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# A classical scaling theory of quantum resonances

## Abstract

The quantum resonances occurring with $`\delta `$kicked particles are studied with the help of a fictitious classical limit, establishing a direct correspondence between the nearly resonant quantum motion and the classical resonances of a related system. A scaling law which characterizes the structure of the resonant peaks is derived, and numerically demonstrated.

PACS numbers:05.60Gg,03.65Yz,05.45.Mt,42.50Vk

Resonances are a widespread phenomenon both in quantum and in classical physics. However, quantum resonances are often purely quantal phenomena, not directly related to classical nonlinear resonances. Atom optics has made crucial aspects of the classical-quantum correspondence accessible to direct experimental observation. An outstanding example is the paradigmatic Kicked Rotor (KR) Model, which served as a prototype of quantum and classical Hamiltonian chaos over almost three decades. This model has been experimentally realized by a technique first introduced by Raizen and co-workers , allowing for observation of its main physical properties. These are connected with the long-time evolution, and depend on the arithmetic nature of the effective Planck’s constant (which is the Planck constant divided by a characteristic action) . If the latter is sufficiently irrational, the rotor’s energy saturates in time. This effect is known as dynamical localization. If the effective Planck’s constant is a rational multiple of $`4\pi `$ ($`=4\pi r/q`$, with $`r,q`$ integers) unbounded growth of energy typically occurs. These are known as quantum resonances and have no counterpart in the corresponding classical system. Besides confirming theoretically known facts, experiments have also introduced variants of the basic model, which have enriched the theory. A striking example was the experimental discovery of unexpected “quantum accelerator modes” due to effects of gravity .

Even in cases when no major variants are introduced, experiments inevitably involve deviations from the idealized theoretical model. The most obvious of these is that atoms move in lines and not in circles; though to some extent trivial, this fact imposes certain modifications on the standard KR theory, especially in the case of the quantum resonances . Another experimental limitation is that experiments are confined to not too long times. Consequently, they can neither detect the high-order (high$`q`$) quantum resonances, nor address the basic, as yet unsolved, mathematical problem of what degree of irrationality is required for localization. Nevertheless, for this reason they have encouraged fruitful theoretical analysis of the intermediate time regime, which had rarely been investigated in fine detail.

In this letter we present experimentally relevant results concerning the manifestations of quantum resonances at finite observation times. Our analysis enlightens the connections between quantum and classical resonances. When the energy of the kicked atoms is measured after a fixed time, and the result is plotted versus the kicking period, resonances manifest in the form of peaks at the resonant values of the period (see Fig.1). We describe the line shape of such resonant peaks, and its dependence on the observation time and on the other relevant parameters. Our main result is a single-parameter scaling law for such peaks, which in particular implies an inverse square dependence of the peak width on time, and is probably related to the “sub-Fourier resonances” recently detected in a different atom-optical context . Our derivation is based on a quasi-classical analysis of the purely quantal resonances and their vicinity. This seemingly self-contradictory task is accomplished by establishing a direct correspondence between the quantum resonances and the classical resonances of a related system, which is not obtained in the usual classical limit of vanishing Planck’s constant, but rather in the limit when the effective Planck’s constant approaches its resonant value, which is of order unity. In this limit, the detuning of the driving period from resonance plays the role of the Planck constant. The same technique was used in  to explain the quantum accelerator modes observed in the presence of gravity. Here it is applied in the gravity-free case, leading to a different physical scenario. It may also be adapted to the important case when decoherence is added .

The specific system we consider is described, in dimensionless units, by the Hamiltonian

$$(t^{})=\frac{\tau }{2}p^2+k\mathrm{cos}(x)\underset{t=\mathrm{}}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}\delta (t^{}t),$$
(1)
where $`x`$ is the coordinate, $`p`$ is its conjugate momentum, $`t^{}`$ is the continuous time variable, while $`t`$ is an integer that counts the number of kicks. If $`x`$ is an angle variable, confined to the interval $`[0,2\pi )`$, then (1) is the Hamiltonian of the KR and $`p`$ is the angular momentum; when quantized, it takes integer values only. The two dimensionless parameters that control the dynamics are the effective Planck’s constant $`\tau `$ and the strength of the kick $`k`$. The first (second) is proportional (inversely proportional) to Planck’s constant $`\mathrm{}`$, therefore $`k\tau =K`$ is independent of $`\mathrm{}`$. $`K`$ is the stochasticity parameter of the Standard Map, which rules the classical dynamics defined by (1). The energy levels $`\tau n^2/2`$ ($`n`$ integer) of the free rotor ($`k=0`$), and differences between them, are integer multiples of $`\tau /2`$, while the frequencies of the driving potential are integer multiples of $`2\pi `$, consequently quantum resonances of the kicked rotor (1) are found if $`\tau /4\pi `$ is rational . These resonances correspond to the Talbot effect in optics and $`4\pi `$ corresponds to the Talbot time . For most rational $`\tau /4\pi `$ they result in ballistic growth of $`p`$ (quadratic growth of energy) with time.

If $`x`$ is not a coordinate on a circle but on the full line instead, then $`p`$ is linear momentum and (1) yields the Kicked Particle (KP) model which is the one relevant for recent atom optics experiments. Since the driving potential is periodic in $`x`$ only transitions between values of $`p`$ that differ by an integer are allowed. Consequently, the quasimomentum (QM) $`\beta `$ (the fractional part of $`p`$) is conserved . Standard Bloch theory allows for reduction of the KP dynamics to the dynamics of a bundle of rotors. At any given (and constant in time) value of $`\beta `$, the dynamics induced by (1) is formally that of a rotor and the one-period Floquet operator for this rotor is :

$$\widehat{𝒰}_\beta =e^{\mathrm{i}k\mathrm{cos}(\widehat{\theta })}e^{\mathrm{i}\tau (\widehat{𝒩}+\beta )^2/2},$$
(2)
where $`\theta =x`$mod$`(2\pi )`$, and $`\widehat{𝒩}=\mathrm{i}d/d\theta `$ is the angular momentum operator. If $`\tau /4\pi `$ is rational, the KP dynamics may exhibit asymptotic quadratic growth of the energy only for finitely many special values of the QM $`\beta `$. The particle is then in a spatially extended state . Wave-packet dynamics, or incoherent ensemble averaging over momentum as is the case in experimental realizations  enforces linear growth of the energy as a function of time for rational $`\tau /4\pi `$ . Away from resonances, the growth of energy in time is bounded owing to dynamical localization , so a scan of the particle energy vs. $`\tau `$ after a fixed evolution time exhibits peaks at the resonant values of $`\tau `$, as shown in Fig. 1. Such peaks rise and shrink as the observation time is increased. Their height is proportional to time, and their width to inverse square time, as our present analysis will show.
We restrict to the main resonances and to their vicinity, that is to $`\tau =2\pi \mathrm{}+ϵ`$ where $`\mathrm{}`$ is a positive integer and $`ϵ`$ is small compared to $`2\pi `$. We denote $`\stackrel{~}{k}=k|ϵ|`$, and $`\widehat{I}=|ϵ|\widehat{𝒩}`$. Then, using the identity $`e^{\mathrm{i}\pi \mathrm{}n^2}=e^{\mathrm{i}\pi \mathrm{}n}`$, eq. (2) may be rewritten as

$$\widehat{𝒰}_\beta (t)=e^{\mathrm{i}\stackrel{~}{k}\mathrm{cos}(\widehat{\theta })/|ϵ|}e^{\mathrm{i}\widehat{}_\beta /|ϵ|},$$
(3)
where

$`\widehat{}_\beta (\widehat{I},t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\text{sign}(ϵ)\widehat{I}^2+\widehat{I}(\pi \mathrm{}+\tau \beta ).`$ (4)
If $`|ϵ|`$ is regarded as Planck’s constant , then (3) is the formal quantization of either of the following classical maps:

$`I_{t+1}`$ $`=`$ $`I_t+\stackrel{~}{k}\mathrm{sin}(\theta _{t+1}),`$ (5)
$`\theta _{t+1}`$ $`=`$ $`\theta _t\pm I_t+\pi \mathrm{}+\tau \beta \text{mod}(2\pi )`$ (6)
where $`\pm `$ is the sign of $`ϵ`$. The small$`|ϵ|`$ asymptotics of the quantum $`\beta `$rotor is thus equivalent to a quasi-classical approximation based on the $`ϵ`$classical dynamics (5). Here the term “classical” is not related to the $`\mathrm{}0`$ limit but to the limit $`ϵ0`$ instead, so the term “$`ϵ`$classical” will be used in the following. Note that the effective Planck’s constant $`\tau `$ is not small, and important quantum symmetries are taken into account in the $`ϵ`$-classical description. The efficiency of this approximation is demonstrated in Fig.1(b), where results of exact quantum simulations are compared to results obtained by (5), for an initial incoherent ensemble of particles, each in a momentum eigenstate (a plane wave) and with a Gaussian distribution of the momentum $`p=n_0+\beta `$. For each particle in the ensemble, the map (5) with $`\beta `$ equal to the QM of the particle was used to compute a set of trajectories started at $`I=n_0|ϵ|`$ with homogeneously distributed $`\theta [0,2\pi )`$. The final energies $`ϵ^2I_t^2/2`$ at $`t=30`$ of the individual trajectories were averaged over $`\theta ,\beta ,n_0`$ with the weights imposed by the initial ensemble. The average energy $`E_t=ϵ^2I_t^2/2`$ is plotted vs. $`\tau =2\pi +ϵ`$ in Fig. 1(b), along with results of quantal computations of the ensemble averaged energy.
We shall show that the resonant peaks are determined by $`ϵ`$classical phase space structures. It is convenient to change variables to $`J=\pm I+\pi \mathrm{}+\tau \beta `$, $`\vartheta =\theta +\pi (1\text{sgn}(ϵ))/2`$, thus turning the maps (5) into a single $`ϵ`$-classical Standard Map ($`ϵ`$SM), independent of the value of $`\beta `$:

$$J_{t+1}=J_t+\stackrel{~}{k}\mathrm{sin}(\vartheta _{t+1}),\vartheta _{t+1}=\vartheta _t+J_t.$$
(7)
It will turn out that: (i) The resonant value $`\tau =2\pi \mathrm{}`$ corresponds to integrable $`ϵ`$classical dynamics, and the resonant values of the QM $`\beta `$ correspond to the $`ϵ`$classical resonant values of the action $`J`$; (ii) for small $`|ϵ|`$, the $`ϵ`$classical dynamics is quasi-integrable, and the growth of the quantum energy is dominated by the main $`ϵ`$classical resonant island around $`J=2\pi `$; (iii) at any time $`t`$, the ratio between the energy and its value at $`ϵ=0`$ is a scaling function, notably it is a function of the single variable $`x=t\sqrt{k|ϵ|}`$ and not of the variables $`t,k,ϵ`$ separately.
We assume for simplicity an initially flat distribution of $`p[0,1]`$; then $`I_0=0`$, and $`J_0=\pi \mathrm{}+\tau \beta _0`$ with $`\beta _0`$ uniformly distributed in $`[0,1)`$. Without loss of generality we also consider $`\mathrm{}=1`$. Hence if $`|ϵ|1`$ then $`J_0`$ is uniformly distributed over one period (in action) $`(\pi ,3\pi )`$ of the $`ϵ`$SM. The resonant QM value is $`\beta =1/2`$ . Since $`J_t=\pm I_t+\pi +\tau \beta `$, and $`I_0=0`$, the mean energy of the rotor at time $`t`$ is:

$$E_{t,ϵ}=ϵ^2I_t^2/2=ϵ^2(\delta J_t)^2/2,\delta J_t=J_tJ_0.$$

The exact quantum resonance $`ϵ=0`$ corresponds to the integrable limit of the $`ϵ`$SM, where $`\delta J_t=0`$. However, $`E_{t,ϵ}`$ is scaled by $`ϵ^2`$, so in order to compute it at $`ϵ=0`$ one has to compute $`\delta J_t`$ at first order in $`ϵ`$. This leads to:

$$\delta J_t=|ϵ|k\underset{s=0}{\overset{t1}{}}\mathrm{sin}(\theta _0+J_0s)+r(ϵ,t)$$
(8)
where $`r(ϵ,t)=o(ϵ)`$ as $`ϵ0`$ at fixed $`t`$. The particle energy at time $`t`$ is found from (8) by taking squares, averaging over $`\theta _0`$, $`J_0`$, dividing by $`2|ϵ|^2`$, and finally letting $`ϵ0`$:

$$E_{t,0}=\frac{k^2}{8\pi }_\pi ^{3\pi }𝑑J_0\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2(J_0t/2)}{\mathrm{sin}^2(J_0/2)}=\frac{k^2}{4}t.$$
(9)
The small contribution of the initial QM in the atom’s energy was neglected. Apart from that, (9) is equal to the exact quantum mechanical result . The integral over $`J_0`$ in (9) collects contributions from all the invariant tori $`J_0=`$const. of the $`ϵ`$SM at $`ϵ=0`$, but it is essentially determined by a small interval $`2\pi /t`$ of actions around $`J_0=2\pi `$, the main $`ϵ`$classical resonant torus. As that torus is formed of (period 1) fixed points, its own contribution is quadratic in time, so the linear growth (9) follows. Noting that $`J_0=2\pi `$ corresponds to the resonant QM: $`\beta _0=1/2`$, we see that the $`ϵ`$quasi-classical approximation explains the quantum resonances in terms of classical resonances of the Standard Map . We now estimate $`E_{t,ϵ}`$ for $`|ϵ|>0`$. The $`|ϵ|>0`$ dynamics is maximally distorted with respect to the $`ϵ=0`$ one for $`J_0`$ in the vicinity of $`2n\pi `$, that is, in the very region which is mostly responsible for the linear growth of energy at $`ϵ=0`$. Being formed of period-1 fixed points, the $`J_0=2\pi `$, $`ϵ=0`$ invariant torus breaks at $`|ϵ|>0`$ as described by the Poincaré-Birkhoff theorem , giving rise to the “main resonance” of the $`ϵ`$SM, which is located astride $`J=2\pi `$ with a size $`\delta J_{res}4(k|ϵ|)^{1/2}`$ . The approximation (8) fails quickly therein so its contribution $`E_{t,ϵ}_{res}`$ in the mean energy has to be estimated differently. In the remaining part of the $`ϵ`$classical phase space the motion mostly follows KAM invariant curves, slightly deformed with respect to the $`ϵ=0`$ ones, still with the same rotation angles. The contribution of such invariant curves in the mean energy is therefore roughly similar to that considered in the integral (9). On such grounds, in order to estimate $`E_{t,ϵ}`$ we remove from the integral (9) the contribution of the resonant action interval near $`J_0=2\pi `$, and we replace it by:

$$E_{t,ϵ}\frac{k^2}{4}t\mathrm{\Phi }(t)+E_{t,ϵ}_{res},$$
(10)
where

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(t)=\frac{k^2}{8\pi }_{\delta J_{res}/2}^{\delta J_{res}/2}𝑑J^{}\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2(tJ^{}/2)}{\mathrm{sin}^2(J^{}/2)},$$
(11)
and $`J^{}`$ is the deviation from the resonant value $`2\pi `$. $`E_{t,ϵ}_{res}`$ may be estimated by means of the pendulum approximation . Near the $`ϵ`$SM resonance, the motion is described (in continuous time) by the pendulum Hamiltonian in the coordinates $`J^{},\vartheta `$: $`H_{res}=\frac{1}{2}(J^{})^2+|ϵ|k\mathrm{cos}(\vartheta )`$. A characteristic time scale for the motion in the resonant zone is $`t_{res}=(k|ϵ|)^{1/2}`$, which is the period of the small pendulum oscillations divided by $`2\pi `$. One may altogether remove $`|ϵ|`$ from the Hamilton equations, by scaling momentum and time by factors $`(k|ϵ|)^{1/2}=4/\delta J_{res}`$, $`(k|ϵ|)^{1/2}=1/t_{res}`$ respectively. Therefore,

$$(\delta J_t)^2=(J_t^{}J_0^{})^2k|ϵ|G(t\sqrt{k|ϵ|}),$$
(12)
for an ensemble of orbits started inside the resonant zone, where $`G(.)`$ is a parameter-free function. This function results of averaging over nonlinear pendulum motions with a continuum of different periods, so it saturates to a constant value when the argument is larger than $`1`$. The contribution to the total energy is then obtained on multiplying (12) by $`|ϵ|^2\delta J_{res}/(4\pi )`$, because only a fraction $`\delta J_{res}/(2\pi )`$ of the initial ensemble is trapped in the resonant zone. As a result

$$E_{t,ϵ}_{res}\pi ^1|ϵ|^{1/2}k^{3/2}G(t\sqrt{k|ϵ|}).$$
(13)
When $`\delta J_{res}`$ is small, $`\mathrm{sin}^2(J^{}/2)`$ may be replaced by $`J^2/4`$ in the integrand in (11), leading to

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(t)\frac{k^2}{4}t\mathrm{\Phi }_0(t\sqrt{k|ϵ|}),\mathrm{\Phi }_0(x)\frac{2}{\pi }_0^x𝑑s\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2(s)}{s^2}.$$

Replacing in (10), we obtain:

$`R(t,k,ϵ)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{E_{t,ϵ}}{E_{t,0}}}H(x)1\mathrm{\Phi }_0(x)+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\pi x}}G(x),`$ (14)
$`x`$ $`=t\sqrt{k|ϵ|}=t/t_{res}.`$ (15)
Hence $`R(t,k,ϵ)`$ depends on $`t,k,ϵ`$ only through the scaling variable $`x=t/t_{res}`$. The width in $`ϵ`$ of the resonant peak therefore scales like $`(kt^2)^1`$. The scaling law (14) is demonstrated by numerical data shown in Fig. 2. The function $`H(x)`$ was numerically computed: in particular, $`G(x)`$ was obtained by a standard Runge-Kutta integration of the pendulum dynamics. The scaling function $`H(x)`$ decays proportional to $`x^1`$ at large $`x`$, because so do $`1\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ and $`4G(x)/(\pi x)`$; the latter, owing to the saturation of $`G`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is quite slowly varying at $`x>4`$, the structures observed in that region are due to $`G(x)`$, which describes the resonant island.
Our analysis neglects higher-harmonics resonances of the $`ϵ`$SM, higher order islands, and especially the growth of the stochastic layer surrounding the main resonance . It is therefore valid only if $`k|ϵ|`$ is much smaller than $`1`$, which is roughly the threshold for global chaos. In the case when the smooth initial momentum distribution includes values $`n_00`$ and/or is appreciably non-uniform in QM, the statistical weights of the various phase-space regions are different. Scaling in the single variable $`t/t_{res}`$ still holds, but the scaling functions $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ and $`G`$ may be different.
The map (5) is easily adapted to the model in the presence of decoherence due to random momentum jumps induced by external noise, e.g. the Spontaneous Emissions effects used in experiments . A scaling law is again valid for the resonant peaks, in the two variables $`t/t_{res}`$ and $`t_c/t_{res}`$ where $`t_c`$ is the time scale associated with noise .
To summarize, we have exploited a correspondence between the dynamics of a Kicked Particle near the quantum resonances $`\tau =2\pi \mathrm{}`$ and the classical dynamics of a quasi-integrable system to analyze the structure of the experimentally observable quantum resonant peaks. For these we have derived a scaling law where the scaling variable is the ratio between the observation time and the characteristic time scale of elliptic motion inside the $`ϵ`$ classical island. This law provides significant new information about the shape and the parameter dependence of the peaks.

We acknowledge discussions with A. Buchleitner, M. d’Arcy, S. Gardiner, R. Godun, M. Oberthaler, and G. Summy, and support by the INFM-PA project Weak Chaos: theory and applications, the EU QTRANS RTN1-1999-08400, the US-Israel BSF, the Minerva Center of Nonlinear Physics of Complex Systems, and the fund for Promotion of Research at the Technion.


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# Structures of Order Parameters in Inhomogeneous Phase States of Strongly Correlated Systems

## 1. Introduction

Among the challenging problems of cooperative phenomena in planar systems near Mott transition, there are those which at the first glance may not be associated with the appearance of high-temperature superconducting states in doped antiferromagnetic insulators. For example, we are interested in the origins of qualitatively similar cooperative behavior in various compounds and very rich content of their phase diagram, as well as in origin of the emergence of inhomogeneous states, the typical for such systems . Low-dimensional structures in the distribution of spin  and charge  degrees of freedom exist in the state which precedes the high-temperature superconducting phase. Keeping in mind this property  we should choose such a model for describing the mentioned phases which will contain them as limiting cases. The mean field Ginzburg-Landau theory with the appropriate choice of the order parameters may be used for understanding of such a kind general problems. The key question in this universal approach is the method with the aid of which the order parameters encode simultaneously the content and the distribution of charge and spin degrees of freedom of excitations in various phase states.

The recent progress in solving analogous problems in the non-Abelian field theory  and its development in condensed matter physics  has shown that $`CP^1`$ Ginzburg-Landau model is preferable. The two-component order parameter of this model is used for solving the problems of two-gap superconductivity . In the theory of electro-weak interaction , it has the sense of the Higgs doublet of the standard model. In this paper we will assume that the order parameter is a spinor realizing two-dimensional representation of the braid group which arises due to classifying the quantum states at permutations of particles in (2+1)-dimensional systems. Considering factorization with respect to the centre of this non-Abelian group we obtain the gauged $`CP^1`$ Ginzburg-Landau model. We pay attention that the order parameter of this model is two-dimensional . Only in this case we can introduce the unit vector field which describes the distribution of one-half spin degrees of freedom in the long-wavelength limit as well as use the Hopf invariant for classifying $`𝐧`$-field configurations and consider correctly the phases with different distribution of charge degrees of freedom. Due to the above mentioned reasons we use the generalized $`𝐧`$-field model which after the exact mapping of $`CP^1`$ Ginzburg-Landau model  includes Faddeev term . Because of the non-Abelian gauge theory origin of this significant part of the model we hope that the obtained answers are universal and will give a deeper insight into the discussed problems.

The Hopf invariant describes the degree of linking or knotting of the filamental manifolds where the field of the unit vector $`𝐧`$ is defined. The study of the behavior of the vortex filament tangle is a separate problem and attracts attention due to several reasons. First, at small distances the topological order associated with the linking exists against the background of the disorder caused by arbitrary motion of separate parts of the system of entangled vortex filaments. Thus, unlike point particles, the properties of the tangle are determined by the behavior of its fragments in the ultraviolet and infrared limits. Since the coordinates of the vortex core are canonically conjugated, the mentioned circumstances are presented by noncommutativity of these variables depending on the linking degree. Second, such soft medium as the tangle of linked filaments is the hot problem in condensed matter physics and beyond, in particular, in connection with the DNA problem. After the coupling constants are transformed into the searched functions the appearance of the double helix as the solution of the equations of motion in the soft variant  of the $`𝐧`$-field model is its general property.

In the present paper we consider some properties of field configurations in $`CP^1`$ Ginzburg-Landau model defined in the following paragraph. The main goal of the paper is to find the bounds of free energy in the superconducting state and in the inhomogeneous phase with broken antiferromagnetic order, as well as to describe the properties of the charge density distributions corresponding to this state. Considering the non-superconducting phase in the soft version of the model  we analyse the value of the contribution to the free energy of the charge density distributions in the form of loops and stripes. Along with the results from brief publications  in the third and fourth sections, we discuss the properties of the inhomogeneous superconducting state with nonzero total momentum of pairs and compare it with the LOFF states  and with the results from the recently proposed  BCS-like model with two types of particles. We also pay attention to the dependence of the bounds of phase states on the generalized (2+1)D Hopf invariant in the case of $`S^2\times S^1S^2`$ and $`S^1\times S^1\times S^1S^2`$ mapping classes and on the external magnetic field. In conclusion we discuss some open problems. In appendix there is the proof of the inequality which determines the relation between the contributions to the free energy of $`𝐧`$\- and $`𝐜`$-field configuations.

## 2. $`CP^1`$ Ginzburg-Landau model

We will use Ginzburg-Landau model:

$$F=d^3x\left[\underset{\alpha }{}\frac{1}{2m}\left|\left(\mathrm{}_k+i\frac{2e}{c}A_k\right)\mathrm{\Psi }_\alpha \right|^2+\underset{\alpha }{}\left(b_\alpha |\mathrm{\Psi }_\alpha |^2+\frac{c_\alpha }{2}|\mathrm{\Psi }_\alpha |^4\right)+\frac{𝐁^\mathrm{𝟐}}{8\pi }\right]$$
(1)
with a two-component order parameter,

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_\alpha =\sqrt{2m}\rho \chi _\alpha ,\chi _\alpha =|\chi _\alpha |e^{i\phi _\alpha },$$
(2)
which satisfies the condition of $`|\chi _1|^2+|\chi _2|^2=1`$. This constrain of two components $`\chi _\alpha `$ takes place in the complex projective space $`CP^1`$, for which the considered model is defined. The model (1), (2) with different masses was used before   in the contex of two-gap superconductivity, as well as in the standard model of the non-Abelian field theory . In the present paper we consider the states in planar systems. Thus we suppose that $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ has the sense of the order parameter realizing two-dimensional non-Abelian representations of the braid group used for classifying quantum states at permutations of particles in systems with two spatial dimensions. Realizing Abelian projection , the vector $`A_k`$ compensates the local choice of the phase of the function $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$. The last terms in (1) describe Ginzburg-Landau potential $`V(\mathrm{\Psi }_1,\mathrm{\Psi }_2)`$ and the self-energy of the gauge field. It has been shown recently  that there is an exact mapping of the model (1), (2) into the following version of the $`𝐧`$-field model:

$`F={\displaystyle d^3x\left[\frac{1}{4}\rho ^2\left(_k𝐧\right)^2+\left(_k\rho \right)^2+\frac{1}{16}\rho ^2𝐜^2+\left(F_{ik}H_{ik}\right)^2+V(\rho ,n_3)\right]}.`$ (3)
The free energy in Eq.(3) is defined by the scalar – the density of particles $`\rho ^2`$, the field of the unit vector $`n^a=\overline{\chi }\sigma ^a\chi `$, where $`\overline{\chi }=(\chi _1^{},\chi _2^{})`$, $`\sigma ^a`$ is Pauli matrix, and the field of the momentum $`𝐜=𝐉/\rho ^2=2(𝐣4𝐀)`$. The total current $`𝐉`$ contains paramagnetic part $`𝐣=i[\chi _1\chi _1^{}c.c.+(12)]`$ and diamagnetic term $`4𝐀`$. Equation (3) was obtained with the use of the following notations: $`F_{ik}=_ic_k_kc_i`$, $`H_{ik}=𝐧[_i𝐧\times _i𝐧]`$, and dimensionless units as follows: of the length $`L=(\xi _1+\xi _2)/2`$ with the coherence length $`\xi _\alpha =\mathrm{}/\sqrt{2mb_\alpha }`$, the momentum $`\mathrm{}/L`$ as the unit of the momentum c, the density units $`c^2/(512\pi e^2L^2)`$ of particles per mass unit (at parametrization of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\alpha `$ in the form (2)) and the energy units $`\gamma /L`$ with $`\gamma =\left(c\mathrm{}/e\right)^2/512\pi `$.

In formulation (3) the Ginzburg-Landau functional depends on gauged order parameters $`\rho ^2`$, $`𝐜`$, and $`𝐧`$. They characterize spatial distributions of charge and spin degrees of freedom with current or without it. The functions $`\chi _\alpha `$ determine the orientation of the unit vector $`𝐧`$ which describes (in the long-wavelength limit) the properties of the magnetic order. Besides, functions $`\chi _\alpha `$ define the value of the paramagnetic part of the current. Comparing different forms of presentation of $`CP^1`$ Ginzburg-Landau model we note that vortex field configurations $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\alpha `$ in the model (1), (2) are equivalent to textures of the field $`𝐧`$ in terms of the model (3). We also pay attention to the fact that the ansatz (2) has the sense of factorization of longitudinal $`\rho `$ and transversal $`\chi _\alpha `$ degrees of freedom. In the superconducting state the composition of spin $`𝐣`$ and charge degrees of freedom is important, since the current contains diamagnetic $`U(1)`$ gauge component $`4𝐀`$.

In the soft variant of the extended model of $`𝐧`$-field (3) the multipliers of the first term describe the distributions of spin stiffness and the square of the inverse length of the density screaning. It is seen from this example that the competition of the order parameters $`\rho ,𝐧`$ and $`𝐜`$ may be the origin of the existence of the phase states with different ordering of charge and spin degrees of freedom. We enumerate the limiting cases of the model (3) in inhomogeneous ($`𝐧const`$) situations:
1. A state with a broken antiferromagnetic order: $`𝐜=0`$, $`\rho =const.`$
2. A state with a quasi-one-dimensional density distributions: $`𝐜=0`$, $`\rho const.`$
3. An inhomogeneous superconducting state: $`𝐜0`$, $`\rho =const.`$
4. $`𝐜0`$, $`\rho const.`$
In the case of $`𝐧=const`$ and $`𝐜0`$, $`\rho const`$ functional (1) is equivalent to the one-component Ginzburg-Landau model.

## 3. The bounds of the free energy

1. A phase state with a broken antiferromagnetic order. – Let us consider the first case in the mentioned list. In this limit the free energy equals

$$F=d^3x\left[g_1\left(_k𝐧\right)^2+g_2\left(𝐧\left[_i𝐧\times _k𝐧\right]\right)^2\right].$$
(4)
We supposed that in the considered phase the constant value $`\rho =\rho _0`$ may be found from the minimum of the potential $`V`$ and introduced the notation $`g_i`$ for the coupling constants. The properties of the model (4) were studied in detail in Refs. . The analysis of the dimensionality shows that the first term in Eq. (4) is proportional to the characteristic size $`R_Q`$ of the $`𝐧`$-field configurations, and the second term is inversely proportional to this scale. Therefore, the energy (4) has a minimum which is achieved at $`R_Q=\sqrt{g_2/g_1}`$. This explains why the second term in Faddeev-Niemi model (4) allows to avoid Derrik’s restriction of the existence of three-dimensional static configurations with the finite size. In the infrared limit this term characterizes the mean degree of noncollinearity $`<0|𝐒_1\left[𝐒_2\times 𝐒_3\right]|0>`$ in the orientation of three spins which locate the sites of the quadratic placket.

It was shown in Refs.  that the lower energy bound in the model (4)

$$F32\pi ^2|Q|^{3/4}$$
(5)
is determined by the Hopf invariant

$$Q=\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}d^3x\epsilon _{ikl}a_i_ka_l.$$
(6)
In this equation the vector $`a_i`$ denotes the gauge potentrial which parametrizes the mean degree of the noncollinearity of the orientation of neighboring spins in the following way: $`H_{ik}=𝐧[_i𝐧\times _k𝐧]_ia_k_ka_i`$.

The dependence $`F_{min}|Q|^{3/4}`$ (5) with the boundary conditions $`𝐧(0,0,1)`$ in the space infinity was verified in Refs.  in simulation of the configurations of $`𝐧`$-field. Such a boundary condition means that the space $`^3`$ of the $`𝐧`$-field definition effectively compactizes into a three-dimensional sphere $`𝕊^3`$. Thus the unit vector $`𝐧`$ accomplishes the mapping of $`𝕊^3`$-sphere into the space of the two-dimensional sphere $`𝕊^2`$. Let the vector $`𝐧`$ be directed to some general point of a two-dimensional sphere. We will be interested in the answer to the following question: what is a pullback of this point in the space $`𝕊^3`$? Or in other words, what set of points from the definition field of the vector $`𝐧(x,y,z)`$ contributes to the point of the target two-dimensional sphere? Since the space $`𝕊^3`$ is compact and its dimensionality is greater by unity than that of the sphere $`𝕊^2`$, the pullback of points on the sphere $`𝕊^2`$ are closed and in general linked lines on the sphere $`𝕊^3`$. The Hopf invariant $`Q`$ (6) describes the degree of linking or knotting of these lines. It belongs to a set of integers $``$ to which the considered homotopic group $`\pi _3(𝕊^2)=`$ equals. In particular, for two once-linked circles $`Q=1`$ equals 1, for one of the simplest knots (a trefoil) $`Q`$ equals 6 and etc. As a result, the $`𝐧`$-field configurations are divided into classes corresponding to the values of Hopf invariant. We should emphasize once again that linked or knotted configurations may be numbered by the Hopf index only in the case of the $`CP^1`$ Ginzburg-Landau model with its two-component order parameter, because at $`M>1`$ the homotopic group $`\pi _3(CP^M)=0`$ is trivial .

2. Quasi-one-dimensional density distributions. – Let us consider the states outside the superconducting phase from the second line of the list of limiting cases, to which the $`CP^1`$ Ginzburg-Landau model leads. In this soft version of the model the functional (3) has the form

$$F=d^3x\left[\frac{1}{4}\rho ^2\left(_k𝐧\right)^2+\left(_k\rho \right)^2+H_{ik}^2b\rho ^2+\frac{d}{2}\rho ^4\right].$$
(7)
In Eq.(7) the positive constant $`b`$ correponds to the phase with the broken antiferromagnetic order.

The state with the broken antiferromagnetic order considered above has a lower energy than the "soft" state we are interested in now. The latter may be metastable . In this section, we will consider just such states and compare their contribution to the Ginzburg-Landau energy without studying the problems of their relaxation, the critical sizes of nuclei of different phases and etc., which are of separate interest.

Under the condition that the electron spin and charge are transferred from one of four sites of some plaquettes to the dopant reservoir, the terms with $`H_{ik}`$ in Eq.(1) characterize (in the infrared limit) the mean degree of non-collinearity $`<0|𝐒_1\left[𝐒_2\times 𝐒_3\right]|0>`$ in the orientation of three spins, which remain in the sites of a quadratic lattice plaquettes. Therewith the deficit of the charge density $`\rho _h^2`$ relates to the density $`\rho ^2`$, describing in (1) the distribution of the exchange integral, by the relation $`\rho ^2+\rho _h^2=const`$. From the long-wavelength point of view the distribution of the spin density $`\rho ^2`$ in the limited region with the exponential law of decrease at its boundary (for example, at the distribution in the circle with radius $`r_0`$ with the exponential decrease at the length $`Rr_0`$) will be accompanied by the quasi-one-dimensional distribution of the charge density $`\rho _h^2`$ along the boundary of this region, i.e. along the ring with thickness $`R`$ and radius $`r_0`$. It is seen from here that studying spatial configurations of the density field $`\rho ^2`$ in planar systems makes it possible to find the form of one-dimensional distributions of the electric charge density with the aid of the above-mentioned holographic projection.

It has been known for a long time that in such a phase state the distributions of the charge density $`(_k\rho )^2`$ have the form of stripes222We suppose that the stripe characteristic sizes are essentially greater than the lattice scale. In this case, the use of phenomenological approach of the Ginzburg-Landau mean field theory is justified.. Due to the gradient term $`(_k\rho )^2`$ in (7), quasi-one-dimensional field $`\rho `$ configurations are really preferable. It seems to be almost obvious also that density distribution in the form of rings give the smallest contribution to the energy. Let us find the contribution to the free energy (7) from quasi-one-dimensional density distributions $`\rho ^2`$ in the form of rings and stripes and compare the computation results with the experimental data. We will choose the following trial functions for the field $`\rho `$ configurations in the form of a ring and a stripe:

$$\rho =\rho _0exp\left[(rr_0)^2/2R^2\right]$$
(8)
and

$$\rho =\rho _0exp\left[x^2/2L_x^2\right]\times \{\begin{array}{cc}1,& |y|L_y,\\ exp\left[(|y|L_y)^2/2L_x^2\right],& |y|>L_y.\end{array}$$
(9)
Here $`\rho _0=\sqrt{b/d}`$, $`r_0`$ is the ring radius, $`R`$ is its width, $`2L_y=2\pi r_0`$ is the stripe length, $`L_x=R`$ is its width. Since configurations (8) and (9) do not depend on the third coordinate, we will assume that along it the size is limited by the length $`L_z`$ and also that $`R<r_0`$. The calculation of energy (7) with the aid of (8) and (9) yields the following results for the contribution to the free energy from the ring $`F_r`$ (at $`Rr_0`$) and the stripe $`F_{xy}`$:

$$F_r=\pi \rho _0^2L_z\frac{\overline{r}_0}{R}\left(1+\frac{R^2}{\xi ^2}\right),$$
(10)
$$F_{xy}=\pi \rho _0^2L_z\frac{\overline{r}_0}{R}\left(1+\frac{R^2}{\xi ^2}+\frac{R}{\overline{r}_0}+\left(n_0\frac{3}{4}b\right)\frac{R^3}{\overline{r}_0}\right).$$
(11)
Here $`\overline{r}_0=\sqrt{\pi }r_0`$, $`1/\xi ^2=2\left[n_0(11/\sqrt{8})b\right]`$, $`n_0`$ is a certain characteristic value of the "multiplier" $`(_k𝐧)^2`$ in (2), which is of the order $`c_1R^2`$, whereas $`b=c_2R^2\delta T`$, where $`c_i1`$ and $`\delta T=(T_cT)/T_c`$. In these equations we omitted the term $`H_{ik}^2`$ from Eq.(7) since we consider that it is approximately the same for the both types of distributions. The exact equation for $`F_r`$ (in units $`\pi \rho _0^2L_z`$) contains the term

$$\delta F_r=2\left[I_3(x_0)x_0I_2(x_0)\right]+\frac{bR^2}{2}\left[I_1(x_0\sqrt{2})x_0\sqrt{2}I_0(x_0\sqrt{2})\right]+\frac{R^2}{\lambda ^2}\left[I_1(x_0)x_0I_0(x_0)\right].$$

But it is exponentially small already at $`R/r_01/4`$ and $`R\lambda `$ with $`1/\lambda ^2=2(n_0b)`$: $`\delta F_r10^7`$.

For the optimal width $`R=\xi `$ (at $`Rr_0`$) the difference in free energies $`\mathrm{\Delta }F=F_{xy}F_r`$ in units $`\pi \rho _0^2L_z`$ has the form: $`\mathrm{\Delta }F=1+c_1(3/4)c_2\delta T`$. One can see from this equation that at $`4(1+c_1)/3c_2<1`$ in the temperature range $`\left[14(1+c_1)/3c_2\right]T_c<T<T_c`$ bordering on the critical temperature $`T_c`$ of the transition to the state with the spin pseudo-gap, rings are preferable (see Fig. 1).

In the temperature range $`T<T_c\left[14(1+c_1)/3c_2\right]`$ stripes are the main configurations. As it is known one may approach $`T_c`$ keeping the temperature constant by increasing the level of doping. The recent paper  gave the evidence of the existence of ring-shaped charge structures obtained just under such experimental conditions. In a certain sense, the tunnel microscope in this experiment  collects data from a two-dimensional slice of knots .

Let us make several remarks concerning the spin density $`\rho ^2`$ distribution in the disk, surrounded by a ring charge distribution. The above-mentioned statement concerned the case when spin disorder arose only in the region directly adjacent to the disk edge and, as a result, we had an antiferromagnetic phase inside. If the antiferromagnetic order is broken everywhere in the disk, it is necessary to consider the corresponding distribution of the density $`\rho ^2`$ in the form of a disk in order to compare its contribution with $`F_r`$. When we consider the contribution of the density distributions $`\rho ^2`$ to the free energy in the form of a disk, we get a double gain (in comparison with rings) due to the existence of one edge and have a loss due to the area. The calculation shows that at small $`R/r_0`$ the distributions in the form of rings appear to be more preferable.

Let us consider the dependence of the critical temperature $`T_c`$ on the level of doping. To do this, we present the relation of $`F_r`$ to $`F_{xy}`$ in the following form:

$$\frac{F_r}{F_{xy}}=\frac{1}{1+BR/\overline{r}_0},$$
(12)
where

$$B=\frac{1}{2}\left[1+\frac{1}{2}\frac{n_03/4b}{n_0(11/\sqrt{8})b}\right]=\frac{3}{4}\frac{n_00.68b}{n_00.65b}.$$

One can see that configurations in the form of stripes are more preferable in the range $`0.65<n_0/b<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.68}`$, where $`F_{xy}<F_r`$. Normalizing the density $`\rho _0^2`$ to the particle number $`N`$ by the condition $`N=2\pi r_0\xi L_zm\rho _0^2`$, we get the relation between the parameters $`n_0`$ and $`b`$, which we write in the form of $`x=b/\sqrt{n_00.65b}`$. Here $`x=Nd/(\sqrt{2}m\pi L_zr_0)`$. Thus, for the bounds of the considered above range, where $`n_0b\delta T`$, we have $`T(x)=T_c(1Ax^2)`$ with a certain constant $`A`$. Therefore, inside the region, belonging to the phase state with the broken antiferromagnetic order, there is a narrower region, locating between the parabolas $`T(x)`$, where the charge structures have the form of stripes.

3. The inhomogeneous superconducting state. – We consider a superconducting state with finite value of the total current $`𝐉`$ which exists against the background of a certain $`𝐧`$-field distribution, assuming that $`\rho =\rho _0=const.`$ In this case the free energy equals

$`F=F_n+F_cF_{int}=`$
$`{\displaystyle d^3x\left[\left(\left(_k𝐧\right)^2+H_{ik}^2\right)+\left(\frac{1}{4}𝐜^2+F_{ik}^2\right)2F_{ik}H_{ik}\right]}.`$
The negative sign of the interaction energy $`F_{int}`$ of $`𝐜`$\- and $`𝐧`$-fields appears because of diamagnetism of the considered state. As a result the coupling constant $`g_2=1`$ of the term $`H_{ik}^2`$ decreases due to renormalizing in such a way that energy of the superconducting state $`𝐜0`$ is less than the minimum value in the inequality (5). To find the exact lower bound of the free energy in the superconducting state $`𝐜0`$, we will use the following auxiliary inequality

$$F_n^{5/6}F_c^{1/2}(32\pi ^2)^{4/3}|L|,$$
(14)
where the invariant

$$L=\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}d^3x\epsilon _{ikl}c_i_ka_l$$
(15)
determines the degree of the mutual linking  of the current lines and the lines of the magnetic field $`𝐇=\left[\times 𝐚\right]`$. Like $`Q`$ it is the integral of motion  in the considered barotropic state. The proof of inequality (14)  is given in the appendix of the paper.

