, the algebraic systems are still very large (see table 1) and challenging to solve.

We used the computer algebra program Crack which was originally designed to solve over-determined PDE-systems. But its interactive capabilities allowed to solve large algebraic systems at first interactively and in doing so to learn how to take advantage of the bi-linearity. Due to an ongoing effort to generalize gathered experience and to incorporate it into the program it is now able to solve large bi-linear systems, for example the first and third system in table 1 automatically and the second system with only few manual interactions. An overview of essential features of the program and other applications requiring the solution of bi-linear systems is given in .

| type of problem | $`e(3)`$ | $`e(3),J_2=0`$ | $`e(3)`$ quant. |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| \# of unknowns ($`H`$,$`I`$,total) | 17,200,217 | 17,176,193 | 17,200,217 |
| \# of equations | 451 | 396 | 451 |
| total # of terms | 5469 | 5243 | 9681 |
| average # of terms/equ. | 12.1 | 13.2 | 21.5 |
| time to solve | 18h 53min | $``$ 15h | 11h 43min |
| details in section | 3.1 | 3.2 | 4 |

Table 1. An overview of the solved algebraic systems

Times are measured on a 1.7GHz Pentium 4 running a 120 MByte REDUCE session under Linux.

## 2 Known integrable Hamiltonian on $`e(3)`$

In the following we list all known integrable Hamiltonian of type (1) on $`e(3)`$. First let us consider all cases where the matrices $`A=\{a_{ij}\}`$, $`B=\{b_{ij}\}`$ and $`C=\{c_{ij}\}`$ are diagonal, i.e. the Hamiltonian takes the form:

$$\begin{array}{c}H=a_1M_1^2+a_2M_2^2+a_3M_3^2+2b_1M_1\gamma _1+2b_2M_2\gamma _2+2b_3M_3\gamma _3+\hfill \\ c_1\gamma _1^2+c_2\gamma _2^2+c_3\gamma _3^2+p_1M_1+p_2M_2+p_3M_3+q_1\gamma _1+q_2\gamma _2+q_3\gamma _3.\hfill \end{array}$$
(6)
Kirchhoff’s problem of the motion of a rigid body in ideal fluid. In this case the Hamiltonian does not contain linear terms, i.e. we have $`p_i=q_i=0.`$ For this problem there are three known classical integrable cases of Kirchhoff , Clebsch  and Steklov-Lyapunov .

The Kirchhoff case is defined by the identities

$$a_1=a_2,b_1=b_2,c_1=c_2.$$

The additional integral $`I`$ is linear: $`I=M_3`$.

For the Clebsch case the coefficients $`a_i`$ are arbitrary and the remaining parameters satisfy the following conditions:

$$b_1=b_2=b_3,$$

$$\frac{c_1c_2}{a_3}+\frac{c_3c_1}{a_2}+\frac{c_2c_3}{a_1}=0.$$

If not all $`a_i`$ are equal then the Hamiltonian can be represented in the form

$$H=a_1M_1^2+a_2M_2^2+a_3M_3^2+a_2a_3\gamma _1^2+a_3a_1\gamma _2^2+a_1a_2\gamma _3^2.$$

The additional quadratic integral admitted by $`H`$ is

$$I=M_1^2+M_2^2+M_3^2+(a_2+a_3)\gamma _1^2+(a_3+a_1)\gamma _2^2+(a_1+a_2)\gamma _3^2.$$

If $`a_1=a_2=a_3`$ then we get the Neumann Hamiltonian

$$H=M_1^2+M_2^2+M_3^2+c_1\gamma _1^2+c_2\gamma _2^2+c_3\gamma _3^2.$$

The additional integral in this case coincides with $`H`$.

For the Steklov-Lyapunov case the coefficients $`a_i`$ are arbitrary and the remaining parameters satisfy the following conditions:

$$\frac{b_1b_2}{a_3}+\frac{b_3b_1}{a_2}+\frac{b_2b_3}{a_1}=0,$$

$$c_1\frac{(b_2b_3)^2}{a_1}=c_2\frac{(b_3b_1)^2}{a_2}=c_3\frac{(b_1b_2)^2}{a_3}.$$

If not all the $`a_i`$ are equal then the Hamiltonian can be represented in the form

$$\begin{array}{c}H=a_1M_1^2+a_2M_2^2+a_3M_3^2+2a_2a_3M_1\gamma _1+2a_3a_1M_2\gamma _2+2a_1a_2M_3\gamma _3\hfill \\ +a_1(a_2a_3)^2\gamma _1^2+a_2(a_3a_1)^2\gamma _2^2+a_3(a_1a_2)^2\gamma _3^2.\hfill \end{array}$$

The additional integral is quadratic:

$$\begin{array}{c}I=M_1^2+M_2^2+M_3^2+2(a_2+a_3)M_1\gamma _1+2(a_3+a_1)M_2\gamma _2+2(a_1+a_2)M_3\gamma _3\hfill \\ +(a_2a_3)^2\gamma _1^2+(a_3a_1)^2\gamma _2^2+(a_1a_2)^2\gamma _3^2.\hfill \end{array}$$

If $`a_1=a_2=a_3`$ we have to interchange the Hamiltonian $`H`$ and the integral $`I`$ just as in the Clebsch case.

Recently in the paper  by Sokolov a Hamiltonian with non-diagonal matrix $`B`$ having an integral of fourth degree was presented. One of the possible forms of this Hamiltonian is:

$$H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+2(a_1\gamma _1+a_2\gamma _2)M_3(a_1^2+a_2^2)\gamma _3^2.$$

The integral can be represented as a product $`I=k_1k_2`$, where $`k_1=M_3`$ and

$$\begin{array}{c}k_2=(M_1^2+M_2^2+M_2^2)M_3+2(a_1M_1+a_2M_2)(M_1\gamma _1+M_2\gamma _2)\hfill \\ +2(a_1\gamma _1+a_2\gamma _2)M_3^2+(a_1\gamma _1+a_2\gamma _2)^2M_3\hfill \\ (a_1^2+a_2^2)(2M_1\gamma _1+2M_2\gamma _2+M_3\gamma _3)\gamma _3.\hfill \end{array}$$

This case appears to be similar in its properties to the Kowalewski case given below.

The problem of motion of a rigid body around a fixed point. Hamiltonians describing such situations have the form (6), where $`b_i=c_i=p_i=0`$. The following integrable cases are known.

The Lagrange case:

$$H=M_1^2+M_2^2+a_3M_3^2+q_3\gamma _3$$
(7)
where $`a_3,q_3`$ are arbitrary. The additional integral $`I`$ is linear: $`I=M_3`$.

The Euler case:

$$H=a_1M_1^2+a_2M_2^2+a_3M_3^2$$
(8)
with an additional quadratic integral:

$$I=M_1^2+M_2^2+M_3^2.$$

The Kowalewski case:

$$H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+q_1\gamma _1+q_2\gamma _2$$
(9)
with arbitrary parameters $`q_1,q_2`$. The additional integral of fourth degree can be written as $`I=G_1^2+G_2^2,`$ where

$$G_1=M_1^2M_2^2q_1\gamma _1+q_2\gamma _2,G_2=2M_1M_2q_2\gamma _1q_1\gamma _2.$$

We note, that if $`q_2iq_1,`$ then the transformation $`MTM`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }T\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, where

$$T=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{cos}\varphi & \mathrm{sin}\varphi & 0\\ \mathrm{sin}\varphi & \mathrm{cos}\varphi & 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right)$$
(10)
can be used to make $`q_2`$ to zero.

