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# Mean first passage time for nuclear fission and the emission of light particles

(11.04.03)

## Abstract

The concept of a mean first passage time is used to study the time lapse over which a fissioning system may emit light particles. The influence of the ”transient” and ”saddle to scission times” on this emission are critically examined. It is argued that within the limits of Kramers’ picture of fission no enhancement over that given by his rate formula need to be considered.

Decay rate, transient effect, mean first passage time  preprint: APS/123-QED

Introduction — Fission at finite thermal excitation is characterized by the evaporation of light particles and $`\gamma `$’s. Any description of such a process must rely on statistical concepts, both with respect to fission itself as well as with respect to particle emission. For decades it has been customary to describe experiments in terms of particle FN-nat-par  and fission widths, where the former, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{n}`$, is identified through the evaporation rate and the latter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{f}`$ is given by the Bohr-Wheeler formula $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{f}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{BW}}`$ for the fission rate. Often in the literature this is referred to as the ”statistical model”. It was only in the 80’s that discrepancies of this procedure with experimental evidence was encountered: Sizably more neutrons were seen to accompany fission events than given by the ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{n}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{BW}}`$ (for a review see e.g. pauthoe ). A possible enhancement of that ratio is found if the fission width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{BW}}`$ is replaced by the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{K}`$ of Kramers kram . In this seminal paper he pointed to the deficiency of the picture of Bohr and Wheeler in that it discards the influence of couplings of the fission mode to the nucleonic degrees of freedom. Such couplings will in general reduce the flux across the barrier, mainly because of the reduction of the energy in the fission degree of freedom $`Q`$ which may then fall below the barrier. This $`Q`$ is meant to represent the most likely path in a multidimensional landscape of shape degrees of freedom.

In Kramers’ picture this effect is realized through the presence of frictional and fluctuating forces (intimately connected to each other by the fluctuation dissipation theorem). Presently it is understood that Kramers’ ”high viscosity limit” applies (for a microscopic justification see hofrep ; hiry ), in which case the rate formula writes

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{K}=\frac{\mathrm{}\varpi _\mathrm{a}}{2\pi }\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{E_\mathrm{b}}{T}\right)\left(\sqrt{1+\eta _\mathrm{b}^2}\eta _\mathrm{b}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{}}{\tau _\mathrm{K}}.$$
(1)
Here, $`T`$ and $`E_\mathrm{b}`$ stand for temperature and barrier height, $`\varpi _\mathrm{a}`$ for the frequency of the motion around the minimum at $`Q=Q_\mathrm{a}`$ and $`\eta _\mathrm{b}=(\gamma /(2M\varpi ))_\mathrm{b}`$ for the dissipation strength at the barrier (at $`Q=Q_\mathrm{b}`$) with $`\gamma `$ being the friction coefficient and $`M`$ the inertia. For the sake of simplicity we will assume these coefficients not to vary along the fission path; otherwise the formula must be modified hiry . For vanishing dissipation strength (1) reduces to the Bohr-Wheeler formula (simplified to the case that the equilibrium of the nucleons can be parameterized by a temperature).

Commonly, formula (1) is derived (see e.g.scheuho ) in a time dependent picture solving the underlying Fokker-Planck equation for special initial conditions with respect to the time dependence of the distribution function FN-Kram-Smol . Their choice is intimately related to the picture of a compound reaction, in that the decay process is assumed to be independent of how the compound nucleus is produced. The latter in a sense represents a nucleus in a quasi-equilibrium such that the previous, pre-equilibrium stages need not be considered explicitly. This assumption is valid as long as the decay of that system takes longer than the equilibration time. To some large extent such a situation is indeed given at not too high excitations, as then the nucleons may stay inside this nuclear complex for a sufficiently long time. However, the circumstances are less clear with respect to the collective modes, in particular to the fission degree of freedom itself — which for large damping probably is among the slowest ones present. Whereas the corresponding kinetic momentum $`P=M\dot{Q}`$ may safely be assumed to equilibrate sufficiently fast, this may not be so for the coordinate $`Q`$. Thus, assuming the system to be located initially around the supposedly pronounced ”ground state” minimum of the static energy at $`Q=Q_\mathrm{a}`$, the initial width in $`Q`$ may still be at one’s disposal. In its true spirit the compound picture would suggest taking the equilibrium value, determined by the temperature and, in harmonic approximation, by the stiffness of the potential. Often, however, one starts with a sharp distribution of zero width. In any case, the current across the barrier needs some finite time to build up. This apparent delay of fission was interpreted graliwei ; bhagran  as if there was the additional possibility of emitting light particles beyond the measure given by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{n}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{K}>\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{n}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{BW}}`$.

If besides collective motion also particle emission is studied explicitly in a time dependent picture, as done in the Langevin approach pobaridi ; mactheo , such an effect is included automatically. Problems arise, however, if one tries to imitate this delay in statistical codes which are in use for analyzing experimental results. Such codes apply static probabilities derived in time independent reaction theory. It is not obvious how this method may be reconciled with the picture of fission delay, the ”transient effect”. In the present note we like to shed some light on this problem by exploiting the concept of a mean first passage time (MFPT). Before we shall come to that we want to examine a little closer the time dependent case. We will concentrate on over-damped motion, as in this case the MFPT can be evaluated from an analytic formula. Moreover, for slow motion the transient time gets larger, such that the feature we want to discuss becomes even more obvious.

Time dependent current across the barrier — In the time dependent picture just described the boundary conditions in $`Q`$ (and $`P`$ if present) are chosen to make sure that the distribution vanishes at infinity. Calculations of the current $`j(t)`$ across the barrier then typically imply a behavior as exhibited in Fig.1. In all cases the asymptotic value of $`j_\mathrm{b}(t)`$ is seen to follow the law $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{K}\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{K}t/\mathrm{})`$, shown by the fully drawn straight line. The differences at short times are due to the following different initial conditions:

(i) For the dashed and dotted curves the system starts out of equilibrium in $`Q`$; the dashed curve corresponds to the current at the barrier $`j_\mathrm{b}(t)=j(Q_\mathrm{b},t)`$ and the dotted one to that in the scission region $`j_{\mathrm{sc}}(t)=j(Q_{\mathrm{sc}},t)`$, beyond which the fragments separate. The equilibrium is defined by the oscillator potential by which the $`V(Q)`$ around $`Q_\mathrm{a}`$ may be approximated.

