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# I Introduction

## I Introduction

From within the circumference of brane world cosmology, many ideas and proposals relate to the work of Randall and Sundrum RS1 , who initially implemented their two brane model to try and solve the hierarchy problem. In the one brane variant of this model RS2  it was also shown that the extra dimension could be of infinite extent. In most contexts, the second model (and its extensions to include curved branes) has been of more interest to the cosmology community because gravity behaves essentially like 4-dimensional gravity localised near the brane RS2 ; SMS ; GT .

An interesting brane world scenario (BWS) has been developed in KKS ; HIME , known as the bulk inflaton model, where it is possible to obtain inflation on a single positive tension brane solely due to the presence of a bulk gravitational scalar field. In this regard, the vacuum energy of the bulk scalar field could have some affect on the cosmological evolution of the brane, (depending on the size and sign of this quantity). The importance of vacuum energy in BWS has also been highlighted in MUKO  where it has been suggested that it may be possible to solve the hierarchy problem with two positive tension branes, if the back-reaction of the Casimir effect is included (also see HKP ).

In this article we evaluate the one-loop effective action for one and two de Sitter brane configurations in a bulk 5-dimensional anti-de Sitter spacetime. We focus on Majorana spinor fields and compare with the scalar field results. This article continues from a previous work WN  (also see NOZ  for the one brane case) for scalar fields. As before, we employ $`\zeta `$-function regularisation TEN , which is unusual as compared to most regularisation schemes, in that it does not require infinite counter terms. Of interest is the recent article by Elizalde et. al. ENOO , who also considered one and two brane set ups for scalar fields in dS5 as well as AdS5 backgrounds. Small mass perturbations from the massless conformally coupled case were also studied. However, here we include the cocycle function (because these techniques rely on conformal transformations) which can be related to the $`B_5`$ heat kernel coefficient DA ; GPT ; GPT2 .

We briefly mention the work done for a bulk AdS5 background bounded by flat branes. In GPT  $`\zeta `$-function regularisation was employed to evaluate the effective potential for a massless conformally coupled scalar and fermion field and some special techniques were used for the graviton field. The possibility of radion stabilisation due to quantum effects was also studied, which gave a negative result. The dimensional reduction procedure was used in TOMS ; GR ; FT  to obtain an effective four dimensional field with an infinite KK tower. The effective potential was then regularised using dimensional regularisation. Fermion fields have also been considered in FMT ; FMT2  where the main emphasis was on fermion representations and topological symmetry breaking. Some recent work concerning the radion with bulk gauge fields is given in GP , & for higher dimensional models, see FGPT .

In the next section we discuss the Euclidean de Sitter metric for the bulk inflaton model and the wave equation for scalar and spinor fields. In section III we make a detailed analysis of the effective potential for a conformally coupled Majorana fermion field. In section IV we evaluate the cocycle function for spin zero fields with Dirichlet or Robin boundary conditions and a spin half field with mixed boundary conditions. This is also evaluated for the delta-function contribution in the potential. We discuss the renormalisation of these terms. In section V we look at the flat space limit and the Casimir energy. In section VI we draw conclusions. In Appendix A we look at the case of twisted fields for the Majorana fermion. In Appendix B we discuss zero modes.

## II de Sitter branes and conformally coupled fields

We begin with two de Sitter branes embedded in five dimensional anti de Sitter space, placed symmetrically to preserve the de Sitter isometry group and forming the boundary of the region which we will consider. We will calculate the vacuum polarization on a Euclideanised form of the metric. On the Euclidean section the anti de Sitter metric becomes a hyperboloid and the de Sitter branes become concentric four spheres GS ,

$$ds^2=dr^2+\mathrm{}^2\mathrm{sinh}^2(r/\mathrm{})d\mathrm{\Omega }_4^2,$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{}=(6/\mathrm{\Lambda }_5)^{1/2}`$ is the anti-de Sitter radius and $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_4^2`$ is the metric on the unit 4-sphere. We use $`r_{}`$ for the location of the negative tension brane and $`r_+`$ for the location of the positive tension brane ($`r_{}<r_+`$). At the classical level, boundary or junction conditions relate the locations of the branes to the brane tensions $`\sigma _\pm `$ according to GS ; GEN

$$\sigma _\pm =\pm \frac{3}{4\pi G_5\mathrm{}}\mathrm{coth}(r_\pm /\mathrm{}).$$
(2)
The quantum corrections will introduce other sources of stress-energy on the brane which modify these relations.

The metric is conformal to a cylinder $`I\times S^4`$ GS ; GEN . However, it may also be of interest to consider the compact space $`S^1\times S^4`$ without boundaries, in the one brane limit used in the bulk inflaton model HIME , and in this case all results are simply multiplied by a factor of two. Thus,

$$ds^2=a^2(z)(dz^2+d\mathrm{\Omega }_4^2)a(z)=\frac{\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{sinh}(z_0+|z|)},$$
(3)
where the coordinates are chosen to have the positive tension brane at $`z=0`$ and the negative tension brane at $`z=L`$, so that the one brane configuration is given by $`L\mathrm{}`$. The non-dimensional length $`L`$ is given by

$$L=_r_{}^{r_+}\frac{dr}{\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}(r/\mathrm{})}=\mathrm{log}\mathrm{coth}\frac{r_{}}{2\mathrm{}}\mathrm{log}\mathrm{coth}\frac{r_+}{2\mathrm{}}.$$
(4)
The one loop effective action for a conformal scalar field $`\varphi `$ in five dimensions on a space with metric $`g`$ takes the form

$$W[g]=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{log}det\mathrm{\Delta }[g],$$
(5)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }[g]`$ is the conformal operator,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }[g]=^2+\frac{3}{16}{}_{}{}^{5}R$$
(6)
with Ricci scalar $`{}_{}{}^{5}R`$. Conformal symmetry also restricts the boundary conditions to be either Dirichlet $`\varphi =0`$ or Robin $`(\frac{3}{8}\theta +_n)\varphi =0`$, where $`\theta `$ is the trace of the extrinsic curvature.

If the determinant is defined using zeta-functions, the effective actions on conformally related spaces with metrics $`g`$ and $`g_\omega `$ are related by

$$W[g_\omega ]=C[\mathrm{\Delta },\omega ]+W[g],$$
(7)
where the cocycle function $`C[\mathrm{\Delta },\omega ]`$ can be expressed in terms of local tensors DS . This enables us to reduce the present problem to the calculation of the cocycle function and the effective action on the cylinder.

For the cylinder, $`{}_{}{}^{5}R=12`$ and

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=(_z{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{\Delta }^{(4)}+\frac{9}{4}),$$
(8)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{(4)}`$ is the Laplacian on the four sphere. The conformal symmetry allows either Dirichlet or Neumann boundary conditions and both are consistent with a $`Z_2`$ reflection symmetry about either brane. We shall take the same boundary conditions on either brane. The spectrum of $`_z^2`$ in Eq. (8) is simply given by $`\pi n/L`$, $`n=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$ for Neumann boundary conditions and $`n=1,2,\mathrm{}`$ for Dirichlet boundary conditions. (Choosing different boundary conditions on either brane would give a spectrum $`\pi (n+\frac{1}{2})/L`$, see appendix A.)

We stress that in a more general setting, i.e. $`\xi \frac{3}{16}`$, conformal transformations introduce delta functions in the potential, Eq. (8), because the scale factor $`a(z)`$, Eq. (3), depends on the absolute value $`|z|`$. Only conformal coupling to the curvature, $`\xi =\frac{3}{16}`$, irrespective of any mass term cancels out any distributional sources. This is for the same reason that Neumann boundary conditions remain Neumann after performing a conformal transformation of the field. In terms of the bulk inflaton model HIME  for $`\xi =\frac{3}{16}`$ there is no bound state and gravity cannot be localised on the brane. However, the cocycle function interpolates between the original metric and the scaled one and therefore introduces distributional terms.

The eigenvalues of the Laplacian $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{(4)}`$ are $`m(m+2)`$ with degeneracy

$$d(m)=\frac{1}{3}(m+2)(m+3/2)(m+1)=\frac{1}{3}\left[(m+3/2)^3\frac{1}{4}(m+3/2)\right],$$
(9)
where we have rearranged this expression for later convenience. Thus, the eigenvalues for the Klein-Gordon operator, Eq. (8), are

$`\lambda _{n,m}=\left({\displaystyle \frac{\pi n}{L}}\right)^2+(m+3/2)^2.`$ (10)
For spin-$`1/2`$ fermion fields $`\psi `$, the massless Dirac equation is automatically conformally covariant. The boundary conditions force exactly half of the fermion components to vanish at the brane, and generally take the form

$$\frac{1}{2}(1+S)\psi =0,$$
(11)
where $`S`$ is a spinor transformation representing reflection about the boundary. We shall concentrate on Majorana spinors, which have 8 real components. Reflections about the boundaries can be represented by using $`8\times 8`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ matrices, $`S=i\mathrm{\Gamma }_5\mathrm{\Gamma }_6`$ . The details can be found in reference FMT .

It is convenient to take the square of the Dirac operator when evaluating the effective action

$$W=\frac{1}{4}\mathrm{log}det\mathrm{\Delta }$$
(12)
for Majorana fermions, where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=^2+\frac{1}{4}{}_{}{}^{5}R.$$
(13)
The squared operator is not conformally invariant, but it is nevertheless still possible to relate the effective actions of fermions with conformally related metrics MOSS2 .

On the cylinder,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=(_z{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{\Delta }_f^{(4)}+3).$$
(14)
The eigenvalues of the spinor Laplacian, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f^{(4)}`$, on the 4-sphere are well known (e.g., see MOSS ) and are given by $`(m+2)^23`$. Half of the field components satisfy Dirichlet boundary conditions and half satisfy Neumann boundary conditions, and the eigenvalues of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are

$$\lambda _{n,m}^M=\left(\frac{\pi n}{L}\right)^2+(m+2)^2.$$
(15)
The degeneracy for the 8 component Majorana spinors is given by MOSS

$$d^M(m)=8\times \frac{1}{6}(m+1)(m+2)(m+3)=\frac{4}{3}\left[(m+2)^3(m+2)\right],$$
(16)
where we take $`nZ`$.

