Question: what is hormone exactly? How did the first people discover the existence of hormones? [biology]

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 what is hormone exactly? How did the first people discover the existence of hormones? [biology]

Hormones are chemical signals. Every cell contains a variety of proteins. Proteins are the things in the cell that do things. They break down some chemicals, build other chemicals, break down some things to build other things, release energy, store energy... Proteins generally work by passive activity. Keep in mind that a single gram of hydrogen gas (H2) contains over 300,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules. If something is in the cell, then there's a lot of it in the cell. So some chemical X bumps into the protein just because there's a lot of X there...and if the protein is able to fit X then it's going to do whatever it does to X. Let's say it breaks X into Y and Z. Well, if the protein does this for every X that hits it, there's also a lot of Y and Z. If you increase X, you increase the amount of Y and Z. MOST PROTEINS also work in reverse, so that if Y and Z both hit the protein it makes X. This means most cells balance X, Y, and Z just because too much Z and Y means they hit the protein more than X hits the protein....making more X than it makes Y and Z. Likewise when too much X exists, it hits the protein more than Y and Z and thus makes more Y and Z than it makes X. This is called **DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM**. ----- Now, most of the time things enter and leave the cell. Let's say X enters the cell...now the cell has more X than Y or Z so it makes more Y and Z. If either Y or Z leaves the cell, then it will also make more Y and Z as it attempts to regain equilibrium. When X or Y or Z leaves one cell and enters another cell, which happens because they are small and there's lots of them, the first cell wants to make more of what left it and the second cell wants to get rid of whatever entered it. This leads the proteins to do the things they do. That second cell, however, now has more of things so those things leave the cell...and enter another cell that does what it does, making more things...and then those things leave the cell and enter another cell...until eventually the process ends because some other protein in some specific uses X or Y or Z to do something else. It's kind of like the game "Mouse-trap" or dominoes. One domino falls, it knocks the next, which knocks the next, until everything is fallen. Hormones are those chemicals that are involved in such chains, the "dominoes", if you will. ----- Because they are so small, they can't singularly be seen with the eye...but we can inject cells with large visible quantities. For example, melatonin is a liquid that people use to fall asleep. Steroids can be eaten or injected and yield noticeable effects on the body. Cholesterol is a well-known often-natural element of food that contributes to fat content...often being interchanged for specific and non-specific fats in terms of nutrition information. It's like how you can't see a single molecule of table salt, but can pour a lot of table salt and because of chemistry the HUNDREDS OF BILLIONS OF BILLIONS OF BILLIONS of molecules interact with each other to yield a visible solid.


Question: What is a stock when it comes to merch and business?

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 What is a stock when it comes to merch and business?

Stock is a general reference to the product that you're selling that is ready to sell, if you have three spoons at your store that your're willing to sell, you have three spoons in stock. However, a Stock can also refer to a share of a company that you can own. If you buy this type of stock, you own part of the company. When people say that Mark Zukerberg owns 29.3% of of Facebook, they mean he owns 29.3% of the stock or shares of Facebook, which also means he has 29.3% of the vote when deciding what the company will do. The more people want the shares of the company, the more they're willing to spend for those shares, the higher the price. If you buy the shares at a low price and sell them at a high price, then you make money. Companies also often pay money out to their stockholders on a regular basis, called dividends, in order to stabilize their stock price and keep the investors happy.


Question: Why can we only see so many stars in our own galaxy, but we can see the Andromeda Galaxy billions of light-years away with the naked eye?

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 Why can we only see so many stars in our own galaxy, but we can see the Andromeda Galaxy billions of light-years away with the naked eye?

That's kind of like asking why you can see the moon, but why can't you see a grain of sand 100 yards away. The sand is much closer, but the moon is much bigger. Andromeda Galaxy is 220,000 light years across and contains a trillion stars. A typical star is 1.4 million kilometers across. That means a star is 0.00000000006726% as big as a galaxy. Also, Andromeda is "only" 2.5 million light years away - not billions of light years.


Question: Why is compiled code impossible to access unless the uncompiled source code is available. Can’t game devs get a retail ROM and decompile the code from that?

