Question: Are interests basically you paying the percentage of a loan back on a specified date?

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 Are interests basically you paying the percentage of a loan back on a specified date?

No. Interest in the context of a loan is the percentage of the amount being loaned which you pay in addition to paying back the loan amount, for the privilege of the loan. If you are paying back a loan with regular payments then there will be an additional interest fee applied on top relative to the amount remaining to be paid off.


Question: Why is it that there seem to be no more Battleships in modern navy fleets?

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 Why is it that there seem to be no more Battleships in modern navy fleets?

The age of the battleship essentially ended with the japanese attack on the battleship HMS Prince of Wales and battle cruiser HMS Repulse in 1941. Both were sunk. This attack demonstrated that aircraft carriers, not battleships, were the future of navy combat. The 2 British ships outclassed anything the Japanese had to throw at them on the water, but what the Japanese had was lots of planes and lots of torpedoes. Navies continued to use battleships, partly because they already had them, partly because old habits die hard, but they were gradually replaced with carrier groups. Battleships are big, slow and expensive to build, but faced with air power relatively easy to sink. In an age of wave-skimming hypersonic antiship missiles, they're incredibly vulnerable without air support, and if there is air support, they're not really worth the effort.


Question: How come sometimes it rains very hard for a few minutes, then stops. And sometimes it rains calmly for a few hours?

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 How come sometimes it rains very hard for a few minutes, then stops. And sometimes it rains calmly for a few hours?

Good question! TLDR: Lapse rate, or change in temperature with height, plays a role in whether you get thunderstorms or less dramatic rain. Full: This has to do with what kind of storm you’re dealing with that’s causing the rain. When it’s warm on the ground, and very cold several kilometers or miles up, then the atmosphere is considered “unstable” due to the hot, less dense air rising very easily. It’s kinda like when air from a kettle keeps going up, since it’s hotter and thus less dense than the air around it. When this happens, air can rise very quickly, and when it rises, it cools, eventually so much that it can’t hold all of the moisture it’s carrying, so some of the water vapor condenses into liquid water droplets, forming rain when they get big enough. When it’s unstable enough (along with a lot of other factors that would take a while to explain to a five year old), this can happen QUICKLY and INTENSELY, forming a strong “updraft,” for air going up and condensing quickly, leading to a sudden, intense, often short-lived thunderstorm. Eventually, often within minutes, the updraft is overwhelmed by the massive amount of water falling back into it, ending a storm with a massive downpour over a small spot. On other days, when it’s only a bit warmer at the ground than it is at higher heights, the atmosphere is considered “stable,” and rising motion won’t happen on its own unless something forces air to rise. Fronts and mountains are common ways to get air to rise through a stable layer and still cool down enough to cause condensation and rain. In s stable layer, air will not rise on its own, so the rain tends to happen much more slowly, hence there being many rainy days where a front moves through a whole country/region and brings moderate rain all day over hundreds of miles/kilometers. Source: I’m a meteorologist


Question: What causes the monsoon season in India+Nepal?

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 What causes the monsoon season in India+Nepal?

Wind is air that moves from a place with higher pressure to a place with lower pressure. During summer months, sunlight heats up both the sea and land. But since land absorbs heat better, land get heated up to a higher temperature than sea. So the air above land is at a higher temperature, thus the air expands more and is less dense. So the air above the land is of a lower pressure than the air above the sea. So air flows from the air above the sea to the air above the land (higher pressure to lower pressure). Since seawater evaporates and become water vapour in air, more water vapour is also carried to land, resulting in more frequent and heavier rain. Thus resulting in monsoon.


Question: How do they calculate so many digits of π so accurately?

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 How do they calculate so many digits of π so accurately?

We've discovered that π can be calculated using a number of formula. For example: π = 2(1 + 1/3 + (1\*2)/(3\*5) + (1\*2\*3)/(3\*5\*7) ...) That series, extended infinitely, exactly equals π. This means you can construct increasingly accurate approximations of π by calculating more and more terms. Each additional term you calculate gives you additional digits of π.


Question: Why does toothpaste repel all the water around it, forming a round dry sink area, when it falls from your toothbrush?

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 Why does toothpaste repel all the water around it, forming a round dry sink area, when it falls from your toothbrush?

