Question: How does Microsoft Word autorecover my documents if my laptop crashes?

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 How does Microsoft Word autorecover my documents if my laptop crashes?

It depends on if the option is turned on and working properly. But what it does is save a copy every few minutes even if you don’t hit save yourself. That’s all it does. Then if the laptop crashes it looks at the place where it saves those temp files and says, hey there’s a document here, the user must have not saved it before so I’ll ask if they want to keep it.


Question: If it’s 30 degrees outside, and it’s freezing inside a house, why does turning the AC to 65 degrees not warm the house?

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 If it’s 30 degrees outside, and it’s freezing inside a house, why does turning the AC to 65 degrees not warm the house?

Air conditioners work by absorbing the heat in the house into a refrigerant gas, then moving that gas outside to release the heat and condense back into a liquid. If it is a heat pump system, it can be reversed and work as your premise would indicate, but a standard air conditioner system doesn’t work that way


Question: When an animal gets freaked out by a new item they haven't seen before, why do they move back and forth and left and right, spazzing like crazy?

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 When an animal gets freaked out by a new item they haven't seen before, why do they move back and forth and left and right, spazzing like crazy?

Dogs are basically wolves who don't grow up. It is a process call neotony, common in domesticated species, where adults retain juvenile characteristics all of their lives. In general, juveniles are less aggressive, and in breeding that characteristic into the dogs, many other juvenile features come with. This tends to mess with their instincts a bit, as they have some of the old wolf behaviors and don't know what to do with it. When a wolf sees something new, they become excited because it is likely either food or danger, and they are getting primed for attack. When a safe and well-fed dog sees something new, they have the same reaction. Since they have likely been trained to not attack things, they just stay spazzed out for a while.


Question: Most credit cards have reward programs. How are they making a profit while giving me "free" stuff?

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 Most credit cards have reward programs. How are they making a profit while giving me "free" stuff?

They are banking (... no pun intended) on you not paying off your balance on a regular basis so that you wind up paying interest. Because 12% interest on a $100 balance is going to give them more than 1% cash back points on a $100 purchase. The rewards are incentive to get you to spend more on your card. Plus they make money off of transaction charges (every time you swipe a card, there's a charge that usually the merchant pays). So even if you do pay the balance off it's a win-win for you and them.


Question: How are new stars being created if the the universe is expanding into nothing?

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 How are new stars being created if the the universe is expanding into nothing?

There's a lot of hydrogen out there, and it doesn't like to be pushed together. Hydrogen clouds are full of hydrogen moving very fast relative to each other. It takes a long time, billions of years in many cases, for gravity to overcome. In fact, this is one of the pieces of evidence of dark matter. It just takes so long for hydrogen clouds to form stars that we wouldn't expect even a tiny fraction of the stars currently in existence to exist without the cohesive effect of overwhelming amounts of dark matter. Gravity is very very weak across these clouds, and they have very high net kinetic force. There's no quick way to push everything together. Beyond that, even when stars form they don't necessarily use up all their hydrogen. Very high mass stars, for example, tend to eject most of their hydrogen instead of fusing it, for example. As for "expanding into nothing" that's true, but that's only true beyond the super scale of the observable universe. The local areas of our universe (particularly less than 100 million light years) is gravitationally bound, and will form stars for many hundreds of billions of years even as other parts of the observable universe eventually move forever away from us. The baryonic matter in the universe is still mostly hydrogen. We'll be making stars for a very long time, long after our sun has used up its own hydrogen.


Question: Is there any sort of governing body that controls who can send something in to space? Like if I had the resources, expertise, and space to launch myself into space, is there any sort of permit I would have to attain? Is it per country or is there a global body?

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 Is there any sort of governing body that controls who can send something in to space? Like if I had the resources, expertise, and space to launch myself into space, is there any sort of permit I would have to attain? Is it per country or is there a global body?

It's per-country. In the US, for example, there are FAA regulations about what you can put into the air. Internationally, no, there's no governing body. If you take a boat to the middle of nowhere in the ocean and start shooting stuff into the air, there's no law that stops you.


Question: How can authentication services make sure that your password is correct without having your password saved in plain text?

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 How can authentication services make sure that your password is correct without having your password saved in plain text?

