Question: How does our brain make the difference between smells?

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 How does our brain make the difference between smells?

Your nose senses a specific combination of molecules from the air. That information is sent to the brain and processed there. If its a familiar smell your brain links it to the memory of having smelled this specific combination before and you think of the type of fruit for example. Good or bad are decided by previous experience and also genetics. Really toxic stuff doesnt have a smell that gets processed to think of as bad. Your nose just gets damaged and your body immediately recoils before the brain even begins to work. If its more of an unpleasant smell you probably have smelled it before and your brain has decided that it its source is bad. I for example get sick when smelling a certain chinese chicken recipe bc my mom used to make it alot when I was a kid and had a kidney failure that caused me to throw up a lot. So the chicken wasnt even the cause but my brain still made that link. The chicken was guilty by association if you will


Question: Is there a difference between microwaves used for mobile networks and microwaves in microwave ovens?

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 Is there a difference between microwaves used for mobile networks and microwaves in microwave ovens?

To make this a lil easier to understand, let's use another more familar form of electromagnetic energy: visible light. Same basic principles apply! Using your cell phone and its towers to communicate via microwaves is like getting a message from someone who's flashing a light on a hilltop far away. His light doesn't have to be exceptionally bright or intense, and the amount of light that *actually* reaches you is extremely low, most of it dissipates out into the environment. Which is fine, As long as you can see it flash on and off you can get the message. Cooking with microwaves is kinda like cooking with an EZ bake oven. (If you aren't a girl or didn't have a little sister growing up, EZ bake ovens use a light bulb right next to a little pan to cook stuff.) We're putting a high powered source of energy inside a closed chamber, right next to the food. Instead of dissipating out, all this energy bounces around and is absorbed by your snack, creating heat. So yeah, they're the same kind of thing, but being used in very different ways in very different amounts of energy.


Question: How is soap simultaneously made from fat and an effective remover of fat?

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 How is soap simultaneously made from fat and an effective remover of fat?

Because you modify the molecule so one end is polar and can be dissolved in water. Fat is hard to remove by water because it is non polar and is not easy to mix with water but soap and alcohol have polar and non polar ende. So is can form a layer around other fat so the outside can be mixed with water and you can dissolve and transport the fat away.


Question: Do cats actually remove dirt by licking their paws and rubbing their faces?

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 Do cats actually remove dirt by licking their paws and rubbing their faces?

If you had thick fur covering your face and paws, yes it would work. It sort of works like a washing cloth would, giving you more grip instead of just mushing the dirt around. Also a cat's tongue is different from other animals' in ways that make it better at grooming so that helps a lot too.


Question: What are the reasons people say communism/socialism does not work with larger populations?

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 What are the reasons people say communism/socialism does not work with larger populations?

Sweden is not a socialist economy. It's a social market or social democracy. Socialism doesn't work in Sweden, since Sweden is not socialist. The underlying economy is a market. People have private property, businesses, and employment. Businesses have owners, shareholders, dividends, and profits. Transactions are for the most part undertaken privately and mostly at prices dictated by the market. Socialism or communism is when most economic decisions about the use and exchange of property are made either collectively or by the state. But Sweden, like the rest of Europe, lets most decisions be made by individuals acting in markets. On top of the market lies some socialist-like regulations (less than you'd think) and taxes (high, but comparable to Italy, France, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, etc.). In fact, for most of its history until the late 20th century, Sweden didn't even have a particularly noteworthy amount of taxes and regulations. Most of its wealth was built during a time when Sweden had slightly lower tax collections than the European average. Even today, though many on both the right and left believe to the contrary, Sweden has arguably fewer restrictions on market behavior than many places in the US. And if socialism is taken in the populist sense of "making sure the rich don't have more rights than the poor" Sweden is probably a worse model for socialism than the US. Their income tax rates are high, but close to being flat. The highest tax bracket in Sweden applies to people who make just one and half times the national average, while the US highest tax bracket applies to people making eight and a half times the national average. The Swedish VAT (similar to a sales tax) is much higher than US sales taxes, and VATs are regressive, meaning that they take proportionately more wealth from poorer people than richer people. Sweden collects 4.5 times more in VAT than the US collects in state sales taxes, and these taxes disadvantage the poor. Sweden has business taxes and capital gains taxes that are comparable to the US, sometimes higher, sometimes lower. Least socialist of all, Sweden has no inheritance tax or estate tax. There are rich families in Sweden that are able to pass on old family wealth without any tax, and since the business tax and capital gains tax are much lower than the income tax, the richest Swedes often pay a much smaller percentage of tax than the average working Swede. So Sweden has high taxes on everybody, not just the rich, while the US has one of the most progressive tax systems that mostly targets high-income rich people. What causes people to assume Sweden is socialist is that its tax burden is funneled to social welfare spending. But even this spending is less generous than it used to be and certainly doesn't amount to actual socialism. When you count both state and federal taxes and regulations, the US arguably has as socialist a country as Sweden, with the major exception being that Sweden has more generous welfare. The US spends most of its welfare on senior citizens, but otherwise a lot of the US budget goes to the military. Also, part of the issue is that the US enacts much of its social welfare policy through taxes. The third largest "welfare program" in the US is the Earned Income Tax Credit, which normally is not counted as welfare but sends tens of billions of dollars to low-income taxpayers every year. And hundreds of billions of dollars worth of tax exclusions, credits and deductions are used by taxpayers every year. If all of those taxes were collected and paid out by the US government, the US would have a far higher tax rate and far larger welfare state than Sweden. So I think the premise of your question is an issue. Sweden is not socialist. But if we're using a metric where it is, then arguably the US is even more socialist. I'll separately answer your question and ignore the premise that Sweden is socialist. I have a sense that you wanted more than just a long-winded rant on Swedish political economy.