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 Why is compiled code impossible to access unless the uncompiled source code is available. Can’t game devs get a retail ROM and decompile the code from that?

It's not that easy. Once it's been compiled, you can't decompile it. Think of the code like the recipe for a cookie. If you have that recipe, you can make that cookie any time you want. But if the cookie is baked, you can't just look at it and figure out the recipe. You'd have hints, sure, but the full recipe can't be figured out by looking at the end product. Compiling code is complicated, and the end result can't easily be reversed.


Question: Why do so many password requirements specifically forbid spaces?

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 Why do so many password requirements specifically forbid spaces?

Because they have always had that requirement. Many years ago, passwords were stored as plain text in a database, or sometimes in a text file. When the computer read the password back from storage to compare it against the one it just got from a logging in user, a space in the password could be interpreted as the end of the password. This caused issues when comparing the passed password to the stored one. Issues could also be caused by certain special characters ( like ‘ and $) being used, that also meant something to the computer program, causing confusion and errors. So many times some special characters were not allowed either. Also, many programs had a tight limit on their storage space, so password length was also restricted. Since then, standards have changed, passwords normally aren’t stored directly anymore (T-Mobile????) Instead, a password is fed into a complex math problem and the result is stored. This means that most of the limitations that were imposed by the previous issues no longer apply. Unfortunately, the past rules are still used, even though they’re not needed, because they worked before and people are used to them.


Question: Why are american politicians running for presidency allowed to take money from big company or lobbyists ?

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 Why are american politicians running for presidency allowed to take money from big company or lobbyists ?

Thanks to the idea that corporations are legally "people," the courts have upheld the notion that political contributions are an exercise of "free speech" by these *people*, and the *Citizens United v. FEC* ruling by SCOTUS removes the caps on these donations and allows the donors to remain anonymous, thereby creating the perfect storm for the sort of campaign contribution abuse to which you allude. And, yes, it has created an environment in which our elected representatives are beholden more to their benefactors, the ones who enable them to be elected and to keep their jobs, than they are to "we the people." **Edit:** To clarify, *Citizens United* does not permit massive corporate contributions directly to the coffers of individual politicians or political parties, by establishing procedural and policy hoops they have to leap through. However, there is never any question where the money is coming from or for whom or what it is intended, so the net result is still the same.


Question: How does mechanical advantage let you lift something with less force?

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 How does mechanical advantage let you lift something with less force?

Imagine you have two heavy bags you need to carry from the car into the flat. Now you have two possibilities: 1) You carry **both bags at the same time**: The bad thing: this is very difficult, because two bags at the same time weight a lot. On the other side, you only have to walk once. 2) you Walk two times and carry **one bag after the other**: Much easier, but you have to carry a bag for twice the way. This way you can carry even more bags (let’s say 10) to the kitchen. You only need a way to „trade“ „weight“ for „distance“.


Question: How do we prevent satellites from crashing into each other or from losing its trajectory. What happens when they malfunction?

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 How do we prevent satellites from crashing into each other or from losing its trajectory. What happens when they malfunction?

There is an awful lot of space up there and the areas for satellites are assigned to different countries so they keep there own satellites from bumping into each other, while in orbit the satellites are basically all moving at the same velocity so can't catch up with another vehicle in the same lane on the motorway.


Question: How does your body make vitamins from sunlight?

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 How does your body make vitamins from sunlight?

It's actually an interesting example of mammalian photochemistry (chemical reactions activated by light). Your body produces the precursor chemical, 7-DHC in your skin. 7-DHC has a chemical ring structure that has to be opened up in order to become a Vitamin D3 molecule. This is a chemically strong bond to break and the body doesn't have the mechanism to do it. However UV-B radiation, a high energy form of electromagnetic radiation, can do it just fine. When UV-B radiation enters the skin, it strikes those 7-DHC molecules, cracking them wide open and causing them to chemically convert to Vitamin D3 as their molecular bonds rearrange. From there, D3 goes to your liver to be metabolized into Vitamin D.


Question: Why does bleach solution lose effectiveness after 24 hours?

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 Why does bleach solution lose effectiveness after 24 hours?