Linking indices, which characterize the correlations of spin and charge degrees of freedom, form the following matrix:

$$K_{\alpha \beta }=\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}d^3x\epsilon _{ikl}a_i^\alpha _ka_l^\beta =\left(\begin{array}{cc}Q& L^{}\\ L& Q^{}\end{array}\right).$$
(16)
In this symmetric matrix ($`L=L^{}`$) with $`a_i^1a_i`$ and $`a_i^2c_i`$ the integral might be determined also by the asymptotic linking number . Let us pay attention to a circumstance which will be important below. Being normalized to the charge density, unlike the unit vector $`𝐧`$, the vector of the momentum $`𝐜=𝐉/\rho ^2`$ belongs to the noncompact manifold. Because of this the Hopf numbers, defined with the aid of it in (16) are not integers in general: $`(L,Q^{})`$. In the superconducting state, where Abelian $`U(1)`$ gauge symmetry is broken and the charge is not conserved, the numbers $`L`$ and $`Q^{}`$ play the role of continuous interpolation parameters, which unite the considered compressed and incompressed ($`K_{\alpha \beta }`$) phases. From this point of view, the superconducting states with $`K_{\alpha \beta }`$ and $`K_{\alpha \beta }`$ belong to one and the same class of universality .

To find the lower bound of the functional (13), alongside with Eq.(14) we will use Schwarz-Cauchy-Bunyakovski inequality:

$$F_{int}2F_{ik}_2H_{ik}_22F_c^{1/2}F_n^{1/2}.$$
(17)
Here $`F_{ik}_2\left[d^3xF_{ik}^2\right]^{1/2}`$. We note that the equality in the r.h.s. of Eq.(17) is achieved in the ultraviolet limit, when the size of linked vortex configurations is small enough. Substituting the boundary value $`F_{int}`$ in (13) we get

$$FF_{min}=(F_n^{1/2}F_c^{1/2})^2.$$
(18)
The Hopf configuration with $`Q=1`$, for which the lower limit takes place in Eq.(5), presents two linked rings with radius $`R`$ and $`(F_n)_{min}=2\pi ^2R^3(8/R^2+8/R^4)|_{R=1}=32\pi ^2`$. We will assume that also in our case $`𝐜0`$ there are configurations for which the equality in Eq.(14) is valid. Let us emphasize an important circumstance, which we will discuss more thoroughly in the next section. For small values of $`\rho `$ and, therefore, for great values of the field $`𝐜`$ (since all terms in (13) are of the same order) we encounter the instability of linked configurations with respect to small perturbations. This leads to the restriction of values $`F_c`$ from above. Keeping in mind this remark and using in Eq. (18) for $`F_c`$ of the lower bound $`F_c^{1/2}=(32\pi ^2)^{4/3}F_n^{5/6}|L|`$ from Eq.(14) and $`F_n=32\pi ^2|Q|^{3/4}`$, we get for the states with $`Q0`$, that

$$F32\pi ^2|Q|^{3/4}(1|L|/|Q|)^2.$$
(19)
One can see from Eq.(19) that for all numbers $`L<Q`$ the energy of the ground state is less than in the model (4), for which inequality (5) is valid. The origin of the energy decrease may be understood by comparing the values of different terms in Eq.(13). Even under the conditions of a considerable paramagnetic contribution $`𝐣`$ to the current, the diamagnetic interaction in the superconducting state for all classes of states with $`L<Q`$ reduces in (13) its own energy $`F_c`$ of the current and a part of the energy $`F_n`$ associated with dynamics of $`𝐧`$-field. In the considered state the total momentum of superconducting pairs $`𝐜`$ does not equal zero. In this respect the inhomogeneous state with current is analogous  to the state proposed in Refs. .

## 4. The properties of phase states

The phase state with the broken antiferromagnetic order at $`(_k\rho )^20`$ is a background at which the transition to the inhomogeneous superconducting phase with $`F_{ik}0`$ occurs. It is convenient to discuss the characteristics of this transition at the density $`\rho ^2`$ change beginning from the superconducting state. In this phase the constant value of the charge density, due to the breaking of the gauge invariance $`U(1)`$, plays the role of the tuning parameter of the system.

Let the parameter $`\rho _0`$ change in some range. Since all terms in Eq.(3) are of the same order, as $`\rho _0`$ increases, the momentum $`𝐜`$ and, consequently, the index of the mutual linking $`L`$ decrease. In this case at sufficiently small $`L`$ the smallest superconducting gap decreases with increase of $`Q`$ against the background of a great value of $`32\pi ^2|Q|^{3/4}`$ of the spin pseudo-gap.

When $`\rho _0`$ reduces, the following effect takes place. Being proportional to $`g_1^{1/2}\rho _0^1`$, the radius $``$ of compactification $`^3𝕊^3`$ grows till it exceeds some critical value $`_{cr}`$. At $`>_{cr}`$ the Hopf mapping is not stable  relative to small perturbations of linked vortex field configurations. As a result, the symmetry $`U(2)`$ which is associated with identical Hopf mapping appears to be spontaneously broken. This means that the topological configurations of field $`𝐧`$ and $`𝐜`$, instead of being spread out over the whole space $`𝕊^3`$, localize around a particular point (the base point of the stereographic projection $`^3𝕊^3`$) and collapse to localized structures . We can see that there is an optimal value of $`\rho _0`$ and, consequently, the values of the characteristic momentum $`𝐜`$ and the relation $`|L|/|Q|`$, for which there arises the greatest gain at the transition to the superconducting state.

Till now the vector $`𝐀`$ has characterized the degrees of freedom, associated with the internal charge gauge symmetry $`U(1)`$. If the external electromagnetic field is applied, the vector $`𝐀`$ equals the sum of internal and external gauge potentials. In the external magnetic field, due to diamagnetism of the superconducting state, the momentum $`𝐜`$ decreases. Like in the case of $`\rho _0`$ increasing, this leads to suppressing the superconducting gap. Playing the role of the smooth tuning parameter, the external magnetic field determines the boundary conditions of the problem. As a result, the answer to the question of completeness of Meissner screening depends on the results of the competition of contributions from a paramagnetic (spin) $`𝐣`$ and diamagnetic (charge) $`4𝐀`$ parts of the total current $`𝐉`$.

Similar to energy distribution in the fractional quantum Hall effect with the filling factor $`\nu =p/q`$ and $`p,q`$ the energy gain in Eq.(19) depends on the relation $`|L|/|Q|`$. The Hopf invariant $`Q`$ numbers vacuums  and is equivalent to the degree of degeneracity $`q`$ of the ground state. The index $`L`$ plays the role of the filling degree $`p`$ of incomressible charged fluid state in the fractional quantum Hall effect. From this point of view the multiplier $`(1|L|/|Q|)`$ in Eq.(19) is equivalent to the filling factor $`1\nu `$ for holes. The distinction of our system from the states in fractional quantum Hall effect is that the superconducting state is compressible and here (as it was mentioned) the effective number $`L`$ of charge degrees of freedom is not an integer in the general case. The configurations of fields $`𝐧`$ and $`𝐜=𝐚`$ with the integers $`L=Q`$, satisfying the relation of self-duality $`F_n=F_c`$, correspond to the minimum value of free energy. In this limit $`K_{\alpha \beta }`$ is proportional to the matrix $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 1\\ 1& 1\end{array}\right)`$, which was used in  to describe the topological order in the theory of fractional quantum Hall effect with the filling factor $`1\nu `$ at $`\nu =1/2`$.

The boundary conditions which determine the momentum $`𝐜`$ and the topological invariants $`L,Q`$ depend not only on the values of the tuning parameter $`\rho _0`$ of the model and the external magnetic field. Their physical sense and value depend also on the dimensionality of the manifold for which the model is defined. In the $`(3+0)`$-dimensional case of the free energy (3) the Hopf invariant (6) is analogous to the Chern-Simons action $`(k/4\pi )𝑑td^2x\epsilon _{\mu \nu \lambda }a_\mu _\nu a_\lambda `$. This term in the action of $`(2+1)`$-dimensional systems describes the dependence of the nonlinear modes’ contribution to the free energy on the statistical parameter $`k`$. The coefficient $`k`$ in the Chern-Simons action has the geometrical sense of the braiding number of the excitation world lines. In particular, when semi-fermion excitations (semions) permutate and return to the initial positions on the plane, the world lines braid twice and $`k=2`$. Therewith, the statistical correlations of nonlinear modes have the character of attraction and for the values $`k2`$ their greatest contribution to the energy is of the order of several percents . For the energy scale (0.1 – 1) eV this gives several tens or hundreds of degrees. Taking into account the relation between the dimensionality of the systems at their dynamic and statistical descriptions, we note that the $`(2+1)`$-dimensional case $`k=2`$ with the open ends of excitation world lines is equivalent (after identification of the ends) to the compact statistical $`(3+0)`$-dimensional example of the Hopf linking with $`Q=1`$.

The $`(3+0)`$-dimensional and $`(2+1)`$-dimensional situations differ by the topology of the regions of the field definition $`𝐧`$ . When the system is periodic in one of the space variables and also when calculating the partition function in planar systems, one of three coordinates – Matsubara variable – is a periodic variable. This means that instead of the sphere $`𝕊^3`$, we deal with the topology of a three-dimensional torus $`T^{2\times 1}=S^2\times S^1`$ or $`T^3=S^1\times S^1\times S^1`$ and with the corresponding mapping classes. The content of Hopf invariant in this case appears to be richer . For a three-dimensional torus $`T^3`$ the Hopf invariant is defined modulo $`2q`$, where $`q`$ is the greatest common divisor of the numbers $`\{q_1,q_2,q_3\}`$. Here $`q_i`$ is the degree of mapping $`T^2S^2`$, where $`T^2`$ is the section of $`T^3`$ with the fixed $`i`$-th coordinate. Four integral numbers $`\{q_i,Q\}`$, where $`Q`$ is defined modulo value $`2q`$, give us the complete homotopic classification of mappings $`T^3S^2`$ with $`\pi _1[Map_q(S^2S^2)]=_{2q}`$ and a fixed degree $`q`$ . The geometrical meaning of this modified Hopf invariant (an integer from the range $`\{0,2q1\}`$) is the same. It is a linking index of the preimages of two generic points in $`T^3S^2`$. The cases $`T^{2\times 1}`$ and $`T^3`$ are characterized physically by different boundary conditions. The boundary conditions change if an angular velocity of the rotation of the neutral superfluid phase in $`He^3`$ increases  or an external magnetic field in our charged system grows. Restricting the Hopf invariant change, the transition $`T^{2\times 1}T^3`$ promotes the appearence of the incompressible phase.

## 5. Conclusion

One can see from the given analysis that the gain of the free energy at the transition to the superconducting state with $`𝐜0`$ arises when there is a coherent phase associated with the spin degrees of freedom. This phase is characterised by a pseudo-gap (5) and a topological order associated with linking. If the density $`\rho _0^2`$ is rather great, the momentum $`𝐜`$ is small and the transition to the superconducting state is not preferable. According to our classification, this second state is characterized by changing values of the order parameters $`\rho `$ and $`𝐧`$. The energy loss due to the term $`(_k\rho )^2`$ may be reduced because of the development of one-dimensional structures. Whether these one-dimensional charge structures will be open, forming stripes, or closed almost one-dimensional structures in the form of rings, depends on the parameters of the potential $`V(\rho ,n_3)`$. In the phase $`n_3=const`$ with neutral spin currents the answer will depend on the value and the sign of the multiplier $`b(n_3)`$ in the potential $`V(\rho ,n_3)=b\rho ^2+\frac{d}{2}\rho ^4`$ If $`b>\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$, then far from $`T_c`$ charge structures with open ends are preferable , and in the case $`TT_c`$ we should prefer rings. The first experiments that verified the existence of charge structures in the form of rings in the underdoped phase of planar systems were described in paper .

The superconducting phase occupies on the "temperature-charge density" phase diagram only a part of the region, belonging to the phase with the broken antiferromagnetic order. The bounds of its existence on the phase diagram, associated with the characteristic values of the density $`\rho _0^2`$, are determined at great $`\rho _0`$ by the inequality (14)  and at small $`\rho _0`$ these bounds depend on the critical size of the knot , beginning from which instability of the Hopf mapping arises.

Comparing the results of this paper based on consideration of the local fields with the conclusions following from the BCS-like model  with two species of fermions, we pay attention to the following qualitative coincidence. One can conclude from Eq.(3) that the parameter $`\rho _0`$ determines the value of the coupling constant. Therefore, the appearance of the solutions (different from the standard BCS model) for the superconducting gap in the paper  with the finite value of the coupling constant is analogous to the existence of the threshold for small values of $`\rho _0`$ in this paper.

As distinct from the model , the states considered in the present paper are significantly inhomogeneous. The analysis of the state $`F_{ik}0,\rho const`$ is an open problem at present. Here we mention only that the superconducting current with the amplitude $`𝐜_0`$, flowing round the rings (8), gives the additional term $`𝐜_0^2R^2`$ to the multiplier in Eq.(10). This explains in particular why the superconducting region on the "temperature–the level of doping" phase diagram is shifted to the line $`\delta T(x)=0`$ of the transition to the state with the spin pseudo-gap. Indeed, in this case $`V_{eff}(\rho ,n_3)=b_{eff}\rho ^2+(d/2)\rho ^4`$ with $`b_{eff}=b(n_0+𝐜_0^2)=(const/R^2)\delta T`$. Therefore the finite value of the momentum $`𝐜`$ of superconducting pairs decreases $`\delta T`$. Besides, the contribution to the free energy in the inhomogeneous state due to $`(_k\rho )^20`$ decreases the gain in Eq.(19).

The superconductivity in cluster systems may be evidently studied, basing on the approaches beyond the mean field theory. For example, we may use the exact Richardson solution and Bethe ansatz equation , as well as the methods of the conformal field theory . The exact solution of the ground state problem under the condition of the finite value of the total momentum of pairs at such an approach is one of the important problems. Since the conformal nature of the dimensionality $`3/4`$  in (5) and (14) influences the character of the scale which enters into energy dependent response functions (which is proportional to $`T^{3/4}`$ ), it should also be studied carefully.

We are grateful to A.G. Abanov, S.A. Brazovsky, S. Davis, L.D. Faddeev, S.M. Girvin, V.E. Kravtsov, E.A. Kuznetsov, B. Lake, A.I. Larkin, A.G. Litvak, C. Renner, H. Takagi, V.A. Verbus, G.E. Volovik, Yu Lu, Y.-S. Wu for advices and useful discussions. This paper was supported in part by the Grant of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research No. 01-02-17225.

## Appendix

The proof of the Eq. (14) uses the following chain of inequalities:

$`|L|<𝐜_6𝐇_{6/5}6^{1/6}[\times 𝐜]_2𝐇_{6/5}`$
$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}6}^{1/6}[\times 𝐜]_2𝐇_1^{2/3}𝐇_2^{1/3}`$
$`(32\pi ^2)^{4/3}F_c^{1/2}F_n^{2/3}F_n^{1/6}=(32\pi ^2)^{4/3}F_c^{1/2}F_n^{5/6}.`$
Here $`𝐇_p\left(d^3x|𝐇|^p\right)^{1/p}`$ At the first and third steps we used Hölder inequality: $`𝐟𝐠𝐟_p𝐠_q`$ with $`1/p+1/q=1`$. Under the condition $`𝐜=0`$ we employs at the second step the Ladyzhenskaya inequality  : $`𝐜_66^{1/6}[\times 𝐜]_2`$. The fourth step in the set of inequalities arises after the comparison of the terms $`[\times 𝐜]`$ and $`𝐇`$ with the terms $`F_n`$ and $`F_c`$ in Eq.(13). The last line shows also separate contributions from $`𝐧`$\- and $`𝐜`$-parts of the free energy (13) to the finite result (14). Using a chain of Holder and Ladyzhenskaya inequalities, analogously one may find that:

$$F_n^{1/2}F_c^{5/6}(16\pi ^2)^{4/3}|L^{^{}}|.$$

The coefficient in this inequality differs from (14) due to the coefficient 1/4 (because of the charge $`2e`$ of superconducting pairs) of the first term of the free energy $`F_c`$ in (13).


text:
# Local Interstellar Matter: The Apex Cloud

## 1 Introduction

The interstellar material (ISM) within $``$30 parsecs of the Sun is one of the few regions of the Milky Way Galaxy where there is a reasonable possibility of separating the effects of topology and kinematics, and also identifying the properties of sub-parsec sized cloudlets. Velocities of interstellar absorption lines seen towards nearby stars tag cloudlets, and give advance warning of variations in the solar galactic environment. Interstellar material inside of the solar system was first identified by a weak L$`\alpha `$ interplanetary glow from the resonance fluorescence of solar L$`\alpha `$ emission scattering from interstellar $`\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o}`$ inside of the solar system (e.g. Bertaux & Blamont, 1971; Thomas & Krassa, 1971). The astronomical identification of this cloud was difficult, however, since $`Copernicus`$ satellite observations of the interplanetary Ly$`\alpha `$ glow showed that nearby ISM towards Scorpius and Ophiuchus stars has a different velocity than the interstellar $`\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o}`$ inside of the solar system (Adams & Frisch, 1977). Presently, the best determination of the velocity vector of ISM inside of the solar system (or the Local Interstellar Cloud, LIC) is derived from direct Ulysses observations of interstellar $`\mathrm{He}^\mathrm{o}`$ inside of the solar system, and EUVE observations of the $`\mathrm{He}^\mathrm{o}`$ 584 Å backscattered emission (Witte et al., 2003; Flynn et al., 1998, Table 1). These data give a LIC velocity of –26.3$`\pm `$0.4 km s-1 (all velocities here are heliocentric unless specifically identified as in the local standard of rest, LSR). The heliocentric upstream direction is $`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$=3.4$`\pm `$0.5o, $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$=15.9$`\pm `$0.5o. This corresponds to an LSR velocity vector of –15.8 km s-1 from an upstream direction $`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$=346o, $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$=0.2o. 111For converting the derived heliocentric vectors to the Local Standard of Rest (LSR), the solar apex motion based on $`Hipparcos`$ data is used, corresponding to a velocity $`V`$=13.4 km s-1, towards $`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$=27.7o and $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$=32.4o (Dehnen & Binney, 1998). Other cloudlets besides the LIC are close to the Sun. Interstellar absorption line velocities towards $`\alpha `$ CMa (2.7 pc) and $`\alpha `$ Aql (5 pc) give evidence for about one cloud per 1.5 pc (e.g. Lallement et al., 1995). The Sun moves with respect to the LIC at $``$5 pc per million years, and should enter a new cloud within the next $``$200,000 years. This letter explores which of these cloudlets within 5 pc of the Sun is likely to form the next galactic environment of the Sun.

The first step in understanding the small-scale structure of nearby ISM requires using cloud kinematics to identify individual cloudlets. Optical $`\mathrm{Ca}^+`$ lines show nearby ISM flows past the Sun with an upstream direction indicating an origin associated with the Scorpius-Centaurus Association, and discrete cloudlets are identified in this flow (e.g. Frisch, 1981; Crutcher, 1982; Bzowski, 1988; Frisch & York, 1986; Crawford, 1991; Frisch, 1995; Vallerga et al., 1993; Lallement et al., 1986, LVF86). The $`\mathrm{Ca}^+`$ studies are heavily weighted towards gas in the upstream direction (the galactic hemisphere) since interstellar $`\mathrm{Ca}^+`$ is extremely difficult to observe towards the downstream stars because of low column densities. The velocity difference between upstream interstellar gas and the LIC developed into a paradigm for describing the velocities of nearby ISM in terms of two clouds, the ’G’ Cloud (GC) towards the galactic center hemisphere, and the LIC (Lallement et al., 1990; Lallement & Bertin, 1992, LB92). The GC (with heliocentric velocity –29.4$`\pm `$0.5 km s-1) was derived from observations of a group of stars between $`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$=200o$``$ 60o, $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$=–70o$``$ 40o (Lallement et al., 1990), however many stars in this region do not show components at the GC velocity (Crawford, 2001).

An analysis of $``$100 interstellar $`\mathrm{Ca}^+`$ and ultraviolet absorption components observed towards 60 nearby stars indicates that nearby ISM consists of a group of cloudlets flowing with bulk flow velocity $`V`$(BF)=–28.1$`\pm `$4.6 km s-1, from an upstream direction towards the Scorpius-Ophiuchus Association (Frisch et al., 2002; Frisch, 1995, Paper I, Table 1). In Paper I, we numerically filtered data in the data set used for the analysis in order to minimize the possibility of misidentified circumstellar components. GC components were subsumed in the bulk flow vector, rather then identified as a single distinct cloud. Many of the absorption components were found to be grouped into individual (5–7) kinematical and spatial groups in the rest frame of the bulk flow (reminiscent of the LVF02 cloudlets). One of these groups, identified as the “Aql-Oph” cloud in Paper I and as “Panoromix” in LVF86, is close to the solar apex motion and is here termed the “Apex Cloud” (AC). The AC, seen towards $`\alpha `$ Aql, is close to the Sun and a candidate for the next interstellar cloud to be encountered by the Sun.

The analysis method used here is discussed in Paper I. The data are from Paper I, supplemented by $`\mathrm{Mg}^+`$ velocity data from Redfield & Linsky (2002, RL02), including the addition of data on the stars $`\xi `$ BooA, $`\chi 1`$ Ori, $`\kappa ^1`$ Cet, AU Mic, HZ 43, 101 Tau, and $`\gamma `$ Dra.

## 2 Clouds

### 2.1 Apex Cloud

In Paper I, the AC cloud was identified towards 5 stars, $`\alpha `$ Aql, $`\alpha `$ Oph, $`\zeta `$ Aql, $`\gamma `$ Oph, and $`\lambda `$ Aql, and possibly towards $`\delta `$ Cyg (although the component is cold, $`b`$($`\mathrm{Na}^\mathrm{o}`$)=0.42 km s-1, unlike other nearby components Welty et al., 1994). Since the AC must be within 5 pc, it is reasonable to ask if it is also in front of $`\alpha `$ Cen. This possibility is tested here by rederiving the AC velocity vector, using the original 5 stars sampling the Aql-Oph cloud and the $`\mathrm{Mg}^+`$ line velocity in $`\alpha `$ CenA,B (RL02). The resulting best-fit vector, $`V`$(AC), shows that the $`\alpha `$ CenA,B and the Aql-Oph components have a velocity consistent with a single velocity vector. A component was deemed consistent if $`|`$$`dV_\mathrm{i}`$$`|`$$``$1.3 km s-1, where $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$ is the difference between the observed component velocity (not including uncertainties) and the projected best-fit $`V`$(AC) velocity for star i. In an iterative process, this best-fit velocity vector was then used to search for other consistent velocity components with $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$$``$1.3 km s-1, and then rederived. The final best-fit vector (Table 1) is based on 15 stars in the galactic center hemisphere, including the –35 km s-1 component towards 36 Oph (see below). The fit is robust in the sense that the omission of either 36 Oph or two second quadrant (90o–180o) AC components from the fitted sample yields a best fit AC vector differing by $`<`$0.2 km s-1and $`<`$0.3o from the quoted value. The LSR AC vector corresponds to a velocity –23.3$`\pm `$0.5 km s-1, from the LSR upstream direction $`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$=5.5o, $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$=4.1o. The heliocentric AC vector derived here is close to the value found for the “Panoromix” cloud in LVF86. Table 2 lists the components with $`|`$$`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(AC)$`|`$$``$1.3 km s-1 for stars in the galactic center hemisphere. Fig. 1 shows that stars with $`|`$$`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(AC)$`|<`$1.3 km s-1 at the AC velocity (circles) are found predominantly in or close to the galactic center hemisphere, although AC components in stars close to the shaded band (where $`|`$$`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(AC)–$`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(G)$`|<`$2 km s-1) may also be attributed to the GC (next section). The AC component (–19.6 km s-1) towards $`\alpha `$ Pav (56 pc) is relatively cold, $`T<`$1,500 K with $`b(\mathrm{Ca}^+)=`$0.8 km s-1 (Crawford et al., 1998). Cold components have not been observed in closer stars, and a serendipitous coincidence with the AC velocity can not be ruled out for any particular star, particularly more distant stars. The –35 km s-1 component towards 36 Oph is observed only as a weak broad $`\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o}`$ feature, which Wood et al. (2000) attributed to an astrosphere around 36 Oph. The AC contribution, if present, would be blended with the astrosphere contribution, if real.

### 2.2 “G” Cloud

Although $`\mathrm{Ca}^+`$ data show that components at the GC velocity are intermittent towards stars with adjacent sightlines (Crawford, 2001), and the bulk flow of ISM past the Sun is consistent with a larger object (or shell) fragmented into cloudlets or filaments (Paper I), the assumption is made here that the GC is real. (The alternative assumption is that the GC components are a subset of the bulk flow vector, with a serendipitous coincidence in velocity.) The GC vector is then rederived in the same manner as the AC vector by fitting a best-fit vector through components in the stars $`\alpha `$ CenA,B, 36 Oph, $`\alpha `$ Aql, 70 Oph, and $`\alpha `$ Oph, and then searching for matching components in galactic center hemisphere stars. These matching components were refit for a better vector, yielding an LSR GC velocity of –17.7$`\pm `$0.4 km s-1 from an upstream direction $`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$=351.1o, $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$=+8.5o. The heliocentric GC vector derived here is very close to the LB92 G vector (Table 1). The bulk velocity vector ($`V`$(96), Table 1) of nearby cloudlets flowing past the Sun is also close to the G-cloud vector, since both derivations are based primarily on stars in the upstream direction where higher column densities make ground data more available. Stars showing components at the projected GC velocity (to within $`|`$$`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(GC)$`|<`$1.3 km s-1) are plotted as crosses in Fig. 1.

### 2.3 LIC

For comparison, stars showing showing components at the projected LIC velocity, with $`|`$$`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(LIC)$`|<`$1.3 km s-1, are plotted as crosses in Fig. 2. The LIC is generally well-defined in the downstream hemisphere ($`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$=90o–270o). There is cluster of components at the LIC velocity, but probably unrelated to the LIC, near $`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$$``$40o, $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$=20–70o. The stars showing these components are in the tangential region of the Upper Centaurus-Lupus shell of the Scorpius-Centaurus superbubble, which has expanded to the solar vicinity (Frisch, 1981; Crawford, 1991; de Geus, 1992; Frisch, 1995). The nearest star in the group, HD 131156 ($`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$=23o, $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$=61o), is 7 pc away.

## 3 Discussion

### 3.1 $`\alpha `$ Cen

One test of whether the AC or GC best describes the motion of the nearest upstream ISM constituting the future galactic environment of the Sun depends on the ISM component towards the nearest star $`\alpha `$ Cen. The GC fits the $`\alpha `$ CenAB component velocities best ($`dV`$=–0.1, –0.4 km s-1), although the AC also provides an excellent fit ($`dV`$=0.6, 0.3 km s-1). The apparent absence of a component at the LIC velocity towards $`\alpha `$ Cen has been a longstanding puzzle (Landsman et al., 1984). Hubble Space Telescope observations of $`\mathrm{Mg}^+`$ and $`\mathrm{Fe}^+`$ give a weighted mean interstellar gas velocity of –18.0$`\pm `$0.5 km s-1 towards $`\alpha `$ CenAB, and a range –16.2 to –18.5 km s-1 when maximum reported measurement uncertainties are included (RL02). The projected LIC velocity vector towards $`\alpha `$ CenAB is –16.7 to –17.2 km s-1, and the difference between the projected LIC velocity and the observed velocity ($`dV`$$`<`$1.0 km s-1) is less than the reported (Linsky & Wood, 1996) Doppler $`b`$-value (2.3 km s-1), turbulent line broadening ($``$1.2 km s-1), and nominal 3 km s-1 instrumental resolution. The data are consistent with the LIC filling the $`\alpha `$ Cen sightline, provided a small velocity gradient or discontinuity (e.g. $``$0.5–1 km s-1) is present in the cloud. The original conclusion that the upstream ISM velocity differs from the ISM velocity observed inside of the solar system was based on observations of the weak Ly$`\alpha `$ 1215 A glow from solar radiation fluorescing on interstellar $`\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o}`$ inside of the solar system (Adams & Frisch, 1977; Lallement et al., 1990). However, the radiation pressure required to interpret the interplanetary Ly$`\alpha `$ glow was unknown for these early data, introducing large uncertainties in the analysis of the Ly$`\alpha `$ glow data. The improved $`\mathrm{He}^\mathrm{o}`$ LIC velocity reduced the discrepancy with the $`\alpha `$ Cen data. The small difference between the cloud temperature towards $`\alpha `$ Cen (5,400$`\pm `$500, Linsky & Wood, 1996) and the LIC (6,300$`\pm `$340 K, Witte et al., 2003) is consistent with small temperature gradients predicted by radiative transfer models for the LIC (Slavin & Frisch, 2002). The GC and AC clouds both provide an acceptable fit to the $`\alpha `$ Cen, and the GC is the closest. The LIC also provides an acceptable fit if a small velocity gradient or discontinuity is present in the cloud. The explanation that the observed broadening of the $`\alpha `$ Cen Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption line due to the heating of $`\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o}`$ in the outer heliosheath remains viable (Linsky & Wood, 1996; Gayley et al., 1997).

### 3.2 The Apex Cloud versus G-Cloud as Future Environment of Sun

Since the current observational uncertainties do not allow the identity of the cloud towards $`\alpha `$ Cen AB to be firmly determined, $`\alpha `$ Cen can not be used to determine the next interstellar cloud to be encountered by the solar system. The stars $`\alpha `$ Aql, 36 Oph, 70 Oph, and $`\alpha `$ Oph provide the next set of tests as to whether the AC or GC (if it is real) will form the future solar environment. Fig. 1 shows that the nearest stars in the galactic center hemisphere tend to show components at both the GC and AC velocities, while more distant stars tend to show only the GC. Both the AC and GC are candidates for the next encountered cloud.

Component properties may help select whether the AC or GC is likely to be closer to the Sun. The high GC column density towards $`\alpha `$ Oph compared to $`\alpha `$ Aql suggests that $`\alpha `$ Aql is embedded in the GC, and that the AC is closer to the Sun than the GC. Towards 70 Oph the GC/AC ratio of $`N(\mathrm{Mg}^+)`$ is $``$23 (RL02), while the GC/AC ratios for $`N(\mathrm{Ca}^+)`$ towards $`\alpha `$ Aql and $`\alpha `$ Oph are, respectively, 3 and 10. Thus the GC has significantly larger column densities than the AC. Both $`\mathrm{Mg}^+`$ and $`\mathrm{Ca}^+`$ are enhanced in the gas phase by grain destruction, so the larger GC column densities may signify a large cloud length, grain destruction (Frisch et al., 1999), or high volume densities. However, since $`\alpha `$ Cen and 36 Oph have comparable column densities (to within $``$15%, Linsky & Wood, 1996; Wood et al., 2000), the large cloud length possibility is not viable. The extents of the AC and GC are shown in Fig. 1, indicating both clouds extend to the solar apex direction. Both clouds are patchy, and both clouds have an LSR upstream direction $``$40o away from the solar apex direction (Table 1). Towards 36 Oph the AC component is barely detected, and was attributed originally to an astrosphere around 36 Oph (Wood et al., 2000). Towards $`\alpha `$ Oph, the GC is extremely patchy (Crawford, 2001), which was originally attributed to the patchy $`\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o}`$ 21 emission found at this velocity and in this region (Frisch et al., 1987).

The numerical quality of the fit of the AC and GC vectors to observed component velocities in stars in the galactic hemisphere is tested by plotting those components showing the smallest $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$ values ($``$1.3 km s-1), for each star and each cloud. Fig. 3 shows a plot of the minimum $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(AC) (x-axis) and the minimum $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(GC) (y-axis), for a star i. The $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$ values are determined after comparing $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(AC) and $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(GC) calculated for each component seen towards the star i (for an earlier version of this plot see Frisch, 1997). If either the AC (or GC) vector perfectly described the velocity components in the galactic center hemisphere, the points would be lined up vertically (or horizontally) at 0 km/s. The scatter in $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$ values shows that neither velocity vector matches the data perfectly. Many of the stars showing a GC component are distant (Fig. 1), where a serendipitous coincidence in velocities is more likely. The $`dV`$ standard deviations for the AC and GC components are, respectively, 0.7 km s-1 and 0.5 km s-1, where only components used to derive the velocity vectors are included.

For comparison, the LIC components in the galactic center hemisphere are plotted in Fig. 4, where the y-axis is $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(LIC). The cluster of components at $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(AC)$``$6 km s-1 and $`dV_\mathrm{i}`$(LIC)$``$0 km s-1 represent stars which sample the tangential region of the Upper Centaurus-Lupus superbubble (Fig. 2), and may coincidently have the LIC velocity.

If the AC is the closest upstream cloud to the Sun, then the relative AC-Sun velocity $``$35 km s-1, corresponding to $``$35 parsecs per million years, suggests the AC is likely to replace the LIC as the next interstellar cloud surrounding the solar system sometime within the next $`10^4`$–105 years. The velocities of the AC (–35.0 km s-1) and bulk flow velocity vectors (–28.1 km s-1) differ by $``$25%, but the directions of the AC and bulk flow velocity vectors are within $``$8o of each other. In this case, in the rest frame of the LIC the AC velocity AC is $``$10 km s-1 and is close to the sound velocity (8.3 km s-1) of a perfect gas at the LIC temperature ($``$6,300 K). This coincidence suggests that the kinematical structure of the nearest ISM may be related to sonic turbulence, and that a shock will form where the AC and LIC clouds collide. If the physical properties of the AC are similar to those of the LIC, the solar wind termination shock distance in the nose direction should decrease by $``$25% (from simple equilibration of the solar wind and ISM ram pressures), which is comparable to variations expected from the solar cycle (e.g. Zank, 1999; Tanaka & Washimi, 1999; Scherer & Fahr, 2003). In this case, the consequences for the inner heliosphere should be negligible. It is important to note in this context that $``$98% of the diffuse material in the heliosphere today is ISM, although the inner heliosphere interplanetary medium is solar wind dominated because of the $`R^2`$ solar wind density dependence. If the colder $`\alpha `$ Pav component at the AC velocity is formed in the AC, the boundary conditions of the heliosphere may differ substantially from current values.

If instead the GC is the closest upstream cloud to the Sun, then the strongest observed nearby interstellar $`\mathrm{Ca}^+`$ component, at the GC velocity towards $`\alpha `$ Oph, indicates that dramatic changes are in store for the heliosphere when it enters the GC within the next 103–105 years. The ratio $`N(\mathrm{Ca}^+)`$/$`N(\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o})`$ in the GC would be $`<`$7.1 x 10-9, based on observations of the GC towards $`\alpha `$ Cen (Crawford, 1994; Linsky & Wood, 1996). This gives $`N(\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o})`$$`>`$2.3 x 1019 cm-2 for the GC component towards $`\alpha `$ Oph. This limit is close to $`N(\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o})`$ estimated for this component towards $`\alpha `$ Oph based on 21 cm data ($`N(\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o})`$$``$3.6 x 1019 cm-2 Frisch, 1981). Since the GC $`N(\mathrm{H}^\mathrm{o})`$ towards $`\alpha `$ Cen and 36 Oph are quite close, most of the GC density would be within 1.3 pc of the Sun, implying a GC density of $``$5 cm-3 and future heliosphere shrinkage for possible cloud properties (Zank & Frisch, 1999).

However the interpretation favored by this author, based on the above arguments and bias, is that the cloud order moving outwards from the Sun in the upstream direction consists of the LIC extending to virtually fill the $`\alpha `$ Cen sightline (with the required velocity gradient or discontinuity, which is consistent with the observed turbulence), followed by the AC which may or may not extend to the 36 Oph sightline, and beyond that the higher column density GC. The absence of the LIC towards 36 Oph would indicate a filamentary structure for the LIC. In this case the $`\alpha `$ Pav cold component at the AC velocity would be a serendipitous coincidence in velocities and unrelated to the AC. These derived cloud velocities, however, do not reflect these biases. High-resolution high-signal-to-noise spectroscopy of additional sightlines, particularly in the UV, are required to distinguish the correct interpretation of the data.

This research has been supported by NASA grants NAG5-8163, NAG5-11999, and NAG5-111005.


text:
# Extra S11 and P13 in the Hypercentral Constituent Quark Model

## 1 Introduction

In recent years much attention has been devoted to the description of baryons in terms of three quark degrees of freedom. Starting from the classical Isgur-Karl model , many different CQMs have been developed: the algebraic one , the hypercentral CQM  and the GBE model . In the following will be shown the main features of the hCQM and will be presented some of the results obtained in the calculation of various baryon properties.

## 2 The Model

The internal quark motion is well described by the Jacobi coordinates $`𝝆`$ and $`𝝀`$, or, in an equivalent way, by the hyperspherical coordinates :

$$x=\sqrt{\rho ^2+\lambda ^2}t=\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{\rho }{\lambda }\right)$$
(1)
where $`x`$ is the hyperradius and $`t`$ is the hyperangle. In the hCQM the $`SU(6)`$-invariant part of the potential is assumed to be dependent only on the hyperradius and of the form: $`V(x)=\frac{\tau }{x}+\alpha x.`$
Interaction of the kind linear plus Coulomb-like have been used since time for the meson sector (e.g. the Cornell potential), and has been supported by recent Lattice QCD calculations . The choice of an hypercentral potential (i.e. a potential which depends only on the hyperradius) has two different motivations: $`x`$ is a collective coordinate, therefore an hypercentral potential contains also three body effects, moreover this potential can be read as the hypercentral approximation of a $`2`$ body potential.
The splitting within each multiplet is produced introducing a perturbative $`SU(6)`$-breaking term, which, as a first approximation, can be assumed to be the standard hyperfine term $`H_{hyp}`$.
The three quark Hamiltonian in the hCQM is then:

$$H=\frac{p_\lambda ^2}{2m}+\frac{p_\rho ^2}{2m}\frac{\tau }{x}+\alpha x+H_{hyp},$$
(2)
where $`m`$ is the quark mass (taken equal to $`1/3`$ of the nucleon mass). The strength of the Hyperfine interaction is determined in order to reproduce the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ \- $`N`$ mass difference while the remaining parameters ($`\alpha `$ and $`\tau `$) are fitted to the spectrum, leading to the following values: $`\alpha =1.61\text{fm}^2,\tau =4.59.`$
Keeping these parameters fixed, the resulting wave functions have been used to calculate various physical quantities of interest: the helicity amplitudes , the electromagnetic transition form factors , the elastic nucleon form factors , the ratio between electric and magnetic proton form factors , and some interesting quantities related to the parton distributions .

## 3 Generalized SU(6)-breaking term

The Hamiltonian of eq.(2) give rise to a nice description of the spectrum, nevertheless in order to improve the quality of the reproduction, one can generalize the Hamiltonian operator introducing an isospin dependence in it.
The complete interaction used is :

$$H_{int}=V(x)+H_S+H_I+H_{SI}$$
(3)
where $`V(x)`$ is the $`SU(6)`$-invariant part, $`H_S`$ is a smeared standard hyperfine term, $`H_I`$ is an isospin dependent term and $`H_{SI}`$ is a spin-isospin dependent term. The spectrum obtained with the interaction of eq. (3) is shown, in fig.1. All the 3- and 4-stars resonances, in particular the Roper, are well reproduced.
All the CQMs predict states which don’t have (yet) experimental confirmsations. In particular (see Table 1 and Fig.1) the hCQM predicts 5 missing resonances with energies below $`1900`$ MeV. Recent analysis (see for example  and references quoted therein) show that there are some indications for the presence of a third $`S11`$ and a third $`P13`$ with masses comparable with the predictions of the hCQM.

## 4 The electromagnetic transition form factors

The helicity amplitudes for the e.m. excitation of baryon resonances, $`A_{1/2}`$, $`A_{3/2}`$ and $`S_{1/2}`$ are calculated as the transition matrix element of the transverse and longitudinal part of the e.m. interaction between the nucleon and the resonance states given by this model. A non relativistic current for point quarks has been used.
The longitudinal and transverse transition form factors have been systematically calculated for all the resonances (including the missing ones) predicted by the hCQM. The results for the $`A_{1/2}^p`$ and $`A_{3/2}^p`$ amplitudes for all the negative parity resonances are reported in Ref. . In fig.2 the result for the $`A_{1/2}`$ amplitude for the $`S11(1535)`$ is shown; the prediction agrees quite well with the data except for some discrepancies at small $`Q^2`$. These discepancies could be ascribed to the non-relativistic character of the model, or better to the lack of explicit quark-antiquark configurations which are expected to be important at low $`Q^2`$.

## 5 Relativity and elastic nucleon form factors

It is well understood that in order to obtain a better description of the baryon properties one has to introduce relativity in CQMs. Starting from a CQM one can introduce relativistic effects by: a) using a relativistic kinetic energy operator; b) boosting the baryon wave functions from the initial and final rest frames to a common frame; c) using a relativistic quark current. In the hCQM the potential parameters have been refitted using a relativistic kinetic energy operator, the resulting spectrum is not much different from the non relativistic one. The boosts and a relativistic quark current expanded up to the lowest order in quark momenta has been used both for the elastic form factors and for the helicity amplitudes . While in the latter case the effect of these relativistic corrections is small, for the elastic form factors the relativistic effects are more important, in particular, as we have shown for the first time in , they are responsible for the decreasing $`Q^2`$-behaviour of the ratio between the electric and magnetic proton form factors.
More recently a relativistic quark current with no expansion in the quark momenta and the boosts to the Breit frame have been applied to the calculation of the elastic form factors. The resulting theoretical curves , calculated without free parameters and with pointlike quarks, agree very nicely with the experimetal data except for some discrepancies at low $`Q^2`$. The decrease of the ratio between electric and magnetic proton form factors is stronger than in the previous cases and reaches almost the $`50\%`$ level, not far from the recent TJNAF data .