## III Conformally flat scalar and spinor fields

### III.1 The effective action and $`\zeta `$ functions

We can employ the $`\zeta `$-function method to find the contribution to the effective action from the cylinder. The generalised zeta function is given by

$$\zeta (s)=\underset{m,n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}d(m)\lambda _{m,n}^s$$
(17)
with the one-loop effective action related to $`\zeta (s)`$ by (e.g., see BD ; MOSS )

$$W=\frac{1}{2}\zeta ^{}(0)\frac{1}{2}\zeta (0)\mathrm{log}\mu ^2$$
(18)
for scalar fields and

$$W=\frac{1}{4}\zeta ^{}(0)+\frac{1}{4}\zeta (0)\mathrm{log}\mu ^2$$
(19)
for Majorana fermions, where $`\mu `$ is the renormalisation scale.

The scalar field result is contained in previous work WN  and in the early work of Dowker and Apps DA . In what follows, we therefore concentrate on the spinor field. The scalar field results are quoted for comparison (see appendix B).

### III.2 One brane

We first evaluate the effective potential for a one brane configuration on the cylinder, where $`L\mathrm{}`$ and the discrete sum over $`n`$ becomes an integral. It is then simple to see that the zeta function $`\zeta ^M(s)`$ becomes

$$\zeta ^M(s)=\frac{2L}{\pi }_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑k\underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}d^M(m)\left(k^2+(m+2)^2\right)^s,$$
(20)
where the factor of $`2`$ is because there are two copies of the bulk space on either side of the brane, essentially we assume an $`S^1\times S^4`$ topology. For large $`s`$ we can interchange the order of the sum and the integral and perform the $`k`$ integration, using the well known identity

$$_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑kk^\alpha (k^2+a)^s=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{\alpha +1}{2}\right)\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1/2\alpha /2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}a^{\alpha /2+1/2s},$$
(21)
implying

$`\zeta ^M(s)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2L}{\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\pi }}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1/2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}d^M(m)(m+2)^{12s},`$ (22)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L}{\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\sqrt{\pi }{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1/2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}\left(\zeta (2s4,2)\zeta (2s2,2)\right),`$
where in the second step we have used simple algebra to rewrite the equation in terms of generalised (Hurwitz) $`\zeta `$-functions. For $`s=0`$ it is clear that $`\zeta ^M(0)=0`$ because

$$\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}=s+\gamma s^2+O(s^3),$$
(23)
where $`\gamma `$ is Euler’s constant. Thus,

$$\zeta ^M(0)=\frac{L}{\pi }\frac{4}{3}\sqrt{\pi }\mathrm{\Gamma }(1/2)\left(\zeta (4,2)\zeta (2,2)\right)=0,$$
(24)
which is zero because the combination of $`\zeta `$-functions in Eq. (24) cancel, as can be verified by employing the relation

$$\zeta (n,a)=\frac{B_{n+1}(a)}{n+1},$$
(25)
where $`B_n(x)`$ is a Bernoulli polynomial. Therefore, as for scalar fields WN ; NOZ , the one-loop effective potential on the cylinder is zero in the one brane case. We discuss the cocycle contribution later.

### III.3 Two branes

We now consider the two brane configuration which consists of two infinite summations, which can be expressed in terms of generalised $`\zeta `$-functions. In fact, there are many subtle issues regarding the correct analytic continuation of such functions upon interchanging the order of the summations (see TEN  for a detailed discussion). As we shall see, the one brane result, above, appears as one of the terms in the two brane case. Here assume the topology is $`S^1\times S^4`$ rather than $`I\times S^4`$, to compare with the result of the last section. The function $`\zeta ^M(s)`$ now becomes

$`\zeta ^M(s)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m)\left(c^2n^2+(m+2)^2\right)^s,`$ (26)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑tt^{s1}\mathrm{exp}\{t[c^2n^2+(m+2)^2]\},`$
where $`c=\pi /L`$ and in the second step we have made use of the Mellin transform. The above case refers to an untwisted spinor field, the twisted case is discussed in the appendix. This formula is almost identical in form to the 2-dimensional Epstein-Hurwitz $`\zeta `$-function studied by Elizalde in ELI2  (see also TEN ), apart from the spinor degeneracy factor $`d^M(m)`$. This work suggests using the transformation formula of Jacobi’s $`\theta _3`$ function BATE , equivalent to a Poisson resummation,

$$\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{c^2n^2}=\theta _3(0,e^{c^2})=\sqrt{\frac{\pi }{c^2}}\theta _3(0,e^{\pi ^2/c^2})=\sqrt{\frac{\pi }{c^2}}\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{exp}[\pi ^2n^2/c^2].$$
(27)
Substitution of the above equation into (26)

allows us to interchange the order of the summations, giving

$`\zeta ^M(s)`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑tt^{s3/2}\mathrm{exp}\{t(m+2)^2\}`$ (28)
$`+2\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑tt^{s3/2}\mathrm{exp}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2n^2}{c^2t}}(m+2)^2t\right].`$
After integrating with respect to $`t`$ (using standard relations) we obtain

$`\zeta ^M(s)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1/2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}\left(\zeta (2s4,2)\zeta (2s2,2)\right)`$ (29)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{4\pi ^s}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}c^{s1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m)n^{s1/2}(m+2)^{s+1/2}K_{s1/2}[2\pi c^1n(m+2)],`$
where $`K_\nu `$ is a modified Bessel function of the second kind. It is easy to verify that $`\zeta ^M(0)=0`$, using Eq. (23). Furthermore, taking the derivative of $`\zeta ^M(s)`$ with respect to $`s`$ (and leaving only terms that remain independent of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)`$ near $`s=0`$, see Eq. (23)) gives

$`\zeta ^M(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(1/2)\left(\zeta (4,2)\zeta (2,2)\right)`$ (30)
$`+4c^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m)n^{1/2}(m+2)^{1/2}K_{1/2}[2\pi c^1n(m+2)],`$
where a prime denotes differentiation with respect to $`s`$. Interestingly, the first term is exactly the contribution from the one brane configuration Eq. (24), which is zero. As mentioned in WN  this is similar to finite temperature field theory where the $`n=0`$ mode gives the zero temperature contribution. The similarity to finite temperatures is due to the compact topology in the fifth dimension.

The second term is non-zero and depends on the value of $`c=\pi /L`$. Simplifying the above equation we find

$$\frac{1}{4}\zeta ^M(0)=\underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{2}{3}\frac{(m+1)(m+2)(m+3)}{n}\mathrm{exp}[2Ln(m+2)],$$
(31)
where we have used the relation $`K_{1/2}(z)=\sqrt{\pi /(2z)}e^z`$. After evaluating the summation over $`m`$ we have an expression for the Majorana spinor one-loop effective action on the cylinder (for $`I\times S^4`$)

$$W_{I\times S_4}^M=\frac{1}{8}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{n(\mathrm{sinh}nL)^4},$$
(32)
where we have divided by two, since $`S^1\times S^4`$ doubles the modes.

For the scalar field we only need to make simple replacements in the degeneracy and eigenvalues, see WN . Dowker and Apps gave the first results for scalar fields on a cylinder DA , including the zero mode (see appendix B). Their results extend trivially to five dimensions, with

$$W_{I\times S_4}^{D,N}=\pm \frac{1}{4}\zeta _{S_4}^{}(0)\pm \frac{1}{4}\zeta _{S_4}(0)\mathrm{log}\mu ^2\frac{1}{16}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\mathrm{cosh}nL}{n(\mathrm{sinh}nL)^4}$$
(33)
for Dirichlet (D) and Neumann (N) boundary conditions, where $`\zeta _{S_4}`$ is the zeta function for the operator $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{(4)}+\frac{3}{16}^5R`$ on $`S_4`$. Explicitly,

$$\zeta _{S_4}(0)=\frac{17}{2880},\zeta _{S_4}^{}(0)=\left(\frac{7}{24}\zeta _R^{}(3)+\frac{1}{24}\zeta _R^{}(1)+\frac{1}{24}\zeta _R(3)\mathrm{log}2\frac{1}{24}\zeta _R(1)\mathrm{log}2\right),$$
(34)
where $`\zeta _R`$ is the Riemann zeta function (see appendix B).

## IV The cocycle function

Calculating the cocycle function is heavily dependent on knowing appropriate heat kernel coefficients. These heat kernel coefficients are defined in $`d`$ dimensions by an asymptotic expansion,

$$\mathrm{tr}\left(\omega e^{\mathrm{\Delta }t}\right)t^{d/2}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}B_n[\mathrm{\Delta },\omega ]t^{n/2}.$$
(35)
In five dimensions we require $`B_5[\mathrm{\Delta },\omega ]`$, which can be found in the literature GILK . It takes the form of a surface integral of scalar invariants with a maximum of four derivatives of the metric.

Given a sequence of metrics $`g_ϵ=e^{2ϵ\omega }g`$, and operators $`\mathrm{\Delta }_ϵ`$, it can be shown that DS

$$W[g_1]W[g]=C[\mathrm{\Delta },\omega ]=_0^1𝑑ϵB_d[\mathrm{\Delta }_ϵ,\omega ].$$
(36)
To keep things simple, we have restricted attention to the class of metrics of the form

$$g_ϵ=e^{2ϵ\omega (z)}\left(dz^2+d\mathrm{\Omega }_4^2\right)$$
(37)
with boundaries at $`z=0`$ and $`z=L`$. The cocycle function then takes a generic form

$$C[\mathrm{\Delta },\omega ]=\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}_{S^4}\left\{\alpha _0\omega +\alpha _1\omega _{zzzz}+\alpha _2\omega _{zzz}\omega _z+\alpha _3\omega _{zz}^2+\alpha _4\omega _z^2\omega _{zz}+\alpha _5\omega _z^4+\alpha _6\omega _z^2+\alpha _7\omega _{zz}\right\}.$$
(38)
The coefficients are tabulated in table 1. In particular, notice that we have evaluated the contribution to the cocycle function for the delta function background. This is simply obtained by adding the Dirichlet contribution to the Robin contribution, see GKV .