Question: Why do your muscles shake when doing specific exercise?

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 Why do your muscles shake when doing specific exercise?

Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [ELI5: Why do my muscles start shaking/vibrating when I lift a weight heavier than I am capable of? ]( URL_5 ) ^(_5 comments_) 1. [ELI5: why do muscles tremble when lifting heavy objects? ]( URL_6 ) ^(_ > 100 comments_) 1. [ELI5:Why do muscles start shaking when i try to keep them still/at a precise location? ]( URL_0 ) ^(_21 comments_) 1. [Why do muscles "tremble" after doing something strenuous, like lifting weights or holding something heavy for some time? ]( URL_2 ) ^(_20 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why do my arms shake when I exercise? ]( URL_3 ) ^(_6 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why do our muscles shake under heavy load/strain? ]( URL_1 ) ^(_4 comments_) 1. [ELI5: Why do our legs shake uncontrollably when we press our foot down while sitting down? ]( URL_4 ) ^(_ > 100 comments_)


Question: What are those guys shouting on the floor of the stock exchange actually doing?

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 What are those guys shouting on the floor of the stock exchange actually doing?

Quick point of order - Outside of the movies and the Commodities exchange in Chicago there are very few or any open outcry markets left. So a floor of people shouting isn't really a thing anymore. What they *were* doing was buying and selling. They are shouting because it's loud as all hell and they need to be heard as they sell or buy whatever they were told to buy/sell.


Question: What does it mean when Wall Street gets a $1.5 trillion bailout? Who gets paid, and why?

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 What does it mean when Wall Street gets a $1.5 trillion bailout? Who gets paid, and why?

It is a means for banks to convert assets into cash. Sort of like a pawn-shop but for banks. The idea is that it allows the banks to continue funding the economy so as not to stifle productive activity. The fear is that with insufficient liquidity, the economy stops - no one makes stuff, no one sells stuff, employees don't get paid and cannot buy stuff. Although this is a crisis reaction, the concern is that it will take awhile for all the banks to repurchase these assets back (and generally these assets are profit making so they don't want to lose them to the Fed) A very loose analogy is this is like refinancing a home if someone loses their job and needs some immediate cash for living expenses until they get a new job.


Question: How has seafood supplies not been depleted by fishermen?

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 How has seafood supplies not been depleted by fishermen?

We have. The Grand Banks off Newfoundland used to be the greatest cod fishery in the world. Depletion by overfishing caused it to close for commercial cod in the 90s. Many other similar stories exist around the world. That said, the ocean is really (really really really) big. Much larger than the area of farmland on earth, and they can work in 3D so the total volume available to grow things in the ocean is FAR larger than on land. That's why it takes so long to make a dent, but we've made lots of dents, some of them really large.


Question: What is the difference between LCD and LED displays?

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 What is the difference between LCD and LED displays?

LCD - Liquid Crystal Display LED - Light Emitting Diode Despite having a different acronym, an LED TV is just a specific type of LCDTV. ... Older LCD TVs used cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) to provide backlighting, whereas LED TV's used an array of smaller, more efficient light emitting diodes (LEDs) to illuminate the screen. LED runs "colder", longer, and brighter. TV's are thinner.


Question: What exactly does the derivative of function *f* evaluated at a point tell you about function *f*?

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 What exactly does the derivative of function *f* evaluated at a point tell you about function *f*?

If I understand you correctly, you're looking for a real-world, or some sort of practical use of the derivative of a function. Is that correct? If so, consider some function f(t) for the distance an object has traveled away from some object for some range of t. What is the maximum distance it reaches (what is the local maximum of f(t), and at what time does that happen)? What is the maximum *speed* it reaches? f'(t) is an equation of the slope, or rate, of f(t). Solving it for zero (and in a non-trivial example, a little mathematical test) will tell you the time t that f(t) reaches a local max/min (if you think of a ball being thrown in the air, it would trace and upside down parabola, and at the peak of it, the slope--f'(t)--would be zero). Solving f(t) for that time would give you the max distance. f''(t), the second derivative, gives you the slope of the slope of the distance... the acceleration. Solve this for zero, do the little test, and you've got the point (or points) in time that the object goes from accelerating positively to negatively: in other words, the time it reaches it's max speed. Say this is just a ball, and it travels in a perfect parabola, d(x) = 25-(x-5)^2 = -x^2 + 10x + 50 . The derivative is 10-2x, solved for zero, x=5. 5 seconds (or whatever unit) is when the ball is as high as it gets, and that height is d(5) = 25 units. The second derivative is -2, which makes sense because from when the ball is let go, it is always decelerating from gravity. So that can't be solved for zero like the above one... but d(x) is only valid for x > =0, so simple reasoning says that must have been it's fasted speed. d'(0) = 10 units per second: the fastest the ball moves away from the ground. EDIT: to add to this per your last question, the "cue" that a derivative would help here is that you're looking for the maximum or minimum of a function, or being asked for something that occurs at those points of a function.


