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# Covariant Magnetoionic Theory I: Ray Propagation

## 1 Introduction

A considerable amount of effort has been invested in attempting to reproduce the spectral properties of accreting compact objects. A great deal of this work has been concerned with fitting the unpolarised flux with an underlying, physically motivated model of an accretion flow (see e.g. Blandford & Begelman, 1999; Narayan & Yi, 1994; Quataert & Gruzinov, 2000). These models have met with some success, even being able to make testable predictions regarding the accretion environment (see e.g. Narayan et al., 1998). Because these models are primarily concerned with the physical structure of the accretion flow, they ignore the effects that the combination of dispersion and general relativity will have upon the spectra. Far from the compact object this may not matter ($`rM`$). However, for the emission originating from near the compact object, this combination can be crucial.

General relativistic vacuum propagation effects have been extensively studied in both the polarised and unpolarised cases. In some systems gravitational lensing has been shown to have detectable consequences in certain regions of the spectrum. For example, Falcke et al. (2000) have argued that the black hole in the Galactic centre may be imaged directly at millimeter wavelengths as a result of gravitational lensing. In addition, general relativity has been shown to have a depolarising influence upon photons passing near the compact object (see e.g. Laor et al., 1990; Agol, 1997; Connors et al., 1980). However, the fact that these studies ignore plasma effects make them inapplicable to thick disks and at frequencies near the plasma and/or cyclotron frequencies.

On the other hand, astrophysical plasma effects have also been studied in detail, although primarily in the context of nondispersive propagation effects upon the polarisation, e.g. Faraday rotation and conversion (see e.g. Sazonov & Tsytovich, 1968; Sazonov, 1969; Jones & O’Dell, 1977a, b; Ruszkowski & Begelman, 2002). Weak dispersion has been considered in the form of scintillation (see e.g. Macquart & Melrose, 2000). While this can lead to a high degree of polarisation variability, it has a vanishing time/spatially averaged value and doesn’t otherwise affect spectral properties. In contrast, strongly dispersive plasma effects have been extensively studied in the context of radio waves propagating through the ionosphere (see e.g. Budden, 1964). Here it has been found that dispersive plasma effects can play an important role in determining the intensity and limiting polarisation of the radio waves. None the less, neither of these type of plasma effects have been studied in conjunction with general relativistic effects.

There have been some attempts at treating both general relativistic and plasma effects. However, these have been restricted to either unmagnetised plasmas (see e.g. Kulsrud & Loeb, 1992), or to nondispersive emission effects (see e.g. Bromley et al., 2001). Both of these have only limited applicability for realistic accretion flows.

We present a fully general relativistic magnetoionic theory. This is a natural extension of the previous work combining both general relativistic and plasma effects upon wave propagation in the geometrical optics limit. This will be presented in four sections with §2 developing the theory, §3 presenting some simple example applications, and §4 containing conclusions. Throughout this paper the ($`+++`$) metric signature will be used, and $`\mathrm{}=c=1`$.

In a subsequent paper II we will discuss the details of performing radiative transfer in general relativistic plasma environments. These have been expressly neglected here in the interest of clarity.

## 2 Theory

The natural place to begin a study of plasma modes is the covariant formulation of Maxwell’s equations (see e.g. Misner et al., 1973):

$$_\mu F^{\nu \mu }=4\pi J^\nu \text{and}_\mu ^{}F^{\nu \mu }=0,$$
(1)
where $`F^{\nu \mu }^\nu A^\mu ^\mu A^\nu `$ is the electromagnetic field tensor, $`{}_{}{}^{}F_{}^{\nu \mu }\frac{1}{2}\epsilon ^{\nu \mu \alpha \beta }F_{\alpha \beta }`$ is the dual to $`F^{\mu \nu }`$ ($`\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }`$ is the Levi-Civita pseudo tensor) , and $`J^\nu `$ is the current four-vector. In order to close this set of equations, a relation between the current and the electromagnetic fields is required. For the field strengths of interest here, this will take the form of Ohm’s Law:

$$J^\nu =\sigma _\mu ^\nu F^{\mu \alpha }\overline{u}_\alpha ,$$
(2)
where $`\overline{u}^\mu `$ is the average plasma four-velocity and $`\sigma _\mu ^\nu `$ is the covariant generalisation of the conductivity tensor, defined by this relationship. As a result of the anti-symmetry of $`F^{\mu \nu }`$, the conductivity will in general have only nine physically meaningful components, namely the spatial components in the slicing orthogonal to $`\overline{u}^\mu `$. Nonetheless, in order to investigate the behaviours of plasma modes in a general relativistic environment, it is necessary to express the conductivity in this covariant fashion.

This can be more naturally expressed in terms of $`E^\mu F^{\mu \nu }\overline{u}_\nu `$ and $`B^\mu {}_{}{}^{}F_{}^{\mu \nu }\overline{u}_\nu `$, the four-vectors coincident with the electric and magnetic field vectors in the locally flat centre-of-mass rest (LFCR) frame of the plasma. In terms of $`E^\mu `$ and $`B^\mu `$, the electromagnetic field tensor and its dual take the forms

$`F^{\mu \nu }`$ $`=\overline{u}^\mu E^\nu E^\mu \overline{u}^\nu +\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha B_\beta ,`$ (3)
$`{}_{}{}^{}F_{}^{\mu \nu }`$ $`=\overline{u}^\mu B^\nu B^\mu \overline{u}^\nu +\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha E_\beta .`$ (4)
Inserting these and Ohm’s law into Maxwell’s equations yields eight partial differential equations,

$`_\mu \left(\overline{u}^\nu E^\mu E^\nu \overline{u}^\mu +\epsilon ^{\nu \mu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha B_\beta \right)`$ $`=4\pi \sigma _\mu ^\nu E^\mu ,`$ (5)
$`_\mu \left(\overline{u}^\nu B^\mu B^\nu \overline{u}^\mu +\epsilon ^{\nu \mu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha E_\beta \right)`$ $`=0,`$ (6)
which may be solved for $`E^\mu `$ and $`B^\mu `$ given an explicit form of the conductivity.

### 2.1 Geometric Optics Approximation

The general case can be prohibitively difficult to solve for physically interesting plasmas. Fortunately, the problem can be significantly simplified by making use of a two length scale expansion (also known as the WKB, Eikonal, or Geometric Optics approximations) in terms of $`\lambda /`$, where $`\lambda `$ and $``$ are the wavelength and typical plasma length scale, respectively. In this approximation it is assumed that the electric and magnetic fields have a slowly varying amplitude with a rapidly varying phase, i.e. $`E^\mu ,B^\mu \mathrm{exp}\left(iS\right)`$ where $`S`$ is the action, and $`_\mu S=k_\mu `$ defines the wave four-vector. Then, to first order in $`\lambda /`$, Maxwell’s equations are

$`k_\mu \left(\overline{u}^\nu E^\mu E^\nu \overline{u}^\mu +\epsilon ^{\nu \mu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha B_\beta \right)`$ $`=4\pi \sigma _\mu ^\nu E^\mu ,`$ (7)
$`k_\mu \left(\overline{u}^\nu B^\mu B^\nu \overline{u}^\mu +\epsilon ^{\nu \mu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha E_\beta \right)`$ $`=0.`$ (8)
At this point it is useful to point out a number of properties of $`E^\mu `$ and $`B^\mu `$ that follow directly from their definitions and Maxwell’s equations.

$`\overline{u}_\mu E^\mu =\overline{u}_\mu B^\mu =0`$, which follows directly from the definitions of $`E^\mu `$ and $`B^\mu `$ and the antisymmetry of $`F^{\mu \nu }`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{}F_{}^{\mu \nu }`$.

$`k_\mu B^\mu =0`$, which follows from equation (8) and the definition of $`B^\mu `$.

$`E_\mu B^\mu =0`$, which follows from $`\omega E_\mu B^\mu =E_\mu k_\nu ^{}F^{\mu \nu }=0`$, where $`\omega k_\mu \overline{u}^\mu `$ (chosen so that $`\omega `$ is positive) is the frequency in the LFCR frame and is assumed to be nonzero.

$`\omega B^\mu B_\mu =\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }B_\mu k_\nu \overline{u}_\alpha E_\beta `$, which also follows from equation (8), $`\omega B^\mu B_\mu +\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }B_\mu k_\nu \overline{u}_\alpha E_\beta =B_\mu k_\nu ^{}F^{\mu \nu }=0`$.

Properties (i)-(iv) define $`B^\mu `$ in terms of $`k^\mu `$, $`E^\mu `$, and $`\overline{u}^\mu `$:

$$B^\mu =\frac{1}{\omega }\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }k_\nu \overline{u}_\alpha E_\beta .$$
(9)
Substituting equation (9) into equations (3) and (4) gives

$`F^{\mu \nu }`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega }}\left(k^\mu E^\nu E^\mu k^\nu \right),`$ (10)
$`{}_{}{}^{}F_{}^{\mu \nu }`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega }}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }k_\alpha E_\beta .`$ (11)
Inserting these back into Maxwell’s equations and combining yields

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu E^\nu =0,$$
(12)
where

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu \left(k^\alpha k_\alpha \delta _\nu ^\mu k^\mu k_\nu 4\pi i\omega \sigma _\nu ^\mu \right)$$
(13)
defines the dispersion tensor.

Note that this is extremely general, all of the local physics is contained in the conductivity tensor. The expressions for the electromagnetic field tensor and its dual are for the radiation fields only. Hence, external fields appear only in the conductivity.

### 2.2 Ray Equations

Rays are well defined in the context of geometric optics. These are curves which are orthogonal at every point to the surfaces of constant phase ($`S`$). Given a relation in the form of equation (12) it is possible to explicitly construct these rays. This has been done in detail for Euclidean spaces (see e.g. Weinberg, 1962). The generalisation to a Riemannian space is straightforward and will be done in analogy with Weinberg (1962).

Consider the general case of an equation governing the dynamics of a field, $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$, in space time in terms of a linear operator, $`𝐌`$,

$$𝐌(_\mu ,x^\mu )\mathrm{\Psi }=0.$$
(14)
Expanding in a two length scale approximation, as in §2.1, gives to lowest order

$$𝐌(k_\mu ,x^\mu )\mathrm{\Psi }=0.$$
(15)
This implies that $`det𝐌(k_\mu ,x^\mu )=0`$ along the rays of the wave field. This provides a dispersion relation, $`D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )`$, a scalar function of the wave four-vector and position that vanishes along the ray. If the eigenvalues of $`𝐌`$ are nondegenerate, then this also uniquely defines the polarisation of $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$.