So first we need to understand something about how water is. It's made up of tiny tiny particles called molecules that are somewhat loosely sticking to each other. Which is why usually water flows when outside a container, these particles just roll over each other and fall flat under gravity. Now if you place a single drop of water on a flat surface you see it doesn't just spread all over but forms a neat mound like shape. See I told you these water molecules are sticky, they like each other's company. The ones at the edge have no one on the outside to bond with so they are being pulled mainly towards their friends in the bulk. Due to this they can't just roll over and fall away. Hence they will precariously hang there even against gravity pulling them down. This is what gives water it's height. This inward pull at the edge is called [surface tension]( URL_1 ) btw. Never mind that though. Anyway when you have soap or toothpaste around, the molecules in soap start chumming around with water molecules. The water molecules that fall for this charm don't care much about sticking to the other water molecules anymore, so they drop off and drift away and the height of the whole drop suddenly falls. This reduction in inward pull of water at the edges is called lowering of surface tension. What you're seeing is not water being repelled, but water not being able to maintain it's height. This drop in height happens in the immediate surrounding of the toothpaste causing it to sink into a very thin layer. Farther away that's no issue as there's no toothpaste so it looks normal there. edit: what soap/toothpaste molecules also do is not allow water molecules on surface to easily find each other to stick to, since the molecules of soap are pretty large and unwieldy themselves. They are mostly [*fat*]( URL_0 ). --- edit: Fun thing to note: The state of lowered surface tension of water around the toothpaste/soap is pretty much the same as what you have for water in soap bubbles. What you are seeing around the toothpaste is pretty much the thin film that makes a soap bubble, just flat.


Question: How much flying human pilots in planes actually do and how much is autopilot? And,if autopiloting would do all the work,would that mean we wouldn't need human pilots at all?

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 How much flying human pilots in planes actually do and how much is autopilot? And,if autopiloting would do all the work,would that mean we wouldn't need human pilots at all?

If the runway is equipped with a suitable ILS (Instrument Landing System) which helps guide the plane/pilot down, it is possible for the autopilot to land the plane itself as well. It's not always used, but if it is then the autopilot would likely be in control of the plane from a few moments after take-off all the way to the moment all the wheels are on the ground. Humans are responsible for everything else, from the outside safety inspection of the plane to starting the engines, taxiing the airplane to the runway and taking off. That said, the autopilots don't handle failures very well. If the instruments feeding information to them stop working or any of their consistency tests fail, they produce an alarm and relinquish control of the plane. For the auto-land thing above (at least on some models of airplane) BOTH autopilots need to be activated and if they start disagreeing about what to do then auto-land is aborted. When in doubt, the human is the last line of defence against malfunctions. Also robots can't talk to Air Traffic Control yet. :)


Question: Why do certain foods taste so bad after you brush your teeth?

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 Why do certain foods taste so bad after you brush your teeth?

This is because one of the chemicals in toothpaste blocks the receptors that are responsible for “sweet” on your taste buds. So anything whose taste is based off of a sweetness will taste very different, and everything will taste a little different. The reason some things taste awful, like orange juice. Is because normally it’s very sweet tasting because of the sugar in it, but remove that sweetness and your left only with the bitterness of citric acid.


Question: How do odor eliminators work?

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 How do odor eliminators work?

So odor eliminators work a little differently depending on the environment the smell is in and what is causing the smell. To start off with baking soda, baking soda is efficient at keeping odors out of a fridge or freezer because most of the odors from a fridge are the result of fungi and bacteria culturing on foods. Baking soda is an anhydrous molecule and therefore it readily absorbs free water in the air. This keeps your fridge drier than it normally would be which prevents fungi or bacterial colonies from forming while also soaking up odor molecules which may be riding on vaporized water. Air fresheners such as Lysol or Fabreeze may contain alcohols or other sanitizing agents to removing allergens, mold, and bacteria from the air. Usually they just have very pungent aromas to cover up the smells made. True odor eliminators such as Ozium have a mixture of glycosilated air and fragrance. We smell things when certain chemicals enter our nose and tell us what the thing we're smelling is composed of. Glycosilated air is able to coat these molecules and prevents them from being picked up by receptors in the nose.


Question: How do stores like Walgreens and CVS make money from gift cards if you pay the same value for what you get?

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 How do stores like Walgreens and CVS make money from gift cards if you pay the same value for what you get?

Let's say you buy a gift card for $100. Now the store has already gotten your $100. If you spend the entire $100 gift card, it would be exactly the same as if you had just purchased items for $100 cash. But now let's say you gift that $100 gift card to a friend. That friend now *has* to spend the gift card at that store. If you had just given them $100, they might have spent it at Walmart, and Walgreens would have earned $0. And then there's the people that lose or forget about a gift card until it's expired, giving the store "free" money.


Question: What is the difference between a college and a university in the USA?

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 What is the difference between a college and a university in the USA?

A college is an institution that offers classes and can grant you a degree. A university can be thought of as a set of colleges (college of Engineering, college of Arts and Sciences, etc) strongly affiliated together, and usually doing some sort of advanced research or offering advanced degrees (Masters, PhD). Some institutions that are actually universities, call themselves colleges for historical reasons. One is not necessarily better than the other.


Question: In terms of computer's RAM(SSD, HDD) - what is a cache and how does it work?

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 In terms of computer's RAM(SSD, HDD) - what is a cache and how does it work?

One of the basic rules of computing is that performance costs money. We know how to build faster hdd's and memory, but it is often cost prohibitive to do so. But with some clever engineering we can use a small amount of expensive and high performance storage to improve the performance of slower storage. Think of a cache as a sort of middle man between slower storage and the rest of the computer, allowing the computer to interact with the cache at high speed while the slower and cheaper storage catches up.


Question: Why are race cars roughly the same size as consumer passenger cars?