Because bleach breaks down into salt. Bleach works because it is very reactive and it breaks down a lot of organic material it comes into contact with, but the bleach itself also reduces to salt. Pure bleach breaks down over time which is why bleach that is a year old isn't as effective. When you mix it with water, it breaks down faster and so isn't as useful the next day because there isn't as much bleach left.


Question: How can the observable universe be over 90 billion light-years across when the universe is only 14 billion years old?

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 How can the observable universe be over 90 billion light-years across when the universe is only 14 billion years old?

Because the universe itself is expanding. Imagine yourself and a bunch of friends standing together in the middle of a gymnasium. You all run away from each other toward the walls, spreading further apart as you run, but as you're running the entire room just keeps getting BIGGER. You turn around and look back at your friends and they're all impossibly far away, as the room has expanded in every direction. They only ran 14 meters in a couple seconds, yet they're now 45 meters away from the center because the room itself expanded. Your friend on the opposite side from you is now 90 meters away. It sounds crazy, but this is how the math of the universe works out. Source: URL_0 Edit: as fiiiiine points out, you shouldn't think of the walls in this example. In fact, imagine that you can't even see the walls. (It's a big room, not very well lit.) Really it's the floor that's stretching out in every direction. And if one of your friends stayed near the center, they're still pretty close to center. Meanwhile your furthest friend ended quite far away because of all the floor stretching that happened in between you.


Question: How do the likes of PlayStations remember what year/time it is when turned off for a long time with no connection to WiFi?

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 How do the likes of PlayStations remember what year/time it is when turned off for a long time with no connection to WiFi?

There's a small battery that does nothing put power an internal clock. They can run for years. Same basic concept, open up your computer and you'll see a small button-cell battery on your motherboard. Once upon a time this stored CMOS settings as well, but these days it's sole purpose is maintaining the system clock.


Question: why do your ears ring after loud noise and have been damaged?

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 why do your ears ring after loud noise and have been damaged?

The cochlea in each of your ears is a spiralling organ that contains a bunch of tiny little "hairs." When sound is transmitted from the air into your cochlea, it travels through the cochlea and depresses hairs corresponding to different frequencies. [The hairs further and further in the spiral]( URL_0 ) correspond to lower-pitched sounds. The hairs right at the entrance correspond to high pitches, and are the most vulnerable as they take the bulk of the "impact." When something super loud hits your cochlea, those hairs are depressed, and they stay that way for a bit. This means that your brain constantly hears a high-pitched ringing noise until the hairs stand back up. When something is loud enough to permanently damage your hearing, those hairs corresponding to high pitches never fully recover and constantly send the signal to your brain that you're hearing a ringing sound. They persist indefinitely in the "on" position.


Question: why after all these allegations and possible criminal charges has nothing been done?

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 why after all these allegations and possible criminal charges has nothing been done?

Long story short: Allegations aren't convictions. Evidence on the allegations will be being collected (if it exists) and when enough is in possession in order to make a case for conviction, we'll see indictments. It's tough to do in today's climate, but it is important to take everything with a grain of salt. Both sides of the aisle blow things out of proportion on a daily basis, so just remember that while reading extreme-titled articles.


Question: why do cuts hurt? You hear of people not knowing they're cut until they see it, then it starts to hurt. What makes a cut hurt?

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 why do cuts hurt? You hear of people not knowing they're cut until they see it, then it starts to hurt. What makes a cut hurt?

Sheets of paper are not as smooth as they look. Under a microscope, you can see that the edges are rough. When they cut you, they don’t cut cleanly - they more tear the skin than slice it. Whereas an extremely sharp scalpel, for example, is smoother, and gives a cleaner cut.


Question: Why did I get random boners as a teenager?

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 Why did I get random boners as a teenager?

Essentially during puberty your hormones are completely out of whack. Testosterone is being produced at rates much higher than before, and these hormonal imbalances often result in potentially unwanted circumstances, IE the random boner. Another thing that arises for some males (not all, but I had it happen to me) is the temporary development of very small "lumps" below your nipples. Not even big enough to make it look like you're "developing" breasts, but enough that if you were to grasp your nipple region and feel around you'd notice it.


Question: why is there a color effect when you press hard on a monitor screen?

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 why is there a color effect when you press hard on a monitor screen?

The L in LCD stands for "liquid" - there's a thin layer of liquid that responds to electric signals to affect how much light it lets through. The monitor uses this to display an image. When you press on the screen, you're squishing the liquid around and making it show all the wrong colors


Question: why scientists say that no water could be found on other planets despite claiming that ice is present on certain places. Isn't ice and water are the same?

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 why scientists say that no water could be found on other planets despite claiming that ice is present on certain places. Isn't ice and water are the same?

> why scientists say that no water could be found on other planets They don’t. We have found water on many planets and other bodies within our own solar system (moons, asteroids, comets). It’s a lot more challenging to identify compounds which exist on planets outside of our solar system, but there are many such candidates which we think look like they may have water. Within our own solar system, water ice is pretty common in the bodies further away from the sun than us. Liquid water has been confirmed on Mars (not a lot of it at all, but it’s definitely there), beneath the water-ice crust of Saturn’s moon Enceladus, and is almost certainly beneath the water-ice crust of Jupiter’s moon Europa. Earth is the only place in the solar system we know to have large bodies of liquid water at the surface.


Question: How are potholes in the road formed? Seems like there’s nothing then one day 50 potholes overnight.

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 How are potholes in the road formed? Seems like there’s nothing then one day 50 potholes overnight.

So the road expands and shrinks as it heats and cools. This cycle, along with a metric boatload of traffic, creates weak points in the road that eventually result in cracks. Once the cracks form, water can get inside them. In the summer it's not a big deal, but in the winter the water freezes and expands, which then significantly weakens sections of the road. Then the plows come over and are basically applying a literal truckload of force on the road, and if you hit a section that's weak and not well aligned with the rest of the road it just knocks the whole section out of the road.


Question: what painkillers are best for what situation?

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 what painkillers are best for what situation?

Ibuprofen and Naproxen are better for inflammatory pain like a sprain, cut, or infection. Tylenol (acetaminophen) is good at fevers, headaches, and general aches. Aspirin is also an anti-inflammatory, but it has the rather strong side effect of blood thinning, and thus is not a good option for people with certain heart conditions or on certain medications.


Question: how is mathematics used to explain/describe things?

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 how is mathematics used to explain/describe things?

The question is a bit broad, what do you mean with something real? I mean, take a ball used for golf. There are equations that represent a sphere. There are equations to calculate the surface area, the volume, the radius, etc. With all this math can explain something real. It also works on a bit more abstract things. Math can be used to describe a conversation between two people. After all, sound is only a wave. And math can describe waves (you propably know of Sine, cosine and tangent ) and with those waves we can describe sound.


Question: What do pain relieving drugs exactly do and whats the difference between advil and Tylenol?

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 What do pain relieving drugs exactly do and whats the difference between advil and Tylenol?

There are several types of OTC pain relievers. Advil (ibuprofen) belongs to a class known as NSAIDs. Non-Steroidal Anti Inflammatory drugs. Some other well known NSAIDS are naproxen sodium (Aleve) and Ketorolac (Toradol). NSAIDs work by stopping the body's inflammation response. These drugs inhibit certain enzymes that produce inflammation/pain at the injury site, as well as fever. Essentially, NSAIDs lessen the body's physical response to an injury. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) on the other hand, works differently. It's not entirely understood how Tylenol works. It doesn't reduce inflammation in injuries and appears to only inhibit enzymes in the brain. Tylenol isn't actually doing anything physical to the injury site. So, while NSAIDs stop swelling and pain at the injury site, Tylenol appears to stop your brain from recognizing the pain. Another interesting fact, both NSAIDs and Tylenol are metabolized by the liver, but excessive Tylenol intake can damage your liver and kidneys. Source: Medical School


Question: How are breathing and heart rate related?

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 How are breathing and heart rate related?

They are linked in that they have the same ultimate purpose - the transport of Oxygen. When you breathe deeper, you are delivering a higher concentration of oxygen to your lungs than you have at shallow breath. As a result of this, your blood will be supplied with this extra oxygen. Because there is a higher concentration of oxygen, your heart does not need to pump the blood as quickly through your blood vessel system, as it is not trying to match a "shortfall". That's also one of the reasons why you breathe more deeply during exercise, as you need to get more oxygen supplied to active cells,so the heart beats faster to pump blood through your system faster,and your breathing is deeper to match this demand.


Question: The average home cost in Toronto is about $916,000, however the average household income is around $75,000. How are the housing prices so high? and how on earth are people affording them?

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 The average home cost in Toronto is about $916,000, however the average household income is around $75,000. How are the housing prices so high? and how on earth are people affording them?

The problem with statistics like this is that you can't conclude that people making $75 000 income can afford $900k houses. First of all it's the AVERAGE home cost, which means one rich street where 50 houses go > $10M has the same impact as 1000 houses costing $500k. The median would be a better statistic here. Secondly, and probably more important is where the average income of 75k comes from. If it's the average income in Canada, you can't really compare it at all. If it's the average income in Toronto, you still have to wonder: is it the income of the people WORKING in Toronto, or LIVING in Toronto? A lot of the people working in Toronto live out of the city itself, where housing is cheaper.


Question: Why can the aging process of alcoholic beverages not be artificially sped up or completely skipped?

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 Why can the aging process of alcoholic beverages not be artificially sped up or completely skipped?

Often alcoholic beverages are aged in wooden barrels. During the aging, the beverage is infused with flavour from the wood of the barrel. While theoretically it would be possible to artificially add those flavours, it is difficult to know exactly what and how much to add since those flavours are very subtle and depend on a lot of things, including the wood used, the specific beverage and the time it is aged for. There is also little incentive to do so, as often aged beverages are enthusiast products, and enthusiasts usually aren't very appreciative of artificial flavours. The long aged products are a status symbol as well, and skipping the aging process would diminish their value and prestige as a status symbol.


Question: How does my iPhone X know where I’m parked?

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 How does my iPhone X know where I’m parked?

I believe it uses the accelerometer and gyroscope (and bluetooth if your car uses it, as well as CarPlay) to know you're driving. Then, when it detects you've stopped driving, it marks the GPS location as your parking spot. This is also how the Do Not Disturb while driving feature works.


Question: Apparently, the smell of freshly mowed grass is actually chemicals that grass releases to warn other grass of the oncoming danger. Why would this be a thing since there's literally nothing grass can do to avoid the oncoming danger?

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 Apparently, the smell of freshly mowed grass is actually chemicals that grass releases to warn other grass of the oncoming danger. Why would this be a thing since there's literally nothing grass can do to avoid the oncoming danger?

They aren't warning other grass. The chemicals being released do a couple things. They help heal the grass, help seal the grass so that it's a bit more resistant to dmg (doesn't do shit against a steel blade, but helps against a caterpillar). And it can help to call certain bugs that feed on the bugs that feed on the grass. Edit: Some grasses will also release certain chemicals that make their leaves taste awful to bugs. Some grasses can also concentrate nutrients into their roots to better rebuild. re-Edit: for information on the talking to other plants bit URL_0 The smell may also be a chemical warning to other grass to preemptively taste bad, but its far more likely that other grass is warned via the Wood Wide Web


Question: How do WiFi signals work and how far can they reach?

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 How do WiFi signals work and how far can they reach?

As you can imagine with many technologies, they need to be standardised. A computer needs to know what data format another computer is expecting, what speed they need to communicate at, what other protocols it may be dependent on etc. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), a group that creates these standards, did this for WiFi and called it IEEE 802.11. From a physical point of view WiFi signals are nothing more than radio signals, which only defines a small subset of the electromagnetic spectrum. WiFi operates in different ranges (i.e. bands): 2.4-, 3.6-, 4.9-, 5-, and 5.9 GHz, but 2.4 and 5 GHz are really the most common ones. Each range is divided up in channels. For instance, the 2.4 GHz band consists of 13 channels: 2.412, 2.417, 2.422, ..., 2.467, 2.472 GHz. URL_0 As you can see from the image above, channels may overlap. When you have multiple devices that transmit WiFi signals, you need to verify that the channels they use don't overlap, in order to prevent signal interference. This is why devices usually only use the channels 2.41, 2.437, 2.462, denoted as channel 1, 6 and 11 respectively. You may want to put the device on auto detection mode so it can detect if a channel is already being used and choose one with the least interference. In practice, if you want to set up WiFi yourself you need a device called an access point. Sometimes (the functionality of) access points are embedded into a router, which you see happen a lot in home setups. When setting up the network, you specify an SSID which is the name for your WiFi network, a password and an encryption type, which should probably be WPA2. Other encryption types are WEP and WAP but have been proven to be too weak. The Wi-Fi signal range depends on a multitude of factors. Wikipedia specifies: frequency band, radio power output, antenna gain and antenna type as well as the modulation technique. 2.4 GHz has better range than 5 GHz for example, but 5 GHz offers more speed. 802.11 consists of different standards, e.g. 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n and 802.11ac. These types may differ in bandwidth, range and used frequencies. 802.11n and 802.11ac are the most commonly used ones. One last thing to note is that WiFi uses a technology called CSMA/CA. CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access. There are two main types of CSMA: Collision Avoidance (CA) and Collision Detection (CD). They are two different ways of dealing with traffic collisions. A collision happens when two transmitters transmit at the same time. While Ethernet may use CSMA/CD, WiFi uses CSMA/CA. With CMSA/CD it stops transmitting for a while when it detects a collision, while CSMA/CA tries to avoid collisions altogether. So CSMA CA reduces the possibility of a collision while CSMA CD only minimizes the recovery time. I could expand on this, but this should suffice for an ELI5 :)


Question: Why is a frontal collision between two cars going 50km/h equivalent to driving against a wall at 50km/h? And how does this affect a collision between two cars driving at different speeds, for example one car at 30km/h and the other one at 70km/h?

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 Why is a frontal collision between two cars going 50km/h equivalent to driving against a wall at 50km/h? And how does this affect a collision between two cars driving at different speeds, for example one car at 30km/h and the other one at 70km/h?

ITT: people don't understand inelastic collisions and conservation of momentum. To you, in the 50mph car, you experience any acceleration that drops you from 50mph forward to 0mph pretty quick. That's the crash. This happens with two cars of equal speed because the overall momentum (assuming equal mass cars) is 0; half is forward, half is backwards, and the total is zero, so with momentum conserved it stays zero and both cars stop. With a wall, we're assuming the wall is fixed and immovable, so you go from moving forward to stopping and the wall just soaks up all that momentum, dissipating it into the ground, etc. But to your perspective, it's the "same" as crashing into a car and stopping. You went from forward at 50 to stopped (this still works with inertial reference frame relativity, but we're keeping it simple for now and I don't wanna type everything twice). For collisions at unequal speeds, or unequal masses, you can "convert" the impact by doing the relevant conservation equations and seeing how fast they end up going, which is very quickly more complicated because they are inelastic collisions and therefore don't have conservation of energy as we usually know it; lots of energy goes into the loud crash sound, the deformation of the crumple zones, etc. Still conserved, nearly impossible to account for precisely. But the momentum at least still works as expected, and hopefully none of the parts fly off. Assuming two cars of mass m, head-on collision that stays in a straight line, and the two cars stick together 70m + (-30m) = x(2m), So the final speed is about 20mph forward, and the driver of the 70 experiences an acceleration of -50mph/(the time of the collision). Essentially, the exact same as the 50 into 50, or 50 into a wall.


Question: Were there no chord progressions before medieval europe?

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 Were there no chord progressions before medieval europe?

The idea of a chord progression was not actually a thing until the early 18th century with [Rameau's famous Treatise on Harmony]( URL_0 ). Before then, people thought of music contrapuntally, that is, how did melodies interact with each other/sound together? The idea that a certain set of notes can invoke a sense of "home" and these notes progress from home, away, and then back again is a product of that work. Medieval music was heavily influenced by the Church and there was a lot of drama that prevented the development of harmony back then. For example, the interval of a third (and sixth) was shunned for centuries because it was regarded as impure compared to the fifth, which is constructed from a "perfect" ratio of frequencies. Additionally, music that was too complicated (i.e. too many voices and/or different languages in each voice) was also shunned because it was taking the focus away from worshipping God and onto the self and music-making, which was absolutely blasphemous back then. Source: many grueling hours studying music history for comprehensive exams


Question: What is the engineering and science involved in making the weather forecasts accurately ?

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 What is the engineering and science involved in making the weather forecasts accurately ?

Modern forecasts are generated using computer simulations. Several times a day supercomputers operated by a variety of countries will ingest data about current conditions around the world. The data comes from satellites, radars, weather balloons, ground monitoring stations, and various other sources. The supercomputers will then run models to simulate what is likely to happen several days into the future. Different models are going to produce different results, so the job of the meteorologist is to use their training and local knowledge to consolidate the different model outputs into a single cohesive forecast. For example, a meteorologist might know that a particular model tends to overestimate rainfall in a certain area or perform worse in certain conditions, and correct the forecast accordingly. The science and engineering that goes into improving forecasts tend to fall into one of several categories. You can try to improve the programming behind the models, which are based on our understanding of how weather systems work. You can build faster supercomputers so that you can run the models at higher resolution. And finally, you can improve the quality and quantity of data going into the models, by launching better satellites and installing more ground equipment. There are lots of people who work on all three areas.


Question: Why MUST you eat defrosted food within 24 hours?

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 Why MUST you eat defrosted food within 24 hours?

There is bacteria everywhere. They will infest fresh food and start to reproduce, creating poisons as their waste. If the food is cooled this slows them down a lot, and cooking kills them (but doesn't destroy the poisons). Some amount of bacteria and poisons are in everything you eat, the key is to keep it small enough it isn't a problem. Food can only be left at a temperature the bacteria can grow for a short period of time or the population can grow large enough to cause sickness. Defrosting food leaves it in that temperature band and allows bacteria to grow, which if left to continue for even longer could cause problems.


Question: why are there so many different currencies?

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 why are there so many different currencies?

Currency developed as a way to trade with people without having to exchange goods every time. Each civilization/culture comes up with their own currency, ranging from precious objects like salt and gold to government backed standards like coin and paper. Today, $1 in the US is still $1 all over the world, but that can be exchanged for an appropriate amount of local currency.


Question: - Why do we use "baby talk" when we speak to animals and other things that we perceive as "cute"?

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 - Why do we use "baby talk" when we speak to animals and other things that we perceive as "cute"?

Some researchers believe that “baby talk” actually is good way to talk to real babies - the higher pitch, simplified language, and exaggerated tones and facial expressions make it easier for them to pay attention and learn. As far as why we also use this when talking to animals, it’s probably because cute animals remind us of babies (due to things like comparatively large head for body size, large eyes for head size, etc.), so we unconsciously revert to baby talk when talking to them. P.S. I don’t know about everyone, but with my cats I only use baby talk sometimes. Most of the time I just speak to them normally. They ignore me either way.


Question: Why do some websites say it takes 72 hours to remove you from their mailing list? Why isn't it instantaneous?

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 Why do some websites say it takes 72 hours to remove you from their mailing list? Why isn't it instantaneous?

It's mostly CYA. You are probably removed from the "get new email" list quickly, but they can't guarantee there isn't an already sent email sitting in a mail servers queue somewhere you haven't received yet. Easier to give you a few day buffer than have you call up angry the next day.


Question: why does the standard error formulae has n in the root ?

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 why does the standard error formulae has n in the root ?

the more times you try to measure something, the less likely it is that your measurements get distorted by an outlier. it's called the "law of large numbers". the more often you measure the more likely it is that any random effect that distorted the "true" value and resulted in your measured value will be counteracted by another "error effect" that distorts another measurement in the opposite direction, so that eventually they'll even out if you just keep on measuring. (that's why it's important to distinguish between statistical and systemic errors)


Question: What is a second mortgage for?

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 What is a second mortgage for?

It's just another loan, with your house as the collateral. If you own your home, a lot of your wealth is the home itself, which means you can't use that wealth to pay for things. A 2nd mortgage converts some of that wealth from property into cash so you can spend that wealth.


