 What is important for understanding the origin and evolution of this novel lineage B betacoronavirus.
Learning from the roles of civet in SARS and camel in MERS, hunting for the animal source of 2019-nCoV and its more ancestral virus
A mysterious outbreak of atypical pneumonia in late 2019 was traced to a seafood wholesale market in Wuhan of China. Within a few weeks, a novel coronavirus tentatively named as 2019 novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV was announced by the World Health Organization. We performed bioinformatics analysis on a virus genome from a patient with 2019-nCoV infection and compared it with other related coronavirus genomes. Overall, the genome of 2019-nCoV has 89% nucleotide identity with bat SARS-like-CoVZXC21 and 82% with that of human SARS-CoV. The phylogenetic trees of their orf1a/b, Spike, Envelope, Membrane and Nucleoprotein also clustered closely with those of the bat, civet and human SARS coronaviruses. However, the external subdomain of Spike’s receptor binding domain of 2019-nCoV shares only 40% amino acid identity with other SARS-related coronaviruses. The phylogenetic trees of their orf1a/b, Spike, Envelope, Membrane and Nucleoprotein also clustered closely with those of the bat, civet and human SARS coronaviruses. However, the external subdomain of Spike’s receptor binding domain of 2019-nCoV shares only 40% amino acid identity with other SARS-related coronaviruses. Remarkably, its orf3b encodes a completely novel short protein. Furthermore, its new orf8 likely encodes a secreted protein with an alpha-helix, following with a beta-sheet s containing six strands. Learning from the roles of civet in SARS and camel in MERS, hunting for the animal source of 2019-nCoV and its more ancestral virus would be important for understanding the origin and evolution of this novel lineage B betacoronavirus. These findings provide the basis for starting further studies on the pathogenesis, and optimizing the design of diagnostic, antiviral and vaccination strategies for this emerging infection. Learning from the roles of civet in SARS and camel in MERS, hunting for the animal source of 2019-nCoV and its more ancestral virus would be important for understanding the origin and evolution of this novel lineage B betacoronavirus. These findings provide the basis for starting further studies on the pathogenesis, and optimizing the design of diagnostic, antiviral and vaccination strategies for this emerging infection. Text: Coronaviruses CoVs are enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses that belong to the subfamily Coronavirinae, family Coronavirdiae, order Nidovirales. There are four genera of CoVs, namely, Alphacoronavirus αCoV , Betacoronavirus βCoV , Deltacoronavirus δCoV , and Gammacoronavirus γCoV . Evolutionary analyses have shown that bats and rodents are the gene sources of most αCoVs and βCoVs, while avian species are the gene sources of most δCoVs and γCoVs. CoVs have repeatedly crossed species barriers and some have emerged as important human pathogens. Evolutionary analyses have shown that bats and rodents are the gene sources of most αCoVs and βCoVs, while avian species are the gene sources of most δCoVs and γCoVs. CoVs have repeatedly crossed species barriers and some have emerged as important human pathogens. The best-known examples include severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV SARS-CoV which emerged in China in 2002-2003 to cause a large-scale epidemic with about 8000 infections and 800 deaths, and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV MERS-CoV which has caused a persistent epidemic in the Arabian Peninsula since 2012 . In both of these epidemics, these viruses have likely originated from bats and then jumped into another amplification mammalian host the Himalayan palm civet Paguma larvata for SARS-CoV and the dromedary camel Camelus dromedarius for MERS-CoV before crossing species barriers to infect humans. Prior to December 2019, 6 CoVs were known to infect human, including 2 αCoV HCoV-229E and HKU-NL63 and 4 βCoV HCoV-OC43 HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-HKU1 usually cause self-limiting upper respiratory infections in immunocompetent hosts and occasionally lower respiratory tract infections in immunocompromised hosts and elderly . In contrast, SARS-CoV lineage