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 Why are race cars roughly the same size as consumer passenger cars?

They’re not built from the ground up for racing, they’re modified production cars as far as I know. A purpose built race car would be a LMP1 race car. GT3, V8 Supercars, WRC, NASCAR etc, all use normal production cars you can buy; that have been modified in order to follow whatever rules that specific racing league has set.


Question: How are passwords on websites "brute-forced" when almost all websites limit how many attempts can be made within a certain time frame?

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 How are passwords on websites "brute-forced" when almost all websites limit how many attempts can be made within a certain time frame?

The concern isn't hackers trying your password in a website's log-in form. It's hackers stealing the entire password database off of a website and trying to reverse the passwords on their own computers, with no attempt limits. If you have an insecure password that's been re-used, they can figure out what password you used in seconds and then try the same email/password combination on other websites. If you have strong and unique passwords, they won't be able to figure it out in a reasonable amount of time.


Question: Why is the derivative of a circle's area its circumference, and the derivative of a sphere's volume its surface area?

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 Why is the derivative of a circle's area its circumference, and the derivative of a sphere's volume its surface area?

The area of a line is it's length times it's width. By definition lines have zero width so their area is zero. Derivatives describe how something changes when zero change is made - I believe the term typically used is an infinitesimal or infinitely small change, but they work just as well for zero. The change in the area of a circle when it's radius is increased by zero is the area of its circumference, which is zero but "a larger zero" for large circumferences than small ones. To visualize this, you can think of drawing the area of a circle as an infinite number of infinitely close together circumferences of a circle. Add a circumference and the circle grows by an infinitely small amount. Add another and it grows by another infinitely small but slightly larger amount. Same principle applies to spheres.


Question: What is Russell's paradox? and please explain like i am 5, i don't know anything.

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 What is Russell's paradox? and please explain like i am 5, i don't know anything.

A 'set' is a collection of something. A set of odd numbers, a set of triangles, etc. Some sets include the set itself as a set. Some do not. You can have a set of all planets in the solar system. If so the set itself is not part of itself because it is not a planet in the solar system. These type of sets are called 'normal'. A set of everything that is not a planet in the solar system does include itself as it is not a planet in the solar system. These type of sets are abnormal. Now take a set of all normal sets. Is that set 'normal' or 'abnormal'? If it was normal that set would not include itself and therefore be abnormal. If it was abnormal that would be the set didn't include itself and therefore be normal.


Question: Why do children not get injured as much as adults do when running or exercising?

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 Why do children not get injured as much as adults do when running or exercising?

Children's muscles, bones and joints are more flexible, and children tend to be more relaxed when active. Also, children are smaller and lighter but made of the same materials as bigger heavier people. These things all play a part. Beyond this, adults tend to ignore pain while children will stop what they're doing the moment something starts to hurt.


Question: why do beverages taste better out of a glass bottle vs a plastic bottle?

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 why do beverages taste better out of a glass bottle vs a plastic bottle?

There's a few different factors- Glass bottles, plastic bottles, and cans are all different material, and in the case of the can, have a coating inside to protect the aluminum. Glass is strong and nonreactive, while plastic bottles and cans (and the plastic coating inside the can) may degrade over time especially if left in improper conditions They are bottled differently which seems to result in slight differences in the level of carbonation. Different factories may have produced the product, sometimes you hear of "Mexican coke" being available in glass bottles which is a different recipe than the Coke mainly produced in the US & #x200B; Blind taste tests of beer have shown no bias towards canned or bottled beer (presumably all products used were stored correctly so no degradation of can coating was expected) Blind taste tests of soft drinks show cans, glass bottles, and plastic bottles taste different to each other, but without being able to tell exactly which was which


Question: How is it that our bodies can acquire food allergies and food intolerances as we progress through life that we never had before?

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 How is it that our bodies can acquire food allergies and food intolerances as we progress through life that we never had before?

You can, in theory, become allergic to anything by mere repeated exposure. Allergies are an unnecessary immunological response to a recurring irritant. Sometimes, our bodies mistake that irritant for something much more dangerous than it really is. Those are the cases of anaphylaxis. I don't know why some things more commonly cause that type of response than others (bees/nuts vs pollen, etc). In truth, we're all mildly allergic to bees, but because we have a normal immune system response to them stings are just a little painful and irritated for a couple days instead of deadly. I am personally anaphylactically allergic to polyethylene gluconate, which is a culturing medium used for one of the medications used in my chemo for leukemia. It's something that I'd never have otherwise come into contact with. However, it's chemically similar to a commonly used laxative for colonoscopy prep so I gotta be careful about that. I'm also allergic to sulfa based antibiotics, and iv iodine contrast solution, for unknown reasons.


Question: What causes the sour aftertaste of sugar? I mean isn't sugar supposed to be sweet?

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 What causes the sour aftertaste of sugar? I mean isn't sugar supposed to be sweet?

I’d never heard if this but searched and this is one answer given on Quora The answer to this question is really simple. After eating sweets or cakes, the some sugar or starch is left in your mouth and on your teeth. Well, your digestive system decides to release enzymes through your saliva, into your mouth. This breaks down the sugars, as well as making the bacteria in your mouth release malic acid. So, really all your tasting is the malic acid that is being created to destroy any leftover sugar and starch. Sometimes the sourness can be strong, while sometimes you won’t be able to taste it at all. The stronger it is, the more sugars you had left in your mouth. I hope this answered your question!!! Thanks for reading,


Question: If water is transparent and colourless, why do things go darker when they are wet?

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 If water is transparent and colourless, why do things go darker when they are wet?

I can't speak for the science (sorry, I know I'm useless) but I would *assume* it has something to do with the refraction/impeding of light - you're not getting the normal amount bouncing off of that wet patch and so your brains translates it as a 'shady' spot. I'll be interested to see how close I am when the science guy makes their post :p


Question: If there is so much research, how do scientists avoid finding something that has already been found?

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 If there is so much research, how do scientists avoid finding something that has already been found?

In order for research to (generally speaking) be considered valid - it must first be peer reviewed and published - this means that scientists can access information about what has been researched already in the scientific literature. Now there's two main types of scientific research - commercial and academic In commercial research somebody is paying you to study something specific so they are less likely to care if somebody else is already researching something. In academic research you need to first apply for a grant or funding. Part of that application process is conducting a literature review into past and current research on the topic and justifying why your particular proposal will add to the field. It is then reviewed by other people to make sure you have done a good enough job. The tl;dr of all this is they do a lot of reading before they start doing research From time to time though different facilities will end up doing similar research projects but in science this isn't necessarily a bad thing. If two people can repeat the same experiment and get the same result then it adds weight to the the possibility that the outcome of that experiment was accurate.


Question: Could the force of a hurricane affect the rate of Earths rotation?

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 Could the force of a hurricane affect the rate of Earths rotation?

Alright, math time. So an average hurricane's radius is about 500 km and is about 15 mm high. Approximating it as a cylinder, that means that it is moving a total volume of about 11 million cubic km of air. With a density of 1.225 kg/m^3, that is about 1.3×10^16 kg or air. That's a big number! That is, until we consider the fact that the earth's mass is about 6×10^24 kg. Let's just assume that the earth is a uniform sphere (which it isn't, but it makes things easier), it should have angular momentum of about 5.8×10^33 kg m^2/s. So for the hurricane to actually effect the rotation, it should be at least within 1% of that, so let's just be generous to and require it to have an angular momentum of about 10^31 kg m^2/s. With a moment of inertia of about 3×10^27 kg m^2, our hurricane would have to rotate at about 3000 rotations *per second*. That is to the point where we can no longer calculate the wind velocity classically, since we get about 1.5 million km/s for the winds at the outer edge, which is about 5 times the speed of light, and since nothing can travel faster than light, this answer is wrong. So, we would have to use relativity to find the correct velocity. So essentially, for an average sized hurricane to actually affect the rotation of the earth, the wind speed would have to be very close to the speed of light, and that is under the most ideal conditions (that all of the hurricanes angular momentum comes from the angular momentum of the earth rotating).


Question: What does k-theory (subbranch of math) consist of? what is its main question? does it have applications?

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 What does k-theory (subbranch of math) consist of? what is its main question? does it have applications?

There's no easy way to ELI5 something as abstract and complex as K-theory. But I can at least try to give some background on the concepts it uses. A *topological space* is the most general type of mathematical space. Examples include ordinary 3D space (called R^(3)), the surface of a sphere (S^(2)), and the real number line (R), but topological spaces can get much weirder than any of these examples. Such a space is not required to have any notion of distance or size; there are only boundaries and limits. For example, the interval (0,1) containing the real numbers between 0 and 1 (not inclusive) has 2 boundary points: 0 and 1. In R^(3), most solid shapes have infinitely many boundary points. Topology is a branch of mathematics that deals abstractly with the properties of these spaces, and the equivalences and symmetries between them. One of the ways we can work with topological spaces is multiplying them together, joining spaces S and T into the product S x T. Points in S x T are labeled using pairs (s,t), where s is a point in the original space S and t is a point in the original space T. For example, the real number line R contains points like 0, 1, pi, 7.5, etc. If you take R x R, the resulting space has points like (0,1), (pi,0), (7.5,pi), and so on. So R x R is just the ordinary [Cartesian plane]( URL_1 ). A product like R x R x R would contain points like (1,1,1) and (pi,0,pi), and turns out to be ordinary 3D Euclidean space. For a slightly more complicated example, we can take S^1 x S^(1), the product of two copies of the unit circle. We can label any point on the unit circle by how far it is around the circle, starting at 0° and going around to a full 360°. So points in S^1 x S^1 look like (30°,60°) or (200°,0°). While there are multiple directions to move around in, any way you go will eventually take you back to where you started. The space turns out to be the surface of a [torus]( URL_0 ) - you can see how traveling in any direction along the surface just ends up tracing out a circle, as might be expected in a space produced by multiplying circles. Next, consider S^1 x R, the product of a circle with a line. This has points like (30°, 0.5) and (0°, pi). This wraps around in only one direction, so it's not too surprising that this product turns out to be a (capless) cylinder. What about something like a [Mobius strip]( URL_2 )? This is not the same as a cylinder, but if you zoom in close enough to any part of the strip, it will look like a cylinder in that area. It's only globally, when you can see the strip twisting around on itself, that you can distinguish a Mobius strip from a cylinder. So a Mobius strip isn't quite equivalent to S^1 x R, but it's close. We say that a Mobius strip is a *vector bundle* over S^(1) associated with R. We can talk about other vector bundles arising from other "almost products" in the same way. Side note: Why "vector" bundle? Well, R isn't just some random abstract topological space with no notion of length or distance or size. It does have these notions built into it, so we can use the ideas of vectors, dot products, and other stuff from linear algebra in a way we might not be able to in other spaces. The name reminds us that R has nice properties we can exploit. Now let's take a break from spaces and talk about algebra. The set of integers, equipped with the operations + and \*, is very nice algebraically: both operations are associative (a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c and a\*(b\*c) = (a\*b)\*c), there are "identity elements" 0 and 1 (a+0 = 0+a = a and a\*1 = 1\*a = a), addition is commutative (a+b = b+a), multiplication distributes over addition (a\*(b+c) = a\*b+a\*c), and you can even "undo" addition by subtracting elements from other elements. When addition and multiplication have all these nice properties, we call the set a *ring*. The ring of integers is just one example: the set of real numbers also forms a ring, as does the set of all 2x2 matrices. Because of their nice behavior, rings usually turn out to have interesting structure, and a fair amount of the field of abstract algebra is dedicated to studying the properties of rings. Amazingly, these two topics are not entirely disconnected. It turns out that we can define "addition" and "multiplication" of vector bundles in a very natural way, and so form (for example) a ring of bundles over S^(1). Our original "multiplication of topological spaces" idea was fairly simple and very general, but there was no notion of addition to go along with it and no guarantee that putting vector bundles in would give you vector bundles out. But the K-theoretic definitions of addition and multiplication fulfill all the nice algebraic properties we want and also preserve the spaces' status as vector bundles when we multiply or add them (so we still have all our nice linear algebra properties too). The original, simpler version of K-theory (now called "topological K-theory") studies these bundles and the rings they form. Later mathematicians came up with *algebraic* K-theory, which is more general but also significantly more complex, probably too complex to get into here. K-theory has some applications in theoretical physics, including string theory and condensed matter physics. Mathematicians are primarily interested in it because it unifies ideas from algebraic geometry, linear algebra, and number theory.


Question: How do animals know which plants are edible and which are poisonous?

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 How do animals know which plants are edible and which are poisonous?

they cant always. part of it is training (being taught by their parents/colony/whatever), part of it is just by smell ("this smells like food"), part of it is trial and error. had to get rid of a couple of plants when I got my last cat, due to them being poisonous for her


Question: What is the difference between Newton’s method, Euler’s Method and linear approximation?

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 What is the difference between Newton’s method, Euler’s Method and linear approximation?

Newton's method and Euler's method both use a linear approximation to solve different problems. Euler's method is for solving initial value problems--where you have some quantity and you know where it starts and how it changes, then you want to figure out what it changes to. It is essentially a method of numerically integrating a function, similar to Riemann Sums. That is to say, it would be like if you were trying to figure out how far a car travels by noting that it starts at 0, then you can check the speedometer periodically. By assuming a constant speed between checks you can extrapolate the distance the car travels during that window. That assumption of a constant speed is what makes this a linear approximation. If you additionally had an accelerometer and assumed a constant acceleration during between checks then you'd get into a higher order approximation--it would be more accurate at the expense of having to do more computation. As you consider higher and higher derivatives like these (first velocity, then acceleration, then jerk--the rate of change of acceleration over time, and so on) you move into what's known as Runge-Kutta, where the lowest order version of Runge-Kutta is Euler's Method. Newton's method is for finding the roots of an equation. This is where you have some graph and you want to know when it equals zero (which is a powerful way to solve many kinds of practical problems in engineering). You look at the value of the function at some point and you consider what its derivative is (i.e. you look to find a line that is tangent to the graph at that point), then it's quick and easy to find where that line crosses the horizontal axis. That forms the basis for the next guess--you draw a tangent line from there and follow it to its zero. This continues until you're satisfied that you've nearly enough found the zero you were looking for. *Aside: I've assumed the reader has at least a general understanding of some calculus vocabulary to keep this answer from growing too large and unwieldy. I'm happy to go into more detail about tangents and derivatives and whatnot if there's confusion there.*


Question: How do we know what the centre of the Earth is made of?

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 How do we know what the centre of the Earth is made of?

Every time there are earthquakes, scientists can look at the way the shock waves (aka seismic waves) from these earthquakes move through the planet — both the speed of the waves and how the waves bounce off of denser parts inside the planet (the inner and outer cores). It’s essentially this way that we have determined the physical state of Earth’s separate layers: **Crust**: solid rock **Mantle**: solid rock (apart from a few melty bits near the top of the mantle which make magma and feed volcanoes). The mantle convects veeeeery slowly. **Outer core**: liquid metal (mostly iron) which convects vigorously. **Inner core**: solid metal (mostly iron) because the pressure becomes too high for the metal to be molten. We have determined where the boundaries for these layers are based on seismic ‘discontinuities’ - sudden jumps in the speed that the seismic waves travel. Check out [a scaled diagram]( URL_1 ) to illustrate how thick the different layers of the Earth are. On average, the crust is actually similar in thickness compared to the whole Earth, as the skin of an apple is compared to the whole apple. Also, Earth’s core is pretty damn big. If you were to tunnel down and reach the edge of the outer core, you’re still not halfway to the centre of the Earth. Much of the stuff we’ve learnt from seismic studies are backed up by a few other lines of thought: * The Earth has a magnetic field, so it must have a metallic core, at least some of which is liquid and circulating in order to generate the magnetic field. This is consistent with (1) the types of seismic waves which do and do not pass through the outer and inner cores respectively; and (2) the fact that some meteorites which fall to Earth are an iron-nickel alloy which we believe to represent the cores of baby planets in the early solar system - they got big enough to separate into bodies with a core and mantle, but then smashed apart to set free their innards. * Even before we knew all that, early measurements of the Earth’s total mass meant that we knew there must be much denser material somewhere inside the Earth, as the rock of the crust was not dense enough to account for all the mass of the planet. Iron is a good fit for all the extra density; astrophysics tells us it’s relatively common in the universe, and there is obviously some natural process which can concentrate iron into pretty pure lumps based on those metallic meteorites (we call that [planetary differentiation]( URL_0 )). * With regards to the mantle, we do have certain pieces of mantle rock which get picked up by magmas and eventually erupted as lavas containing these still solid chunks of mantle rock within. (Many people think of the whole mantle as lava/magma, but it’s almost entirely solid rock with localised melty bits here and there). The chunks of mantle that occasionally get brought up to the surface like this are known as mantle ‘xenoliths’ - literally ‘foreign rocks’ - google the term to see their striking green colour (mainly due to the mineral peridotite). * There are also high-pressure high-temperature experiments that some scientists run on specialist lab equipment, this tells us what sort of rock exists in the deeper mantle - when upper mantle materials are subjected (in stuff like diamond anvil cells) to the appropriate temps and pressures that exist closer to the core.


Question: What force is driving all galaxies to rush away from each other at an ever quickening-speed? The expansion rate of the observable universe is accelerating. Where does it get the energy? Is it even energy?

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 What force is driving all galaxies to rush away from each other at an ever quickening-speed? The expansion rate of the observable universe is accelerating. Where does it get the energy? Is it even energy?

Couple of things.... 1. Not every galaxy is rushing away from every other galaxy, for example the Andromeda galaxy and our own milky way are headed right for each other and will collide any minute now(just kidding, itll be a few billion years before they collide). 2. Most galaxies appear to be rushing away from each other not because they're in motion away from each other like two cars driving in opposite directions on a road, but because the space between them is expanding. The most common analogy is, imagine using a marker to draw dots on a balloon, and then blowing that balloon up. The dots are just drawn on the balloons surface, so they're fixed, not really "moving". Yet as you blow it up, they appear to be further apart. This is more or less the same thing that's happening in 3D out in the universe. The galaxies are moving in all kinds of random directions, but on really big scales that movement is overcome by the expansion of the universe. That's roughly the limit of what we know for sure, beyond here is the purely theoretical stuff, so beware. Everyone knows the phrase "what goes up, must come down", that's just how gravity works, it pulls everything with mass towards everything else with mass. On a universal scale, this should mean that eventually the gravity of all the mass in the universe overcomes the initial "kick" that the big bang gave it, and everything eventually falls back together. But that's not what's observed, and honestly, we have absolutely nothing but educated guesses as to why. The most common guess I'm aware of is that empty space has a constant energy density. But wait, that doesn't make sense, right? Empty space is empty by definition, there's nothing there so it can't have energy, right? Well buddy, welcome to the wonder that is the universe we live in. Empty space is NOT empty, and no matter how empty you try to make it, it always has at least some tiny amount of energy. Why, you ask? I dunno. Nobody does. Best guess is god likes screwing with us(like seriously, that's ACTUALLY the best guess we have right now). Anyway, what does this constant energy density have to do with galaxies not slowing down? Well, in layman's terms, if empty space has a specific energy density, then a bunch of magical einstein math happens and that energy results in "negative pressure" on a universal scale, pushing the galaxies apart, and as they get pushed apart, more space is added, meaning more pressure that pushes the galaxies faster meaning more space and more pressure and..... you see where this is going. So that's why universal expansion isn't slowing down. Probably. Maybe.


Question: how do infrared cameras work? Why can they see infrared light but we cant? What’s different in the lens of a camera to the lens in our eye?

