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# The non sequitur mathematics and physics of the “New Electrodynamics” proposed by the AIAS groupThis paper has been published in Random Operators and Stochastic Equations 9, 161-206 (2001). In the present version some misprints have been corrected and some typos have been changed. ,I inform that a reply to the present paper has been written by M. Evans under the title: ”Comment on A.L. Trovon de Carvalho and Rodrigues, ´Random Optics (sic) and Stochastic Equations’” and can be found at the AIAS website (http://www.ais.us). A rebuttal to Evans appears in the paper: W. A. Rodrigues Jr., W.A.R. vs AIAS, which can be found at http://www.ime.unicamp.br/rel_pesq/2003/ps/rp28-03.pdf

## 1 Introduction

A group of 15 physicists (see footnote 64), hereafter called the *AIAS* group, signed a series of 60 papers published in a special issue of the journal, *J. New Energy*(*JNE*) with the title: “The New Maxwell Electrodynamic Equations” and subtitle: “New Tools for New Technologies”. Here we mainly review the first paper of the series, named “On the Representation of the Electromagnetic Field in Terms of Two Whittaker Scalar Potentials”, hereafter called *AIAS*1, but we also present comments on other papers of the series that pretends to have created a new electrodynamics which is a gauge theory based on the $`O(3)`$ group.

Before presenting the main claims of the *AIAS* group which we will criticize it is important to know the following. If the material concerning the “new electrodynamics” were published only in the *JNE* we probably would never have had contact with it. However, almost all the material of that papers appeared in one form or another in established and traditional physical journals\[13-17,34\] and in several books\[4,66-70\] published by leading international publishing houses. It happens that on May, 1999, one of the present authors (W.A.R.) was asked by the editor of the journal *Found. of Physics* to referee the first three papers published in. Of course, the papers were rejected, the reason being that these publications can be categorized as a collection of mathematical sophisms, i.e., are full of *nonsense* mathematics.

We felt that something must start to be doing in order to denounce this state of affairs to the public111The present paper is based on a referee’s report written for *Found. Physics*, under request of Professor A. van der Merwe, the editor of that journal. We emphasize here that Professor van der Merwe has been authorized to inform the *AIAS* group who wrote the report, but according to him he didn’t. Also, the contents of the present paper has been presented in an invited lecture given by W.A.R. at the meeting of the Natural Philosophy Alliance entitled: *An Introduction to* 21*st Century Physics and Cosmology*, hold at the University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, June 5-9, 2000. Dr. Hal Fox, the editor of the *JNE* announced by June,1999 in the internet site of his journal that he intended to publish a series of papers siged by the *AIAS* group. He has been discretly advised by W.A.R. that publication of that material could damage for ever the reputation of the *JNE*. Dr. Fox did not follow the advice and published that papers. After attending W.A.R. presentation at Storrs, he invited us to publish our criticisms in his journal, but we decline to to that, since we do not want our names to be in any way associated with that periodic. However, since all this affair is an important one, from several points of view, we decide to publish our criticisms in *ROSE*, with the hope that it will be read by physicists and other scientists interested in mantaining science in the highest possible level. and to stop the proliferation of mathematical nonsense in scientific journals.

The first version of *AIAS papers* was signed by 19 people and Professor J. P. Vigier was not one of the authors. The other people that ‘signed’ the first version of the manuscripts (*MSs*) and did not signed the version of that papers published in are: D. Leporini, J. K. Moscicki, H. Munera, E. Recami and D. Roscoe. These names are explicitly quoted here because we are not sure that they knew or even agreed with Evans (the leader of the *AIAS* group) in participating as authors of that papers222At the meeting of the Natural Philosophy Alliance quoted in footnote 2, Dr. Munera was present. He confirmed to the public attending W.A.R. lecture at that meeting that his name has been used withouth his consent in some publications of the *AIAS* group., although the situation is very confused. Indeed, some of the people mentioned above signed other papers as members the *AIAS* group which have been published in several different journals\[13-17\]333These papers—despite appearing in established physical journals and in books published by traditional publishing houses—are like the ones published in, i.e., are full of mathematical sophisms. This is an indication of the *low* level of significant part of the present scientific literature. We will elaborate more on this issue on another paper. We quote also here that while preparing the review for the *Found. Phys.*, W.A.R. received a new “improved version” of the *MSs*. There, some (but not all) of the absurdities of the papers published in(that indeed correspond to the first version of the *MSs* received for review) have been deleted, but unfortunately the papers continued a *pot-pourri* of nonsense. More important is to register here that three authors ‘decided’ not to sign the ‘improved’ version of the *MSs*. Eventually they realized in due time that they would compromise their careers if the physics or mathematics community would know about their participation in that papers..

All these facts show that there are ethical problems at issue in this whole affair and they are in our opinion more serious than it appears at a first sight, deserving by themselves a whole discussion. However we will not consider this enterprise here, and simply concentrate ourselves in analyzing the mathematics behind some of the main claims of *AIAS*1444For other important criticisms concerning $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ theory as originally formulated by Evans, see\[58,59,81-83\] and references therein.. These are

(i) “The contemporary view that classical electromagnetism is a $`U(1)`$ gauge theory relies on the restricted received view of transverse plane waves, $`U(1)`$ being isomorphic with $`O(2)`$ (sic)555Of course, as it is well known by any competent physicist $`U(1)`$ is isomorphic with $`SO(2)`$, not $`O(2)`$. In fact, any student with a middle level of knowledge in topology knows that $`SO(2)`$ is connected as a topological space while $`O(2)`$ is not. The determinant function $`det:O(2)R`$ is continuous and send $`O(2)`$ to the set $`\{1,1\}R`$ which is not connected in $`R`$., the group of rotations in a plane.”

(ii) “If there are longitudinal components available from the Heaviside-Maxwell equations (*ME*)666Hereafter denoted *ME*., then, these cannot be represented by a $`U(1)`$ gauge theory.”

(iii) That Whittaker  proved nearly a hundred years ago “that longitudinal standing waves exist in the vacuum from the most general possible solutions of the D’Alembert wave equation.”

(iv) That “Jackson’s well known demonstration of longitudinal waves also illustrates that the group $`O(2)`$ in gauge theory must be replaced by the group $`O(3)`$, that of rotations in three space dimensions, the covering group777Of course, any competent physicist knows that $`SU(2)`$ is the covering group of $`SO(3)`$ and not that $`O(3)`$ is the covering group of $`SU(2)`$ as stated in the *AIAS* papers. This is only a small example of the fact that *AIAS* authors do not know elementary mathematics. of $`SU(2)`$ (sic).”

(v) That (i)-(iii) “leads in turn to the fact that classical electromagnetism is according to gauge theory a Yangs-Mills theory, with an internal gauge space that is a vector space, rather than a scalar space as in the received $`ME`$.”

(vi) *AIAS* authors quote that recently a theory of electrodynamics\[3-14\] (see also\[15-17\]) has been proposed based on a physical $`O(3)`$ gauge space, which reduces to the $`U(1)`$ counterpart under certain circumstances, together with a novel phase free field $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$. The quotation of so many papers has as obvious purpose to suggest to the reader that such a new theory is well founded. Unfortunately, this is not the case, as we show in detail below.

To show their claims, *AIAS* authors review in section 2 the work of Whittaker and say that they reviewed the work888They did not. of Jackson. In section 3 they claim to have developed a theory where a “symmetry breaking of $`SU(2)`$ to $`O(3)`$ with the Higgs field gives a view of electromagnetism similar to Whittakers’ in terms of two scalar potentials.”

In what follows we show999There are also some errors in *AIAS*1, as e.g., the approximations given eq.(9) that in general are not done by freshman calculus students, at least at our universities.:

(a) That claims (i, ii, v) are *wrong*.

(b1) We are not going to comment on (iv) because everybody can easily realize that this quotation is simply misleading concerning the problem at issue.

Concerned (iii) we make some comments (for future reference) on Whittaker’s proof in that from D’Alembert equation it follows that there are longitudinal standing waves in the vacuum.

(b2) That there is a proof that *ME* possess exact solutions corresponding to electromagnetic fields configurations (*EFC*) in vacuum that can move with arbitrary speeds101010These solutions, as is the case of the plane wave solutions of *ME* have infinite energy and so cannot be produced by any physical device. However, finite aperture approximations to that solutions can be produced. These waves have extraordinary properties which have been studied in details in .Among the extraordinary new solutions of *ME* there are, as particular cases, standing *EFC* in vacuum, as proved in\[19-21,37\]. Moreover, standing *EFC* with $`\stackrel{}{E}\stackrel{}{B}`$ have been produced in the laboratory. See \[19-21,37\], and also . $`0v<\mathrm{}`$ and that this fact is well known as documented in\[19-22\] (see also ). These papers have not been quoted by the *AIAS* authors, although there is proof111111Indeed,  quotes  and  quotes . that at least 2 of the 16 authors of the first version of *AIAS*1 knew references very well! This point is *important,* because in  it is shown that, in general, an *EFC* moving with speeds $`0v<1`$ or $`v>1`$ have *longitudinal components* of the electric and/or of the magnetic fields.

(b3) That Whittakers’ presentation of electromagnetism in terms of two purely “longitudinal” potentials, $`\stackrel{}{f}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{g}`$ is not as general as claimed by the *AIAS* authors. Indeed, Whittaker’s presentation is a particular case of *Hertz’s vector potentials theory,* known since 1888, a fact that is clearly quoted in Stratton’s book. The appropriate use of Hertz theory allowed the authors of \[19-22,35\] to easily prove the existence in vacuum of the arbitrary velocities solutions $`(0v<\mathrm{})`$ of *ME*.

The claim that Whittaker’s approach shows that there are scalar waves in the vacuum and that these scalar waves are more fundamental than the potentials and electromagnetic fields is simply one more of the many unproven claims resulting from wishful thinking. Our statement will become clear in what follows.

Concerning (v) we have the following to say121212Our statements are proved below.:

(c1) References\[3-10\]131313 need a separated comment, it is also, according to our view, a *pot-pourri* of misconceptions. do not endorse the view that the $`U(1)`$ gauge theory of electromagnetism is incorrect. This claim has been made on many occasions by Evans while defending (as, e.g., in) his $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ theory from his critics (which are many competent physicists, see\[58,59,81-83\] and the references in that papers). Our main purpose in this paper is not to discuss if the concept of the $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ field is of some utility to physical science. However we will introduce in section 2 the main ideas that probably lead Evans to this concept. It will become clear that it is completely superfluous and irrelevant. Indeed, the original definition given by Evans of $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ makes his theory a non sequitur141414On this issue, see also.. Trying to save his “theory” he and colleagues (the *AIAS* group) decide to promote $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ as a gauge theory with $`O(3)`$ as gauge group.These new develpoments show very clearly that the members of that group *never* understood until now what a gauge theory is. This is particularly clear in his paper, entitled “Non-Abelian Electrodynamics and the Vacuum $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$” which is the starting point for the theory of section 3 of *AIAS*1 and also of many other odd papers published in .

(c2) The statement that Barrett developed a consistent $`SU(2)`$ non abelian electrodynamics is non sequitur. Indeed, at least the Barrett’s papers\[5-8\] which we had the opportunity to examine are also a *pot-pourri* of inconsistent mathematics. We will point out some of them, in what follows.

(c3) Quotation of Harmuth’s papers by the *AIAS* authors is completely out of context. At the *Discussion* section of *AIAS*1 it is concluded:

> “On the $`U(1)`$ level there are longitudinal propagating solutions of the potentials $`\stackrel{}{f}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{g}`$, of the vector potential $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ and the Stratton potential $`\stackrel{}{S}`$, but not longitudinal propagating components of the $`\stackrel{}{E}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ fields. So, on the $`U(1)`$ level, any physical effects of longitudinal origin in free space depend on whether or not $`\stackrel{}{f}`$, $`\stackrel{}{g}`$, $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{S}`$, are regarded as physical or unphysical”

We explicitly show that:

(d) this conclusion is wrong and results from the fact that the *AIAS* authors could not grasp the elementary mathematics used in Whittaker’s paper. Moreover, it is important to quote here that recently151515In the first version of the *AIAS*1 manuscript received by W.A.R. from *Found. Phys*., E. Recami, one of member of the group (at that time) certainly knew about the results concerning the *X*-waves quoted above. Indeed,  quotes . To avoid any misunderstanding let us emphasize here that the finite aperture approximations to *SEXWs* are such that their peaks can travel (for some time) at superluminal speeds. However since these waves have compact support in the space domain, they have fronts that travel at the speed of light. Thus no violation of the principle of relativity occurs. More details can be found in . finite aperture approximations to *SEXWs*\[19-22\] (i.e., superluminal electromagnetic *X*\- waves) have been produced in the laboratory and that these waves, differently from the fictitious $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ field of Evans and Vigier, possesses real *longitudinal* electric and/or magnetic components.

## 2 On scalar and longitudinal waves and $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$

As one can learn from Chapter 5 of Whittaker’s book, the idea that both electromagnetic *transverse* and *longitudinal* waves161616A transverse wave has non zero components only in directions orthogonal to the propagation direction, whereas a longitudinal wave has always a non null component in the propagation direction. exists in the aether was a very common one for the physicists of the XIX century.

As it is well known, in 1905 the concept of photons as the carriers of the electromagnetic interaction between charged particles has been introduced. Soon, with the invention of quantum electrodynamics, the photons have been associated to the quanta of the electromagentic field and described by *transverse* solutions of Maxwell equations, interpreted as an equation for a quantum field. Longitudinal photons appears in quantum electrodynamics once we want to mantain *relativistic* *covariance* in the quantization of the electromagnetic field. Indeed, as it is well known the Gupta- Bleuler formalism introduces besides the transverse photons also longitudinal and timelike photons. These, however appears in an equal special “mixture” and cancel out at the end of electrodynamics calculations. These longitudianl and timelike photons did not seem to have a physical status. Their introduction in the theory seems to be only a mathematical necessity171717We will discusss this issue in another publication.. Some authors, like de Broglie thinks that a photon has a very small mass. In this case, photons must be described by Proca’s equation (free of sources) and this equation possess fidedigne longitudinal solutions, besides the transverse ones. There is a wrong opinion among physicists that only Proca’s equation have longitudinal solutions, but the fact is that the free *ME*181818*ME,* according to the wisdom of quantum field theoy describes a zero mass particle. possess infinite families of solutions (in vacuum) that have longitudinal electric and/or magnetic components. The existence of these solutions has been shown in\[19-22,37\] and can be seem to exist in a quite easy way from the Hertz potential theory developed in section 4 below. We emphasize here that Hertz potential theory was known (in a particular case) by Whittaker. He produced formulas (see eqs.(68) below) which clearly show the possiblity of obtaining exact solutions of the free *ME* with longitudinal electric and/or magnetic fields.

Let $`=(M,g,D)`$ be Minkowski spacetime. $`(M,g)`$ is a four dimensional time oriented and space oriented Lorentzian manifold, with $`M^4`$ and $`g\mathrm{sec}(T^{}M\times T^{}M)`$ being a Lorentzian metric of signature (1,3), and $`D`$ is the Levi-Civita connection. Let $`I\mathrm{sec}TM`$ be an inertial reference frame and let $`x^\mu `$ be Lorentz- Einstein coordinates naturally adapted to $`I`$.

