Question: why when you're deep in thought or thinking about a memory, you seem to completely zone out of your current surroundings and feel as if you're almost reliving the memory or thought?

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 why when you're deep in thought or thinking about a memory, you seem to completely zone out of your current surroundings and feel as if you're almost reliving the memory or thought?

This is an excellent question. In fact, this question may actually be about what makes humans unique. First, let's consider something all organisms share: the need to understand their environment. While we may not look alike, our nervous systems have a lot in common with those of lobsters (and most other organisms; I just like the idea of comparing us to lobsters). We need to survey our environment and find out where we can expect to find resources, and where we can expect to meet threats. So lobsters scour the bottom of the sea, constantly on the lookout. What they are doing can in fact be called cartography. Their nervous systems are similar to ours, in a sense. When new information (regarding resources or threats) is discovered, it adapts. It changes in such a way that it becomes a representation of their environment. A map, if you will. Now, there's something different about us. Yet this thing is not unique to humans. The same thing goes for, say, mice. But that's not the point. We explore not only our physical environments. We explore our models of our environments. This is an idea that is gaining headway in neuroscience. It's a refreshing perspective that is of quite some use. We have this thing called the 'Default Mode Network'. It doesn't sound very interesting. Yet, you will find that some neuroscientists start drooling at the mention of the subject. Why? Because this network truly is very interesting. Well, we've got to compare it to another network to see why it's interesting: the Task Positive Network. When you're actively engaged in some task, this is the network that's active. You can say that this is the network responsible for the charting of your physical environment. The Default Mode Network, however, is active when you're exploring your mental model of your environment. It's the network that's active when you're 'zoning out'. Researchers first became aware of this network when they noticed that the brains of their participants were active even when they weren't doing anything. Their minds were wandering. And their brains still managed to spend a lot of fuel. This is important. The brains uses 20 percent of your energy budget. It's very, very expensive. You'd think that it would limit its consumption when you're not actively engaged in a task. So the fact that it's operating at the same level when your mind is wandering can only mean one thing: 'zoning out' is important to your survival. Now, the question is: why is it so important? To answer this, we might consider what people are usually thinking about when they are zoning out. They are thinking about people they know, goals they are striving for; things they want and need. What is happening when they are doing so, is that they are investing energy right now so that their odds of experiencing good things in the future increases. They are making investments. You've got to spend money to make money. And you've got to spend energy to earn energy. Like a clever economist, they are putting their assets to good use. Now, there's another part of this. This relates to the second half of your question. The 'almost meditative' state. The Hungarian psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmilahalyi (pronounced chick-sent-me-high) is famous for having described the 'flow' state. This is a state where people lose the sense of their surroundings because of their focus on a task. It feels good. It's also very simple to explain. A task can range from easy to difficult. Your skill level related to the task can range form novice to expert. When your skill level matches the task difficulty, you experience the flow state. If the task is too easy (compared to your skill level) you experience boredom. If it's too hard, you experience anxiety. When you are 'zoning out', you are in a way engaged in a task. And that means you can reach the flow state. The reason I stated at the beginning of this that this may be what makes humans unique, is that we are spending a lot of our time in this state. The sub-cortical parts of our brains are tasked with automating actions that are 'beneath us'--like riding your bicycle. The basal ganglia takes the wheel and drives. This allows you to enter your Default Mode Network. If something very unexpected happens, your locus coeruleus will fire a blast of noradrenaline, and this will shift your attention to what is before you immediately. Your Default Mode Network will switch to your Task Positive Network. Now, if you were actually talking about blissful unawareness, I might have missed the bar entirely. Yet, I hope this has been useful somehow. -u/pianobutter


Question: Why is sleep of poor quality during depression?

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 Why is sleep of poor quality during depression?

Depression causes disruiption in the brain's ability to create, use, or reabsorb various chemicals, most of which have a role to play in sleep. Similarly, chemicals and responses that regulate sleep and our circadian cycle can interfere with or exacerbate depressive disorders, which means there is a cyclic interaction between sleep and depressive disorders. When one is bad, it makes the other worse, which makes the first worse, which makes the second worse, and so on.


Question: In an age of digital currency, how is new money “created”?

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 In an age of digital currency, how is new money “created”?

Most new money is created as debt. Lets say I want to build a house for 100k. I go to the bank and get a loan. The bank doesn't have 100k sitting in a vault. They don't even need have 100k on deposit from another client to loan to me. We operate on Fractional reserve banking. So a new bank wants to loan me 100k, they don't need to have 100k. They might only have 20k, but under the fractional reserve system that is allowed. I then get my 100k loan, and basically pay it to the general contractor, and he builds my house. He is then giving the money to suppliers, employees, etc. At the same time, there is never really actual cash involved. This new money is mostly digital. Wire transfers, electronic payments, employee direct deposit. If people take this new money and withdraw it from the their accounts, it can create a demand for physical currency, in which case the US mint and Bureau of Engraving and printing will make more money to fulfill this demand. Governments can change fractional reserve requirements, and change interest rates as a tool to influence the economy.


Question: How can My State Minnesota experience both severe cold like now and extreme heat. I understand the cold being so far north. But how can we also experience the same heat as a state such as Florida or Arizona when they dont get near as cold?

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 How can My State Minnesota experience both severe cold like now and extreme heat. I understand the cold being so far north. But how can we also experience the same heat as a state such as Florida or Arizona when they dont get near as cold?

Fun fact about Minneapolis is that it is exactly halfway between the North Pole and the Equator. The 45th parallel runs through its city limits. But the earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees. In the summer, Minneapolis get the same power of sunlight as a city at 21.5 degrees north would on March 21st. That's the same as Kauai or Cuba. In the winter, it gets the same power of sunlight that a city at 68.5 degrees north would get. That's about as north as Murmansk, Russia.


Question: how come skiers don't break their legs?

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 how come skiers don't break their legs?

Because when they land, they don't really stop. As the saying goes, "it's not the fall that kills you, it's the sudden stop at the end." Ski jumps are set up so that there doesn't have to be a sudden stop. The landing slope is sloped downward at an angle almost as steep as the ski jumper is falling, so when they make contact with the ground, they don't have to absorb *all* their momentum with their legs all at once. If they made the same jump but there was just flat ground waiting for them below, then it would be a lot uglier.


Question: Why does scratching a CD cause the contents to become unreadable?

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 Why does scratching a CD cause the contents to become unreadable?

Reading cds is done by reflecting light off each bit. I guess it's comparable to reading Braille where you feel for bumps. If you scratch the cd you no longer get an accurate reflection so you don't know what it's supposed to be. Same way if you damage a Braille book you can't read it anymore.


Question: why does soda fizz more when poured into a glass with ice as opposed to one without?

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 why does soda fizz more when poured into a glass with ice as opposed to one without?

The surface of the ice is rough until it starts to melt enough. This provides nucleation sites where the bubbles can grow more easily. It's the same principle as the mentos in diet coke thing. If you rinse the ice with water first, it won't foam up as much. Try also pouring into a dry glass vs one that you've just rinsed. The rinsed glass will foam less.


Question: Why do Zoom, Skype, Teams, etc all open via the browser first, then the client?

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 Why do Zoom, Skype, Teams, etc all open via the browser first, then the client?

The link you clicked on is an HTTP (hypertext) link...your computer is programmed to open those with a browser. All computers, basically, know how to handle an HTTP link. The browser then looks at your machine and says "Oh, you've got Zoom, let's open that." If you don't have Zoom (or whatever) it prompts you to download it. This means that the link will basically work for everyone, regardless of whether you've got the software installed or not. It's possible to write a link that opens things other than a browser; the "mailto:" link is also very common and opens your email program. But nobody, so far, has standardized on a link type specifically for telecommuting apps and, even if they did, it would be a while before you could count on everybody's computer supporting them, and they'd be different for every app (we haven't standardized a videoconference protocol that's in wide use...yet). You'd message a link like that to a friend and your computer wouldn't know what to do with it...most computers will ask you how to open things they don't recognize, but if you don't already have the app installed you may not know what to pick or where to get it. Basically, doing it via HTTP link makes it really user friendly for basically everyone, albeit at the cost of an extra click.


Question: After baking something with chocolate chips, why do the chips stay semi melted instead of going back to solid when it cools?

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 After baking something with chocolate chips, why do the chips stay semi melted instead of going back to solid when it cools?

Chocolate, in its hardened state, has a very specific organized crystalline structure. This keeps it solid and gives it the shiny look and firm "snappy" quality. If you melt it at too high a temperature, or for too long, the crystals get all disorganized and they don't form back into a cohesive pattern. They just stay all jumbled up, so the chocolate doesn't set properly. Also, many brands of chocolate chips are not true chocolate but rather they're *compound* chocolate, which just means that they're made with fat other than cocoa butter, or a combination of cocoa butter and other fats. This also affects their melting properties.


Question: How does water ‘defy gravity?’

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 How does water ‘defy gravity?’

The basic answer is water tension. The polar nature (+/- charges at each end) of water molecules results in the molecules "sticking" together. That's water tension. Water molecules look kinda like this: O / \\ H H and the O side is usually positively charged, and the H ends are negatively charged. This is called a hydrogen bond when those slight charges kinda hold things together. Try this experiment to see it in action: * 1 penny, placed on the table * 1 glass of water * 1 eyedropper, filled with water from glass * gradually add individual drops of water to the penny, you will see a bubble of water form over the top of the penny * Refill eyedropper as necessary, keep adding drops - you will be surprised by how many you can add, eventually you will reach a critical point where all the water will fall off all at once. Basically, in the penny experiment, we are gradually increasing the amount of force being applied to the outer "barrier" of water molecules. Once that force exceeds the force that holds those molecules together, the whole thing falls apart.


Question: How can time be different from the present in space?

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 How can time be different from the present in space?

The viewing dinosaurs thing. Ok. So light travels very fast, but it still has a finite speed. And you see things because light bounces off them and radiates in all directions at the speed of light. The dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. On a planet millions of light years (how far light travels in one of your years) away, the light that bounced off Earth and the dinosaurs millions of years ago is _just now getting there_. So if alien astronomers have a strong enough telescope and are looking at just the right part of their sky as to see the light just now arriving from Earth, they'd see Earth as how it appeared millions of years ago. With dinosaurs. If they were to keep looking and watching, for millions of years they'd eventually see light from right. now.... but millions of years in the future, by the time that light got to them.


Question: What's the strange odour that comes out of water bottles when you keep water(usually warm) in them for more than a day with the lid closed?

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 What's the strange odour that comes out of water bottles when you keep water(usually warm) in them for more than a day with the lid closed?

The comments about plastic are correct. Another few potential causes: - If you have drank from the bottle before closing it up there is some bacteria from your mouth in there that can grow. - Tap water has all sorts of stuff in it and if you leave it long enough stuff will grow from it - Water can react with the container - particularly hard water.


Question: How do the federal banks of a country determine whether to increase or decrease interest rates? Like whats the relationship between interest rates and a country's economy?

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 How do the federal banks of a country determine whether to increase or decrease interest rates? Like whats the relationship between interest rates and a country's economy?

Low interest rates make loans easier and stimulate investment. High interest rates make loans more difficult and discourage investment. Central banks use interest rates as a tool to try to increase economic growth or decrease it. Usually what they do is they watch the economy and they lower interest rates when unemployment is the most serious concern. When inflation is the largest concern, they will raise interest rates to try to keep prices in check. They try to make all changes slowly and they try to telegraph every move so that nobody is surprised or shocked.


Question: what gives different types of clouds their shape?

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 what gives different types of clouds their shape?

There are a few important points. Temperature is very important. Hot air will rise very quickly, create what we call "thermals" - also known as updrafts. This hot air can then condense when its a lot higher than colder air. Hot air often also carries a lot of water, and so hot air water can produce towering clouds that seem to be "compacted". Cold air forms low-sitting clouds that may be more stretched out as there is a bit more time to separate the water. Pressure is very important. Low pressure can create "harder" (instead of fluffier) clouds which are more centralised and compact. High pressure can create very high-in-the-sky clouds which are fluffy/wispy. "Wind" is related to pressure and temperature usually, but forgetting this, of course wind can move clouds around, potentially winds can separate large clouds into a few smaller clouds. Of course, because wind, temperature, pressure and "the amount of water in the air" are related (they all affect each other), very generally we have a picture of 2 types of clouds - those which form on calm, sunny, high pressure days (high, spread out, white, fluffy/wispy, unlikely to rain). And those which form on windy, wet, low pressure days (lower, much more dense, often grey/black, occasionally with thunder).


Question: Why is first-past-the-post still the voting system in many countries?

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 Why is first-past-the-post still the voting system in many countries?

No one wants to mention that FPTP is something people understand. It's easy to grasp that one person equals one vote, most votes win. You start to try to explain any other system and it gets confusing and people get worried that suddenly their vote isn't such a simple choice anymore. The worry there is that people simply don't vote because the results are 'fuzzy' to them. Also people like winners, each election has one, people who voted for that winner feel great. People who didn't feel cheated. It's just like sports, and regular folks love sports and totally get that sometimes you are fans of the victor and sometimes not. We've had referendum recently on switching and it failed. It's almost impossible to explain a new system to folks who are fine with things as is.


Question: FAT32, exFAT, and NTFS: what’s the difference, why does it matter, and why does the size of the drive limit formatting choices?

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</answer>
 FAT32, exFAT, and NTFS: what’s the difference, why does it matter, and why does the size of the drive limit formatting choices?

Tl;Dr: they are the same but allow slightly different maximum sizes for hard drive partitions. Full spiel: all memory is kept in paired bits of hexadecimal code. This code is the arranged into a grid, or table. A part of this table is the address table/lookup table (there are a few other names for this table too). This table is usually kept at the very beginning of the entire partition (section of hard drive), and sometimes at the end too. FAT32 - FAT stands for file allocation table (remember the address table?), the 32 simple means that data is stored in 32 bit chunks. This is the most common by today's standards and FAT was developed originally for Windows systems, but is in common use in many, many systems today. Files are allowed to be a max of 4gb in size and smaller files have a minimum size (called cluster size in FAT) of about 16kb. The maximum partition size of FAT32 is 8gb. NTFS - NT files system is Windows newer default system for memory allocation. It supports security permissions (file permissions, read and write or write protection), change journals (records of actions performed), shadow backups, encryption, quota limits and a few other things I will gloss over. There is no file size limit and no partition limit (at least not realistic ones). Where this file system lacks is in compatibility, very few systems other than windows can read and write to NTFS drives. Xbox one can, but earlier Xbox models cannot, PlayStations cannot, macs cannot; with Linux your mileage may vary. ExFAT - extend FAT is another Windows designed system, it is build with size in mind. As with NTFS, it has large limits on its file and partition sizes. ExFAT is much more compatible than NTFS, macs offer read and wrote support, many Linux systems have add ons to read and write to it. It's only really big disadvantage is a lack of support for journaling, or logging changes to the state of the drive. All told, this is probably *my* preferred format, for now.


Question: Why aren't things in orbit constantly accelerating?

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 Why aren't things in orbit constantly accelerating?

They are constantly accelerating. But it's important to know that, in physics, "accelerating" doesn't mean "getting faster". Rather, it means "changing velocity". And velocity is a vector, meaning that it has both a direction and a magnitude. We tend to think of the magnitude portion of velocity as the "speed" of the object, and acceleration as increasing that speed. But changing the *direction* of the velocity vector is also acceleration. So the acceleration of objects in orbit manifests as the constantly changing direction of their velocities.


Question: How does the Federal Reserve figure out how much money to print/mint each year?

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 How does the Federal Reserve figure out how much money to print/mint each year?

Minor quibble, for clarification only: the Fed doesn't produce coinage or currency. The US Mint and Bureau of Engraving and Printing, respectively, do that. But the Fed is the only entity that can place orders for either, so really, the question is still well-put. To answer, the Fed estimates the need for new coinage/currency the same way a business estimates the demand for its products: it generates forecasts for *this* year based on actual figures from *previous* years. Throw in a few tweaks, here and there, for specific, identifiable events that are likely to throw things off a bit (e.g., the introduction of a new bill, etc.), and Bob's your uncle.


Question: - Why do the edges of eggs go like plastic when you fry them?

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 - Why do the edges of eggs go like plastic when you fry them?

Egg white are mostly protein and water. When you cook them the proteins unwind and link up, that's why it goes solid (ish). At the edges, you get that really thin runny white and over the period of frying the egg it's thin enough that you drive out all the water. The body of the whites still has plenty of water and stays "jiggly." So the edges are a bunch of long tangled up stuck together long-chain molecules with no water...which, some subtle chemistry differences aside, is basically plastic.


Question: How do bank robberies affect the economy, considering illegal stuff is not considered in economics ?

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 How do bank robberies affect the economy, considering illegal stuff is not considered in economics ?

It doesn't, at least not by much. It affects locally. The money stolen is insured, so the insurance company will replace. But their rates may rise, which then means the bank may lower interest rates. Meanwhile, the police force gets a high profile project that adds to their value. But if they don't find the culprit(s), maybe a police chief loses their job. Or becomes mayor if they are caught. Lots of little changes to the local economy, but it's not going to affect most people.


Question: How does my body recognize and try to prevent me from drinking massive amounts of alcohol in a short period of time?

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 How does my body recognize and try to prevent me from drinking massive amounts of alcohol in a short period of time?

Hey, you shouldn't be drinking at age 5!! When alcohol is broken down in the body, you get that nice buzzed feeling, but your body can only break it down (and eventually get rid of it) at a constant rate. Thus, if you put alcohol into your body faster than your body can get rid of it, it's pretty bad (a lot of biological processes rely on having proper balance of chemicals in your body). So to stop you from literally drinking yourself to death, your body will do things like make you throw up to get alcohol out of your body (the fast way), or just pass out (can't drink if you're out cold).


Question: As a civil servant, can the POTUS hold private rallies and eject people because they are lawfully protesting him?

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 As a civil servant, can the POTUS hold private rallies and eject people because they are lawfully protesting him?

Anyone can hold private rallies for any reason in the US. It is a part of the First Amendment right of Assembly. The POTUS does not have his rights eliminated due to his position of power. And any assembly has the right to prevent people from entry to said assembly by requiring the sale or tickets or membership cards, and they have the right to kick anyone they deem disruptive from the assembly. So they cannot ban you from protesting outside the rally, but they can kick you out of the rally itself.


Question: How do you simulate protein folding computationally and why does it require massive computational power?

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 How do you simulate protein folding computationally and why does it require massive computational power?

We know how atoms interact with one another fairly well. We can use that information, relatively easily, to simulate things like the crystal lattice in metals. Because every atoms acts the same it isn't bad. We can also do alloys with mixes of metals. We have more interactions going on but we can figure it out. Then we get more complicated stuff like chain molecules and proteins. We still know how the atoms should behave except we now have a lot of atoms all potentially interacting with each other. If we want to accurately determine how these atoms interact we also need to take into account timescales. In a videogame if your physics updates 30 times per second you'll be fine for the most part. With atoms if you do that then your molecules might just fall apart (a relatively high velocity atom that would get slowed down by bonds/collisions instead just flies away). This means we need lots and lots of really small steps in our simulation. Bring that all together we have a really complicated system with lots of lots of interactions that needs to be looked at/calculated many many times. Right now the best/only way to really do that is by brute force (lots of computing power).


Question: Why are bank checks still so prevalent in the US when they have become basically obsolete in the rest of the world?

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 Why are bank checks still so prevalent in the US when they have become basically obsolete in the rest of the world?

To do direct deposit in the US, you generally have to have an accounting or payroll service that you pay do your payroll instead of doing it yourself. For many older small businesses, this just adds unnecessary cost and complexity, so its easier and cheaper to use checks, although costs are coming down a LOT with some online-only systems, so many NEW businesses, regardless of size have moved to direct deposit. People who work at medium and larger businesses are almost all on direct deposit, checks are usually just for small businesses. Most "new" small businesses, startups, and such also use direct deposit through an online payroll system. Its a bit of a shit show that the US banking system is just a slow mover in the direct deposit thing, but its moving along, its just not a major problem that needs to be fixed immediately, so its taking time


Question: Why is the earth closer to the sun during a full moon?

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 Why is the earth closer to the sun during a full moon?

When a body orbits another body in space, they are actually both orbiting a single point in space, which is their combined center of mass (known as the *barycenter*). [Here is an example of what it looks like]( URL_0 ) if the two bodies have a similar but slightly different mass - imagine that the larger body is the Earth while the smaller body is the Moon. In reality the difference in mass is much larger, so Earth's orbit around it and the moon's barycenter is much smaller, but it does exist.


Question: Where did the Bible come from?

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 Where did the Bible come from?

The Bible is a collection of texts produced by lots of different authors over the course of a thousand years. The Old Testament is primarily Jewish writings on the history of the Jewish people. The New Testament is primarily writings about Jesus and the fledgling Christian community around 100 AD. It did not suddenly pop into existence. It was accumulated over time by different groups of people.


Question: Why do most cooking oils have a caloric value (ex: olive oil 120 calories) but show 0 calories when put in a spray bottle?

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 Why do most cooking oils have a caloric value (ex: olive oil 120 calories) but show 0 calories when put in a spray bottle?

It depends on their respective serving size. Most of these sprays will claim that the serving size is something along the lines of 1/4 of a second (or 0.25 grams). One gram of fat is 9 calories, so one serving size is 2.25 calories. However, the FDA rules that if a serving size contains less than 5 calories, you can round down to 0 on a label. Thus, cooking sprays are not actually 0 calories. You're still eating fats (oils).


Question: Is 1 horse-power the equivalent of the power 1 horse would have when pulling something?

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 Is 1 horse-power the equivalent of the power 1 horse would have when pulling something?

Ideally yes Practically no The guy who defined horsepower did it based off donkeys turning a mill stone and assumed horses were 50% more powerful. He was defining horsepower to use it as a way to measure his cool new steam engine against something people knew so it was in his best interest to low-ball the power of a horse to have better numbers An individual horse has a peak power of 14.9 horsepower and can sustain a bit over 1 horsepower, but two horses working together can sustain 2.5 horsepower. It doesn't scale linearly with how many horses you have


Question: How can a country like Venezuela, with more oil than Saudi Arabia be broke?

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 How can a country like Venezuela, with more oil than Saudi Arabia be broke?

Mostly poor planning. Venezuela's government wanted to help the poor, so they put a lot of money into social programs. This included money that was supposed to be going to the national oil company that makes up most of their income. When the oil company people protested, Hugo Chavez responded by firing a bunch of them, and replacing them with people loyal to himself. So, since like 2006, the amount of oil Venezuela has been producing has been decreasing. On top of that, the government decided to fight an economic recession by setting a price that everything must be sold at, along with how much people need to be paid. This price was so low that it meant that companies couldn't afford to sell that much, so people with more money (from the higher pay) paid more for the stuff that was there, driving prices up. This kept occurring, and the resulting inflation broke most structure in the nation. Since Venezuela's currency became worthless, and the amount of income in other bills dropped with the loss of oil, the government has needed to step in and keep paying for food and stuff for the poor. What this meant though is that the government has just been pushing the problem down the road, rather than solving it. Which, after years of trying to deal with the problem in front of their face, has crashed their economy entirely.


Question: Why do some greenscreens look painfully obvious and lower quality than others?

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 Why do some greenscreens look painfully obvious and lower quality than others?

A myriad of reasons ranging from a poor camera setup and staging/lighting of the green screen plates to limitations of the vfx software/compositor skills in pulling a decent key of the foreground object. There are relighting/edge blending issues that also have to be addressed when combining the foreground fill/matte and background plates to achieve a high-quality result.


Question: What is the difference between normal light and lasers?

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 What is the difference between normal light and lasers?

Lasers are produced by exciting atoms or molecules and stimulating them to produce light. The major difference between normal light sources and lasers is coherence. Which is essentially how similar two waves are. Waves have two properties that are important here, the wavelength (colour of light ) and the phase which is essentially where in the wave the start is. I.e does it start as a peak, a low point or somewhere in between. A normal lightbulb emits light which is not very coherent, there are many different wavelengths of light and most of the waves are not in phase with any other. Lasers however produce light all of the same colour and as a result of how that light is produced it will also mostly be in phase with each other. This property means that the light is temporally coherent.


Question: Why does a single proton change everything about an element and it’s properties?

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 Why does a single proton change everything about an element and it’s properties?

For ELI5 purposes, you can think of an atom as being made up of three parts: * Protons, which have a positive charge and have a relative mass of 1. * Neutrons, which have no charge and have a relative mass of 1. * Electrons, which are negatively charged and have a relative mass of basically zero. (It's actually 1/1836, but for our purposes we can say it's negligible.) The protons and the neutrons chill out together not really doing much in the centre of the atom -- what we call the nucleus -- and the electrons exist in variously shaped clouds floating around the nucleus. You can think of them as buckets, if that helps; more electrons will always, *always* fill up these buckets in a particular order, which give them predictable properties. (We call these buckets 'orbitals'.) So, how do you put together an atom? Well, the golden rule is that for it to be an atom, it has to have a neutral charge. Given that there are only three particles to choose from, and only two of them have a charge -- +1 for every proton, and -1 for every electron -- that means you have to have the same number of protons and electrons. Stick an electron to a proton, and you have an atom of [hydrogen]( URL_0 ). (You might remember [Doctor Manhattan]( URL_7 ) in *Watchmen* burning [a symbol]( URL_8 ) onto his forehead; that's a representation of a hydrogen atom, with the proton at the center and one electron at the outside.) Adding a new proton, then, means that you have to add a new electron to keep things balanced -- and that's why elements act differently. Remember earlier, when I said that electrons fill up those orbitals in a particular order? Well, only the ones on the very outside can interact with other atoms. (It's not exactly a *correct* model, but for ELI5 purposes you can think of these as being like the layers of an onion; that's how they're often taught, especially at lower levels. We're only really interested in what the outer layer is doing at any given time.) When it comes to reacting with other elements, each layer of an atom has a specific number of electrons that it wants to have in it -- two electrons in Layer 1, closest to the nucleus, and eight electrons for every subsequent layer. We call the number of electrons in this outer shell the *valence* of the atom. (It's *slightly* more complicated than this, but for the most part it holds up.) When these electron shells are full, the element is very unreactive. But that's OK! Atoms are perfectly happy to share electrons in order to get these shells full. Think back to the [symbol for hydrogen from earlier]( URL_8 ). You have one electron in a shell that really wants two, and so two hydrogen atoms come together to make one molecule of hydrogen, sharing their electrons so [they both have two in their outer shell]( URL_10 ). This is called a *covalent bond*. When you talk about a chemical bond, you're *usually* talking about this. When a chemical reaction takes place, it does so by breaking and forming these bonds. Everything from using the energy in the food you eat, to breathing, to [dropping alkali metals in water]( URL_11 ), to [thermite]( URL_1 )... it all depends on how many (and which type) of these bonds form, which is directly related to how many electrons you have -- which is, as we've seen, directly related to how many protons you have. (Sidenote: you'll sometimes hear about the 'noble gases' -- helium, argon, neon and so forth -- and how they don't react; that's why they're called the *noble* gases, after all. The reason for this is that their outer electron shells are full, so they can happily exist on their own without any interaction with other elements. It's for this reason that argon is used in welding, because the high temperatures involved would make the metal you're welding react with other gases, such as the oxygen in the air, which you *do not want*.) The number of electrons in an outer shell can also change the *shape* of the molecule. It's easy to think about electrons orbiting the nucleus in rings, like a solar system where [everything is on a flat plane and the nucleus is the sun in the centre]( URL_6 ), but that's not how it is; atoms exist in 3D space, with the electrons buzzing around in [weird shapes]( URL_4 ). It's because of these shapes -- and the negative charge of these electrons pushing atoms out of the way, that molecules have the shape they do. [Ammonia]( URL_2 ), for example, is a [pyramid shape]( URL_9 ); water isn't a straight line, but has [a little kink in it]( URL_5 ). This is *also* very important, because it means that the charge isn't equally distributed all around the molecule. (In the case of water, even though there's a net neutral charge, the mass of the oxygen and the positive charge of its eight protons pulls the electrons ever-so-slightly away from the poor hydrogens, with their one proton each; this greedy oxygen, then, has a slightly negative charge at its end, while the two hydrogen atoms have a slightly positive charge.) We call molecules that display these properties *polar*, and it changes how they interact in a lot of ways. If you've ever wondered why ice crystals form such regular structures, or why water drips down the side of a glass when you try and pour it slowly, that's why: interactions between the slightly-charged parts of different water molecules. All of that depends on the electron structure, which depends on the number of electrons, which depends on -- you guessed it -- the number of protons. Finally, there's one more way that protons can change an element's properties -- one that *doesn't* include electrons. Remember how earlier we were talking about the relative mass of an element -- that neutrons and protons have a mass of 1, and the mass of an electron is barely there? Well, that mass makes a difference. Adding protons makes things heavier, which is why -- along with the extra neutrons -- that hydrogen (with one proton in its nucleus) is lighter than gold (with 79 protons and 118 neutrons in its nucleus). Quite aside from the expense, this is why trying to get an zeppelin to fly by filling it with gold is a *very bad idea* -- although in fairness, it would be less reactive and therefore less flammable, so... call it a draw? **Because it's been requested: [so how do neutrons fit into all this?]( URL_3 )**


Question: What does it mean to invest in distressed loans?

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 What does it mean to invest in distressed loans?

Ah, vulture capital. You remember the movie Rounders? Worm comes out of prison to find out that Grama has gone around to all the bookies who Worm ripped off and "bought" all his debt. Grama went to these guys and said listen, you made a loan to this guy back when risk of non-repayment was low. Now risk of non-repayment seems very high. He owes you $5,000 which you've given up hope of collecting. I'll give you $1,000 right now in exchange for the right to beat that $5,000 out of Worm myself, which may or may not happen, but it's my risk now. So Grama does this five times, and in exchange for $5,000 he has a chance to earn $25,000 if all goes well. Now he has a lot of power over Worm because of how much Worm owes him - Worm is aware that Grama won't fuck around with that much money on the line. In the business world, a company that has defaulted on its debts is essentially run by its creditors, not its shareholders. The bigger the creditor, the more control they have. So a vulture capitalist buys up all a company's debt super cheap from fleeing lenders who never signed up for those problems, and now for better or worse, they run the company until such time as it's solvent again and they're given full value on the loans. Their profit is the difference between what the lender was supposed to be repaid, and what the lender was willing to sell the loan for, just to get some quick, certain money out of the situation.


Question: How do we not suffocate in our sleep?

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 How do we not suffocate in our sleep?

You have a secondary nervous system that controls this stuff, mostly without your direct awareness. Specifically, it monitors the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood - when the CO2 in your blood rises, it usually means you're not breathing, and it kicks off a series of automatic actions (gasping for air, etc) that are designed to get you to breathe. As a related note, this is why asphyxiant gases are so dangerous. By replacing oxygen - but not stopping the breathing process - they let you continue breathing out CO2 without breathing in oxygen. Since your body doesn't actually monitor oxygen concentrations directly, the system designed to keep you from suffocating doesn't kick in.


Question: In history, how did the greek mythology disappear and was replaced by current beliefs?

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 In history, how did the greek mythology disappear and was replaced by current beliefs?

Initially the Romans adopted / copied the Greek gods (renamed), and as they expanded into an empire, they kept a religious policy that was tolerant of the religions of the conquered territories, allowing the locals to worship the Roman deities, or whatever they wanted. After they conquered Judea and the local governor crucified / executed Jesus, the Christianity religion was basically tolerated like others, but within a couple centuries it had spread (not to a majority, but to a significant minority) throughout the Roman Empire. In 64, Nero and subsequent emperors started persecuting them, considering the religion to be intolerant of the other religions accepted within the empire, and subversive / rebellious, but despite this, the religion spread. In the 300's, emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and basically "made peace", ending the persecutions and making it an officially accepted religion, along with the Greek-based Roman deities and other religions accepted in the empire. Christianity continued to be intolerant of other religions though, and continued to gain hold among the population, and by the 400's it was declared as the official religion of the empire, and the believers of the Greek and other religions were increasingly persecuted. The 400's also saw the Goth and Hun invasions, and further weakening of the Roman Empire through wars and civil wars, but Christianity kept its hold as a major religion in Europe / the Roman empire. Eventually the Roman empire split into Eastern and Western; the Western empire split up into small kingdoms quite fast, while the Eastern remained as an entity for another thousand years, but declined and was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Empire (1453, major battle, the fall of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman empire). The Ottomans had Islam as their officially recognized religion. The Ottomans had a strategic position because they controlled land-based trade routes to India, China, etc., so they flourished for thousands of years. Eventually they declined and fell behind in terms of military technology in the 1800's, and their trade control weakened because of ocean trade routes (south around Africa to reach India etc., and also to the Americas). Eventually World War I saw their complete dissolution to various countries (Turkey, etc.). And that leaves us with the current spread of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism over Europe and the Middle East, basically. For more details or exact dates of events, follow the wikipedia articles for [History of Christianity]( URL_1 ), or alternately [History of the Roman Empire]( URL_0 ), then follow the links in that article for the Eastern and Western empires, Ottoman empire, etc.


Question: How did word “commando” come to mean not wearing underwear?

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 How did word “commando” come to mean not wearing underwear?

Nobody really knows, but there's a couple of theories. The first is that it emerged from the Vietnam war because soldiers would often not wear underwear over there (because of sweating and chaffing, etc) But the one I think is most likely is that it grew from the old phrase over in the UK of "going regimental" which referred to when you wore your kilt military style (i.e. no dacks) and commando was just substituted for regimental.


Question: why is stretching slightly painful and why is that good for us?

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 why is stretching slightly painful and why is that good for us?

Physical therapist here. Whether or not stretching is in fact good for us is actually a pretty complicated topic and not easily explained in ELI5 fashion. Pain is also a super complex topic as it involves mechanical and neural inputs filtered through each individuals own personal experience, habits and trauma. Again, somewhat difficult to ELI5. That said, pain at it’s most basic level is threat. Things hurt when our nervous system decides something is threatening. The thing is, these sensors aren’t always calibrated well due to our own experiences with things or lack thereof. Have you ever been outside when its really cold and then come in and put your hands under warm water but it felt hot? That’s an example of the “calibration.” Stretching, particularly when we are not used to it, is painful because we are putting our body in positions that make it feel threatened. As we stretch more and our body gets used to feeling these positions the threat lessens and we are able to stretch further. Given that pain is based on threat its worth pointing out that extremely painful stretching is likely counterproductive because you aren’t giving your nervous system enough “space” to learn this position isn’t threatening. You’re making it very, very threatening. A strong but comfortable stretch is almost always more effective at improving tolerance than an overly painful one. Again, what’s happening in your muscles and nervous system when stretching is way more complex than described here and it’s different depending on how the stretch is achieved (loaded, ballistic, static, passive, active etc.) but the paragraph above about pain as threat and stretching as getting used to threat and therefore feeling less pain is about as ELI5 as it’s going to get.


Question: Why can't Social Security Numbers be like credit card numbers where they get renewed (new number) every couple of years and if they get lost or stolen the old number can be cancelled and you get a new number?

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 Why can't Social Security Numbers be like credit card numbers where they get renewed (new number) every couple of years and if they get lost or stolen the old number can be cancelled and you get a new number?

The problem is that your Social Security Number is widely used as a *unique identifier* for a person. The whole reason it's worth stealing is because everyone uses the same number to reference a person. If you just get a new number every few years, it'd either be worthless for a credit report **or** somebody would just have a list of all your previous SSNs matched up against your current one and you'd have to tell everyone who uses it to update to your new number anyways. The fundamental issue is that the SSN was never intended to be a general purpose citizen identification number, it was just meant to be used for a single government program. Security was never even a concern in designing the system. If you want a safe & secure system for identifying a person, you'd need to approach the problem completely differently.


Question: Why do old light gun video game accessories (like the NES Zapper) not work on modern TVs?

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 Why do old light gun video game accessories (like the NES Zapper) not work on modern TVs?

CRTs would turn off the pixels and then light them up again each frame, lighting them up one by one in sequence. By timing when the light gun "sees" the pixel light up, it can deduce where the gun was pointing. Plasma/LCD/LED screens are permanently on, they just adjust the pixels each refresh. There is no "off" state (unless the screen is actually off). The mechanism which the light guns used on CRTs simply does not exist.


Question: I hear that a Taiwanese company is opening up a new 5 nanometer chip manufacturing plant in Arizona. What exactly is the 5 nanometer measurement in reference to and how special is that number?

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 I hear that a Taiwanese company is opening up a new 5 nanometer chip manufacturing plant in Arizona. What exactly is the 5 nanometer measurement in reference to and how special is that number?

It used to described the smallest size of the structures etched into the silicon chip. However, these days it's rather arbitrary, many structures on modern chips are smaller than the given number while others are a lot bigger. 5 nm is smaller than 14 nm and thus the production process is more advanced. How much smaller? No idea. Probably not by 9 nm. Modern chips are slowly reaching the limit of what's possible because some structures only consist of a few thousand atoms and quantum physics make them behave weirdly.


Question: How does sound travel with the wind?

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 How does sound travel with the wind?

Sound is waves. Air is the medium the sound waves travel in. When the air moves it carries everything with it. Here is a way to visualize it: Imagine dropping a stone into stagnate water such as a lake. The ripples will propagate out from the point you are standing. Now imagine dropping a stone into a fast moving river. The ripples will travel away with the current from the point you are standing. The ripples will still form a ring, but the entire system moves away from you. Same thing with sound waves in moving air.


Question: How does water surface tension work?

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 How does water surface tension work?

Water molecules are bros right. They like being around other water molecules a lot. Their "sides" are "sticky" like glue or hook and loop(velcro) Think of it like a giant circular game of Red Rover. When you try to charge in or out when you get called over. you have to have enough force to break through those bonds. So if a force doesnt have sufficient power it won't break that tension. Like insects that can walk on the surface or seeing the meniscus(meniscus? I think that's appropriate) of a small puddle of water on a countertop