(ii) For the fully drawn line the system starts at $`Q_\mathrm{a}`$ sharp. The obvious delay by about $`51010^{21}`$ sec is essentially due to the relaxation of $`Q`$ to the quasi-equilibrium in the well. This feature is demonstrated on the right by the $`t`$-dependence of the width in $`Q`$ (exhibited in terms of fluctuations of the potential energy $`C\mathrm{\Sigma }_{qq}=C(Q^2Q^2)/2`$).

The figure clearly demonstrates remarkable uncertainties in the very concept of the ”transient effect”. First of all it is seen, that the ”transient” time $`\tau _{\mathrm{trans}}`$, defined as the time the current $`j_\mathrm{b}(t)`$ needs to reach its asymptotic behavior, depends strongly on the initial conditions. Moreover, there is considerable arbitrariness in choosing time zero: If the calculation were repeated at some later time $`t_0>\tau _{\mathrm{trans}}`$, the same features would be seen! In the end this is due to the very fact that the whole effect only comes about because in the initial distribution there are favorable parts for which it is easiest to reach the barrier. This is demonstrated in Fig.2. There, those points of the initial equilibrium are sampled which cross the barrier after some given time $`\tau _s`$. On the right a sufficiently large $`\tau _s`$ was chosen such that greater parts of the initial distribution have ”fissioned”. As exhibited on the left, for the much shorter time $`\tau _s\tau _{\mathrm{trans}}`$, only a small fraction of points have succeeded in doing this, namely those which started close to the barrier (for under-damped motion also more favorite initial momenta would play a role, see HoIv-rauisch ; HoIv-MFPT-big ). The vast majority of particles is still waiting to complete the same motion but at later times! This aspect is important, not only for an understanding of the essentials of the concept of the MFPT vankampen ; gardiner-STM ; Risken , but also in respect to the evaporation of neutrons. Indeed, even for $`\tau _\mathrm{K}t\tau _{\mathrm{trans}}`$ there is ample time for them to be emitted from inside the barrier.

The calculations have been performed by simulating the Langevin equations exploiting a locally harmonic approximation similar to that of scheuho ; hofrep  for Kramers’ equation, for the following parameters: $`T=3`$ MeV, $`E_b=8`$ MeV, $`\mathrm{}\varpi _a=1`$ MeV and $`\eta _a=5`$. The potential was constructed from two oscillators, one upright and one upside down, joined with a smooth first derivative.

The mean first passage time — Within a Langevin approach the concept of MFPT may be described as follows. Suppose that at $`t=0`$ particles start at the potential minimum $`Q_\mathrm{a}`$. Because of the fluctuating force there will be trajectories $`i`$ which pass a certain exit point $`Q_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ first at some time $`t_i`$, the first passage time. The mean-FPT $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}(Q_\mathrm{a}Q_{\mathrm{ex}})`$ is defined by the average $`t_i`$ over all possibilities. In order to really obtain the mean first passage time the $`i`$ has to be removed from the ensemble once it has exited the interval at $`Q_{\mathrm{ex}}`$: the ”particle” can be said to be absorbed at $`Q_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ (such that one may speak of an ”absorbing barrier”). As the potential $`V(Q)`$ is assumed to rise to infinity for $`Q\mathrm{}`$, any motion to the far left will bounce back: the region $`Q\mathrm{}`$ acts as a ”reflecting barrier”. A calculation of the MFPT with the Langevin equation is shown in Fig.3 by the dashed double dotted curve and seen to be very close to the result obtained by exploiting special solutions of the Smoluchowski equation, which we want to address now.

Fortunately, the Smoluchowski approach allows one to derive an analytic formula for the $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}`$ vankampen ; gardiner-STM ; Risken . As one knows, the Smoluchowski equation represents that of Kramers for over-damped motion. For its solution $`K(Q,t|Q_\mathrm{a},0)`$ the initial condition for the particles to start at $`Q_\mathrm{a}`$ is given by $`lim_{t0}K(Q,t|Q_\mathrm{a},0)=\delta (QQ_\mathrm{a})`$, which is identical to the one used for the fully drawn line of Fig.1. For constant friction and temperature one gets

$$\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}=\frac{\gamma }{T}_{Q_\mathrm{a}}^{Q_{\mathrm{ex}}}𝑑u\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{V(u)}{T}\right]_{\mathrm{}}^u𝑑v\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{V(v)}{T}\right].$$
(2)
This expression may be derived as follows: The probability of finding at time $`t`$ the particle still inside the interval $`(\mathrm{},Q_{\mathrm{ex}})`$ is given by $`W(Q_\mathrm{a},t)=_{\mathrm{}}^{Q_{\mathrm{ex}}}dQ\times `$ $`K(Q,t|Q_\mathrm{a},0)`$. Hence, the probability for it to leave the region during the time lapse from $`t`$ to $`t+dt`$ is determined by $`dW=(W(Q_\mathrm{a},t)/t)dt`$, such that the average time becomes $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}(Q_\mathrm{a}Q_{\mathrm{ex}})=t𝑑W`$ which turns into

$`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}(Q_\mathrm{a}Q_{\mathrm{ex}})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{Q_{\mathrm{ex}}}}K(Q,t|Q_\mathrm{a},0)𝑑Q𝑑t`$ (3)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑ttj(Q_{\mathrm{ex}},t|Q_\mathrm{a},0).`$
These formulas are associated to the special boundary conditions with respect to the

coordinate mentioned before, the reflecting barrier at $`Q\mathrm{}`$ and an absorbing barrier at $`Q_{\mathrm{ex}}`$. In particular for the latter feature it is not permitted to use in (3) the currents shown in Fig.1. Inserting them blindly would indeed lead to expressions for $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}`$ in which the $`\tau _{\mathrm{trans}}`$ appears FN-app-curr . This is in clear distinction to the correct form (2). Actually, the derivation of (2) involves proper solutions of that equation which is ”adjoint” to the Smoluchowski equation, and which describes motion backward in time. In Fig.3 we show the dependence of $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}(Q_\mathrm{a}Q_{\mathrm{ex}})`$ on $`Q_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ as given by (2) calculated for a cubic potential. Evidently, the MFPT needed to reach the saddle at $`Q_\mathrm{b}`$ is exactly half the asymptotic value. The latter may be identified as the mean fission life time $`\tau _\mathrm{f}\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}(Q_\mathrm{a}Q_{\mathrm{ex}}Q_\mathrm{b})`$. For the typical conditions under which Kramers’ rate formula (1) is valid for overdamped motion, the identity of $`\tau _\mathrm{f}\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ to the asymptotic value of the MFPT can be proven analytically gardiner-STM . Another remarkable feature seen in Fig.3 is the insensitivity of the MFPT to the exit point for small and large $`Q_{\mathrm{ex}}`$. Actually, in clear distinction to the transient time the MFPT is also insensitive to the starting point. This latter property shall be exhibited in a forthcoming paper HoIv-MFPT-big .