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</answer>
 how do infrared cameras work? Why can they see infrared light but we cant? What’s different in the lens of a camera to the lens in our eye?

Infrared cameras have little pixel sensors to detect infrared light, as opposed to visible light in a normal camera. The lens works similarly, but traditional lens glass absorbs IR light and so a special glass must be used. Our eyes have four different kinds of cells for detecting light. These cells use chemical reactions that detect specific frequency ranges of light. When a normal camera is made, we try to give it three sensors to mimic the three cells/frequency ranges in our eyes that detect color. Thermal IR is beyond the range of what eye chemicals can detect, and so we can't see it.


Question: What is that feeling you get when your body is vibrated in a certain place then it feels itchy?

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 What is that feeling you get when your body is vibrated in a certain place then it feels itchy?

Vibratory Urticaria is an allergy to vibration. Most people are not affected by this. Some people get an itchy feeling on their skin in response to intense vibration. In rare cases the person will break out with red spots or hives on the affected part of the body, or full allergic reaction. Vibratory urticaria can be caused by a mutation in the ADGRE2 gene which controls normal allergy responses.


Question: How does a can of Orange Fanta have 160 calories despite having 43 grams of sugar (which by itself is 172 calories)?

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 How does a can of Orange Fanta have 160 calories despite having 43 grams of sugar (which by itself is 172 calories)?

Because carbohydrates aren't exactly 4 kcal/g. Glucose and fructose, the components of both sucrose/table sugar and high fructose corn syrup, are more like 3.8 kcal/g. So 43 g * 3.8 kcal/g = 163.4 kcal, which is rounded down to the nearest 10 by FDA labeling rules. To clear up a couple of misconceptions in other responses: water in HFCS is not labeled as sugar, only the actual sugar (glucose and fructose) in it is, and since the most recent FDA update to the Nutrition Facts panel format, small packages have to be labeled according to their entire contents, so there are no more soda bottles in the US that are labeled with nutrition for a portion of their contents only. Source: I'm a food scientist who writes nutritional labeling Edit: When I quickly jotted down an answer to a question that was in my wheelhouse before bed last night, I didn't expect it to account for the vast majority of my comment karma and first awards by the time I woke up! Thank you! I tried to respond to as many questions below as I could. Maybe I'll do an AMA soon like a couple of commenters suggested.


Question: Why does wildfire smoke turn the sunlight red/yellow instead of gray like on an overcast day?

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 Why does wildfire smoke turn the sunlight red/yellow instead of gray like on an overcast day?

In the simplest terms, light on the longer end of the visible light spectrum (reds and yellows) is able to pass through the smoke and other small particles in the atmosphere, and the shorter wavelengths (blue and violet) are scattered. This is the same reason that sunsets are red. The light has to pass through more of the atmosphere, thus having to travel through more of these small particles, which creates the reds and yellows we know and love.


Question: Why do dead cell phone batteries need to charge for a while before booting but dead laptops can boot immediately upon plug-in?

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 Why do dead cell phone batteries need to charge for a while before booting but dead laptops can boot immediately upon plug-in?

Ok geez people. Stop guessing if you don't actually know. The real reason is that they are programmed to not turn back on until the voltage of the battery has recovered a bit to make for a more consistent user experience. The chips inside a cell phone operate at 3.3V, 2.5V and/or sometimes 1.8V. in order for these voltage rails to be maintained you must have more voltage than to prevent what is called a brown out, or basically under the absolute lowest voltage required for the chip to function. Lithium ion batteries are basically 95pct dead at 3.5V or less. 100pct dead at 2.5V. but most phones are programmed to shut off between 3.0 and 3.25V. This is a lot lower than laptop batteries are allowed to go because cell phones are designed to use proportionally less power than laptops. Users also demand every last bit of juice out of their cell phones. So even though the phones can turn back on immediately and be fine, because chargers can deliver about 5Xs as much power as a cell phone can use, a conscious design decision was made to not let the user do this.


Question: What is causing the current polar vortex in the US?

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 What is causing the current polar vortex in the US?

It is not abnormal to have temps like this creep into the US. I mean, the lowest windchill ever recorded in Chicago was -82 back in 1983. This is getting a lot of talk simply because it's a once in 20 year event, but it's nothing too extreme. People pointing to climate change as the reason for this are overstepping a bit, but it certainly is having an effect on the overall volatility. I will say it is important to not lump wind chill in with temperature. Going from -50 windchill to 49 degrees is *not* a 100 degree shift.


Question: What are the pros/cons between putting a video game on a cartridge vs a disc?

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 What are the pros/cons between putting a video game on a cartridge vs a disc?

Optical media has long held an advantage for stationary consoles because it is dirt cheap and holds a lot of data. However, it is not practical for mobile devices (moving parts) and suffers from long loading times. Solid state media, like cartridges, is more expensive to make (although the price has fallen a lot over the past decade), but it benefits from fast access times and can tolerate being used in a moving device (no moving parts). Cartridges are also generally a lot more durable than optical discs.