Question: if numbers are finite, why do we use /100 or 100% to measure limit?

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 if numbers are finite, why do we use /100 or 100% to measure limit?

Because we have a base 10 numbering system, so multiples of 10 are generally easiest to use. Since multiples of 10 are so easy, some people in ancient rome used fractions of 100 quite often before there was a decimal system. They called it in latin "per centum" meaning "for each hundred," and we kept that around, but shortened it to percent. We don't only use #/100 we also use #/10 or #/1000 etc, depending on how accurate you need to be. Of course, there's no reason you couldn't use any number. 27/27 is equal to 100/100. (read as 27 divided by 27, 100 divided by 100) They both equal 1. But now that we have a decimal system, you can use 0.## to represent a portion of one whole, with the whole being "1" of course.


Question: What is a Riemann Surface and why is it significant?

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 What is a Riemann Surface and why is it significant?

I'm currently just being introduced to the topic of complex variables, but I think I may know what Riemann surfaces are. Since I don't know your math background, I'll start off by saying that complex variables are just numbers involving both a real component and an imaginary component (represented by a number followed by the letter i). An example would be 3+2i where 3 is the real part and 2i is the imaginary part. You can do some pretty cool stuff with them, including take derivatives, invent new functional traits, but one cool thing you can do is graph them. As it turns out, graphing complex numbers is a little different than real numbers. For instance and to digress, real numbers lie on a 'real number line'. That's a pretty straightforward concept, with negative numbers lying to the left side of the line in decreasing order, positive numbers to the right side of the line in increasing order, and 0 in the center. Complex numbers on the other hand lie on a 'complex number plane'. What essentially happens is you take your real number line from earlier, and that now becomes your 'x-axis' for this new plane. You then add a 'y-axis' perpendicular to the x-axis, and this axis is your imaginary component axis, with positive i values lying upwards, and negative i values lying downwards. You can then proceed to graph stuff like 3+2i on the complex number plane by proceeding 3 positive units in the x direction, and two positive units in the y direction. You essentially just added a imaginary number line to your real number line to make a complex number plane. (Cool note here, if you happen to know the relationship i^2=-1, then think about taking a real number 3 which lies on the x-axis, multiply it by i, giving you 3i, which now lies on the y-axis (rotates 90 degrees), then multiply by i again, giving 3i^2=-3 which lies on the x-axis but in the negative x direction (180 degree rotation). So is 'i' just something you multiply numbers by to perform a rotational transformation? Neat thought!) Pretty awesome stuff, but that is only useful in graphing points. To graph functions of complex variables requires a function of 4 dimensions, which humans are incapable of doing. But I've introduced all necessary topics, and now I will finally address your question by presenting a few more. How do you rank the magnitude of these complex numbers? In other words, how do you tell if one complex number is bigger or smaller than another? Is 3+2i larger than 1+387i? Or is 543-4i bigger than either of those? How do you define infinity? As it turns out there are no good answers to those questions. And that's where Riemann surfaces come in. Riemann surfaces are a number of possibly infinitely many sheets that cover the entirety of the complex plane. The simplest Riemann surface that I know of is a sphere, so that's what I'll use to attempt to explain this. What Riemann proposed, is that you take a sphere, assign values to all the points along the sphere, and cut it through the equator with the complex number plane. From here, you draw an arrow, which always begins with its tail originating at the North Pole of the sphere, to the coordinate on the complex number plane of the point you wish to know. I should give you note, that the complex number plane stretches infinitely far beyond the radius of the sphere, i.e. the plane is much bigger than our sphere. Where the arrow makes contact with the sphere is the value of whatever you are looking for. There are actually two possible scenarios, 1. If the point on the complex number plane lies outside of the sphere then the arrow will make contact with the sphere before making contact with the plane, and will be a positive value. Or 2. The point on the complex number plane lies within the sphere, and the arrow must be extended beyond the complex number plane to strike the sphere on the negative value side. That may not make very much sense, but drawing may help. It's also good to note, that infinity lies at the North Pole. This means, that as our point on the complex number plane increases in either it's real or imaginary value (i.e. Extends farther outward in ANY direction along the complex number plane) then our function increases closer to infinity. It's also interesting to note, that zero lies along the 'rotationary axis' of our sphere (I.e. If our arrow was to be drawn from the North Pole to the point (0,0i) (which is the South Pole) that would be considered a value of zero.) Also interesting to note is that negative infinity no longer exists, we simply only care for infinity at this point. There is a lot of mathematical terminology associated with this, and I may have butchered explaining it, or explained it totally wrong, so take this all with a grain of salt. But other conditions include stuff involving e-hoods and differentiability of complex functions which step up the difficulty by quite a bit. Complex variables is also really quite fascinating, as well as Riemann's work and his life, so I hope this didn't totally dissuade you from any future math potential/ careers. Best of luck!


Question: What is mRNA? What is it’s potential and far along in development is it?

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</answer>
 What is mRNA? What is it’s potential and far along in development is it?

Super simple here. Say you wanted build something....back in the day you would have gone to the library and found a book that had plans in it. You would have copied those plans and taken them home and built the thing. DNA is the instruction book, the library is the nucleus. Your copy of the instructions that you wrote in your own words and took home are the mRNA, the tools you used to build it are the tRNA, and the final product is a protein That help?


Question: How do $1 pizza slice places in NY make money?

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 How do $1 pizza slice places in NY make money?

Two ways: First, flour is cheap, tomato sauce is cheap, and you can use a surprisingly small amount of cheese on a surprisingly big pizza. Second: barely. Despite their pretty favorable ingredient costs, pizza restaurants run on thin margins. Rent is expensive, and at 50¢ gross margin a slice, it's hard to sell enough slices to stay in the black.


Question: Is the practice of "Creative Accounting" in Hollywood different from accounting practices in other industries, and is it inherently unethical or illegal?

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 Is the practice of "Creative Accounting" in Hollywood different from accounting practices in other industries, and is it inherently unethical or illegal?

Oh, it's definitely unethical, but not illegal. If your neighborhood plumber charges you $500 to replace an old toilet, but your brother, who is also a licensed plumber, charges you $2000 to do the same job, that's not illegal to use your brother. That's the basics of hollywood accounting. I'm not going to find the lowest bidder to do X job on the movie we are making. I'm going to use my brother, so he gets the money. & #x200B; If movie studios belonged to the government where we require oversight on how money is spent, it would be a different situation.


Question: How do live traffic maps work, and how was this technology developed?

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 How do live traffic maps work, and how was this technology developed?

Pretty much anybody who is using google maps has agreed to share their location data with google. So they are able to see where you are, how fast you are moving, and how many others are near you. They use this to give you alerts to slowdowns, accidents, and other obstacles.


Question: Why do some speakers have an very broad frequency response?

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 Why do some speakers have an very broad frequency response?

Sound engineer here. Frequency response reaching beneath our hearing range might be beneficial mainly because of two reasons 1. Frequency response isn’t a stiff limitation. E.g. 25 - 25000 Hz means the speaker is capable of reproducing the sound in that range within a given margin (usually 3 dBs). It means, for example, it will reproduce 27000 Hz (27 kHz) but it will be 4.5 dB quieter (softer) than it should be compared to the level of sounds in the 25 - 25000 Hz range. So the extended frequency response usually mean better (more ‘flat’) response in the most important range. 2. Reproduction of fast transients - very ‘quick’, snappy sounds like a snare drum or acoustic guitar strum. Even though we can’t really hear a sound of 25 kHz, it is possible to hear a subtle difference in the attack of this kind of sounds. It means that the speaker is able to act “quicker” than a speaker going up to only 20 kHz. This is also the reason why we record sound in high sample frequencies (like 192 kHz). It’s another topic, but it lets us record frequencies up to 96 kHz - while it’s waaaay above hearing range, the subtle difference is there.


Question: I've heard a bunch of gym goers talk about muscle memory, and how if you were in shape before then its easier to get back in shape because of muscle memory. What can some experts tell me about this?

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 I've heard a bunch of gym goers talk about muscle memory, and how if you were in shape before then its easier to get back in shape because of muscle memory. What can some experts tell me about this?

scientific answer: when we gain muscle, we're making new muscle cells. when we lose it, we don't lose muscle cells but the individual cells get smaller. its then easier to get back to our peak strength because we don't need to make new cells again, just bulk up the ones we have.


Question: Why can't we live just off of sunlight energy?

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 Why can't we live just off of sunlight energy?

Biologically? Even plants can't live off sunlight alone, and they sit around all day. They still need essential nutrients and water from the soil, despite the fact that they don't move. Cold-blooded animals (like reptiles) move little and do get some energy from UV light. That's why you might see lizards sitting under a big blue lightbulb in pet stores. However they still need extra sustenance to thrive and grow. Warm-blooded animals like us humans use a lot of energy. We're constantly heating our bodies, and we move around all the time. We simply need more energy than can be collected from sunlight alone.


Question: What exactly is software maintenance?

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 What exactly is software maintenance?

1. Bug fixes. No software is perfect, and sometimes bugs are only found after the software has already been deployed for years because some user used it in an unexpected way. 2. Adaptation to updating environments. Perhaps certain features provided by the operating system have changed or some features the program uses became deprecated, so the software needs to be changed accordingly. For example, before Windows Vista, any program could easily run with Administrator privileges, so many programmers just did that by default. In Vista they added "User Account Control" which prompted the user whenever a program wanted Administrator privileges, so lots of programs had to be fixed so they wouldn't bug the user so much. 3. Implementing new features from user requirements, like supporting a new file format or a new technology. 4. Increasing software maintainability and reliability for the future, i.e. fixing problems before they might happen.