In the coordinates $`x^\mu `$ the free *ME* for the electric field $`\stackrel{}{E}:MR^3`$ and magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{B}:MR^3`$ satisfy:

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{E}=0,\hfill & \times \stackrel{}{B}_t\stackrel{}{E}=0,\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{B}=0,\hfill & \times \stackrel{}{E}+_t\stackrel{}{B}=0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(1)
$`\stackrel{}{E}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ are derivable from the potentials $`\varphi :MR`$ and $`\stackrel{}{A}:MR^3`$ by

$$\stackrel{}{E}=\varphi _t\stackrel{}{A},\stackrel{}{B}=\times \stackrel{}{A}$$
(2)
Substituting $`\stackrel{}{E}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ as giving by eqs.(2) in eqs.(2) gives

$$\mathrm{}\varphi _t(_t\varphi +\stackrel{}{A})=0,\mathrm{}A_i_i(_t\varphi +\stackrel{}{A})=0$$
(3)
Plane wave transverse solutions of eqs.(1) are obtained from eqs.(3) once we impose the so called radiation gauge, i.e., we put

$$\varphi =0,\stackrel{}{A}=0.$$
(4)
When looking for such solutions of *ME* it is sometimes convenient to regard the fields $`\stackrel{}{E}`$ , $`\stackrel{}{B}`$, $`\varphi `$ and $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ as complex fields191919See our comments on the use of complex fields in section 5 and in., i.e., we consider $`\varphi :M𝒞`$; $`\stackrel{}{E}`$, $`\stackrel{}{B}`$; $`\stackrel{}{A}:M𝒞R^3`$. Defining the complex vector basis for the complexified euclidian vector space as

$$\stackrel{}{e}^{(1)}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(\widehat{ı}i\widehat{ȷ}),\stackrel{}{e}^{(2)}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(\widehat{ı}+i\widehat{ȷ}),\stackrel{}{e}^{(3)}=\widehat{k},\text{ }i=\sqrt{1},$$
(5)
we can write (in a system of units where $`c=1`$ and also $`\mathrm{}=1`$ and where $`q`$ is the value of the electron charge) two linearly independent solutions of eqs.(3) (and of (1)) subject to the restriction (4) as:

$`\stackrel{}{A}^{(1)}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{A^{(0)}}{\sqrt{2}}}(i\stackrel{}{e}^{(1)}+\stackrel{}{e}^{(2)})e^{i(\omega tkz)},\text{ }\stackrel{}{A}^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{A^{(0)}}{\sqrt{2}}}(i\stackrel{}{e}^{(1)}+\stackrel{}{e}^{(2)})e^{i(\omega tkz)},`$
$`\stackrel{}{B}^{(1)}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{B^{(0)}}{\sqrt{2}}}(i\stackrel{}{e}^{(1)}+\stackrel{}{e}^{(2)})e^{i(\omega tkz)},\text{ }\stackrel{}{B}^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{B^{(0)}}{\sqrt{2}}}(i\stackrel{}{e}^{(1)}+\stackrel{}{e}^{(2)})e^{i(\omega tkz)},`$
$`\stackrel{}{E}^{(1)}`$ $`=iq\stackrel{}{B}^{(1)}={\displaystyle \frac{E^{(0)}}{\sqrt{2}}}(\stackrel{}{e}^{(1)}i\stackrel{}{e}^{(2)})e^{i(\omega tkz)},`$ (6)
$`\stackrel{}{E}^{(2)}`$ $`=iq\stackrel{}{B}^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{E^{(0)}}{\sqrt{2}}}(\stackrel{}{e}^{(1)}+i\stackrel{}{e}^{(2)})e^{i(\omega tkz)},\text{ }B^{(0)}=E^{(0)}=\omega A^{(0)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{q}}\omega ^2.`$
Evans defined the $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ field by

$$\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}=\frac{i}{B^{(0)}}\stackrel{}{B}^{(1)}\times \stackrel{}{B}^{(2)}=\frac{i}{E^{(0)}}\stackrel{}{E}^{(1)}\times \stackrel{}{E}^{(2)}=iq\stackrel{}{A}^{(1)}\times \stackrel{}{A}^{(2)}$$
(7)
It is clear from eq.(7) that $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ as normalized has the dimension of a magnetic field, is phase free and longitudinal. If, instead of the normalization in (7) we define the adimensional polarization vector

$$\stackrel{}{P}=\frac{i}{(B^{(0)})^2}\stackrel{}{B}^{(1)}\times \stackrel{}{B}^{(2)}=\frac{i}{(E^{(0)})^2}\stackrel{}{E}^{(1)}\times \stackrel{}{E}^{(2)}$$
(8)
we immediately regonize that this object is related to the second Stokes parameters (see $`{}_{}{}^{[58,59,64]})`$. More precisely, writing

$$\stackrel{}{E}^{(1)}=a_1\widehat{ı}+a_2\widehat{ȷ},$$
(9)
and defining the Stokes parameters $`\rho _i,i=0,1,2,3`$ by

$$\rho _0=\frac{|a_1|^2+|a_2|^2}{2},\text{ }\rho _1=Re(a_1^+a_2),\text{ }\rho _2=Im(a_1^+a_2),\text{ }\rho _3=\frac{|a_1|^2|a_2|^2}{2},$$
(10)
we recall that the ratios

$$\tau _L=\sqrt{\frac{\rho _1{}_{}{}^{2}+\rho _3^2}{\rho _0^2}},\text{ }\tau _C=\frac{\rho _2}{\rho _0}$$
(11)
are called respectively the degree of linear polarization and the degree of circular polarization. We have,

$$\tau _C=i\stackrel{}{k}\frac{\stackrel{}{E}^{(1)}\times \stackrel{}{E}^{(2)}}{(E^{(0)})^2}=\frac{i}{E^{(0)}}\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)},$$
(12)
¿From this coincidence and the fact that the combination $`\stackrel{}{E}^{(1)}\times \stackrel{}{E}^{(2)}`$ appears also as an “effective” magnetic field in a term of the phenomenological Hamiltonian formulated by Pershan et al. in 1966 in their theory of the *inverse Faraday effect* Evans claimed first in  and then in a series of papers and books202020Some of these papers are in the list of references of the present paper. See also the references in\[58,59,81-83\]. that the field $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ is a *fundamental* longitudinal magnetic field wich is an integral part of any plane wave field configuration. Obviously, this is sheer nonse, and Silverman’s in his wonderful book wrote in this respect:

“Expression (12)212121In Silverman’s book his eq.(34), pp.167 is the one that corresponds to our eq.(12). is specially interesting, for it is not, in my experience, a particularly well-known relation. Indeed, it is sufficiently obscure that in recent years an extensive scientific literature has developed examining in minute detail the far reaching electrodynamic, quantum, and cosmological implications of a “new” nonlinear light interaction proportional to $`\stackrel{}{E}^{\left(1\right)}\times \stackrel{}{E}^{\left(2\right)}`$ (deduced by analogy to the Poynting vector $`\stackrel{}{S}\stackrel{}{E}^{\left(1\right)}\times \stackrel{}{B}^{\left(2\right)}`$) and intrpreted as a “longitudinal magnetic field” carried by the photon. Several books have been written on the subject. Were any of this true, such a radical revision of Maxwellian electrodynamics would of course be highly exciting, but it is regrettably the chimerical product of self-delusion—just like the “discovery” of N-Rays in the early 1900s. (During the period 1903-1906 some 120 trained scientists published almost 300 papers on the origins and characteristics of a tottaly spurious radiation first purpoted by a french scientist, René Blondlot222222The amazing history of the N-rays affair is presented in.).”232323Of course, Silverman is refering to Evans, which togheter with some collegues (the *AIAS* group) succeded in publishing several books edited by leading publishing houses and also so many papers even in respectable physical journals. The fact is that Evans and collaborators produced a vast amount of sheer non sense mathematics and physics, some of then discused in other sections of the present paper. Production of mathematical nonsense is not a peculiarity of the *AIAS* group. Indeed, there are inumerous examples of mathematical sophisms published in the recent Physics literature.This fact reflects the low level of university education in the last decades. Hundreeds of people call themselves mathematical physicists, write and succeed in publishing many papers (and books) and the truth is that they probably would not be approved in a freshman calculus examination in any serious university.

Of course, the real meaning of the right hand side of eq.(12) is that it is a generalization of the concept of *helicity* which is defined for a single photon in quantum theory. Here we only quote\[.63\] that, e.g., for a a right circularly polarized plane wave (helicity $`1`$), $`\tau _C=1`$.

According to Hunter, experiments have been done in order to verify Evans’ claims and they showed without doubts (despite Evans’ claims on the contrary) that the conception of the $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ field is a non sequitur242424Despite these facts, Evans succeded in publishing rebutals to the interpretation and results of these experiments, but as clearly showed in the rebultats are not valid..

The above discussion shows in our opinion very clearly that Evans’ $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ theory is simply wrong. Despite this fact, Evans and collaborators ( the *AIAS* group) taking into account the last equality in eq.(7) decided to promote $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ theory to a gauge theory with gauge group $`O(3)`$. In the development of that idea the *AIAS* group produced a veritable compendium of mathematical sophisms. In their enterprise, the *AIAS* authors used both very good and interesting material from old papers from Whittaker, as well as some non sequitur proposals done by other authors concerning reformulation of Maxwell electrodynamics. In what follows we discuss the main mathematical flaws of these proposals.

## 3 Comments on Whittaker’s 1903 paper of Mathematische Annalen

Whittaker’s paper is a classic, however we have some reservations concerning its section 5.5, entitled: *Gravitation and Electrostatic Attraction explained as modes of Wave-disturbance*. There, Whittaker observed that as a result of section 5.1 of his paper, it follows that any solution of the wave equation252525$`V`$ is a scalar valued function in Minkowski spacetime.

$$\frac{^2V}{x^2}+\frac{^2V}{y^2}+\frac{^2V}{z^2}=𝔎^2\frac{^2V}{t^2}$$
(13)
can be analyzed in terms of simple plane waves and that this fact throws a new light on the nature of forces, such as gravitation and electrostatic attraction, which vary as the inverse square of the distance. Whittaker’s argument is that for a system of forces of this character, their potential (or their component in any given direction) satisfies the Laplace equation

$$\frac{^2V}{x^2}+\frac{^2V}{y^2}+\frac{^2V}{z^2}=0$$
(14)
and therefore *à fortiori* also satisfies eq.(13), where $`𝔎`$ is *any* constant. Then, Whittaker said that it follows that this potential $`V`$ (or any force component, e.g., $`F_x=V/x`$) can be analyzed into simple plane waves, in various directions, each wave being propagated with constant velocity, and that these waves *interfere* with each other in such a way that, when the action has once set up, the disturbance at any point does not vary with time, and depends only on the coordinates ($`x,y,z`$) of the point. To prove his statement, Whittaker constructs the electrostatic or Newton gravitational potential as follows:

(i) Suppose that a particle is emitting spherical waves, such that the disturbance at a distance $`r`$ from the origin, at time $`t`$, due to those waves whose wave length lies between $`2\pi /k`$ and $`2\pi /(k+dk)`$ is represented by

$$\frac{2}{\pi }\frac{dk}{k}\frac{\mathrm{sin}(k𝔳tkr)}{r}$$
(15)
where $`𝔳`$ is the phase velocity of propagation of the waves. Then after the waves have reached the point $`r`$, so that ($`𝔳tr`$) is positive, the total disturbance at the point (due to the sum of all the waves) is

$$\underset{0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{2}{\pi }\frac{dk}{k}\frac{\mathrm{sin}(k𝔳tkr)}{r}$$
(16)
(ii) Next, Whittaker makes the change of variables $`k(𝔳tr)=Y`$ and write eq.(16) as

$$\frac{2}{\pi r}\underset{0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑Y\frac{\mathrm{sin}Y}{Y}=\frac{1}{r}.$$
(17)
(iii) Whittaker concludes that:

> The total disturbance at any point, due to this system of waves, is therefore independent of the time, and is everywhere proportional to the gravitational potential due to the particle at that point.

(iv) That in each one of the constituent terms $`\mathrm{sin}(k𝔳tkr)/r`$ the potential will be constant along each wave-front, and “consequently the gravitational force in each constitutient field will be perpendicular to the wave-front, i.e., *the waves will be longitudinal*.”

Now, we can present our comments.

(a) As it is well known, when we have a particle at the origin, the potential satisfies Poisson equation with a delta function source term, and not Laplace equation as stated by Whittaker, and indeed (17) satisfies Poisson equation. It is an interesting fact that a sum of waves which are non singular at the origin produces a “static wave” with a singularity at that point.

(b) Whittaker’s hypothesis (i) is *ad hoc*, he did not present any single argument to justify why a charged particle, at rest at the origin must be emitting spherical waves of all frequencies, with the frequency spectrum implicit in eq.(15).

(c) A way to improve Whittaker’s model should be to *represent* the electric charge as a particular electromagnetic field configuration modeled by a *UPW*262626*UPWs* means *Undistorted Progressive Waves*. In fact, *UPWs* of finite energy do not exist according to Maxwell linear theory, but *quasi*-*UPWs* with a very long ‘lifetime’ can eventually be constructed by appropriate superpositions of *UPWs* solutions. Of course, the non existence of finite energy *UPWs* solutions of *ME* shows clearly the limits we can arrive when pursuing such kind of ideas inside the frame of a linear theory. solution of eq.(13) (with272727We use a system of units such that $`c=1`$. $`v=c`$, the velocity of light in vacuum) non singular at $`r=0`$ . The simplest stationaries solutions are:

$$\frac{\mathrm{sin}(kr)}{kr}\mathrm{sin}\omega t,\frac{\mathrm{sin}(kr)}{kr}\mathrm{cos}\omega t,k=\omega $$
(18)
From, these solutions it is easy to build a new one with a frequency distribution such that it is possible to recover the Coulomb potential under the same conditions as the ones used by Whittaker. This is a contribution for the idea of modeling particles as *PEPs*, i.e., pure electromagnetic particles\[19-21\].

We call the readers attention that the idea of longitudinal waves (in the aether) was a very common one for the physicists of the XIX century. In this respect the reader should consult Chapter 5 of Whittaker’s book$`^{[65]}.`$

Moreover, we quote that Landau and Lifshitz in their classical book (section 52) after making the Fourier resolution of the Coulomb electrostatic field, got that

$$\stackrel{}{E}=\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{d^3\stackrel{}{k}}{(2\pi )^3}\stackrel{}{B}_k\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{r})\text{ and }\stackrel{}{B}_k=i\frac{4\pi e\stackrel{}{k}}{k^2}$$
(19)
and concludes:

> “From this we see that the field of the waves, into which we have resolved the Coulomb field, is directed along the wave vector. Therefore these waves can be say to be longitudinal.”

Well, we must comment here that since each $`\stackrel{}{B}_k`$ is an imaginary vector it cannot represent any realized electric field in nature. This show the danger that exist when working with complex numbers in the analysis of physical problems.

## 4 Clifford bundles

Let $`=(M,g,D)`$ be Minkowski spacetime. $`(M,g)`$ is a four dimensional time oriented and space oriented Lorentzian manifold, with $`MR^4`$ and $`g\mathrm{sec}(T^{}M\times T^{}M)`$ being a Lorentzian metric of signature (1,3). $`T^{}M`$ \[$`TM`$\] is the cotangent \[tangent\] bundle. $`T^{}M=_{xM}T_x^{}M`$, $`TM=_{xM}T_xM`$, and $`T_xMT_x^{}MR^{1,3}`$, where $`R^{1,3}`$ is the Minkowski vector space. $`D`$ is the Levi-Civita connetion of $`g`$, $`i.e`$., $`Dg=0`$, $`𝑻(D)=0`$. Also $`𝑹(D)=0`$, $`𝑻`$ and $`𝑹`$ being respectively the torsion and curvature tensors. Now, the Clifford bundle of differential forms $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ is the bundle of algebras282828We can show using the definitions of section 5 that $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ is a vector bundle associated to the  *orthonormal frame bundle*, i.e., $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ $`=P_{SO_{+(1,3)}}\times _{ad}Cl_{1,3}`$ Details about this construction can be found in . $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)=_{xM}𝒞\mathrm{}(T_x^{}M)`$, where $`xM,𝒞\mathrm{}(T_x^{}M)=Cl_{1,3}`$, the so called *spacetime* *algebra*. Locally as a linear space over the real field $`R`$, $`𝒞\mathrm{}(T_x^{}M)`$ is isomorphic to the Cartan algebra $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(T_x^{}M)`$ of the cotangent space and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(T_x^{}M)=_{k=0}^4\mathrm{\Lambda }{}_{}{}^{k}(T_x^{}M)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(T_x^{}M)`$ is the $`\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{4}{k}\right)`$-dimensional space of $`k`$-forms. The Cartan bundle $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(M)=_{xM}\mathrm{\Lambda }(T_x^{}M)`$ can then be thought as “imbedded” in $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$. In this way sections of $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ can be represented as a sum of inhomogeneous differential forms. Let $`\{e_\mu =\frac{}{x^\mu }\}\mathrm{sec}TM,(\mu =0,1,2,3)`$ be an orthonormal basis $`g(e_\mu ,e_\nu )=\eta _{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,1)`$ and let $`\{\gamma ^\nu =dx^\nu \}\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ be the dual basis. Moreover, we denote by $`g^1`$ the metric in the cotangent bundle.

### 4.1 Clifford product, scalar contraction and exterior products

The fundamental *Clifford product* (in what follows to be denoted by juxtaposition of symbols) is generated by $`\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\nu +\gamma ^\nu \gamma ^\mu =2\eta ^{\mu \nu }`$ and if $`𝒞\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ we have

$$𝒞=s+v_\mu \gamma ^\mu +\frac{1}{2!}b_{\mu \nu }\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\nu +\frac{1}{3!}a_{\mu \nu \rho }\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\nu \gamma ^\rho +p\gamma ^5,$$
(20)
where $`\gamma ^5=\gamma ^0\gamma ^1\gamma ^2\gamma ^3=dx^0dx^1dx^2dx^3`$ is the volume element and $`s`$, $`v_\mu `$, $`b_{\mu v}`$, $`a_{\mu \nu \rho }`$, $`p\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^0(M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$.

Let $`A_r,\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^r(M),B_s\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^s(M)`$. For $`r=s=1`$, we define the *scalar product* as follows:

For $`a,b\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M).,`$

$$ab=\frac{1}{2}(ab+ba)=g^1(a,b).$$
(21)
We define also the *exterior product* ($`r,s=0,1,2,3)`$ by

$`A_rB_s`$ $`=A_rB_s_{r+s},`$ (22)
$`A_rB_s`$ $`=(1)^{rs}B_sA_r`$
where $`_k`$ is the component in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(M)`$ of the Clifford field. The exterior product is extended by linearity to all sections of $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M).`$

For $`A_r=a_1\mathrm{}a_r,B_r=b_1\mathrm{}b_r`$, the scalar product is defined *here* as follows,

$`A_rB_r`$ $`=(a_1\mathrm{}a_r)(b_1\mathrm{}b_r)`$
$`={\displaystyle ()^{\frac{r(r1)}{2}}ϵ_{1\mathrm{}r}^{_{i_1\mathrm{}i_r}}(a_1b_{i_1})\mathrm{}}.(a_rb_{i_r})`$ (23)
We agree that if $`r=s=0`$, the scalar product is simple the ordinary product in the real field.