B βCoV and MERS-CoV lineage C βCoV may cause severe lower respiratory tract infection with acute respiratory distress syndrome and extrapulmonary manifestations, such as diarrhea, lymphopenia, deranged liver and renal function tests, and multiorgan dysfunction syndrome, among both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts with mortality rates of ∼10% and ∼35%, respectively . Prior to December 2019, 6 CoVs were known to infect human, including 2 αCoV HCoV-229E and HKU-NL63 and 4 βCoV HCoV-OC43 HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-HKU1 usually cause self-limiting upper respiratory infections in immunocompetent hosts and occasionally lower respiratory tract infections in immunocompromised hosts and elderly . In contrast, SARS-CoV lineage B βCoV and MERS-CoV lineage C βCoV may cause severe lower respiratory tract infection with acute respiratory distress syndrome and extrapulmonary manifestations, such as diarrhea, lymphopenia, deranged liver and renal function tests, and multiorgan dysfunction syndrome, among both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts with mortality rates of ∼10% and ∼35%, respectively . On 31 December 2019, the World Health Organization WHO was informed of cases of pneumonia of unknown cause in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China . Subsequent virological testing showed that a novel CoV was detected in these patients. As of 16 January 2020, 43 patients have been diagnosed to have infection with this novel CoV, including two exported cases of mild pneumonia in Thailand and Japan . The earliest date of symptom onset was 1 December 2019 . As of 16 January 2020, 43 patients have been diagnosed to have infection with this novel CoV, including two exported cases of mild pneumonia in Thailand and Japan . The earliest date of symptom onset was 1 December 2019 . The symptomatology of these patients included fever, malaise, dry cough, and dyspnea. Among 41 patients admitted to a designated hospital in Wuhan, 13 32% required intensive care and 6 15% died. All 41 patients had pneumonia with abnormal findings on chest computerized tomography scans . We recently reported a familial cluster of 2019-nCoV infection in a Shenzhen family with travel history to Wuhan . All 41 patients had pneumonia with abnormal findings on chest computerized tomography scans . We recently reported a familial cluster of 2019-nCoV infection in a Shenzhen family with travel history to Wuhan . In the present study, we analyzed a 2019-nCoV complete genome from a patient in this familial cluster and compared it with the genomes of related βCoVs to provide insights into the potential source and control strategies. The complete genome sequence of 2019-nCoV HKU-SZ-005b was available at GenBank accession no. MN975262 Table 1 . The representative complete genomes of other related βCoVs strains collected from human or mammals were included for comparative analysis. MN975262 Table 1 . The representative complete genomes of other related βCoVs strains collected from human or mammals were included for comparative analysis. These included strains collected from human, bats, and Himalayan palm civet between 2003 and 2018, with one 229E coronavirus strain as the outgroup. Phylogenetic tree construction by the neighbour joining method was performed using MEGA X software, with bootstrap values being calculated from 1000 trees . The percentage of replicate trees in which the associated taxa clustered together in the bootstrap test 1000 replicates was shown next to the branches . The tree was drawn to scale, with branch lengths in the same units as those of the evolutionary distances used to infer the phylogenetic tree. The percentage of replicate trees in which the associated taxa clustered together in the bootstrap test 1000 replicates was shown next to the branches . The tree was drawn to scale, with branch lengths in the same units as those of the evolutionary distances used to infer the phylogenetic tree. The evolutionary distances were computed using the Poisson correction method and were in the units of the number of amino acid substitutions per site . All ambiguous positions were removed for each sequence pair pairwise deletion option . Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA X . Multiple alignment was performed using CLUSTAL 2.1 and further visualized using BOX-SHADE 3.21. Structural analysis of orf8 was performed using PSI-blast-based secondary structure PREDiction PSIPRED . Multiple alignment was performed using CLUSTAL 2.1 and further visualized using BOX-SHADE 3.21. Structural analysis of orf8 was performed using PSI-blast-based secondary structure PREDiction PSIPRED . For the prediction of protein secondary structure including beta sheet, alpha helix, and coil, initial amino acid sequences were input and analysed using neural networking and its own algorithm. Predicted structures were visualized and highlighted on the BOX-SHADE alignment. Prediction of transmembrane domains was performed using the TMHMM 2.0 server Secondary structure prediction in the 5 ′ -untranslated region UTR and 3 ′ -UTR was performed using the RNAfold WebServer RNAWebSuite/RNAfold.cgi with minimum free energy MFE and partition function in Fold algorithms and Table 2 . Putative functions and proteolytic cleavage sites of 16 nonstructural proteins in orf1a/b as predicted by bioinformatics. Prediction of transmembrane domains was performed using the TMHMM 2.0 server Secondary structure prediction in the 5 ′ -untranslated region UTR and 3 ′ -UTR was performed using the RNAfold WebServer RNAWebSuite/RNAfold.cgi with minimum free energy MFE and partition function in Fold algorithms and Table 2 . Putative functions and proteolytic cleavage sites of 16 nonstructural proteins in orf1a/b as predicted by bioinformatics. Putative function/domain Amino acid position Putative cleave site complex with nsp3 and 6: DMV formation complex with nsp3 and 4: DMV formation short peptide at the end of orf1a basic options. The human SARS-CoV 5 ′ -and 3 ′ -UTR were used as references to adjust the prediction results. The single-stranded RNA genome of the 2019-nCoV was 29891 nucleotides in size, encoding 9860 amino acids. The G + C content was 38%. The single-stranded RNA genome of the 2019-nCoV was 29891 nucleotides in size, encoding 9860 amino acids. The G + C content was 38%. Similar to other Table 2 . There are no remarkable differences between the orfs and nsps of 2019-nCoV with those of SARS-CoV Table 3 . The major distinction between SARSr-CoV and SARS-CoV is in orf3b, Spike and orf8 but especially variable in Spike S1 and orf8 which were previously shown to be recombination hot spots. Spike glycoprotein comprised of S1 and S2 subunits. The major distinction between SARSr-CoV and SARS-CoV is in orf3b, Spike and orf8 but especially variable in Spike S1 and orf8 which were previously shown to be recombination hot spots. Spike glycoprotein comprised of S1 and S2 subunits. The S1 subunit contains a signal peptide, followed by an N-terminal domain NTD and receptor-binding domain RBD , while the S2 subunit contains conserved fusion peptide FP , heptad repeat HR 1 and 2, transmembrane domain TM , and cytoplasmic domain CP . We found that the S2 subunit of 2019-nCoV is highly conserved and shares 99% identity with those of the two bat SARS-like CoVs SL-CoV ZXC21 and ZC45 and human SARS-CoV Figure 2 . Thus the broad spectrum antiviral peptides against S2 would be an important preventive and treatment modality for testing in animal models before clinical trials . Though the S1 subunit of 2019-nCoV shares around 70% identity to that of the two bat SARS-like CoVs and human SARS-CoV Figure 3 A , the core domain of RBD excluding the external subdomain are highly conserved Figure 3 B . Thus the broad spectrum antiviral peptides against S2 would be an important preventive and treatment modality for testing in animal models before clinical trials . Though the S1 subunit of 2019-nCoV shares around 70% identity to that of the two bat SARS-like CoVs and human SARS-CoV Figure 3 A , the core domain of RBD excluding the external subdomain are highly conserved Figure 3 B . Most of the amino acid differences of RBD are located in the external subdomain, which is responsible for the direct interaction with the host receptor. Further investigation of this soluble variable external subdomain region will reveal its receptor usage, interspecies transmission and pathogenesis. Unlike 2019-nCoV and human SARS-CoV, most known bat SARSr-CoVs have two stretches of deletions in the spike receptor binding domain RBD when compared with that of human SARS-CoV. But some Yunnan strains such as the WIV1 had