As a most interesting feature, the MFPT can be calculated also for cases of small barriers where Kramers’ formula does not apply. We show in Fig.4 results of evaluations of formula (2) for $`E_b=1`$ MeV as well as for a practically vanishing barrier. It is seen that even in the latter case the $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}(Q_\mathrm{a}Q_{\mathrm{ex}})`$ reaches a plateau for sufficiently large $`Q_{\mathrm{ex}}`$. This asymptotic value, however, is no longer determined by $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$. Nevertheless, the $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}`$ seems to be long enough for neutrons to be evaporated before scission. This may be seen as follows. The neutron width typically is of the order of $`1\mathrm{}3`$ MeV (for medium heavy nuclei pobaridi ). According to hiry  the $`\gamma /C`$ roughly increases linearly in $`T`$, being about $`1\mathrm{}`$/MeV at $`T=2`$ MeV and about $`3\mathrm{}`$/MeV at $`T=3`$ MeV. Taking the values of $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}`$ from the right part of Fig.4 and close to the plateau one gets a width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{mfpt}}=\mathrm{}/\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}`$ of the order of $`0.9\mathrm{}2.3`$ MeV, and thus comparable to the neutron width. Fig.4 also shows that a small increase of the barrier by 1 MeV enlarges the $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}`$ drastically. Discussion — It should be evident from the previous discussion that in the very concept of the MFPT there is no room for a transient effect. After all, formula (2) is based on exact solutions of the transport equation which satisfy the same initial condition as those used for the plots in Fig.1 — albeit different boundary conditions in coordinate space. Moreover, as exhibited in Fig.2 the evaluation of the MFPT takes into account an average over all initial points, as is warranted by the definition of the MFPT through the probability distribution $`dW`$. Contrasting this feature, and as outlined in the second section, the transient effect only represents a minor part of the initial population, namely that one which reaches the barrier first. Discarding the rest implies ignoring the many particles which are still moving inside the barrier for times typically much longer than $`\tau _{\mathrm{trans}}`$. Hence, neutrons from deformations corresponding to that region may not only be emitted within $`\tau _{\mathrm{trans}}`$ but within $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}(Q_\mathrm{a}Q_\mathrm{b})`$, which turns out to be just half of the total fission time $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$. Of course, this discussion shows that it is also not correct to argue in favor of ”additional” neutrons which might be emitted within the saddle to scission time $`\tau _{\mathrm{ssc}}`$ introduced in hofnix . As one may guess from Fig.3, like the $`\tau _{\mathrm{trans}}`$, the $`\tau _{\mathrm{ssc}}`$ does not appear to be in accord with the MFPT either: The time the fissioning system stays together is not determined by motion in the immediate neighborhood of the barrier. On average it takes half the full decay time to move beyond the $`Q_\mathrm{b}`$ to the $`Q_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ at which the $`\tau _{\mathrm{mfpt}}`$ reaches its plateau value.

These findings suggest that one simply estimates the emission rate of neutrons over fission from the ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{n}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{K}`$ — provided one may trust the potential to be of the simple form underlying the rate formula (1). Anything else does not seem to be in accord with an appropriate application of Kramers’ or Smoluchowski’s equations. This does not rule out other, complementary effects which originate in more complicated situations. For instance, in case that in the scission region the potential becomes flat again or even develops a minimum the system is forced to stay there longer than given by the $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ of eq.(1) — implying additional time for evaporating neutrons. Likewise it is conceivable that the initial stage of the whole reaction is to be described with a different transport model. Such modifications are already suggested when the average neutron emission time $`\tau _\mathrm{n}`$ becomes comparable to or even smaller than the relaxation time $`\tau _{\mathrm{micro}}`$ for the nucleonic degrees of freedom as a whole. Transport equations are justified only if this $`\tau _{\mathrm{micro}}`$ is the smallest time scale present, in comparison to both neutron emission as well as to collective motion. The $`\tau _{\mathrm{micro}}`$ turns out to be of the order of $`1210^{22}`$ sec, no matter whether it is estimated within linear response theory with collisional damping or within a random matrix approach (see hofrep ). Applying the Weisskopf estimate for the neutron emission time (or modified versions of it) pobaridi  at large temperatures one easily gets values of $`\tau _\mathrm{n}`$ of the order of or smaller than $`\tau _{\mathrm{micro}}`$. This reflects a situation of pre-equilibrium rather than that assumed in the quasi-static picture necessary for the application of Fokker-Planck equations. In conclusion we may say that deviations of experimental results from the standard value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{n}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{K}`$ ought perhaps to be understood as a strong indication of the relevance of these complementary effects, which unfortunately have for the most part been unconsidered. This might require one to re-examine analyzes of experiments which over the past decade or so have followed the conventional line.

The authors benefitted greatly from a collaboration meeting on ”Fission at finite thermal excitations” in April, 2002, sponsored by the ECT\* (’STATE’ contract). One of us (F.A.I.) would like to thank the Physik Department of the TUM for the hospitality extended to him.


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# Massive close binaries

## 1 Introduction

Since the evolution of a star depends critically on whether or not it is a component of an interacting binary, at least for population studies it is essential to know how many stars are binary components. In section 2 I will first discuss direct and indirect evidence that a very significant fraction of all massive stars are binary members. The various physical processes acting in binaries will be summarised in section 3. An extended discussion of massive close binaries and their evolution is given in the monograph The Brightest Binaries (Vanbeveren et. al. 1998a); a summary of the latter is given by Vanbeveren et al. (1998b).

In the following we will use a number of abbreviations which are listed in table 1 below. The primary is defined as the binary component which was originally (on the ZAMS) the most massive one. The secondary is then obviously the other component. During the RLOF/mass transfer phase, it has also become practice to use the term mass loser and mass gainer. The mass ratio q of a binary equals the mass of the secondary divided by the mass of the primary.