The ray can now be explicitly constructed by employing the least action principle. The action can be explicitly constructed from the wave four-vector and the position by

$$S(\tau _1,\tau _2)=_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}k_\mu \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }𝑑\tau ,$$
(16)
where $`\tau `$ is an affine parameter along the ray. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be the hypersurface passing through the point $`x^\mu \left(\tau _1\right)`$. By definition, $`k_\mu \left(\tau _1\right)`$ is perpendicular to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. By varying $`S(\tau _1,\tau _2)`$ with respect to $`k_\mu `$ and $`x^\mu `$, restricting $`x^\mu \left(\tau _1\right)`$ to lie on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, it is possible to derive equations which define the ray,

$`\delta S`$ $`={\displaystyle _{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{dk_\mu }{dx^\nu }}\delta x^\nu {\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }}+k_\mu \delta \left({\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }}\right)\right]𝑑\tau `$ (17)
$`={\displaystyle _{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}}[{\displaystyle \frac{dk_\mu }{dx^\nu }}{\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{dk_\mu }{d\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{dx^\nu }}]\delta x^\nu d\tau +k_\mu \delta x^\mu |_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}.`$
Because $`x^\mu \left(\tau _1\right)`$ is restricted to lie upon $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`k_\mu \delta x^\mu |_{\tau _1}=0`$. Because at $`\tau _2`$ it is necessary for $`k_\mu \left(\tau _2\right)=_\mu S\delta S=k_\mu \left(\tau _2\right)\delta x^\mu \left(\tau _2\right)`$. These imply that the integral must vanish for arbitrary variations. This will be generally true if

$$\frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }=\left(\frac{D}{k_\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }\text{and}\frac{dk_\mu }{d\tau }=\left(\frac{D}{x^\mu }\right)_{k_\mu },$$
(18)
and hence,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dk_\mu }{dx^\nu }}{\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{dk_\mu }{d\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{dx^\nu }}=`$
$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{D}{k_\mu }}\right)_{x^\mu }{\displaystyle \frac{dk_\mu }{dx^\nu }}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{D}{x^\mu }}\right)_{k_\mu }{\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{dx^\nu }}`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{dD}{d\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{dx^\nu }}=0,`$
where the final equality follows from the fact that $`D`$ is constant along the path (namely $`D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )=0`$). Therefore, equations (18) can be used to construct a ray given initial conditions and a dispersion relation. These are covariant analogues of Hamilton’s equations. Note that the affine parameterisation depends upon the particular form of the dispersion relation. For example, from $`D^{}(k_\mu ,x^\mu )f(k_\mu ,x^\mu )D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )`$ it is possible to construct the rays associated with $`D=0`$, with the affine parameters related by $`d\tau ^{}=d\tau /f`$: i.e.

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau ^{}}}`$ $`=\left({\displaystyle \frac{D^{}}{k_\mu }}\right)_{x^\mu }`$
$`=f\left({\displaystyle \frac{D}{k_\mu }}\right)_{x^\mu }+D\left({\displaystyle \frac{f}{k_\mu }}\right)_{x^\mu }`$
$`=f{\displaystyle \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }},`$ (19)
and similarly for $`k_\mu `$. Hence, any convenient affine parameterisation can be selected by employing the appropriate function $`f`$.

While this derivation is done in some generality, in this paper $`𝐌=\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu `$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }=E^\mu `$.

### 2.3 Ohm’s Law for Cold Plasmas

At this point it is necessary to determine an explicit form for the conductivity tensor $`\sigma _\nu ^\mu `$. For cold plasmas this can be obtained via kinetic theory. Three assumptions are made in the derivations below; (i) the equations of motion of the electrons are well approximated by the lowest order perturbations, (ii) the motions of the electrons are non-relativistic, and (iii) the electrons execute motions over a small enough region of space that all other forces may be considered constant. Assumptions (i) and (ii) are often employed in standard plasma physics. Assumption (iii) will generally be true as long as the geometric optics approximation holds.

#### 2.3.1 Isotropic Cold Electron Plasma

This is considered as an example and a limit of the case where a constant external magnetic field is applied (cf. Dendy, 1990).

It is useful to introduce an order parameter ($`ϵ`$) to linearise the force equations. All field quantities are clearly of first order. In addition, the change in the velocity of the charged particles is of first order ($`\delta u^\mu u^\mu \overline{u}^\mu ϵ\mathrm{exp}(iS)`$). Then, the electromagnetic force upon a single electron is given by

$`_{\text{EM}}^\mu =`$ $`F^{\mu \nu }eu_\nu `$ (20)
$`=`$ $`e\overline{u}^\mu ϵE^\nu u_\nu eϵE^\mu \overline{u}^\nu u_\nu +e\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha ϵB_\beta u_\nu .`$
In the first and third terms only the deviation from $`\overline{u}^\mu `$ contributes, thus they are of order $`ϵ^2`$. In the second term $`\overline{u}^\mu u_\mu =1+𝒪(ϵ)`$ hence there is a first order contribution, and $`_{\text{EM}}^\mu =eE^\mu `$. The force is related to $`u^\mu `$ to first order in $`ϵ`$ by $`_{\text{EM}}^\mu =i\omega m\delta u^\mu `$. The current is related to $`\delta u^\mu `$ by $`J^\mu =en\delta u^\mu `$. Therefore, the conductivity tensor is given by

$$\sigma _\nu ^\mu =\frac{\omega _P^2}{4\pi i\omega }\delta _\nu ^\mu ,$$
(21)
where $`\omega _P\sqrt{4\pi e^2n/m}`$ is the plasma frequency.

#### 2.3.2 Magnetoactive Cold Electron Plasma

In the presence of an externally generated magnetic field, $`^\mu `$, (defined in the LFCR frame in the same way as $`B^\mu `$), the electromagnetic force upon a single electron is

$`_{\text{EM}}^\mu =`$ $`F^{\mu \nu }eu_\nu `$ (22)
$`=`$ $`e\overline{u}^\mu ϵE^\nu u_\nu eϵE^\mu \overline{u}^\nu u_\nu +e\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha \left(ϵB_\beta +_\beta \right)u_\nu .`$
In contrast to equation (20), there is a first order contribution from the third term in this case. Hence, to first order $`_{\text{EM}}^\mu =eE^\mu +e\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta u_\nu `$. It is useful to decompose $`\delta u^\mu `$ and $`E^\mu `$ into temporal, and spatial components along and orthogonal to $`^\mu `$:

$$\delta u_t^\mu \left(\delta u_\nu \overline{u}^\nu \right)\overline{u}^\mu ,\delta u_{}^\mu \left(\frac{^\nu \delta u_\nu }{^\alpha _\alpha }\right)^\mu ,$$

$$\delta u_{}^\mu \delta u^\mu \delta u_t^\mu \delta u_{}^\mu ,$$
(23)
$$E_{}^\mu =\left(\frac{^\nu E_\nu }{^\alpha _\alpha }\right)^\mu ,E_{}^\mu =E^\mu E_{}^\mu .$$
(24)
With these new definitions it is simple to show that the force equation separates into

$`i\omega \delta u_t^\mu `$ $`=0,`$
$`i\omega \delta u_{}^\mu `$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}E_{}^\mu ,`$ (25)
$`i\omega \delta u_{}^\mu `$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}E_{}^\mu +{\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta \delta u_\nu .`$
Clearly $`J_{}^\mu =\left(\omega _P^2/4\pi i\omega \right)E_{}^\mu `$. The perpendicular component may be determined by taking a second proper time derivative whence, to lowest order,

$`\omega ^2\delta u_{}^\mu =`$ $`i\omega {\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}E_{}^\mu `$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta \left({\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}E_\nu +{\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}\epsilon _{\nu \gamma \sigma \epsilon }\overline{u}^\sigma ^\epsilon \delta u_{}^\gamma \right)`$
$`=`$ $`i\omega {\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}E_{}^\mu +\left({\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}\right)^2\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta E_\nu `$ (26)
$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}\right)^2^\nu _\nu \delta u_{}^\mu .`$
Defining $`\omega _B^2(e/m)^2^\mu _\mu `$ and solving for $`J_{}^\mu =en\delta u_{}^\mu `$ gives

$$\delta u_{}^\mu =\frac{\omega _P^2}{4\pi \left(\omega _B^2\omega ^2\right)}\left(i\omega g^{\mu \nu }+\frac{e}{m}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta \right)E_\nu .$$
(27)
After substituting in the expressions for $`E_{}^\mu `$ and $`E_{}^\mu `$ the total current is given by

$`J^\mu `$ $`=J_{}^\mu +J_{}^\mu `$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{\omega _P^2}{4\pi i\omega \left(\omega _B^2\omega ^2\right)}}(\omega ^2g^{\mu \nu }+\omega _B^2{\displaystyle \frac{^\nu ^\mu }{^\alpha _\alpha }}`$ (28)
$`i\omega {\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta )E_\nu .`$
As a result, the conductivity tensor can be identified as

$$\begin{array}{c}\sigma _{\mu \nu }=\frac{\omega _P^2}{4\pi i\omega \left(\omega _B^2\omega ^2\right)}(\omega ^2g_{\mu \nu }+\omega _B^2\frac{_\nu _\mu }{^\alpha _\alpha }\hfill \\ \hfill i\omega \frac{e}{m}\epsilon _{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}^\alpha ^\beta ).\end{array}$$
(29)
In a flat space, the spatial components of this can be compared to the standard result (see e.g. Boyd & Sanderson, 1969; Dendy, 1990).

### 2.4 Ohm’s Law for Warm Plasmas

For AGN and X-ray binaries, accreting plasma near the central compact object will in general be hot. Even in low luminosity AGN, accreting electrons can have $`\gamma `$’s on the order of $`1010^3`$ (see e.g. Melia & Falcke, 2001; Narayan et al., 1998). In these environments assumption (ii) in §2.3, that the motions of the electrons are non-relativistic, is no longer valid.

For warm plasmas, ones in which the thermal velocities of the electrons are significant compared to the phase velocities of the modes, it is possible to determine the conductivities using the Vlasov equation just as in flat space (see e.g. Dendy, 1990; Boyd & Sanderson, 1969; Montgomery & Tidman, 1964):

$$u^\mu \left(\frac{f}{x^\mu }\right)_{p^\mu }+_{\text{EM}}^\mu \left(\frac{f}{p^\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }=0,$$
(30)
where $`p^\mu `$ and $`f`$ are the momentum and distribution function of the electrons, respectively. The average plasma velocity, $`\overline{u}^\mu `$, must now be averaged over temperature in addition to the induced oscillations. Note that unlike the analyses of warm plasmas in flat space, this must now be done in a manifestly covariant way. At this point it is necessary to determine the form of the force, $`_{\text{EM}}^\mu `$, under which the system is evolving.

#### 2.4.1 Isotropic Warm Electron Plasma

In this case $`_{\text{EM}}^\mu =F^{\mu \nu }eu_\nu `$. Hence expanding the distribution function in terms of the order parameter introduced in §2.3.1 to first order, $`f=f_0+ϵf_1+𝒪(ϵ^2)`$, and inserting into equation (30) gives

$$u^\mu \left(\frac{f_1}{x^\mu }\right)_{p^\mu }+eF^{\mu \nu }u_\nu \left(\frac{f_0}{p^\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }=0.$$
(31)
Considering the lowest order in the two length scale expansion of §2.1, this may now be solved for $`f_1`$:

$$f_1=\frac{ieu_\nu }{u^\alpha k_\alpha }F^{\mu \nu }\left(\frac{f_0}{p^\mu }\right)_{x^\mu },$$
(32)
which is the covariant analogue of the expressions found in the kinetic theory literature (see e.g. Dendy, 1990).

Assuming that the plasma was originally charge neutral the current density is related to the perturbation in the distribution function, $`f_1`$, by

$$J^\mu =ed^4pf_1u^\mu .$$

Then, using equation (10) this may be written in terms of $`E^\mu `$ as

$$\begin{array}{c}J^\mu =\frac{ie^2}{\omega }k^\alpha E^\nu d^4p\frac{u^\mu }{u^\beta k_\beta }[u_\alpha \left(\frac{f_0}{p^\nu }\right)_{x^\mu }\hfill \\ \hfill u_\nu \left(\frac{f_0}{p^\alpha }\right)_{x^\mu }].\end{array}$$
(33)
From this it is clear that the conductivity tensor is

$$\begin{array}{c}\sigma _\nu ^\mu =\frac{ie^2}{\omega m}k^\alpha d^4p\frac{p^\mu }{p^\beta k_\beta }[p_\alpha \left(\frac{f_0}{p^\nu }\right)_{x^\mu }\hfill \\ \hfill p_\nu \left(\frac{f_0}{p^\alpha }\right)_{x^\mu }].\end{array}$$
(34)
In order to make a connection with the expression derived in the previous section it is convenient to integrate this by parts,

$$\begin{array}{c}\sigma _{\mu \nu }=\frac{ie^2}{\omega m}d^4p[g_{\mu \nu }\frac{k_\mu p_\nu +k_\nu p_\mu }{p_\alpha k^\alpha }\hfill \\ \hfill +\frac{k_\alpha k^\alpha p_\mu p_\nu }{\left(p_\beta k^\beta \right)^2}]f_0,\end{array}$$
(35)
where the boundary terms vanish by virtue of the convergence of $`d^4pf_0`$. For the cold plasma, $`f_0=n\delta ^4(p^\mu m\overline{u}^\mu )`$, thus,

$$\sigma _{\mu \nu }=\frac{\omega _P^2}{4\pi i\omega }\left(g_{\mu \nu }+\frac{k_\mu \overline{u}_\nu +k_\nu \overline{u}_\mu }{\omega }+\frac{k_\alpha k^\alpha \overline{u}_\mu \overline{u}_\nu }{\omega ^2}\right).$$
(36)
This differs from the result in §2.3.1 in two respects: terms proportional to $`\overline{u}_\mu `$ and the term proportional to $`k_\mu `$. Because the conductivity enters Maxwell’s equations only through a contraction with the electric four-vector, the former are superfluous. The latter represents the sonic mode which appears in the kinetic calculation of the conductivity only in the form of an infinite wavelength mode. For the two transverse electromagnetic modes ($`E^\mu k_\mu =0`$) this does agree.

#### 2.4.2 Magnetoactive Warm Electron Plasma

In the presence of an external magnetic field $`_{\text{EM}}^\mu `$ has a zeroth order contribution:

$$_{\text{EM}}^\mu =eF^{\mu \nu }u_\nu +eF_{\text{Ex}}^{\mu \nu }u_\nu ,$$
(37)
where, in terms of the external magnetic field (again defined in the LFCR frame), $`F_{\text{Ex}}^{\mu \nu }\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta `$, (cf. equation (3)). Expanding the Vlasov equation in the perturbation parameter $`ϵ`$ to first order and in the two length scale expansion (§2.1) now gives,

$$iu^\mu k_\mu f_1+\frac{e}{m}F_{\text{Ex}}^{\mu \nu }p_\nu \left(\frac{f_1}{p^\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }=\frac{e}{m}F^{\mu \nu }p_\nu \left(\frac{f_0}{p^\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }.$$
(38)
At this point it is useful to introduce a function $`\eta `$ defined implicitly by

$$\frac{d}{d\eta }=\frac{e}{m}F_{\text{Ex}}^{\mu \nu }p_\nu \left(\frac{}{p^\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }.$$
(39)
(cf. Lifshitz & Pitaevskii, 1981; Krall & Trivelpiece, 1973). In terms of $`\eta `$, the electron momenta are determined by the equation

$$\frac{dp^\mu }{d\eta }=\frac{e}{m}F_{\text{Ex}}^{\mu \nu }p_\nu =\frac{e}{m}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta p_\nu .$$
(40)
As in the cold case, this may be reduced to a two dimensional problem by an appropriate decomposition of the momentum:

$$p_t^\mu =\left(p_\nu \overline{u}^\nu \right)\overline{u}^\mu ,p_{}^\mu =\left(\frac{^\nu p_\nu }{^\alpha _\alpha }\right)^\mu ,$$

$$p_{}^\mu =p^\mu p_t^\mu p_{}^\mu ,$$
(41)
In terms of these, the system of equations for $`p^\mu `$ reduce to

$$\frac{dp_t^\mu }{d\eta }=0,$$

$$\frac{dp_{}^\mu }{d\eta }=0,$$
(42)
$$\frac{dp_{}^\mu }{d\eta }=\frac{e}{m}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta p_\nu .$$

This last equation is simply that governing cyclotron motion. Using the fact that $`d/d\eta `$ commutes with the metric (this is because the metric depends only upon $`x^\mu `$ and not $`p^\mu `$) it may be rewritten as a pair of uncoupled, second order ordinary differential equations:

$$\frac{d^2p_{}^\mu }{d\eta ^2}+\omega _B^2p_{}^\mu =0.$$
(43)
This has solutions

$$p_{}^\mu =p_x^\mu \mathrm{cos}(\omega _B\eta +\varphi _0)+p_y^\mu \mathrm{sin}(\omega _B\eta +\varphi _0),$$
(44)
where $`p_x^\mu `$ and $`p_y^\mu `$ are a pair of bases which span the space perpendicular to $`\overline{u}^\mu `$ and $`^\mu `$, and $`\varphi _0`$ is a phase factor. By inserting this solution into equation (40) and matching up trigonometric terms, $`p_y^\mu `$ can be found in terms of $`p_x^\mu `$,

$$p_y^\mu =\frac{1}{\omega _B}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta p_{x\beta }.$$
(45)
It is possible to now solve for $`\eta `$ in terms of $`p^\mu `$, $`p_x^\mu `$, and $`\varphi _0`$:

$$\eta =\frac{1}{\omega _B}\left[\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{e\epsilon _{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }p^\mu p_x^\nu \overline{u}^\alpha ^\beta }{m\omega _Bp_x^\xi p_\xi }\right)\varphi _0\right].$$
(46)
Inserting $`p^\mu (\eta )`$ into $`f_1`$ and $`f_0`$ transform equation (38) into a first order differential equation for $`f_1`$. This has solution

$$f_1=\left(\mu ^1\mu \beta _\mu 𝑑\eta \right)E^\mu ,$$
(47)
where

$$\beta _\mu \frac{e}{\omega m}k^\nu \left[p_\nu \left(\frac{f_0}{p^\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }p_\mu \left(\frac{f_0}{p^\nu }\right)_{x^\mu }\right],$$
(48)
$$\mu \mathrm{exp}\left(ik_\mu \frac{p^\mu }{m}𝑑\eta \right).$$
(49)
The integral for $`\mu `$ may be rewritten in terms of $`p^\mu `$ by using equations (42) and (43),

$$\left(p_t^\mu +p_{}^\mu \right)𝑑\eta =\left(p_t^\mu +p_{}^\mu \right)\eta ,$$
(50)
$`{\displaystyle p_{}^\mu 𝑑\eta }`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega _B^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^2p_{}^\mu }{d\eta ^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega _B^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{dp_{}^\mu }{d\eta }}`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega _B^2}}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta p_\nu .`$ (51)
Thus,

$$\begin{array}{c}\mu =\mathrm{exp}\{i[(\omega \overline{u}_\mu \frac{^\nu k_\nu }{_\alpha ^\alpha }_\mu )\eta \hfill \\ \hfill \frac{1}{\omega _B^2}\epsilon _{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }k^\nu \overline{u}^\alpha ^\beta ]\frac{p^\mu }{m}\}.\end{array}$$
(52)
With equation (44) this may be treated as a function of $`\eta `$, while with equation (46) this may be treated as a function of $`p^\mu `$.

As in the previous case, the current four-vector is then found by integrating over the momentum portion of the phase space. This gives the conductivity tensor to be

$$\sigma _\nu ^\mu =\frac{e}{m}d^4pp^\mu \left[\mu ^1\mu \beta _\nu 𝑑\eta \right]\left(p^\mu \right),$$
(53)
where it has been emphasised that the interior integral is to be treated as a function of the momenta.

#### 2.4.3 Conductivity in Quasi-Longitudinal Approximation

In general, the integrals over $`\eta `$ in equation (53) can be evaluated in terms of sums of Bessel functions in an analogous fashion to that typically done for the non-relativistic case (see e.g. Krall & Trivelpiece, 1973). Nonetheless, this can be significantly simplified by considering the case where (i) $`f_0`$ is a function of $`𝒫^2p^\mu p_\mu `$ and $`ϵp^\mu \overline{u}_\mu `$ only (typically $`f_0`$ can be written in the form $`f(ϵ)\delta (𝒫^2m^2)`$ where the delta function is required to place the distribution on the mass-shell), (ii) $`\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta k_\mu =0`$ (i.e.the quasi-longitudinal approximation), (iii) $`\omega _B\omega `$, and (iv) $`f_0`$ is such that $`p^\mu \overline{u}_\mu /m11`$ (i.e.cool, not hot).