no such deletions and can use human ACE2 as a cellular entry receptor. Unlike 2019-nCoV and human SARS-CoV, most known bat SARSr-CoVs have two stretches of deletions in the spike receptor binding domain RBD when compared with that of human SARS-CoV. But some Yunnan strains such as the WIV1 had no such deletions and can use human ACE2 as a cellular entry receptor. It is interesting to note that the two bat SARS-related coronavirus ZXC21 and ZC45, being closest to 2019-nCoV, can infect suckling rats and cause inflammation in the brain tissue, and pathological changes in lung & intestine. However, these two viruses could not be isolated in Vero E6 cells and were not investigated further. The two retained deletion sites in the Spike genes of ZXC21 and ZC45 may lessen their likelihood of jumping species barriers imposed by receptor specificity. A novel short putative protein with 4 helices and no homology to existing SARS-CoV or SARS-r-CoV protein was found within Orf3b Figure 4 . The two retained deletion sites in the Spike genes of ZXC21 and ZC45 may lessen their likelihood of jumping species barriers imposed by receptor specificity. A novel short putative protein with 4 helices and no homology to existing SARS-CoV or SARS-r-CoV protein was found within Orf3b Figure 4 . It is notable that SARS-CoV deletion mutants lacking orf3b replicate to levels similar to those of wildtype virus in several cell types , suggesting that orf3b is dispensable for viral replication in vitro. But orf3b may have a role in viral pathogenicity as Vero E6 but not 293T cells transfected with a construct expressing Orf3b underwent necrosis as early as 6 h after transfection and underwent simultaneous necrosis and apoptosis at later time points . Orf3b was also shown to inhibit expression of IFN-β at synthesis and signalling . Subsequently, orf3b homologues identified from three bat SARSrelated-CoV strains were C-terminally truncated and lacked the C-terminal nucleus localization signal of SARS-CoV . Orf3b was also shown to inhibit expression of IFN-β at synthesis and signalling . Subsequently, orf3b homologues identified from three bat SARSrelated-CoV strains were C-terminally truncated and lacked the C-terminal nucleus localization signal of SARS-CoV . IFN antagonist activity analysis demonstrated that one SARS-related-CoV orf3b still possessed IFN antagonist and IRF3-modulating activities. These results indicated that different orf3b proteins display different IFN antagonist activities and this function is independent of the protein's nuclear localization, suggesting a potential link between bat SARS-related-CoV orf3b function and pathogenesis. The importance of this new protein in 2019-nCoV will require further validation and study. Orf8 orf8 is an accessory protein found in the Betacoronavirus lineage B coronaviruses. The importance of this new protein in 2019-nCoV will require further validation and study. Orf8 orf8 is an accessory protein found in the Betacoronavirus lineage B coronaviruses. Human SARS-CoVs isolated from early-phase patients, all civet SARS-CoVs, and other bat SARS-related CoVs contain fulllength orf8 . However, a 29-nucleotide deletion, Bat SL-CoV ZXC21 2018 Bat which causes the split of full length of orf8 into putative orf8a and orf8b, has been found in all SARS-CoV isolated from mid-and late-phase human patients . In addition, we have previously identified two bat SARS-related-CoV Bat-CoV YNLF_31C and YNLF_34C and proposed that the original SARS-CoV full-length orf8 is acquired from these two bat SARS-related-CoV . Since the SARS-CoV is the closest human pathogenic virus to the 2019-nCoV, we performed phylogenetic analysis and multiple alignments to investigate the orf8 amino acid sequences. In addition, we have previously identified two bat SARS-related-CoV Bat-CoV YNLF_31C and YNLF_34C and proposed that the original SARS-CoV full-length orf8 is acquired from these two bat SARS-related-CoV . Since the SARS-CoV is the closest human pathogenic virus to the 2019-nCoV, we performed phylogenetic analysis and multiple alignments to investigate the orf8 amino acid sequences. The orf8 protein sequences used in the analysis derived from early phase SARS-CoV that includes full-length orf8 human SARS-CoV GZ02 , the mid-and late-phase SARS-CoV that includes the split orf8b human SARS-CoV Tor2 , civet