## 2 The massive close binary frequency

The binary frequency may not be confused with the number of stars in binaries. Suppose that we have 3 O-type stars, 1 single and the two others in 1 binary. Then the binary frequency is 50% but 2/3 of the O-type stars are binary members. Furthermore, the observed binary frequency is not necessarily the same as the binary frequency at birth (on the ZAMS). Stars which are born as binary components may become single stars during the evolution of the binary (due to the merger process or due to the SN explosion of the original companion, see also section 3). Any observed star sample contains the binaries, the single stars which are born as single and the single stars which became single but which were originally binary members. This means that the observed binary frequency is always a lower limit of the binary frequency at birth.

### 2.1 Direct evidence

The observationally confirmed O-type spectroscopic (thus close) binary frequency in young open clusters has been reviewed by Mermilliod (2001). The rates are as high as 80% (IC 1805 and NGC 6231), and can be as low as 14% (Trumpler 14). The MCB frequency in Tr 16 is at least 50% (Levato et al., 1991) and in the association Sco OB2 it is at least 74% (Verschueren et al., 1996). The results listed above can be considered as strong evidence that the MCB frequency may vary among open clusters and associations.

Mason et al. (1998) investigated the bright Galactic O-type stars and concluded that the observed spectroscopic binary frequency in clusters and associations is between 34% and 61%, among field stars between 20% and 50% and among the O-type runaways between 5% and 26% (a runaway is defined as a star with a peculiar space velocity larger than 30 km/s). However, as argued by the authors, these percentages may underestimate the true MCB frequency due to selection effects. The close systems that are missing in most of the observational samples are systems with periods larger than 40 days and mass ratios smaller than 0.4 which are obviously harder to detect. Mason et al. conclude that it cannot be excluded that we are still missing about half of all the binaries. Accounting for the observed percentages given above, we therefore conclude that the O-type MCB frequency may be very large.

Vanbeveren et al. (1998a, b) investigated the bright B0-B3 stars (stars with a mass between 8 M and 20 M) in the Galaxy and concluded that at least 32% are a primary of an interacting close binary. Again due to observational selection, using similar arguments as for the O-type binaries, the real B0-B3 binary frequency could be at least a factor 2 larger.

Let us remark that the observations discussed above give us a hint about the MCB frequency in the solar neighbourhood. However, whether or not this frequency is universal is a matter of faith.

### 2.2 Indirect evidence

Indirect evidence about the binary frequency comes from PNS studies. Using all we know about single star and binary evolution, we can calculate the number of binaries of some type and compare it with the observed number (see also section 4). It is obvious to realise that predicted numbers depend on the adopted initial binary frequency; it can be concluded that in order to obtain general correspondence with observed numbers, the initial MCB frequency in the simulations must be very large ($`>`$ 50%). Interestingly, De Donder and Vanbeveren (2002, 2003b) compared observed and theoretically predicted SN type Ia rates with PNS of intermediate mass single stars and binaries, and also in this case the adopted initial intermediate mass close binary frequency must be very large in order to obtain correspondence.

### 2.3 Overall Conclusion

The MCB frequency could be very large. This means that

the conclusions resulting from the interpretation of data of populations of stars and/or stellar phenomena where the effects of MCBs are denied, may have an academic value but may be far from reality.

## 3 Massive close binary evolution

The evolution of a binary component depends on its initial mass, its initial chemical composition, its rotation, on the binary period, on the mass of its companion, on the initial deviation from synchronism (the difference between the rotation period and the orbital period) and on the deviation from circularisation (the eccentricity). In the present paper I will discuss general properties of binary evolution which allow to study global effects of binaries on the evolution of large populations/galaxies.

### 3.1 Synchronisation and circularisation

When the orbit is eccentric and/or the rotation period of a binary component differs from the orbital period, in addition to rotational mixing (similar as in rotating single stars) a binary component may be subject to tidal mixing. Since after its formation a star rapidly reaches a state of central mass concentration (including the stellar core), it is easy to understand that tidal mixing will primarily affect the outer layers of a star and may add to rotational mixing in order to bring CNO matter to the surface. However the overall evolution of the star is expected to depend only marginally on the process. Even more, one of the main effects of the RLOF is the removal of all the outer layers, so that it is fair to neglect the effects of tidal mixing in order to study general properties of binary evolution.

### 3.2 The Roche lobe overflow

If a massive star in a binary expands, its may fill its Roche volume at a certain moment and RLOF mass loss/mass transfer will start. The latter will go on as long as the star keeps its tendency to expand.

We distinguish three major expansion phases (see also the contribution of A. Maeder in the present volume): during CHB where the evolutionary timescale is the nuclear timescale, during HSB and during HeSB where the star evolves on the corresponding thermal timescale. When the MCB period is of the order of a few days, the primary will reach its critical Roche lobe while it is still in its CHB phase: using the terminology of Kippenhahn and Weigert (1967) and of Lautherborn (1969) this binary will be classified as case A. When the binary has a period between a few days and a few hundred to thousand days, the primary will fill its Roche lobe while it is a HSB star $`=>`$ case B. When the period is larger than 1000 days (up to a few 1000 days), the primary will start its RLOF while it is a HeSB star $`=>`$ case C. Case B binaries can be further subdivided. During the first part of HSB a massive star has a (mainly) radiative envelope. In a case Br binary the primary reaches its Roche lobe during this first part. When the binary period is larger, the primary may reach the RSG phase and most of the outer layers may become convective before the onset of the RLOF. A case B binary where this can happen is classified as case Bc.

#### 3.2.1 Case A/Br

case A: after an initial rapid but short mass loss phase (10-4 M/yr are typical mass loss rates), the mass loser continues losing mass due to RLOF on the nuclear timescale (10-6 M/yr are typical mass loss rates). At the end of CHB, the mass loser contracts and the RLOF phase stops. However, the star still contains a considerable part of its original hydrogen rich layers and this means that during the subsequent HSB phase, the star will expand again and a case Br type of RLOF will start, i.e. a case A is almost always followed by a case Br.

case Br: the RLOF typically lasts 104-105 yrs and the star may lose mass at a rate $``$ 10-3 M/yr. The expansion of the star stops when most of the hydrogen rich layers are removed and when He starts burning in the core. The final remnant mass equals the mass of the CHB core when the central hydrgen abundance $``$ 0.2-0.3. During most of the ensuing CHeB, the star is a hydrogen deficient star which resembles a WR star, and stays well inside its Roche lobe. After CHeB, during HeSB, the star may expand again and a second RLOF phase starts. The current name of this phase is case BB RLOF (section 3.2.3).

During a case Br RLOF phase, the mass transfer rates can be very large and the mass gainer may expand significantly (see subsection 3.3). Using the most up to date opacity tables (Iglesias and Rogers, 1996), it follows that almost all massive case Br binaries will evolve into contact (both components fill a common equipotential surface). Depending on the initial binary parameters, a situation can occur where matter lost by the loser escapes the binary. This is always accompanied by a very large orbital angular momentum loss (Soberman et al., 1997) implying a significant reduction of the orbital separation.

#### 3.2.2 Case Bc/C: the common envelope evolution

Mass loss due to RLOF in a case Bc or case C binary happens on the dynamical timescale. The gainer is unable to accrete the mass lost by the loser at the same rate and soon after the onset of the RLOF a CE is formed. The physics of CE evolution has been reviewed by Iben and Livio (1993). Among the updates later on we like to promote the study of Rasio & Livio (1996) who used the smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH, Monaghan, 1992; Rasio & Shapiro, 1991, 1992) in order to study the CE phase of low and intermediate mass binaries where the masses of the two stars are very different. The CE evolution of a binary where both stars have very similar masses and/or both stars are massive has not yet been studied in detail but based on qualitative arguments and the computations listed above, a very plausible model is the following:

viscous drag dissipates orbital energy into the CE; part of it is radiated away, part is used to expel the CE; one of the main effects is a large reduction of the binary separation and the possible merging of the two stars.

Detailed numerical simulations reveal that this CE/SpI is very rapid. Therefore, if one is mainly interested in the post-CE remnant rather than in the details of the process itself, one may use the energy prescription as proposed by Webbink (1984). Depending on what happens with this common envelope, the mass loss of the loser stops when most of the hydrogen rich layers are removed (remnant mass similar as in case Br) or when the two components merge. When merging is avoided, also case Bc may be followed by case BB.

#### 3.2.3  Case BB

The RLOF in a binary stops when helium starts burning in the core of the mass loser and when most of the hydrogen rich layers have been removed: the mass loser has become a hydrogen deficient CHeB star. When the post-RLOF mass is smaller than 5 M (corresponding with an initial mass on the ZAMS smaller than 15 M) the further evolution deserves some attention. Habets (1986a,b) computed the evolution of helium stars with 2 $``$ M/ M $``$ 4 up to neon ignition and concluded that those with 2 $``$ M/ M $``$ 2.9 develop deep convective envelopes during the HeSB phase, after CHeB, and expand significantly. Depending on the binary period, these stars may fill their Roche lobe again and perform case BB RLOF. During this phase of mass transfer the star loses its remaining hydrogen layers and most of its helium layers on top of the He burning shell. As has been outlined in Vanbeveren et al. (1998a), one of the most important effects of case BB RLOF in relation to population synthesis is the orbital period evolution of the binary. When the companion is a normal mass gainer, case BB RLOF results into a very large period increase. When the companion is a compact star, case BB RLOF is governed by the SpI process (subsection 3.4) which may result in a significant hardening of the binary. The latter has a large effect on the probability for the binary to remain bound after the second SN explosion, and thus on the birth rate of double compact star systems (subsection 4.4).

However, massive post-RLOF CHeB stars may lose mass by stellar wind. Vanbeveren et al. (1998a,b) argued that when the stellar wind mass loss rate formalism of WR stars (which have a mass larger than 5 M) is extrapolated downwards, it cannot be excluded that this mass loss is sufficiently large in order to suppress case BB RLOF in massive binaries. With this SW scenario the orbital period hardly varies. As far as PNS of double compact star binaries is concerned, this is probably the most important difference compared to the case BB RLOF scenario. Notice that when the WR mass loss rates scale with the iron abundance according to Equation 1 (subsection 3.8), case BB RLOF will not be suppressed in low Z environments.

### 3.3  The evolution of the mass gainer

The evolution of the mass loser in a binary is reasonably well known. The evolution of the mass gainer however is very uncertain. The real situation is the following: a gasstream leaving the loser through the first Lagrangian point is attracted by the gainer. Depending on the binary separation, this gasstream either hits the gainer directly or it first forms a Keplerian disc around the gainer. Accretion of matter is accompanied by the accretion of angular momentum and the outer layers of the star may spin up. How this spin up process is further transported inward is unknown, however, when a Keplerian disc can be formed, it is easy to demonstrate that there is enough angular momentum available in the disc in order to spin up the whole star up to a rotational velocity which is close to the critical value. To compute the real consequences of mass accretion during RLOF would require the solution of the full magneto-hydrodynamic equations of the gasstream and a theory in order to simulate the reaction of a star when this gasstream hits its surface: approximations are necessary. The following scenario s can be considered as limiting cases.

Scenario 1 (Neo et al., 1977): accretion is treated in a spherically symmetric way; the matter has a specific entropy which is larger than or equal to the one of the outer layers and spin-up is neglected. The chemical composition of the gasstream and of the outer layers of the gainer may be different and this may initiate thermohaline mixing (Kippenhahn et al., 1980).

Scenario 2 (Vanbeveren and De Loore, 1994): accretion of mass implies accretion of angular momentum and large rotation may induce efficient mixing. The limiting situation is of course a complete mixing of the whole star.

Detailed calculations allow to propose the following conclusions.

* If, during mass transfer, scenario 1 applies, the mass gainers in all case B MCBs expand and most (all) of them reach their own Roche limit during the RLOF phase of the loser, i.e. the components in the majority (all) of the case B MCBs evolve into contact.
* If, during mass transfer, scenario 2 applies, a large expansion and contact can be avoided.
* Mass gainers will be observed as nitrogen enriched stars (classified as OBN); this nitrogen enrichment is more pronounced when scenario 2 applies.
* Mass gainers may show up as rejuvenated stars, i.e. they will look younger than their accompanying mass loser. In a starburst, they will be observed as blue stragglers.
* When scenario 1 applies and the binary has an initial mass ratio close to one, depending on the treatment of convection inside a massive star, the mass gainer may remain in the blue part of the HR diagram during its remaining life and an excursion towards the red (which is typical for normal massive single stars) will not happen; the latter scenario may explain the blue nature of the progenitor of SN 1987A (De Loore & Vanbeveren, 1992; Braun & Langer, 1995).