Anti de Sitter space has

$$\omega =\mathrm{log}\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(|z|+z_0)}{\mathrm{}}=\mathrm{log}\left(\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}(r/\mathrm{})\right),$$
(39)
where we ignore absolute value of $`z`$, $`|z|`$, because we have already included its effect (delta function terms) in the cocycle function. Using the relation $`z=\mathrm{log}\mathrm{tanh}(r/2\mathrm{})`$ to transform back to the spherical coordinate system, the cocycle function is then

$$C[\mathrm{\Delta },\omega ]=\frac{1}{6}\underset{\pm }{}\left\{c_0+c_2\mathrm{sinh}^2(r_\pm /\mathrm{})+c_4\mathrm{sinh}^4(r_\pm /\mathrm{})\alpha _0\mathrm{log}\left(\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}(r_\pm /\mathrm{})\right)\right\}.$$
(40)
The coefficients are tabulated in table 2. Results for scalar fields with Dirichlet boundary conditions have also been obtained by Garriga et. al. GPT2 .

It is important to discuss whether any of the terms in the cocycle function can be regarded as renormalisations of the original action. Consider first of all the terms with coefficient $`c_4`$. These terms are proportional to the volumes of the branes since, for example, the positive tension brane is a four-sphere of radius $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}(r_+/\mathrm{})`$. We have only considered bulk fields, but in a more realistic theory there would also be matter fields on the brane which could give infinite renormalisations of the brane tensions. It would then make sense to absorb $`c_4`$ into a finite renormalisation. However, when there are two branes, the new terms take the same sign on the positive tension and the negative tension brane and it would be very unnatural to then suppose that the renormalised brane tensions could be exactly equal and opposite sign as they are in the Randall-Sundrum model.

The terms with coefficients $`c_2`$ and $`c_0`$ are similar to brane curvature terms $`{}_{}{}^{4}R`$ and curvature squared terms in the Lagrangian. Such terms may be desirable to renormalise away divergences from the brane fields, but they represent a significant departure from the models which we mentioned in the introduction. Both the classical field equations and the quantisation would be modified. A possible resolution would be to regard the theory as a low energy approximation and restrict attention to theories in which the divergences from the brane fields vanish at one loop order.

Another feature becomes apparent when we examine the coefficients in equation (38), which imply that the cocycle function combines brane curvature with extrinsic curvature terms. These can only be expressed in terms of brane curvature terms (by the Gauss-Codacci relations) in special cases. We conclude that the cocycle function should not be eliminated by renormalisation.

Combining the cocycle function with the cylinder result gives the total one loop effective action for the Majorana fermion,

$$W^M=\frac{1}{6}\underset{\pm }{}\left\{c_0^M+c_2^M\mathrm{sinh}^2(r_\pm /\mathrm{})+c_4^M\mathrm{sinh}^4(r_\pm /\mathrm{})\right\}+\frac{1}{8}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{n(\mathrm{sinh}nL)^4}.$$
(41)
where the coefficients are tabulated in table 2. For comparison, the conformal scalar effective actions are

$`W^{D,R}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}{\displaystyle \underset{\pm }{}}\left\{c_0^{D,R}+c_2^{D,R}\mathrm{sinh}^2(r_\pm /\mathrm{})+c_4^{D,R}\mathrm{sinh}^4(r_\pm /\mathrm{})\alpha _0^{D,R}\mathrm{log}\left(\mathrm{}\mu \mathrm{sinh}(r_\pm /\mathrm{})\right)\right\}`$ (42)
$`\pm {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\zeta _{S_4}^{}(0){\displaystyle \frac{1}{16}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cosh}nL}{n(\mathrm{sinh}nL)^4}}.`$
for Dirichlet and Robin boundary conditions, where $`\zeta _{S_4}^{}(0)`$ was given in equation (34).

## V Flat space limit and Casimir energy density

The results can be simplified in a variety of limiting cases. The curvatures of the branes are small when $`r_\pm \mathrm{}`$ and they approximate the flat branes of the original Randall-Sundrum model. The conformal distance $`L`$ becomes small,

$$L2\left(e^{r_{}/\mathrm{}}e^{r_+/\mathrm{}}\right)$$
(43)
The effective action for spin 1/2 fields, including the cocycle function, is then

$$W\frac{1}{96}c_4\left(e^{4r_+/\mathrm{}}+e^{4r_{}/\mathrm{}}\right)\frac{\zeta _R(5)}{16}L^4.$$
(44)
In effect, there is an effective potential on the negative tension brane defined by

$$V=\frac{3W}{8\pi ^2\mathrm{}^4\mathrm{sinh}^4(r_{}/\mathrm{})}$$
(45)
We can express this potential in terms of a radion field $`\sigma =(r_+r_{})/\mathrm{}`$,

$$V\frac{1}{16\mathrm{}^4}c_4\left(1+e^{4\sigma }\right)A\left(e^\sigma 1\right)^4$$
(46)
where

$$A=\frac{3\zeta _R(5)}{128\mathrm{}^4}$$
(47)
The result agrees with the flat space Casimir energy for spin 1/2 fields calculated previously GPT ; FMT ; FMT2 . Some of these old results absorbed the first two terms into shifts in the brane tension.

Another limiting case is when the brane separation is small, $`(r_+r_{})\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}(r_{}/\mathrm{})`$. The conformal separation becomes

$$L\frac{r_+r_{}}{\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}(r_{}/\mathrm{})}$$
(48)
and is small in this limit. The Casimir energy

$$VA\sigma ^4$$
(49)
is independent of the five dimensional cosmological constant.

Finally, the limit $`r_{}\mathrm{}`$ corresponds to large conformal separation and approaches the single brane limit. In this case

$$L\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{r_{}}{2\mathrm{}}\right)\mathrm{log}\mathrm{coth}\frac{r_+}{2\mathrm{}}$$
(50)
The contribution to the effective action from the cylinder disappears as $`r_{}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}}`$ and we are left only with the cocycle function on the positive tension brane. The effective potential is then obtained by dividing by the finite 5-dimensional volume (using the actual metric) and this contribution still remains. Note, on the cylinder the effective potential is zero, in the one brane limit, because the conformal volume is infinite, i.e., the 5D volume is proportional to $`1/L`$.

## VI Conclusion

We have discussed the effective action on curved brane backgrounds for conformally coupled scalar and spinor fields. The final formulae, which can be found at the end of section 4, consist of a contribution from a region of the cylinder and a cocycle function resulting from a conformal rescaling of the background.

Perturbations around the conformal case from a mass have been considered in ENOO  on the cylinder background. These terms make small corrections to the effective action. A mass, or small correction to the conformal coupling, will also contribute to the cocycle function. However, its generic form does not change from the case presented here.

As we have seen, the cocycle function induces curvature terms and, in general, it is not possible to eliminate the cocycle function by renormalisation. However, some parts can be absorbed by renormalisation, for example as finite renormalisation of the brane tensions. Other parts of the cocycle function are additional curvature terms. It has been known for some time that quantum fields on curved brane backgrounds give induced curvature terms (for e.g., see FT  for induced terms in the RS model).

On the conformally related cylinder, the effective potential vanishes in the single brane limit. This is expected because, as first argued in NOZ , the background becomes a half-cylinder with infinite volume. However, using the actual metric the effective potential includes a contribution from the cocycle function, as we have shown. Note that the volume of the spacetime (after the usual Wick rotation of the time) is finite. Therefore, we must be careful in interpreting any result on the conformally related cylinder. For a two brane configuration, the effective action on the cylinder is non-zero, because the cylindrical region is compact, and the cocycle function does not vanish.

In tables 1 & 2 we also separated out the part due to the delta function in the background potential. A puzzling point is that the result is not the same as what one would obtain for a thin but finite domain wall, for which the cocycle function would vanish. Hence the thin wall limit will not agree with the case of the delta function potential. The physical reason behind this discrepancy is unclear. We leave this issue for future study. Until it is resolved, the result for the delta function potential should perhaps be taken with care. In this connection, we note that the thin wall limit in bubble nucleation was analyzed in MN , and no anomalous behaviour was found.

When considering backreaction for conformally coupled fields, the semi-classical Einstein equations are exact and the Casimir energy can play an important role in BWS MUKO ; HKP , including inflating branes. For flat branes this only depends on the difference between the number of bosons ($`N_b`$) and fermions ($`N_f`$), where $`N_b=N_f`$ gives the usual RS model and $`N_b>N_f`$ gives two positive tension branes, see MUKO . For de Sitter branes we clearly see (compare Eq. (41) with Eq. (42) ) that in general the contribution from scalar and fermion fields are not the same, as was argued in WN . Thus, in this case, the bulk will not remain pure anti-de Sitter under back-reaction even for $`N_b=N_f`$.

As well as untwisted fields we also considered twisted fields (see appendix A). This case occurs when one brane obeys Dirichlet and the other Neumann boundary conditions. In fact, a priori, there seems to be no requirement that a scalar field should only satisfy untwisted boundary conditions. One could then envisage a two brane set up with the positive tension brane satisfying Neumann and the other negative tension brane satisfying Dirichlet boundary conditions. If this were the case then it should be possible to have a bound state localised on the positive tension brane even in a two brane set up.

###### Acknowledgements.

Many thanks to James Norman for checking the cocycle function results. W.N. and M.S. wish to thank Antonino Flachi and Yoshiaki Himemoto for enlightening discussions. W.N. acknowledges support from JSPS for Postdoctoral Fellowship for Foreign Researchers No. P01773. W.S. is grateful to CONACYT of Mexico, Grant Number 116020, for financial support. The work of M.S. is supported by Monbukagaku-sho Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (S) No. 14102004.

## Appendix A Twisted fields

For a spinor field it is also possible to have twisted as well as untwisted field configurations (see FMT  for the flat brane case). In Section IIIC we considered the untwisted case. Here, we will double the modes, i.e. working on the topology $`S^1\times S^4`$. In any case the zero modes cancel for mixed boundary conditions (see appendix B). The function $`\zeta ^{TM}(s)`$, Eq. (26), now becomes (with mixed boundary conditions)

$`\zeta ^{TM}(s)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d(m)\left(c^2(n+1/2)^2+(m+2)^2\right)^s,`$ (51)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑tt^{s1}\mathrm{exp}\{t[c^2(n+1/2)^2+(m+2)^2]\}.`$
We can express the twisted result in terms of the known result for the untwisted case by using the identity BATE

$$\theta _2(0,e^t)=\theta _3(0,e^{t/4})\theta _3(0,e^t),$$
(52)
where $`\theta _3(0,e^t)`$ is defined in Eq. (56). (This procedure is very similar to that used in finite temperature field theory, when considering thermal bosons and fermions, e.g., see ALLEN .) Thus, applying the same steps as we did for the untwisted case (see the steps following Eq. (26)) we obtain

$`\zeta ^{TM}(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(1/2)\left(\zeta (4,2)\zeta (2,2)\right)`$ (53)
$`4c^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m)n^{1/2}(m+2)^{1/2}K_{1/2}[2\pi c^1n(m+2)],`$
$`+4\sqrt{2}c^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d^M(m)n^{1/2}(m+2)^{1/2}K_{1/2}[4\pi c^1n(m+2)].`$
The one brane contribution is zero and the effective action is given by

$$W_{I\times S_4}^{TM}=\frac{1}{8}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{n(\mathrm{sinh}2nL)^4}\frac{1}{8}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{n(\mathrm{sinh}nL)^4},$$
(54)
where we have divided by two to obtain the result on $`I\times S^4`$. It is simple to show that this result agrees with the flat brane result given in FMT  for a twisted spinor field, by simply taking the small $`L`$ limit.

## Appendix B Zero modes

Here we discuss a slight subtlety with boundary conditions. Note, by zero modes we mean the $`n=0`$ modes in our mode sum and not null eigenvectors. In WN  we considered the case of a scalar field, but neglected the zero modes because from the one brane point of view it is more convenient to consider $`S^1\times S^4`$, which has no boundaries. For the mode sum, over $`n`$, we argued that we should double the modes given that there are two copies of the bulk on either side of the brane, required to obtain a compact spacetime. However, from Elizalde ELI2 ,

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{c^2n^2}=\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi }{c^2}}+\sqrt{\frac{\pi }{c^2}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{exp}[\pi ^2n^2/c^2],$$
(55)
where the $``$ refers to Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions respectively. For the case of a spinor field with mixed boundary conditions (with topology $`I\times S^4`$) these modes cancel each other out. Thus, doubling the modes in the above equation we obtain

$$\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{c^2n^2}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}+\sqrt{\frac{\pi }{c^2}}\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{exp}[\pi ^2n^2/c^2].$$
(56)
This corresponds to $`2I\times S^4`$. In the case of $`S^1\times S^4`$ the above equation reduces to Eq. (27), i.e. no zero modes.

As before, using Eq. (26),

$`\zeta (s)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d(m)(m+3/2)^{2s}+\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d(m){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑tt^{s3/2}\mathrm{exp}\{t(m+3/2)^2\}`$ (57)
$`+2\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d(m){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑tt^{s3/2}\mathrm{exp}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2n^2}{c^2t}}(m+3/2)^2t\right],`$
where in the first term, we do not need to make use of the Mellin transform. Then integrating with respect to $`t`$

$`\zeta (s)`$ $`=`$ $`\zeta _{S_4}(s)+\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1/2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}\zeta _{S_4}(s1/2)`$ (58)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{4\pi ^s}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}}c^{s1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d(m)n^{s1/2}(m+3/2)^{s+1/2}K_{s1/2}[2\pi c^1n(m+3/2)],`$
Again, apart from $`\zeta _{S_4}(s)`$, it is easy to verify that $`\zeta (0)=0`$. Whence,

$`\zeta ^{}(0)`$ $`=`$ $`\zeta _{S_4}{}_{}{}^{}(0)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{c^2}}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(1/2)(\zeta (4,3/2)\zeta (2,3/2))`$ (59)
$`+4c^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}d(m)n^{1/2}(m+2)^{1/2}K_{1/2}[2\pi c^1n(m+3/2)],`$
where a prime denotes differentiation with respect to $`s`$. As expected the second term is exactly the contribution from the one brane configuration, where we have used the identity,

$$\frac{d}{ds}\left[\frac{2}{\sqrt{4\pi }}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1/2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}\zeta _{S_4}(s1/2)\right]_{s=0}=\frac{d}{ds}\left[\frac{1}{3}\frac{L}{\sqrt{\pi }}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1/2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)}\left(\zeta (2s4,3/2)\frac{1}{4}\zeta (2s2,3/2)\right)\right]_{s=0}=0,$$
(60)
with $`c=\pi /L`$. Thus, in the one brane limit the effective potential reduces to the Casimir energy on $`S^4`$, as pointed out in NOZ . This relation can also be found in DA , except for a factor of $`2`$ because of our mode doubling.

The third term is non-zero and depends on the value of $`c=\pi /L`$,

$$\frac{1}{2}\zeta ^{}(0)=\underset{n=1,m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{3}\frac{(m+1)(m+2)(m+3/2)}{n}\mathrm{exp}[2Ln(m+3/2)],$$
(61)
where we have used the relation $`K_{1/2}(z)=\sqrt{\pi /(2z)}e^z`$ and Eq. (9). After evaluating the summation over $`m`$ we have an expression for the scalar one-loop effective action on the cylinder,

$$W_{2I\times S_4}=\frac{1}{8}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\mathrm{cosh}nL}{n(\mathrm{sinh}nL)^4}.$$
(62)
Thus, since the one brane contribution is zero,

$$W_{2I\times S_4}^{D,N}=\pm \frac{1}{2}\zeta _{S_4}^{}(0)\pm \frac{1}{2}\zeta _{S_4}(0)\mathrm{log}\mu ^2\frac{1}{8}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\mathrm{cosh}nL}{n(\mathrm{sinh}nL)^4}=2W_{I\times S_4}^{D,N},$$
(63)
with Dirichlet (D) and Neumann (N) boundary conditions, with

$$\zeta _{S_4}(s)=\frac{1}{3}\left(\zeta (2s3,3/2)\frac{1}{4}\zeta (2s1,3/2)\right),$$
(64)
where $`\zeta (s,a)`$ is a Hurwitz $`\zeta `$-function. Thus,

$$\zeta _{S_4}(0)=\frac{1}{3}\left(\zeta (3,3/2)\frac{1}{4}\zeta (1,3/2)\right)=\frac{17}{2880}$$
(65)
and using the standard relation

$$\zeta ^{}(s,3/2)=2^s\mathrm{log}2\zeta (s)+(2^s1)\zeta ^{}(s)2^s\mathrm{log}2$$
(66)
we find that

$`\zeta _{S_4}^{}(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\left(\zeta ^{}(3,3/2){\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\zeta ^{}(1,3/2)\right),`$ (67)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}\mathrm{log}2\zeta (3){\displaystyle \frac{7}{24}}\zeta ^{}(3){\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}\mathrm{log}2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}\mathrm{log}2\zeta (1)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}\zeta ^{}(1)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}\mathrm{log}2,`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{7}{24}}\zeta _R^{}(3)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}\zeta _R^{}(1)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}\zeta _R(3)\mathrm{log}2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}\zeta _R(1)\mathrm{log}2,`$
where $`\zeta _R`$ is the Riemann zeta function.

This is the first proper treatment of the zero modes for $`S^4`$ branes in an AdS5 bulk. Similar results have been obtained in lower dimensions by Dowker and Apps DA .


text:
# The recent X–ray history of NGC 5506

## 1 Introduction

NGC 5506 hosts a nearby (z=0.006) AGN, rather bright in hard X-rays. It has been generally classified as a NELG. Recently Nagar et al. (2002) observed the source in the near–IR and discovered an heavily reddened (A$`{}_{V}{}^{}`$5) Narrow Line Seyfert 1 nucleus.

The source, being very bright, was observed by all X–ray satellites, starting with $`Uhuru`$. In recent times, it was observed by $`Einstein`$ (Maccacaro et al. 1982), $`EXOSAT`$ (Pounds et al. 1989) and $`Ginga`$ (Bond et al. 1993); the latter fitted the spectrum with a power law absorbed by neutral matter with column density of $`34\times 10^{22}`$ cm-2, plus a soft excess. Furthermore, the data showed a reflection component and an iron K$`\alpha `$ line (Bond et al. 1993). Later on, $`ROSAT`$ HRI images suggested that the soft emission is extended and coincident with the radio emission (Colbert et al. 1998). Results from $`ASCA`$ (Wang et al. 1999), BeppoSAX (Perola et al. 2002) and an $`RXTE`$ variability analysis (Lamer et al. 2000) pointed out the complexity of the iron line profile, which was finally resolved by XMM-$`Newton`$ in at least two components, the narrower at 6.4 keV being likely associated with the reflection component, arising from a neutral Compton-thick material (Matt et al. 2001). The origin of the bluer and broader component is less clear, but may be associated to the soft excess (see Sect. 3.2.4). Finally, the source is variable on short time scales, but no long term trend has been found yet (e.g. Papadakis et al. 2002).