SARS-CoV paguma SARS-CoV , two bat SARS-related-CoV containing full-length orf8 bat-CoV YNLF_31C and YNLF_34C , 2019-nCoV, the other two closest bat SARS-related-CoV to 2019-nCoV SL-CoV ZXC21 and ZC45 , and bat SARS-related-CoV HKU3-1 Figure 5 A . As expected, orf8 derived from 2019-nCoV belongs to the group that includes the closest genome sequences of bat SARS-related-CoV ZXC21 and ZC45. Interestingly, the new 2019-nCoV orf8 is distant from the conserved orf8 or Figure 5 B which was shown to trigger intracellular stress pathways and activates NLRP3 inflammasomes , but this is absent in this novel orf8 of 2019-nCoV. Based on a secondary structure prediction, this novel orf8 has a high possibility to form a protein with an alpha-helix, following with a betasheet s containing six strands Figure 5 C . Interestingly, the new 2019-nCoV orf8 is distant from the conserved orf8 or Figure 5 B which was shown to trigger intracellular stress pathways and activates NLRP3 inflammasomes , but this is absent in this novel orf8 of 2019-nCoV. Based on a secondary structure prediction, this novel orf8 has a high possibility to form a protein with an alpha-helix, following with a betasheet s containing six strands Figure 5 C . The genome of 2019-nCoV has overall 89% nucleotide identity with bat SARS-related-CoV SL-CoVZXC21 MG772934.1 , and 82% with human SARS-CoV BJ01 2003 AY278488 and human SARS-CoV Tor2 AY274119 . The phylogenetic trees constructed using the amino acid sequences of orf1a/b and the 4 structural genes S, E, M, and N were shown Figure 6 A-E . For all these 5 genes, the 2019-nCoV was clustered with lineage B βCoVs. It was most closely related to the bat SARS-related CoVs ZXC21 and ZC45 found in Chinese horseshoe As shown in Figure 7 A-C , the SARS-CoV 5 ′ -UTR contains SL1, SL2, SL3, SL4, S5, SL5A, SL5B, SL5C, SL6, SL7, and SL8. For all these 5 genes, the 2019-nCoV was clustered with lineage B βCoVs. It was most closely related to the bat SARS-related CoVs ZXC21 and ZC45 found in Chinese horseshoe As shown in Figure 7 A-C , the SARS-CoV 5 ′ -UTR contains SL1, SL2, SL3, SL4, S5, SL5A, SL5B, SL5C, SL6, SL7, and SL8. The SL3 contains trans-cis motif . The SL1, SL2, SL3, SL4, S5, SL5A, SL5B, and SL5C structures were similar among the 2019-nCoV, human SARS-CoV and the bat SARS-related ZC45. In the 2019-nCoV, part of the S5 found was inside Figure 7 Continued the orf1a/b marked in red , which was similar to SARS-CoV. In bat SARS-related CoV ZC45, the S5 was not found inside orf1a/b. In the 2019-nCoV, part of the S5 found was inside Figure 7 Continued the orf1a/b marked in red , which was similar to SARS-CoV. In bat SARS-related CoV ZC45, the S5 was not found inside orf1a/b. The 2019-nCoV had the same SL6, SL7, and SL8 as SARS-CoV, and an additional stem loop. Bat SARS-related CoV ZC45 did not have the SARS-COV SL6-like stem loop. Instead, it possessed two other stem loops in this region. All three strains had similar SL7 and SL8. The bat SARS-like CoV ZC45 also had an additional stem loop between SL7 and SL8. All three strains had similar SL7 and SL8. The bat SARS-like CoV ZC45 also had an additional stem loop between SL7 and SL8. Overall, the 5 ′ -UTR of 2019-nCoV was more similar to that of SARS-CoV than the bat SARS-related CoV ZC 45. The biological relevance and effects of virulence of the 5 ′ -UTR structures should be investigated further. The 2019-nCoV had various 3 ′ -UTR structures, including BSL, S1, S2, S3, S4, L1, L2, L3, and HVR Figure 7 D-F . The 3 ′ -UTR was conserved among 2019-nCoV, human SARS-CoV and SARS-related CoVs . The 2019-nCoV had various 3 ′ -UTR structures, including BSL, S1, S2, S3, S4, L1, L2, L3, and HVR Figure 7 D-F . The 3 ′ -UTR was conserved among 2019-nCoV, human SARS-CoV and SARS-related CoVs . In summary, 2019-nCoV is a novel lineage B Betacoronavirus closely related to bat SARS-related coronaviruses. It also has unique genomic features which deserves further investigation to ascertain their roles in viral replication cycle and pathogenesis. More animal sampling to determine its natural animal reservoir and intermediate animal host in the market is important. This will shed light on the evolutionary history of this emerging coronavirus which has jumped into human after the other two zoonotic Betacoroanviruses, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV.