Speleology meteorology and cartography to develop portraits of caves as complex, evolving systems. Prior to the mid-nineteenth century the scientific value of caves was considered only in its contribution to other branches of science, and cave studies were considered part of the larger disciplines of geography, geology or archaeology. Very little cave-specific study was undertaken prior to the work of Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938), the 'father of modern speleology', who through his extensive and well-publicised cave explorations introduced in France the concept of speleology as a distinct area of study. In 1895 Martel founded the Société de Spéléologie, the first organization devoted
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration proper. He did hypothesize that, based upon the amount of ice, there must be an originating land mass. Subsequently, exploration of the Southern regions of the world came to a great halt. What followed this period of Antarctic interest is what historian H. R. Mill called 'the age of averted interest'. Following the expedition South by the ships HMS "Erebus" and HMS "Terror" under James Clark Ross (January, 1841), he suggested that there were no scientific discoveries, or 'problems', worth exploration in the far South. It is considered that Ross' influence, as well as the loss of the Franklin expedition