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# XMM-Newton observation of the Seyfert 1 ESO 198-G24

## 1 Introduction

The Seyfert 1 ESO 198-G24 (z=0.045) is one object of the Piccinotti Sample of Active Galactic Nuclei (Piccinotti et al. Piccinotti82 (1982)). It was already observed in the soft X-ray band by the ROSAT PSPC (Turner et al. Turner93 (1993)) during two distinct observations (December 1991 and July 1992). This source was selected because of a low absorbing column density ($`𝒩_\mathrm{H}`$ 3 $`\times `$ 1020cm-2) along the line-of-sight. It was found that this source possesses a significantly steeper spectrum below $``$1 keV than observed at higher X-ray energies. During the ROSAT December observation, the soft X-ray spectrum of ESO 198-G24 suggested a spectral emission or absorption feature, either a Gaussian emission line at energy 0.75 keV$`\pm `$0.04 keV with an equivalent width (EW) of 99$`\pm `$30 eV (most readily identified as a blend of emission species dominated by ionized iron and oxygen), or an absorption edge at E=1.16 $`\pm `$0.06 keV ($`\tau `$=0.37$`\pm `$0.16). On the contrary during the ROSAT July observation, the spectrum with a similar signal-to-noise ratio was adequately described by a simple featureless absorbed power-law model. Turner et al. (Turner93 (1993)) noted that the spectral feature appeared in the brighter state observation of ESO 198-G24, as might be expected if it originates in material responding to ionization by the active nucleus. The only constraint on the variability time scale was that it must be less than 6 months. ESO 198-G24 was observed at higher energies by BATSE on board CGRO (Malizia et al. Malizia99 (1999)), and was reported for the first time as a hard X-ray emitting source: F$`_{_{\mathrm{MEAN}}}`$(2–100 keV) = 5.27 $`\times `$ 10-11 erg cm-2 s-1 (weighted mean calculated over nearly 4 years of observations). In the 2–10 keV energy band a variability factor of 1.31 was observed, with a mean unabsorbed flux of 3.3 $`\times `$ 10-11 erg cm-2 s-1.
Very recently, Guainazzi (Guainazzi2003 (2003)) presented results from ASCA (July 8th, 1997; $``$40 ks), XMM-Newton (December 1rst, 2000; $``$9 ks, guaranteed time), and BeppoSAX (January 23th, 2001; $``$150 ks) data. He focused on the study of the Fe Kα line, and found that the intensity and line profile are different between these three observations. During the ASCA observation the line profile at 6.4 keV is narrow without any indication of a broad component. On the contrary the XMM-Newton PN spectrum (effective time duration of about 6.8 ks) displayed a broader line centered at 6.4 keV with an additional weak feature at 5.7 keV. Guainazzi suggested that this may be one example of “double-horned profile”, similarly to the Seyfert 1 MCG-6-30-15 (e.g., Tanaka et al. Tanaka95 (1995), Wilms et al. Wilms2001 (2001)).

We present here the observation of ESO 198-G24 in January 24th, 2001 obtained with the X-ray satellite XMM-Newton. This present work is the first analysis for this object combining moderate (EPIC) and high resolution data (RGS). Section 2 details the observation and data reduction procedures. Section 3 reports the spectral analysis of the EPIC data (2–5 keV continuum, the Fe Kα line region, and the broad band 0.3–10 keV energy band) and of the RGS data. The results are discussed in section 4.

## 2 XMM-Newton observation and data analysis

ESO 198-G24 was observed by XMM-Newton on January 24, 2001 (AO-1, $``$30 ks duration). The observations with the EPIC MOS (Turner et al. Turner2001 (2001)), PN (Strüder et al. Strueder2001 (2001)) and the RGS (den Herder et al. denHerder2001 (2001)) detectors were done. There are no other strong X-ray sources seen within the field of view. The MOS and PN cameras (EPIC) operated in standard Full Frame mode using the medium filter. The data are screened and re-processed with the XMM SAS (Science Analysis Software), version 5.3.3. The EPIC data cleaning was improved by rejecting solar flares. After this data cleaning, we obtain as net exposure times about 22.9 ks, 23.1 ks, and 15.6 ks for MOS1, MOS2, and PN respectively. Only X-ray events corresponding to single events (i.e. pattern 0) are used for both MOS and PN, in order to reach the best spectral resolution, and limit effect of pile-up. We note for further comparison that Guainazzi (Guainazzi2003 (2003)) used single and double events for spectral analysis of the December 2000 XMM-Newton observation. There was negligible flux variability of ESO 198-G24 ($`<`$10$`\%`$) during the present observation, therefore we use the cumulative data for all our subsequent analyses. We then proceed to extract spectra for both source and background for each EPIC detector. A circular source region is defined around the centroid position of ESO 198-G24, of 1′ radius for the MOS, and of 40″ for the PN (to avoid the edge of the chip). The majority of source counts fall onto the source regions (at least 95$`\%`$). Background spectra are taken from an annular radius centered on ESO 198-G24, between 3.2′ and 5.2′ (excluding X-ray point sources). The background subtracted spectra are fitted, using xspec v11.2.0. We use the following response matrices: m1$`\mathrm{\_}`$medv9q19t5r5$`\mathrm{\_}`$p0$`\mathrm{\_}`$15.rsp, m2$`\mathrm{\_}`$medv9q19t5r5$`\mathrm{\_}`$p0$`\mathrm{\_}`$15.rsp, epn$`\mathrm{\_}`$ff20$`\mathrm{\_}`$sY9$`\mathrm{\_}`$medium.rsp. The spectra are binned to a minimum of 20 counts per bin to apply the $`\chi ^2`$ minimalisation technique.
Both RGS cameras are operated in the standard spectroscopy + Q mode. The RGS data are improved by rejecting solar flares. After this data cleaning, we obtain as net exposure time about 24.2 ks and 23.6 ks for respectively RGS1 and RGS2.

Further on, values of H0=50 km s-1 Mpc-1 and q0=0 are assumed. All the fit parameters are given in the galaxy rest-frame. The errors quoted correspond to 90$`\%`$ confidence ranges for one interesting parameter ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$=2.71). The cross-sections for X-ray absorption by the interstellar medium used throughout this work are from Wilms et al. (Wilms2000 (2000)), and the element abundances are from Anders & Grevesse (AG89 (1989)).

## 3 Spectral analysis

### 3.1 The EPIC data

At a first step, we fit the EPIC data with an absorbed power-law over the 0.3–10 keV bandpass. We do not obtain an acceptable fit with a single absorbed power-law: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$= 1.92$`\pm `$0.01 ($`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f.= 1825.341/1537, with d.o.f. degrees of freedom). We do not find any additional intrinsic absorbing medium to the Galactic column density, i.e. 3.09$`\times `$1020 cm-2 (obtained with the tool coldens111http://asc.harvard.edu/toolkit/colden.jsp). Therefore further on, we fix the column density to the above Galactic value. We split our following spectral analysis in several energy bands: 2–5 keV, the Fe Kα line region, the 0.3–10 keV broad band energy including the soft excess feature.

#### 3.1.1 The 2–5 keV energy band

We begin studying the spectra by fitting an absorbed power-law model to the EPIC spectra in the 2–5 keV energy band, where the spectrum should be relatively unaffected by possible presence of a soft excess or a Warm Absorber-Emitter medium, of Fe Kα line emission, and of a contribution above 8 keV that could be associated with a high energy reflection hump. The data are very well fitted by a single power-law model with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$= 1.77$`\pm 0.04`$ ($`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f.= 681.3/713). This photon index value is entirely consistent with those found by Guainazzi (Guainazzi2003 (2003)) for different time observations (in order of increasing 2–10 keV flux): 1.75$`{}_{0.03}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.05}`$ (ASCA, July 1997), 1.77$`\pm `$0.03 (XMM-Newton, December 2000), and 1.79$`\pm `$0.04 (BeppoSAX, January 2001). Figure 1 displays the data to model ratio extrapolated over the 0.3–10 keV broad band energy. A significant positive residual is clearly seen below 1.5–2 keV, both in MOS and PN data. This could be due to the presence of a soft excess due for example to either emission from a cold/ionized accretion disk, or complex absorption and/or emission from highly ionized gas, the so-called “Warm Absorber” (WA). There is also a positive deviation near 6.2 keV (in the observer frame), suggesting the presence of an Fe Kα complex emission line.

#### 3.1.2 The Fe Kα line

The Fe Kα emission line near 6.4 keV was found to be a common feature in the hard X-ray spectra of many broad-line Seyfert 1 galaxies (e.g., Pounds et al. Pounds90 (1990), Nandra & Pounds Nandra94 (1994)). It has been recognized as a powerful diagnostic of the innermost regions of AGN.

In the 2–10 keV energy band, a simple absorbed power-law model gives a good fit (see Table 1), with an unabsorbed 2–10 keV flux of 1.10$`\pm `$0.04$`\times `$10-11 erg cm-2 s-1 (i.e., Lx(2–10 keV)$``$1044 erg s-1). It is consistent with the value found during the previous XMM-Newton observation in December 2000 (i.e., 1.09$`\pm `$0.01 $`\times `$10-11 erg cm-2 s-1, Guainazzi Guainazzi2003 (2003)). There is still a clear positive deviation near 6.4 keV (in the rest-frame), with this power-law model with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$1.77 (which is the same index value as found in the 2–5 keV energy range, see Figure 1). The addition of a narrow (i.e., the line width $`\sigma `$ is fixed to 10 eV, i.e. intrinsically narrow) Gaussian emission line improves significantly the adjustment of the data ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$=30 for only two additional parameters, F-test probability of 99.99$`\%`$, see Table 1). The rest-frame energy of the line at about 6.41 keV corresponds to fluorescence from iron in a “low” state of ionization (i.e., $``$ Fe xvii) and its equivalent width (EW) is consistent with the typical values measured in Seyfert 1 galaxies ($``$ 50–150 eV; e.g., Nandra & Pounds Nandra94 (1994)). We let free the line width, but we do not obtain strong constraint on this parameter with $`\sigma <`$112 eV (Table 1). Now we look for a possible weak broad line component, then we test a relativistic line model (Laor Laor91 (1991)). We fix the parameters of the line to those inferred from the RGS data for low-Z ions O viii, and C vi Lyα (see $`\mathrm{\S }`$3.2). The line is badly fitted with only this relativistic line profile, then we add to the laor profile a narrow line component ($`\sigma `$=10 eV). We obtain an upper limit for the EW of the laor profile of 75 eV, and EW of 61$`{}_{27}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+21}`$ eV for the narrow component. However the $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$ is less than unity for one additionnal parameter, comparing to the model with the narrow component line alone, see Table 1, therefore there is no statistical requirement for a broad component for the Fe Kα line at 6.4 keV in the present observation. Similar results are obtained when using the relativistic line parameters at 6.4 keV reported in Table 2 in Guainazzi (Guainazzi2003 (2003)). We also test the possible presence of a line component at 5.7 keV claimed by Guainazzi (2003) in the December 2000 XMM-Newton observation. Analysing the data of December 2000, we do not find any statistical requirement for a line at 5.7 keV (rest-frame) with EW$`<`$37 eV. As well this component is not required in the present January 2001 data with EW $`<`$ 23 eV and an F-test probability of only 40$`\%`$ (Table 1). The addition of a second narrow Gaussian emission line at higher energy (E$`>`$6.4 keV) yields a further very slight improvement ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$5 for 2 additional parameters, F-test probability of 94.8$`\%`$, see Table 1). This second emission line is less well determined but it clearly lies to the high-energy side of the “cold” line with a best-fit energy E=6.92 keV (most probably due to Fe xxvi, i.e H-like iron). There is a negative deviation compared to the model near 7 keV (in the galaxy frame), therefore we add an absorption edge and we obtain a better fit ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$=16 for 2 additional parameters, F-test probability of 99.97$`\%`$, Table 1). Its energy is consistent with absorption due to cold to moderate ionized iron ions (i.e., $`<`$ Fe xii). Figure 2 displays the contour plot for the optical depth of the edge versus its energy, for $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$=2.3, 4.61, and 9.21 (68$`\%`$, 90$`\%`$, and 99$`\%`$ confidence levels, respectively). The ionization state of the “cold” emission line and the absorption edge are compatible.

To summarize the present data are well represented in the 2–10 keV energy range by a power-law and by a narrow Fe Kα line at about 6.4 keV, and a weak absorption edge near 7.2 keV. Both energies are compatible with iron nearly or moderatly ionized (i.e., $`<`$Fe xvii and $`<`$Fe xii, respectively). Also there is a slight indication for a very ionized narrow Fe Kα emission line near 6.9 keV, which most probably corresponds to Fe xxvi, i.e H-like iron. See Table 1 and Figure 3.

The narrow component found here at 6.4 keV is now emerging as a common feature of Seyfert 1 spectra seen by XMM-Newton and Chandra (see, e.g., Mrk 205: Reeves et al. Reeves2001 (2001); NGC 5548: Yaqoob et al. Yaqoob2001 (2001); NGC 3783: Kaspi et al. Kaspi2001 (2001)). Detection of a significant narrow iron emission line at 6.4 keV implies that a substantial quantity of cool reprocessing material is present. The line strength (EW$``$ 70 eV), implies that the cool matter if seen by reflection subtends a substantial solid angle, of at least 1 steradian, assuming it is Thomson thick and has a solar abundance of iron (e.g. George & Fabian George91 (1991)). The most likely location of such material, according to the current AGN models, would appear to be the molecular torus (Antonucci A93 (1993)), with hard X-rays from the central engine being reflected off the inner surface of the torus and into the line-of-sight of the observer (Krolik et al. Krolik94 (1994), Ghisellini et al. Ghisellini94 (1994)). Although reflection off the putative torus is attractive, we cannot rule out other options. Emission from BLR clouds could account for some of the narrow line flux as probably found in NGC 5548 (Yaqoob et al. Yaqoob2001 (2001)), although the predicted line strength is small (EW$`<`$50 eV; Leahy & Creighton Leahy93 (1993)), but consistent within the error bars with the value found here. Another possibility is that the line originates by X-ray reflection from the outer regions of the accretion disc. Normally the angle subtended by the outer disk, to the X-ray source, would be small. However a warped, concave disk could increase the amount of reflection at large radii, and account for a measurable narrow line component at 6.4 keV (Blackman Blackman99 (1999)). The present 6.4 keV emission line is much weaker than the one inferred from the ASCA observation in July 1997 (i.e. EW=320$`{}_{100}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+70}`$ eV for an unresolved Gaussian line). As well, it also appears approximately two times weaker than the one measured during December 2000, by Guainazzi et al. (Guainazzi2003 (2003)) with similar intrinsic 2–10 keV fluxes. However the claim of a possible variability of this line between these two observations should be taken into caution, indeed analysing the December 2000 data (assuming a narrow line at 6.41 keV and a line width of 10 eV), we obtain EW=70$`\pm `$45 eV. This value is compatible with the one reported in Table 1 for the present data. No reliable comparison is possible with the BeppoSAX data, since its spectral resolution is not sufficient to determine whether the profile was narrow or broad, however the EW are compatible within the error bars (i.e. EW=100$`{}_{60}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+30}`$ eV).
The emission line near 6.92 keV, if any, corresponding to Fe xxvi (H-like iron), could be produced by the disc matter in a high state of ionization, as observed in several radio-quiet quasars (Reeves & Turner Reeves2000 (2000)). As we will show below, the EPIC data may be explained by an ionized accretion disk model from Ross & Fabian (Ross93 (1993)) and Ballantyne et al. (Bal2001 (2001)). Another possibility is the ionized lines originate from the WA, which can produce substantial emission from He and H-like iron (Krolik & Kallman Krolik87 (1987)). As we will see below, the WA, if present, does not show significant absorption or emission features below 2.5 keV. This may mean that either there is only almost no warm absorber material on the line-of-sight, or the low-Z ions (e.g., O, Ne, Mg, Si) are completely ionized, which is consistent with the very high ionized state (H-like) found for the Fe Kα line at about 6.9 keV.
As reported by Guainazzi (Guainazzi2003 (2003)), no absorption edges existed in the EPIC/PN spectrum during the observation of December 2000, with only an upper limit of 0.14. However, the statistics of this observation is much lower than the one presented here, then enable any reliable comparison for a possible variability of the absorption edge. We notice that the absorption edge found in the EPIC data near 7.24 keV (i.e. $`<`$Fe xii) cannot be produced by the WA, if any. Indeed, the optical depth found for this absorption edge is about 0.1–0.2, which means that the WA would be completly opaque below about 2 keV, while this is not what we demonstrate in section 3.4. The WA for log $`\xi `$2 corresponds to too weak column density to produce a significant absorption edge of cold iron ions as observed at 7.24 keV.

#### 3.1.3 The EPIC broad band spectrum

Extrapolating the best-fitting 2–5 keV power-law model back to 0.3 keV, both MOS and PN spectra clearly reveal the presence of a broad soft excess below about 1.5–2 keV as shown in Figure 1. This soft X-ray emission seems to be a common feature in Seyfert 1 galaxies observed up to now with XMM-Newton (see Pounds & Reeves Pounds2002 (2002)). The shape of this soft excess emission is similar to that found in other high-luminosity Seyfert 1 galaxies (see for example Fig. 1 in Pounds & Reeves 2002).

Fitting the 0.3–2 keV EPIC spectra of ESO 198-G24 by a single absorbed power-law model, we find a photon power-law index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$=1.94$`\pm `$0.02 ($`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f.= 592.6/558, $`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2`$=1.06), much harder than those measured according to the two ROSAT observations, i.e $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$= 2.28$`\pm `$0.07 ($`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2`$= 2.52) and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$= 2.19$`\pm `$0.07 ($`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2`$= 1.07) respectively for December 1991 and July 1992 (Turner et al. Turner93 (1993)). The unabsorbed 0.1-2 keV X-ray flux is 1.58$`\pm `$0.01 $`\times `$ 10-11 erg cm-2 s-1. We now investigate different models which may explain the 0.3–10 keV broad band EPIC spectra, i.e. both the soft excess feature and the hard spectrum. In each model, we take into account the iron complex found previously, we fix the energy of the two emission lines and of the absorption edge to the values found in Table 1 for the last model. The inferred parameters for all the following models are reported in Table 2. First, we fit the spectra with a black-body (soft X-rays) and with a power-law component (hard X-rays). We obtain a good fit for this combined model (see Table 2). Adding another black-body component improves the spectral fit (i.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$=18 for 2 additional parameters). We also test other disk models such as diskbb and diskpn combined with a power-law, we obtain as well a good representation of the data, with kT$``$250 eV. The temperatures found here are rather large for a standard steady state $`\alpha `$ thin accretion disc. Assuming a black hole (BH) mass of about 3$`\times `$108 M (Rokaki & Boisson RB99 (1999)), we expect a temperature of about only 10 eV at 3 Rs (e.g, Peterson P97 (1997)). Therefore a standard steady state $`\alpha `$ thin accretion disc is ruled out to explain the soft excess observed in ESO 198-G24.
The broad band X-ray spectrum of ESO 198-G24 may be explained by reflection from an accretion disc (e.g., pexrav, Magdziarz & Zdziarski Magdziarz95 (1995)). Since the energy range of our spectral fit is restricted, we fix the cut-off energy to 200 keV. This model gives a slightly poorer fit ($`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f.=1701.1/1536, i.e. $`\chi _{_{\mathrm{red}}}^2`$=1.11) than the other ones reported in Table 2. Adding an emission component from the accretion disk (e.g., bb), we obtain a better fit with ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$= 48 for 2 additional parameters, see Table 2). We obtain a reflection component close to 1.3, i.e. is consistent with a reflection from a cold material with a 2.6$`\pi `$ steradian solid angle. However the black-body temperature is too high for a standard steady state $`\alpha `$ thin accretion disc as mentioned above. Therefore the BB+pexrav model is also ruled out.
Comptonization has often been suggested as a source of both the soft X-ray and hard X-ray spectrum of AGN, as for example the accretion disc may be responsible for the soft emission and part of these soft photons are inversed-Compton scattered to the hard X-ray energy range, as they pass through the hot corona above the disc. We use a double Comptonization model (compTT: Titarchuk Titarchuk94 (1994)) as in O’Brien et al. (O'Brien2001 (2001)) in which soft photons from the accretion disc are up-scattered by thermal electrons characterized by two temperatures, to yield the observed broad soft excess as well as the power-law shape at higher energies. We fix the temperature of the comptonizing photons at 10 eV as expected for a BH mass of 3$`\times `$108 M as mentioned above, and the plasma temperature to 200 keV for the second compTT. The data are well fitted with this model (Table 2).
An ionized accretion disk model (Ross & Fabian Ross93 (1993), Ballantyne et al. Bal2001 (2001)) provides also a good fit to the data with a very high ionization parameter ($`\xi `$=Lbol/ (n$`{}_{\mathrm{H}}{}^{}r_{}^{2}`$), with $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}`$ the bolometric luminosity in erg s-1, $`n_\mathrm{H}`$ the Hydrogen density of the ionized medium in cm-3, and $`r^2`$ the distance of the ionized medium from the photo-ionizing source in cm). The value of $`\xi `$ found here is consistent with an emission of a H-like Fe Kα line (e.g., Fig. 6 from Colbert et al. Colbert2002 (2002)), and with the small residual found at 6.92 keV in this model. The narrowness of this iron H-like line indicates that the line is emitted far away from the BH or that the disk has a relatively small optically depth for Compton scattering. However, we note that the iondisk model used here does not take into account smearing of the emission lines and hence the derived ionisation parameter may be overestimated.