Question: Why is it a bad idea to pay off one loan with another loan?

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 Why is it a bad idea to pay off one loan with another loan?

You pay interest every month on a loan. If the second loan is much shorter and/or at a lower interest rate this can be a good idea to save money overall. That's called "refinancing" and it happens all the time. If the new loan isn't really different than the previous one then you're just wasting the loan origination fees. Banks don't extend new loans for free.


Question: why are wooden barrels "barrel-shaped" (i.e., wider across the middle than at the top and bottom) rather than cylindrical? Wouldn't cylindrical containers be easier to build, store, and transport?

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 why are wooden barrels "barrel-shaped" (i.e., wider across the middle than at the top and bottom) rather than cylindrical? Wouldn't cylindrical containers be easier to build, store, and transport?

Barrels that are full are VERY heavy. That's a lot of liquid. So you want things that are easier to handle, not just move. And barrels have that bulge that makes they way better for this than a cylinder that's shaped like the cardboard in a toilet paper roll. First, a barrel that has a rounded-outward middle is actually much easier to roll due to one point hitting the ground rather than the whole width of the cylinder. There's a lot less friction and a lot more control to do stuff like turn direction easily and quickly, something that's harder to do with a true cylinder shape. And then it's a lot easier to push upright when it's lying down. You can rock it to start it tilting up, and then push a little more once it's rocking... and up it goes. A cylinder is a LOT tougher - you have to pretty much lift it instead. But wait! There's more! They're easier to build really strongly too! Barrels are made by steaming arranged pieces of slightly-angle-cut wood under pressure, bending them into a curve at both ends, and then jamming a couple iron hoops over their outsides from top and bottom, squeezing both towards the middle until that bulge is really squeezed tight. The curve in the wood provides the extra outward force, pressing hard against that iron hoop, to keep the whole thing together and snug. Well, that hoop's a lot easier than something adjustable that could fit over a perfect cylinder and then be tightened. You don't get that barrel-shape's magical ability to create more tension by just sliding the hoops on both ends toward the centre to create more pressure - you have to somehow tighten the iron hoop you're putting on instead on a cylinder.... and that would be a lot harder to do without slipping. You'd need something like a ratchet or a knotted and welded cable, instead of a simple and easy-to-make hoop. So guess which is cheaper? Easier to move a lot of liquid, easier to stand it up after moving it, and easier and cheaper to construct. Lots to love about ye old-timer barrels compared those sucky cylinders!


Question: Why dont we raise space ships with balloons before using rocket engines to escape earths gravity?

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 Why dont we raise space ships with balloons before using rocket engines to escape earths gravity?

The physics are complex, but simply put, look at a Goodyear blimp. The blimp (the actual envelope containing the helium) is huge relative to the tiny cabin attached underneath. Now, replace the tiny cabin with a spaceship made of materials capable of sustaining atmospheric re-entry, fuel for the round-way trip, plus whatever gear and human payload is inside. The helium envelope would have to be so phenomenally huge to even be able to lift said spaceship that it would be totally impractical as a solution.


Question: why can't you divide by zero?

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 why can't you divide by zero?

Okay so say you have 10 apples. You can put those apples into 10, 5, 2, or 1 group/s quite easily. You could even put them into 4 groups by splitting 2 of the apples in half. How many apples would be in those 0 groups? How do you put 10 apples into 0 groups? The answer is that you cannot physically put those 10 apples into evenly into 0 groups. So the answer is undefined.


Question: What is a hyperparameter in machine learning?

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 What is a hyperparameter in machine learning?

The "parameters" are usually things to describe the actual pieces of the neural net, i.e. the individual weights between connected nodes. Ultimately those are determined by the algorithm as a result of training. The "hyperparameters" are the settings for the whole setup of the network and training. Things like the learning rate, number of units per layer, etc. They are "hyper" because they are a level above things like the weights between nodes.


Question: How does the wifi bridge work on my phone?

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 How does the wifi bridge work on my phone?

Hey that’s a neat feature! I’m not intimately familiar with the specifics of your phone, but I do have a fair knowledge of networks. What’s most likely going on is exactly the same process that 4G hotspot uses, but only involving wifi. Basically the laptop is connected to the phone via some means (hotspot wifi, Bluetooth or USB cable), on a private network just between those two devices. Any traffic from the laptop destined for the inter webs hits the phone and the phone performs some address translation (NAT) before forwarding it on via the hotel wifi. As far as the hotel can see you’ve only got one device (phone) using their connection. The phone keeps track of the data it forwards on so that when the response comes back, it knows to send it on through to the laptop. As for the battery life - wifi uses a lot less power than 4G does because the base stations are much much closer


Question: What’s the science behind stomach aches?

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 What’s the science behind stomach aches?