I take your password. I scramble it in, in a particular way. I will always scramble it up the same way. The way I scramble it up is very hard to "unscramble". (For an example of why it's hard, think of a number... now multiply by 743874283419234. Now take only the last two digits, swap them round, and divide by 7. You'll get a number. That number is the "scrambled" version of the number you thought of. But it's also the "scrambled" version of a lot of other numbers too. Which one was it? Who knows without trying them all?! And if I do this enough, and complicate it enough, and make it so that it could have been any number of things in the first place, then eventually it becomes secure). If I scramble your password up the same way, every time, but it's difficult to unscramble than we can have what's called a "hash". So you sign up to my website and you "set" your password. I don't ever store your password, I just scramble it up by following a set of instructions like the above. That gives me a hash - a scrambled version. That hash is made FROM your password, but it is NOT your password and we can't GET your password out of it easily. So all I need do now is store that hash. Next time you come to log in, you put in your name, and your password. I scramble that password you put in, and I scramble it in EXACTLY the same way as I scrambled it previously. If that scrambled password is the same as the "hash" that I stored when you first made the account... then I know that was you. And yet I don't know your password. The chances of two different passwords scrambling to the exact same hash is incredibly minute. Technically possible, but literally one of those "once in the lifetime of the universe" kind of things. So I don't need your password. I just need to scramble whatever you type in when you first "set" your password and put that somewhere. When you later try to log back in, I scramble what you typed in the same way again, and then see if the result is exactly the same as we did first of all. And I never need to store your password anywhere, just the scrambled version. Done properly, with clever maths, and appropriate methods used, it's incredibly secure. To the point that if a whole list of everyone's username and their scrambled password leaks out, nobody would ever be able to use that information anyway. This happened to the Steam gaming service, for example - but they had done it properly, so to this day, none of those passwords has ever been discovered. And, no, you can't just type the scrambled version into the password box. All that would happen if you did that would be that I would scramble it AGAIN, and it would end up different, and wouldn't match what I had stored, or what you typed in. You can implement this system poorly, however. And then people can sometimes "unscramble" those passwords, but that's still an incredibly difficult thing to do. And even that is so much more secure than what happens if you were just storing a big list of passwords in plain-text. Done properly, hashing is very simple in operation, very secure in practice, and very quick to do, while being very difficult to "undo". And if I ever want to "reset" your password because you've forgotten it and need to get back in? Then I can just take, say, "password"... scramble that up... and put the result into the database in place of your stored hash. Now you can login with "password", the scramble of that will match the hash I have stored now, and it will let you in so you can do whatever you need to do. But I still don't know what your password USED to be!


Question: Can somebody explain the concept of 'pi' to me?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 Can somebody explain the concept of 'pi' to me?

Pi is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. Let's say you have bicycle, and you measure the diameter of the front wheel. Let's say it's 28 inches. Now, you mark the part touching the ground with a white marker, as well as the point in the ground. Next, you walk the bicycle until the front wheel has turned one revolution and the white mark is again touching the ground. If you now measure the distance you walked your bicycle, you will notice that it's a bit over three times 28 inches. That's where pi comes into play: the circumference is 28 times pi. That's basically it. If you have a circle with a diameter of 1, you know that the circumference is equal to pi. But why is pi 3.1415926...? That's because a perfect circle happens to have that ratio between its circumference and its diameter. So yeah, pi is used to make calculations about circles. They're also used when you do math involving radians. People usually tend to use degrees for angular measurements because it's a tad more intuitive; 360 degrees is one full revolution, 180 degrees is half a turn, 90 degrees is a quarter turn and so on. However, radians make sense as well in a different way. A full revolution in radians is 2pi, and so half a revolution is pi radians. This may be a bit confusing at first, but it comes from the definition of a radian: it's the angle determined by an arc with a length of the circle's radius (radius is half of the diameter). It's a bit easier to understand with this [GIF from Wikipedia]( URL_0 ).


Question: What's the science behind stains "setting" on to clothing?

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 What's the science behind stains "setting" on to clothing?

In my experience professionally working with wood finishes, dyes and stains- so not exactly the same but i believe it works similarly- In dying wood your pigment is in a carrier fluid, like water or alcohol. In order to impart the color into the wood and not have it just sitting on top of the wood, the carrier fluid needs to soak into the surface of the wood wicking the pigments along with it. So like in fibers, the pigment will initially just sit on the surfaces and take some time to wick into the material. Except in fabric it seems to initially wick into the main threads and the "setting" is the pigment getting between the fine fibers.