Question: why does water taste different in different containers?

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 why does water taste different in different containers?

Smell is a huge part of taste and in some cases is pretty much the entire source of flavour, so yes, this is a factor. In addition, some material either leach chemicals into the water, or else are better at aborbing other materials into themselves and then leeching them into the water. Both of these things will change the taste. Water is especially vulnerable to this simply because it really have no flavor of its own.


Question: Is everything in the known universe on a similar plane? What do we see if we have a telescope at the very north or south pole looking directly up?

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 Is everything in the known universe on a similar plane? What do we see if we have a telescope at the very north or south pole looking directly up?

No. The known universe goes in all directions and does not share a plane. The galaxy has a plane, the solar system has a plane, and these two planes are off by about 60 degrees according to google. Looking straight up from the North pole would be looking at least somewhat outside of our galaxy, where there are subsequently other galaxies off in the distance. Plus, while very roughly flat, the milky way *is not flat* and there are plenty of stars 'above' and 'below' us.


Question: How come when you have a fever and your temperature is so high you feel cold?

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 How come when you have a fever and your temperature is so high you feel cold?

Because the way a fever works is by tricking your brain into thinking that your normal temperature is *supposed* to be higher. So, instead of 98.6 degrees, your brain might now register 104 degrees as its desired normal temperature. So suddenly your core body temperature is 5 degrees lower than it "should" be, so you feel the same as if you didn't have a fever, and your core temperature had dropped to 93 degrees. Further, even once you get your core body temperature up to the brain's desired fever range, the air around you is a lot colder compared to your temperature than normal. For instance, if you're running a fever of 104, and you're in a room that's 72 degrees, it feels the same as not having a fever and being in a room that's 67 degrees.


Question: Why does stretching feel good?

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 Why does stretching feel good?

I can't give a molecular reason of what hormones are released on why it feels good, but an evolutionary answer seems reasonable: Stretching allows a larger range of motion and supports continuous use of joints/muscles/skeletal bones which fights against atrophy (degradation of those things). Along with this large range of motion, it probably allows for higher chances of survival compared to those who didnt feel a need or benefit of stretching. So over time, the feeling of relief or "goodness" after stretching encourages people to stretch to ensure highest possibility of survival.


Question: Why do floating point operations often yield results that are very slightly off?

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 Why do floating point operations often yield results that are very slightly off?

Computers store numbers in binary (base 2). They only have two digits, 0 and 1. So when we convert 0.1 into binary we get: 0.000110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001… (Note the 1001 repeats forever) We store binary numbers in floats or doubles with are either 32 or 64 bits. Since we can only store 64 bits and not infinite bits, we need to chop the number off somewhere. Once we chop off the end, and later convert it back into decimal we get: 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625 Which isn't quite 0.1, but it's pretty damn close. So when we add that to 0.2 we get a number that isn't quite 0.3. When dealing with floating point numbers (numbers that aren't whole numbers), never compare them directly. You need to define what 'close enough' means. How you define 'close enough' depends on what you are doing. If this isn't good enough for whatever you are doing, you will need to find a library for arbitrary-precision decimal arithmetic. This will give you the results you expect, bu will be slower and use more memory.


Question: Do banks and similar institutions provide training on what to do in the event of a robbery?

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 Do banks and similar institutions provide training on what to do in the event of a robbery?

Yes they do, it is different for each institution and not all train everyone. However a mint like in money heist would have routine training, probably 1-2 a year for the full staff, maybe a few times more for security only. They often times will tell you not to resist, dont be a hero(your life is more important), the location of panic buttons and escape routes (idk if a mint would have an escape route due the the valuable nature of the work but I assume the building would have an alternate/secret entrance so police could enter should the need arise, most banks do but again not sure because it is a mint different security practices.), and to hide if at all possible. Mainly the emphasis is on saving your life as they believe they can track everything that is stolen and in theory it is all covered by insurance and replaceable (your life is not). What makes Money Hiest such a thrilling show is that the idea that they could print their own untraceable money but they would have to do it in bills that shared the same serial numbers as already printed bills otherwise all the money could be traced by serial number and there is only a finite number of bills previously printed from the same series.


Question: Why does insulin injection cause bumps of insulin, is it not delivering correctly?

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 Why does insulin injection cause bumps of insulin, is it not delivering correctly?

Medical advice is best gained from speaking with your doctor, or your diabetes specialist nurse in this case. In this case it sounds to me like you're not depositing the insulin into the fat layer, but between it and the skin or even within the skin itself. Or are these bubbles basically a little bit of fluid leaking out? That could be interstitial fluid or the drug, or most likely a mix of the two. However, I can't really pass judgement because I'm not a diabetes specialist and I haven't seen you inject or what these bumps look like. The most important thing is- how is your glycemic control? If it's fine, and you're not having spikes in your blood sugar (or lows, for that matter) then it doesn't sound like it's causing too many issues. But I'd still make an appointment to speak with someone about it. Far safer than taking medical advice off a random person on Reddit.