Assumption (i) simplifies $`\beta _\mu `$,

$$\beta ^\mu =\frac{e}{m\omega }\frac{f_0}{ϵ}k_\nu \left(\overline{u}^\mu p^\nu \overline{u}^\nu p^\mu \right).$$
(54)
Note that because $`ϵ`$ is independent of $`\eta `$, the terms involving $`f_0`$ can now be brought out of the innermost integral in equation (53). Assumption (ii) gives that $`k_\mu p_{}^\mu =0`$ and hence,

$$\mu =\mathrm{e}^{i\varpi \eta },$$
(55)
where $`\varpi k^\mu p_\mu /m`$. Therefore, the two integrals that must be done are

$$p_{}^\mu \mathrm{e}^{i\varpi \eta }𝑑\eta =p_{}^\mu \frac{\mu }{i\varpi },$$
(56)
and

$$\begin{array}{c}p_{}^\mu \mathrm{e}^{i\varpi \eta }𝑑\eta =\hfill \\ \hfill \left(g^{\mu \nu }\frac{e}{i\varpi m}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}_\alpha _\beta \right)p_\nu \frac{\varpi ^2}{\varpi ^2\omega _B^2}\frac{\mu }{i\varpi }.\end{array}$$
(57)
Therefore, in the quasi-longitudinal approximation,

$$\begin{array}{c}f_1=\frac{e}{i\varpi m}\frac{f_0}{ϵ}\frac{1}{\varpi ^2\omega _B^2}[\varpi ^2g_{\mu \nu }\omega _B^2\frac{_\mu _\nu }{^\alpha _\alpha }\hfill \\ \hfill +\frac{i\varpi e}{m}\epsilon _{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}^\alpha ^\beta ]p^\nu E^\mu ,\end{array}$$
(58)
where the definitions of $`p_{}^\mu `$, $`p_{}^\mu `$, and $`E^\mu `$ were used. In the quasi-longitudinal approximation, $`E^\mu `$ is orthogonal to the external magnetic field, $`^\mu `$. As a result, the there are only two integrals that must be done in order to find the conductivity tensor:

$`I_1^{\mu \nu }`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i\omega }{m}}{\displaystyle d^4p\frac{i\varpi }{\varpi ^2\omega _B^2}p^\mu p^\nu \frac{f_0}{ϵ}}`$
$`I_2^{\mu \nu }`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i\omega }{m}}{\displaystyle d^4p\frac{1}{\varpi ^2\omega _B^2}p^\mu p^\nu \frac{f_0}{ϵ}}.`$ (59)
In terms of these, the conductivity is

$$\sigma _\nu ^\mu =\frac{e^2}{i\omega m}\left(I_1^{\mu \gamma }g_{\gamma \nu }\frac{e}{m}I_2^{\mu \gamma }\epsilon _{\nu \gamma \alpha \beta }\overline{u}^\alpha ^\beta \right).$$
(60)
From equation (54) it follows that

$$\begin{array}{c}p_\mu p_\nu \frac{f_0}{ϵ}=\frac{p_\mu k^\alpha }{\omega }\left(p_\alpha \frac{f_0}{p^\nu }p_\nu \frac{f_0}{p^\alpha }\right)\hfill \\ \hfill \frac{k^\alpha p_\alpha }{\omega }p_\mu \overline{u}_\nu \frac{f_0}{ϵ}.\end{array}$$
(61)
Noting that the $`I^{\mu \nu }`$ will only be contracted on the second index with terms orthogonal to $`\overline{u}^\mu `$ (for $`I_1^{\mu \nu }`$ this is the electric field), the $`I^{\mu \nu }`$ are given by,

$`I_1^{\mu \nu }`$ $`=i{\displaystyle d^4p\frac{i\varpi }{\varpi ^2\omega _B^2}p^\mu \left(\varpi g^{\nu \alpha }\frac{p^\nu k^\alpha }{m}\right)\frac{f_0}{p^\alpha }}`$
$`I_2^{\mu \nu }`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i}{m}}{\displaystyle d^4p\frac{1}{\varpi ^2\omega _B^2}p^\mu \left(\varpi g^{\nu \alpha }p^\nu k^\alpha \right)\frac{f_0}{p^\alpha }}.`$ (62)
Because there is already a term linear in $`\omega _B`$ in equation (60), to lowest order in assumption (iii) $`\omega _B^2`$ may be neglected in the $`I^{\mu \nu }`$. Thus,

$`I_1^{\mu \nu }`$ $`={\displaystyle d^4pp^\mu \left(g^{\nu \alpha }\frac{p^\nu k^\alpha }{m\varpi }\right)\frac{f_0}{p^\alpha }}`$
$`I_2^{\mu \nu }`$ $`=i{\displaystyle d^4p\frac{p^\mu }{\varpi }\left(g^{\nu \alpha }\frac{p^\nu k^\alpha }{m\varpi }\right)\frac{f_0}{p^\alpha }}.`$ (63)
These may be integrated by parts to produce

$`I_1^{\mu \nu }`$ $`={\displaystyle d^4pf_0\left(g^{\mu \nu }\frac{p^\mu k^\nu +p^\nu k^\mu }{m\varpi }+\frac{p^\mu p^\nu }{m^2\varpi ^2}k^\alpha k_\alpha \right)}`$
$`I_2^{\mu \nu }`$ $`=i{\displaystyle d^4p\frac{f_0}{\varpi }\left(g^{\mu \nu }\frac{2p^\mu k^\nu +p^\nu k^\mu }{m\varpi }+2\frac{p^\mu p^\nu }{m^2\varpi ^2}k^\alpha k_\alpha \right)}.`$ (64)
Note that in this case, $`I_1^{\mu \nu }`$ is simply the integral that had to be done for the warm isotropic plasma (cf.equation (35)).

Assumption (iv) enters by expanding $`\varpi `$ about $`\omega `$. Define $`\mathrm{}^2ϵ^2m^2`$, i.e. $`\mathrm{}`$ is the magnitude of the spatial components of the momentum in the LFCR frame. Then, to second order in $`\mathrm{}`$,

$$\begin{array}{c}\varpi ^j(\omega )^j[1j\left(\frac{p^\mu _\mu k^\nu _\nu }{m\omega ^\alpha _\alpha }\right)\hfill \\ \hfill +\frac{j(j1)}{2}\left(\frac{p^\mu _\mu k^\nu _\nu }{m\omega ^\alpha _\alpha }\right)^2+j\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m^2}].\end{array}$$
(65)
Thus,

$`I_1^{\mu \nu }`$ $`{\displaystyle d^4pf_0\left(g^{\mu \nu }+\frac{p^\mu p^\nu }{m^2}\frac{k^\alpha k_\alpha }{\omega ^2}\right)}`$
$`I_2^{\mu \nu }`$ $`i{\displaystyle }d^4p{\displaystyle \frac{f_0}{\omega }}\{[1{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m^2}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{p^\mu _\mu k^\nu _\nu }{m\omega ^\alpha _\alpha }}\right)^2]g^{\mu \nu }`$
$`+2{\displaystyle \frac{p^\mu p^\nu }{m^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{k^\alpha k_\alpha }{\omega ^2}}\},`$ (66)
where terms odd in $`p^\mu `$ and terms $`k^\nu `$ have been dropped. The former is due to the fact that $`f_0`$ has been chosen to be an isotropic function of the spatial components of the momentum in the LFCR frame and hence any odd terms will vanish upon integration. The latter is allowed because, as stated earlier, these will only have significance when contracted with terms orthogonal to $`k^\mu `$ (for $`I_2^{\mu \nu }`$ this is results from the quasi-longitudinal approximation in which $`k^\mu `$ can be written in terms of $`\overline{u}^\mu `$ and $`^\mu `$ only). From symmetry it is clear that

$$d^4pf_0\frac{\left(p^\mu _\mu \right)^2}{^\alpha _\alpha }=\frac{1}{3}nm^2f_0_2,$$
(67)
where

$$f_0_2\frac{1}{nm^2}d^4pf_0\mathrm{}^2.$$
(68)
In addition, the off-diagonal components of the integrals over $`p^\mu p^\nu `$ will vanish due to the symmetry of $`f_0`$. Because adding terms $`\overline{u}^\nu `$ will not alter the physical solutions, it is possible to replace $`d^4pp^\mu p^\nu f_0`$ with $`\frac{1}{3}nm^2f_0_2g^{\mu \nu }`$. Lastly, note that

$$\frac{\left(k^\nu _\nu \right)^2}{^\alpha _\alpha }=\omega ^2+k^\alpha k_\alpha .$$
(69)
Therefore, the $`I^{\mu \nu }`$ are given by

$$I_1^{\mu \nu }n_1g^{\mu \nu }\text{and}I_2^{\mu \nu }\frac{n}{i\omega }_2g^{\mu \nu },$$
(70)
where

$`_1`$ $`1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{k^\alpha k_\alpha }{\omega ^2}}f_0_2`$
$`_2`$ $`1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}f_0_2+{\displaystyle \frac{k^\alpha k_\alpha }{\omega ^2}}f_0_2.`$ (71)
Because the terms multiplying $`_2`$ in the conductivity are already of first order (the order of $`\omega _B`$ is necessarily equal to or smaller than that of $`\mathrm{}`$ for the approximations thus far to hold), to second order in small quantities in the conductivity, $`_21`$. As a result, with the lowest order finite temperature corrections the conductivity is given by

$$\sigma _{\mu \nu }\frac{\omega _P^2}{4\pi i\omega }\left(_1g_{\mu \nu }\frac{e}{i\omega m}\epsilon _{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}^\alpha ^\beta \right)$$
(72)
For the cold plasma $`_1=1`$ and this does reduce to the appropriate expansion of the conductivity derived in §2.3.2.

### 2.5 Dispersion Relations

Given the conductivities derived in §2.3 & §2.4 it is now possible to obtain the associated dispersion relations. It is instructive to compare these to the dispersion relation for massive particles (de Broglie waves):

$$D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )=k^\mu k_\mu +m^2.$$
(73)
That this does produce the time-like geodesics when inserted into the ray equations is demonstrated in appendix A.

#### 2.5.1 Isotropic Electron Plasma

The conductivity tensor obtained in §2.3.1 for the isotropic cold electron plasma yields the dispersion tensor

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu =\left(k^\alpha k_\alpha +\omega _P^2\right)\delta _\nu ^\mu k^\mu k_\nu .$$
(74)
For the transverse modes, this gives the dispersion relation

$$D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )=k^\mu k_\mu +\omega _P^2,$$
(75)
(cf. Kulsrud & Loeb, 1992). For constant density plasmas this is nothing more than the massive particle equation, cf. equation (73). For plasmas with spatially varying densities this leads to a variable effective “mass”. Hence in general, photons in plasmas will not follow geodesics. This is a representation of the refractive nature of the plasma.

#### 2.5.2 Quasi-Longitudinal Approximation for the Cold Electron Plasma

When magnetic fields are present it is necessary to utilise the conductivity tensor obtained in §2.3.2. In the quasi-longitudinal approximation the wave four-vector is parallel to the external magnetic field. In this approximation, the modes are transverse. This follows from the fact that in the LFCR frame this is true and that since this is a local property expressible in covariant form, it must also be true in an arbitrary frame. This can be explicitly verified by comparison with the results of §2.5.5 where the general case is considered.

Under these conditions the dispersion tensor takes the form

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu =\alpha \delta _\nu ^\mu i\gamma M_\nu ^\mu ,$$
(76)
where $`\alpha `$, $`\gamma `$, and $`M_{\mu \nu }`$ are defined by

$$\alpha k^\mu k_\mu \delta \omega ^2,\gamma \delta \omega \left(\frac{e}{m}\right),$$
(77)
$$\delta \frac{\omega _P^2}{\omega _B^2\omega ^2},M_{\mu \nu }=M_{\nu \mu }\epsilon _{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}^\alpha ^\beta .$$

Taking the determinant of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu `$ yields

$`det\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu `$ $`=\alpha ^4\alpha ^2\gamma ^2^\mu _\mu `$
$`=\alpha ^2\left(\alpha \delta \omega \omega _B\right)\left(\alpha +\delta \omega \omega _B\right)=0.`$ (78)
The two modes corresponding to $`\alpha =0`$ are the sonic mode and the unphysical mode proportional to $`\overline{u}^\mu `$ which is eliminated by the condition that $`\overline{u}_\mu E^\mu =0`$. The other two modes have dispersion relations

$`D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )`$ $`=\alpha \pm \delta \omega \omega _B`$
$`=k^\mu k_\mu +{\displaystyle \frac{\omega \omega _P^2}{\omega \pm \omega _B}}.`$ (79)
As with equation (75), this dispersion relation also has a term that could be identified with the mass in equation (73). In contrast with equation (75), now that “mass” depends upon the polarisation eigenmode. As a result, different eigenmodes will propagate differently. Again this is an expression of the dispersive nature of a magnetised plasma.

In addition to dispersion, a noticeable departure from its non-relativistic analogue is the presence of $`k_\mu `$ in the definition of $`\omega `$. This is not surprising since it is the most general Lorentz covariant extension of the quasi-longitudinal dispersion relation. Of interest is the fact that the dispersion relation is now cubic in the magnitude of $`\stackrel{}{k}`$, $`\kappa `$. Because two roots clearly exist in the low density limit, a third root must also exist. This results in a new branch in the dispersion relation. This will be explored in more detail in §3.1.

#### 2.5.3 Quasi-Longitudinal Approximation for the Warm Electron Plasma

For the conductivity derived in §2.4.3, this is identical to the previous section, where $`\alpha `$ and $`\delta `$, are replaced by $`k^\mu k_\mu +_1\omega _P^2`$ and $`\omega _P^2/\omega ^2`$. Then,

$`D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )`$ $`=\alpha \pm \omega _P^2{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _B}{\omega }}`$
$`=k^\mu k_\mu +_1\omega _P^2\pm \omega _P^2{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _B}{\omega }}`$
$`=\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _P^2}{\omega ^2}}f_0_2\right)k^\mu k_\mu +\omega _P^2\pm \omega _P^2{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _B}{\omega }}.`$ (80)
For a thermal electron distribution, $`f_0_2=3kT/m`$ and hence

$$\frac{1}{3}\frac{\omega _P^2}{\omega ^2}f_0_2=\frac{\omega _T^2}{\omega ^2}\text{where}\omega _T^2=\frac{kT}{m}\omega _P^2.$$
(81)
Note that $`\omega _T`$ is related to the Debye frequency, $`\omega _D`$, by $`\omega _T=\omega _P^2/\omega _D`$. Thus, including the lowest order finite temperature corrections, the dispersion relation in the quasi-longitudinal approximation is

$$D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )=\left(1+\frac{\omega _T^2}{\omega ^2}\right)k^\mu k_\mu +\omega _P^2\pm \omega _P^2\frac{\omega _B}{\omega }.$$
(82)
#### 2.5.4 General Magnetoactive Cold Pair Plasma

The conductivity for the pair plasma may be obtained by adding the conductivities for the electrons and the positrons,

$`\sigma _{\mu \nu }^{\text{pair}}`$ $`=\sigma _{\mu \nu }^e^{}+\sigma _{\mu \nu }^{e^+}`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{\omega _P^2}{4\pi i\omega \left(\omega _B^2\omega ^2\right)}}\left(\omega ^2g_{\mu \nu }+\omega _B^2{\displaystyle \frac{_\nu _\mu }{^\alpha _\alpha }}\right),`$ (83)
where now the plasma frequency is defined in terms of the sum of the number densities of the electrons and positrons. The resulting dispersion tensor is

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mu \nu }=\alpha g_{\mu \nu }k_\mu k_\nu +\beta _\mu _\nu ,$$
(84)
where $`\alpha `$, $`\gamma `$, $`\delta `$, and $`M_{\mu \nu }`$ are defined as in equation (77), and $`\beta \delta (e/m)^2`$. In addition to the requirement that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu E^\nu =0`$, $`E^\mu `$ must be orthogonal to $`\overline{u}^\mu `$. As a result, it is necessary to alter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu `$ in such a way that it explicitly separates the eigenmodes orthogonal to $`\overline{u}^\mu `$ from the unphysical mode. This can be trivially accomplished by adding a term $`\omega k_\mu \overline{u}_\nu `$ to the dispersion tensor. Note that this does not change the dispersion equation for the physical modes because $`E^\mu \overline{u}_\mu =0`$. Thus, consider

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mu \nu }=\alpha g_{\mu \nu }k_\mu \left(k_\nu \omega \overline{u}_\nu \right)+\beta _\mu _\nu ,$$
(85)
instead of the dispersion tensor given in equation (84). For this dispersion tensor, the unphysical mode is trivially found to be $`\overline{u}^\mu `$, with dispersion relation $`D=\alpha `$. As in §2.5.2 the dispersion relations can be found by taking the determinant of the dispersion tensor:

$$\begin{array}{c}det\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu =(1+\delta )\omega ^2\alpha ^2[\alpha +\delta \omega _B^2\hfill \\ \hfill \frac{\delta }{1+\delta }\left(\frac{e^\mu k_\mu }{m\omega }\right)^2],\end{array}$$
(86)
where the definition of $`\alpha `$ was used. Therefore, the dispersion relations for the two electromagnetic modes are

$`D_1(k_\mu ,x^\mu )`$ $`=k^\mu k_\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\omega _P^2}{\omega _B^2\omega ^2}}`$ (87)
$`D_2(k_\mu ,x^\mu )`$ $`=k^\mu k_\mu +\omega _P^2{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _P^2}{\omega _P^2+\omega _B^2\omega ^2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{e^\mu k_\mu }{m\omega }}\right)^2.`$
It is straightforward to show that $`D_1`$ and $`D_2`$ correspond to the extraordinary and ordinary modes, respectively, by considering the transverse limit ($`^\mu k_\mu =0`$).

#### 2.5.5 General Magnetoactive Cold Electron Plasma

For the general case, no approximations, except those used to derive equations (12) and (29), are made. In this case, inserting the conductivity tensor obtained in §2.3.2 into equation (13) gives

$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mu \nu }=k^\alpha k_\alpha g_{\mu \nu }k_\mu k_\nu \frac{\omega _P^2}{\left(\omega _B^2\omega ^2\right)}(\omega ^2g_{\mu \nu }\hfill \\ \hfill \omega _B^2\frac{_\mu _\nu }{^\alpha _\alpha }+i\omega \frac{e}{m}\epsilon _{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }\overline{u}^\alpha ^\beta ).\end{array}$$
(88)
Collecting the coefficients of like tensors gives

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu =\alpha \delta _\nu ^\mu k^\mu k_\nu +\beta ^\mu _\nu i\gamma M_\nu ^\mu ,$$
(89)
where $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$, $`\gamma `$, $`\delta `$, and $`M_{\mu \nu }`$ are defined as in §2.5.2 and §2.5.4. As in the previous section, it is useful to add a term proportional to $`\overline{u}_\nu E^\nu `$ to the dispersion equation. Hence consider

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu =\alpha \delta _\nu ^\mu k^\mu \left(k_\nu \omega \overline{u}_\nu \right)+\beta ^\mu _\nu i\gamma M_\nu ^\mu .$$
(90)
Proceeding as in the previous sections, the scalar dispersion relations corresponding to the different eigenmodes can be found by considering the determinant of the dispersion tensor:

$$\begin{array}{c}det\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^\mu =\alpha \{\alpha ^3+[\beta ^\mu _\mu (k^\mu k_\mu +\omega ^2)]\alpha ^2\hfill \\ \hfill \left[\delta \omega _B^2\left(k^\mu k_\mu +\omega ^2\right)\delta \left(\frac{e}{m}^\mu k_\mu \right)^2+\delta ^2\omega ^2\omega _B^2\right]\alpha \\ \hfill \delta ^2\omega ^2[\delta \omega _B^4\left(\frac{e}{m}^\mu k_\mu \right)^2]\}.\end{array}$$
(91)
Inserting the definition of $`\alpha `$ reduces the terms in the braces to a quadratic in $`k^\mu k_\mu `$, which may be solved to produce the desired dispersion relation:

$$\begin{array}{c}D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )=\hfill \\ \hfill k^\mu k_\mu \delta \omega ^2\frac{\delta }{2\left(1+\delta \right)}\{[\left(\frac{e^\mu k_\mu }{m\omega }\right)^2(1+2\delta )\omega _B^2]\\ \hfill \pm \sqrt{\left(\frac{e^\mu k_\mu }{m\omega }\right)^4+2\left(2\omega ^2\omega _B^2\omega _P^2\right)\left(\frac{e^\mu k_\mu }{m\omega }\right)^2+\omega _B^4}\}.\end{array}$$
(92)
This is a covariant extension of the Appleton–Hartree dispersion relation (see e.g. Boyd & Sanderson, 1969). As in the previous two sections, this continues to bear a resemblance to the dispersion relation for massive particles. Again the effective “mass” depends upon position and the polarisation eigenmode. Additionally, it now depends upon the direction of propagation relative to the external magnetic field as well.

## 3 Example Applications

In §2 the general theory of a covariant magnetoionic theory was presented for electron-ion (in the Appelton-Hartree limit) and pair plasmas. While astrophysical plasmas will in general be warm, the cold electron plasma does provide a instructive setting in which to highlight some of the similarities and differences that a fully general relativistic magnetoionic theory has compared to general relativity or plasma effects alone.

### 3.1 Bulk Plasma Flows

A number of effects will appear in special relativistic plasma flows. The covariant formulation of magnetoionic theory can have implications for the structure of the dispersion relation. As briefly mentioned in §2.5.2, the equation for the magnitude of the spatial part of the wave vector is now cubic. This is essentially due to Doppler shifting. Thus these effects should appear in relativistic bulk plasma flows as well as in regions of strong frame dragging (e.g.near the ergosphere of a Kerr hole).

For a relativistic bulk flow (in the $`x`$ direction)

$$\omega =\frac{k_tvk_x\mathrm{cos}\theta }{\sqrt{1v^2}},$$
(93)
where $`\theta `$ is the angle between the wave vector and the motion and $`v`$ is the velocity of the motion. Clearly the coupling between the previously mentioned third branch depends upon both $`v`$ and $`\theta `$, being strongest when $`\theta =0`$. Shown in figure 1 are the quasi-longitudinal dispersion relations for a relativistic bulk flow for a number of velocities and magnetic field strengths and $`\theta =0`$. The frequencies are measured in units of the plasma frequency, making this otherwise scale invariant. Note that a whistler-like branch appears for the ordinary mode which is not present in the non-relativistic theories. Similar to the whistler branch of the extraordinary mode, it is asymmetric due to the bulk motion. In the limit of vanishing plasma density this branch does not transform into a vacuum branch, in much the same manner as portions of the whistler. Therefore, this mode cannot escape from the plasma, necessarily reflecting at the surfaces of the plasma distribution. This may have implications for the pressure balance in thick disks with large velocity shears and jets, even at frequencies where these are optically thin.

In bulk plasma flows the new branch appears because the velocity mixes the spatial and temporal components of $`k^\mu `$. In a Kerr spacetime, frame dragging is responsible for mixing these components. In this case

$$\omega =\sqrt{g^{tt}}\left(k_t+\frac{g^{\varphi t}}{g^{tt}}k_\varphi \right).$$
(94)
This is similar to equation (93) with the role of the velocity being taken by $`g^{\varphi t}/g^{tt}`$. Hence, the overall effect is qualitatively the same; a new branch similar to the whistler appears for the ordinary mode.

### 3.2 Isotropic Plasmas and Particle Dynamics

In both special and general relativistic settings, the propagation of photons through an isotropic (field free) plasma can be represented in a manner analogous to that of particle dynamics in a potential (see e.g. Thompson et al., 1994, for the non-relativistic case). Following the manipulations in appendix A, it is straight forward to show that for the dispersion relation given in §2.5.1, $`D=k^\mu k_\mu +\omega _P^2`$, that

$$v^\nu _\nu v^\mu =^\mu 4\omega _P^2,$$
(95)
where $`v^\mu dx^\mu /d\tau `$, i.e. $`4\omega _P^2`$ acts as a potential in which the the photons propagate (the factor of $`4`$ is due to the particular affine parameter chosen, namely that associated with the choice of the dispersion relation given above).

For plasmas in which magnetoionic effects are not significant to the photon propagation (magnetoionic effects may still be important for emission and the propagation of polarisation) this allows a somewhat more simplified analysis. If enough symmetries are present, then the rays may be determined via direct integration. For example, consider a stationary, spherically symmetric plasma distribution around a Schwarzschild black hole. In this case equation (95) shows that $`v_t`$ and $`v_\varphi `$ are conserved, associated with the time and azimuthal Killing vector fields, respectively. Therefore, with the dispersion relation,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dt}{d\tau }}`$ $`=v^t=g^{tt}v_t=\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{2M}{r}}\right)^1v_t`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi }{d\tau }}`$ $`=v^\varphi =g^{\varphi \varphi }v_\varphi ={\displaystyle \frac{v_\varphi }{r^2}}`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dr}{d\tau }}`$ $`=v^r=\sqrt{v_t^2\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{2M}{r}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{L}{r^2}}+4\omega _p^2\right)},`$ (96)
Which may be directly integrated to give the ray as a function of the affine parameter $`\tau `$ in precisely the same fashion as is typically done to find the particle orbits of the Schwarzschild metric.

### 3.3 Photon Capture Cross Sections

In the vicinity of a black hole, polarisation can arise even in the case of a gray emissivity. This occurs when one mode is preferentially captured by the black hole due to dispersive plasma effects. Even without a method for performing the radiative transfer, this can be estimated by considering the photon capture cross section of Schwarzschild black hole. It is necessary to provide a plasma geometry – the plasma density, velocity, and magnetic field – as functions of position. Here, the density is given by the self-similar Bondi solution, $`\omega _Pr^{3/4}`$. The magnetic field is chosen to be a fixed fraction of the equipartion value, $`\omega _Br^{5/4}`$. Finally, the velocity is chosen such that the plasma has zero angular momentum, i.e. $`\overline{u}_t=1/\sqrt{g^{tt}}`$ and $`\overline{u}_r=\overline{u}_\theta =\overline{u}_\varphi =0`$. While this doesn’t correspond to a realistic accretion flow, it does provide insight into the type of effects dispersion can have. In order to further simplify the problem the quasi-longitudinal approximation was used. Typically this is a good approximation, only failing when the angle between $`k^\mu `$ and $`^\mu `$ is within $`\omega _P^2\omega _B/\omega ^3`$ of $`\pi /2`$. This dispersive polarisation mechanism produces primarily circular polarisation for the same reason.

Shown in figure 2 are these cross sections for a number of different plasma densities (through $`\omega _P`$) and magnetic field strengths (through $`\omega _B`$). These are both scaled by the observed frequency at infinity, and hence are not tied to any particular frequency scale. The capture cross section of the extraordinary mode decreases more rapidly than that of the ordinary mode, with increasing density. The disparity between the two capture cross sections increases with increasing magnetic field strength.

This can be a very efficient manner of creating polarisation over the inner portions of the accretion flow. However, far from the hole (outside the inner $`510M`$) this becomes a small effect. As a result, the fraction of polarisation produced depends upon the magnitude of the diluting emission from regions of the accretion flow distant from the hole. Nonetheless, it is possible to parameterise the unknown emission in terms of an effective emitting area (the details of which still depend upon the details of the accretion flow). Shown in the inset of figure 2 is the circular polarisation fraction scaled by the effective emission area in units of the vacuum photon capture cross section.

### 3.4 Tracing Rays

With general dispersion relation for cold magnetoactive plasmas, equation (92), and the ray equations, equations (18), it is straightforward to explicitly construct rays. The plasma geometry outlined in the previous section will be used here as well, with the scales set by $`\omega _P(r=3M)=\omega _{\text{obs}}`$ and $`\omega _B(r=3M)=2\omega _{\text{obs}}`$, where $`\omega _{\text{obs}}`$ is the frequency observed at infinity. In figure 3 rays are propagated in the vicinity of a Schwarzschild black hole. For comparison, in figure 4 rays are propagated near a maximally rotating Kerr black hole. The null geodesics are shown by the dotted lines for reference. In both figures the extraordinary mode (solid lines) is refracted the most, and the ordinary mode (dashed lines) is refracted more than the null geodesics. This is precisely what is expected on the basis of the capture cross sections presented in §3.3. In addition to dispersive plasma effects, comparison with the null geodesics demonstrates that general relativistic effects are also significant.

### 3.5 Intensity and Polarisation Maps

The impact that dispersive plasma effects can have upon the spectrum of an accreting object can be illustrated by maps of the intensity. Here, in addition to the plasma geometry employed in the previous two sections, an optically thick Shakura-Sunyaev disk is introduced. The emission is solely from this disk and assumed to be thermal with

$$T(r)\left(1\sqrt{R_{\text{min}}/r}\right)^{3/10}$$

(see e.g. Frank et al., 1992). The overall constant is dependent upon a number of disk parameters and hence is not of particular interest here. Nonetheless, it is chosen such that $`kT(r=\mathrm{})=\nu _{\text{obs}}`$ for convenience. The innermost radius of the disk, $`R_{\text{min}}`$, is chosen to be $`3M`$. Doppler effects due to the rotation of the disk are ignored here.

Shown in figure 5 are the intensity maps for when (a) plasma effects are neglected, (b) plasma effects are included, (c) only the left-handed circular polarisation (ordinary mode) is considered, (d) only the right-handed circular polarisation (extraordinary mode) is considered. Because the overall flux from the disk is dependent upon the details of the accretion flow, the intensities are normalised by the highest intensity in panel (b). Comparing panels (a) and (b) demonstrates that including dispersive plasma effects makes a significant difference. This difference originates primarily from contribution by the extraordinary mode shown in panel (d).

As implied by figure 2, the shadow the black hole casts upon the extraordinary mode is less than that cast upon the ordinary mode, which is in turn less than that upon the null geodesics. In addition to the differences in the overall intensities, there is a substantial difference between the contributions from the two polarisations as seen by comparing panels (c) and (d).

## 4 Conclusions

The covariant magnetoionic theory developed here is distinct in many respects from the non-relativistic theory. Firstly, it qualitatively changes the topology of the dispersion relations, adding an entirely new branch, as shown in §3.1. Secondly, it allows the inclusion of gravitational lensing effects, vital for application to compact accreting objects. In addition, as shown in §3.3 and §3.4, dispersion due to plasma effects can have a significant impact upon the propagation of photons in a dense plasma environment near a black hole. As demonstrated in §3.5, this will lead to a modification of the spectrum. As a result, studies which neglect dispersive plasma effects may be inappropriate when the observation frequencies are near the plasma and/or cyclotron frequencies.

On the other hand, because plasma effects have the capability of altering the spectrum, it is possible for the underlying plasma to be observationally probed using polarised flux measurements. For example, if the horizon of the black hole in the Galactic centre can be imaged (cf. Falcke et al., 2000), observations of the polarisation map could easily distinguish the nondispersive from the dispersive case, placing limits upon the local magnetic field strength and plasma density. Integrated values for the polarisation could yield useful information about the environments of other accreting systems, such as X-ray binaries and pulsars. Because these effects can be expected to be confined to the decade in frequency surrounding the plasma frequency, they should be easily distinguishable from the effects of different accretion models.

## Acknowledgements

The authors would like thank Eric Agol and Yasser Rathore for a number of useful conversations and comments regarding this work. This has been supported by NASA grants 5-2837 and 5-12032.

## Appendix A Geodesic Motion in the Dispersion Formalism

Given the dispersion relation in equation (73),

$$D(k_\mu ,x^\mu )=k^\mu k_\mu m^2,$$

and the ray equations (18),

$$\frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }=\left(\frac{D}{k_\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }\text{and}\frac{dk_\mu }{d\tau }=\left(\frac{D}{x^\mu }\right)_{k_\mu },$$

it is possible to derive the geodesic equation. The partial derivatives on the right side of the ray equations are

$$\left(\frac{D}{k_\mu }\right)_{x^\mu }=2k^\mu ,$$
(97)
and

$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{D}{x^\mu }}\right)_{k_\mu }`$ $`=\left({\displaystyle \frac{k_\alpha k_\beta g^{\alpha \beta }}{x^\mu }}\right)_{k_\mu }=k_\alpha k_\beta {\displaystyle \frac{g^{\alpha \beta }}{x^\mu }}`$
$`=k^\alpha k^\beta g_{\alpha \beta ,\mu }.`$ (98)
Combining the ray equations gives

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2x^\mu }{d\tau ^2}}`$ $`=2{\displaystyle \frac{dk^\mu }{d\tau }}=2{\displaystyle \frac{dk_\nu g^{\mu \nu }}{d\tau }}`$
$`=2k_\nu {\displaystyle \frac{dx^\alpha }{d\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{g^{\mu \nu }}{x^\alpha }}+2g^{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{dk_\mu }{d\tau }}`$
$`=4k^\beta k^\alpha g^{\mu \nu }g_{\beta \nu ,\alpha }+2g^{\mu \nu }k^\alpha k^\beta g_{\alpha \beta ,\mu }`$
$`=4k^\alpha k^\beta {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g^{\mu \nu }\left(g_{\alpha \nu ,\beta }+g_{\beta \nu ,\alpha }g_{\alpha \beta ,\nu }\right)`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{dx^\alpha }{d\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{dx^\beta }{d\tau }}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\alpha \beta }^\mu ,`$ (99)
where the definition of the Christoffel symbol was used, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\alpha \beta }^\mu \frac{1}{2}g^{\mu \nu }\left(g_{\alpha \nu ,\beta }+g_{\beta \nu ,\alpha }g_{\alpha \beta ,\nu }\right)`$. Collecting terms on the left produces the well known geodesic equation:

$$\frac{d^2x^\mu }{d\tau ^2}+\frac{dx^\alpha }{d\tau }\frac{dx^\beta }{d\tau }\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\alpha \beta }^\mu =0,$$

or

$$v^\nu _\nu v^\mu =0\text{where}v^\mu \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }.$$


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The goal of this paper is to present a general algebro-geometric method of construction of solutions to the cellular automaton associated with the discrete Kadomtsev–Petviashvilii (KP) equation

$$\begin{array}{c}\tau (n_1+1,n_2,n_3)\tau (n_1,n_2+1,n_3+1)\tau (n_1,n_2+1,n_3)\tau (n_1+1,n_2,n_3+1)+\hfill \\ \hfill +\tau (n_1,n_2,n_3+1)\tau (n_1+1,n_2+1,n_3)=0,\end{array}$$

and with its reduction to the discrete Korteweg–de Vries (KdV) equation

$$\begin{array}{c}\tau (n_1+1,n_3)\tau (n_1,n_3)\tau (n_1,n_31)\tau (n_1+1,n_3+1)+\hfill \\ \hfill +\tau (n_1,n_3+1)\tau (n_1+1,n_31)=0.\end{array}$$

It turns out that main algebro-geometric ideas of construction of solutions of the equations can be transferred from the level of Riemann surfaces to the level of algebraic curves over finite fields. Our motivation to extend validity of the discrete equations to finite field domain was presented in the recent paper , where we also send for relevant literature.

The layout of the paper is as follows. In Section 2 we present the general algebro-geometric scheme for construction of solutions of the discrete KP equation. In Section 3 we describe the algebro-geometric reduction scheme from KP to the discrete KdV equation. Section 4 is devoted to construction of multisoliton solutions (on nontrivial background) starting from the vacuum wave functions on algebraic curves over finite fields. As a simple application of the general method we construct multisolitonic solutions starting from the algebraic curve of genus zero (the projective line).

## 2 Solutions of the discrete KP equation from algebraic curves over finite fields

This Section is motivated by algebro-geometric (over the complex field) approach to the discrete KP (or Hirota) equation (see for example  and ) and by , where an equivalent version of the discrete KP equation (the discrete analogue of the Toda field system) was studied in detail in the context of finite field valued solutions.

Consider an algebraic projective curve $`𝒞`$, absolutely irreducible, nonsingular, of genus $`g`$, defined over the finite field $`𝕂=𝔽_q`$ with $`q`$ elements, where $`q`$ is a power of a prime integer $`p`$ (see, for example ). By $`𝒞_𝕂`$ we denote the set of $`𝕂`$-rational points of the curve. By $`\overline{𝕂}`$ denote the algebraic closure of $`𝕂`$, i.e., $`\overline{𝕂}=_{\mathrm{}=1}^{\mathrm{}}𝔽_q^{\mathrm{}}`$, and by $`𝒞_{\overline{𝕂}}`$ denote the corresponding (infinite) set of $`\overline{𝕂}`$-rational points of the curve. The action of the Galois group $`G(\overline{𝕂}/𝕂)`$ (of automorphisms of $`\overline{𝕂}`$ which are identity on $`𝕂`$, see ) extends naturally to action on $`𝒞_{\overline{𝕂}}`$.

Let us choose:
1. three points $`a_i𝒞_𝕂`$, $`i=1,2,3`$,
2. $`N`$ points $`c_\alpha 𝒞_{\overline{𝕂}}`$, $`\alpha =1,\mathrm{},N`$, which satisfy the following $`𝕂`$-rationality condition

$$\sigma G(\overline{𝕂}/𝕂),\sigma (c_\alpha )=c_\alpha ^{},$$

3. $`N`$ pairs of points $`d_\beta ,e_\beta 𝒞_{\overline{𝕂}}`$, $`\beta =1,\mathrm{},N`$, which satisfy the following $`𝕂`$-rationality condition

$$\sigma G(\overline{𝕂}/𝕂):\sigma (\{d_\beta ,e_\beta \})=\{d_\beta ^{},e_\beta ^{}\},$$

4. $`g`$ points $`f_\gamma 𝒞_{\overline{𝕂}}`$, $`\gamma =1,\mathrm{},g`$, which satisfy the following $`𝕂`$-rationality condition

$$\sigma G(\overline{𝕂}/𝕂),\sigma (f_\gamma )=f_\gamma ^{},$$

5. the normalization point $`a_0𝒞_𝕂`$.

As a rule we consider here only the generic case and assume that all the points used in the construction are generic and distinct. In particular, the divisor $`D=_{\gamma =1}^gf_\gamma `$ is non-special. We remark that it is enough the check the $`𝕂`$-rationality conditions in any extension field $`𝕃𝕂`$ of rationality of all the points used in the construction.

###### Definition 1.

Fix $`𝕂`$-rational local parameters $`t_i`$ at $`a_i`$, $`i=0,1,2,3`$. For any integers $`n_1,n_2,n_3`$ define the wave function $`\psi (n_1,n_2,n_3)`$ as a rational function with the following properties
1. it has pole of the order at most $`n_1+n_2+n_3`$ at $`a_0`$,
2. the first nontrivial coefficient of its expansion in $`t_0`$ at $`a_0`$ is normalized to one,
3. it has zeros of order at least $`n_i`$ at $`a_i`$ for $`i=1,2,3`$,
4. it has at most simple poles at points $`c_\alpha `$, $`\alpha =1,\mathrm{},N`$,
5. it has at most simple poles at points $`f_\gamma `$, $`\gamma =1,\mathrm{},g`$,
6. it satisfies $`N`$ constraints

$$\psi (n_1,n_2,n_3)(d_\beta )=\psi (n_1,n_2,n_3)(e_\beta ),\beta =1,\mathrm{},N.$$

The function $`\psi (n_1,n_2,n_3)`$ is $`𝕂`$-rational, which follows from $`𝕂`$-rationality conditions of sets of points in their definition. As usual, zero (pole) of a negative order means pole (zero) of the corresponding positive order. Correspondingly one should exchange the expressions "at most" and "at least" in front of the orders of poles and zeros. By the standard application of the Riemann–Roch theorem (and the genericity assumption) we conclude that the wave function $`\psi (n_1,n_2,n_3)`$ exists and is unique.

In the generic case, which we assume in the sequel, when the order of the pole of $`\psi `$ at $`a_0`$ is $`(n_1+n_2+n_3)`$ denote by $`\zeta _k^{(0)}(n_1,n_2,n_3)`$ and $`\zeta _k^{(i)}(n_1,n_2,n_3)`$, $`i=1,2,3`$, $`𝕂`$-rational coefficients of expansion of $`\psi `$ at $`a_0`$ and at $`a_i`$, respectively, i.e.,

$$\psi =\frac{1}{t_0^{(n_1+n_2+n_3)}}\left(1+\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\zeta _k^{(0)}t_0^k\right),\psi =t_i^{n_i}\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\zeta _k^{(i)}t_i^k.$$

Denote by $`T_i`$ the operator of translation in the variable $`n_i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$, for example $`T_1\psi (n_1,n_2,n_3)=\psi (n_1+1,n_2,n_3)`$. Uniqueness of the wave function implies the following statement.

###### Proposition 1.

The function $`\psi `$ satisfies equations

$$T_i\psi T_j\psi +\frac{T_j\zeta _0^{(i)}}{\zeta _0^{(i)}}\psi =0,ij.$$
(1)
Notice that equation (1) gives

$$\frac{T_j\zeta _0^{(i)}}{\zeta _0^{(i)}}=\frac{T_i\zeta _0^{(j)}}{\zeta _0^{(j)}},ij.$$
(2)
Define $`\rho _i=(1)^{_{j<i}n_j}\zeta _0^{(i)}`$, then equation (2) implies existence of a $`𝕂`$-valued potential (the $`\tau `$-function) defined (up to a multiplicative constant) by formulas

$$\frac{T_i\tau }{\tau }=\rho _i,i=1,2,3.$$
(3)
Finally, equations (1) give rise to condition

$$\frac{T_2\rho _1}{\rho _1}\frac{T_3\rho _1}{\rho _1}+\frac{T_3\rho _2}{\rho _2}=0,$$

which written in terms of the $`\tau `$-function gives the discrete KP equation

$$(T_1\tau )(T_2T_3\tau )(T_2\tau )(T_3T_1\tau )+(T_3\tau )(T_1T_2\tau )=0.$$
(4)
###### Corollary 2.

Notice that multiplication of $`\rho _i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$, by a function of the single argument $`n_i`$, do not affects nor existence of the $`\tau `$ function nor equation (4) satisfied by the function.

## 3 Reduction to the discrete KdV equation

The discrete KdV equation

$$(T_1\tau )\tau (T_3^1\tau )(T_3T_1\tau )+(T_3\tau )(T_1T_3^1\tau )=0,$$
(5)
is obtained from the discrete KP equation by imposing constraint

$$T_2T_3\tau =\gamma \tau ,$$
(6)
where $`\gamma `$ is a non-zero constant. Transition of the reduction (6) to the level of the wave function $`\psi `$ will give the algebro-geometric procedure of construction of solutions of the discrete KdV equation.

###### Lemma 3.

Assume that on the algebraic curve $`𝒞`$ there exists a meromorphic function $`h`$ with the following properties
1. it has two simple zeroes at points $`a_2`$ and $`a_3`$ and no other zeroes,
2. it has double pole at $`a_0`$,
3. it satisfies $`N`$ constraints $`h(d_\beta )=h(e_\beta )`$, $`\beta =1,\mathrm{},N`$,
4. the first nontrivial coefficient of its expansion in the parameter $`t_0`$ at $`a_0`$ is normalized to one.
Then the wave function $`\psi `$ satisfies the following condition

$$T_2T_3\psi =h\psi .$$
(7)
###### Remark.

Existence of such a function $`h`$ implies that the algebraic curve $`𝒞`$ is hyperelliptic.

###### Proposition 4.

Let $`h`$ be the function as in Lemma 4. Assume additionally that

$$h(a_1)=1.$$
(8)
Denote by $`\delta _2`$ and $`\delta _3`$ the first coefficients of local expansion of $`h`$ in parameters $`t_2`$ and $`t_3`$ at $`a_2`$ and $`a_3`$, correspondingly

$$h=t_2(\delta _2+\mathrm{}),h=t_3(\delta _3+\mathrm{}).$$

Then the function

$$\stackrel{~}{\tau }=\tau \delta _2^{n_2(n_21)/2}(\delta _3)^{n_3(n_31)/2}$$
(9)
satisfies the discrete KdV equation (5).

###### Proof.

Expanding equation (7) at $`a_1`$ and using of the additional assumption (8) we obtain that

$$T_2T_3\rho _1=\rho _1.$$

Expansions of equation (7) at $`a_2`$ and $`a_3`$ give

$$T_2T_3\rho _2=\delta _2\rho _2,T_2T_3\rho _3=\delta _3\rho _3.$$

Therefore the functions

$$\stackrel{~}{\rho }_1=\rho _1,\stackrel{~}{\rho }_2=\delta _2^{n_2}\rho _2,\stackrel{~}{\rho }_3=(\delta _3)^{n_3}\rho _3,$$

satisfy condition

$$T_2T_3\stackrel{~}{\rho }_i=\stackrel{~}{\rho }_i,i=1,2,3.$$
(10)
By Corollary 2 the functions $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }_i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$, define new potential $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }`$, connected with $`\tau `$ by (9), which satisfies the discrete KP equation (4). Moreover, conditions (10) imply that $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }`$ is subjected to constraint (6). ∎

###### Remark.

Notice that in the above procedure one obtains a family, labelled by the parameter $`n_2`$, of solutions of the discrete KdV equation.

## 4 Construction of solutions of the discrete KP and KdV equations using vacuum functions

In this Section we write down results which allow to construct the $`N`$-soliton $`\tau `$-function starting from vacuum ($`N=0`$) wave functions on algebraic curve over a finite field. The methods to obtain these results are the same as in the corresponding section of .

In the case $`N=0`$ let us add superscript $`0`$ to all functions defined above. Define auxiliary vacuum wave functions $`\varphi _\alpha ^0`$, $`\alpha =1,\mathrm{},N`$, as follows.

###### Definition 2.

Fix local parameters $`t_\alpha `$ at $`c_\alpha `$, $`\alpha =1,\mathrm{},N`$. For any $`\alpha `$ define the function $`\varphi _\alpha ^0`$ by the following set of conditions:
1. it has pole of the order at most $`n_1+n_2+n_31`$ at $`a_0`$,
2. it has zeros of order at least $`n_i`$ at $`a_i`$, for $`i=1,2,3`$,
3. it has at most simple pole at the point $`c_\alpha `$,
4. the first nontrivial coefficient of its expansion in $`t_\alpha `$ at $`c_\alpha `$ is normalized to one,
5. it has at most simple poles at points $`f_\gamma `$, $`\gamma =1,\mathrm{},g`$.

Using the Riemann-Roch theorem it can be shown that the function $`\varphi _\alpha ^0`$ exists and is unique.

###### Proposition 5.

Denote by $`\psi ^0(𝐝,𝐞)`$, the column with $`N`$ entries of the form

$$\left[\psi ^0(𝒅,𝒆)\right]_\beta =\psi ^0(d_\beta )\psi ^0(e_\beta ),\beta =1,\mathrm{},N,$$

denote by $`\varphi _𝐀^0`$ the row with $`N`$ entries

$$\left[\varphi _𝑨^0\right]_\alpha =\varphi _\alpha ^0,\alpha =1,\mathrm{},N,$$

and denote by $`\varphi _{𝐀,m}^0(𝐝,𝐞)`$ the $`N\times N`$ matrix whose element in row $`\beta `$ and column $`\alpha `$ is

$$\left[\varphi _𝑨^0(𝒅,𝒆)\right]_{\alpha \beta }=\varphi _\alpha ^0(d_\beta )\varphi _\alpha ^0(e_\beta ),\alpha ,\beta =1,\mathrm{},N.$$

Then the wave function $`\psi `$ of the discrete KP equation reads

$$\psi =\psi ^0\varphi _𝑨^0[\varphi _𝑨^0(𝒅,𝒆)]^1\psi ^0(𝒅,𝒆).$$

In the generic case denote by $`H_{0,\alpha }^0`$ the first nontrivial coefficient of expansion of the function $`\varphi _\alpha ^0`$ at $`a_0`$ in the uniformization parameter $`t_0`$,

$$\varphi _\alpha ^0=\frac{1}{t_0^{(n_1+n_2+n_31)}}\left(H_{0,\alpha }^0+\mathrm{}\right).$$

###### Corollary 6.

The corresponding expressions for $`\rho _i`$ read

$$\rho _i=\rho _i^0\left(1+(T_iH_{0,𝑨}^0)[\varphi _𝑨^0(𝒅,𝒆)]^1\psi ^0(𝒅,𝒆)\right),i=1,2,3,$$

where $`H_{0,𝐀}^0`$ is the row with $`N`$ entries $`H_{0,\alpha }^0`$.

###### Proposition 7.

The $`\tau `$-function can be constructed by the following formula

$$\tau =\tau ^0det\varphi _𝑨^0(𝒅,𝒆).$$
(11)
###### Corollary 8.

Starting with $`𝕂`$-valued function $`\tau ^0`$ and the local parameters $`t_\alpha `$ at $`c_\alpha `$ chosen in a consistent way with the action of the Galois group $`G(\overline{𝕂}/𝕂)`$ on $`𝒞_{\overline{𝕂}}`$ we obtain $`𝕂`$-valued function $`\tau `$.

###### Corollary 9.

Notice that equation (9) implies that the same formula (11) holds also for the $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }`$-function in the reduction from the discrete KP equation to the discrete KdV equation.

We present here explicit formulas for the vacuum functions in the simplest case $`g=0`$. In constructing the vacuum functions we will use the standard parameter $`t`$ on the projective line $`(𝕂)`$ and we put $`a_0=\mathrm{}`$. Explicit form of the vacuum wave function reads

$`\psi ^0`$ $`=`$ $`(ta_1)^{n_1}(ta_2)^{n_2}(ta_3)^{n_3}`$
which gives formulas for the functions $`\rho _1`$, $`\rho _2`$ and $`\rho _3`$

$`\rho _1^0`$ $`=`$ $`(a_1a_2)^{n_2}(a_1a_3)^{n_3},`$
$`\rho _2^0`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{n_1}(a_2a_1)^{n_1}(a_2a_3)^{n_3},`$
$`\rho _3^0`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{n_1+n_2}(a_3a_1)^{n_1}(a_3a_2)^{n_2}.`$
Explicit form of the vacuum $`\tau `$-function reads

$$\tau ^0=(a_1a_2)^{n_1n_2}(a_1a_3)^{n_1n_3}(a_2a_3)^{n_2n_3}.$$

The auxiliary vacuum wave functions $`\varphi _\alpha ^0`$, $`\alpha =1,\mathrm{},N`$ have the form

$$\varphi _\alpha ^0=\frac{1}{tc_\alpha }\frac{(ta_1)^{n_1}(ta_2)^{n_2}(ta_3)^{n_3}}{(c_\alpha a_1)^{n_1}(c_\alpha a_2)^{n_2}(c_\alpha a_3)^{n_3}}.$$
(12)
In the case of the reduction from KP to KdV the function $`h`$ reads

$$h(t)=(ta_2)(ta_3),$$

while the points $`a_i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$, are subjected to the condition

$$h(a_1)=(a_1a_2)(a_1a_3)=1.$$

Then, in notation of Section 3,

$$\delta _2=a_2a_3=\delta _3,$$

and, according to Proposition 4, the vacuum solution of the discrete KdV equation reads

$$\stackrel{~}{\tau }^0=(a_1a_3)^{n_1(n_3n_2)}(a_2a_3)^{n_2(n_3n_2)(n_3n_21)/2}.$$
(13)
Finally, by Corollary 9, formulas (11)–(13) allow to find pure $`N`$-soliton solutions of the discrete KdV equation over finite fields.

Let us present an example of finite field valued solution of the discrete KdV equation in bilinear form. We take $`𝕂=𝔽_5`$, and all the points used in the construction will be in $`𝔽_{5^2}`$, which we consider as extension of $`𝔽_5`$ by the polynomial $`w(x)=x^2+x+1`$. The corresponding Galois group reads $`G(𝔽_{5^2}/𝔽_5)=\{id,\sigma \}`$, where $`\sigma `$ is the Frobenius automorphism . The parameters of the solution are chosen as follows:

$`a_1=(00)`$, $`a_2=(02)`$, $`a_3=(03)`$,

$`c_1=(10)`$, $`c_2=\sigma (c_1)=(44)`$,

$`d_1=(21)`$, $`e_1=\sigma (d_1)=(34)`$,

$`d_2=(13)`$, $`e_2=\sigma (d_2)=(42)`$.

The function $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }`$ is normalized to one for $`n_1=n_2=n_3=0`$. This solution of the discrete KdV equation, for $`n_2=0`$, is presented in comparison with the vacuum solution in Figure 1. The elements of $`𝔽_5`$ are represented by:
$`(00)`$, – $`(01)`$, – $`(02)`$, – $`(03)`$, – $`(04)`$. The periods in variables $`n_1`$, $`n_3`$ are $`4`$, $`24`$, correspondingly (both must be divisors of $`24=|𝔽_{5^2}^{}|`$, see ).

Finally, we would like to remark that examples of multisoliton solutions on curves of non-zero genus are more involved and their construction needs some techniques on Jacobians of algebraic curves .

## Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their thanks to Paweł Klimczewski for providing them with a computer program to visualize the solutions. M. B. would like to thank the organizers of the NEEDS’02 meeting for support. The paper was partially supported by KBN grant no. 2P03B12622.