The stomach and all the other tracts of your digestive tube have a muscle layer around them. Stomach aches often times are due to that muscle layer contracting very hard because of a variety of stimuli, which include food poisoning and as said above, inflammation. There are many other kinds of stomach pain though, which can arise from other mechanisms. One of these is ulcerations, i.e holes in the layers of the stomach. Another is excessive stomach expansion, which can happen if you eat a lot. All of these situations can make you experience different kinds of pain: constrictive, cholic-like, for muscle contraction; stabbing and radiating to your back, very similar to a heart attack, for ulceration; gravative, like if someone was sitting on your stomach, for stomach dilation.


Question: Can the lack of brain training lead to memory loss as we age?

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 Can the lack of brain training lead to memory loss as we age?

What exactly are we calling brain training? The apps that claim they are training your brain have no scientific basis. The idea is if you make yourself think your brain will get trained to think. This is faulty logic in my opinion and does not protect from any of the age related diseases associated with memory loss, like dementia or Alzheimer's. However, practicing things like logical thinking or math problems certainly cannot hurt you.


Question: Why does a video stop and show the buffering icon when the grey bar which runs ahead of the main progress bar in them is still much ahead?

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 Why does a video stop and show the buffering icon when the grey bar which runs ahead of the main progress bar in them is still much ahead?

This depends a lot on what player you're using, but could be because the player is supposed to have a certain amount of data buffered (say, 5 - 10 seconds or so) and has dropped below that threshold. Or there could have been an error in the data received, so the player is attempting to re-download the corrupt data.


Question: why does music make us feel so good?

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 why does music make us feel so good?

I don't know if anyone can answer your question, but my thoughts on this are that humans look for patterns in their environment. I think that this is biological, to make them better hunters. So basically whenever something adheres to a pattern, we find it pleasing. Music is very patterned and so almost all humans I have met like music. It is biologically hardwired.


Question: How are protons and neutrons held together?

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</answer>
 How are protons and neutrons held together?

Protons and neutrons are made of particles called *quarks*. Quarks are, as far as scientists know, fundamental particles - meaning, quarks aren't made of even smaller particles. Quarks are made of energy, concentrated in the quark field. Quarks have something called *color charge*. To be absolutely clear: **color charge has nothing to do with visible color or photons or light**. It's just the name they chose to give it because it's a convenient analogy that helps explain sort of how it works. You know how white is really just how we perceive a mixture of all visible colors? (If not, [peruse some of these topics]( URL_1 ).) Specifically, because our eyes only detect red, green, and blue, white light is a combination of those. Quarks cannot exist alone. It just isn't possible. There is a reason, it's not important here. What *is* important is that when quarks are together, they must be "color neutral" or "white" - again, I want to emphasize that this doesn't mean literally visibly white, it's just a name, a concept. Protons and neutrons are made out of three quarks each (but slightly different ["flavors" of quarks]( URL_0 )). To be color neutral, a proton or neutron has to have a "red" quark and a "green" quark and a "blue" quark, all together. Regardless of what kind of quarks they are, one of them will have red color charge, one will have green color charge, and one will have blue color charge. [Side note: some rare and short-lived particles have *two* quarks, not three. Instead of red+green+blue, they have red+antired, or green+antigreen, etc. And of course there are particles that have antired+antigreen+antiblue. That's fine. As long as it either has a color+anticolor pair, or a three color set. And somewhat recently, scientists discovered a *very* rare, *very* short lived particle that had a three color set *and* a color+anticolor pair, for a total of five quarks! Crazy stuff.] But, they don't all stay the same color all the time. They will randomly change colors. But their color charge has to *go* somewhere. Kind of like when a positively charged proton absorbs a negatively charged electron, it becomes a neutron with no charge. When a neutron becomes a proton, that extra negative charge has to *go* somewhere, so the neutron emits an electron and becomes a proton. Likewise, when, say, a red quark becomes a green quark, it emits a particle that carries its red charge. That particle is called a *gluon*. Well, now this proton has two green quarks and a blue quark - it isn't color neutral! So the blue quark absorbs the gluon and becomes a red quark! Except now it's two greens and a red quark! The blue-turned-red quark still has to send its blue charge somewhere, though, so *it* emits a gluon. One of the green quarks absorbs it and becomes a blue quark. Huzzah! All three color charges are present, it's color neutral! Except that green quark has to send *its* green charge somewhere, so it sends out a gluon, and the cycle continues. As long as the quarks are sharing gluons between each other, they stick very close to each other and the particle doesn't fall apart. This is called the *color force* and it's the force that holds protons and neutrons together as protons and neutrons. **This is the important part for how protons and neutrons stick to _each other_**: usually the gluons get absorbed by other quarks within that same proton or neutron. *Occasionally*, they end up outside of it and get absorbed by quarks in a nearby proton or neutron. That little bit of sharing of gluons between nearby protons and neutrons is what holds them together. It's the same force - what we called color force a moment ago - sort of "leaking out" of the individual particles to affect the ones next to them. That little leak of color force is strong enough to overcome the repulsive force of the electromagnetic force trying to make all the positively charged protons fly away from each other. In the context of sharing gluons between protons and neutrons, this is called the *strong nuclear force*.


Question: Why does more sound also make sound louder?