Also, if $`r,s0`$ and $`A_rB_s=0`$ if $`r`$ or $`s`$ is zero.

For $`rs,A_r=a_1\mathrm{}a_r,B_s=b_1\mathrm{}b_{s\text{ }}`$we define the left contraction by

$$\mathrm{}:(A_r,B_s)A_r\mathrm{}B_s=\underset{i_1<\mathrm{}<i_r}{}ϵ_{1\mathrm{}\mathrm{}s}^{i_1\mathrm{}..i_s}(a_1\mathrm{}a_r)(b_{i_r}\mathrm{}b_{i_1})^{}b_{i_r+1}\mathrm{}b_{i_s},$$
(24)
where $``$ denotes the reverse mapping (*reversion*)

$$:\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^p(M)a_1\mathrm{}a_pa_p\mathrm{}a_1,$$
(25)
and extended by linearity to all sections of $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$. We agree that for $`\alpha ,\beta \mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^0(M)`$ the contraction is the ordinary (pointwise) product in the real field and that if $`\alpha \mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^0(M)`$, $`A_r,\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^r(M),B_s\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^s(M)`$ then $`(\alpha A_r)\mathrm{}B_s=A_r\mathrm{}(\alpha B_s)`$. Left contraction is extended by linearity to all pairs of elements of sections of $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$, i.e., for $`A,B\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$

$$A\mathrm{}B=\underset{r,s}{}A_r\mathrm{}B_s,rs$$
(26)
It is also necessary to introduce in $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ the operator of *right contraction* denoted by $`\mathrm{}`$. The definition is obtained from the one presenting the left contraction with the imposition that $`rs`$ and taking into account that now if $`A_r,\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^r(M),B_s\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^s(M)`$ then $`A_r\mathrm{}(\alpha B_s)=(\alpha A_r)\mathrm{}B_s`$.

### 4.2 Some useful formulas

The main formulas used in the Clifford calculus can be obtained from the following ones (where $`a\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(M)`$):

$`aB_s`$ $`=a\mathrm{}B_s+aB_s,B_sa=B_s\mathrm{}a+B_sa,`$
$`a\mathrm{}B_s`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(aB_s()^sB_sa),`$
$`A_r\mathrm{}B_s`$ $`=()^{r(s1)}B_s\mathrm{}A_r,`$
$`aB_s`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(aB_s+()^sB_sa),`$
$`A_rB_s`$ $`=A_rB_s_{|rs|}+A_r\mathrm{}B_s_{|rs2|}+\mathrm{}+A_rB_s_{|r+s|}`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{m}{}}}A_rB_s_{|rs|+2k},\text{ }m={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(r+s|rs|).`$ (27)
### 4.3 Hodge star operator

Let $``$ be the Hodge star operator $`:\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(M)\mathrm{\Lambda }^{4k}(M)`$. Then we can show that if $`A_p\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^p(M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ we have $`A=\stackrel{~}{A}\gamma ^5`$. Let $`d`$ and $`\delta `$ be respectively the differential and Hodge codifferential operators acting on sections of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(M)`$. If $`\omega _p\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^p(M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$, then $`\delta \omega _p=()^p^1d\omega _p`$, with $`^1=\mathrm{identity}`$.

The Dirac operator acting on sections of $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ is the invariant first order differential operator

$$\mathbf{}=\gamma ^\mu D_{e_\mu },$$
(28)
and we can show the very important result:

$$\mathbf{}=\mathbf{}+\mathbf{}\mathrm{}=d\delta .$$
(29)
## 5 Maxwell equation and the consistent Hertz potential theory

In this formalism, Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic field $`F\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(T^{}M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ and current $`J_e`$ $`\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(T^{}M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ are resumed in a single equation (justifying the singular used in the title of the section)

$$F=J_e.$$
(30)
Of course, eq.(30) can be written in the usual way, i.e.,

$$\{\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill dF& =& 0\\ \hfill \delta F& =& J_e.\end{array}$$
(31)
We write292929We observe that the quantity that really describes the properties of the magnetic field is the bivector field $`𝐢\stackrel{}{B}`$.

$$F=\frac{1}{2}F^{\mu \nu }\gamma _\mu \gamma _\nu =\stackrel{}{E}+𝐢\stackrel{}{B},$$
(32)
where the real functions $`F_{\mu \nu }`$ are given by the entries of the following matrix

$$\left[F^{\mu \nu }\right]=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0& E^1& E^2& E^3\\ E^1& 0& B^3& B^2\\ E^2& B^3& 0& B^1\\ E^3& B^2& B^1& 0\end{array}\right].$$
(33)
Moreover,

$$J_e\gamma ^0=\rho _e+\stackrel{}{J}_e,$$
(34)
and

$$\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{E}=E^i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i,\stackrel{}{B}=B^i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i,\stackrel{}{J}_e=J^i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i,\\ \stackrel{}{\sigma }_i=\gamma _i\gamma _0,\\ \stackrel{}{\sigma }_i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j+\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i=2\delta _{_{ij}},\\ 𝐢=\stackrel{}{\sigma }_1\stackrel{}{\sigma }_2\stackrel{}{\sigma }_3=\gamma _0\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3=\gamma _5.\end{array}$$
(35)
Then, even if the element $`𝐢=\gamma ^5=\gamma _5`$ (the pseudoscalar unity of the *Cl*1,3) is such that $`𝐢^2=1`$ it has not the *algebraic* meaning of $`\sqrt{1}`$, but has the *geometrical* meaning of an oriented volume in $`M`$. In addition, in this formalism, it is possible to identify when convenient the elements $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i`$ with the Pauli matrices. We have,

$$\gamma _0\gamma _0\mathrm{\Pi }\gamma _0=(_t)(\stackrel{}{E}+𝐢\stackrel{}{B})=J_e\gamma _0=\rho _e+\stackrel{}{J}_e$$
(36)
For an arbitrary vector field $`\stackrel{}{C}=C^i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i`$, where $`C^i:MR`$, we have

$$\stackrel{}{C}=\stackrel{}{C}+\stackrel{}{C}$$
(37)
where $`\stackrel{}{C}`$ is the (Euclidean) divergence of $`\stackrel{}{C}`$. We define the (Euclidean) rotational of $`\stackrel{}{C}`$

$$\times \stackrel{}{C}=𝐢\stackrel{}{C}.$$
(38)
By using definitions (37) and (38) we obtain from eq.(36) the vector form of *ME*, i.e.,

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{E}=\rho _e,\hfill & \times \stackrel{}{B}_t\stackrel{}{E}=\stackrel{}{J}_e,\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{B}=0,\hfill & \times \stackrel{}{E}+_t\stackrel{}{B}=0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(39)
Now we are in position to provide a *modern* presentation of *Hertz theory*.

### 5.1 Hertz theory on vacuum

Let $`\mathrm{\Pi }=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Pi }^{\mu \nu }\gamma _\mu \gamma _\nu =\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e+𝐢\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(T^{}M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ be the so called *Hertz potential*\[19-22,30\]. We write

$$\left[\mathrm{\Pi }^{\mu \nu }\right]=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0& \mathrm{\Pi }_e^1& \mathrm{\Pi }_e^2& \mathrm{\Pi }_e^3\\ \mathrm{\Pi }_e^1& 0& \mathrm{\Pi }_m^3& \mathrm{\Pi }_m^2\\ \mathrm{\Pi }_e^2& \mathrm{\Pi }_m^3& 0& \mathrm{\Pi }_m^1\\ \mathrm{\Pi }_e^3& \mathrm{\Pi }_m^2& \mathrm{\Pi }_m^1& 0\end{array}\right].$$
(40)
Let

$$A=\delta \mathrm{\Pi }\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(T^{}M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M),$$
(41)
and call it the *electromagnetic potential*.

Since $`\delta ^2=0`$ it is clear that $`A`$ satisfies the Lorentz gauge condition, i.e.,

$$\delta A=0.$$
(42)
Also, let

$$\gamma ^5S=d\mathrm{\Pi }\mathrm{sec}\mathrm{\Lambda }^3(T^{}M)\mathrm{sec}𝒞\mathrm{}(M),$$
(43)
and call $`S`$, the *Stratton potential*. It follows also that

$$d\left(\gamma ^5S\right)=d^2\mathrm{\Pi }=0.$$
(44)
But $`d(\gamma ^5S)=\gamma ^5\delta S`$ from which we get, taking into account eq.(40),

$$\delta S=0$$
(45)
We can put eqs.(41) and (42) into a single Maxwell like equation, i.e.,

$$\mathrm{\Pi }=(d\delta )\mathrm{\Pi }=A+\gamma ^5S=𝒜.$$
(46)
¿From eq.(46) (using the same developments as in eq.(36)) we get

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}A^0=\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e,\hfill & \stackrel{}{A}=_t\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e+\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m,\hfill \\ S^0=\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m,\hfill & \stackrel{}{S}=_t\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e.\hfill \end{array}$$
(47)
We also have,

$$\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Pi }=(d\delta )^2\mathrm{\Pi }=dA+\gamma _5dS.$$
(48)
Next, we define the electromagnetic field by

$$F=𝒜=\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Pi }=dA+\gamma _5dS=F_e+\gamma _5F_m.$$
(49)
We observe that,

$$\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Pi }=0\text{ which leads to }F_e=\gamma _5F_m.$$
(50)
Now, let us calculate $`F`$. We have,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill F& =& (d\delta )F\hfill \\ & =& d^2A+d(\gamma ^5dS)\delta (dA)\delta (\gamma ^5dS).\hfill \end{array}$$

The first and last terms in the second line of eq.(5.1) are obviously null. Writing,

$$J_e=\delta dA,\text{ and }\gamma ^5J__m=d(\gamma ^5dS),$$
(51)
we get *ME*

$$F=(d\delta )F=J_e,$$
(52)
if and only if the magnetic current $`\gamma ^5J_m=0`$ , i.e.,

$$\delta dS=0.$$
(53)
a condition that we suppose to be satisfied in what follows. Then,

$`\mathrm{}A`$ $`=J_e=\delta dA,`$
$`\mathrm{}S`$ $`=0.`$ (54)
Now, we define,

$`F_e`$ $`=dA=\stackrel{}{E}_e+𝐢\stackrel{}{B}_e,`$ (55)
$`F_m`$ $`=dS=\stackrel{}{B}_m+𝐢\stackrel{}{E}_m.`$ (56)
and also

$$F=F_e+\gamma _5F_m=\stackrel{}{E}+𝐢\stackrel{}{B}=(\stackrel{}{E}_e\stackrel{}{E}_m)+𝐢(\stackrel{}{B}_e+\stackrel{}{B}_m).$$
(57)
Then, eq.(49) gives ,

$$\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e=\stackrel{}{E},\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m=\stackrel{}{B}$$
(58)
Eqs.(58) agree with eqs.(52) and (53) of Stratton’s book since we are working in the vacuum.

It is important to keep in mind that:

$$\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Pi }=0\text{ leads to }\stackrel{}{E}=0\text{ and }\stackrel{}{B}=0.$$
(59)
Nevertheless, despite this result we have,

Hertz theorem.303030Eq. (60) has been called the *Hertz theorem* in$`^{[1922]}.`$

$$\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Pi }=0\text{ leads to }F_e=0.$$
(60)
*Proof:* From eq.(49) and eq.(53) we have

$$F_e=(\gamma _5F_m)=d(\gamma _5dS)+\delta (\gamma _5dS)=\gamma _5d^2S\gamma _5\delta dS=0.$$
(61)
.

Another way to prove this theorem is taking into account that $`\delta A=0`$ is: $`F_e=(d\delta )F_e=(d\delta )(d\delta )A=\delta d\delta \mathrm{\Pi }=\delta ^2d\mathrm{\Pi }=0.`$

¿From eq.(57) we easily obtain the following formulas:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{E}_e=A^0_t\stackrel{}{A}\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{B}_e=\times \stackrel{}{A}\hfill \end{array}\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{B}_m=S^0t\stackrel{}{S},\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{E}_m=\times \stackrel{}{S}\hfill \end{array}$$
(62)
or

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{E}_e=(\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e)_t(\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m)+_t^2\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e,\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{B}_e=\times (\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m)_t(\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e),\hfill \end{array}$$
(63)
and

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{B}_m=(\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m)+_t(\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e)+_t^2\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m,\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{E}_m=\times (\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e)_t(\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m).\hfill \end{array}$$
(64)
We observe that, when $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Pi }=0`$, then $`\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e=0`$ and $`\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m=0`$. In this case eq.(63) can be written as

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{E}_e=(\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e)_t(\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m)+_t^2\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e,\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{B}_e=(\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m)_t(\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e)_t^2\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m.\hfill \end{array}$$
(65)
The first of eqs.(65) is identical to eq.(56) and the second of eqs.(65) is identical to eq.(57) of Stratton’s book (p. 31), with the obvious substitution $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}^{}`$, which is exactly the notation used by Stratton.

### 5.2 Comments on section 2 of *AIAS*1

(i) It is obvious that Whittaker’s theory, as presented by the *AIAS* authors, is simply a particular case of Hertz theory and so it does not deserve to be called Whittaker’s theory. Indeed, what Whittaker did, in the notation of *AIAS* authors*,* was to put

$$\stackrel{}{f}=\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e=\mathrm{F}\widehat{k},\stackrel{}{g}=\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m=\mathrm{G}\widehat{k},$$
(66)
$$\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_e=0,\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Pi }}_m=0.$$
(67)
i.e., he used only two degrees of freedom of the six possible ones.

¿From eqs.(66) and (67) we compute the cartesian components of $`\stackrel{}{E}_e,\stackrel{}{B}_e`$ appearing in the decomposition of $`F_e=\stackrel{}{E}_e+𝐢\stackrel{}{B}_e`$ (see eq.(65)). We have, as first derived by Whittaker,

$$\{\begin{array}{c}E_e^1=E_x=\frac{^2\mathrm{F}}{xz}+\frac{^2\mathrm{G}}{yt},\hfill \\ E_e^2=E_y=\frac{^2\mathrm{F}}{yz}\frac{^2\mathrm{G}}{xt},\hfill \\ E_e^3=E_z=\frac{^2\mathrm{F}}{z^2}\frac{^2\mathrm{F}}{t^2},\hfill \end{array}\begin{array}{c}B_e^1=B_x=\frac{^2\mathrm{F}}{yt}\frac{^2\mathrm{G}}{xz},\hfill \\ B_e^2=B_y=\frac{^2\mathrm{F}}{xt}\frac{^2\mathrm{G}}{yz},\hfill \\ B_e^3=B_z=\frac{^2\mathrm{G}}{x^2}+\frac{^2\mathrm{G}}{y^2}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(68)
To simplify calculations it is in general useful to introduce the complexified Clifford bundle $`𝒞\mathrm{}_𝒞(M)=𝒞𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$, where $`𝒞`$ is the complex field. We use, $`i=\sqrt{1}`$. This does not mean that complex fields have any meaning in classical electromagnetism. Bad use of complex fields produces a lot of nonsense.

(ii) Eqs.(68) makes clear the fact that it is possible to have *exact* solutions of *ME* in vacuum that are not transverse waves, in the sense that there may be components of the electric and/or magnetic field parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave. Indeed, e.g., \[17-20\] exhibit several solutions of this kind which have been obtained with the Hertz potential method. In these papers it was found that, in general, these exactly solutions of *ME* correspond to theoretical waves traveling with speeds313131These are not phase velocities, of course, but genuine propagation velocities. The interpretation of the superluminarity observed in the experiment  is presented in . $`0v<1`$ or $`v>1`$. Moreover, these waves are *UPWs*, i.e., undistorted progressive waves323232To avoid any misunderstanding here, we recall again that exact superluminal *UPWs* solutions of *ME* cannot be realized in the physical world. The reason is that, like the monochromatic plane waves they have infinity energy. However finite aperture approximations to superluminal waves can be produced. They have very interesting properties (see ).! More important is the fact that, recently, finite apperture approximations for optical *SEXWs* (i.e., superluminal electromagnetic *X*-waves) which have longitudinal electric and/or magnetic fields have been produced in the laboratory by Saari and Reivelt.

It is clear also from this approach that theoretically there exists transverse electromagnetic waves such that their fields can be derived from the potential 1-forms with longitudinal components, but this fact did not give any *ontology* to the potential vector field.

(iii) From (ii) it follows that the *AIAS* group conclusions, in the discussion section of *AIAS*1, namely:

> “On the $`U(1)`$ level there are longitudinal propagating solutions of the potentials $`\stackrel{}{f}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{g}`$, of the vector potential $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ and the Stratton potential $`\stackrel{}{S}`$, but not longitudinal propagating components of the $`\stackrel{}{E}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ fields. So, on the $`U(1)`$ level, any physical effects of longitudinal origin in free space depend on whether or not $`\stackrel{}{f}`$, $`\stackrel{}{g}`$, $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{S}`$, are regarded as physical or unphysical.”

is completely *wrong*333333This statement came from the fact that in the example studied by Whittaker and copied by the *AIAS* authors the functions F and G used are linear in the variables $`x`$ and $`y.`$, because all results described in (iii) have been obtained from classical electromagnetism which is a $`U(1)`$ gauge theory. We will discuss more about this issue later because, as already stated, it is clear that *AIAS* authors have not a single idea of what a gauge theory is.

(iv) After these comments, we must say that we are *perplexed* not only with the very bad mathematics of the *AIAS* group, but also with the ethical status of some of its present and/or past members. Indeed, the fact is that the papers mentioned in (ii) above have not been quoted by the *AIAS* group. This is ethically unacceptable343434We take the opportunity to say that paper which deals with “superluminal solutions” of *ME* has *good* and new *things*. However the good things are not *new* and can be found in (and in reference 5 of that paper, which has not been published). The new things are not *good*. Contrary to what is stated there, there is no *UPW* *X*-wave like solution of Schrödinger equation (for a proof see ). Moreover, the claim done by the author of (followed with a “proof”) that he predicted the existence of superluminal *X*-waves from tachyon kinematics is obviously non sequitur and must be considered as a joke. In time, we are quoting these *facts*, because the author of signed several papers as member of the *AIAS* group, and as we already said, appears as one of the authors of the first version of the *MSs* (now published in) sent to W. A. R. by the editor of *Found. Phys*., which asked for a review of that papers., since Evans is one the members of the group, and he knew all the points mentioned above, since he quoted\[19-21\] in some of his papers, as pointed out in footnote 12.

## 6 Gauge Theories

We already saw that *ME* possess exact solutions that are *EFC* with longitudinal electric and/or magnetic components. In order,

(a) to understand why the existence of this kind of solutions did not imply that we must consider electromagnetism as a gauge theory with gauge group different from $`U(1)`$ and,

(b) to understand that the section on “Non-Abelian Electrodynamics” of *AIAS*1 and also a number of other papers in  and also the “Non-Abelian Electrodynamics of Barret” are *non sequitur* and a *pot-pourri* of *inconsistent* mathematics, it is necessary to know exactly what a gauge theory is. The only coherent presentation of such a theory is through the use of rigorous mathematics. We need to know at least very well the notions of:

*Principal Bundles*

*Associated Vector bundles to a given principal bundle*

*Connections on Principal Bundles*

*Covariant derivatives of sections of a Vector Bundle*

*Exterior Covariant derivatives*

*Curvature of a Connection*

After these notions are known we can introduce concepts used by physicists as gauge potentials, gauge fields, and matter fields.

Of course, we do not have any intention to present in what follows a monograph on the subject353535There are now excellent texts and monographies on the subject. We recommend here the following \[38-42\].. However, to grasp what a gauge theory is, we will recall in the next subsection the main definitions and results of the general theory adapted for the case where the base manifold of the bundles used is Minkowski spacetime. Our presentation clarifies some issues which according to our view are obscure in many physics textbooks.

### 6.1 Some definitions and theorems

As in sections 2 and 3, let $`(M,g)`$ be Minkowski spacetime manifold363636Minkowski spacetime is the Minkowski manifold equipped with the Levi-Civita connection of $`g`$..

1. A *fiber bundle* over $`M`$ with Lie group $`G`$ will be denoted by $`(E,M,\pi ,G,F)`$. $`E`$ is a topological space called the total space of the bundle, $`𝝅:EM`$ is a continuous surjective map, called the *canonical projection* and $`F`$ is the typical fiber. The following conditions must be satisfied:

a) $`𝝅^1(x)`$, the fiber over $`x`$ is homeomorphic to $`F`$.

b) Let373737$``$ is an index set. $`\{U_i,`$ $`i\}`$ be a covering of $`M`$, such that:

* Locally a fiber bundle $`E`$ is *trivial*, i.e., it is *difeomorphic* to a product bundle, i.e., $`𝝅^1(U_i)U_i\times F`$ for all $`i`$.
* The difeomorphism, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_i:𝝅^1(U_i)U_i\times F`$ has the form

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_i(p)`$ $`=(𝝅(p),\varphi _i(p))`$ (69)
$`\varphi _i|_{𝝅^1(x)}`$ $`\varphi _{i,x}:𝝅^1(x)F\text{ is onto.}`$ (70)
The collection $`\{U_i,\mathrm{\Phi }_i\}`$, $`i`$, are said to be a family of *local trivializations* for $`E`$.
* Let $`xU_iU_j`$. Then,

$$\varphi _{j,x}\varphi _{i,x}^1:FF$$
(71)
must coincide with the action of an element of $`G`$ for all $`xU_iU_j`$ and $`i,j`$.
* We call *transition functions* of the bundle the continuous *induced mappings*

$$g_{ij}:U_iU_jG,\text{ where }g_{ij}(x)=\varphi _{j,x}\varphi _{i,x}^1.$$
(72)

For consistence of the theory the transition functions must satisfy the cocycle condition

$$g_{ij}(x)g_{jk}(x)=g_{ik}(x).$$
(73)
Observation 1: To complete the definition of a fiber bundle it is necessary to define the concept of *equivalent* fiber bundles. We do not need to use this concept in what follows and so are not going to introduce it here.

2. $`(P,M,𝝅,G,FG)(P,M,𝝅,G)`$ is called a *principal fiber bundle (PFB)* if all conditions in 1 are fulfilled and moreover, there is a *right action* of $`G`$ on elements $`pP`$, such that:

a) the mapping (defining the right action) $`P\times G`$ $`(p,g)pgP`$ is continuous.

b) given $`g,g^{}G`$ and $`pP`$, $`(pg)g^{}=p(gg^{}).`$

c) $`xM,𝝅^1(x)`$ is invariant under the action of $`G`$, i.e., each element of $`p𝝅^1(x)`$ is mapped into $`pg𝝅^1(x)`$, i.e., it is mapped into an element of the same fiber.

d) $`G`$ acts transitively on each fiber $`𝝅^1(x)`$, which means that all elements within $`𝝅^1(x)`$ are obtained by the action of all the elements of $`G`$ on any given element of the fiber $`𝝅^1(x)`$. This condition is, of course necessary for the identification of the typical fiber with $`G`$.383838Any principal bundle $`P`$ over $`M`$ (the Minkowski spacetime) is equivalent to a trivial bundle, i.e., it can be shown that $`PM\times G`$.

3. A bundle $`(E,M,𝝅_1,G=Gl(m,),F=𝐕)`$, where $`=R`$ or $`C`$ (respectively the real and complex fields), $`Gl(m,)`$, is the linear group, and $`𝐕`$ is an $`m`$-dimensional vector space over , is called a *vector bundle*.

4. A vector bundle $`(E,M,𝝅,G,F)`$ denoted $`E=P\times _\rho F`$ is said to be *associated* to a *PFB* bundle $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$ by the linear representation $`\rho `$ of $`G`$ in $`F=𝐕`$ (a linear space of finite dimension over an appropriate field , which is called the *carrier space* of the representation) if its transition functions are the images under $`\rho `$ of the corresponding transition functions of the *PFB* $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$. This means the following: consider the local trivializations

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_i:𝝅^1(U_i)U_i\times G\text{ of }(P,M,𝝅,G),`$ (74)
$`\mathrm{\Xi }_i:𝝅_1^1(U_i)U_i\times F\text{ of }E=P\times _\rho F,`$ (75)
$`\mathrm{\Xi }_i(q)=(𝝅_1(q)=x,\chi _i(q)),`$ (76)
$`\chi _i|_{𝝅_1^1(x)}\chi _{i,x}:𝝅_1^1(x)F,`$ (77)
where $`𝝅_1:P\times _\rho FM`$ is projection of the bundle associated to $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$.

Then, for all $`xU_iU_j`$, $`i,j`$, we have

$$\chi _{j,x}\chi _{i,x}^1=\rho (\varphi _{j,x}\varphi _{i,x}^1).$$
(78)
In addition, the fibers $`𝝅^1(x)`$ are vector spaces isomorphic to the representation space $`V`$.393939Given a principal budle with structure group $`G`$, when we take a representation of $`G`$ in some vector space we are specifying which kind of particles we want to study.

5. Let $`(E,M,𝝅,G,F)`$ be a fiber bundle and $`UM`$ an open set. A *local cross section*404040Definition of a cross section justifies the definitions of multiforms fields (see eq.(20) as sections of the Clifford bundle. of the fiber bundle $`(E,M,𝝅,G,F)`$ on $`U`$ is a mapping

$$s:UE\text{ such that }\pi s=Id_U.$$
(79)
If $`U=M`$ we say that $`s`$ is a *global section*. There is a relation between cross-sections and local trivializations. In fact, the existence of a global cross section on a principal bundle implies that this bundle is equivalent to the trivial one.

6. To define the concept of a *connection* on a *PFB* $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$, we recall that since $`dim(M)=4`$, if $`dim(G)=n`$, then $`dim(P)=n+4`$. Obviously, for all $`xM`$, $`𝝅^1(x)`$ is an $`n`$-dimensional submanifold of $`P`$ difeomorphic to the structure group $`G`$ and $`𝝅`$ is a submersion $`𝝅^1(x)`$ is a closed submanifold of $`P`$ for all $`xM`$.

The tangent space $`T_pP`$, $`p𝝅^1(x)`$, is an $`(n+4)`$-dimensional vector space and the tangent space $`V_pPT_p(𝝅^1(x))`$ to the fiber over $`x`$ at the same point $`p𝝅^1(x)`$ is an $`n`$-dimensional linear subspace of $`T_pP`$ called the *vertical subspace* of $`T_pP`$414141Here we may be tempted to realize that as it is possible to construct the vertical space for all $`pP`$ then we can define a horizontal space as the complement of this space in respect to $`T_pP`$. Unfortunately this is not so, because we need a smoothly association of a horizontal space in every point. This is possible only by means of a connection..

Now, roughly speaking a connection on $`P`$ is a rule that makes possible a *correspondence* between any two fibers along a curve $`\sigma :IM,t\sigma (t)`$. If $`p_0`$ belongs to the fiber over the point $`\sigma (t_0)\sigma `$, we say that $`p_0`$ is parallel translated along $`\sigma `$ by means of this *correspondence*.

A *horizontal lift* of $`\sigma `$ is a curve $`\widehat{\sigma }:IP`$ (described by the parallel transport of $`p`$). It is intuitive that such a transport takes place in $`P`$ along directions specified by vectors in $`T_pP`$, which do not lie within the vertical space $`V_pP`$. Since the tangent vectors to the paths of the basic manifold passing through a given $`xM`$ span the entire tangent space $`T_xM`$, the corresponding vectors $`𝐗_pT_pP`$ (in whose direction parallel transport can generally take place in $`P`$) span a four-dimensional linear subspace of $`T_pP`$ called the *horizontal space* of $`T_pP`$ and denoted by $`H_pP`$. Now, the mathematical concept of a connection can be presented. This is done through three equivalent definitions (c1, c2, c3) given below which encode rigorously the intuitive discussion given above. We have,

Definition c1. A connection on a *PFB* $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$ is an assignment to each $`pP`$ of a subspace $`H_pPT_pP`$, called the horizontal subspace for that connection, such that $`H_pP`$ depends smoothly on $`p`$ and the following conditions hold:

(i) $`𝝅_{}:H_pPT_xM`$ , $`x=𝝅(p),`$ is an isomorphism.

(ii) $`H_pP`$ depends smoothly on $`p`$.

(iii) ($`R_g)_{}H_pP=H_{pg}P,gG,`$ $`pP`$.

Here we denote by $`𝝅_{}`$ the *differential* of the mapping $`𝝅`$ and by $`(R_g)_{}`$ the differential424242Sometimes called push-forward. of the mapping $`R_g:PP`$ (the right action) defined by $`R_g(p)=pg`$.

Since $`x=𝝅(\widehat{\sigma }(t))`$ for any curve in $`P`$ such that $`\widehat{\sigma }(t)𝝅^1(x)`$ and $`\widehat{\sigma }(0)=p_0`$, we conclude that $`𝝅_{}`$ maps all vertical vectors in the zero vector in $`T_xM`$, i.e., $`𝝅_{}(V_pP)=0`$ and we have,

$$T_pP=H_pPV_pP.$$
(80)
Then every $`𝐗_pT_pP`$ can be written as

$$𝐗=𝐗_p^h+𝐗_p^v,𝐗_p^hH_pP,𝐗_p^vV_pP.$$
(81)
Therefore, given a vector field $`X`$ over $`M`$ it is possible to lift it to a horizontal vector field over $`P`$, i.e., $`𝝅_{}(𝐗_p)=𝝅_{}(𝐗_p^h)=X_xT_xM`$ for all $`pP`$ with $`𝝅(p)=x`$. In this case, we call $`𝐗_p^h`$ *horizontal lift* of $`X_x`$. We say moreover that $`𝐗`$ is a horizontal vector field over $`P`$ if $`𝐗^h=𝐗`$.

Definition c2. A *connection* on a *PFB* $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$ is a mapping $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_p:T_xMT_pP`$, such that $`pP`$ and $`x=𝝅(p)`$ the following conditions hold:

(i) $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_p`$ is linear.

(ii) $`𝝅_{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_p=Id_{T_xM}.`$

(iii) the mapping $`p`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_p`$ is differentiable.

(iv) $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{R_gp}=(R_g)_{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_p`$, for all $`gG`$.

We need also the concept of parallel transport. It is given by,

Definition. Let $`\sigma :IM,`$ $`t\sigma (t)`$ with $`x_0=\sigma (0)M`$, be a curve in $`M`$ and let $`p_0P`$ such that $`𝝅(p_0)=x_0`$. The *parallel transport* of $`p_0`$ along $`\sigma `$ is given by the curve $`\widehat{\sigma }:IP,t\widehat{\sigma }(t)`$ defined by

$$\frac{d}{dt}\widehat{\sigma }(t)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_p(\frac{d}{dt}\sigma (t)),$$
(82)
with $`p_0=\widehat{\sigma }(0)`$ and $`\widehat{\sigma }(t)=p_{}`$, $`𝝅(p_{})=x.`$

In order to present definition c3 of a connection we need to know more about the nature of the vertical space $`V_pP`$. For this, let $`\widehat{𝐗}T_eG=𝔊`$ be an element of the Lie algebra $`𝔊`$ of $`G`$. The vector $`\widehat{𝐗}`$ is the tangent to the curve produced by the exponential map

$$\widehat{𝐗}=\frac{d}{dt}\left(\mathrm{exp}(t\widehat{𝐗})\right)|_{t=0}.$$
(83)
Then, for every $`pP`$ we can attach to each $`\widehat{𝐗}T_eG=`$ a unique element $`\widehat{𝐗}_p^vV_pP`$ as follows: let $`f:(\epsilon ,\epsilon )P`$, $`tp\mathrm{exp}(t\widehat{𝐗})`$ be a curve in $`P`$ (it obviously lives on the fiber over $`x=\pi (p)=\pi (p\mathrm{exp}(t\widehat{𝐗}))`$) and $`𝔉:P`$ a smooth function. Then we define

$$\widehat{𝐗}_p^v(𝔉)=\frac{d}{dt}𝔉(f(t))|_{t=0}.$$
(84)
By this construction we attach to each $`\widehat{𝐗}T_eG=𝔊`$ a unique vector field over $`P`$, called the *fundamental field* corresponding to this element. We then have the canonical isomorphism

$$\widehat{𝐗}_p^v\widehat{𝐗},\widehat{𝐗}_p^vV_pP,\widehat{𝐗}T_eG=𝔊$$
(85)
from which we get

$$V_pP𝔊.$$
(86)
Definition c3. A connection on a *PFB* $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$ is a 1-form field $`\omega `$ on $`P`$ with values in the Lie algebra $`𝔊`$ $`=T_eG`$ such that $`pP`$ we have,

(i) $`\omega _p(\widehat{𝐗}_p^v)=\widehat{𝐗}`$ and $`\widehat{𝐗}_p^v\widehat{𝐗}`$, where $`\widehat{𝐗}_p^vV_pP`$ and $`\widehat{𝐗}T_eG=𝔊`$.

(ii) $`\omega _p`$ depends smoothly on $`p`$.

(iii) $`\omega _p[(R_g)_{}𝐗_p]=(Ad_{g^1}\omega _p)(𝐗_p)`$, where $`Ad_{g^1}\omega _p=g^1\omega _pg`$.

It follows that if $`\{𝒢_a\}`$ is a basis of $`𝔊`$ and $`\{\theta ^i\}`$ is a basis for $`T^{}P`$ then

$$\omega _p=\omega _p^a𝒢_a=\omega _i^a(p)\theta _p^i𝒢_a,$$
(87)
where $`\omega ^a`$ are 1-forms on $`P`$.

Then the horizontal spaces can be defined by defined by

$$H_pP=\mathrm{ker}(\omega _p),$$
(88)
which shows the equivalence between the definitions.