### 3.4 The spiral-in phase

Binaries where the mass ratio $``$ 0.1 meet the Darwin instability (Sparks & Stecher, 1974). Instead of a classical RLOF, the low mass star is engulfed by the higher mass component.

The evolutionary computations of case Br MCBs indicate that although a mass loser shrinks in response to mass loss, it may not be able to shrink fast enough to keep up with the rapid shrinkage of the Roche lobe when initially the binary has a mass ratio 0.1 $`<`$ q $``$ 0.2. Also in this case, the low mass component will be dragged into the envelope of its higher mass companion.

It is therefore conceivable that in most of the binaries with initial q $``$ 0.2, the low mass star will be engulfed by its higher mass companion. The further evolution will then be governed by viscous forces and the low mass star will spiral-in. SpI will stop when the two stars merge or when there is sufficient orbital energy available in order to expel the hydrogen rich layers of the massive star. If one is mainly interested in the remnant after SpI, a formalism can be used similar as the CE formalism (section 3.2.2).

### 3.5 Mergers

The SpI in binaries with q $``$ 0.2, a non-conservative RLOF during contact or the CE in case Bc/C binaries may lead to the coalescence of both stars: the stars merge. Mergers may be very important in overall PNS but the physics of merging and how mergers evolve afterwards are very uncertain. SPH (Monaghan, 1992; Rasio & Shapiro, 1991, 1992) may be very useful to study them, especially SPH in combination with stellar evolutionary codes. However, a systematic study has not been done yet.

When both stars are non-degenerate, merging could be considered as an extreme case of mass and angular momentum accretion and therefore the evolution of mergers will most probably be influenced by rotational diffusion. Similarly as with accretion of mass during the RLOF, a possible outcome of merging may be a star that is or will be mixed and will be composed of material from two stars which have altered CNO abundance s or, more spectacular, which may contain the products of the 3$`\alpha `$ process. In the latter case, the resulting star may be carbon enhanced and could be classified as OBC.

When the low mass companion is a degenerate star, merging means that spiral-in continues until the compact star reaches the centre of the star: a TZO is formed (Thorne & Zytkow, 1977). Evolutionary calculations of Cannon et al. (1992) reveal that a TZO resembles a RSG. The further evolution is governed by SW mass loss; when all the mass is lost the compact star emerges again.

A special merging process happens in binaries which consists of two NSs or of a BH and a NS. Two compact stars spiral together as a consequence of gravitational wave radiation. A formalism to calculate typical decay timescales as function of the initial orbital parameters of the double compact star system has been worked out by Peters (1964). Gamma-ray bursts may be related to the merging of both stars and they may be an important production site of r-process elements (see section 5).

### 3.6 The effect of the SN explosion on a binary

It has become clear the last decade that the SN explosion of a massive star is not spherically symmetric. The importance for binary evolution (binary remains bound or is disrupted) is obvious if one accounts for the fact that only a small asymmetry is sufficient in order to impart a very large kick velocity to the compact remnant. The effects of an asymmetric SN explosion on binary orbital parameters has been worked out in detail by Tauris and Takens (1998). Relating the observed space velocities of single pulsars (Lorimer et al., 1997) to the kick velocity, detailed simulations reveal that in most of the cases a massive binary is disrupted as a consequence of the SN explosion of one of its components.

A double NS system has survived two SN explosion. This means that although the number of observed double NS systems is small, the fact that there are a few means that the progenitor binary frequency must be large (this is sustained by detailed PNS calculations).

An important effect of the SN explosion of a star in a binary is the $`\alpha `$-element pollution of the outer layers of the companion. The $`\alpha `$-elements in the atmosphere of the optical companion star of the LMXB GRO J1655-40 (Nova Sco 1994) observed by Israelian et al. (1998) strongly support the scenario where the BH formation was preceded by some SN-like mass ejection. The latter is sustained by the fact that some of the LMXB-BH candidates and the HMXB Cyg X-1 have large space velocities which may be an indication that SN-like mass ejection occurred prior to BH formation (Brandt et al., 1995; Fryer and Kalogera, 2001).

Notice that the pollution due SN explosion in a binary may also explain the existence of OBC stars: the layers which are expelled during the SN of a massive star may contain a lot of carbon (and oxygen). Part of these layers hit the companion and simulations reveal that the latter becomes significantly overabundant in carbon (possibly also in oxygen), i.e. an OBC star forms.

### 3.7 Deviations from the previous evolutionary picture

Deviations from the general RLOF picture summarised above are due to the effects of violent SW mass loss phases. Based on the observations of LBVs one may suspect that stars with initial mass $``$ 40 M experience an LBV phase at the end of CHB and/or HSB, during which very high SW mass-loss takes place (Humphreys & Davidson 1994). The lack of RSGs with initial mass $``$ 40 M (corresponding roughly to stars with Mbol $``$ -9.5, Humphreys & McElroy 1984) may be attributed to the LBV phase so that a working hypothesis for stellar evolutionary calculations may be the following:

the mass loss rate during the LBV + RSG phase of a star with initial mass $`>`$ 40 M must be sufficiently large to assure a RSG phase which is short enough to explain the lack of observed RSGs with Mbol $``$ -9.5.

Obviously, binary components with an initial mass $``$ 40 M will obey this criteria as well and this means that

when a primary with initial mass $``$ 40 M starts its LBV phase before the RLOF (case B and case C systems), the evolution is governed by the LBV stellar wind, and the RLOF (and thus mass-transfer) is suppressed.

The data of Humphreys & McElroy (1984) illustrate that also the Magellanic Clouds are deficient in RSGs with Mbol $``$ -9.5 so that the LBV scenario may apply in low metallicity regions as well. Notice that the LBV scenario was introduced more than a decade ago (Vanbeveren, 1991).

This LBV scenario is particularly important for the evolution of binaries with extreme mass ratio (e.g., a 50 M \+ 2 M). If the LBV scenario would not apply, SpI would happen and merging would be inevitable, i.e. it would become very difficult in order to explain the existence of binaries with a massive BH and a low mass companion. However, the LBV wind reduces the importance of SpI and the binary may survive and become a massive BH + 2 M binary.