In this paper we present results from two XMM–$`Newton`$ observations (the first one simultaneous with a BeppoSAX observation, see Matt et al. 2001) and a $`Chandra`$/HETG observation. We have also reanalysed past BeppoSAX and ASCA observations (see Table 1). All these observations will allow us to check and refine the interpretation proposed by Matt et al. (2001) and Bianchi & Matt (2002), in which the nucleus is surrounded by at least two reflecting regions, one Compton–thick and neutral and the other one Compton–thin and highly ionized, and obscured by a Compton–thin cold absorber.

We will assume H$`{}_{0}{}^{}=75`$ km/s/Mpc throughout the paper.

## 2 Observations and data reduction

### 2.1 XMM-Newton

NGC 5506 was observed twice by XMM-$`Newton`$, on February 2001 and on January 2002 (Table 1). We defer the reader to Matt et al. (2001) for details on the first observation and the related data reduction. Both observations were performed with the imaging CCD cameras, the EPIC-MOS (Turner et al. 2001) and the EPIC-pn (Strüder et al. 2001) operating in Large Window mode and the Medium filter. X-ray events corresponding to pattern 0 were used for the pn and 0-12 for the MOS. We will not deal with the RGS spectra in this paper, because of the too poor statistics. Data were reduced with SAS 5.3.0, including the first observation which was reprocessed. As an effect of the new adopted response matrix, we found a slightly different normalization factor between PDS and pn, 1.15, instead of 1.215 used by Matt et al. (2001). EPIC-pn spectra (0.5-10 keV) and lightcurves were extracted from a radius of $`40\mathrm{}`$. An extraction region of $`45\mathrm{}`$ radii was instead adopted for the EPIC MOS1 and MOS2 spectra (0.3-10 keV). Both observations are affected by negligible pileup (less than 1% in the pn). Spectra were analysed with Xspec 11.1.0.

### 2.2 Chandra

The $`Chandra`$ observation was performed on New Year’s Eve 2000 (Table 1) with the Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS-S: Garmire et al., in preparation) and the High-Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (HETGS: Canizares et al., in preparation) in place. The high flux of the source together with the default frame time of 3.2 s resulted in a 0th order spectrum which is strongly affected by pileup (70% according to WebPIMMS111http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/Tools/w3pimms.html). Therefore, we will only use the 1st order co-added MEG and HEG spectra in this paper. Data were reduced with the Chandra Interactive Analysis of Observations software (CIAO 2.2.1), using the Chandra Calibration Database (CALDB 2.10). Grating spectra were analysed with $`Sherpa`$ 2.2.1.

### 2.3 BeppoSAX

BeppoSAX observed the source three times, on January 1997, January 1998 and February 2001 (Table 1). The first two observations were published by Risaliti (2002) and Perola et al. (2002), while the third one by Matt et al. (2001), together with the simultaneous XMM-Newton observation. Data reduction followed the standard procedure presented by Guainazzi et al. (1999), using HEAsoft 5.1. Spectra were extracted from regions of radius $`8\mathrm{}`$ for the LECS and $`4\mathrm{}`$ for the MECS, and analysed with Xspec 11.1.0. A normalization factor of 0.86 was adopted between the PDS and the MECS (Fiore et al. 1999), appropriate for PDS spectra extracted with fixed rise time threshold.

### 2.4 ASCA

The source was observed by $`ASCA`$ on January 1997, simultaneously with the first BeppoSAX observation. Data were published by Wang et al. (1999). SIS spectra (0.5-10 keV) were downloaded from the ASCA Archive and background was extracted from blank field observations of SIS0 e SIS1. Data were analysed with HEAsoft 5.1. and Xspec 11.1.0. Following the procedure adopted for the simultaneous XMM-BeppoSAX observation, we adopted a normalization factor of 0.898 between the PDS and the SIS0 for the simultaneous $`ASCA`$-BeppoSAX observation.

In the following, errors are at the 90% confidence level for one interesting parameter ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=2.71`$).

## 3 Data analysis

### 3.1 Flux and spectral variability

We analysed a total of seven X-ray observations of NGC 5506, covering a history of five years (see Table 1). The source shows a remarkable variability both during each observation (see Fig. 1(a) for an example), and between different observations (Fig. 1(b)). However, the large variation between the two XMM observations may not be related to a real long-term variability, because these observations are rather short. Therefore, the measured fluxes could be the effect of a large amplitude short-term variability, with the observations sampling different phases of it. This is also supported by the third long BeppoSAX observation, which has a average flux much higher than the first XMM-$`Newton`$ one, which covers only a small fraction of it. Moreover, the three BeppoSAX observations have a remarkably similar average flux over a period of time of 4 years, suggesting that any variability time scale is smaller than about 1-2 days, i.e. the typical elapsed time of the BeppoSAX pointings.

The hardness ratio in each observation seems to indicate that there is no significant short-term spectral variation (Fig. 1(a)). On the other hand, in order to understand if the long-term flux variability is associated to spectral variations of the nuclear continuum, we performed a fit with a simple absorbed power law to all the analysed observations, with the only exception of $`Chandra`$, because the 0th order spectrum is largely affected by pileup (see Sect. 2.2), while in the 1st order spectra there are not enough continuum photons. We restricted our fits to the band 2.5-10 keV, in order to avoid the soft excess and the reflection component (we will deal with their temporal behaviour later). The results are shown in Fig. 2(a) and 2(b): despite the large flux variability, no significant variations are present in the spectral shape of NGC 5506. Only the $`ASCA`$ parameters (fully compatible with those derived by Wang et al. 1999) are systematically lower than the other ones but this is probably due to calibration problems, being inconsistent with the simultaneous BeppoSAX observation.

### 3.2 Spectral analysis

We start our spectral analysis from the three BeppoSAX observations, which give valuable informations on the broadband spectrum of the source. If we adopt a simple model with a power law absorbed by a column density of neutral gas, we get unacceptable fits (reduced $`\chi ^2`$ higher than 2) for all the three datasets. Three features clearly arise from the residuals: a soft excess, an iron line and an excess at high energy, likely a signature of Compton reflection (see Fig. 3(a) for the third observation).

We note that the soft excess is an important component only in the LECS band and clearly does not affect the spectrum at higher energies. Therefore, we will exclude from our first analysis the LECS data and focus our attention in the next section on the reflection component and the iron line. The same reason led us to ignore all data below 2.5 keV in the pn spectra, following Matt et al. (2001). The soft excess will be treated separately in Sect. 3.2.4 and put in the general context of the broadband model in Sect. 4.

#### 3.2.1 The broadband BeppoSAX data

In order to correct the residuals on the high energy part of the spectrum, we changed our baseline model introducing a reflection component from neutral matter (pexrav model: Magdziarz & Zdziarski 1995) and an iron line. The same model successfully correct the residuals observed in the three BeppoSAX observations (see Fig. 3(b)).

The best fit energies of the iron lines are clearly shifted to energies higher than 6.4 keV (respectively $`6.69_{0.13}^{+0.09}`$, $`6.60_{0.18}^{+0.07}`$ and $`6.57_{0.07}^{+0.14}`$ keV for the three observations). Moreover, the lines are resolved ($`0.3`$ keV). These results are consistent with those derived by Perola et al. (2002), but, interestingly, they are marginally different from the value of the line centroid in $`ASCA`$, being $`6.44_{0.04}^{+0.06}`$, which in turns is consistent with the results published by Wang et al. (1999). The reason for this discrepancy is probably due to an intrinsic complexity of the iron line of this source combined with the different response of the two instruments at high energies.

Matt et al. (2001) found that the XMM-$`Newton`$ data clearly show at least two components for the iron line, one narrow at 6.4 keV and the other broad at higher energies. They suggested that the best explanation for the broad component is in terms of a blend of ionized iron lines, Fe xxv at 6.7 and Fe xxvi at 6.96 keV. Therefore we decided to adopt a Compton reflection model plus three narrow gaussian lines (with fixed centroid energies) also for the BeppoSAX data (see Table 2). All the other parameters do not change significantly from the initial model with a single, broad iron line, but the residuals around the line are better corrected and a marginal improvement of the $`\chi ^2`$ is achieved. If this interpretation of the iron line complex is correct, the $`ASCA`$ observation of a single neutral iron line can be tentatively explained as due to the steeper decline of the effective area of this instrument at these energies.

The model with Compton reflection from neutral matter and three narrow gaussian lines is statistically very good also for the pn-PDS spectrum from the simultaneous XMM-SAX observation (see third column in Table 3).

#### 3.2.2 The iron line complex

As already mentioned, Matt et al. (2001) found that the pn spectrum showed an iron line composed by at least two components, one narrow, at 6.4 keV, and the other broader, bluewards. This structure for the line complex is less clear in the second XMM observations, where the total flux of the source was almost doubled and the broader component is less visible (see Fig. 4).

The line at 6.4 keV is unresolved at the CCD resolution, in both the XMM observations. The higher spectral resolution of the gratings aboard $`Chandra`$ allows a tighter upper limit on the FWHM of the line, which is about 4000 km s-1 (99% confidence level). This value clearly excludes an origin from the innermost region of an accretion disc, suggesting instead a more distant matter, such as the BLR or the torus. This is also supported by the absence of flux variability of the line in all the analysed observations (Fig. 6(a)). Because NGC 5506 was recently discovered to be a NLS1, with BLR line widths $`<`$ 2000 km s-1 (Nagar et al. 2002), the upper limit to the line width from $`Chandra`$ cannot permit to exclude an origin of the line from the BLR. On the other hand, it is preferable to identify the narrow line with the one inevitably arising from the matter producing the reflection component: we shall return on this subject in Sect. 4.1. It seems then reasonable that a torus is the most likely explanation for the 6.4 keV line and the reflection at high energies. It is worth noting that this torus does not intercept the line of sight, as the column density of the absorber is too low to explain the observed line and Compton reflection continuum (see e.g. Matt et al. 2002). Therefore, in NGC 5506 both Compton–thin and Compton–thick circumnuclear matter are simultaneously present.

Following Matt et al. (2001) and the model we adopted for the BeppoSAX data, we interpreted the broad component of the iron line at higher energies as the blend of two ionized iron lines at 6.7 and 6.96 keV. Those lines have equivalent widths of a few tens eV in the first XMM observation (see Table 3) and around 10 eV in the second one, when the flux of the continuum almost doubled. Indeed, even if they are often only upper limits, the fluxes of the two ionized lines are consistent to be constant among all the analysed observations (Figs. 6(b), 6(c)). The ionized iron lines are not detected in the $`Chandra`$ HEG spectrum (see Fig. 5). However, if two gaussian lines are added to the fit at 6.7 and 6.96 keV, their upper limits are fully compatible with the flux measured in the XMM observations.The reason for the lack of detection in the grating spectra could be related to the physical origin of these lines and will be investigated in Sect. 3.2.4.

#### 3.2.3 An ionized disc?

Even if the interpretation of the broad component of the iron line as a blend of two ionized lines successfully fits the data, we decided to test the alternative hypothesis that this component is actually the result of reprocessing by an ionized disc. This interpretation was tried and rejected by Matt et al. (2001), on the basis of a model including refsch and diskline. We therefore decided to adopt a more refined model, xion (Nayakshin et al. in preparation), to fit the simultaneous pn/PDS spectrum. This model consists of reflection from a photoionized disc and the associated iron line, including relativistic effects. The adopted geometry is that of a lamp-post, with free parameters of the model being the height of the X-ray source above the disk, hx, the accretion rate through the disc, $`\dot{\mathrm{m}}`$, the ratio between the luminosity of the X-ray source and that of the disc, Lx / Ld, the inner and outer disk radii (the first kept fixed to 3 Rs in our fits) and the spectral index.We further added a narrow line at 6.4 keV (which cannot be produced in an ionized disc) to this model. The fit is much worse than the one with reflection from neutral matter ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=31`$ with 2 less dof), mostly due to a difficulty in reproducing the neutral iron edge at 7.1 keV. Therefore, it seems likely that most (if not all) the observed Compton reflection should be produced by a Compton-thick, cold material, where the neutral iron line is also likely produced. Thus, the following step was to add a further component, a Compton reflection from neutral matter modelled as pexrav with R fixed to a negative value (to include only the reflected spectrum) and the spectral index linked to that of xion . The result is now statistically as good as the one obtained with only the Compton reflection and the three lines (see Table 3). Fig. 7 shows the components of this model: most of the reflection at high energy, the iron edge and the narrow line are produced by neutral matter, while the broad component of the line originates from the ionized disc, whose reflected continuum does not contribute too much to the high energy spectrum.

However, the unbounded values of the distance of the illuminating lamp-post from the disc and the outer radius of the disc itself in the fit (see Table 3) are clearly indicating that there are not relativistic signatures on the spectrum. Moreover, the value of Lx / Ld is very high, requiring an extreme fine-tuning for a magnetic flares model. These results are very similar to those obtained by Matt et al. (2001) with a model including pexrav, refsch and diskline, which is just a less sophisticated physical picture of the one we adopted: the line is not very broad and requires a large outer radius for the disc (lack of relativistic signatures) and Compton reflection from the ionized disc is negligible if compared to that from neutral matter. These considerations make the ionized disc origin of the broad component less tenable than the identification as a blend of ionized lines, despite they are statistically equivalent.

#### 3.2.4 The soft excess

The $`Chandra`$ image of NGC 5506 clearly shows that the emission below 1 keV is extended on a radius of $`350`$ pc (Fig. 8). Furthermore, this region is clearly asymmetric with respect to the nuclear emission. Interestingly the dimension and the asymmetry of the X-ray emission seems to agree fairly well with the radio maps presented by Schmitt et al. (2001). On the other hand, no clear evidence of a possible extension on larger scale, as claimed by Colbert et al. (1998) on $`ROSAT`$ HRI data, was found.

This extended gas is naturally associated to the soft excess best observed in the two XMM spectra and the $`ASCA`$ one, allowing us to exclude thermal bremsstrahlung or a blackbody as possible explanations, since it is hard to imagine such a spectral shape arising from a 350 pc scale gas. Therefore, in order to fit the residuals on the low energy part of the spectrum, we are left with two physically consistent models: reflection of the primary continuum from a photoionized gas or thermal emission from diffuse gas (mekal), which was found to give good fits in a sample of Compton–thin Seyfert 2s observed by BeppoSAX (Risaliti 2002). The first one is parametrized (when self absorption effects are neglected) by a power law with the spectral index linked to that of the primary pexrav continuum responsible for the photoionization of the gas itself. We further allowed for absorption by an intervening column density of neutral gas. The best fits for the two models are presented in Table 4: even if marginally better from a statistical point of view, the mekal fits have metal abundances unphysically low. This means that the resulting spectrum lacks emission lines and is virtually indistinguishable from the already rejected bremsstrahlung interpretation. Reflection from photoionized gas remains then the only tenable model. The observed intervening absorption is $`2\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2, in excess of the Galactic one, and is possibly due to the host galaxy, which is seen almost edge–on.

As expected from an origin from diffuse gas, the flux of this component is remarkably constant between the two XMM observations (see Table 4), while the flux of the primary component almost doubles (see Sect. 2). Therefore, the ratio of the soft excess to the nuclear flux varies from 2 to 1 $`\%`$ in the two observations. If the interpretation as reflection from photoionized matter is correct, then the column density of this gas should be a few times $`10^{22}`$ cm-2. Bianchi & Matt (2002) have calculate the equivalent widths of the ionized iron lines produced in gas photoionized by a power law continuum. They found that equivalent widths (with respect to the total continuum, primary plus reflected) of the order of tens of eV can indeed be produced by a photoionized gas with a column density around $`10^{22}`$ cm-2 and a modest iron overabundance.

In order to understand if our model of reflection from photoionized matter is still tenable when the gas is distributed on the observed scale, we performed a test with cloudy. The density of this gas was assumed to have a $`r^2`$ behaviour, normalized in order to produce the inferred column density of $`10^{22}`$ cm-2 at a radius of $`350`$ pc. The incident continuum was taken with the 2-10 keV observed mean luminosity and spectral shape. We have found a solution with an ionization structure fully compatible with the production of ionized iron lines (see Bianchi & Matt 2002, for details), which does not require a temperature higher than $`10^5`$ K. Such temperatures make thermal emission from the gas completely negligible, so the model is self–consistent. Moreover, if the gas where they are emitted is spatially extended, the dispersion by the gratings would become rather complicated making the ionized lines difficult to detect: this would be a reason for the lack of their detection in the $`Chandra`$ HEG spectrum (see Sect. 3.2.2). Unfortunately, the statistic is too poor to directly search for extended line emission in the $`Chandra`$ images.

## 4 Discussion

In this section we summarize the results on all the components of the X-ray spectrum of NGC 5506 and put them in the context of a general scenario.

### 4.1 The broadband model

The central engine is a Seyfert 1 nucleus, whose spectrum is as usual represented by a power law with an exponential cutoff. The nuclear emission is reflected from a Compton-thick neutral material, producing the characteristic ‘bump’ at high energies (e.g. Matt et al. 1991). The narrow 6.4 keV iron line and the 7.1 keV edge from neutral iron are likely to originate from the same matter. The value of the equivalent width of the line is fully compatible with the amount of the Compton reflection. However, a possible iron underabundance is suggested by the data (see table 5): an EW of about 135 eV would be expected if R=0.75, $`\theta =30\mathrm{°}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.9`$ (George & Fabian 1991; Matt et al. 1991). In particular, the line, being narrow and keeping a constant flux despite large variation in the total flux of the source, constrains this material to be fairly distant from the black hole. This makes a parsec scale torus the best identification for this gas. It is interesting to note that the only evidence for the presence of a Compton-thick torus in NGC 5506 is indirect, being the signatures of reflection of the nuclear radiation on its inner walls.

The direct nuclear emission and the reflection components are obscured by another neutral material, with a column density of N$`{}_{\mathrm{Hc}}{}^{}3\times 10^{22}`$ cm-2. The presence of Compton-thick and Compton-thin matter in the circumnuclear regions of the same source seems to be a widespread phenomenon in the environment of Seyfert galaxy (see e.g. Matt et al. 2002, and references therein). In this respect, NGC 5506 is yet another example.

Extended on a region of 350 pc radii, a gas, photoionized by the nuclear radiation, surrounds the nucleus. The primary continuum is simply reflected, producing a component which is again a power law with the same photon index as the incident spectrum. The total column density of this gas is $`10^{22}`$ cm-2, calculated from the ratio between the normalizations of the reflected and the nuclear continuum. The ionization structure of this gas is such that ionized iron lines at 6.7 and 6.96 keV are produced, with equivalent widths against the total continuum of tens of eV. The radiation reflected from this gas is further obscured by a neutral gas along the line of sight with column density of N$`{}_{\mathrm{Hs}}{}^{}2\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2, in excess to that of our Galaxy. This gas could naturally be associated with the host galaxy, which is seen almost edge-on.

The best fit parameters for this model are shown in Table 5, when used on the pn-MOS-PDS and the SIS-PDS spectra. The results for the two sets of simultaneous observations are consistent with each other, with the only exception of the photon index and the column density NHc. The marginal inconsistency of these values could be partly due to the fact that the MOS spectra were fitted down to 0.3 keV, while the SIS ones to 0.5 keV, introducing some discrepancies in the determination of the spectral index and the cold absorption.

### 4.2 Where is the accretion disc?

It is worth noting that our model does not contain any component directly related to the accretion disc. Indeed, the results from the fits with the model xion (see Sect. 3.2.3) require quite extreme conditions and basically confirm that there is no signature of reprocessing from the accretion disc in our data. There are at least two possible explanations to this problem.

It is possible that the accretion disc is completely ionized. In this case, the reflection component would be almost indistinguishable from the primary continuum, being a simple power law. Moreover, neither iron lines nor edges would be produced because all the elements would be completely stripped off, leaving no signatures for the presence of the disc, at least in the energy band the cold absorption present in NGC 5506 let us investigate (i.e. above a few keV). Very ionized accretion discs are generally produced by high accretion rates (e.g. Ballantyne et al. 2001, and references therein). It is possible to estimate the accretion rate for NGC 5506 from the mass of the central BH, as inferred from Hayashida et al. (1998) from X-ray variability. Even if their value is highly model dependent, a mass of $`2\times 10^6`$ M would produce an Eddington luminosity of $`3\times 10^{44}`$ erg s-1. Starting from the mean unabsorbed 2-10 keV X-ray luminosity we observed ($`6\times 10^{42}`$ erg s-1), we can derive the bolometric luminosity of the source by multiplying by a factor 10-30 (Elvis et al. 1994). Therefore, the Eddington ratio for NGC 5506 is $`\eta 0.20.6`$, which in turns means a high accretion rate. Low mass BHs and high values of the Eddington ratio are generally believed to be typical characteristics of NLS1s, as physical explanations for the spectral peculiarities of these sources (see e.g. Boller et al. 1996; Laor et al. 1997; Boroson 2002). In this respect, ionized discs could be ubiquitous in NLS1s as a result of the required high accretion rate and recently there have been claims of their presence in these sources (see Ballantyne et al. 2001, and references therein).

A second solution would be that the accretion disc is seen almost edge-on, making the reprocessed components hardly detectable because of their low intensity (see e.g. Matt et al. 1991). This solution, even if not implausible, is not favoured by the fact that the torus clearly does not intercept the line of sight. Therefore, a geometry would be required with the disc and the torus which are not co-aligned as would be, at least naively, expected. Interestingly, such a scenario is required in another NLS1, RE J1034+396, whose inferred values of BH mass and Eddington ratio are of the same order as NGC 5506: this source is best modelled by an almost edge-on disc, while no torus again intercepts the line of sight (Puchnarewicz et al. 2001).

## 5 Conclusions

The analysis of all the data available from XMM-$`Newton`$, $`Chandra`$, BeppoSAX and $`ASCA`$ led us to picture a self-consistent scenario for the X-ray emission of the NLS1 NGC 5506:

* Both Compton–thin and Compton–thick circumnuclear matter are simultaneously present: the former intercepts the line of sight and absorbs the source flux at soft energies; the latter is indirectly observed through the signatures left in the spectrum, a Compton reflection component, a neutral iron edge and a narrow K$`\alpha `$ line
* The iron line consists of a narrow neutral component, arising from the torus, and a blend of ionized iron lines at 6.7 and 6.96 keV
* The nucleus is surrounded by an extended ($`350`$ pc) soft emission, likely associated with reflection of the nuclear emission by a photoionized gas, where both the soft excess and the ionized iron lines are produced
* There is no spectral signature for the presence of the accretion disc: possible solutions could be a fully ionized or almost edge-on disc

###### Acknowledgements.

SB, IB, GM and GCP acknowledge ASI and MIUR (under grant cofin-00-02-36) for financial support. We would like to thank Sergei Nayakshin for his helpful comments on the xion code, and the anonymous referee.


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# Anomalous Action in Gauge Invariant, Nonlocal, Dynamical Quark Model

## Acknowledgments

This work was supported by National Science Foundation of China No.90103008 and fundamental research grant of Tsinghua University.


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# Temperature dependence of Vortex Charges in High Temperature Superconductors

## Abstract

Using a model Hamiltonian with $`d`$-wave superconductivity and competing antiferromagnetic (AF) interactions, the temperature ($`T`$) dependence of the vortex charge in high $`T_c`$ superconductors is investigated by numerically solving the Bogoliubov-de Gennes equations. The strength of the induced AF order inside the vortex core is $`T`$ dependent. The vortex charge could be negative when the AF order with sufficient strength is present at low temperatures. At higher temperatures, the AF order may be completely suppressed and the vortex charge becomes positive. A first order like transition in the $`T`$ dependent vortex charge is seen near the critical temperature $`T_{AF}`$. For underdoped sample, the spatial profiles of the induced spin-density wave and charge-density wave orders could have stripe like structures at $`T<T_s`$, and change to two-dimensional isotropic ones at $`T>T_s`$. As a result, a vortex charge discontinuity occurs at $`T_s`$.

For the past many years there have been intensive studies of the vortex physics in high temperature superconductors (HTS). It is well established now that the $`d`$-wave superconductivity (DSC) with a competing antiferromagnetism (AF) order plays an important role in determining the vortex structure of HTS. Many theoretical studies Arovas97 ; Ogata99 ; Demler ; Machida ; Zhu01 ; Zhang02 ; chen02 ; chen03 ; Franz ; Ghosal  have shown that the AF order may appear and coexist with the underlying vortices. Experimental facts including neutron scattering Lake01 , moun spin rotation measurement Miller  and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments NMR ; NMR3  have provided a strong support for the existence of AF order inside the vortex core in appropriately doped HTS. On the other hand, the electrical charge associated with the vortex in superconductors has also been paid considerable attention both theoretically KF95 ; Blatter95 ; Machida98 ; KLB01 ; Brandt2 ; vcharge  and experimentally Matsuda98 ; Matsuda01 . Based on the BCS theory, Blatter et al. Blatter95  pointed out that for $`s`$-wave superconductor the vortex charge is proportional to the slope of the density of states at the Fermi level. However, the NMR and nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) measurements on YBa2Cu3O7 and YBa2Cu4O8 Matsuda01  seemed to obtain results for the vortex charge, contradictory to that predicted from the existing BCS theory with respect to both sign and order of magnitude. In addition, if the impact of vortex charge on the mixed state Hall signal is considered KF95 , the sign estimated from Hall effect experiments Matsuda98  for various HTS materials disagrees with the prediction of BCS-type theory. In view of these points, together with the fact that the strong electron correlation with the $`d`$-wave superconducting pairing was not considered for the vortex charge, we carried out the previous studies vcharge  at zero temperature and found that the vortex charge in HTS is strongly influenced by the presence of the induced AF order in the vortex core. The charge carried by a vortex is always positive for a pure $`d`$-wave superconductor, and it becomes negative when there is sufficient strength of AF order in the vortex core vcharge . Since most relevant experimental phenomena have been observed at finite $`T`$ not close to zero, including the sign change of the mixed state Hall effect Matsuda98 , it is necessary and valuable to study theoretically the vortex charges at finite $`T`$, which so far has not been addressed in the literature.

In this article we shall investigate the vortex charge as a function of $`T`$ for both optimally doped and underdoped HTS in detail. Our calculation will be based on the model Hamiltonian on a square lattice with a nearest neighboring attractive interaction $`V_{DSC}`$ describing the DSC and an onsite Coulomb repulsion $`U`$ representing the competing AF order. We shall adopt the well-developed numerical scheme Wang95  to study the vortex structure. Our numerical results at finite $`T`$ confirm that the sign of the vortex charge is still determined by the AF order in the vortex core, being consistent with our previous work vcharge . The vortex charge could be transformed from negative to positive values as $`T`$ is increased to a critical value $`T_{AF}`$ such that the AF order is completely suppressed at $`T>T_{AF}`$, and the transition seems to be first-order-like. For underdoped sample we show that the symmetry of the induced spin-density wave (SDW) and the charge-density wave (CDW) may change from stripe like to two dimensional like at a critical temperature $`T_s`$. A discontinuity of the $`T`$-dependent vortex charge also appears at $`T_s`$.

The effective mean-field Hamiltonian describing both DSC and SDW orders on a two-dimensional lattice can be represented as,

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i,j,\sigma }{}}t_{ij}c_{i\sigma }^{}c_{j\sigma }+{\displaystyle \underset{i,\sigma }{}}(Un_{i\overline{\sigma }}\mu )c_{i\sigma }^{}c_{i\sigma }`$ (1)
$`+{\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}c_i^{}c_j^{}+h.c.),`$
where $`c_{i\sigma }^{}`$ is the electron creation operator, $`\mu `$ is the chemical potential. In the presence of magnetic field $`B`$ perpendicular to the plane, the hopping integral can be expressed as $`t_{ij}=t_0\mathrm{exp}[i\frac{\pi }{\mathrm{\Phi }_0}_{𝐫_j}^{𝐫_i}𝐀(𝐫)𝑑𝐫]`$ for the nearest neighboring sites $`(i,j)`$. A Landau gauge $`𝐀=(By,0,0)`$ is chosen. The two possible SDW and DSC orders in cuprates are defined as $`\mathrm{\Delta }_i^{SDW}=Uc_i^{}c_ic_i^{}c_i`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}=V_{DSC}c_ic_jc_ic_j/2`$, where $`U`$ and $`V_{DSC}`$ represent respectively the interaction strengths for two orders. The mean-field Hamiltonian (1) can be diagonalized by solving the resulting Bogoliubov-de Gennes equations self-consistently

$$\underset{j}{}\left(\begin{array}{cc}_{ij,\sigma }& \mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}\\ \mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^{}& _{ij,\overline{\sigma }}^{}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}u_{j,\sigma }^n\\ v_{j,\overline{\sigma }}^n\end{array}\right)=E_n\left(\begin{array}{c}u_{i,\sigma }^n\\ v_{i,\overline{\sigma }}^n\end{array}\right),$$
(2)
where the single particle Hamiltonian $`_{ij,\sigma }=t_{ij}+(Un_{i\overline{\sigma }}\mu )\delta _{ij}`$, and $`n_i=_n|u_i^n|^2f(E_n)`$, $`n_i=_n|v_i^n|^2(1f(E_n))`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}=\frac{V_{DSC}}{4}_n(u_i^nv_j^n+v_i^{}u_j^n)\mathrm{tanh}\left(\frac{E_n}{2k_BT}\right)`$, with $`f(E)`$ as the Fermi distribution function. The DSC order parameter at the $`i`$th site is $`\mathrm{\Delta }_i^D=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{i+e_x,i}^D+\mathrm{\Delta }_{ie_x,i}^D\mathrm{\Delta }_{i,i+e_y}^D\mathrm{\Delta }_{i,ie_y}^D)/4`$ where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^D=\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}\mathrm{exp}[i\frac{\pi }{\mathrm{\Phi }_0}_{𝐫_i}^{(𝐫_i+𝐫_j)/2}𝐀(𝐫)𝑑𝐫]`$ and $`𝐞_{x,y}`$ denotes the unit vector along $`(x,y)`$ direction. In our calculation, the related parameters are chosen as: $`t=a=1`$, $`V_{DSC}=1.2`$, the linear dimension of the unit cell of the vortex lattice is $`N_x\times N_y=40\times 20`$. This choice corresponds the magnetic field $`B37T`$.

In the absence of the magnetic field and for optimally doped sample ($`\delta =0.15`$), the parameters are chosen in such a way that only DSC (with $`T_c0.164)`$ prevails in the system. Our numerical results with $`U=2.2`$ indeed show that the AF order is induced at low temperature and is suppressed when $`T`$ is larger.

The spatial profiles of the superconductivity order parameter, staggered magnetization, and the charge density near the vortex core are plotted at two different temperatures in Fig.1. Here the staggered magnetization of the induced AF or SDW order is defined as $`M_s^i=(1)^i\mathrm{\Delta }_i^{SDW}/U`$. The AF order is generated in the region where the DSC order parameter is partially suppressed. The low temperature results at $`T=0.02`$ are shown in Figs. 1(a) to 1(c) where the AF order is nucleated and spreads out from the core center, and the vortex charge is negative. The induced AF order behaves like a two dimensional SDW with the same wavelength in the $`x`$ and $`y`$ directions. The higher temperature results at $`T=0.05`$ are shown in Figs. 1(d) to 1(f) where the AF order is completely suppressed and the vortex charge becomes positive. The appearance of the SDW order pinned by the vortex lattice at low $`T`$ strongly enhances the net electron density (or depletion of the hole density) at the vortex core as shown in Fig.1(c). The present result is consistent with that of Ref. 20 where the doping and $`U`$-value dependences of vortex charges are examined. Both works reach the same conclusion: the vortex charge is negative when a sufficient strength of SDW order is induced , while it turns to positive with the suppression of SDW order due to increasing $`T`$ or doping level, or decreasing the $`U`$-value.

Fig. 2(a) plots the phase diagram of $`T`$ versus $`U`$ for positively (hole-rich) and negatively (electron-rich) charged vortices. It is obvious that the AF vortex core can easily be induced in the low temperature regime or with stronger AF interaction $`U`$ while the pure DSC core tends to exist in the high $`T`$ or smaller $`U`$. The electron density inside the core is higher than the average density in the low temperature region while the electron density becomes lower than the average in the high temperature region. There exists a clear boundary between these two phases. To estimate the vortex charge, we first determine the vortex size by examining the spatial profile of DSC order parameter. Next we sum over the net electron density inside the vortex core. In Fig. 2(b), we depict the chemical potential versus $`T`$ at fixed doping level ($`\delta =0.15`$ with $`U=2.4`$ and $`U=2.2`$). The result (solid line) for $`U=2.4`$ exhibits a first-order like transition at $`T_{AF}0.077`$, indicating the existence of induced AF order below this critical temperature. For $`U=2.2`$, the result (dashed line) seems to show a very weak discontinuity which can hardly be seen in Fig. 2(b).

The above finding may be closely related to the experimental results for underdoped TlBa2Cu4O8 NMR3  where the vortex core with induced AF order below $`T_{AF}`$ was reported. Also from Fig. 2(b), a discontinuity in the slope of the $`T`$-dependent chemical potential at $`T_{AF}`$ for both cases can be clearly observed. We expect that the local density of states (LDOS) of the vortex core should have double peaks Zhu01 ; chen02 ; Ghosal ; Renner ; Pan01  near zero bias for $`T<T_{AF}`$; while for $`T>T_{AF}`$ only a single broad zero-bias peak can appear in the LDOS as one of the essential characteristics of DSC Wang95 . It would be interesting to measure this temperature evolution in the LDOS by future STM experiments. Also interestingly, even though the origin of Hall sign anomaly in HTS is still debatable Wang94 , the vortex charge could make an additional contribution to the sign change in the mixed state Hall conductivity KF95 . As a result, we predict that a sign reversal in the Hall signal may occur at $`T`$ not too far below $`T_{AF}`$.

In Fig. 3, we plot the vortex charge number $`Q_v/e`$ as a function of $`T`$ for three typical $`U`$-values, here $`e<0`$ is the charge of an electron.

The $`T`$ dependence of the induced staggered magnetization $`M_s^c`$ at the vortex core center has also been examined in previous studies Taki03 ; chenNMR  where the induced AF order is shown to disappear for $`T>T_{AF}`$. From Fig. 3 and for $`U=2.4`$, one can clearly see an abrupt jump in the number of vortex charge $`Q_v/e`$ as $`T`$ varies around $`T_{AF}0.077`$ which is consistent with the critical temperature as shown in Fig. 2(b). This positive to negative vortex charge transition seems to be first-order like. The magnitude of the discontinuity reduces to one third when $`U=2.2`$ at $`T_{AF}0.04`$. Here the discontinuity occurs at the positive to positive vortex charge transition, not the positive to negative transition as studied in the case of $`U=2.4`$. This is because slightly below $`T_{AF}`$, the induced AF order is too weak to make the vortex charge negative. For a pure DSC case with $`U=0`$, the vortex charge $`Q_v`$ is always positive and its magnitude first increases slightly with $`T`$ and then decreases to zero as $`T`$ approaches to $`T_c`$. The critical temperature $`T_{AF}`$ is $`U`$-value dependent or the sample-dependent. The larger $`U`$ corresponds to larger $`T_{AF}`$. These results confirm that the vortex charge is strongly influenced by two competing effects: the suppression of the DSC order at the core center leading to the depletion of the electrons, and the induction of the AF order which favors the accumulation of electrons. The condition for the negative vortex charge to appear depends solely on whether there is a sufficient AF order inside the vortex core. We emphasize that our results are robust and indifference to band parameters, and should give a qualitative description on the vortex physics in HTS.

In the following we are going to investigate the temperature dependence of the vortex charge for underdoped HTS ($`\delta =0.12`$). For $`U=2.4`$, the spatial profiles of the staggered magnetization and electron density near the vortex core at three different temperatures are plotted in Fig. 4.

As discussed in our previous work chen02 , the parameters used to obtain Fig. 4 yield stripe like structures in the DSC, SDW and CDW order parameters at very low temperature. In the present work, the DSC and SDW orders coexist in underdoped sample below $`T_c`$, which implies $`T_{AF}>T_c`$. So the question arises: will these stripe like structures persist with increasing temperature? From our calculations, the spatial profiles of these order parameters may go through three different symmetries as $`T`$ increases. At $`T=0`$, the spatial distribution of SDW ($`M_s`$) and CDW ($`n_i`$) orders exhibit quasi-one-dimensional stripe like behavior (see Figs. 4(a) and 4(b)) . When $`T`$ is raised to $`T=0.11`$ above a characteristic temperature $`T_s`$ ($`0.1`$), the symmetry of the patterns change to isotropic and two-dimensional (see Figs. 4(c) and 4(d)). Above $`T_c`$ ($`0.16`$) and at $`T=0.17`$, the residual AF and electron density become uniform as shown in Figs. 4(e) and 4(f). The AF order vanishes when $`T>T_{AF}`$.

Finally we display the temperature evolution of the vortex charge number $`Q_v/e`$ for the underdoped case $`\delta =0.12`$ with $`U=2.4`$ and $`U=2.2`$ in Fig. 5.

Comparing with Fig. 3, the magnitudes of vortex charges for both cases in Fig. 5 at low temperatures become larger as a result of stronger AF order near the vortex core in underdoped samples. For $`U=2.4`$, the $`Q_v/e`$ versus temperature curve (see the solid line in Fig. 5) exhibits a discontinuity at $`T_s0.1`$ which reflects the characteristic temperature between two different symmetries. For $`U=2.2`$, the spatial distribution patterns for SDW and CDW are always isotropic and two-dimensional with $`T_{AF}0.09`$ where a appreciable discontinuity in $`Q_v/e`$ (see the dotted line in Fig. 5) is present.

Recently STM experiments Pan ; Lang  showed the existence of inhomogeneities in the electron density even for the optimally doped Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x, there the hole density varies from $`0.1`$ to $`0.2`$. From our previous paper vcharge  and the present study, we found that there may exist two types of vortex cores either negatively charged or positively charged. By increasing $`T`$, the number of negatively charged vortices decreases, while positively charged vortices increase. This may have profound effect on the mixed state transport properties in HTS. Finally we wish to point out that our numerical study has been performed in a strong magnetic field. So far we are not able to extend this calculation to a much weaker field. However, according to the extrapolation scenario vcharge , the magnitude of the induced AF order follows roughly a linear relationship with $`B`$. The strength of the AF order and the magnitude of vortex charge are estimated to be much smaller as $`B`$ is reduced to the experimental value ($`9.4T`$). Despite this difficulty, our numerical approach should give a consistent description to the behavior of vortex charges in HTS.

We are grateful to Prof. S.H. Pan, B. Friedman and Dr. J.X Zhu for useful discussions. This work was supported by the Robert A. Welch Foundation and by the Texas Center for Superconductivity at the University of Houston through the State of Texas. ZDW also appreciates the support from the RGC grant of Hong Kong (HKU7092/01P), the Ministry of Science and Technology of China under grant No. 1999064602, and the URC fund of HKU.