7. *Connections on* $`M`$. Let $`UM`$ and

$$s:U𝝅^1(U)P,𝝅s=Id_U,$$
(89)
be a local section of the *PFB* $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$. Given a connection $`𝝎`$ on $`P`$, we define the 1-form $`s^{}\omega `$ (the pullback of $`𝝎`$ under $`s`$) by

$$(s^{}\omega )_x(X_x)=\omega _{s(x)}(s_{}X_x),X_xT_xM,s_{}X_xT_pP,p=s(x).$$
(90)
It is quite clear that $`s^{}\omega T^{}U𝔊`$. It will be called *local gauge potential*. This object differs from the *gauge field* used by physicists by numerical constants (with units). Conversely we have the following

Proposition. Given $`\overline{𝝎}T^{}U𝔊`$ and a differentiable section of $`𝝅^1(U)P`$, $`UM`$, there exists one and only one connection $`\omega `$ on $`𝝅^1(U)`$ such that $`s^{}𝝎=\overline{𝝎}`$.

We recall that each local section $`s`$ determines a local trivialization $`\mathrm{\Phi }:𝝅^1(U)U\times G`$ of $`P`$ by setting

$$\mathrm{\Phi }^1(x,g)=s(x)g=pg=R_gp.$$
(91)
Conversely, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ determines $`s`$ since

$$s(x)=\mathrm{\Phi }^1(x,e).$$
(92)
Consider now

$$\begin{array}{c}\overline{\omega }T^{}U𝔊,\overline{\omega }=(\mathrm{\Phi }^1(x,e))^{}\omega =s^{}\omega ,s(x)=\mathrm{\Phi }^1(x,e),\\ \overline{\omega }^{}T^{}U^{}𝔊,\overline{\omega }^{}=(\mathrm{\Phi }^1(x,e))^{}\omega =s^{}\omega ,s^{}(x)=\mathrm{\Phi }^1(x,e).\end{array}$$
(93)
Then we can write, for each $`pP`$ ($`\pi (p)=x`$), parameterized by the local trivializations $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}`$ respectively as $`(x,g)`$ and $`(x,g^{})`$ with $`xUU^{}`$, that

$$\text{ }\omega _p=g^1dg+g^1\overline{\omega }_xg=g^1dg^{}+g^1\overline{\omega }_x^{}g^{}.$$
(94)
Now, if

$$g^{}=hg,$$
(95)
we immediately get from eq.(94) that

$$\overline{\omega }_x^{}=hdh^1+h\overline{\omega }_xh^1,$$
(96)
which can be called the *transformation law* for the gauge fields.

8. *Exterior Covariant derivatives*. Let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(P,𝔊),0kn`$, be the set of all k-form fields over $`P`$ with values in the Lie algebra $`𝔊`$ of the gauge group $`G`$ (and, of course, the connection $`𝝎\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(P,𝔊)`$).. For each $`𝝋\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(P,𝔊)`$ we define the so called *horizontal form* $`𝝋^h\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(P,𝔊)`$ by

$$𝝋_p^h(𝐗_1,𝐗_2,\mathrm{},𝐗_k)=𝝋(𝐗_1^h,𝐗_2^h,\mathrm{},𝐗_k^h),$$
(97)
where $`𝐗_iT_pP`$, $`i=1,2,..,k`$.

Notice that $`𝝋_p^h(𝐗_1,𝐗_2,\mathrm{},𝐗_k)=0`$ if one (or more) of the $`𝐗_iT_pP`$ are vertical.

We define the *exterior covariant derivative* of $`𝝋\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(P,𝔊)`$ in relation to the connection $`\omega `$ by

$$D^\omega 𝝋=(d𝝋)^h\mathrm{\Lambda }^{k+1}(P,𝔊),$$
(98)
where $`D^\omega 𝝋_p(𝐗_1,𝐗_2,\mathrm{},𝐗_k,𝐗_{k+1})=d𝝋_p(𝐗_1^h,𝐗_2^h,\mathrm{},𝐗_k^h,𝐗_{k+1}^h)`$. Notice that $`d𝝋=d𝝋^a𝒢_a`$ where $`𝝋^a\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(P)`$, $`a=1,2,\mathrm{},n`$.

9. We define the *commutator* of $`𝝋\mathrm{\Lambda }^i(P,𝔊)`$ and $`𝝍\mathrm{\Lambda }^j(P,𝔊)`$, $`0i,jn`$ by $`[𝝋,𝝍]\mathrm{\Lambda }^{i+j}(P,𝔊)`$ such that if $`𝐗_1,\mathrm{},𝐗_{i+j}\mathrm{sec}TP`$, then

$$[𝝋,𝝍](𝐗_1,\mathrm{},𝐗_{i+j})=\frac{1}{i!j!}\underset{\sigma 𝒮_n}{}(1)^\sigma [𝝋(𝐗_{\iota (1)},\mathrm{},𝐗_{\iota (i)}),𝝍(𝐗_{\iota (i+1)},\mathrm{},𝐗_{\iota (i+j)})],$$
(99)
where $`𝒮_n`$ is the permutation group of $`n`$ elements and $`(1)^\sigma =\pm 1`$ is the sign of the permutation. The brackets $`[,]`$ in the second member of eq.(99) are the Lie brackets in $`𝔊`$.

By writing

$$𝝋=\phi ^a𝒢_a,𝝍=\psi ^a𝒢_a,\phi ^a\mathrm{\Lambda }^i(P),\psi ^a\mathrm{\Lambda }^j(P),$$
(100)
we can write

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill [𝝋,𝝍]& =& \phi ^a\psi ^b[𝒢_a,𝒢_b]\hfill \\ & =& f_{ab}^c(\phi ^a\psi ^b)𝒢_c\hfill \end{array}$$
(101)
where $`f_{ab}^c`$ are the structure constants of the Lie algebra .

With eq.(101) we can prove *easily* the following important properties involving commutators:

$$[𝝋,𝝍]=()^{1+ij}[𝝍,𝝋],$$
(102)
$$(1)^{ik}[[𝝋,𝝍],𝝉]+(1)^{ji}[[𝝍,𝝉],𝝋]+(1)^{kj}[[𝝉,𝝋],𝝍]=0,$$
(103)
$$d[𝝋,𝝍]=[d𝝋,𝝍]+(1)^i[𝝋,d𝝍].$$
(104)
for $`𝝋\mathrm{\Lambda }^i(P,𝔊)`$, $`𝝍\mathrm{\Lambda }^j(P,𝔊)`$, $`𝝉\mathrm{\Lambda }^k(P,𝔊)`$.

We shall also need the following identity

$$[\omega ,\omega ](𝐗_\mathrm{𝟏},𝐗_\mathrm{𝟐})=2[\omega (𝐗_1),\omega (𝐗_2)].$$
(105)
The proof of eq.(105) is as follows:
(i) Recall that

$$[\omega ,\omega ]=(\omega ^a\omega ^b)[𝒢_a,𝒢_b].$$
(106)
(ii) Let $`𝐗_1,𝐗_2\mathrm{sec}TP`$ (i.e., $`𝐗_1`$ and $`𝐗_2`$ are vector fields on $`P`$). Then,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill [\omega ,\omega ](𝐗_\mathrm{𝟏},𝐗_\mathrm{𝟐})& =& (\omega ^a(𝐗_1)\omega ^b(𝐗_\mathrm{𝟐})\omega ^a(𝐗_\mathrm{𝟐})\omega ^b(𝐗_\mathrm{𝟏}))[𝒢_a,𝒢_b]\hfill \\ & =& 2[\omega (𝐗_1),\omega (𝐗_2)].\hfill \end{array}$$
(107)
10. The *curvature form* of the connection $`\omega \mathrm{\Lambda }^1(P,𝔊)`$ is $`𝛀^\omega \mathrm{\Lambda }^2(P,𝔊)`$ defined by

$$𝛀^\omega =D^\omega \omega .$$
(108)
Proposition.

$$D^\omega \omega (𝐗_\mathrm{𝟏},𝐗_\mathrm{𝟐})=d\omega (𝐗_1,𝐗_2)+[\omega (𝐗_1),\omega (𝐗_2)].$$
(109)
Eq.(109) can be written using eq.(107) (and recalling that $`\omega (𝐗)=\omega ^a(𝐗)𝒢_a`$). Thus we have

$$𝛀^\omega =D^\omega \omega =d\omega +\frac{1}{2}[\omega ,\omega ].$$
(110)
11. Proposition (*Bianchi identity):*

$$D𝛀^\omega =0.$$
(111)
*Proof:* (i) Let us calculate $`d𝛀^\omega `$. We have,

$$d𝛀^\omega =d\left(d\omega +\frac{1}{2}[\omega ,\omega ]\right).$$
(112)
We now take into account that $`d^2𝝎=0`$ and that from the properties of the commutators given by eqs.(102), (103), (104) above, we have

$`d[\omega ,\omega )]`$ $`=[d\omega ,\omega ][\omega ,d\omega ],`$
$`[d\omega ,\omega ]`$ $`=[\omega ,d\omega ],`$
$`[[\omega ,\omega ],\omega ]`$ $`=0.`$ (113)
By using eq.(113) in eq.(112) gives

$$d𝛀^\omega =[d\omega ,\omega ].$$
(114)
(ii) In eq.(114) use eq.(110) and the last equation in (113) to obtain

$$d𝛀^\omega =[𝛀^\omega ,\omega ].$$
(115)
(iii) Use now the definition of the exterior covariant derivative \[eq.(99)\] together with the fact that $`\omega (𝐗^𝐡)=0`$, for all $`𝐗T_pP`$ to obtain

$$D^\omega 𝛀^\omega =0.$$

We can then write the very important formula (known as the Bianchi identity),

$$D^\omega 𝛀^\omega =d𝛀^\omega +[\omega ,𝛀^\omega ]=0.$$
(116)
12. *Local curvature in the base manifold*. Let $`(U,\mathrm{\Phi })`$ be a local trivialization of $`\pi ^1(x)`$ and $`s`$ the associated cross section as defined in 6. Then, $`s^{}𝛀^\omega \overline{𝛀}^\omega `$ (the pull back of $`𝛀^\omega )`$ is a well defined 2-form field on $`U`$ which takes values in the Lie algebra $`𝔊.`$ Let $`\overline{\omega }=s^{}\omega `$ (see eq.(93)). If we recall that the differential operator $`d`$ commutes with the pull back, we immediately get

$$\overline{𝛀}^\omega D^𝝎\overline{\omega }=d\overline{\omega }+\frac{1}{2}[\overline{\omega },\overline{\omega }].$$
(117)
and

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill D^\omega \overline{𝛀}^\omega & =& 0,\hfill \\ \hfill D^\omega \overline{𝛀}^\omega & =& d\overline{𝛀}^\omega +[\overline{\omega },\overline{𝛀}^\omega ]=0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(118)
Eq.(118) is also known as Bianchi identity.

Observation 2. In gauge theories (Yang-Mills theories) $`\overline{𝛀}^\omega `$ is (except for numerical factors with physical units) called a *field strength in the gauge* $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$.

Observation 3. When $`G`$ is a matrix group, as is the case in the presentation of gauge theories by physicists, definition (99) of the commutator $`[𝝋,𝝍]\mathrm{\Lambda }^{i+j}(P,𝔊)`$ ($`𝝋\mathrm{\Lambda }^i(P,𝔊)`$, $`𝝍\mathrm{\Lambda }^j(P,𝔊)`$) gives

$$[𝝋,𝝍]=𝝋𝝍(1)^{ij}𝝍𝝋,$$
(119)
where $`𝝋`$ and $`𝝍`$ are considered as matrices of forms with values in $``$ and $`𝝋𝝍`$ stands for the usual matrix multiplication where the entries are combined via the exterior product. Then, when $`G`$ is a matrix group, we can write eqs.(110) and (117) as

$`𝛀^\omega `$ $`=D^\omega \omega =d\omega +\omega \omega ,`$ (120)
$`\overline{𝛀}^\omega `$ $`=D^𝝎\overline{\omega }=d\overline{\omega }+\overline{\omega }\overline{\omega }.`$ (121)
13. *Transformation of the field strengths under a change of gauge*. Consider two local trivializations $`(U,\mathrm{\Phi })`$ and $`(U^{},\mathrm{\Phi }^{})`$ of $`P`$ such that $`p\pi ^1(UU^{})`$ has $`(x,g)`$ and $`(x,g^{})`$ as images in $`(UU^{})\times G`$, where $`xUU^{}`$. Let $`s,s^{}`$ be the associated cross sections to $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}`$ respectively. By writing $`s^{}𝛀^\omega =\overline{𝛀}^\omega `$, we have the following relation for the local curvature in the two different gauges such that $`g^{}=hg`$

$$\overline{𝛀}^\omega =h\overline{𝛀}^\omega h^1,\text{for all }xUU^{}.$$
(122)
14. We now give the *coordinate expressions* for the potential and field strengths in the trivialization $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Let $`x^\mu `$ be a local chart for $`UM`$ and let $`\left\{_\mu ={\displaystyle \frac{}{x^\mu }}\right\}`$ and $`\{dx^\mu \}`$, $`\mu =0,1,2,3`$, be (dual) bases of $`TU`$ and $`T^{}U`$ respectively. Then,

$`\overline{\omega }`$ $`=\overline{\omega }^a𝒢_a=\overline{\omega }_\mu ^adx^\mu 𝒢_a,`$ (123)
$`\overline{𝛀}^\omega `$ $`=(\overline{𝛀}^\omega )^a𝒢_a={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}_{\mu \nu }^adx^\mu dx^\nu 𝒢_a.`$ (124)
where $`\overline{\omega }_\mu ^a`$, $`\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}_{\mu \nu }^a:MUR`$ (or $`𝒞`$) and we get

$$\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}_{\mu \nu }^a=_\mu \overline{\omega }_\nu ^a_\nu \overline{\omega }_\mu ^a+f_{bc}^a\overline{\omega }_\mu ^b\overline{\omega }_\nu ^c.$$
(125)
The following objects appear frequently in the presentation of gauge theories by physicists434343It is important to keep eqs.(126), (127), (128) in mind in order to understand the mathematical absurdities of the *AIAS* papers..

$`(\overline{𝛀}^\omega )^a`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}_{\mu \nu }^adx^\mu dx^\nu =d\overline{\omega }^a+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}f_{bc}^a\overline{\omega }^b\overline{\omega }^c,`$ (126)
$`\overline{𝛀}_{\mu \nu }^\omega `$ $`=\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}_{\mu \nu }^a𝒢_a=_\mu \overline{\omega }_\nu _\nu \overline{\omega }_\mu +[\overline{\omega }_\mu ,\overline{\omega }_\nu ],`$ (127)
$`\overline{\omega }_\mu `$ $`=\overline{\omega }_\mu ^a𝒢_a.`$ (128)
We now give the local expression of Bianchi identity. Using eqs.(118) and (126) we have

$$D^\omega \overline{𝛀}^\omega =\frac{1}{2}(D^\omega \overline{𝛀}^\omega )_{\rho \mu \nu }dx^\rho dx^\mu dx^\nu =0.$$
(129)
By putting

$$(D^\omega \overline{𝛀}^\omega )_{\rho \mu \nu }D_\rho \overline{𝛀}_{\mu \nu }^\omega $$
(130)
we have

$$D_\rho \overline{𝛀}_{\mu \nu }^\omega =_\rho \overline{𝛀}_{\mu \nu }^\omega +[\overline{\omega }_\rho ,\overline{𝛀}_{\mu \nu }^\omega ],$$
(131)
and

$$D_\rho \overline{𝛀}_{\mu \nu }^\omega +D_\mu \overline{𝛀}_{\nu \rho }^\omega +D_\nu \overline{𝛀}_{\rho \mu }^\omega =0.$$
(132)
Physicists call the operator

$$D_\rho =_\rho +[\omega _\rho ,].$$
(133)
the *covariant derivative*. The reason for this name will be given now.

15. *Covariant derivatives of sections of associated vector bundles to a given* *PFB.*

Consider again, like in 4, a vector bundle $`(E,M,𝝅_1,G,F)`$ denoted $`E=P\times _\rho F`$ *associated* to a *PFB* bundle $`(P,M,𝝅,G)`$ by the linear representation $`\rho `$ of $`G`$ in $`F=𝐕`$. Consider again the trivializations of $`P`$ and $`E`$ given by eqs.(75)-(77). Then, we have the

Definition. The *parallel transport* of $`𝚿_\mathrm{𝟎}E`$, $`𝝅_1(𝚿_\mathrm{𝟎})=x_0`$, along the curve $`\sigma :IM`$, $`t\sigma (t)`$ from $`x_0=\sigma (0)M`$ to $`x=\sigma (t)`$ is the element $`𝚿_{}E`$ such that:

(i) $`𝝅_1(𝚿_{})=x`$,

(ii) $`\chi _i(𝚿_{})=\rho (\phi _i(p_{})\phi _i^1(p_0))\chi _i(𝚿_\mathrm{𝟎})`$.

(iii) $`p_{}P`$ is the parallel transport of $`p_0P`$ along $`\sigma `$ from $`x_0`$ to $`x`$ as defined in eq.(82) above.

Definition. Let $`X`$ be a vector at $`x_0`$ tangent to the curve $`\sigma `$ (as defined above). The covariant derivative of $`𝚿\mathrm{sec}E`$ in the direction of $`X`$ is $`(D_X^E𝚿`$ $`)_{x_0}\mathrm{sec}E`$ such that

$$(D_X^E𝚿)(x_0)(D_X^E𝚿)_{x_0}=\underset{t0}{lim}\frac{1}{t}(𝚿_{,t}^0𝚿_\mathrm{𝟎}),$$
(134)
where $`𝚿_{,t}^0`$ is the “vector” $`𝚿_t𝚿(\sigma (t))`$ of a section $`𝚿\mathrm{sec}E`$ parallel transported along $`\sigma `$ from $`\sigma (t)`$ to $`x_0`$, the only requirement on $`\sigma `$ being

$$\frac{d}{dt}\sigma (t)|_{t=0}=X.$$
(135)
In the local trivialization $`(U_i,\mathrm{\Xi }_i)`$ of $`E`$ (see eqs.(75)-(77)) if $`\mathrm{\Psi }_t`$ is the element in $`𝐕`$ representing $`𝚿_t`$,

$$\chi _i(\mathrm{\Psi }_{,t}^0)=\rho (g_0g_t^1)\chi _{i\sigma (t)}(\mathrm{\Psi }_t).$$
(136)
By choosing $`p_0`$ such that $`g_0=e`$ we can compute eq(134):

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill (D_X^E𝚿)_{x_0}& =& \frac{d}{dt}\rho (g^1(t)\mathrm{\Psi }_t)|_{t=0}\hfill \\ & =& \frac{d\mathrm{\Psi }_t}{dt}|_{t=0}\left(\rho ^{}(e)\frac{dg(t)}{dt}|_{t=0}\right)(\mathrm{\Psi }_0).\hfill \end{array}$$
(137)
This formula is trivially generalized for the covariant derivative in the direction of an arbitrary vector field $`Y\mathrm{sec}TM.`$

With the aid of eq.(137) we can calculate, e.g., the covariant derivative of $`𝚿\mathrm{sec}E`$ in the direction of the vector field $`Y={\displaystyle \frac{}{x^\mu }}_\mu `$. This covariant derivative is denoted $`D__\mu 𝚿D_\mu 𝚿`$.

We need now to calculate $`{\displaystyle \frac{dg(t)}{dt}}|_{t=0}`$. In order to do that, recall that if $`{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}`$ is a tangent to the curve $`\sigma `$ in $`M`$, then $`s_{}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}\right)`$ is a tangent to $`\widehat{\sigma }`$ the horizontal lift of $`\sigma `$, i.e., $`s_{}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}\right)HPTP.`$ As defined before $`s=\mathrm{\Phi }_i^1(x,e)`$ is the cross section associated to the trivialization $`\mathrm{\Phi }_i`$ of $`P`$ (see eq.(74). Then, as $`g`$ is a mapping $`UG`$ we can write

$$\left[s_{}(\frac{d}{dt})\right](g)=\frac{d}{dt}(g\sigma ).$$
(138)
To simplify the notation, introduce local coordinates $`x^\mu ,g`$ in $`\pi ^1(U)`$ and write $`\sigma (t)=(x^\mu (t))`$ and $`\widehat{\sigma }(t)=(x^\mu (t),g(t))`$. Then,

$$s_{}\left(\frac{d}{dt}\right)=\dot{x}^\mu (t)\frac{}{x^\mu }+\dot{g}(t)\frac{}{g},$$
(139)
in the local coordinate basis of $`T(\pi ^1(U))`$. An expression like the second member of eq.(139) defines in general a vector tangent to $`P`$ but, according to its definition, $`s_{}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}\right)`$ is in fact horizontal. We must then impose that

$$s_{}\left(\frac{d}{dt}\right)=\dot{x}^\mu (t)\frac{}{x^\mu }+\dot{g}(t)\frac{}{g}=\alpha ^\mu \left(\frac{}{x^\mu }+\overline{\omega }_\mu ^a𝒢_ag\frac{}{g}\right),$$
(140)
for some $`\alpha ^\mu `$.

We used the fact that $`\frac{}{x^\mu }+\overline{\omega }_\mu ^a𝒢_ag\frac{}{g}`$ is a basis for $`HP`$, as can easily be verified from the condition that $`\omega (𝐗^h)=0`$, for all $`𝐗HP`$. We immediately get that

$$\alpha ^\mu =\dot{x}^\mu (t),$$
(141)
and

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dg(t)}{dt}}`$ $`=\dot{g}(t)=\dot{x}^\mu (t)\overline{\omega }_\mu ^a𝒢_ag,`$ (142)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dg(t)}{dt}}|_{t=0}`$ $`=\dot{x}^\mu (0)\overline{\omega }_\mu ^a𝒢_a.`$ (143)
With this result we can rewrite eq.(137) as

$$(D_X^E𝚿)_{x_0}=\frac{d\mathrm{\Psi }_t}{dt}|_{t=0}\rho ^{}(e)\overline{\omega }(X)(\mathrm{\Psi }_0),X=\frac{d\sigma }{dt}|_{t=0}.$$
(144)
which generalizes trivially for the covariant derivative along a vector field $`Y\mathrm{sec}TM.\text{}`$

16. Suppose, e.g, that we take the tensor product $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ $``$ $`E`$, where $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ is the Clifford bundle of differential forms over $`M`$ used in section 3 above, and $`E`$ is an associated vector bundle to $`P`$, where the vector space of the (trivial) bundle is the linear space generated by $`\{𝒢_a(x)=𝒢_a𝔊\}`$ and where $`\rho (G)Ad(G)`$. Consider the subbundle $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)E`$ of $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$ $``$ $`E`$. It is obvious that we can identify $`\overline{𝛀}^\omega `$, the *local curvature* of the connection as defined in 13 above, with a section of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)E.`$

Written in local coordinates

$$\overline{𝛀}^\omega =(\frac{1}{2}\overline{𝛀}^\omega {}_{\mu \nu }{}^{a}(x)dx^\mu dx^\nu )𝒢_a.$$
(145)
Now, we are working with a bundle that is a tensor product of two bundles. We restrict our attention in what follows to the case where it is possible (locally) to factorize the *functions* $`\overline{𝛀}^\omega {}_{\mu \nu }{}^{a}(x)`$ (supposed to be differentiable) as

$$\overline{𝛀}^\omega {}_{\mu \nu }{}^{a}(x)=f_{\mu \nu }(x)\eta ^a(x),$$
(146)
where $`f_{\mu \nu }(x)`$ and $`\eta ^a(x)`$ are also supposed to be differentiable functions.

If we denote by $`^{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)E}`$ the covariant derivative acting on sections of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)E`$, then by definition,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill _X^{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)E}\overline{𝛀}^\omega & =& _X(\frac{1}{2}f{}_{\mu \nu }{}^{}(x(t))dx^\mu dx^\nu )(\eta ^a(x(t))𝒢_a)+\hfill \\ & & +(\frac{1}{2}f{}_{\mu \nu }{}^{}(x(t))dx^\mu dx^\nu )D_X^E(\eta ^a(x(t))𝒢_a).\hfill \end{array}$$
(147)
where we take $`_X^{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)}_X`$ as the usual Levi-Civita connection acting on sections of $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$, and $`D_X^E`$ as the covariant derivative acting on sections of $`E`$. In eq.(137) we must calculate $`\rho ^{}(e)`$ where $`\rho `$ now refers to the adjoint representation of $`G`$. Now, as it is well known (see, e.g.,) if $`𝔣𝔊`$, then since $`Ad(g(t))𝔣=g(t)𝔣g(t)^1`$, we have

$$\frac{d}{dt}Ad(g(t))𝔣_{t=0}=𝔞𝔡(𝔤)(𝔣)=[𝔤,𝔣],$$
(148)
where

$$𝔤=\frac{dg(t)}{dt}|_{t=0}=\dot{x}^\mu (0)\overline{\omega }_\mu ^a𝒢_a.$$
(149)
and where the last equality in eq.(149) follows from eq.(143) modulo the isomorphism $`T_eG𝔊`$.

Then, by using in eq.(137), $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0=\eta ^a(x(0))𝒢_a`$, we have

$`\rho ^{}(e){\displaystyle \frac{dg(t)}{dt}}|_{t=0}`$ $`=\dot{x}^\mu (0)\eta ^b(x(0))[\overline{\omega }_\mu ^a𝒢_a,𝒢_b]`$
$`=\eta ^a(x(0))[\overline{\omega }(X),𝒢_a],`$ (150)
and

$$D_X^E(\eta ^a(x)𝒢_a)=\frac{d\eta ^a(x(t))}{dt}|_{t=0}𝒢_a+\eta ^a(x(0))[\overline{\omega }(X),𝒢_a].$$
(151)
We can now trivially complete the calculation of $`_X^{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)E}\overline{𝛀}^\omega `$ supposing that $`x^\mu `$ are the usual Lorentz orthogonal coordinates of Minkowski spacetime. We have,

$$_X^{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)E}\overline{𝛀}^\omega =\frac{d}{dt}(\frac{1}{2}\overline{𝛀}^\omega {}_{\mu \nu }{}^{a})dx^\mu dx𝒢_a+[\overline{\omega }(X),\frac{1}{2}\overline{𝛀}^\omega {}_{\mu \nu }{}^{a}]dx^\mu dx𝒢_a.$$
(152)
This formula is trivially generalized for the covariant derivative in the direction of an arbitrary vector field $`Y\mathrm{sec}TM`$.

In particular when $`Y={\displaystyle \frac{}{x^\rho }}_\rho `$, it gives justification for the formula given by eq.(133) that we called the covariant derivative of the local curvature (or field strength). We have only to put

$$__\varrho ^{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(M)E}\overline{𝛀}^\omega D_\varrho \overline{𝛀}^\omega D_\varrho \frac{1}{2}\overline{𝛀}^\omega {}_{\mu \nu }{}^{}dx^\mu dx^\nu .$$
(153)
in order to complete the identification.

17. *Matter fields and the Higgs fields*.

(i) *Matter fields* are sections of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^p(M)E`$, where $`E=P\times _\rho F`$ are $`p`$-forms of the type $`(\rho ,F)`$.

(ii) *Spinor fields of spin 1/2* are sections of $`S(M)`$ and *generalized* *spinor fields of spin 1/2* and type $`(\rho ,F)`$ are sections of $`S(M)E`$, where $`S(M)`$ is a spinor bundle of $`M`$.

(iii) *Higgs fields* are scalar matter fields of type $`(\rho ,F)`$, i.e., are sections of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^0(M)E`$.

observation 4. In $`SU(2)`$ gauge theory in order to formulate the Higgs mechanism, i.e., to give mass to some of the components of the field strength (i.e., the local curvature), $`\rho `$ is taken as the vector representation of $`SU(2)`$ and $`F`$ is taken as the linear space $`𝔰𝔲(2)`$, the Lie algebra of $`SU(2)`$. This is exactly what is done in the formulation of the famous ‘t Hooft-Polyakov monopole theory, as described, e.g., in Ryder’s book, a reference that *AIAS* authors used, but certainly did not undestand a single line.

### 6.2 Electromagnetism as a $`U(1)`$ gauge theory

We shall consider here a principal fiber bundle over the Minkowski spacetime $`M`$ with structure group $`U(1)`$.

Recall that $`U(1)`$ is isomorphic to $`SO(2)`$, a fact that we denote as usual by $`U(1)SO(2)`$. This makes possible to parametrize $`U(1)`$ by elements of the unitary circle in a complex plane, i.e., we write

$$U(1)SO(2)=\{e^{i\alpha },\alpha R\}.$$
(154)
The Lie algebra $`𝔲(1)`$ of $`U(1)`$ is then generated by the complex number $`i`$. So a transition function $`g_{jk}:U_jU_kU(1)`$ is given by $`e^{i\psi (x)}`$, where $`\psi :U_iU_j`$ is a real function.

Now, given a local trivialization (gauge choice) $`\mathrm{\Phi }_V:\pi ^1(V)V\times U(1)`$, $`VM`$, we have a local section $`\sigma _V:VP`$. We associate to the connection $`\omega `$ the gauge potential $`\omega _V=\sigma _V^{}\omega `$.

Since $`\omega _V:V𝔲(1)=\{ia|aR\}`$, we are able to write $`\omega _V=ieA_V`$, where444444Here $`eR\{0\}`$ is a constant which represents the electric charge. $`A_V\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(U)`$ is the *electromagnetic potential*.

Given another gauge choice $`\mathrm{\Phi }_W`$ and his associated gauge potential $`\omega _W`$, we have

$$\omega _W=g_{VW}\omega _Vg_{VW}^1+g_{VW}^1dg_{VW},$$

where $`g_{VW}:VWU(1)`$ is the corresponding transition function.

Since $`U(1)`$ is abelian it follows that

$$\omega _W=\omega _V+g_{VW}^1dg_{VW}.$$

Therefore,

$$\omega _W=\omega _V+id\psi $$

and

$$A_W=A_V\frac{1}{e}d\psi .$$

The fact that $`U(1)`$ is abelian also implies that

$$𝛀^\omega =D^\omega \omega =d\omega .$$

Thus, the field strength of the electromagnetic field, in respect to the gauge potential $`\omega _V`$, is given by

$$F_V=dA_.$$

But it is easy to see that $`d\omega _W=d(\omega _V+id\psi )=d\omega _V+idd\psi =d\omega _V`$. Then $`dA_V=dA_W`$, leading to $`F_V=F_W`$ on $`VW`$. This shows that $`F`$ is globally defined454545We put $`F|_V=F_V`$ to define it in all $`M`$. and we have

$$dF=0$$

since $`dF|_V=ddA_V=0`$ for all local trivialization $`\mathrm{\Phi }_V`$.

Of, course, without any additional hypothesis it is impossible to derive which is the value of $`\delta F`$. By means the definition of the current we are able to solve a variational problem on $`P`$ which produces the desired equation. By pulling back through a local section $`\sigma _V:VP`$ we obtain

$$\delta (F|_V)=J_e|_V,$$

where $`J_e|_V\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(V)`$ is the electric current pulled back to $`VM`$. In the case when $`M`$ is the Minkowski spacetime and for the vacuum $`J_e=0`$ we have the pair of equations

$`dF`$ $`=0,`$ (155)
$`\delta F`$ $`=0.`$
We discussed at length in 3 that this set of equations possess an infinite number of solutions which are *non transverse waves* in free space.

This shows that the statement that the existence of non transverse waves implies that electromagnetism cannot be described by a $`U(1)`$ theory is *false*.

### 6.3 $`SU(2)`$ gauge theory

In $`SU(2)`$ gauge theory, the connection 1-form $`\omega \mathrm{\Lambda }^1(P,𝔰𝔲(2))`$ and the curvature 2-form $`𝛀𝛀^\omega \mathrm{\Lambda }^1(P,𝔰𝔲(2))`$, where $`𝔰𝔲(2)`$ is the Lie algebra of $`SU(2)`$, are given by464646To simplify the notation we write in this section $`DD^\omega `$

$`𝛀`$ $`=D\omega =d\omega +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}[\omega ,\omega ],`$ (156)
$`D𝛀`$ $`=d𝛀+[\omega ,𝛀].`$ (157)
In a local trivialization $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ of the $`SU(2)`$ principal bundle, denoted $`P_{SU(2)}`$ and in local Lorentz orthogonal coordinates $`x^\mu `$ of $`UM`$, being $`s`$ the cross section of $`P_{SU(2)}`$ associated to $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ the potential and field strength are given by

$$𝐀=s^{}𝝎=A_\mu ^a(x)dx^\mu 𝔤_𝔞=A^a(x)𝔤_𝔞=𝐀_\mu (x)dx^\mu ,$$
(158)
where $`A^a(x)=A_\mu ^a(x)dx^\mu `$, $`𝐀_\mu (x)=A_\mu ^a(x)𝔤_𝔞`$ and

$$𝐅=s{}_{}{}^{}𝛀=\frac{1}{2}(F_{\mu \nu }^a(x)dx^\mu dx^\nu )𝔤_𝔞,𝐅_{\mu \nu }(x)=\frac{1}{2}F_{\mu \nu }^a(x)𝔤_𝔞,$$
(159)
where $`F^a(x)=\frac{1}{2}F_{\mu \nu }^a(x)dx^\mu dx^\nu `$, $`𝐅_{\mu \nu }(x)=\frac{1}{2}F_{\mu \nu }^a(x)𝔤_𝔞`$ and where

$$[𝔤_a,𝔤_b]=ϵ_{ab}^c𝔤_c,a,b,c=1,2,3.$$
(160)
express the structure constants given by the commutator relations of the Lie algebra $`𝔰𝔲(2)`$. Keep in mind that $`A_\mu ^a,F_{\mu \nu }^a(x):MR`$ (or $`𝒞`$) are scalar valued functions474747They can be real or complex functions depending, e.g., on the particular representation choose for the gauge group.. In the quantum version of the theory these objects are hermitian operators.

observation 5. in most physical textbooks the tensor product $``$ is omitted. Here we keep it because it is our intention to show that section 3 of *AIAS*1 is fullof mathematical nonsense484848Keep in mind that physicists in general put $`𝔤_a=i𝔢_a`$ or use particular matrix representations for the $`𝔤_a`$.. Taking the pull back under $`s`$ of eqs.(156), (157) we get

$`𝐅_{\mu \nu }`$ $`=_\mu 𝐀_\nu _\nu 𝐀_\mu +[𝐀_\mu ,𝐀_\nu ]`$ (161)
$`=_\mu 𝐀_\nu _\nu 𝐀_\mu +A_\mu ^a(x)A_\nu ^b(x)ϵ_{ab}^c𝔤_c,`$ (162)
$`F_{\mu \nu }^c`$ $`=_\mu A_\nu ^c_\nu A_\mu ^c+A_\mu ^a(x)A_\nu ^b(x)ϵ_{ab}^c,`$ (163)
and

$`D_\rho 𝐅_{\mu \nu }+D_\mu 𝐅_{\nu \rho }+D_\nu 𝐅_{\rho \mu }`$ $`=0,`$ (164)
$`D_\rho F_{\mu \nu }^a+D_\mu F_{\nu \rho }^a+D_\nu F_{\rho \mu }^a`$ $`=0,`$ (165)
with

$`D_\rho 𝐅_{\mu \nu }`$ $`=_\rho 𝐅_{\mu \nu }+[𝐀_\rho ,𝐀_{\mu \nu }],`$ (166)
$`D_\rho F_{\mu \nu }^c`$ $`=_\rho F_{\mu \nu }^c+A_\rho ^aF_{\mu \nu }^bϵ_{ab}^c.`$ (167)
Eq.(164) (Bianchi identity) is the generalization of the homogeneous Maxwell equation $`dF=0`$ , which, as it is well known, reads $`_\rho F_{\mu \nu }+_\mu F_{\nu \rho }+_\nu F_{\rho \mu }=0`$, when written in components.

Now, which is the analogous of the inhomogeneous Maxwell equation $`\delta F=J_e`$, which in local components reads $`^\mu F_{\mu \nu }=J_{e\nu }`$?

As, in the case of Maxwell theory, the analogous equation for the $`SU(2)`$ gauge theory cannot be obtained without *extra* assumptions. For the vacuum case, i.e., when the gauge field is only interacting with itself, the analogous of $`\delta A=0`$ is postulated to be

$$D^\mu 𝐅_{\mu \nu }=^\mu 𝐅_{\mu \nu }+[𝐀^\mu ,𝐅_{\mu \nu }]=0,𝐀^\mu =\eta ^{\mu \nu }𝐀_\nu .$$

For the case where the gauge field is in interaction with some matter field which produces a conserved current $`𝐉_\mu =J_\mu ^a𝔤_𝔞`$, and the theory is supposed to be derivable from an action principle, the analogous of the inhomogeneous Maxwell equations results

$$D^\mu 𝐅_{\mu \nu }=^\mu 𝐅_{\mu \nu }+[𝐀^\mu ,𝐅_{\mu \nu }]=𝐉_\mu .$$
(168)
## 7 Flaws in the “new electrodynamics”

In what follows we comments on some (unbelievable) mathematical flaws at the foundations of the “new electrodynamics” of the *AIAS* group and of Barrett.

To start, putting

$$\left[𝐅^{\mu \nu }\right]=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0& 𝐄^1& 𝐄^2& 𝐄^3\\ 𝐄^1& 0& 𝐁^3& 𝐁^2\\ 𝐄^2& 𝐁^3& 0& 𝐁^1\\ 𝐄^3& 𝐁^2& 𝐁^1& 0\end{array}\right],$$
(169)
we can write using the notations of section 3 and taking $`A^a(x)=A_\mu ^a(x)dx^\mu `$ and $`F^a(x)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}F_{\mu \nu }^a(x)dx^\mu dx^\nu `$ as sections of the Clifford bundle $`𝒞\mathrm{}(M)`$,

$$\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{𝐄}=\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i𝐄^i,𝐄^i=E^{ia}𝔤_𝔞,\\ \stackrel{}{𝐁}=\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i𝐁^i,𝐁^i=B^{ia}𝔤_𝔞,\\ (dx^\mu 𝐀_\mu )\gamma _0=𝐀_0+\stackrel{}{𝐀},𝐀_0=A_0^a𝔤_𝔞,\stackrel{}{𝐀}=\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i𝐀^i,𝐀^i=A^{ia}𝔤_𝔞,\\ (dx^\mu 𝐉_\mu )\gamma _0=𝐉_0+\stackrel{}{𝐉},𝐉_0=J_0^a𝔤_𝔞,\stackrel{}{𝐉}=\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i𝐉^i,𝐉^i=J^{ia}𝔤_𝔞.\end{array}$$
(170)
In eq.(170), the bold notation means a vector in isospace and the $``$ notation, as in section 3 above, means an Euclidean vector.

By using the notations of eq.(170) we can write eqs.(164) and eq.(168) as a system of Maxwell-like equations in the vector calculus formalism. Choosing a matricial representation for the Lie algebra of $`𝔰𝔲(2)`$ by putting $`𝔤_a=\widehat{\sigma }_a`$, where $`\widehat{\sigma }_a`$ are the Pauli matrices we get, the following equations resembling the ones of classical electromagnetism494949In the following equations we explicitly introduce the coupling constant $`q`$. Also, the dot product $``$ and the vector product refers to these operations in the Euclidean part of the objects where the operations are applied.:

$$\stackrel{}{𝐄}=𝐉_0iq(\stackrel{}{𝐀}\stackrel{}{𝐄}\stackrel{}{𝐄}\stackrel{}{𝐀}),$$
(171)
$$\frac{\stackrel{}{𝐄}}{t}\times \stackrel{}{𝐁}+i[\stackrel{}{A}_0,\stackrel{}{𝐄}]iq(\stackrel{}{𝐀}\times \stackrel{}{𝐁}\stackrel{}{𝐁}\times \stackrel{}{𝐀})=\stackrel{}{𝐉},$$
(172)
$$\stackrel{}{𝐁}+i(\stackrel{}{𝐀}\stackrel{}{𝐁}\stackrel{}{𝐁}\stackrel{}{𝐀})=\mathrm{𝟎},$$
(173)
$$\frac{\stackrel{}{𝐁}}{t}+\times \stackrel{}{𝐄}+i[\stackrel{}{A}_0,\stackrel{}{𝐁}]+i(\stackrel{}{𝐀}\times \stackrel{}{𝐄}\stackrel{}{𝐄}\times \stackrel{}{𝐀})=0$$
(174)
At this point Barret presents what he called Harmuth’s amended equations (we write the equations with a correct notation),

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{}{E}=\rho _e,\times \stackrel{}{H}_t\stackrel{}{D}=\stackrel{}{J}_e,\\ \stackrel{}{B}=\rho _m,\times \stackrel{}{E}+_t\stackrel{}{B}=\stackrel{}{J}_m.\end{array},$$
(175)
$$\stackrel{}{J}_e=\sigma \stackrel{}{E},\stackrel{}{J}_m=s\stackrel{}{H}$$
(176)
Now, before proceeding it is very important to note that in\[6-8\] Barrett used the same symbols in both the non abelian Maxwell equations and the amended Harmuth’s equations. He did not distinguish between the bold and arrow notations and indeed used no bold nor arrow notation at all. He then said:

> “comparing the $`SU(2)`$ formulation of Maxwell equations and the Harmuth equations reveals the following identities”

and then presents the list. We write only one of these identities in what follows *using* *only here in the text* the same notation as the one used by Barrett in\[6-8\],

| $`𝐔(\mathrm{𝟏})`$ symmetry | $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐔}(\mathrm{𝟐})`$ symmetry |
| --- | --- |
| $`\rho _e=J_0`$ | $`\rho _e=J_0iq(AEEA)`$ |

It is quite obvious that the equation in “$`SU(2)`$ symmetry” should be written as

$$𝝆_e=𝐉_0iq(\stackrel{}{𝐀}\stackrel{}{𝐄}\stackrel{}{𝐀}\stackrel{}{𝐄}).$$
(177)
Also, it is quite obvious that it is impossible to identify $`\rho _e`$ with $`𝝆`$e. The first is the zero component of a vector in Minkowski spacetime, being a real function, whereas the second is a real function (a zero-form) taking values in isotopic vector space.

It is moreover clear that trying to identify $`\rho _e`$ with $`𝝆`$e amounts to identify also $`\stackrel{}{𝐄}`$ with $`\stackrel{}{E}`$, $`\stackrel{}{𝐁}`$ with $`\stackrel{}{B}`$, $`\stackrel{}{𝐀}_0`$ with $`A_0`$ and $`\stackrel{}{𝐀}`$ with $`\stackrel{}{A},`$ $`\stackrel{}{𝐉}`$ with $`\stackrel{}{J}`$ , a sheer *nonsense* .

It is hard to believe that someone could do a confusion like the one above described. Unfortunately Barrett’s notation seems to indicate that he did.

But, what was Barrett trying to do with the above identifications? Well, these “identifications” had among its objectives505050Other objectives were to “explain” electromagnetic phenomena that he claims (and also the *AIAS* group) that cannot be explained by $`U(1)`$ electrodynamics. In particular in he arrived at the conclusion that a fidedigne explanation of the Sagnac effect requires that $`U(1)`$ electrodynamics be substituted by a covering theory, that he called the $`SU(2)`$ gauge electrodynamics theory. It is necessary to emphasize here that Sagnac effect is trivially explained by $`U(1)`$ electrodynamics and relativity theory. In particular, contrary to what is stated by Vigier (one of the *AIAS* authors) in\[54-56\] the Sagnac effect does not permit the identification of a preferred inertial frame. This will be discussed elsewhere. We call also the reader’s attention on the Vigier statement in\[54-56\] that the phenomena of unipolar induction permits the identification of a preferred inertial frame is also completely misleading, as shown in. to present a justification for Harmut’s ansatz515151We show in the section 7 that Harmuth’s “amended equations” constitute a legitimatized (and quite original) way to solve the original Maxwell equations for a particular physical problem.. He wrote:

> “ Consequently, Harmutz’s Ansatz can be interpreted as: (i) a mapping of Maxwell’s ($`U(1)`$ symmetrical) equations into a higher order symmetric field (of $`SU(2)`$ symmetry) or covering space, where magnetic monopoles and charges exist; (ii) solving the equations for propagation velocities; and (iii) mapping the solved equations back into the $`U(1)`$ symmetrical field (thereby removing the magnetic monopole and charge).”

Now, the correct justification for Harmuth’s ansatz is simply the very well known fact that Maxwell equations are invariant under duality rotationsand this has nothing to do with a $`SU(2)`$ symmetry of any kind.

Besides these misunderstandings by Barrett of Harmuth’s papers, the fact is that there are other serious flaws in Barret’s papers, and indeed in the section 7 we comment on a really *unacceptable* error for an author trying to correct Maxwell theory.

Now, we show that the AIAS group also did not understood the meaning of the “$`SU(2)`$ Maxwell’s equations”. The *proof* of this statement start when we give a look at page 313 of  in a note called “THE MEANING OF BARRETT’S NOTATION”.

There the *AIAS* authors quoted that Rodrigues did not understand Barrett’s notation525252It is necessary to say here that violating what Evan’s preach, the *AIAS* group quoted W.A. R., saying that he did not understood a capital point in this whole affair. *AIAS* group did not acknowledged W.A.R. of that fact, and worse, did not inform their “unfortunate” readers from where they learned that W.A.R. did not understand Barrett’s notation. Well, they learned that when reading the report that W.A.R. wrote for the *Found. Phys*. rejecting some papers that they submitted to that journal., but now we prove that in fact are them who did not understand the meaning of the $`SU(2)`$ equations. Observe that eq.(1) at page 313 of  is wrongly printed, the right equation to start the discussion being eq.(171) above. This is a matrix equation and representing the Lie algebra of $`𝔰𝔲(2)`$ in $`𝒞(2))`$ we have:

$$\begin{array}{c}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(3)}& \stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(1)}i\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(2)}\\ \stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(1)}+i\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(2)}& \stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(3)}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{cc}𝐉_0^{(3)}& 𝐉_0^{(1)}i𝐉_0^{(2)}\\ 𝐉_0^{(1)}+i𝐉_0^{(2)}& 𝐉_0^{(3)}\end{array}\right]\hfill \\ \hfill iq\left[\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(3)}& \stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(1)}i\stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(2)}\\ \stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(1)}+i\stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(2)}& \stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(3)}\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(3)}& \stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(1)}i\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(2)}\\ \stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(1)}+i\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(2)}& \stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(3)}\end{array}\right]\\ \hfill +iq\left[\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(3)}\hfill & \stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(1)}i\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(2)}\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(2)}+i\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(2)}\hfill & \stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(3)}\hfill \end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(3)}& \stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(1)}i\stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(2)}\\ \stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(1)}+i\stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(2)}& \stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(3)}\end{array}\right]\end{array}$$
(178)
Now, let us write the equation corresponding to the $`11`$ element of this matrix equation,

$$\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(3)}=𝐉_0^{(3)}+2q(\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(2)}\stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(1)}\stackrel{}{𝐄}^{(1)}\stackrel{}{𝐀}^{(2)})$$
(179)
This equation in cartesian components read

$$\begin{array}{c}\frac{𝐄_x^{(3)}}{x}+\frac{𝐄_y^{(3)}}{y}+\frac{𝐄_z^{(3)}}{z}=𝐉_0^{(3)}+2q(𝐄_x^{(2)}𝐀_x^{(1)}+𝐄_y^{(2)}𝐀_y^{(1)}+𝐄_z^{(2)}𝐀_z^{(1)})\\ 2q(𝐄_x^{(1)}𝐀_x^{(2)}+𝐄_y^{(1)}𝐀_y^{(2)}+𝐄_z^{(1)}𝐀_z^{(2)})\end{array}$$
(180)
This equation is to be compare with eq.(6) of page 313 of  derived by the *AIAS* group535353This equation has been written between quotation marks in order to identify that it is a wrong equation. The same convention applies to all wrong equations quoted from other authors.,

$${}_{}{}^{\text{}}\frac{E_z}{z}=J_0+2q(E_yA_xE_yA_x)^{\text{}}$$
(181)
Comparison of equations (180) and (181) proves our claim that the *AIAS* group do not understand the equations they use!

## 8 Inconsistencies in section 3 of *AIAS*1

What has been said in the last sections proves that *AIAS* theory and (also Barrett’s papers) are sheer nonsense. *AIAS* authors claims to have proven in section 3 of *AIAS*1 that their non-Abelian electrodynamics is equivalent to Barrett’s non-Abelian electrodynamics. The fact is that section 3 of *AIAS*1 is simply wrong. It is a *pot-pourri* of inconsistent mathematics where the authors make confusions *worse* yet than the ones pointed above. We dennounce some of them in what follows. To show the “equivalence” between their approach and Barrett’s, the *AIAS* authors introduce a theory where the $`SU(2)`$ gauge field interacts with a Higgs field. The interaction is given by the usual Lagrangian formalism, as given, e.g., in Ryder’s book.

Recall that the Higgs field in this case (according to the general definition given in 17 of section 4.1 above) is a section of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^0(M)E`$ where the vector space of $`E`$ is $`F=𝔰𝔲(2)`$. Then, according to the notations introduced in the last section, $`𝐇`$ is an *isovector* and we can write

$$𝐇=H^a𝔢_a(H^1,H^2,H^3),$$
(182)
where $`H^a:MC`$ are complex functions545454Note that in eq.(41) of *AIAS*1, the *AIAS* authors describe a situation where $`H^1=H^2=0`$ and $`H^3=\sqrt{m}`$, where $`m`$ is the mass of the Higgs field. This shows clearly that they start their “theory” using a Higgs field which is a section of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^0(M)E`$, where the vector space of $`E`$ is $`F=𝔰𝔲(2)`$, and $`𝔢_a,a=1,2,3`$ are the generators of $`𝔰𝔲(2)`$ (which is isomorphic to the Lie algebra of $`SO(3)`$) and satisfy

$$[𝔢_a,𝔢_b]=iϵ_{ab}^c𝔢_c.$$
(183)
We now exhibit explicitly some of the mathematical nonsense of section 3 of *AIAS*1.

(i) Eq.(43) of *AIAS*1 is *wrong*. The right equation for $`F_{ij}^a`$ is eq.(161) above. Note that, as emphasized in section 4 , $`F_{ij}^a`$ and the $`A_j^b`$ are scalar functions and so the commutator appearing in eq.(43) of *AIAS*1 must be zero.

(ii) In eq.(67) *AIAS* authors changed their mind about the mathematical nature of the $`H^a`$, and in a completely *ad hoc* way, assumed that the $`H^a,`$ $`a=1,2,`$ are given by

$${}_{}{}^{\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}}H_{}^{a}=F_i^a𝐞^i\text{},\text{for }a=1,2.$$
(184)
The first remark here is that the *AIAS* authors do not explain in which space the $`𝐞^i`$ live. If we give a look at the equations following their eq.(56) it appears that the $`𝐞^i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$, are basis vectors of a 3-dimensional vector space. This makes eq.(184) \[eq.(43) in *AIAS*1\] sheer nonsense and invalidates all their calculations555555In , and also several times in we are advised that the $`\{𝐞^i\}`$ are to be identified with the canonical basis of Euclidean (vector) space. Of course, this does not solve the inconsistences pointed above..