Question: How were tickets for air transit purchased pre 'online' days?

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 How were tickets for air transit purchased pre 'online' days?

You could order on the phone. Often, people would also walk up to the ticket stand and buy a ticket with cash on the spot. At that time, fewer people travelled by plane, so there wasn't usually a big line in front of the ticket stand. Edit: You could buy a ticket for a plane leaving in an hour.


Question: How did climate change become about politics?

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 How did climate change become about politics?

Historically, industries like oil and coal that drive human emissions of carbon dioxide -- or industries like lumber that reduce the ability to offset the impact of carbon emissions -- tend to be highly profitable. This leads to concentration of wealth in a few hands. People who make a lot of money from those industries found they could take a small percentage of what they earned to pay for political influence. This goes back hundreds of years. This was often used to enact policies that should lead to even greater concentration of industry ownership and wealth in fewer hands. Hyper-wealthy individuals gained much greater power in politics. All this happened well before climate science even began. After climate science pointed to the dangers of global warming, people in those industries decided it would be a more effective strategy to influence not only politicians, but public opinions as well. So they funded supposedly apolitical nonprofit foundations to cause people to disbelieve climate science. Many politicians went along with this because it increased their campaign funding and also their chances of winning or holding onto their offices.


Question: If I had a teleporter and would teleport with a telescope and a space suit to a place in space which is 5 light seconds away would I be able to see myself teleport?

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 If I had a teleporter and would teleport with a telescope and a space suit to a place in space which is 5 light seconds away would I be able to see myself teleport?

If it was a magic teleporter that got you there instantly then yes (and presumably you could do the same with a wormhole, which would make physics professors cry somewhat less). It’d need to be a *really* good telescope though; 5 light seconds is about 3x the distance from earth to the moon and you’d be rather tiny at that distance.


Question: Why does the House of Representatives pass bills that most likely will be killed in the Senate?

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 Why does the House of Representatives pass bills that most likely will be killed in the Senate?

Think about it this way: you just got elected after campaigning for months on ideas you have. You’ve had many in depth conversations with constituents. You’ve convinced donors to give you large checks. You defeat your opponent and now you’re walking the halls of Congress. You will face a re-election battle in ~~four~~ two years, and you want to earn the respect of your peers. Some close colleagues and friends ask you if you would support a bill that you deeply believe in. You know that the opposing party in the Senate will squash it. Do you say “no, I’ll vote against this because it has no chance of becoming law?” Do you abstain from the vote? Do you campaign feverishly to drop the idea and do nothing about it? No. You say you’ll support it, pull whatever levers you have available to you to get it coverage and press. You point to it as an example of something you tried to do but were blocked from doing by your adversaries. And then you move on.


Question: They said "the water doesn't have an expiration date, the plastic bottle does" so how come honey that comes in a plastic bottle doesn't expire?

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 They said "the water doesn't have an expiration date, the plastic bottle does" so how come honey that comes in a plastic bottle doesn't expire?

Whoever said that is wrong. The FDA and IWBA can't find any evidence that age matters to plastic water bottles. The FDA has ruled that there is no limit to the shelf life of bottled water, and no company has even insinuated that the expiration is related to the plastic. In 1987, New Jersey passed a law requiring all bottles of water to be stamped with an expiration date 2 years after the bottling date. Since you can't identify which bottles will wind up shipped to NJ, companies just stamped all bottles with a 2-year expiration to ensure compliance. They never passed that law for Honey, which is why plastic honey bottles don't have an expiration. Although the law was repealed in 2006, companies had figured out people will throw out "expired" water and buy more, it actually increases sales, so they kept printing it "voluntarily".


Question: What happens to the money that large corporations pay in fines due to malpractice against their customers?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 What happens to the money that large corporations pay in fines due to malpractice against their customers?

Fines are paid to the government or governing organization. They go into the gov's bank account to be used for paying for any gov stuff. Fines are a punishment for doing the wrong thing. Damages are paid to the people that were harmed by the activities. Damages are a way to attempt to repay a person for the harm that was caused.