Stars with an initial mass $``$ 30 M reach the RSG phase and will be subjected to a strong low velocity wind. When such a star is a component of a case Bc or case C system, it is clear that the CE evolution will be influenced by this SW mass loss; the CE phase may even be avoided (the RSG scenario of MCBs, Vanbeveren, 1996).

### 3.8 The formation of high mass BH

Explaining the existence of massive BHs (masses $`>`$ 10 M) is inseparable from a discussion about the SW mass loss during CHeB (the WR phase). Using a hydrodynamic atmosphere code in which the stellar wind is assumed to be homogeneous, Hamann et al. (1995) determined $`\dot{M}`$-values for a large number of WR stars. Since then evidence has grown that these winds consist of clumps and that a homogeneous model overestimates $`\dot{M}`$ , typically by a factor 2-4 (Hillier 1996, Moffat 1996, Schmutz 1996, Hamann & Koesterke, 1998). Our preferred WR $`\dot{M}`$-formalism that we use already since 1998, has been discussed in detail in Vanbeveren et al. (1998a, b, c) (see also Van Bever & Vanbeveren, 2003) and is the following,

$$Log(\dot{M})=LogL10+0.5Log(X_{Fe}/X_{Fe,solar})$$
(1)
with XFe the iron abundance. Assuming that the WR SW is radiation driven, we expect that the heavy elements (primarily iron) are the important wind drivers and thus that $`\dot{M}`$ mainly depends on the iron abundance. In Figure 1 we show the resulting pre-SN masses of evolutionary sequences performed with Equation 1. It follows that Galactic stars with initial mass between 40 M and 100 M end their life with a mass between 10 M and 20 M corresponding to carbon-oxygen (CO) cores masses between 5 M and 15 M. Figure 1 also shows the final masses of massive stars in the SMC (Z = 0.1$`Z_{}`$), assuming that the WR mass-loss rate scales proportional to $`\sqrt{X_{Fe}}`$ .

### 3.9 Rotation, rotational mixing and MCB evolution

The present volume includes a pleading where the author defends the thesis that rotation and rotational mixing are essential ingredients in order to understand massive star evolution. Let me try to discuss the thesis in function of binaries.

It is clear that to explain the properties of individual stars (e.g., the CNO surface abundance s are probably the most important ones), the effects of rotation may be very important. But what about global (average) evolutionary properties? Compared to non-rotating stellar models, models with rotation have larger convective cores during CHB. Since the remnant mass after the RLOF/CE phase equals the hydogen deficient CHB core (section 3.2), we can conclude that the larger the rotation the larger the remnant masses after RLOF. As far as the evolution of primaries in MCBs is concerned, this is the major effect of rotation (remember that during the RLOF and/or CE phase most of the hydrogen rich layers leave the loser, layers which may have been affected by rotational diffusion, but who cares in this case). On average, the effect of rotation on the convective core during CHB is similar to the effect of moderate convective core overshooting (Vanbeveren, 2001; see also A. Maeder in these proceedings). Since most of the published evolutionary calculations of MCBs (and also of intermediate mass close binaries) the last decade account for a moderate amount of convective core overshooting, it can be stated that

On average, MCB evolution the last decade already accounted for the effects of rotation avant la lettre, at least as far as the evolution of the loser is concerned.

After the RLOF, the CHeB phase of the remnant is too short for rotational diffusion to play an important role. Notice that it can be expected that (again on average) the effect of rotation on SW mass loss during CHeB cannot be very large. The reason is that in most of the stellar evolutionary codes, semi-empirical SW mass loss rate formalisms are used, and the effect of rotation on these empirical rates is rather small (Petrenz and Puls, 1996, 2000).

Notice that rotation and rotational mixing may be very important for the post-RLOF evolution of the mass gainers in case A/Br binaries and for mergers (subsections 3.3 and 3.5).

### 3.10 The overall MCB evolutionary scenario

Figures 2-5 summarise the overall MCB evolutionary scenario using the abbreviations listed in the introduction and the processes described above.

## 4 Massive star population number synthesis with binaries

A PNS code with single stars and interacting binaries has to account for:

* the evolution of single stars
* the evolution of case A, case Br, case Bc and case C binaries with a mass ratio q $`>`$ 0.2
* the evolution of binaries with a small mass ratio (q $``$ 0.2)
* the evolution of mergers for which we make a distinction between the merging of two normal stars, a normal star and a compact star and of two compact stars.
* the effects of one or two (asymmetric) SN explosions on the binary parameters
* a detailed treatment of the evolution of the binary periods, which depends critically on the physics of the processes summarised in section 3.

A PNS code uses distribution functions to initialise the stellar parameters (initial mass function, period and mass ratio distributions) and to model the asymmetry of a SN explosion.

The Brussels code relies on a large set of stellar evolutionary computations of intermediate mass and massive single stars and binary components of which the evolution is followed up to the end of their CHeB phase, with a moderate amount of convective core overshooting, using the opacity tables of Iglesias & Rogers (1996) and for the metallicity range 0.001 $``$ Z $``$ 0.02. The evolutionary tracks of massive stars are computed with the most recent SW $`\dot{M}`$-formalisms.

With this PNS skeleton, we studied populations of various stellar types, in regions of continuous star formation. In particular, we considered the population of Be-type stars (Van Bever & Vanbeveren, 1997), the WR and O-type stars (De Donder et al., 1997; Vanbeveren et al., 1998a, b, c), the double compact star binaries (De Donder & Vanbeveren, 1998, 2003c), the supernova rates (De Donder & Vanbeveren, 1998, 2003b). We also adapted our PNS code so that it can follow the stellar populations of starbursts. In particular, we studied the Be-type stars (Van Bever & Vanbeveren, 1997), the O and WR population and their effect on the spectral characteristics of starbursts (Van Bever et al., 1999; Van Bever & Vanbeveren, 1998; Van Bever & Vanbeveren, 2003; Belkus et al., 2003), the X-radiation produced by X-ray binaries and the population of young supernova remnants (Van Bever & Vanbeveren, 2000). Of course, there are many groups who studied these topics as well. Many references are given in the papers listed above. Below, we list a few conclusions.

### 4.1 The Be stars

* PNS predicts that less than 50% of the observed Be stars are mass gainers in evolved binaries; the Be components in Be X-ray binaries obviously belong to this class. Most probably there are many Be stars which are currently observed as single but have a companion like in $`\varphi `$ Per.
* Be stars have initial masses $``$ 20 M and are found all along the main sequence.
* The number of B-type star with rotational velocities which are as large as those of Be type stars outnumber the number of Be type stars; this means that rotation is necessary for the Be phenomenon but it is not sufficient.
* Significant by their absence is the complete lack of Be + B or Be + Be binaries. Could this be an indication that rotation in binaries is less important than in single stars?
* When considering the fraction of Be stars among the corresponding B-type stars, why is there such a large difference between the Galaxy and the SMC? The Geneva group argued that the effect of metallicity on SW mass loss and the effect of SW on rotation during CHB could explain this difference. I do not think that this is correct. Be stars originate from stars with initial mass $``$ 20 M where the SW is small independent from Z. As a matter of fact, this is sustained by evolutionary calculations with rotation of the Geneva group itself, i.e. the rotational velocities in stars with initial mass $`<`$ 20 M are similar in the Galaxy and in the LMC/SMC.
* PNS predicts that a significant fraction of all the Be single stars could be mergers resulting from binaries with an initial mass ratio $``$ 0.2; this may explain why Be stars are found all along the CHB main sequence.

### 4.2 The O-type stars, the WR stars and the HMXBs

* A significant fraction of the progenitors of WR single stars were binary components.
* Very few WR stars are expected to have a cc.
* The variation as function of metallicity Z of the WC/WN number ratio is indirect evidence that the WR mass loss rates are Z-dependent.
* At least 50% of the OB-type runaways are formed through the binary SN scenario; since the SN explosion of a binary component disrupts the binary in most of the cases, only few O-type runaways are expected to hace a cc, corresponding to observations. The low binary frequency (normal OB-type companion) among O-type runaways (subsection 2.1) is consistent with the fact that many runaways are formed through the SN scenario.
* The temporal evolution of the O-type star and WR star population in starbursts is critically dependent on the binary population.
* It is very hard to explain the X-ray data of starbursts without considering the influence of a significant population of interacting MCBs.

### 4.3 The SN rates

* The predicted SN number ratio Ibc/II depends strongly on the adopted MCB frequency. To explain the cosmic ratio, an average cosmic MCB frequency arround 50% seems to be required
* By comparing the observed and predicted SN number ratio Ibc/II, we conclude that the MCB frequency in late type spirals may be a factor 2 smaller than in early type spirals.

### 4.4 The population of double compact star binaries

* The theoretically predicted population of double compact star binaries depends critically on whether case BB RLOF happens or not in MCBs where the mass loser has a pre-RLOF mass $``$ 15 M (subsection 3.2.3).
* The binary evolutionary parameters which affect most the predicted properties of the population of double compact star binaries, are the average kick velocity which describes the asymmetry of the SN explosion and the energy efficiency parameter during the CE/SpI process of the OB + NS/BH binaries.
* Our simulations predict a Galactic NS + NS formation rate between (10-6 and 10-4)/yr.
* Most of the double NS binaries have a very large eccentricity at the moment of their formation; notice that in order to calculate the timescale of orbital decay, the knowledge of e is essential (Peters, 1964).
* Double NS binaries may have very large space velocities; when we combine the orbital decay timescale with these space velocities, we conclude that merging of the two NSs can happen when the double NS binaries have moved more than 100 kpc away from their birth place. This means that double NS binaries that are formed in the galactic disk may be important r-process enrichment sources of the halo, also during the early evolution of the galaxy.
* When Z $``$ 0.002 (representative for the early Galaxy) case BB RLOF is not suppressed by SW during CHeB (subsection 3.2.3); it follows that most of the double NS binaries merge within a few Myr. We can therefore expect that the NSM events may be important candidates for the r-process element enrichment in the early Galaxy.

## 5 The effects of binaries on the CEM of galaxies

How binaries can be implemented in a CEM has been described in De Donder & Vanbeveren (2002, 2003a). In the latter papers we studied the effects of binaries and massive BH formation on the temporal evolution of 4He, 12C, 14N, 16O, 20Ne, 24Mg, 28Si, 32S, 40Ca and 56Fe.

Cowan et al. (1991) reviewed the possible astrophysical sites where the r-process can happen. Two sites have favourable physical conditions in order to be a major r-process source: the SN explosion of a massive star (SN II, SN Ib/c) (Woosley et al., 1994; Takahashi et al., 1994; Hoffman et al., 1997; Qian & Woosley, 1996; Meyer et al., 1998) and the NSM (Davies et al., 1994; Janka & Ruffert, 1996; Baumgarte et al., 1997; Ruffert & Janka, 1998; Rosswog et al., 1999, 2000, 2001; Freiburghaus et al., 1999a, b). De Donder & Vanbeveren (2003c) combined the CEM with a detailed PNS model for NSMs in order to simulate the temporal evolution of r-process elements.

Conclusions:

* The rate of star formation only marginally depends on whether binaries form or not.
* The age metallicity relation predicted by a theoretical CEM hardly depends on whether MCBs are included or not.
* The temporal evolution of 4He, 12C, 14N, 16O, 20Ne, 24Mg, 28Si, 32S, 40Ca and 56Fe depends on whether or not MCBs are included in a CEM, but the effect is in most cases smaller than a factor of 2.
* NSMs are promising sources of r-process elements. We find an overall good agreement with the observed evolutionary behaviour of the element europium which is a good representative of the r-process elements (see Figure 6).
* Our simulations show that case BB RLOF in massive binaries plays a very important role in the Galactic evolution of NSM events and the corresponding r-process element enrichment.
* We propose that halo stars with a large enhancement in r-process elements and a very low iron abundance (the triangles in Figure 6), may have been polluted with r-process elements by double NS binaries that were kicked out of the galactic disk at birth and reached the halo at their moment of merging.

Final remark: the main effect on CEM simulations of stellar rotation during the CHB and CHeB phases of stars, is the enlargement of the convective core during CHB. Since, on average, the effect of rotation on the convective core during CHB is similar as the effect of a moderate amount of convective core overshooting, and since most of the present day CEMs use evolutionary calculations which account for a moderate amount of convective core overshooting, most of the CEMs accounted for stellar rotation avant la lettre. Notice however that rotation may explain the presence of primary nitrogen during the early phases of a galaxy (Meynet and Maeder, 2002).