(iii) The inconsistency can be seen also with the definition of $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ given in eq.(66) of *AIAS*1. Since until eq.(65) of *AIAS*1 the $`H^a`$ are functions (which is the case until eq.(67) in *AIAS*1), the authors define

$$\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}𝐀^1=H^1,𝐀^2=H^2\text{}.$$
(185)
Then, they write for “$`𝐁^{(3)}`$”,

$`\text{}𝐁^{(3)}`$ $`=i{\displaystyle \frac{e}{\mathrm{}}}𝐀^1\times 𝐀^2`$
$`=i{\displaystyle \frac{e}{\mathrm{}}}ϵ_{ijk}_jH^1_kH^2\text{ ”}.`$ (186)
The equality in the second line of eq.(186) (which is eq.(66) of *AIAS*1) is *obviously* wrong. Recall that the $`H^a`$ are complex functions —which seems to be the case according to  eq.(45) and eq.(52) and until eq.(67) of *AIAS*1. After that equation authors change their mind as to the nature of the $`H_i`$, in order to try to give meaning to their eq.(66).

Then they write their eq.(68),

$$\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}𝐁^{(3)}=i\frac{e}{\mathrm{}}ϵ_{ijk}_jF_m^1_kF_n^2𝐞^m𝐞^n\text{” }.$$
(187)
Next a complete *ad hoc* rule is invoked—explicitly, *AIAS* authors wrote:

> “ Since $`𝐞^m`$, $`𝐞^n`$ are orthogonal their product can only be cyclic, so if $`𝐞^m𝐞^n=ϵ^{mnr}𝐞_r:\mathrm{}`$

After that the *AIAS* authors proceed by using some other illicit manipulations and very *odd* logic reasoning to arrive at their eq.(71),

$$\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}𝐁^{(3)}=i\frac{e}{\mathrm{}}(_jF_j^1_kF_k^2_jF_k^1_kF_j^2)\text{” }.$$
(188)
Well, this equation is simply nonsense again, for the first member is a vector function and the second a scalar function.

## 9 A brief comment on Harmuth’s papers

In the abstract of the first of Harmuth’s papers he said that there was never a satisfactory concept of propagation velocity of *signals* within the framework of Maxwell theory that is represented by Maxwell equations

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{E}=\rho _e,\hfill & \times \stackrel{}{H}_t\stackrel{}{D}=\stackrel{}{J}_e,\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{B}=0,\hfill & \times \stackrel{}{E}+_t\stackrel{}{B}=0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(189)
$$\stackrel{}{D}=\epsilon \stackrel{}{E},\stackrel{}{B}=\mu \stackrel{}{H}.$$
(190)
He also said that the often mentioned group velocity fails on two accounts, one being that it is almost always larger than the velocity of light565656There are now several experiments that show that superluminal group velocities have physical meaning as, e.g., . A recent review of the status of what is superluminal wave motion can be found in . in radio transmission through the atmosphere; the other being that its derivation implies a transmission rate of information equal to zero.

Harmuth recalls that he searched in vain in the literature for a solution of Maxwell equations for a wave with a beginning and an end (i.e., with compact support in the time domain), that could represent a signal575757Sommerfeld and Brillouin, called *signals*: (i) electromagnetic waves such that, each one of its non null components is zero at $`z=0`$, for $`t<0`$ and equal to some function $`f(t)`$ for $`t>0`$, or: waves with compact support in the time domain, i.e., at $`z=0`$ the signal $`f(t)`$ is non zero only for $`0<t<T`$ ., propagating in a lossy medium. He said also that “one might think that the reason is the practical difficulty of obtaining solutions, but this is only partly correct”. He arrives at the conclusion that “ the fault lies with Maxwell equations rather than their solutions”. He said “in general, there can be no solutions for signals propagating in lossy media.” and concludes “more scientifically, Maxwell equations fail for waves with nonnegligible relative frequency bandwidth propagating in a medium with non negligible losses”. His suggestion to overcome the problem is to add a magnetic current density in Maxwell equations, thus getting585858Contrary to what thinks Barrett, the formulation of a extended electrodynamics including phenomenological charges and phenomenological (i.e., non topological) monopoles do not lead to an $`SU(2)`$ gauge theory. Instead, we are naturally lead to a $`U(1)\times U(1)`$ gauge theory formulated in a spliced bundle.

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{E}=\rho _e,\hfill & \hfill \times \stackrel{}{H}_t\stackrel{}{D}=\stackrel{}{J}_e,\\ \stackrel{}{B}=\rho _m,\hfill & \hfill \times \stackrel{}{E}+_t\stackrel{}{B}=\stackrel{}{J}_m.\end{array}$$
(191)
He said that:

“but the remedy is even more surprising than the failure, since it is generally agreed that magnetic currents have not been observed and it is known from the study of monopoles that a magnetic current density can be eliminated or created by means of a so-called duality transformation. The explanation of both riddles is the singularities encountered in the course of calculation. If one chooses the current density zero before reaching the last singularity, one obtains no solution: if one does so after reaching the last singularity, one gets a solution.”

Here we want to comment that with exception of the above inspired ansatz, the remaining mathematics of Harmuth’s paper was already very well known at the time he published. We repeat below some of his calculations to clearly separate the new and old knowledgment in his approach. This will be important in order to comment one more of Barrett’s flaws. So, in what follows we show that using the duality invariance of *ME* and Harmuth’s ansatz that in a lossy medium the dynamics of a wave with compact support in the spatial domain is such that its front propagates with the speed

$$c_1=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\epsilon \mu }}.$$
(192)
where $`\epsilon `$, $`\mu `$ are the vacuum constants. Harmuth studies the motion of a planar wave in a conducting medium. In eq.(7.3) he puts

$$\rho _e=\rho _m=0.$$
(193)
and

$$\stackrel{}{J}_e=\sigma \stackrel{}{E},\stackrel{}{J}_m=s\stackrel{}{H}.$$
(194)
He then considers a planar electromagnetic wave (*TEM*) propagating in the $`y`$ direction. A *TEM* wave requires

$$E_y=H_y=0.$$
(195)
With the above assumptions and putting moreover that

$``$ $`=E_x=E_z,`$
$``$ $`=H_x=H_z,`$ (196)
where $``$ and $``$ are functions only of $`t`$ and $`y`$, the generalized Maxwell equations (191) reduce to the following system of partial differential equations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{y}}+\mu {\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}+s`$ $`=0,`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{y}}+\epsilon {\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}+\sigma `$ $`=0.`$ (197)
Harmuth proceeds solving the pair of equations first for $``$. Eliminating $``$ from the system we find the following second order equation for $`E,`$

$$\frac{^2}{y^2}\mu \epsilon \frac{^2}{t^2}(\mu \sigma +\epsilon s)s\sigma =0.$$
(198)
Of course, $``$ also satisfies an equation identical to eq.(198). Anyway, after a solution of eq.(198) describing a signal is found we can trivially find the solution for $``$. The rest of Harmuth’s paper is dedicated to find such a solution and to show that even in the limit when $`s=0`$, we still have a solution for the usual Maxwell system without the magnetic current.

The last statement can be proved as follows. Since in Harmuth’s papers $`\mu `$ and $`\epsilon `$ are supposed constants, we can make a scale transformation in the generalized *ME* and write them in the Clifford bundle as

$`\widehat{F}`$ $`=\widehat{J}_e+\gamma ^5\widehat{J}_m=\widehat{𝒥},`$
$`\widehat{J}_e`$ $`=\widehat{\sigma }\widehat{E}^i\gamma ^i,\widehat{J}_m=\widehat{s}\widehat{H}^i\gamma ^i,`$
$`\widehat{\sigma }`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{\sigma }{\epsilon }},\widehat{E}^i=\epsilon E^i,\widehat{s}={\displaystyle \frac{s}{\mu }},\widehat{H}^i=\mu H^i`$ (199)
Now, *ME* (199) is invariant under duality transformations,

$$\widehat{F}e^{\gamma ^5\beta }\widehat{F},\widehat{𝒥}e^{\gamma ^5\beta }\widehat{𝒥}$$
(200)
It follows that starting with a solution $`\widehat{F}(t,x,s)`$ of Maxwell equation with electric and magnetic currents describing a planar wave, have a solution with only the electric current if

$$\mathrm{tan}(\beta )=\frac{s}{\sigma }\stackrel{}{H}\stackrel{}{E}^1,\stackrel{}{E}=E^i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i,\stackrel{}{H}=H^i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i$$
(201)
is a constant.

Then, in this case, if there exists the limit,

$$\underset{s0}{lim}\widehat{F}(t,x,s)=\widehat{F}_1(t,x),$$
(202)
it follows that, $`\widehat{F}_1(t,x)`$ is a solution of *ME* only with the electric current term.

Now, we note by the remaining of the proof that the front of the signal travels with the velocity $`c_1`$ is known at least since 1876! Indeed, recall that the equations for a transmission line, where the variables are the potential $`V(t,y)`$ and the current $`I(t,y)`$, satisfy a system of partial differential equations that is identical to the system (198) since we have for the equations describing the propagation of signals in the transmission line,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{V}{y}}+L{\displaystyle \frac{I}{t}}+RI`$ $`=0,`$ (203)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{I}{y}}+C{\displaystyle \frac{V}{t}}+GV`$ $`=0,`$
which are known as the telegraphist equations and where, $`R,L,C,G`$, are respectively the resistance, the inductance, the capacitity and the lateral conductance, per unit length of the transmission line . Also, eliminating $`I`$ in the system we get the following second order partial equation for $`V,`$

$$\frac{^2V}{y^2}LC\frac{^2V}{t^2}(GL+RC)VRGV=0.$$
(204)
with an analogous equation for $`I`$.

A solution of system (203) with the following initial and boundary conditions

$`V(t,y)`$ $`=0\text{ and }I(t,y)=0,\text{ for }t=0\text{ and }y0,`$
$`V(t,0)`$ $`=\{\begin{array}{cc}0& \hfill \text{ for }t0\\ f(t)& \hfill \text{ for }t>0.\end{array}`$ (207)
has been proposed and obtained by Heaviside in 1876, using his operator method. Heaviside operator method is not very rigorous. A rigorous proof of the fact that eq.(204) with conditions (207) possess solutions such that the front of the wave (the signal) propagates with a finite velocity, namely the velocity $`c_1,`$ can be found in many textbooks. We like particularly the presentation of Oliveira Castro. The identification of systems (197) and (203) is obvious under the following identifications

$``$ $`I,V,\epsilon L,`$
$`\mu `$ $`C,\sigma ,sG,`$ (208)
We discuss Oliveira Castro’s solution method for Harmuth’s problem because it is very much pedagogical.

First recall that a solution of eq.(197) with initial and boundary conditions given by eq.(207) under the identifications (208) is a solution of eq.(198) with the same initial and boundary conditions, plus the additional conditions

$$\frac{}{t}|_{t=0}=0,\frac{}{t}|_{t=0}=0\text{ for }y0.$$
(209)
Put

$$\kappa =\frac{1}{2}(\frac{\sigma }{\epsilon }+\frac{s}{\mu }),\lambda =\frac{1}{2}(\frac{\sigma }{\epsilon }\frac{s}{\mu }),$$
(210)
and in system (197) make the substitutions

$$(t,y)=e^{\kappa t}E(t,y),(t,y)=e^{\kappa t}H(t,y).$$
(211)
Then, system (197) becomes

$`{\displaystyle \frac{E}{y}}+\mu {\displaystyle \frac{H}{t}}+sH`$ $`=0,`$ (212)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{H}{y}}+\epsilon {\displaystyle \frac{E}{t}}+\sigma E`$ $`=0.`$
and eq.(198) becomes,

$$\frac{^2E}{y^2}\frac{1}{c_1^2}\frac{^2E}{t^2}+\frac{\lambda ^2}{c_1^2}E=0.$$
(213)
Eq.(213) is a *tachyonic* Klein-Gordon equation. It is a well known fact, that the *characteristics* of this equation are light cones (with light speed equal to $`c_1`$). It follows that, for Cauchy’s problem, any initial field and normal field derivative configurations with compact support in the $`y`$-axis, will propagate along the characteristic. Heaviside problem, is different from Cauchy’s problem, and the solution given in obtained through Riemann’s method, is:

$$E(t,x,s)=\{\begin{array}{cc}e^{\frac{\kappa t}{c_1}}f\left(t\frac{y}{c_1}\right)+\frac{\lambda y}{c_1}_{\frac{y}{c_1}}^t𝑑uf(tu)\frac{iJ_0^{}(i\sqrt{u^2y^2/c_1^2})}{\sqrt{u^2y^2/c_1^2}}\hfill & \text{ if }t>y/c_1,\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{ if }ty/c_1,\hfill \end{array}$$
(214)
$$H(t,x,s)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\sqrt{\frac{\mu }{\epsilon }}e^{\frac{\kappa t}{c_1}}f\left(t\frac{y}{c_1}\right)\lambda \underset{\frac{y}{c_1}}{\overset{t}{}}𝑑uf(tu)\frac{i\mathrm{I}_0(\lambda \sqrt{u^2y^2/c_1^2})}{\sqrt{u^2y^2/c_1^2}}\hfill & \\ +\underset{\frac{y}{c_1}}{\overset{t}{}}𝑑uf(tu)\frac{\lambda u\mathrm{I}_1(\sqrt{u^2y^2/c_1^2})}{\sqrt{u^2y^2/c_1^2}},\hfill & \text{ if }t>y/c_1,\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{ if }ty/c_1.\hfill \end{array}$$
(215)
where $`\mathrm{I}_n(z)=i^nJ_n(iz)`$.

Eqs. (214) and (215) have well defined limits when $`s0`$, which are to be compared with Harmuth’s solution.

Now, we can present another unpardonable Barrett’s flaw in. He explicitly wrote that it is possible to identify eq.(198), which he called “a two-dimensional *nonlinear* Klein-Gordon equation (without boundary conditions)” (sic) as a sine-Gordon equation, and gives for the equation the usual solitonic solution (hyperbolic tangent).

## 10 Conclusion

A. The *AIAS*1 paper should never be published by any serious journal because595959We must say that (unfortunately) this applies also to the other 59 papers of the *AISA* group published in the special issue: *J. New Energy* 4(3), 1-335 (1999).:

(i) as proved above its section 2 is simply a (bad) review of Whittaker’s paper theory and a trivial calculation of $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ in that formalism.

(ii) *AIAS* authors did not realize that Whittaker’s formalism is a particular case of the more general Hertz potential method, which has been used in\[19-22\] to prove that Maxwell equations in vacuum possess *exact* arbitrary speeds $`(0v<\mathrm{})`$ *UPWs* solutions, and that in general the sub and superluminal solutions are not *transverse* waves. The existence of non transverse waves has also been proved by Kiehn. Moreover, at least two of the authors of the present *AIAS* group knew these facts, namely Bearden and Evans and yet they quote no references\[19-22\].

(iii) It follows from (ii) that existence of non transverses waves in vacuum does not imply that electromagnetism is not a $`U(1)`$ gauge theory. Indeed, it is clear that *AIAS* authors simply do not know what a gauge theory is. This gave us the motivation for writing section 3 of this report. We hope it may be of some help for readers that want to know about the absurdities written by the *AIAS* group and also for those among that authors that want to know the truth.

(iv) Section 3 of *AISA*1 is a *pot-pourri* of inconsistent mathematics as we proved in section 6 above. Note that we did not comment on some odd and wrong statements like “The Higgs field is a mapping from $`SU(2)S(3)S(3)`$”, which show that indeed authors of *NS* did not understand what they read in p. 410 of Ryder’s book606060Here we must comment also that (unfortunately) Ryder makes some confusion on this matter in his book..

B. The quotation that Barrett developed a consistent $`SU(2)`$ gauge theory of electromagnetism is non sequitur. Indeed, we proved that Barrett’s papers\[5-8\] are as the *AIAS* papers*,* full of mathematical inconsistencies. Also, quotation of Harmuth’s papers by *AIAS authors* is out of context (and its use by Barrett is a complete nonsense).

We could continue pointing many other errors in the papers of the *AIAS* group published in the special issue of the *J. New Energy* or in other publications, but after our analysis of *AIAS*1 it should be clear to our readers that such an enterprise should be given as exercises for the training of advanced mathematical and physical students in the identification of mathematical sophisms.

We think that our critical analysis of *AIAS*1 and of some other papers of the *AIAS* group and also of some papers by other authors quoted by them serves our proposal of clearly denouncing that very *bad* mathematics is being used in physics papers. Worse, these papers are being published in international journals and books. Someone must stop the proliferation of so much nonsense616161Believe you or not, the fact is that Evans “imagination” now is promoting his $`\stackrel{}{B}^{(3)}`$ theory as a $`SU(2)\times SU(2)`$ gauge theory. This new theory is described in, and this fact constitutes proof that the quality of many articles published in standard orthodox journals is very *bad* indeed..

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