Question: Why does he government pay a premium for everything it's involved in?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does he government pay a premium for everything it's involved in?

its not *just* the govt... youd be surprised at business to business pricing too. Its very lucrative to target this stuff, perhaps because business's are so *sticky*, its hard to change suppliers, and you can often just bop along for years and years without anyone stopping to think if they could save their company a few bucks. anyway, govt could be uniquely at risk because it has no shareholders, no profit and loss statement, its not really accountable to anyone to operate efficiently. theres a fuzzy trail back to voters... but thats so far removed that it may as well not exist. When your going assumption is that you lose money to accomplish some sort of public service, its difficult to gauge just how much money you should lose to decide if your adding value or not.


Question: what makes coffee and tea decaf as opposed to full of caffeine?

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 what makes coffee and tea decaf as opposed to full of caffeine?

Decaffeinated tea and coffee use various methods to remove the caffeine. One of the methods just uses water - the caffeine dissolves easily into the water, and then other solvents can remove the caffeine from the water. Of course, the water also contains the chemicals that make it taste like coffee, so the caffeine-free but coffee-tasting water is then cycled back through - as it is saturated in coffee, it doesn't take out the coffee flavours, but dose dissolve more caffeine.


Question: which are the pros and cons of escapism?

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 which are the pros and cons of escapism?

Pros: Human beings are not "designed" to deal with chronic stress or mental discomfort. We fair much better when we experience stress in short bursts, allowing us to focus on the stressor, resolve it, then go back to a baseline "stress-free" state. Chronic stress is linked to a number of psychological and physiological conditions. Escapism allows us to temporarily reduce stress levels by focusing on other, relatively stress-free tasks, thus helping to alleviate chronic stress. Cons: Escapism doesn't solve the underlying stressor, so people that indulge in it too much will not solve any of the problems in their life. This can lead to those problems stacking up and/or getting worse, which has obvious negatives but can also lead to even more chronic stress to the person.


Question: Does it require an elevator more energy to go "down" empty than to go "up" full?

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 Does it require an elevator more energy to go "down" empty than to go "up" full?

Depends on the sizing of the counterweight If the counterweight is sized to be *exactly* car weight + 50.0% of the rated load then it will take the same amount of energy to go down with 0.0% load as it takes to go up with 100.0% load If it's not perfectly sized, then which ever involves lifting more weight will require more energy


Question: Benford's law. How does it happen at all?

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 Benford's law. How does it happen at all?

We're used to thinking of distances between numbers in terms of addition and subtraction. The difference between 200 and 100 is 100, which is the same as the difference between 1000 and 900. But in this case, it's actually more useful to think of distances in terms of multiplication and division. The ratio between 200 and 100 is 2, but the ratio between 1000 and 900 is only 1.111. So in that sense, 200 is farther from 100 than 1000 is from 900. (This can be made much more precise with logarithms.) That's where Benford's Law shows up. When numbers grow by multiplication (like population growth or prices with inflation), we need to think of distance in terms of ratios. So 900 and 1000 are closer together than 100 and 200. So if you threw darts at the (logarithmic) interval between 100 and 1000, you'd be much more likely to hit somewhere between 100 and 200 than between 900 and 1000. So the first digit is more likely to be a 1 than a 9 (or by the same logic, any other digit).


Question: How does bulk pricing work?

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 How does bulk pricing work?

If I'm normally selling 500,000 units a year to various buyers and my sales team has to work hard every year to get that 500,000. Then somebody wants to buy 250,000 unit a year for 3 years... The shear volume of that order would encourage me to lower prices to ensure that I do loose that buyer to a competitor.


Question: Why do you get a headache when you have slept only a few hours the night before?

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 Why do you get a headache when you have slept only a few hours the night before?

I don’t know that I understand it well enough to ELI5, but the brain filters cerebrospinal fluid CSF during sleep and it drains out of the ventricles of the brain. Less sleep = less time for drainage = a buildup of pressure and inflammation. I got these migraines daily since I never got enough sleep. A lot was related to a vitamin B2 deficiency. Vitamin B2 helps mitigate inflammation in the brain. Try taking a daily vitamin B complex supplement and see if that reduces the occurrences of the migraines.


Question: What are the differences between storms? What makes a 5 year storm different than a 100 year storm?

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 What are the differences between storms? What makes a 5 year storm different than a 100 year storm?

Weather observations have been going for about 150 years now. We now know that in 150 years we should expect to get a certain number of storms. Many will be weak storms that occur often. Others will be powerful, such that you won't expect to see another storm like that for some time. So if we see 30 storms of a specific power over those 150 years, then that strength of storm is a 5 year storm. A 100 year storm would be a storm that only appears between 1 or 2 times in 150 years. There is no specific threshold that makes a storm a 100 year storm. It is how a new storm compares to the past data that gives its rating.