Generalizations. Terms linear in the moments $`M_i`$ that occur in the Hamiltonian could be interpreted as an action of hydrostatic forces (). We have no comments on the physical meaning of other mixed Hamiltonians (1) (i.e. Hamiltonians having both $`B0`$ or $`C0`$, and $`Q0`$ ).

For example, an obvious hybrid of Lagrange’s and Kirchhoff’s Hamiltonians (with additional hydrostatic member) is

$$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+s_1M_3^2+s_2\gamma _3M_3+s_3\gamma _3^2+s_4M_3+s_5\gamma _3,\hfill \end{array}$$
(11)
## 3 Results

### 3.1 The classical case.

For the Hamiltonian (1) on $`e(3)`$ we consider the case of $`A`$ being diagonal:

$$A=\text{diag}(a_1,a_2,a_3),$$

where

$$a_1=a_2a_3,a_i0,i=1,2,3.$$

Without loss of generality matrix $`B`$ can be considered as low-triangular, i.e.

$$b_{12}=b_{13}=b_{23}=0.$$

Note, that the addition of Casimir functions (4) to the Hamiltonian does not influence the equation of motion. By subtracting an appropriate linear combination of $`J_1`$ and $`J_2`$ we can make $`b_{11}=c_{11}=0`$ and get

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`M_1^2+M_2^2+a_3M_3^2+`$
$`b_{21}\gamma _1M_2+b_{31}\gamma _1M_3+b_{32}\gamma _2M_3+b_{22}\gamma _2M_2+b_{33}\gamma _3M_3+`$
$`c_{12}\gamma _1\gamma _2+c_{13}\gamma _1\gamma _3+c_{22}\gamma _2^2+c_{23}\gamma _2\gamma _3+c_{33}\gamma _3^2+`$
$`p_1M_1+p_2M_2+p_3M_3+q_1\gamma _1+q_2\gamma _2+q_3\gamma _3.`$
Lemma. For a Hamiltonian of type (3.1), a canonical transformation can be used to obtain $`b_{21}=0.`$

Thus we will consider only the following Hamiltonian:

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`M_1^2+M_2^2+a_3M_3^2+b_{31}\gamma _1M_3+b_{32}\gamma _2M_3+b_{22}\gamma _2M_2+b_{33}\gamma _3M_3+`$
$`c_{12}\gamma _1\gamma _2+c_{13}\gamma _1\gamma _3+c_{22}\gamma _2^2+c_{23}\gamma _2\gamma _3+c_{33}\gamma _3^2+`$
$`p_1M_1+p_2M_2+p_3M_3+q_1\gamma _1+q_2\gamma _2+q_3\gamma _3.`$
Theorem 1.The Hamiltonian of the above form commutes with a polynomial integral of $`4^{\text{th}}`$ degree iff it coincides with one of the following:

* (11), where $`s_i`$ \- are arbitrary, or
* $$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+M_3^2+2s_1\gamma _3M_3s_1^2\gamma _3^2+s_2\gamma _1+s_3\gamma _2+s_4\gamma _3+\hfill \\ \lambda \left(2s_1M_3^2+s_2M_1+s_3M_2+s_4M_3+s_1(s_2\gamma _1+s_3\gamma _2)\right),\hfill \end{array}$$
(14)
* $$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+s_1(i\gamma _1+\gamma _2)M_3+\hfill \\ s_2(iM_1+M_2)+s_3M_3+s_4(i\gamma _1+\gamma _2)s_1s_2\gamma _3,\hfill \end{array}$$
(15)
* $$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+2(s_1\gamma _1+s_2\gamma _2)M_3(s_1^2+s_2^2)\gamma _3^2+\hfill \\ s_3(M_3+s_1\gamma _1+s_2\gamma _2)+s_4\gamma _1+s_5\gamma _2,\hfill \end{array}$$
(16)
where $`s_i`$ are parameters constrained only by the condition:

$$s_2s_5+s_1s_4=0.$$

Remarks
1. The case (14) was founded by Rubanovskiyi .
2. Under the conditions $`s_1=s_2=s_3=0`$ the formula (16) describes the Kowalewski case. If $`s_3=s_4=s_5=0`$ we have the Sokolov case for which the general formula (16) was presented in  and the Lax pair was found by Sokolov and A.V. Tsiganov .
3. The Hamiltonian (15) is probably new.

### 3.2 Classical case with additional condition.

We now consider the case of the area integral $`J_2`$ being equal to zero. In this case the following additional integrable Hamiltonians are known.

The Goryachev-Chaplygin Hamiltonian

$$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+4M_3^2s_1\gamma _1\hfill \end{array}$$
(17)
belongs to the class of Hamiltonians describing the motion of a rigid body around a fixed point. The additional integral is of third degree.

For the Kirchhoff problem is known the Hamiltonian by Chaplygin:

$$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+c\gamma _1^2c\gamma _2^2.\hfill \end{array}$$
(18)
Here the additional integral has fourth degree.

Theorem 2. The Hamiltonian of the form  (3.1) commutes with a polynomial integral of fourth degree with additional condition $`(M,\gamma )=0`$, iff it coincides with one of the Hamiltonian from Theorem 1 or with the following:

* $$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+s_1(\gamma _1^2\gamma _2^2)+s_2\gamma _1\gamma _2+s_3M_3+s_4\gamma _1+s_5\gamma _2,\hfill \end{array}$$
(19)
where $`s_i`$ \- are arbitrary parameters.

The Hamiltonian (19) is the generalization of Chaplygin’s case .

## 4 Quantum case.

In the papers by Komarov, Sklyanin  and others quantum generalizations of classical Hamiltonians on $`e(3)`$ and $`so(4)`$ were considered. Similarly, instead of the Poisson bracket (3) we investigate the commutator relations (5) in an associative algebra with generators $`M_1,M_2,M_3`$, $`\gamma _1,\gamma _2,\gamma _3`$. We can consider $`M_i,\gamma _i`$ to be operators. Due to commutator relations (5) any monomial always could be ordered such, that $`M_i`$ come before any $`\gamma _i`$ and indices increase (such a presentation is unique). Thus Hamiltonians have the same form (1) as in the classical case, but the multiplication is now non-commutative. In this case, any element $`I`$ from the associative algebra that satisfies $`[H,I]=0`$ is called an integral.

Theorem 3. The Hamiltonian of the above form commutes with a polynomial integral of $`4^{\text{th}}`$ degree iff it coincides with one of the following:

* $$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+s_1M_3^2+s_2\gamma _3M_3+s_3\gamma _3^2+s_4M_3+s_5\gamma _3,\hfill \end{array}$$
(20)
where $`s_i`$ \- are arbitrary parameters;
* $$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+M_3^2+2s_1\gamma _3M_3s_1^2\gamma _3^2+s_2\gamma _1+s_3\gamma _2+s_4\gamma _3+\hfill \\ \lambda \left(2s_1M_3^2+s_2M_1+s_3M_2+s_4M_3+s_1(s_2\gamma _1+s_3\gamma _2)\right),\hfill \end{array}$$
(21)
* $$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+s_1(i\gamma _1+\gamma _2)M_3+\hfill \\ s_2(iM_1+M_2)+s_3M_3+s_4(i\gamma _1+\gamma _2)s_1s_2\gamma _3,\hfill \end{array}$$
(22)
* $$\begin{array}{c}H=M_1^2+M_2^2+2M_3^2+2(s_1\gamma _1+s_2\gamma _2)M_3(s_1^2+s_2^2)\gamma _3^2+\hfill \\ s_3(M_3+s_1\gamma _1+s_2\gamma _2)+s_4\gamma _1+s_5\gamma _2,\hfill \end{array}$$
(23)
where $`s_i`$ are parameters constrained only by the condition:

$$s_2s_5+s_1s_4=0;$$

Notice that this list looks exactly as the list of subsection 3.1 although a priori this coincidence is not predictable. The most interesting here is Hamiltonian (23), which is a quantum generalization of the Sokolov Hamiltonian. If $`s_1=s_2=s_3=0`$ we have the quantum Kowalewski Hamiltonian .

## Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to V.V. Sokolov for useful discussions. The research was partially supported by RFBR grant 02-01-06670.


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# Geometric Phase and Helicity Inversion of Photons Propagating inside a Noncoplanarly Curved Optical Fiber

## I Introduction

In 1984, Berry found the existence of the Berry’s topological phase ( i. e., the adiabatic geometric phase ) of wave function in adiabatic quantum process where the cyclic evolution of wave function yields the original state plus a phase shift, which is a sum of a dynamical phase and a geometric phase shift. Berry’s discovery opens up new opportunities for investigating the global and topological properties of quantum evolution. It is now well known that geometric phase arises in systems with the time-dependent Hamiltonian, or in systems whose Hamiltonian possesses some evolution parameters. Differing from dynamical phase that depends on dynamical quantities of systems such as energy, frequency, velocity as well as coupling coefficients, geometric phase is independent of these dynamical quantities. Instead, it is only related to the geometric nature of the pathway along which quantum systems evolve. This, therefore, implies that geometric phase presents the topological and global properties of quantum systems in time-evolution process, and that it possesses the physical significance and can thus be applied to various fields of physics. Geometric phases attract attentions of many physicists in considerable fields such as gravity theory, differential geometry, atomic and molecular physics, nuclear physics, quantum optics, condensed matter physics, molecular systems and chemical reaction as well.

The first physical realization of the Berry’s geometric phase is that of the polarized photon propagating inside the noncoplanar optical fiber, of which whose theory is proposed by Chiao and Wu. Based on the experimental work of Chiao et al., many researchers further studied this problem in both experiments and theories afterwards, where they tried to consider this geometric phase by using the classical Maxwell,s theory, differential geometry or quantum mechanics. Although Chiao-Wu theory concerning the propagation of photons inside the optical fiber was very successful in predicting this geometric phase, and in satisfactorily investigating the polarization and propagation of photons in the cyclic adiabatic process in the fiber experiment performed by Kwiat and Chiao et al., we still argue that there exist at least three points which should be further discussed. They are given as follows:

(i) since it is based on Berry,s formula of adiabatic geometric phase, Chiao-Wu formulation can be applicable only to the adiabatic and cyclic quantum process, i. e., this method is not appropriate to deal with the general non-adiabatic non-cyclic geometric quantum phase;

(ii) Chiao-Wu theory is first-quantized. However, we suggest the second-quantized treatment of the photon in the fiber, so that this second-quantized formulation enables us to consider the geometric phase in the fiber at quantum level, and thus provides us with a theoretical tool to deal with the hot arguments as to whether this geometric phase inside the fiber belongs to the classical or the quantum level;

(iii) Chiao-Wu theory has no expression for the Hamiltonian describing the interaction of photons field with fiber medium. Instead, it investigated the geometric phase merely by taking into consideration the eigenvalue equation of the helicity of photons in curved fiber. Note, however, that this eigenvalue equation cannot always be regarded as the Schrödinger equation governing the propagation of photons in the noncoplanarly curved fiber, although in the sense of adiabatic process, it can be considered the Schrödinger equation indeed. This, therefore, means that the Chiao-Wu formulation should be generalized to a more complete one that can satisfactorily study the non-adiabatic evolution of wave function of the photon in curved fiber.

In the present paper, we resolve these problems by making use of the Lewis-Riesenfeld invariant theory and the invariant-related unitary transformation formulation. By constructing an effective second-quantized Hamiltonian describing the interaction between photons field and fiber medium, we obtain the exact solution of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation and, based on this result, we obtain the non-adiabatic non-cyclic geometric phase of photons, rather than the phase in the sense of Berry’s adiabatic quantum process. Note that the exact solution presented here does not contain the chronological product operator, namely, it may be considered the explicit solution. On the basis of the above work, we consider the helicity inversion of photons in the optical fiber, to which most of the methods based on the Maxwell’s theory, differential geometry ( parallel transport ) or Berry’s phase theory is not applicable since these methods are not in connection with the time-evolution equation ( i. e., the time-dependent Schrödinger equation) of the photon in the fiber.

Time-dependent system is governed by the time-dependent Schrödinger equation. The invariant theory suggested by Lewis and Riesenfeld can solve the time-dependent Schrödinger equation. Gao et al. proposed a generalized invariant theory, by introducing the basic invariants which enable one to find the complete set of commuting invariants for some time-dependent multi-dimensional systems. Since the exact solution to quantum systems with time-dependent Hamiltonian obtained by the invariant-related unitary transformation formulation contains both the geometric phase and the dynamical phase and, fortunately, all these results are explicit rather than formal ( i. e., there exists no chronological product operator in wave function ), the Lewis-Riesenfeld theory thus developed into a powerful tool for treating the time-dependent Schrödinger equation and the geometric phase factor.

## II Time evolution and noncyclic geometric phase of photons in a curved fiber

Consider a noncoplanarly curved optical fiber that is wound smoothly on a large enough diameter, an equation of motion of the photon propagating along the fiber is of the form

$$\dot{𝐤}+𝐤\times (\frac{𝐤\times \dot{𝐤}}{k^2})=0$$
(1)
with $`𝐤(t)`$ being the wave vector of the photon, $`𝐤\times (\frac{𝐤\times \dot{𝐤}}{k^2})`$ and $`\frac{𝐤\times \dot{𝐤}}{k^2}`$ may be considered the generalized Lorentz magnetic force ( Coriolis force ) and the generalized magnetic field strength, respectively. The reason for $`𝐤\times (\frac{𝐤\times \dot{𝐤}}{k^2})`$ being called generalized Lorentz force is that Eq. (1) is somewhat analogous to the equation of motion of a photon moving in the gravitomagnetic fields. Dot in the equation of motion (1) denotes the time rate of change of $`𝐤(t)`$. Further analysis shows that the infinitesimal rotation operator of motion of a photon in the fiber is given as $`U_R=1i\vartheta 𝐉`$ with $`𝐉`$ being the total angular momentum operator of photons field and $`\vartheta =\frac{𝐤(t)\times \dot{𝐤}(t)}{k^2}\mathrm{d}t`$. It follows from the evolution operator, $`U_R`$, that the photon state $`|\sigma ,𝐤(t)`$ $`(\sigma `$ denotes the eigenvalue of $`I(t)=\frac{𝐤(t)}{k}𝐉`$ that is proved to be an invariant in what follows ) satisfies the following time-evolution equation ( in the unit $`c=\mathrm{}=1`$ )

$$i\frac{|\sigma ,𝐤(t)}{t}=\frac{𝐤(t)\times \dot{𝐤}(t)}{k^2}𝐉|\sigma ,𝐤(t)$$
(2)
with $`H_{eff}(t)=\frac{𝐤(t)\times \dot{𝐤}(t)}{k^2}𝐉`$ being the effective Hamiltonian of photon inside the fiber. Apparently, $`I(t)`$ and the effective Hamiltonian $`H_{eff}(t)`$ agree with the invariant equation ( Liouville-Von Neumann equation )

$$\frac{I(t)}{t}+\frac{1}{i}[I(t),H_{eff}(t)]=0.$$
(3)
Substitution of the expressions for $`I(t)`$ and $`H_{eff}(t)`$ into this invariant equation yields the equation, $`\dot{𝐤}+𝐤\times (\frac{𝐤\times \dot{𝐤}}{k^2})=0`$, of motion of the photon in the fiber. It follows that the eigenvalue of $`\frac{𝐤(t)}{k}𝐉`$ of the photon is conserved in motion and it is therefore an invariant in terms of the invariant equation(3). It can be seen from the form of $`H_{eff}(t)`$ that the problem of the rotation of polarization plane is actually in analogy with that of the time-dependent quantum spin model. Set the components of momentum of a photon

$$\frac{𝐤(t)}{k}=(\mathrm{sin}\lambda (t)\mathrm{cos}\gamma (t),\mathrm{sin}\lambda (t)\mathrm{sin}\gamma (t),\mathrm{cos}\lambda (t)),$$
(4)
where the time-dependent parameters $`\lambda (t)`$ and $`\gamma (t)`$ denote the angle displacements of $`𝐤(t)`$ in the spherical polar coordinate system, and the invariant $`I(t)=\frac{𝐤(t)}{k}𝐉`$ may therefore be rewritten

$$I(t)=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{sin}\lambda (t)\mathrm{exp}[i\gamma (t)]J_++\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{sin}\lambda (t)\mathrm{exp}[i\gamma (t)]J_{}+\mathrm{cos}\lambda (t)J_3$$
(5)
with $`J_\pm =J_1\pm iJ_2,[J_3,J_\pm ]=\pm J_\pm ,[J_+,J_{}]=2J_3`$.

In order to obtain the analytical solution of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (2), we introduce an invariant-related unitary transformation operator $`V(t)`$ that is of the form

$$V(t)=\mathrm{exp}[\beta (t)J_+\beta ^{}(t)J_{}],$$
(6)
where the time-dependent parameters $`\beta (t)=\frac{\lambda (t)}{2}\mathrm{exp}[i\gamma (t)],\beta ^{}(t)=\frac{\lambda (t)}{2}\mathrm{exp}[i\gamma (t)]`$. $`V(t)`$ can be easily shown to transform the time-dependent invariant $`I(t)`$ to $`I_V(V^{}(t)I(t)V(t)=J_3)`$, which is time-independent. The eigenstate of $`I_V=J_3`$ corresponding to the eigenvalue $`\sigma `$ is denoted by $`|\sigma `$. By making use of $`V(t)`$ in expression (6) and the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula, one can obtain $`H_V(t)`$ from $`H(t)`$, i. e.,

$`H_V(t)`$ $`=`$ $`V^{}(t)H(t)V(t)V^{}(t)i{\displaystyle \frac{V(t)}{t}}`$ (7)
$`=`$ $`\left\{[\mathrm{cos}\lambda \mathrm{cos}\theta +\mathrm{sin}\lambda \mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}(\gamma \phi )]+\dot{\gamma }(1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )\right\}J_3,`$ ()
where the time-dependent parameters $`\theta `$ and $`\phi `$ represent the angle displacements of $`\frac{𝐤(t)\times \dot{𝐤}(t)}{k^2}`$ in the spherical polar coordinate system, i. e., $`\frac{𝐤(t)\times \dot{𝐤}(t)}{k^2}=(\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\phi ,\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{sin}\phi ,\mathrm{cos}\theta ).`$ It follows from Eq. (()II) and the expression $`I_V=J_3`$ that $`H_V(t)`$ differs from $`I_V`$ only by a time-dependent $`c`$\- number factor $`\mathrm{exp}[\frac{1}{i}_0^t\sigma \left|H_V(t^{})\right|\sigma dt^{}]`$. By using the invariant equation (3), the two auxiliary equations, which are used to determine the time-dependent parameters $`\theta `$ and $`\phi `$, can be derived

$$\dot{\gamma }\mathrm{sin}^2\lambda =\mathrm{cos}\theta ,\dot{\lambda }\mathrm{cos}\gamma \dot{\gamma }\mathrm{cos}\lambda \mathrm{sin}\lambda \mathrm{sin}\gamma =\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{sin}\phi .$$
(8)
Fortunately, it is shown from the auxiliary equations that

$$\mathrm{cos}\lambda \mathrm{cos}\theta +\mathrm{sin}\lambda \mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}(\gamma \phi )=0,$$
(9)
the expression (()II) for $`H_V(t)`$ can thus be simplified into $`H_V(t)=\dot{\gamma }(t)[1\mathrm{cos}\lambda (t)]J_3`$.

Based on the invariant theory, the geometric phase of a photon whose initial eigenvalue of helicity is $`\sigma `$ can be expressed by

$$\varphi _\sigma (t)=\left\{_0^t\dot{\gamma }(t^{^{}})[1\mathrm{cos}\lambda (t^{^{}})]dt^{^{}}\right\}\sigma \left|J_3\right|\sigma .$$
(10)
Since it is easy to obtain the eigenvalues and eigenstates of $`I_V(t)=J_3,`$ with the help of (6) and (()II), one can arrive at the general solution of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation, which governs the motion of photons in the fiber experiment. The result is given as follows

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }(t)_s=\underset{\sigma }{}C_\sigma \mathrm{exp}[\frac{1}{i}\varphi _\sigma (t)]V(t)|\sigma $$
(11)
with the coefficients $`C_\sigma =\sigma ,t=0|\mathrm{\Psi }(0)_s.`$ It is noted that the exact solution presented here does not contain the chronological product and may be considered the explicit solution.

In the noncoplanar optical fiber, according to the expression for $`H_V(t)`$, the dynamical phase

$$\varphi _\sigma ^{(\mathrm{d})}(t)=\left\{_0^t\left[\mathrm{cos}\lambda (t^{})\mathrm{cos}\theta (t^{})+\mathrm{sin}\lambda (t^{})\mathrm{sin}\theta (t^{})\mathrm{cos}(\gamma (t^{})\phi (t^{}))\right]dt^{^{}}\right\}\sigma \left|J_3\right|\sigma $$
(12)
of the photon due to the effective Hamiltonian vanishes ( But note that the Hamiltonian of free photons, $`H_0=\frac{V}{(2\pi )^3}d𝐤\omega _k(a_R(𝐤)^{}a_R(𝐤)+a_L(𝐤)^{}a_L(𝐤)+1)`$ with $`a_R^{}(a_R)`$ and $`a_L^{}(a_L)`$ being respectively the creation (annihilation) operators for the right- and left- polarized photons, which is not involved in the effective Hamiltonian, may contribute a dynamical phase to the wave function of photons in the curved fiber ), and its geometric phase is expressed by the expression (10). The time evolution operator of wave function is $`U(t)=\mathrm{exp}[\frac{1}{i}\varphi _\sigma (t)]V(t)`$. For the sake of $`U(t=0)=1`$ and consequently $`\lambda (t=0)=0`$, the initial conditions are taken to be $`k_1=0,k_2=0,k_3=k`$. Thus the expectation value of the third component of the orbital angular momentum $`𝐋`$ of the linear polarized photon vanishes, namely, $`\sigma \left|L_3\right|\sigma =\frac{𝐤(t)}{k}\sigma \left|𝐋\right|\sigma =0`$. This means that we should only analyze the expectation value of the third component of spin of the photon. It follows from the spin operator of non-normal product

$`𝐒`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle d𝐤\frac{𝐤}{k}\left\{[a_R(𝐤)^{}a_R(𝐤)+a_R(𝐤)a_R(𝐤)^{}][a_L(𝐤)^{}a_L(𝐤)+a_L(𝐤)a_L(𝐤)^{}]\right\}}`$ (13)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle d𝐤\frac{𝐤}{k}\left\{[a_R(𝐤)^{}a_R(𝐤)+\frac{1}{2}][a_L(𝐤)^{}a_L(𝐤)+\frac{1}{2}]\right\}}`$ ()
that the total spin of the photons field comprises the contributions of both the right- and left- rotation photons. It can be found that the zero-point energy of both the right- and left- rotation photons exists in the effective Hamiltonian. This time-dependent zero-point energy possesses the physical meaning and also contributes to the geometric phase factor. Thus, it follows that there exists the quantum-vacuum geometric phase

$$\varphi _\pm ^{(\mathrm{g})}=\pm \frac{1}{2}_0^t\dot{\gamma }(t^{^{}})[1\mathrm{cos}\lambda (t^{^{}})]dt^{^{}}$$
(14)
( $`\pm `$ corresponding to the right- and left- polarized photon, respectively), in addition to the classical geometric phase $`\varphi _\pm ^{(c)}=\pm _0^t\dot{\gamma }(t^{})[1\mathrm{cos}\lambda (t^{})]dt^{^{}}`$ that has been measured in the fiber experiment performed by Tomita and Chiao. However, it should be pointed out that, even at the quantum level, the observable quantum-vacuum geometric phase is absent in the fiber experiment, since the sign of the quantum-vacuum geometric phase of the left- and right- rotation photons is opposite, and their quantum-vacuum geometric phase are therefore counteracted, hence the observable geometric phase is merely the classical geometric phase, which, arising as the adiabatic cyclic Berry’s phase in the fiber experiment, has been proved existing by Tomita and Chiao.

In the adiabatic and cyclic case, it is of physical interest to discuss the topological property of the geometric phase arising in the fiber experiment. Note that in the adiabatic and cyclic case the expressions for geometric phase presented in this Letter is reduced to that in the Chiao-Wu theory, namely, in this case our calculation is consistent with the result obtained by Chiao and Wu. The adiabatic geometric phase ( Berry’s phase ) in a cycle associated with $`\gamma (t)`$ in the parameter space of the invariant $`\frac{𝐤(t)}{k}𝐉`$ is $`\varphi _\sigma (T)=2\pi \sigma (1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )`$, where $`\lambda `$ is taken to be time-independent just as what has been done in the Chiao-Wu theory and the subsequent experiment performed by Tomita et al.. It is apparent that in the adiabatic and cyclic geometric phase, $`2\pi (1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )`$ is the solid angle over the parameter space of the invariant, which are said to represent the geometric meanings of the phase. This, therefore, implies that geometric phase reflects the global and topological properties of time-dependent evolution of quantum systems. It is worthwhile to point out that although the adiabatic solution describing the time evolution of photons in the curved fiber has sufficient features to indicate the global and topological properties of geometric phase of photons, the exact solution obtained via the Lewis-Riesenfeld invariant theory possesses more rich characters and can therefore treat more general time-dependent evolution of wavefunctions in Quantum Mechanics regimes in addition to the narrower class of the quantum adiabatic process.

## III Helicity inversion of photons in a curved fiber

In the optical fiber that is wound smoothly on a large enough diameter, the variation of the helicity of the photon cannot be easily observed. However, in the sharply curved fiber, it is apparent that the helicity depends strongly upon the geometric shape of the fiber. In order to see whether or not this is the true case, in what follows we deal with the helicity inversion of photons inside the curved fiber. The principal reasons for the importance of helicity inversion lie in that: (i) it is believed that neither the adiabatic quantum theory nor the classical electrodynamics can satisfactorily deal with this problem. Only the explicit wave function of photons, which does not involve the chronological product, in the optical fiber is obtained can we deal with the time evolution of wave function and the helicity inversion of photons moving along the curved fiber; (ii) helicity inversion may be employed to the field of information science, since the left-polarized laser ( representing $`1`$ ) may be inverted to the right-polarized laser ( representing $`0`$ ) by the mirror reflection and the optical helix. The Hamiltonian of free photons field, $`𝐩𝐯(t)`$ with $`𝐯(t)=(\mathrm{sin}\lambda (t)\mathrm{cos}\gamma (t),\mathrm{sin}\lambda (t)\mathrm{sin}\gamma (t),\mathrm{cos}\lambda (t))`$, possesses the same eigenvalue of $`𝐤𝐉`$ divided by $`\sigma `$. The particular solution of Eq. (2) corresponding to the eigenvalue, $`\sigma `$ , is

$$|\sigma ,𝐤(t)=V(t)\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{1}{i}_0^tH_V(t^{})dt^{^{}}\right]|\sigma $$
(15)
that can be rewritten in the interaction representation as

$$|\sigma ,𝐤(t)=V(t)\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{1}{i}_0^t[H_V(t^{})𝐤(t^{})𝐉]dt^{}\right\}\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{1}{2}_0^tdt^{}_0^tdt^{\prime \prime }[H_V(t^{}),𝐤(t^{\prime \prime })𝐉]\right\}|\sigma ,t_I$$
(16)
with $`|\sigma ,t_I=\mathrm{exp}[\frac{1}{i}_0^t𝐩𝐯(t^{})dt^{}]|\sigma .`$ It follows that $`H_V(t)𝐤(t)𝐉=𝐊𝐉`$ , where $`𝐊`$ is defined to be

$$𝐊=k(\mathrm{sin}\lambda \mathrm{cos}\gamma ,\mathrm{sin}\lambda \mathrm{sin}\gamma ,\frac{1}{k}\dot{\gamma }(1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )+\mathrm{cos}\lambda ),$$
(17)
and consequently the module of $`𝐊`$ is $`K=\varsigma k`$ with

$$\varsigma =\sqrt{1\frac{2\dot{\gamma }}{k}(1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )\mathrm{cos}\lambda +\left(\frac{\dot{\gamma }}{k}\right)^2(1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )^2}.$$
(18)
From the expression for $`|\sigma ,𝐤(t)`$ in the interaction picture the helicity operator of the photon is of the form $`\frac{1}{K}𝐊𝐉`$. Since we have the time-evolution operator of wave function of photons, which does not involve the chronological product, we can in principle investigate the evolution and inversion of the helicity states of photons propagating inside the curved fiber.

It is significant to apply the formulation presented here to the Chiao-Wu case ( i. e., the case of photon moving along a helical fiber ) in order to unfold the physical meanings of our results. Consider the Chiao-Wu adiabatic cyclic case in which the rotating frequency of photon moving on the helicoid reads $`\dot{\gamma }=\mathrm{\Omega }`$ with $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{2\pi c}{\sqrt{d^2+(4\pi a)^2}}`$ where $`d`$ and $`a`$ respectively denote the pitch length and the radius of the helix, and $`c`$ is the speed of light. When the initial condition is taken to be $`k_1=0,k_2=0,k_3=k`$, i. e., $`\mathrm{cos}\lambda =1`$, it is readily verified that the initial expectation value

$$\frac{1}{K}𝐊𝐉=\frac{\sigma [\mathrm{cos}\lambda \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{k}(1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )]}{\sqrt{1\frac{2\mathrm{\Omega }}{k}(1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )\mathrm{cos}\lambda +\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{k}\right)^2(1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )^2}}$$
(19)
of the helicity of photon is equal to $`\sigma `$. If, for example, the length scales, $`d`$ and $`a`$, of the optical fiber are taken to be $`d0,`$ $`a0`$, which means that the fiber is curved extremely on a small enough diameter, and in consequence the rotating frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ of photon moving along the curved fiber tends to $`\mathrm{}`$ ( and $`\lambda `$ is negligibly small ), then the expectation value, $`\frac{1}{K}𝐊𝐉`$, of the helicity of photon in the evolution process may approach $`\sigma `$ with $`\sigma =\pm 1`$ corresponding to the right- and left- polarized photon, respectively. The detailed calculation is given as follows: since in this case the rotating frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ tends to be infinite and $`\lambda `$ is small, the fraction on the right-handed side of Eq. (19)

$$\frac{1}{K}𝐊𝐉\frac{\sigma [\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{k}(\frac{\lambda ^2}{2})]}{\sqrt{(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{k})^2(\frac{\lambda ^2}{2})^2}}=\sigma .$$
(20)
Note that taking the Chiao-Wu case as an illustrative example here does not mean that no attempt is made to achieve theoretical rigor, since this case is a special limit ( i. e., an adiabatic limit in which the optical fiber is helically curved ) in our treatment of the propagation of photons moving in a noncoplanarly curved Fiber. Hence, from what has been discussed above, we can conclude without exaggeration that the formulation based on the Lewis-Riesenfeld invariant theory, rather than on the Berry’s adiabatic phase theory, can satisfactorily deal with the helicity inversion of photons in the arbitrarily curved optical fiber.

As is presented previously, in the case of curved fiber the operator $`\frac{1}{k}𝐤𝐉`$ together with the effective Hamiltonian $`H_{eff}(t)`$, can describe the motion of photons in the fiber, for the reason that it is the conserved operator with the time-independent eigenvalue $`\sigma `$, and can therefore be considered a Lewis-Riesenfeld invariant. But here it is worth noticing that in a curved optical fiber the helicity of a propagating photon is defined to be $`\frac{1}{K}𝐊𝐉,`$ rather than the conventional definition $`\frac{1}{k}𝐤𝐉`$ which has well described the state of photon in free space. For the extremely curved fiber, the expectation value of photon helicity may varies ( even inverses ) in the propagation inside the fiber, and therefore the invariant $`\frac{1}{k}𝐤𝐉`$ may no longer considered the definition of photon helicity. It follows from (17) that in smoothly curved fiber ( i. e., the helix diameter is large enough and consequently the angle $`\lambda `$ in the momentum space is small ), or in the case where the rotating frequency, $`\dot{\gamma }`$, vanishes, it is apparently seen that the operator $`\frac{1}{K}𝐊𝐉`$ tends to the conventional definition of photon helicity, $`\frac{1}{k}𝐤𝐉`$.

## IV Potential applications of helicity inversion to information science

What interaction results in the helicity inversion of photons in the curved optical fiber? It follows from both the equation of motion (1) and the time-evolution equation (2) of photons that the generalized Lorentz force ( Coriolis force ) may lead to the reversal of photon helicity. The effective magnetic field $`\frac{𝐤\times \dot{𝐤}}{k^2}`$ causes the variations of the direction of $`𝐤`$ ( the wave vector of photon ) and can therefore be coupled to the generalized magnetic moment ( proportional to the total angular momentum, $`𝐉`$, of photons ). It should be noted that the interaction Hamiltonian ( effective Hamiltonian $`H_{eff}(t)`$ ) in the present Letter is obtained via the infinitesimal rotation operator of motion of photon in the fiber, rather than through analyzing the electromagnetic interaction between the photons and the medium of the optical fiber. This means that the effective Hamiltonian is a phenomenological Hamiltonian, which is based on the previous assumption that the wave vector $`𝐤`$ of photon is always along the tangent of the fiber at each point at arbitrary time. This assumption enables us to treat the propagation of photons in the fiber by using the purely geometric method ( containing the infinitesimal rotation operator in 3-dimensional space ). Since Chiao-Wu theory was consistent with the fiber experiment, we think that our generalized approach to this problem may also be appropriate to consider the more general cases, e. g., the non-adiabatic non-cyclic cases. Perhaps someone may argue that the investigation of photon-atom interaction in the curved fiber based on the purely physical mechanism is also essentially significant. This may be the case, but from the point of view of us, when the theory is compared with the experimental results, the previous assumption is still necessary, so long as the length scale is larger than the wavelength. Only in the extremely curved case ( in which the length scales, $`d0`$ and $`a0`$, are less than the wavelength ) should we take into account the detailed physical mechanism on the basis of the electromagnetic interaction between photons and media of the fiber. In the smoothly curved case, however, the geometric description of the electromagnetic interaction between them as presented in this Letter is convenient. It is readily verified that the helicity inversion of photons results from this interaction.

For the present, physicists’ control over the behavior of photons has spread to include the photon number, phase and polarization of light wave. If we could engineer all the degrees of freedom of photons, our technology would benefit. Already, the fiber communication, which simply guides light, has revolutionized the telecommunications industry. It is now possible for physicists to carry the laser communication and quantum computation into practice, with the development of the modern optics, fiber technology, quantum information and so on. For instance, in the last decades a new frontier ( photonic crystal ) has emerged with the goal to control the behavior ( amplitude or photon number ) of light; Muller et al. applied the polarization or spin of photons to the optical communication, and Duan et al. suggested the application of the adiabatic Berry’s phase driven by the laser field to quantum computation. Apparently, it is of essential significance to control and utilize the degrees of freedom of photons ( photon number, polarization, helicity, geometric phase, etc. ) in information science and technology. It is with these goals in mind that the helicity inversion of photons is taken into account in the present Letter. In the curved optical fiber, the interaction of the photon spin with the wave vector causes the helicity inversion of the photon, which is in exact analogy with the transition operation from $`0`$ to $`1`$ in digital circuit and may be said to possess the potential applications in information technology. This inversion of helicity is controllable by manipulating the spatial shape and helix radius of the curved optical fiber. Furthermore, since geometric phase contains the global properties of the varying geometric shape of the fiber, and the measurement of the time-dependence of geometric phase may obtain the information about the varying geometric shape of the fiber, we think that the possible application of geometric phase of photons to the optical communication deserves considerations.

## V Concluding remarks

The present approach to the geometric phase, time evolution, polarization as well as the helicity inversion of photons propagating along the optical fiber has several advantages over other treatments based on the classical Maxwell’s theory and the Berry’s adiabatic quantum theory. In this Letter, we are concerned with the non-adiabatic non-cyclic case. Furthermore, the adiabatic cyclic geometric phase $`2\pi \sigma (1\mathrm{cos}\lambda )`$ reduced from (10) is consistent with the result in Chiao-Wu theory, and the Chiao-Wu case is therefore considered the adiabatic limit of our case. Additionally, We show that when it is propagating in the curved ( or noncoplanarly curved ) optical fiber, the helicity of the photon varies with time, and the method in the present Letter is appropriate to treat the time-dependence of helicity and the helicity inversion. If the fiber is extremely curved, then the helicity inversion will take place, i. e., the change of the helicity of the photon is dependent strongly on the spatial appearance and the helix radius of the noncoplanarly curved fiber. Most of the treatments regarding the propagation of photons in the fiber had no Hamiltonian describing the motion of photons in the fiber, but the Hamiltonian is indeed very necessary in investigating the time evolution of photons in the fiber, so, in this Letter we construct an effective Hamiltonian and then transform the problem of motion of photons in the optical fiber into that of the time-dependent quantum spin model. The invariant-related unitary transformation formulation replaces eigenstates of the time-dependent invariants with that of the time-independent invariants through the unitary transformation and thus obtain the explicit expression for the time-evolution operator, instead of the formal solution associated with the chronological product operator. It is apparently of essential significance to obtain the exact solution of Eq. (2), since in the treatment of helicity inversion of photons in arbitrarily noncoplanarly curved optical fiber, the exact solution, rather than the adiabatic solution obtained based on the Berry’s phase theory, is of real importance. All these advantages enable us to study the helicity inversion of photons in the fiber in more detail. We hold that not only this research would be of physical interest and essential significance both experimentally and theoretically, but also the applications of both geometric phase and helicity inversion of photons inside the fiber to optical communication, quantum information and related fields deserved further investigations.

Acknowledgements This project is supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under the project No. $`90101024`$. Great thanks are due to Xiao-Chun Gao who led us to this subject and gave many helpful suggestions.


text:
# Global persistence exponent of the two-dimensional Blume-Capel model

## Abstract

The global persistence exponent $`\theta _g`$ is calculated for the two-dimensional Blume-Capel model following a quench to the critical point from both disordered states and such with small initial magnetizations. Estimates are obtained for the nonequilibrium critical dynamics on the critical line and at the tricritical point. Ising-like universality is observed along the critical line and a different value $`\theta _g=1.080(4)`$ is found at the tricritical point.

Keywords: persistence, dynamic exponent, critical phenomena, Blume-Capel model, Monte Carlo simulation.

PACS: 64.60.Ht, 05.70.Ln, 05.50.+q

Recent advances in nonequilibrium physics have enlarged our understanding of critical phenomena. As shown by Janssen et al.  and Huse , universality and scaling behavior are already present in systems since the early stages of their relaxation processes after quenching from high temperatures to the critical one. This evolution is governed by a new independent exponent $`\theta `$. Systems characterized by a nonconserved order parameter, model A in the terminology of Halperin et al. , are described by a scaling function soon after a microscopic time scale $`t_{mic}`$. Its general form for the $`k\mathrm{th}`$ moment of the magnetization (e.g., in a ferromagnet) reads as

$$M^{(k)}(t,\tau ,L,m_0)=b^{k\beta /\nu }M^{(k)}(b^zt,b^{1/\nu }\tau ,b^1L,b^{x_0}m_0).$$
(1)
Here $`b`$ is an arbitrary spatial scaling factor, $`t`$ is the time evolution and $`\tau `$ is the reduced temperature, $`\tau =(TT_c)/T_c`$. As usual, the exponents $`\beta `$ and $`\nu `$ are the well-known static exponents, whereas $`z`$ is the dynamic one. Equation (1) depends on the initial magnetization $`m_0`$ and gives origin to the new exponent $`x_0`$, scaling dimension of the initial magnetization, related to $`\theta `$ by $`x_0=\theta z+\beta /\nu `$.

The nonequilibrium short-time exponent $`\theta `$ can be obtained at the critical temperature from the scaling form of the first moment , $`M(t,m_0)m_0t^\theta `$. Usually, this exponent assumes a positive value corresponding to a critical initial slip, which is related to the anomalous behavior of the magnetization when the system is quenched to $`T_c`$. Numerical works indicate negative values for $`\theta `$ at the tricritical point  of the $`S=1`$ Blume-Capel model  in two dimensions ($`2d`$) as well as for the Baxter-Wu , Ising model with three-spin interactions  and for the four-state Potts model . The indication of a negative value for this exponent was theoretically deduced by Janssen and Oerding  from a study of non-equilibrium relaxation at a tricritical point. Numerical simulations of the $`S=1`$ Blume-Capel model  present for the dynamical exponents the values $`\theta =0.53(2)`$ and $`z=2.21(2)`$ at the tricritical point and values compatible with heat-bath dynamics for the two-dimensional Ising model ($`\theta =0.191(1)`$ , $`z=2.156(2)`$ ) on the critical line.

Under the same nonequilibrium conditions, a second critical exponent has been presented in the literature : the global persistence exponent $`\theta _g`$. It is related to the probability $`P(t)`$ that the global order parameter has not changed sign up to time $`t`$ after a quench to $`T_c`$, $`P(t)t^{\theta _g}`$. This exponent has emerged from the concept of the local persistence phenomena in coarsening dynamics at $`T=0`$ . As argued by Majumdar et al. , if the dynamics of the global order parameter is described by a Markovian process, $`\theta _g`$ is not a new independent exponent and it can be related to other critical exponents,

$$\theta _gz=\lambda d+1\eta /2.$$
(2)
Here $`\lambda `$ is the nonequilibrium exponent of the auto-correlation function ,

$$A(t)=\frac{1}{L^d}\underset{i}{}S_i(0)S_i(t)t^{\lambda /z},$$
(3)
which is related to the short-time exponent, $`\lambda =d\theta z`$. Therefore, Eq. (2) can be rewritten as

$$\theta _gz=\theta z+\frac{d}{2}\frac{\beta }{\nu }.$$
(4)
However, the time evolution of the order parameter is, in general, a non-Markovian process and $`\theta _g`$ turns out to be a new independent critical exponent describing the stochastic dynamic process toward the equilibrium.

Contrary to the local persistence, the global persistence has been less studied. Results have only been reported for the $`n\mathrm{}`$ limit of the $`O(n)`$ model ($`\theta _g=(d2)/4`$ for $`2<d<4`$ or $`\theta _g=1/2`$ for $`d>4`$) and to order $`ϵ=4d`$ near $`d=4`$ ($`\theta _g=1/2ϵ(n+2)/(4n+32)+O(ϵ^2)`$), for $`d=1`$ Ising model ($`\theta _g=1/4`$) , and $`d=2`$ Ising model , as shown in Table I. As remarked in , relation (2) is satisfied for $`n=\mathrm{}`$ limit of the $`O(n)`$ model, to first order in $`ϵ=4d`$, and also for $`d=1`$ Ising model. However, for the $`O(n)`$ model, it has been shown  that the scaling relation (2) for Markovian process is violated at order $`ϵ^2`$.

In this paper we investigate the universality aspects of the global persistence exponent for the Blume-Capel model. This exponent is obtained by the straight application of the power law behavior $`P(t)t^{\theta _g}`$ and by means of time series data collapse. This study is also performed under different initial conditions: random choices of all spins and sharp preparations of samples with defined and nonzero magnetizations $`m_0`$ .

The Blume-Capel  (BC) model is a spin-1 model which has been used to describe the behavior of $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ mixtures along the $`\lambda `$ line and near the critical mixing point. Apart from its practical interest, the BC model has intrinsic interest since it is the simplest generalization of the Ising model ($`s=1/2`$) exhibiting a rich phase diagram with first and second-order transition lines and a tricritical point. The Hamiltonian of the two-dimensional model is

$$H=J\underset{<i,j>}{}S_iS_j+D\underset{i=1}{}S_i^2,$$
(5)
where $`<i,j>`$ indicates nearest neighbors on $`L^2`$ lattices and $`S_i=\{1,0,1\}`$. The parameter $`J`$ is the exchange coupling constant and $`D`$ is the crystal field. We remark that along the critical line, this model presents a critical behavior similar to the Ising model. However, exactly at the tricritical point the exponents change abruptly. In  finite-size scaling combined with conformal invariance permitted to observe a smooth change between Ising-like and tricritical behavior. Ising-like behavior is reached only when $`L\mathrm{}`$, leading to the exact values of the Ising model critical exponents.

In order to evaluate the persistence probability $`P(t)`$, we define $`\rho (t)`$ as the fraction of samples which change their signals for the first time at the instant $`t`$. Our probability $`P(t)`$ is numerically calculated from the cumulative distribution function such that the total magnetization does not cross the origin up to time $`t`$,

$$P(t)=1\underset{t^{}=1}{\overset{t}{}}\rho (t^{}).$$
(6)
The spins $`\{S_i\}`$ are updated by the heat-bath algorithm and our statistics rely on $`N_B=5`$ independent bins with $`N_S=40000`$ samples for $`t`$ up to 1000 MC sweeps and lattice size $`L=80`$. We quote estimates for the time intervals $`[t_i,t_f]`$ with the highest values of goodness-of-fit $`Q`$  for the linear regression obtained at every 10th measurement.

Table II lists the points on the second order critical line and the tricritical point where we have performed our simulations. This table presents estimates for $`\theta _g`$ in function of different magnetizations $`m_0`$ to explore the effect of the initial configurations on the behavior of $`P(t)`$. Linear extrapolations for $`m_00`$ are presented in the last column. Here we follow the sharp preparation technique to set the value $`m_0`$. Our typical time intervals for $`m_0=0.0050`$ correspond to $`[100,500]`$ (critical points) and $`[40,400]`$ (tricritical point). Different time intervals with accepted values for $`Q`$, present compatible results within our error estimates.

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate, respectively, the decay of persistence probability for the specific critical point $`D/J=0`$, $`k_BT/J=1.6950`$ and for the tricritical point.

Our simulations of the BC model on the critical line reproduce (see Table II) the estimates obtained by Schulke and Zheng  for the $`2d`$ Ising model with $`m_0=0.0005`$: $`\theta _g=0.238(3)`$ (with the HB dynamics) and $`\theta _g=0.236(3)`$ (Metropolis algorithm). On the other hand, our simulations present the largest deviation (compared with the Ising model exponent) for the largest initial magnetization $`m_0=0.0050`$, but the expected universality is recovered as $`m_00`$. It becomes clear the importance of the initial configurations in measuring the persistence exponent.

At the tricritical point we observe a faster decay of the persistence probability ($`\theta _g=1.080(4)`$), characterizing a different persistence behavior. We repeat our simulations for two new critical points  $`D/J=1.87`$, $`k_BT/J=0.800`$ and $`D/J=1.95`$, $`k_BT/J=0.650`$, closer to the tricritical one to follow this cross over effect. In this case, the persistence probability can be fitted by a power law function only for short time intervals. Hence, we have to restrict our analysis to shorter time intervals in order to obtain acceptable values for the goodness-of-fit. We obtain for the first point $`\theta _g=0.172(3)`$ in time interval $`[80,400]`$, while for the second point, closer to the tricritical one, we have to restrict further the interval to $`[100,300]`$, leading to the estimate $`\theta _g=0.345(5)`$. Hence, this very different behavior characterized by those new values of $`\theta `$ indicates a ‘transition’ from the Ising-like $`\theta _g0.23`$ to the tricritical $`\theta _g1.08`$ for finite lattices.

The initial magnetization dependence of $`P(t)`$ can be cast in the following finite-size scaling relation ,

$$P(t)=t^{\theta _g}f(t/L^z)=L^{\theta _gz}\stackrel{~}{f}(t/L^z),$$
(7)
which renders a different method to obtain the exponent $`\theta _g`$ from lattice sizes $`L_1`$ and $`L_2`$ . For this end we define $`W(t,L)=L^{\theta _gz}P(t)`$, which turns out to be a function of $`t/L^z`$. Therefore, if we fix the dynamic exponent $`z`$, the exponent $`\theta _g`$ can be obtained by collapsing the time series $`W(t_2,L_2)=f(t_2/L_2^z)`$ onto $`W(t_1,L_1)=f(t_1/L_1^z)`$ as follows. Under re-scaling, with $`b=L_2/L_1`$, $`(L_2>L_1)`$, we obtain

$$W(t_2,L_2)=\stackrel{~}{W}(b^zt_1,bL_1),$$
(8)
and the best estimate for $`\theta _g`$ corresponds to the minimization of

$$\chi ^2(\theta _g)=\underset{t}{}\left(\frac{W(t,L)\stackrel{~}{W}(b^zt,bL)}{\left|W(t,L)\right|+\left|\stackrel{~}{W}(b^zt,bL)\right|}\right)^2$$
(9)
by interpolating $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ to the time values $`b^zt`$.

This method is applied to the critical point $`D/J=0,k_BT/J=1.6950`$ and to the tricritical one. We performed simulations with lattice sizes $`L=10,20,40`$ and $`80`$ and initial disordered states to study the finite size dependence of $`\theta _g`$. Our simulations also rely on $`N_s=40000`$ samples and $`N_b=5`$ bins. The collapse obtained from our largest pairs of lattices $`(L_1,L_2)=(40,80)`$ is displayed in Fig. 3 for the tricritical point. A similar figure (not shown) is also obtained for the critical one. Results for the persistence exponent are presented in Table III with the input values $`z=2.106`$ and $`z=2.215`$, respectively for the critical and tricritical point . Here, we can observe a good agreement between both methods. However, we remark that the collapse method gives less precise results.

Now, we return to Eq. (4) to analyze the markovian aspects of the time evolution of the magnetization. We verify that our numerical precision for both the exponents  $`\theta `$ and $`\theta _g`$, evaluated on the critical line and at the tricritical point, allows us to detect the non-markovian behavior. Thus, these results substantiate the independence of global persistence and short-time exponents, characteristic of a non-markovian dynamic evolution of the magnetization.

In summary, we have studied the effects of the initial magnetization on $`P(t)`$ and evaluated the global persistence exponent of the Blume-Capel model from different methods (linear extrapolation $`m_00`$ and collapse). The universality and independence of this dynamic exponent is explicitly shown for the BC model along the critical line. In addition, the power law time dependence of the persistence probability is also exhibitted at the tricritical point, presenting a faster decay when compared with the Ising model exponent.

R. da Silva and J. R. Drugowich de Felício gratefully acknowledge support by FAPESP and N.A. Alves by CNPq (Brazil).

FIGURE CAPTIONS

Figure 1: Persistence probability $`P(t)`$ for the $`2d`$ Blume-Capel model for $`L=80`$ at a critical point with the sharp preparation of the initial magnetization $`m_0`$.

Figure 2: Persistence probability $`P(t)`$ for the $`2d`$ Blume-Capel model for $`L=80`$ at the tricritical point with the sharp preparation of the initial magnetization $`m_0`$.

Figure 3: Collapse of persistence probability at the tricritical point $`D/J=1.9655,k_BT/J=0.610`$.