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 Why does more sound also make sound louder?

The amount of "loudness" is determined by the amount of energy that is shaking your eardrum. The more energy, the louder it is. There's a difference between how loud the same energy level of different pitches seems, but for now we'll just consider two people talking which is close in pitch so we can ignore that factor. Coming out of each mouth is a pattern of pressure waves, they pass through the air and shake your eardrum. The thing is that they interact - adding together. If the pressure bit of both meet you get more pressure, likewise with the low pressure bit, if the opposite bits meet you would get less variation. Because the sound of the two people talking isn't a constant, uniform wave, we don't just get cancellation. We get a more complex combined wave pattern shaking our eardrums that has more energy. So it seems louder. The pattern though is not "twice the energy, twice the volume" it is more of a "10 times the energy, twice the volume" thing.


Question: What about honey makes it not expire?

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 What about honey makes it not expire?

The main reason is because honey is almost completely sugar. That high sugar concentration dehydrates any cells that try to take up residence through osmosis. (Osmosis being like a gravitational pull toward balance.) If there's water inside of a cell that falls into the honey, the honey will pull water out of the cell until the proportion of water to sugar inside the cell is equal to the proportion outside the cell. Since the honey had such a high sugar content, a single cell just doesn't have enough water in it to make a dent in that so the honey ends up pulling nearly all the water out of the cell, killing it in the process. There are some things that can survive without any water; botulism spores have already been brought up and are a great example of why we pasteurise honey, despite how well it kills bacteria on its own. There are other properties that play lesser roles like a chemical secreted by the bees called defensin-1 which works as an antibiotic but these other properties pale in comparison to the mighty osmotic pressure. What this means, though, is that, yes, honey has antimicrobial properties but the main one (osmosis) goes away the moment you dilute it because the balance mentioned earlier is much easier to reach if the overall solution has a lower percentage of sugar. In turn, that means that honey does not pass it's abilities on to you by drinking it since you dilute it with your saliva and stomach acid. In other words, if someone tells you it will help fight off a cold because of its antimicrobial properties, they don't know what they're talking about. It will, however, make your throat feel better temporarily but that's another ELI5.


Question: I live in the low desert of California where it regularly reaches 105° during summer. Why did 12 people in Canada die from overheating in 93° heat?

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 I live in the low desert of California where it regularly reaches 105° during summer. Why did 12 people in Canada die from overheating in 93° heat?

A combination of the two, coupled with external climatic factors - specifically humidity. You said you live in the desert, so I'm guessing the humidity is usually pretty low. Canada doesn't have much desert that I'm aware of (unless you count tundra), and Montreal definitely is *not* desert. Raise the humidity enough, and 78 degrees Fahrenheit feels like 98 degrees. Humans lose heat primarily through evaporation: we sweat, and as that sweat evaporates, it takes body heat with it. As the humidity increases, evaporation slows: the air can only hold so much water vapor, and the higher the humidity is, the more water vapor is already in the air. On top of that, Montreal is a lot farther north than California is--45° north. Their climate is generally much cooler than California's. If you were to visit Montreal in late October, you'd be in serious danger of hypothermia, while locals might not even be wearing their heavy coats yet (we are here in Southeast Michigan, but we're farther south, and our climate is more moderate than it should be due to being surrounded by the Great Lakes). People adapt to the climate where they live; conditions that fall outside the common range for that area tend to be dangerous for them.


Question: What would happen if you divide zero by zero?

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 What would happen if you divide zero by zero?

As GMOsYMMV, in math we would say that zero divided by zero is undefined; that is, there is not an answer. The reason why is rather simple. Let us first consider dividing by zero in general. If one attempts to do so, they run into a problem. Algebra tells us that if you do a mathematical operation (adding, dividing, etc.), you should be able to "undo" that by doing the opposite operation (subtracting, multiplying, etc.). Let's try that with zero, assuming that the answer is some number x: 5/0 = x Using algebra, we multiply both sides by zero: 5=0*x This is where we run into a problem. Anything times zero is zero, so x is some crazy number that should not exist. Now, let's make it worse by dividing zero by zero. It would initially appear that doing this does not violate any laws of math if we do what we did above: 0/0 = 0 0=0*0 But there is still a problem with this. Earlier we said anything time zero is zero. So that must mean that this expression is true: 0*2=0 Let's pretend that this equation is valid if we divided both sides by zero. Therefore, 0/0 = 2 There's a problem with this though: what if we use a different number besides two? 0*3=0 0/0=3 If 0/0 is equal to two and three, then: 2=3 Which is complete nonsense. This is the reason why zero divided by zero is undefined; it is the place where our ideas of math breaks down and doesn't make sense. Hope this helps!


Question: There are only 24 satellites for the GPS system, how do they handle signals from millions if not billions of devises communicating with them?

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 There are only 24 satellites for the GPS system, how do they handle signals from millions if not billions of devises communicating with them?

GPS is only a one-way radio signal. The satellites broadcast radio signals out to GPS recievers but there's no communication back the other way. A GPS device can figure out where it is by passively listening to the signals from the satellites. If that device wants actual maps rather than coordinates, it needs to have them stored locally or have a network connection to download them.