Question: How did people start using currency?

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 How did people start using currency?

In some areas that the British tool over, they wanted people to work in the fields so they offered to pay them 10 crowns a day for work, they also imposed a hut tax of 200 crowns per month, which if it wasn't paid the hut was burnt down. So imposing a tax obligation and then paying in currency is one way it happened.


Question: What is that smell right after a good sneeze?

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 What is that smell right after a good sneeze?

Sneezing increases pressure in the sinuses. If the person has sinusitis, this can create an unpleasant odour both for the sneezer and those around. The reason is because the sneeze can force fluid caused by bacterial sinusitis into the nasopharynx. So you are smelling bacterial by product caused by infective sinusitis. Nice.


Question: Why are One Bedroom/One Bathroom Town Houses not built more in cities?

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 Why are One Bedroom/One Bathroom Town Houses not built more in cities?

Basically because a one bedroom house can only be sold to a single person or a couple with no kids. This limits the market because the vast majority of home shoppers are families with multiple children. Some municipalities wont let you construct a house to sell with less than 2 bedrooms for this reason.


Question: Since we're aimlessly floating in space with no real orientation, who first decided that the North Pole is "up" and the South Pole is "down" and not vice versa?

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 Since we're aimlessly floating in space with no real orientation, who first decided that the North Pole is "up" and the South Pole is "down" and not vice versa?

It has to do with orientation of Maps. At first East was up as the rising Sun was the marker for orientation when traveling and making maps. This means it was the top of a Map. (That is also why Asia was called the Orient). Once magnetic compasses were invented magnetic north became the orientation on maps used by those in the Northern Hemisphere. Since most of the human populace, and specifically all of Europe lives in the Northern Hemisphere that is what most people view as up on a map. This opinion was carried by Europe to its colonies, even those in the Southern Hemisphere. So once we started making globes it was logical that up on the map meant up in the room for the globe and so the globe was mounted such that the north pole was at the top. This then carried over to mapping the Solar system as a whole once science advanced enough to start doing that.


Question: What will happen when no one can afford housing in major cities anymore?

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 What will happen when no one can afford housing in major cities anymore?

Prices are high because it still sells quickly. If no one will pay the asking price for a house/apartment then it either sits on the market or they lower the price until someone will pay it It's supply and demand. Most big cities are in demand so it's really easy to sell a house or apartment in them because there are thousands of people who want to buy your place and you only need 1 with a bucket of dollars


Question: . What makes you like a rhythm or beat? What makes it enjoyable to hear? Why do we release dopamine for that?

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 . What makes you like a rhythm or beat? What makes it enjoyable to hear? Why do we release dopamine for that?

emotions help us to remember things and often songs are emotionally memorized. Precious 5 year olds I suppose who are curious about dopamine should imagine it as a brain cell exciter or depressor and not a feel good molecule. Known or memorized melodies help to stop the stress of the unknown since the brain must work hard to focus on new surroundings and you can just focus on the song instead which you already know and it’s relaxing. Dopamine and serotonin and other molecules can be released just by thinking and the songs might help you to do this more.


Question: Why is the Australian dollar so weak against the British pound?

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 Why is the Australian dollar so weak against the British pound?

No, the Aussie dollar is pretty strong against the pound, currently sitting at 55 pence. It is always a mistake to compare currencies absolute values, as these are a result of history. The difference in this case is because Australia switched to decimal currency back in 1966, and with currency being more valuable back then, they chose to make the new dollar equal to 10 shillings, or half the previous non-decimal currency, the Australian Pound. England changed to decimal currency in 1971, and retained the name 'pound' for their currency - which meant that they started with their decimal pound equal to 20 shillings. With ups and downs since then the relative values of the Australian dollar and the English Pound hasn't really changed.


Question: why can cloth absorb/soak up water but plastic can’t?

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 why can cloth absorb/soak up water but plastic can’t?

No holes in the plastic. Water likes to squeeze into the little gaps between the fibers of a cloth rag or piece of paper or the holes of a sponge. This is called “capillary action”. The surface tension of water causes the water to pull itself into narrow spaces between solid materials. There are no little gaps or holes in plastic for the water to squeeze into. Plastic is smooth and solid, and there’s nowhere for the water to get into it.


Question: why do our mouths build odor overnight and taste bad when we wake up?

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 why do our mouths build odor overnight and taste bad when we wake up?

I've got this one, so there are a lot of bacterial cells in your mouth, especially on your tongue, and these cells just like us have waste products that they have to eject out which is what causes bad breath. During the day you're awake and eating and salivating and a lot of it gets rinsed out and swallowed, but at night your mouth is dry, and you're not doing anything to prevent them multiplying so they do and you end up with a lot of this waste just sitting there waiting for you to smell right when you wake up


Question: Why do countries even bother blocking websites if people can easily bypass and access them?

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 Why do countries even bother blocking websites if people can easily bypass and access them?

Because : 1. Most politicians don't have any idea about IT topics such as VPNs and proxies. 2. Blocking websites does prevent average users, children and people who aren't technically savvy from accessing them 3. It allows them to look like they are taking action and get political capital, votes from the conservative right etc.


Question: What is are salts and how do they differ from the regular compound/substance?

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 What is are salts and how do they differ from the regular compound/substance?

Salts are a type of compound formed from two elements that bond in a particular way. For example, the elements sodium and chlorine are a highly reactive metal that catches fire when it touches water, and a poisonous gas used in WWI respectively, but when bound together they form the salt, well, salt; regular old table salt. A similar element to sodium, potassium, can also form a salt with chlorine which is less common but also sometimes used in cooking. Basically, whenever two or more elements react to form a new compound, be it a salt or another category, the result won't necessarily share the traits of the original elements, hence why two poisonous things might become safe, or two safe things might become poisonous (like carbon monoxide). Salts specifically have high melting and boiling points, and are typically not very reactive.


Question: Why is it that when you listen a song on a loop the sound changes after a while?

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 Why is it that when you listen a song on a loop the sound changes after a while?

Short answer: You’re learning the tune. Longer answer: You’re learning the “attacks” of the sounds used. This is important because the attack helps us determine if it’s a trumpet, flute, or guitar playing the note. The other thing that begins to happen as you listen to music on loop is that your brain starts to filter out unnecessary data because it’s learning to sift through it. Ex. Distorted guitars sound slightly less distorted on the third or fourth listen, or previously hard-to-understand scream vocals become second nature. It’s this weird combination of ear fatigue and intelligent listening. Cool stuff.


Question: Why do people with Tourette’s Syndrome tend to use swear words during uncontrolled outbursts?

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 Why do people with Tourette’s Syndrome tend to use swear words during uncontrolled outbursts?

This might not be quite the answer you were hoping for, but here it goes: Coprolalia is the proper term for uncontrollably blurting out swear words, and it's mostly a trope. Only about 1 in 10 people with Tourette's syndrome actually have coprolalia. However, coprolalia can also be a symptom of other neurological disorders. For people with Tourette's syndrome, can include a range of things including head-bobbing, throat clearing, clicking their tongue, etc. Most people with Tourette's will have a few tics that they experience. I've never really come across a good explanation for why coprolalia specifically exists, however it does appear that swearing is handled differently by the brain (as opposed to "normal" speech). People who lose the ability to speak due to brain damage are sometimes still able to swear, and some studies have even linked swearing during childbirth to lower need for painkillers, so there are definitely some different processes at work.


Question: Who would be the indigenous peoples of Europe?

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 Who would be the indigenous peoples of Europe?

This is not an objective question considering there is no cut and clear definition of indigenous people of Europe. If you mean who were there before the Indo-European language speakers, then the answer would be '[Western European Hunter Gatherers]( URL_0 )' and '[Eastern European Hunter Gatherers]( URL_1 )'. The contemporary nations that you can trace back to have been the oldest peoples to survive the Indo-European migrations would be the Basque people and The Finno-Ugric people. & #x200B; TLDR: **Basque people** (Minority in France and Spain) **Finnish people** (Finland) **Sami people** (Sweden/Norway/Finland) **Estonian people** (Estonia)


Question: Is there an actual specific reason why women's clothing is generally more short and tight? Basically why do women's clothes show more skin? Is it because males design the clothing and want women showing skin to be the norm?

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 Is there an actual specific reason why women's clothing is generally more short and tight? Basically why do women's clothes show more skin? Is it because males design the clothing and want women showing skin to be the norm?

Not a single specific reason. The way women's and men's clothes differ, is the outcome of thousands of years of history, politics and culture. Men designing for women and also liking to see women's bodies is definitely one facet of it, but you also see that tendency in lots of fashion lines owned and designed by women, and you have to consider questions like "are the designers following popular culture, or dictating it?" (I'd say, a little of both.) This question has been explored pretty deeply by feminist thinkers in the past 50 or 60 years, and I might be running afoul of the subreddit's rules if I present their arguments here. But the phenomenon you hinted at - men's visual sexual attraction influencing the way we design for and portray women's bodies - has a name in feminist theory, it's called "male gaze."


Question: why does wasabi heat affect our noses while chili pepper heat affect our tongues?

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 why does wasabi heat affect our noses while chili pepper heat affect our tongues?

It comes back to different chemicals that are present in these different foods. The pungent chemical present in chili peppers, capsaicin, excites our tongue and triggers similar reactions that a high temperature would cause, so we associate it very directly with "heat." Other chemicals like piperine (found in many peppercorns) have similar effects, though most people find piperine to be more biting and less hot. With wasabi, as well as horseradish, mustard, and a few others, the chemical that gives it its pungency is allyl isothiocyanate, which our body reacts to a little differently and which has a stronger effect on our sinuses - as anyone who's taken too big a bite of horseradish or wasabi can tell you, they can cause a pretty major reaction. It can actually be great if you need to clear your sinuses too! Both chemicals ultimately have the same goal - the plants want to avoid certain animals eating them as much as possible - they just work in slightly different, convergent ways. The effect of these chemicals repels most mammals and insects, while birds, who aren't as affected, will happily eat chili peppers and spread their seeds. Humans, being the crazy things that we are, have decided that we enjoy these sensations in moderation, and we've found ways to incorporate them deliciously into food. And there are others as well - the piquancy of ginger and garlic, the numbing heat of szeschuan peppers, these are all different chemicals that make our food flavorful and interesting in different ways.


Question: What decides the volume and duration of a thunder clap?

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 What decides the volume and duration of a thunder clap?

Imagine the soundwave/shockwave of thunder like an invisible cylinder around the lightning you just saw. That cylinder is created at the moment you see lightning, and it grows in radius at the speed of sound (approx. 300m/s). Now on the surface of that cylinder there are one thousand of tiny little surfers, each of the surfing in their own direction away from the lightning, and whenever a surfer collides with your ear, you hear a noise. Now, as the cylinder grows, all of the surfers naturally surf away from each other, and all the surfers grow further and further apart (or less and less energy per surface area). The less surfers reach your ear, the more quiet the thunder. The duration of thunder is a little bit harder to imagine. Again, a thousand surfers riding the shockwave. In their path from the lightning outwards, some of the surfers hit rigid objects like walls, houses, rocks, or trees. These rigid surfaces reflect them away from their original path. But if they cross a city, they don't only hit one house, but many. They end up on sort of a crazy random walk through the city, reflected hundreds to thousands of times. But in the end they may still end up in someones ear, and that person can again hear a tiny noise. Now as I said there a thousands of surfers, and all of them are randomly reflected a different number of times, so they take a different amount of time until they can be heard. Hence the once short, loud bang (many surfers arriving all at the same time) became a long, less loud rumble (many surfers all arriving one after another). Edit: Gold? For a bunch of surfers? Thank you kind stranger!


Question: How does the sun location specify where we are on earth?

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 How does the sun location specify where we are on earth?

The sun rises in East & set in West & travel over the equator If you know which way north you can use this information to determine if you are in northern hemisphere (Sun will be to the south) or southern hemisphere (Sun in north) If you use a sextant you can measure the exact angles of sun from horizons triangulate your exact position (within a few hundred square feet) on earth on a chart


Question: How do authors benefit from their works being in libraries?

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 How do authors benefit from their works being in libraries?

The library still has to pay for the books. Publishers don't just hand the books to libraries for free, someone still bought them. Sure, that means that multiple are reading one copy, but that's fine. it'd be mad to go into writing for the money. Most authors do it because they want their books to be read, not to become rich. If your book did well enough to end up in libraries then you've probably made a perfectly decent amount from it Authors are also people who enjoy reading so you're unlikely to find an author who hasn't at some point benefitted from a library. It'd be a dick move to read other people's books for free when you couldn't afford it, but then get mad when people want to read your books the same way


Question: How do armies collect their dead soldiers?

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 How do armies collect their dead soldiers?

Often, they didn’t in places like iwo jima. Those to-the-last-man island fights were brutal and there was rarely a chance to collect the dead. Many Japanese remain where they fell, or were collected up by the US forces and buried in mass graves. Most US soldiers were recovered hours to weeks after a battle, and usually repatriated to the US. Historically, armies would sometimes allow groups from either side to move around openly in front of the guns to collect the dead and wounded, but not often since the 1800s. And places like the Somme, the dead remain in the ground where they died.


Question: BCAA's, Fish Oil, Creatine, Protein and other workout supplements, what is their purpose?

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 BCAA's, Fish Oil, Creatine, Protein and other workout supplements, what is their purpose?

Creatine is part of your body's energy system. Your body will use stored ATP within the first second and then creatine for the next 3-4 seconds. If you're a bodybuilder, taking creatine may increase your anaerobic capacity (both are anaerobic sources). There's science that indicates supplementing increases your pool slightly, but you excrete the rest so it has high diminishing returns. Bodybuilding requires anaerobic activity, because aerobic takes much longer to get up and running. It has more significant effects for sprinters, bodybuilders, powerlifters, etc but not that big a deal for marathon runners, cyclists, etc. It can cause you to gain weight from retaining water though. Fish oil or omega 3 is used in the biosynthesis pathway for anti-inflammatory molecules. It can balance out omega-6 in your diet which usually creates inflammatory molecules. Inflammation is a necessary requirement for your body to heal, but excessive amounts just causes unnecessary pain. It can reduce excessive swelling and pain, and can help reduce the time to recovery. Muscle is made of protein. You need to eat protein for your body to build muscle and give other cells protein. You use it for essential amino acids that you can't make yourself to build proteins in your body. BCAAs (Branched Chain Amino Acids) are very new. People say it stimulates muscle growth, but research suggests the opposite. It actually slows down both growth and loss. Instead, its used when people stop eating as much protein to slow down muscle loss and it also has some effects to improve healing. I couldn't tell you about "other" because it really depends. A lot of stuff is junk though, but omega-3 PUFAs, creatine and protein are basically essential building blocks your body needs and giving more helps when you're getting big. BCAAs have mixed evidence though, and are not necessarily effective.


Question: What's the difference between a muonic atom and an electronic atom?

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 What's the difference between a muonic atom and an electronic atom?

Muons are particals that function like electrons, but where electrons ha e almost immeasurably small mass, muons have a bigger mass that is clearly measurable. It's still a stupid small number though and really hard to write. Anyway, a muonic atom has muons where one or more of it's electrons should be, so it winds up heavier overall. They're pretty rare though.


Question: How was the first computer software coded?

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 How was the first computer software coded?

The very first programs were written directly in machine code - that is, they told the processor exactly what to do at each step through instructions mechanically fed to the processor via punch cards. The first compiler (thing that translates human-readable source code into machine code) had to be written that way, too - but once one compiler existed, you could write a new compiler using the language of the old one and bootstrap your way all the way to complex modern languages.


Question: How do we know multiple/parallel universes may exist?

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 How do we know multiple/parallel universes may exist?

We don't know that they exist, but if they did they would solve some problems in theories of physics. For example, physicists often ask why something came out the way that it did, but they generally don't like the answer, "because our place in the universe is special". So when they ask why is the charge of the electron the value we seem to measure or why the Planck length is the value it is, or why this particular quantum event turned out one way instead of another way that could possibly be, they want a more satisfactory answer. Parallel universes offer a way to answer these questions much more satisfactorally. The constants of our universe aren't special, there are many or infinite universes each with their own values and we just happen to be in this one with these values. The result of that quantum event actually happened both ways and we just ended up in the universe where it went the way we detected. We are no longer special and that makes phycists happy.


Question: Could you theoretically create your own religion and demand your work to accommodate it under freedom of religion?

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 Could you theoretically create your own religion and demand your work to accommodate it under freedom of religion?

I think it would depend on your contract with your employer, however in theory if you come up with your own religion and follow the IRS guidelines for it to be considered a church legally ( at least I think I’m no lawyer) they’re could be no repercussions as it is for all intents and purposes a religion. Also if they do say fire you for it then you could (again not a lawyer) seek legal compensation