Two models can explain the broad band spectrum of ESO 198-G24: a double comptonization models or an ionized accretion disk.

### 3.2 The RGS data analysis

The RGS spectrum offers us for the first time a view of ESO 198-G24 at very high spectral resolution. While the spectrum has a rather poor S/N ratio, we are able to test several models using the SPEX code (Kaastra et al. 2002a , version 2.0).

First, we start fitting the RGS 1 and RGS 2 spectra, with the EPIC best-fit parameters of the power-law model. The original spectrum was binned to two bins per CCD. The residuals show a clear soft excess (see fig. 4 left panel).

Then we modify the power-law model with the “knak” model which is a multiplicative model. It multiplies the spectral model by a factor $`f(\lambda )`$. The full wavelength range is divided into segments with bounding wavelengths $`\lambda _i`$. The multiplicative scaling factor $`f_i`$ for each segment boundary $`\lambda _i`$ is a free fitting parameter. For each wavelength the multiplication factor $`f(\lambda )`$ is determined by linear interpolation in the $`\mathrm{log}\lambda _i\mathrm{log}f_i`$ plane. We have chosen the grid points $`\lambda _i`$ at 6, 12, 18, 24, 30 and 36 Å. This empirical model gives a much better fit with $`\chi ^2`$=51.8 for 26 d.o.f. (see fig 4 right panel). Half of the $`\chi ^2`$ value is due to the shortest wavelength bin of each RGS, and this is mainly due to remaining calibration uncertainties below $``$7 Å. We obtain that the source as for example a soft excess amplitude of 66$`\%`$ at 36 Å, and 44$`\%`$ at 12 Å.
Evident absorption/emission features are not visible. Therefore, if there is a WA, it either has a relatively low column density, or a very high ionization parameter ($`\xi `$=$`L`$/($`n_\mathrm{H}`$$`r^2`$)). The WA is an optically thin ionized medium, detected in most Seyfert 1 galaxies with low to moderate X-ray luminosities ($`L_X<`$1044 erg s-1). Up to now, RGS spectra confirm the absence of strong absorption in the high luminosity sources (e.g., Mrk 509: Pounds et al Pounds2001 (2001); PKS 0558-504; O’Brien et al. O'Brien2001 (2001)). Low density warm absorbers are most easily detected from their narrow absorption lines (see for example Kaastra Kaastra2001 (2001)). To test the presence of warm absorbing gas, we therefore use the above empirical continuum model (PL + knak) and apply the “xabs” WA model (see Kaastra et al. 2002b ). The velocity broadening of the absorber was fixed to $`\sigma _v`$ = 100 km s-1; since we expect low column density, the equivalent line width does not depend upon $`\sigma _v`$ but merely upon the column density. We use the spectrum with a binning factor of 3. We search a grid of ionisation parameters (log $`\xi `$ from -2 to +3.5) with a set of outflow velocities: $`v`$= 0, $``$250, $``$500, $``$1000 and $``$2000 km s-1, but found no clear detection of a WA. The 1 $`\sigma `$ upper limits to the column densities are shown in Figure 5.

If any WA is present, its column density is low for log $`\xi `$2. Even in case of a very highly ionised medium (i.e., here higher column density upper limit), the low-Z ions which absorbed in the soft X-ray range are completely ionised, then in both cases (moderately or very highly ionised medium) we do not expect strong absorption edges. We also can put limits on narrow line emission: the best-fit O vii $`f`$ (forbidden) line has a strength of $`<`$3.2$`\times `$1050 ph s-1, the best-fit Ne ix $`f`$ line has a strength of 0.4$`\pm `$0.8$`\times `$1050 ph s-1 Thus, no significant narrow line emission is found.
As a last step, we investigate the broad continuum emission features. We find a best-fit model using the combination of a power-law, a modified black body continuum (mbb), and weak relativistic laor lines for O viii, and C vi Lyα (see Table 3). The power-law parameters are kept fixed to the EPIC values. Since there are no narrow features in the spectrum, we bin the spectrum by a factor of 100 for the spectral fitting. Figure 6 displays the average RGS spectrum, with superposed the contribution of the power-law, the power-law plus modified black body continuum (MBB), and the best fit model including all components. The Laor line profiles are intrinsically very broad and asymmetric, and moreover, they are folded with the instrumental effective area, which also contains significant broad band structure. The dotted line in Figure 6 displays the sum of the C vi and O viii contributions, and due to the cosmological redshift, the line spectrum is shifted by about 5$`\%`$ or 1–2 Å for the relevant part. The bright bin around 24Å is the red wing of the O viii line (not the peak of a N vii line), the part between 28 and 32 Å is a combination of the reddest part of O viii line with the blue wing of the C vi line, and the part above 32 Å is dominated by the red wing of the C vi line.

To summarize, we find that the RGS spectrum is consistent with an interpretation in terms of weak relativistic lines. The formal significance of the O VIII and C VI lines is 3.6$`\sigma `$ and 2.9$`\sigma `$, respectively. We do not exclude alternative spectral models, but for example an interpretation in terms of a dusty warm absorber giving deep edges at the wavelengths of the blue edges of our broad lines is difficult given the lack of deep narrow absorption lines in the spectrum (see also our tight limits on the column density of any warm absorber in Fig. 4).

## 4 Summary and discussion

The present data analysis of the observation of ESO 198-G24 with XMM-Newton (January 24, 2001), has revealed that this Seyfert 1 has an unabsorbed 2–10 keV luminosity of about 1.1 $`\times `$10-11 erg s-1.
We found both with EPIC and RGS that this source possesses a significantly steeper spectrum below $``$1.5–2 keV than observed at higher X-ray energies, the so-called soft X-ray excess. This soft X-ray emission seems to be a common feature in Seyfert 1 galaxies observed up to now with XMM-Newton (see Pounds & Reeves Pounds2002 (2002)). The shape of this soft excess emission is similar to those found in other high-luminosity Seyfert 1 galaxies. (see for example Fig. 1 in Pounds & Reeves 2002). The RGS spectra reveal no significant narrow absorption lines suggesting that if there is a warm absorber, it either has a relatively low column density, or a very high ionization parameter. The RGS data are well described by the combination a power-law, a modified black body continuum, and weak relativistic soft X-ray lines from H-like ions O viii, and C vi Lyα, as may be observed with the RGS in at least two others Seyfert 1 galaxies: Mrk 766 and MCG-6-30-15 (Branduardi-Raymont et al. BR2001 (2001), Mason et al. Mason2003 (2003)). However in our case the equivalent width of the relativistic lines is a factor of 5–10 smaller than in the two sources mentioned above. The presence of relativistic soft X-ray lines in AGN is a hotly debated issue (e.g., Lee et al. Lee2001 (2001), Branduardi-Raymont et al. BR2001 (2001), Mason et al. Mason2003 (2003)). Here is not the place to discuss this issue in detail, but we note that the strength of the proposed relativistic lines in our data are consistent with those expected from ionized disk models, while the absence of strong absorption lines makes the alternative dusty warm absorber less likely. However other interpretations are not definitely excluded.

The EPIC data displayed a narrow emission line at about 6.4 keV, corresponding to low or moderate ionized iron (i.e., $``$ Fe xvii). We find no significant broad (relativistic line) component, if any in our observation, with only an upper limit of 75 eV. Then the possible contribution from the inner part of an accretion disk where the gravitational effects of the BH are strong, is weak in the present XMM-Newton observation. We find for the narrow line a moderate equivalent width of about 60–70 eV. The narrow line at 6.4 keV seems to be an increasingly common feature in the higher quality spectral data emerging from Chandra and XMM-Newton (e.g., Mrk 509: Pounds et al. Pounds2001 (2001), NGC 5548: Yaqoob et al. Yaqoob2001 (2001), Mrk 205: Reeves et al. Reeves2001 (2001)). The emission medium responsible for the line component at 6.4 keV can be find with search of possible response to to continuum variation with high statistical data: inner part of the nucleus (accretion disc), BLR (as in NGC 5548), NLR, and molecular torus (as in Mrk 509 and Mrk 205), etc… The very weak ionized line associated to Fe xxvi, if any, could be interpreted in terms of fluorescence from H-like iron in the highly ionized inner disk material, or could also be the signature of a very ionized WA. While we show that the absorption edge found near 7.24 keV cannot be produced by the WA.

## Acknowledgments

This work is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and the USA (NASA). The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for careful reading of the manuscript. D.P. acknowledges grant support from MPE fellowship (Germany). The Space Research Organisation of the Netherlands (SRON) is supported financially by NWO, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. Support from a PPARC studentship is acknowledged by KLP.


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# Flow equation renormalization of a spin-boson model with a structured bath

## 1 Introduction - Model

Recently a new strategy for performing measurements on solid state (Josephson) qubits was proposed which uses the entanglement of the qubit with states of a damped oscillator , with this oscillator representing the plasma resonance of the Josephson junction. This system of a spin coupled to a damped harmonic oscillator (see Fig. 1) can be mapped to a standard model for dissipative quantum systems, namely the spin-boson model .

Here the spectral function governing the dynamics of the spin has a resonance peak. Such structured baths were also discussed in connection with electron transfer processes . We use the flow equation method introduced by Wegner  to analyze the system shown in Fig. 1, consisting of a two-level system coupled to a harmonic oscillator $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, which is coupled to a bath of harmonic oscillators:

$`\stackrel{~}{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}{2}}\sigma _\mathrm{x}+\mathrm{\Omega }B^{}B+g(B^{}+B)\sigma _\mathrm{z}+{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{k}}{}}\stackrel{~}{\omega }_\mathrm{k}\stackrel{~}{b}_\mathrm{k}^{}\stackrel{~}{b}_\mathrm{k}`$
$`+`$ $`(B^{}+B){\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{k}}{}}\kappa _\mathrm{k}(\stackrel{~}{b}_\mathrm{k}^{}+\stackrel{~}{b}_\mathrm{k})+(B^{}+B)^2{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{k}}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _\mathrm{k}^2}{\stackrel{~}{\omega }_\mathrm{k}}},`$
with the spectral function $`J(\omega )_\mathrm{k}\kappa _\mathrm{k}^2\delta (\omega \stackrel{~}{\omega }_\mathrm{k})=\mathrm{\Gamma }\omega `$. This system can be mapped to a spin-boson model

$$=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}{2}\sigma _\mathrm{x}+\frac{1}{2}\sigma _\mathrm{z}\underset{\mathrm{k}}{}\lambda _\mathrm{k}(b_\mathrm{k}^{}+b_\mathrm{k})+\underset{\mathrm{k}}{}\omega _\mathrm{k}b_\mathrm{k}^{}b_\mathrm{k},$$

where the dynamics of the spin depends only on the spectral function $`J(\omega )_\mathrm{k}\lambda _\mathrm{k}^2\delta (\omega \omega _\mathrm{k})`$ given by

$$J(\omega )=\frac{2\alpha \omega \mathrm{\Omega }^4}{(\mathrm{\Omega }^2\omega ^2)^2+(2\pi \mathrm{\Gamma }\omega \mathrm{\Omega })^2}\text{ with }\alpha =\frac{8\mathrm{\Gamma }g^2}{\mathrm{\Omega }^2}.$$
(1)
## 2 Method - Results

Using the flow equation technique we approximately diagonalize the Hamiltonian $``$ \[Eq.(1)\] by means of infinitesimal unitary transformations. The continuous sequence of unitary transformations $`U(l)`$ is labelled by a flow parameter $`l`$. Applying such a transformation to a given Hamiltonian, this Hamiltonian becomes a function of $`l`$: $`(l)=U(l)U^{}(l)`$. Here $`(l=0)=`$ is the initial Hamiltonian and $`(l=\mathrm{})`$ is the final diagonal Hamiltonian. Usually it is more convenient to work with a differential formulation

$$\frac{d(l)}{dl}=[\eta (l),(l)]\text{with}\eta (l)=\frac{dU(l)}{dl}U^1(l).$$
(2)
Using the flow equation approach one can decouple system and bath by diagonalizing $`(l=0)`$ :

$$(l=\mathrm{})=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{}}}{2}\sigma _\mathrm{x}+\underset{\mathrm{k}}{}\omega _\mathrm{k}b_\mathrm{k}^{}b_\mathrm{k}.$$
(3)
Here $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{}}`$ is the renormalized tunneling frequency. For the generator of the flow we choose the Ansatz :

$`\eta `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{k}}{}}\left(\mathrm{i}\sigma _\mathrm{y}\mathrm{\Delta }(b_\mathrm{k}+b_\mathrm{k}^{})+\sigma _\mathrm{z}\omega _\mathrm{k}(b_\mathrm{k}b_\mathrm{k}^{})\right){\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _\mathrm{k}}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\omega _\mathrm{k}}{\mathrm{\Delta }+\omega _\mathrm{k}}}\right)`$ (4)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{q},\mathrm{k}}{}}\lambda _\mathrm{k}\lambda _\mathrm{q}I(\omega _\mathrm{k},\omega _\mathrm{q},l)(b_\mathrm{k}+b_\mathrm{k}^{})(b_\mathrm{q}b_\mathrm{q}^{}),`$
$$\mathrm{with}I(\omega _\mathrm{k},\omega _\mathrm{q},l)=\frac{\omega _\mathrm{q}}{\omega _\mathrm{k}^2\omega _\mathrm{q}^2}\left(\frac{\omega _\mathrm{k}\mathrm{\Delta }}{\omega _\mathrm{k}+\mathrm{\Delta }}+\frac{\omega _\mathrm{q}\mathrm{\Delta }}{\omega _\mathrm{q}+\mathrm{\Delta }}\right).$$

The flow equations for the effective Hamiltonian \[Eq. (3)\] then take the following form:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{J(\omega ,l)}{l}}`$ $`=`$ $`2(\omega \mathrm{\Delta })^2J(\omega ,l)`$
$`+`$ $`2\mathrm{\Delta }J(\omega ,l){\displaystyle d\omega ^{}J(\omega ^{},l)I(\omega ,\omega ^{},l)},`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{\Delta }}{dl}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }{\displaystyle d\omega J(\omega ,l)\frac{\omega \mathrm{\Delta }}{\omega +\mathrm{\Delta }}}.`$ (6)
The unitary flow diagonalizing the Hamiltonian generates a flow for $`\sigma _\mathrm{z}(l)`$ which takes the structure

$$\sigma _\mathrm{z}(l)=h(l)\sigma _\mathrm{z}+\sigma _\mathrm{x}\underset{\mathrm{k}}{}\chi _\mathrm{k}(l)(b_\mathrm{k}+b_\mathrm{k}^{}),$$
(7)
where $`h(l)`$ and $`\chi _\mathrm{k}(l)`$ obey the differential equations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dh}{dl}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{k}}{}}\lambda _\mathrm{k}\chi _\mathrm{k}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _\mathrm{k}\mathrm{\Delta }}{\omega _\mathrm{k}+\mathrm{\Delta }}},`$ (8)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\chi _\mathrm{k}}{dl}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }h\lambda _\mathrm{k}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _\mathrm{k}\mathrm{\Delta }}{\omega _\mathrm{k}+\mathrm{\Delta }}}+{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{q}}{}}\chi _\mathrm{q}\lambda _\mathrm{k}\lambda _\mathrm{q}\mathrm{\Delta }I(\omega _\mathrm{k},\omega _\mathrm{q},l).`$ (9)
One can show that the function $`h(l)`$ decays to zero as $`l\mathrm{}`$. Therefore the observable $`\sigma _\mathrm{z}`$ decays completely into bath operators .

We integrated the flow equations numerically in order to calculate the Fourier transform, $`C(\omega )`$, of the spin-spin correlation function

$$C(t)\frac{1}{2}\sigma _\mathrm{z}(t)\sigma _\mathrm{z}(0)+\sigma _\mathrm{z}(0)\sigma _\mathrm{z}(t).$$
(10)
$`C(t)`$ can be used to calculate dephasing and relaxation times for measurements on qubits . Fig. 2(a) shows $`J(\omega ,l=0)`$ and Fig. 2(b) $`C(\omega )`$ for different values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. $`C(\omega )`$ displays a double-peak structure, which can be understood from the term scheme shown in the inset. The arrows indicate the transitions responsible for the peaks in $`C(\omega )`$. Additional structure of $`C(\omega )`$ due to higher order transitions in the term scheme is not seen in Fig. 2. This is due to our Ansatz for $`\sigma _\mathrm{z}(l)`$ \[see Eq.(7)\], which does not include the corresponding higher order terms. However, we do not expect the additional peaks to have much weight, as the sum rule  for the total spectral weight is fulfilled with an error of less than $`5\%`$ for all the plots in Fig. 2(b). We leave the extension of the Ansatz for $`\sigma _\mathrm{z}(l)`$ for future work.

The authors would like to thank F. Wilhelm for helpful discussions. S. Kehrein acknowledges support by the SFB 484 of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Recently D$``$ and CDF collaborations have reported new experimental data \[1–5\] on the $`b`$-flavor production at the Tevatron. These data are found to be about a factor of two or more larger than the predictions of perturbation theory (pQCD) at next-to-leading order (NLO) \[1–6\]. Therefore, it would be certainly reasonable to try a different way.

At the energies of modern colliders (such as Tevatron and LHC), heavy quark and quarkonium production processes belong to the class of the so called semihard processes \[7–10\]. In these processes, by the definition, the hard scattering scale $`\mu m_Q`$ is much larger than the QCD parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}`$, but, on the other hand, it is much smaller than the total center-of-mass energy: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}\mu \sqrt{s}`$. The last condition means that these processes occur in the small $`x`$ region, $`xm_Q/\sqrt{s}1`$, where the contributions of the ”large logarithms” to the evolution of gluon densities are known to become rather important. It is known also that in the small $`x`$ region it becomes necessary to take into account the dependence of the subprocess cross sections and gluon structure functions on the gluon transverse momentum $`k_T`$ \[7–10\]. Therefore, the $`k_T`$-factorization (or semihard) approach provides a more suitable ground for the calculations than the ordinary parton model.

The $`k_T`$-factorization approach is based on the Balitsky-Fadin-Kuraev-Lipatov (BFKL)  evolution equation for gluon densities. The resummation of the terms $`\alpha _S^n\mathrm{ln}^n\left(\mu ^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2\right)`$, $`\alpha _S^n\mathrm{ln}^n\left(\mu ^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2\right)\mathrm{ln}^n\left(1/x\right)`$ and $`\alpha _S^n\mathrm{ln}^n\left(1/x\right)`$ leads to the so called unintegrated ($`q_T`$-dependent) gluon distributions $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x,q_T^2,\mu ^2)`$ which determine the probability to find a gluon carrying the longitudinal momentum fraction $`x`$ and transverse momentum $`q_T`$ at the probing scale $`\mu ^2`$. In contrast with the usual parton model, the unintegrated gluon distributions have to be convoluted with off-mass-shell matrix elements corresponding to the relevant partonic subprocesses \[7–10\]. In the off-mass-shell matrix elements, the virtual gluon polarization tensor is taken in the form \[7–10\]:

$$L^{\mu \nu }=\frac{q_T^\mu q_T^\nu }{q_T^2}.$$
(1)
The $`b`$-flavor production at the Tevatron in the $`k_T`$-factorization approach was considered earlier in \[8, 12–17\]. However, the off-shell matrix elements of hard partonic subprocess presented in  contain some misprints. Also, the results obtained in the paper  do not agree with other results \[12–15\].

In our previous paper , we analyzed the $`p_T`$ distribution of the produced $`b`$-quarks (presented in the form of integrated cross sections). Our results agree well with D$``$  and CDF  experimental data. Also, we found that our off-shell matrix elements for partonic subprocess coincide with the ones presented in Ref. .

Here, we use the $`k_T`$-factorization approach for a more detailed analysis of the experimental data \[1–5\]. We inspect the dependence of the $`b`$ quark, $`B`$ meson and decay muon cross sections on the different forms of the unintegrated gluon distributions. The analysis also covers the azimuthal correlations between the $`b`$ and $`\overline{b}`$ quarks and their decay muons. Special attention is paid to the role of the unintegrated gluon distributions which has been applied earlier in our previous papers \[17–22\]. In addition, we present our predictions for muon-muon and muon-jet cross sections at the Tevatron and CERN LHC conditions.

The outline of this paper is as follows. In Section 2 we present the analytical expressions for the total and differential cross sections of the inclusive heavy quark production in the $`k_T`$-factorization approach and describe the unintegrated gluon distributions which we use in our calculations. In Section 3 we present the numerical results of our calculations and compare them with the D$``$  and CDF \[1–3\] data. Finally, in Section 4, we give some conclusions.

## 2 Theoretical framework

In this section we present the expressions for the inclusive heavy quark production total and differential cross sections in the $`k_T`$-factorization approach and describe the unintegrated gluon distributions which we use in our calculations.

### 2.1 Kinematics

As indicated in Fig. 1, we denote the 4-momenta of the incoming protons and the outgoing heavy quarks as $`k_1`$, $`k_2`$ and $`p_1`$, $`p_2`$, respectively. The initial gluons have the 4-momenta $`q_1`$ and $`q_2`$. We use the Sudakov decomposition, which has the form

$$\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{p_1=\alpha _1k_1+\beta _1k_2+p_{1T},p_2=\alpha _2k_1+\beta _2k_2+p_{2T},}{q_1=x_1k_1+q_{1T},q_2=x_2k_2+q_{2T},}$$
(2)
where $`p_{1T}`$, $`p_{2T}`$, $`q_{1T}`$ and $`q_{2T}`$ are the transverse (4-vector) momenta of the corresponding particles, and

$$p_1^2=p_2^2=m_Q^2,q_1^2=q_{1T}^2,q_2^2=q_{2T}^2.$$
(3)
In the $`p\overline{p}`$ c.m. frame we can write:

$$k_1=\sqrt{s}/2(1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}),k_2=\sqrt{s}/2(1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},1),$$
(4)
where we neglect the masses of the protons. The Sudakov variables are expressed as follows:

$$\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\alpha _1={\displaystyle \frac{m_{1T}}{\sqrt{s}}}\mathrm{exp}\left(y_1\right),\alpha _2={\displaystyle \frac{m_{2T}}{\sqrt{s}}}\mathrm{exp}\left(y_2\right),}{\beta _1={\displaystyle \frac{m_{1T}}{\sqrt{s}}}\mathrm{exp}(y_1),\beta _2={\displaystyle \frac{m_{2T}}{\sqrt{s}}}\mathrm{exp}(y_2),}$$
(5)
where $`m_{1,2T}^2=m_Q^2+p_{1,2T}^2`$, and $`y_1`$ and $`y_2`$ are the rapidities of final heavy quarks in the $`p\overline{p}`$ c.m. frame. From the conservation laws, we can easy obtain the following conditions:

$$x_1=\alpha _1+\alpha _2,x_2=\beta _1+\beta _2,q_{1T}+q_{2T}=p_{1T}+p_{2T}.$$
(6)
### 2.2 Inclusive heavy quark production cross section

Here we recall some formulas from our previous paper . In the $`k_T`$-factorization approach, the differential cross section for inclusive heavy quark production may be written as

$$\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d\sigma (p\overline{p}Q\overline{Q}X)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\pi \left(x_1x_2s\right)^2}}\mathrm{\Phi }(x_1,q_{1T}^2,\mu ^2)\mathrm{\Phi }(x_2,q_{2T}^2,\mu ^2)\times }{\times {\displaystyle }|M|_{\mathrm{SHA}}^2(g^{}g^{}Q\overline{Q})dy_1dy_2dp_{2T}^2dq_{1T}^2dq_{2T}^2{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _1}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _2}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _Q}{2\pi }},}$$
(7)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x_1,q_{1T}^2,\mu ^2)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x_2,q_{2T}^2,\mu ^2)`$ are the unintegrated gluon distributions in the proton, $`\varphi _1`$, $`\varphi _2`$ and $`\varphi _Q`$ are the azimuthal angles of the initial gluons and final heavy quark respectively, $`\left|M\right|_{\mathrm{SHA}}^2\left(g^{}g^{}Q\overline{Q}\right)`$ is the off-mass-shell matrix element. Symbol $``$ in Equ. (7) indicates the averaging over the initial and the summation over the final polarization states. The expression for the $`\left|M\right|_{\mathrm{SHA}}^2\left(g^{}g^{}Q\overline{Q}\right)`$ was obtained in our previous paper .

Formulas for the differential cross sections in the standard parton model (SPM) may be obtained from Equ. (7) if we take the limit $`q_{1,2T}^20`$ and average over the transverse momentum vector $`q_{1,2T}`$:

$$\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d\sigma (p\overline{p}Q\overline{Q}X)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\pi \left(x_1x_2s\right)^2}}x_1G(x_1,\mu ^2)x_2G(x_2,\mu ^2)\times }{\times {\displaystyle }|M|_{\mathrm{PM}}^2(ggQ\overline{Q})dy_1dy_2dp_{1T}^2{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _Q}{2\pi }},}$$
(8)
where $`\left|M\right|_{\mathrm{PM}}^2\left(ggQ\overline{Q}\right)`$ is the gluon-gluon fusion matrix element obtained in the standard parton model.

### 2.3 Unintegrated gluon distributions

Various parametrizations of the unintegrated gluon distribution used in our calculations are discussed below (see also ).

As the first set, we use a BFKL-like parametrization (hereafter denoted as the JB parametrization) given in . The method proposed in  lies upon a straightforward perturbative solution of the BFKL equation where collinear gluon density $`xG(x,\mu ^2)`$ is used as the boundary condition. The unintegrated gluon distribution is calculated as a convolution of collinear gluon distribution $`xG(x,\mu ^2)`$ with universal weight factors:

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(x,q_T^2,\mu ^2)=\underset{x}{\overset{1}{}}\phi (\eta ,q_T^2,\mu ^2)\frac{x}{\eta }G(\frac{x}{\eta },\mu ^2)𝑑\eta ,$$
(9)
where

$$\phi (\eta ,q_T^2,\mu ^2)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{\overline{\alpha }_S}{\eta q_T^2}J_0\left(2\sqrt{\overline{\alpha }_S\mathrm{ln}\left(1/\eta \right)\mathrm{ln}\left(\mu ^2/q_T^2\right)}\right),\hfill & \text{if }q_T^2\mu ^2\text{,}\hfill \\ \frac{\overline{\alpha }_S}{\eta q_T^2}I_0\left(2\sqrt{\overline{\alpha }_S\mathrm{ln}\left(1/\eta \right)\mathrm{ln}\left(q_T^2/\mu ^2\right)}\right),\hfill & \text{if }q_T^2>\mu ^2\text{,}\hfill \end{array}$$
(10)
where $`J_0`$ and $`I_0`$ stand for Bessel functions of real and imaginary arguments respectively, and $`\overline{\alpha }_S=3\alpha _S/\pi `$. In calculations we used the standard GRV set  for $`xG(x,\mu ^2)`$. The parameter $`\overline{\alpha }_S`$ is connected with the Pomeron trajectory intercept: $`\mathrm{\Delta }=4\overline{\alpha }_S\mathrm{ln}2`$ in the LO, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=4\overline{\alpha }_S\mathrm{ln}2N\overline{\alpha }_S^2`$ in the NLO approximations, where $`N18`$ . The latter value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ could have dramatic consequences on the high energy phenomenology. However, some resummation procedures proposed in the last years lead to positive values: $`\mathrm{\Delta }0.20.3`$ . The result $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0.35`$ was obtained from the description of the $`p_T`$ spectrum of $`D^{}`$ mesons in the electroproduction at HERA . We use this value of the parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in the present paper444We also used this value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in the analysis of experimental data on the $`J/\psi `$ photo- and leptoproduction at HERA  and in the description  of deep inelastic structure functions $`F_2^c`$, $`F_L^c`$ and $`F_L`$ in the small $`x`$ region..

Another set of unintegrated gluon densities (the KMS parametrization)  is obtained from a unified BFKL and DGLAP description of $`F_2`$ data and includes the so called consistency constraint . The consistency constraint introduces a large correction to the LO BFKL equation: about 70% of the full NLO corrections to the BFKL exponent $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are effectively included in this constraint, as is explaned in .

Finally, the third unintegrated gluon function used here is the one which is obtained from conventional gluon density $`xG(x,\mu ^2)`$ by taking the $`\mu ^2`$-derivative :

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(x,q_T^2)=\frac{dxG(x,\mu ^2)}{d\mu ^2}|_{\mu ^2=q_T^2}.$$
(11)
Here we have used the expression for $`xG(x,\mu ^2)`$ from the standard GRV set . We point out that the parametrization (11), in contrast with JB and KMS parametrizations, takes into account the terms $`\alpha _S^n\mathrm{ln}^n\left(\mu ^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2\right)`$ and $`\alpha _S^n\mathrm{ln}^n\left(\mu ^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2\right)\mathrm{ln}^n\left(1/x\right)`$ only. It is interesting to compare the numerical results obtained with the parametrizations JB and (11) because they are derived from the same collinear density but underwent evolution according to different (BFKL or DGLAP) equations.

The integration limits in (7) and (8) are given by the kinematic conditions of the D$``$ and CDF experiments \[1–5\]. The calculation of the heavy quark production cross section in the $`k_T`$-factorization approach have been done according to (7) for $`q_{1T}^2Q_0^2`$ and $`q_{2T}^2Q_0^2`$. For the regions $`q_{1T}^2Q_0^2`$ and $`q_{2T}^2Q_0^2`$, we set $`q_{1T}^2=0`$ and $`q_{2T}^2=0`$ in the matrix elements of the hard subprocesses, take $`\left|M\right|_{\mathrm{PM}}^2\left(ggQ\overline{Q}\right)`$ instead of $`\left|M\right|_{\mathrm{SHA}}^2\left(g^{}g^{}Q\overline{Q}\right)`$ and use equation (8) of the usual parton model. The contributions from the assymmetric configurations ($`q_{1T}^2Q_0^2`$, $`q_{2T}^2Q_0^2`$ and $`q_{1T}^2Q_0^2`$, $`q_{2T}^2Q_0^2`$) are included in a similar way, where one of the gluons is described by the unintegrated distribution and the other one by the collinear density. The choice of the critical value of the parameter $`Q_0^2=1\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ is determined by the requirement that the value of $`\alpha _S\left(\mu ^2\right)`$ in the region $`q_{1,2T}^2Q_0^2`$ be small (where in fact $`\alpha _S\left(\mu ^2\right)<0.26`$).

## 3 Numerical results

In this section we present the numerical results of our calculations and compare them with the D$``$ , CDF \[1–3\] and UA1  data.

Besides the choice of the unitegrated gluon distribution, our theoretical results depend on the bottom quark mass, the factorization scale $`\mu ^2`$ and the $`b`$ quark fragmentation function. For example, a special choice of the $`b`$-quark fragmentation function was used in paper  as a way to increase the $`B`$-meson production cross section in observable region of transverse momentum. In the present paper we convert $`b`$ quarks into $`B`$-mesons using the usual Peterson fragmentation function  with $`ϵ=0.006`$. Regarding the other parameters, we use $`m_b=4.75\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`\mu ^2=q_{1,2T}^2`$ as in 555We also used this choice of $`\mu ^2`$ earlier  for the description of $`J/\psi `$ photo- and leptoproduction processes at HERA within the $`k_T`$-factorization approach and the colour singlet model..

The results of our calculations are shown in Fig. 2—9. Fig. 2 displays the $`b`$ quark transverse momentum distribution at Tevatron conditions presented in the form of integrated cross sections. The following cuts were applied: $`\left|y_1\right|<1.5`$, $`\left|y_2\right|<1.5`$, $`\sqrt{s}=630\mathrm{GeV}`$ (Fig. 2a), $`\left|y_1\right|<1`$, $`\sqrt{s}=1800\mathrm{GeV}`$ (Fig. 2b) and $`\left|y_1\right|<1`$, $`\left|y_2\right|<1`$, $`\sqrt{s}=1800\mathrm{GeV}`$ (Fig. 2c). Curve 1 corresponds to the SPM calculations at the leading order approximation with the GRV (LO) gluon density, curves 2, 3 and 4 correspond to the $`k_T`$-factorization results with the JB, KMS and the (11) unintegrated gluon distributions, respectively. One can see that the results obtained in the $`k_T`$-factorization approach agree very well with the D$``$ and CDF experimental data. The calculations based on the parametrization (11), which takes into account only the terms $`\alpha _S^n\mathrm{ln}^n\left(\mu ^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2\right)`$ and $`\alpha _S^n\mathrm{ln}^n\left(\mu ^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2\right)\mathrm{ln}^n\left(1/x\right)`$ predict the cross section which is lower than the data by a factor of about 2 (Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b). We would like to note the difference in the shapes between the curves obtained using the $`k_T`$-factorization approach and the standard parton model. This difference shows the $`p_T`$ broadening effect which is usual for the $`k_T`$-factorization approach. At the same time, the shape of the curves 4 and 1 is practically identical.

It is notable that, in the collinear approximation, the sum of the LO and NLO pQCD contributions still underestimates the $`b`$ quark production rate by a factor of 2 . The results obtained in the $`k_T`$-factorization approach in Ref.  lie above the sole LO contribution, but below the sum of LO and NLO contributions, in an apparent disagreement with our present results. The roots of this discrepancy are connected with the parameter settings accepted in Ref. , that is, the large values of the quark mass $`m_b=5\mathrm{GeV}`$ and the remormalization scale $`\mu ^2=m_{1,2T}^2`$ in the running coupling constant.

Fig. 3 shows the ratio of the cross sections measured at different beam energies, $`\sigma \left(b\right)`$ at $`\sqrt{s}=630\mathrm{GeV}`$ to $`\sqrt{s}=1800\mathrm{GeV}`$, as a function of the minimum $`b`$ quark transverse momentum $`p_{T\mathrm{min}}^b`$. Notation of the curves 1, 3 is the same as in Fig. 2. One can see that the experimental data collected by the D$``$ collaboration agree with the LO pQCD calculations as well as with the $`k_T`$-factorization ones. This result is not surprising because, when the ratio of the cross sections is considered, many factors affecting the absolute normaliszation, as well as many theoretical and experimental uncertainties partially or completely cancel out .

Fig. 4 shows the prediction for the $`B`$ meson $`p_T`$ spectrum at $`\sqrt{s}=1800\mathrm{GeV}`$ compared to the CDF data  within the experimental cuts $`\left|y^B\right|<1`$. Notation of the curves 1 — 4 is the same as in Fig. 2. Here we find good agreement between the results obtained in the $`k_T`$-factorization approach and experimental data. One can see that the $`p_T`$ broadening effect mentioned earlier appears to be not as much clear for the $`B`$ meson production as it was for the $`b`$ quark production. This is because of compensatory effects in the fragmentation process. We note again that the ordinary NLO pQCD calculations underestimate the $`B`$ meson production by a factor of 3 .

The recent D$``$ experimental data refer also to muons originating from semileptonic decays of $`B`$-mesons. To produce muons from $`B`$-mesons in theoretical calculations, we simulate their semileptonic decay according to the standard electroweak theory. In Fig. 5 we show the rapidity distribution $`d\sigma /d\left|y^\mu \right|`$ of the decay muons for both $`p_T^\mu >5\mathrm{GeV}`$ (Fig. 5a) and $`p_T^\mu >8\mathrm{GeV}`$ (Fig. 5b). Notation of the curves 1 — 4 is the same as in Fig. 2. We find that the $`k_T`$-factorization results agree very well with the D$``$ experimental data. In the central rapidity range $`\left|y^\mu \right|<1`$, the results based on the parametrization Equ. (11) lie below the ones based on JB and KMS parametrizations by a factor of about 1.5. The ordinary NLO pQCD calculations lie below the data by a factor of about 4 .

Fig. 6 shows the leading muon $`p_T`$ spectrum in the $`b\overline{b}`$ production events compared to the D$``$ data, where the leading muon is defined as the muon with the greatest $`p_T^\mu `$ value. The cuts applied to both muons are $`4<p_T^\mu <25\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`\left|\eta ^\mu \right|<0.8`$ and $`6<m^{\mu \mu }<35\mathrm{GeV}`$. Notation of the histograms 1 — 4 is the same as in Fig. 2. One can see that the histograms 2 and 3 lie even a bit higher than the experimental data.

The double differential cross sections $`d\sigma /dp_T^\mu dy^\mu `$ in the forward rapidity region $`2.4<\left|y^\mu \right|<3.2`$ are also well described by the $`k_T`$-factorization approach (Fig. 7). Notation of the curves 1 — 4 is the same as in Fig. 2. It is interesting to note that the shape of all the curves is practically the same. The NLO pQCD calculations underestimate the D$``$ data by a factor of 4 .

We point out that the investigations of $`b\overline{b}`$ correlations such as the azimuthal opening angle between the $`b`$ and $`\overline{b}`$ quarks (or between their decay muons) allow additional details of the $`b`$ quark production to be tested since these quantities are sensitive to the relative contributions of the different production mechanisms \[8, 12–14, 16\]. In the naive gluon-gluon fusion mechanism, the distribution over the azimuthal angle difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^{b\overline{b}}`$ must be simply a delta function $`\delta \left(\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^{b\overline{b}}\pi \right)`$. Taking into account the non-vanishing initial gluon transverse momenta $`q_{1T}`$ and $`q_{2T}`$ leads to the violation of this back-to-back quark production kinematics in the $`k_T`$-factorization approach.

The differential $`b\overline{b}`$ cross section $`d\sigma /d\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^{\mu \mu }`$ is shown in Fig. 8. The cuts applied to both muons are $`4<p_T^\mu <25\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`\left|\eta ^\mu \right|<0.8`$ and $`6<m^{\mu \mu }<35\mathrm{GeV}`$. Notation of the histograms 1 — 4 is the same as in Fig. 2. One can see that good agreement between JB and KMS predictions and the experimental data is observed. The shape of the histogram 4 strongly differs from that of the histograms 2 and 3. In the small $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^{\mu \mu }0`$ region, the parametrization (11) underestimates the D$``$ experimental data. This fact indicates the importance of the large $`\alpha _S^n\mathrm{ln}^n\left(1/x\right)`$ contributions. One can see that the properties of different unitegrated gluon distributions manifest themselves in the $`b\overline{b}`$ or muon-muon azimuthal correlations. As expected, the sole LO pQCD contribution predicts a peak at $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^{\mu \mu }\pi `$.

In addition, we present our predictions for muon-muon (Fig. 9a) and muon-jet (Fig. 9b) cross sections at the Tevatron and CERN LHC conditions. In the latter case, we take the kinematic requirements of the detector ATLAS  as a representative example. This conditions imply the presence of a decay muon with $`p_T^\mu >6\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`\left|y^\mu \right|<2.5`$. Curves 1 — 4 are the same as in Fig. 2. We point out that the predicted cross sections are rather uncertain and approximate because we neglected the saturation effects in the gluon distributions . However, the treshold value of $`x`$ (where these effects will come into play) is still unknown.

## 4 Conclusions

In this paper we have considered heavy quark production in $`p\overline{p}`$ collisions at Tevatron in the framework of the $`k_T`$-factorization approach. We investigated the dependence of the $`b`$ quark, $`B`$ meson and the decay muon cross sections on different forms of the unintegrated gluon distribution. The analysis covered the azimuthal correlations between the $`b`$ and $`\overline{b}`$ quarks and their decay muons. We compared the theoretical results with recent experimental data collected by the D$``$ and CDF collaborations at Tevatron. We found that the $`k_T`$-factorization results agree well with the experimental data when we use JB or KMS unintegrated gluon distributions and set the quark mass $`m_b=4.75\mathrm{GeV}`$, the factorization scale $`\mu ^2=q_T^2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}=250\mathrm{MeV}`$. The properties of different unitegrated gluon distributions manifest themselves in the $`b\overline{b}`$ or muon-muon azimuthal correlations. From the analysis of these correlations we can conclude that JB and KMS unintegrated gluon distributions are more preferable than the parametrization (11). Finally, we present our predictions for the muon-muon and muon-jet cross sections at Tevatron and CERN LHC conditions.

## 5 Acknowledgments

The study was supported in part by RFBR grant $`\mathrm{N}^{}`$ 02–02–17513. A.V.L. also was supported by INTAS grant YSF 2002 $`\mathrm{N}^{}`$ 399.


text:
# An Obscured Radio Galaxy at High Redshift

## 1 Introduction

High redshift active galactic nuclei (AGNs) have gained renewed interest as cosmological probes with the findings that (i) there is a good correlation between the masses of the stellar bulges of galaxies and their central black holes suggesting a causal connection in their formation (e.g., Magorrian et al., 1998) and (ii) that a population of high redshift heavily obscured AGNs seems the best candidate to account for a substantial fraction (30$``$40%) of the 5$``$10 keV cosmic X-ray background (XRB) (e.g., Hasinger , 2002; Stern et al., 2002; Willott et al., 2002).

The most vigorously star forming galaxies radiate strongly in the far-IR (Sanders & Mirabel, 1996). Sub-mm observations show that as many as 50% of $`z>3`$ HzRGs are “Hyper Luminous Infrared Galaxies” (HyLIRGs, $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}10^{13}\mathrm{L}_{}`$; Reuland et al. in prep.; Archibald et al., 2001). While some HyLIRGs are powered by an obscured AGN, there also exist many in which the starburst dominates (Rowan-Robinson, 2000). The detection of strong rest-frame UV absorption features show that there are hot young stars at $`z3.8`$ in at least one case (Dey et al., 1997), and CO mm-interferometry studies show that star formation occurs galaxy wide over scales of up to $``$ 30 kpc (Papadopoulos et al., 2000). These observations provide direct evidence that powerful HzRGs are massive galaxies forming stars at rates as high as 2000 $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$. From the near-IR Hubble $`Kz`$ diagram HzRGs are known to be the most luminous galaxies at any redshift up to $`z5.2`$ (De Breuck et al., 2002, hereafter DB02). Furthermore, actively-accreting supermassive black holes ($`M_{\mathrm{BH}}10^9\mathrm{M}_{}`$; Lacy et al., 2001) are required to power radio sources. Therefore, HzRGs are excellent targets to study the formation and coevolution of the most massive galaxies and their black holes.

De Breuck et al. (2001) found that 36% of a sample of 33 USS ($`\alpha _{325\mathrm{M}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}^{1400\mathrm{M}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}1.30`$; $`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$) selected radio sources with spectroscopic information was at redshifts $`z>3`$. A surprisingly large fraction (24%) of these USS sources did not show emission lines even in moderately long exposures (1$``$2 hrs) at Keck. Of these latter sources, 3 (or 9% of the entire sample) did not show optical continuum emission down to a limit of $`R25`$ and were detected only at near-IR ($`K`$-band) wavelengths.

The nature of these “no-$`z`$” objects is unclear. As discussed by De Breuck et al. one can think of the following possible explanations: objects which do show optical continuum (i) may be in the “redshift desert” ($`1.5<z<2.3`$) where strong emission lines fall outside the observable window or (ii) may be pulsars; objects without optical continuum (iii) may be highly obscured AGNs or (iv) be at such high redshift ($`z7`$) that Ly$`\alpha `$ is shifted out of the optical passband. In the latter two cases they may be young HzRGs in an exceptionally vigorous stage of their formation, and one would expect large amounts of dust associated with them. To search for this we have conducted a program of sub-mm and mm observations of these “no-$`z`$” radio galaxies. Here we report the first results of a detailed study of one such object, WN J0305+3525.

To facilitate comparison with other papers we adopt an universe with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}=1.0`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, and $`H_0=50\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$ unless stated otherwise. The angular scale at $`z=3`$ is then 7.3 $`\mathrm{kpc}\mathrm{arcsec}^1`$ and the look-back time is 11.4 Gyr, or 88% of the age of the universe.

## 2 Observations and Results

### 2.1 Selection and Keck Imaging

VLA observations by De Breuck et al. (2000a) show that WN J0305+3525 is a compact ($`\theta 1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}9`$) steep spectrum ($`\alpha _{325\mathrm{M}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}^{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}=1.33`$) radio source with flux density $`S_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}=15.8`$ mJy. As part of our program aimed at finding $`z>3`$ radio galaxies among USS sources DB02 obtained a 15 min $`I`$-band image with 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$7 seeing and a 38 min $`K`$-band image with 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$55 seeing at Keck. We obtained a 58 min Keck $`J`$-band image on UT 2000 January 30 (seeing $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}6`$) with the Near Infrared Camera (NIRC; Matthews & Soifer, 1994), which was reduced following DB02. Formal 5$`\sigma `$ detection limits in 2″ diameter circular apertures are $`I_{\mathrm{lim}}=23.37`$, $`J_{\mathrm{lim}}=23.15`$, and $`K_{\mathrm{lim}}=22.61`$. Astrometry for the $`I`$-band image was determined using the USNO-A2.0 catalog (Monet, 1998) giving a formal uncertainty of 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$15. The absolute rms uncertainties with respect to the international celestial reference frame of the catalog and radio image are 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$2 and 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$25 respectively (e.g., DB02). The small near-IR images were registered to the $`6\mathrm{}\times 7\mathrm{}`$ $`I`$-band image to better than 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$05 rms, resulting in relative astrometry between the near-IR and radio images accurate to $`1\sigma 0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}4`$ rms.

Figure 1 shows the $`K`$-band image with 5 GHz radio map overlaid. It reveals fuzzy structure with multiple components within 2″$``$3″ of the radio source. Note that none of the objects appears directly associated with the radio emission itself. Table 1 summarizes the observed properties of these objects. Objects 2 and 4 remain undetected in the $`I`$ and $`J`$-band images (Fig. 2).

### 2.2 JCMT and IRAM Observations

We observed WN J0305+3525 on UT 1999 December 6 and 7 at 850 µm and 450 µm with the Submillimetre Common-User Bolometer Array (SCUBA; Holland et al., 1998) at the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in stable atmospheric conditions $`\tau _{850}0.290.32`$. We performed two sets of 50 integrations each night using the 9-point jiggle photometry mode while chopping 45″ in azimuth at 7.8 Hz. Pointing was better than 2″. Flux calibration was performed on Saturn, HLTAU, and CRL618 and we adopted a gain $`C_{850}`$ 182 mJy beam-1 V-1. The data were reduced following procedures outlined in the SCUBA Photometry Cookbook111The SCUBA Photometry Cookbook is available at http://www.starlink.rl.ac.uk/star/docs/sc10.htx/sc10.html. Combining the data from both nights yields an average 850 µm flux density of 12.5 $`\pm `$ 1.5 mJy, while at 450 µm we measured 21 $`\pm `$ 19 mJy and did not detect the object. The FWHM of the beam at 850 µm for SCUBA is $`\theta _{\mathrm{FWHM}}=14\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$. We imaged WN J0305+3525 with SCUBA on UT 2000 February 26, 27, and 28, reaching $`1.5`$ mJy rms, to obtain a more accurate position for the sub-mm source. The position of the 850 µm centroid $`\alpha =03^\mathrm{h}05^\mathrm{m}47\stackrel{\mathrm{s}}{\mathrm{.}}38`$, $`\delta =+35{}_{}{}^{}25\mathrm{}15\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}0`$ (J2000) with estimated 3$`\sigma `$ astrometric uncertainty of $`\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}\times \theta _{\mathrm{FWHM}}/(2\times S/N)3\mathrm{}`$ (following Serjeant et al., 2002) is indicated in Figure 1.

WN J0305+3525 was also observed at 1.25 mm using the 37 channel MPIfR Bolometer Array (MAMBO II; Kreysa et al., 1998) at the IRAM 30 m telescope on UT 2000 July 18. We performed 11 symmetric “ON-OFFs” with a chop-nod distance of 45″, each with 20 subscans of 10 s per subscan. The atmospheric extinction $`\tau _{1.25}`$ varied between 0.16 and 0.34 and pointing corrections were less than 2″. The calibration factor of 13.3 counts mJy-1 was estimated from on-offs on Uranus and Saturn. Using MOPSI with sky-noise filtering we detect the object at 4.17 $`\pm `$ 0.56 mJy.

### 2.3 Keck Spectroscopy

We have attempted to measure the redshift of WN J0305+3525 using the Low-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (LRIS; Oke et al., 1995) with the $`150\mathrm{}\mathrm{mm}^1`$ grating blazed at 7500 Å and 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 wide slit resulting in a spectral resolution of 15 Å and wavelength coverage of $`410010000`$ Å. Between exposures we shifted the object by 10 ″ along the slit to facilitate fringe removal in the red parts of the CCD. The slit positions are indicated in Figure 1. A 3 $`\times `$ 30 min observation at PA=50 on UT 1999 December 20 through targets 1 and 3 did not show emission lines. On UT 2000 February 1 we first observed 2 $`\times `$ 30 min at PA=65 through target 3, the formal radio source position, and the SW stellar object ($``$). No emission lines were found, but the latter object was identified as a Galactic M giant. A second set of similar exposures at PA=0 through targets 3 and 4 did not show emission lines either, but we may have detected faint continuum ($`F_\lambda ^{\mathrm{cont}}2\pm 3\times 10^{19}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{cm}^2`$ Å-1) redward of $`\lambda 6300`$ Å from object 3. Object 2 was not observed spectroscopically, but it is unlikely that it would have been detected given its faintness. Assuming that Ly$`\alpha `$ would fall between 5100 Å and 8900 Å where the sky is well behaved and assuming a line width $``$30 Å (e.g., Dey et al., 1997), we derive a $`3\sigma `$ upper limit to the Ly$`\alpha `$ flux density of $`3\times 10^{17}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{cm}^2`$.

## 3 Discussion

### 3.1 Identification and Redshift Estimate

What are the chances that the sub-mm source, the radio source and the $`K`$-band objects are all unrelated? Sub-mm surveys have shown that the $`S_{850\mathrm{\mu m}}10`$ mJy number density is less than 100 per square degree (Hughes et al., 2002). Radio surveys show that there are less than 12 radio sources with $`S_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}15`$ mJy per square degree (de Vries et al., 2002). Within the sub-mm error circle (3″ radius; by far the largest of the three), the chance of finding a chance superposition of a $`10`$ mJy sub-mm source and a $`15`$ mJy radio source is negligible ($`<2.3\times 10^4`$). The chance of finding three unrelated $`K<22`$ mag objects within the error circle is less than 10% given a number density $`2\times 10^5`$ per square degree (Djorgovski et al., 1995). Despite the offsets between the $`K`$-band objects and the radio source there are good reasons to believe that they are related. Many USS selected radio galaxies consist of multiple components (van Breugel et al., 1998). Furthermore, in most HzRGs the radio AGN are obscured (Reuland et al., 2002) and there are other cases where the AGN appears to be located off center from the bulk of the parent galaxy (e.g., 3C294; Quirrenbach et al., 2001).

Without a spectroscopic redshift we can use only indirect arguments to estimate the redshift of WN J0305+3525 such as the $`Kz`$ diagram, the shape of the SED and the near-IR colors. We cannot use the radio to sub-mm index as a redshift indicator (Carilli & Yun, 1999) as WN J0305+3525 is radio loud. The $`Kz`$ diagram as determined for HzRGs (DB02) seems to hold also for the sub-mm population (Dunlop , 2002). If we take a total magnitude of $`K21`$ to be representative for WN J0305+3525 (Table 1), then we estimate from the $`Kz`$ diagram that WN J0305+3525 is at $`3z7`$.

Comparing the (sub)-mm ratios $`S_{1250}/S_{850}=0.33`$ and $`S_{450}/S_{850}6`$ with redshifted models of dusty starforming galaxies (c.f. Fig. 3 in Hughes et al., 1998) results in redshift estimates of $`3z6`$ and $`z>12`$ respectively. Moreover, almost all USS radio galaxies that are detected in the sub-mm are at redshifts $`z>2.5`$. Figure 3 represents the observed SED of WN J0305+3525 and shows that the (sub-)mm emission is of thermal origin and effectively rules out that the object is a pulsar. A starburst SED with $`1z4`$ would fit the data closely at both the near-IR and (sub-)mm points.

The colors of the $`K`$-band objects are too uncertain to usefully constrain the redshifts using stellar evolution models (Stevens & Lacy, 2001). The possible detection of faint continuum redward of $`\lambda 6300`$ Å in object 3 is consistent with the object being at high redshift: it could be featureless continuum redward of a Ly$`\alpha `$ forest region at $`z4.2`$.

Based on the above arguments we conclude that there is very good circumstantial evidence that WN J0305+3525 is at high redshift, probably at $`z3\pm 1`$.

### 3.2 Implications

If WN J0305+3525 is indeed at $`z3`$ then its restframe FIR properties are $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$ $`10^{13}\mathrm{L}_{}`$, implying $`M_{\mathrm{dust}}`$ $`1.5\times 10^8\mathrm{M}_{}`$ and star formation rate $`1500\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ for standard dust models and cosmology (c.f. 4C 60.07; $`H_0=75\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$; Papadopoulos et al., 2000). This is comparable to the radio-“quiet” sub-mm source Lockman 850.1 which has been estimated to be at $`2z4`$, based on its sub-mm/mm SED (Lutz et al., 2001), as well as other, radio-“loud” galaxies in this redshift range. Compared with traditional HzRGs, the Ly$`\alpha `$ emission ($`L_{\mathrm{Ly}\alpha }10^{42.3}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$) is relatively weak given its radio power ($`P_{325MHz}10^{35.1}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Hz}^1`$), but still within the large observed scatter (c.f. Fig. 10 in De Breuck et al., 2000b). Thus WN J0305+3525 appears to be a heavily obscured radio-loud luminous sub-mm source. We consider two options that could explain the strong obscuration.

Recently, Greenberg & Shen (2000) and Todini & Ferrara (2001) suggested that dust particles in high redshift galaxies may be predominantly smaller than in local starbursting systems. The argument is based on a different origin of the dust: at high redshifts there has been little time for M giants (the primary sources of local dust) to appear, and most early dust would be produced by M supergiants and supernovae instead. The increase of the sub-mm detection rate with redshift for radio galaxies (Reuland et al. in prep.; Archibald et al., 2001) might then be interpreted as being due to changing dust properties with redshift. Smaller dust particles lower the estimated dust masses and star formation rates and, because they are more efficient UV absorbers, this might explain why some of the most massive starforming galaxies are not seen in the optical at all.

Another reason that WN J0305+3525 is heavily dust enshrouded might be related to its young evolutionary stage. This is supported by the compactness of the associated radio source for WN J0305+3525 and the other “no-$`z`$” HzRG-candidates. It seems reasonable to assume that, on average, compact sources are younger than more extended ones (Blundell, Rawlings & Willott, 1999). The dense circumnuclear dust configuration would then quench the Ly$`\alpha `$ emission.

This suggests a scenario in which massive radio galaxies form with a large starburst, perhaps simultaneously in several smaller, merging components. This starburst manifests itself as a luminous “sub-mm source”. During the next stage a massive black hole is formed and/or activated, but any rest-frame optical emission remains obscured by dust from the starburst. As the radio source evolves it grows and expels the obscuring dust envelope, becoming visible as a HzRG (c.f. Jarvis et al., 2002; Reuland et al., 2002). This is essentially the radio-loud version of scenarios where “Ultra Luminous Infrared Galaxies” evolve into quasars as envisaged by Sanders et al. (1988).

Radio galaxies are the most massive and most extended galaxy sized systems that are known to exist at high redshift. They are therefore good targets for studying the origin of the relationship between galaxies and their central black holes. WN J0305+3525 may be at the stage where both the galaxy and the black hole are being put together. As with other sub-mm sources it is difficult to obtain spectroscopic redshifts and it is important to obtain further information about their SEDs at mid- and far-IR wavelengths. X-ray imaging could show whether or not there is a bright AGN associated with WN J0305+3525. We are actively pursuing follow-up observations to address some of these issues.

We gratefully acknowledge the help of the Keck, and JCMT staff. We thank the IRAM staff and Albrecht Sievers in particular for carrying out observations in Director’s Discretionary Time, project Delta 00-04, and reducing the data. The work of M.R., W.v.B., and W.d.V. was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration by the University of California, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under contract No. W-7405-Eng-48. The work of D.S. was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with NASA.