Question: why can DNA transcription and translation processes be 'wrong' and make mistakes?

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 why can DNA transcription and translation processes be 'wrong' and make mistakes?

DNA/RNA are built out of smaller units called nucleotides, which are a bit like the links in a chain - a strand of DNA/RNA is made up of many individual nucleotides stuck together. To produce a new strand, you need to get a bunch of nucleotides and put them in the right order, so your main job as a protein designed to do this is to figure out what the right order is. There are four DNA nucleotides - T, A, C and G. There's also a fifth nucleotide, U, which is the RNA version of T for an interesting but irrelevant reason. These nucleotides are the links you see in graphics of a DNA helix, like [this one]( URL_0 ). Notice how each of these links is split in the middle into two different colours. These are a visual representation of the DNA structure. See, DNA has two different strands each with its own nucleotides, that stick together a bit like a zip - the nucleotides on one strand of the DNA stick to the nucleotides on the other strand to form this stable helix structure. The fact they stick together like this is how proteins know what the right order of nucleotides is when replicating the DNA. Nucleotides exist in matching pairs that preferentially stick together. T and A are a pair, and C and G are a pair. To produce more DNA/RNA, proteins unzip the DNA to expose the nucleotides on one of the strands, and then free floating nucleotides come into the protein complex and if they stick to the next exposed nucleotide in the line, the protein glues them onto the end of the emerging strand. So if the exposed DNA strand says TTCAGACGA, then the proteins will produce an RNA strand of AAGUCUGCU, because those are the RNA nucleotides that stick to the DNA strand (noting that U here is substituting in for T). However, this stickiness is not particularly strong. It's done using interactions called hydrogen bonds, and the number of these bonds formed between a pair determines its stickiness. T and A pairs form 2 hydrogen bonds, while C and G pairs form 3. These have positive and negative ends, a bit like magnets, so TG and AC pairings aren't going to happen, but you can get TC and AG pairings, they'll just be uncomfortable and not fit properly. There are other proteins that check for these uncomfortable pairings and replace them with the right nucleotide, but they're not super reliable and there's a good chance they replace the wrong one and cause a mutation. Transcription errors occur then when the wrong nucleotides stick together. This isn't a big deal for RNA cos RNA lasts for such a short time, but the fixing proteins can permanently establish these mistakes as mutations in DNA, occasionally. Translation errors follow a similar process, but due to a mis-stickying between the nucleotides of the mRNA and the nucleotides of the already built tRNA molecules.


Question: How come when you have spotty cell service, turning your phone on and off airplane mode gives you better service?

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 How come when you have spotty cell service, turning your phone on and off airplane mode gives you better service?

It forces your phone to reconnect to the closest/best towers. Your phone caches which towers it usually connects to and continues to connect to them. Restarting the phone or resetting the communication settings (toggling airplane mode, settings - > general - > reset - > reset network settings (iPhone), etc) does the same thing.


Question: Does a hard drive change its weight if it's full storage?

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 Does a hard drive change its weight if it's full storage?

No, it doesn't. Data is stored as electrical charge, either on the platters of the drive, or within the solid state memory chips on an SSD. Adding electrons to or removing them from sections of the storage does not alter the weight. Additionally, the "empty space" on a hard drive isn't just a bunch of zeros. It generally has either old deleted data, or random data. What gives each sector of the platter meaning is the record of what files are located in what locations on the drive. So, the actual difference between a full and empty drive is a little bit of the structure of that index.


Question: How come when you open task manager to close a slow program, the program will sometimes suddenly start working again as if nothing is wrong?

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 How come when you open task manager to close a slow program, the program will sometimes suddenly start working again as if nothing is wrong?

I hope someone who knows some in depth details on this can chime in, but the short version is: Opening the task manager by your standard ctrl+alt+delete is not like starting any other program. It's treated by Windows differently, and interrupts other functions for a moment - that's why it can work even when the OS is otherwise nonresponsive. Sometimes it's enough to give whatever was causing the hangup a push - it depends on a lot of variables and what was actually causing the application to stop responding.


Question: If electrons move in a copper wire not by each electron travelling all the way, but by bumping into the one ahead and pushing it forward, how can electricity travel faster than the speed of sound of copper?

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 If electrons move in a copper wire not by each electron travelling all the way, but by bumping into the one ahead and pushing it forward, how can electricity travel faster than the speed of sound of copper?

The electrons don't bump into each other, they can't as their charges will repel them from one another. The propagation of electricity through a conductor is solely due to the propagation of the electric field not due to the motion of electrons. The speed of sound in copper is 4.6 km/s, electric signals move at a good fraction of the speed of light, but electrons in 12 gauge wire carrying 1 amp of current move at a whopping 2.3 x 10^-5 m/s. If you were waiting for electrons to bump into each other you'd be waiting a really long time, but luckily each electron is already pushing on other nearby electrons so as soon as one begins to move its electric field pushes on near by ones which move in the same direction so you're really just limited by how quickly the electric field can push on the next one which is a fraction of the speed of light.