Question: why is a horse "without a leg, not a horse at all" if the leg would be required to have amputation, but animals like elephants are ok with prosthetics?

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 why is a horse "without a leg, not a horse at all" if the leg would be required to have amputation, but animals like elephants are ok with prosthetics?

Because some people put value on a a horse based on that horse's ability to make them money (referring to racehorses), which gets harder once they're so significantly injured and using a prosthetic. I don't know if they even make prosthetics for horses, and if not, WHY not, but I know many horses who have been injured to the point of being unable to make a profit racing, who has gone on to be wonderful personal horses.


Question: why does glass absorb infrared and ultraviolet light, but not visible light?

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 why does glass absorb infrared and ultraviolet light, but not visible light?

It has to do with how light interacts with matter. To absorb light, you need to have things work just right. You may have heard that light is quantized, what this means is that it only gets absorbed in specific chunks, one photon at a time. And all the energy of that photon has to go somewhere. It turns out there are a few different places for that energy to go, and since each color of light has different energy, those different absorption mechanisms affect the colors differently. Ultraviolet has the highest energy, it’s absorbed into the electrons in a material, kicking them up in energy or ejecting them from the atoms entirely. Infrared light is absorbed into the vibrations of the atoms and molecules in a material. For glass, visible light isn’t high enough energy to be absorbed by the electrons and too high to be absorbed as a vibration. Remember, it’s all or nothing - you can’t absorb half a photon. It gets a bit more complicated since you also have to absorb the momentum of the photon, and not matching the quantized momentum kick will lead to the photon not getting absorbed either. Different materials have different thresholds for these absorption methods, and a huge difference is whether things are metals or not. Metals have completely different architectures for their electrons, but the basic concepts of “need to absorb a whole photon” still apply.


Question: How a cellular network handles IP addresses? Does it just act like a massive router? What is different between internet use via router or via LTE?

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 How a cellular network handles IP addresses? Does it just act like a massive router? What is different between internet use via router or via LTE?

The whole point of TCP/IP is that *it doesn't care what you run it over*. Wifi, Ethernet, LTE, DSL, Cable, ATM, etc... You just encapsulate IP to run over that network and connect it to a router one way or another. That router is connected to other routers over some *other* physical network but, as long as they both have the same network & speak TCP/IP, packets get routed.


Question: What does it mean when something is radioactive?

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 What does it mean when something is radioactive?

The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons. There's a certain balance of protons and neutrons that is stable, but if they're unbalanced then they'll try to even out until they are balanced. To even them out, the nucleus can do any of 3 things: Change a proton to a neutron, change a neutron to a proton, or throw some neutrons and protons away. Those processes are called nuclear decay, and they all emit some form of radiation (alpha/beta/gamma rays). Now, the exact reason that radiation is harmful depends on which type of radiation it is, but they all ultimately do the same thing: They knock electrons off of other atoms, which can damage cellular structures (including DNA). It's called *ionizing* radiation because knocking an electron off an atom is ionizing it.


Question: Why is the deodorant *can* always cold to the touch?

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 Why is the deodorant *can* always cold to the touch?

The deodorant is propelled out of the can by a substance that is aptly named the propellant. That propellant is compressed inside the can (often into a liquid), and as deodorant is sprayed the propellant rapidly evaporates and expands to propel the substance it is spraying. This expansion and evaporation require heat to take place, heat which the propellant extracts from the air and the can around it. Therefore the can gets cold, as does the air immediately surrounding it. This is exactly the same process by which air conditioners or refrigerators work, although the mechanism is quite different.


Question: Why are all materials that are hard also brittle?

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 Why are all materials that are hard also brittle?

> Why haven't we made something that's both resistant to scratching AND shattering? Something composed entirely of strong rigid bonds ought to shatter because you only have two options, the rigid bond or a broken bond. So the bonds that remain in the shattered pieces of an object are still the rigid bonds of the exact same length as before. When something is pliable, there are usually more flexible bonding arrangements, and/or you have fibers or sheets sliding next to each other. When you bend it, the particles on the inside of the bend are all squeezed together, while the particles on the outside are being pulled away from each other. So unlike the brittle where there is bond or no bond, here you have tight bonds, loose bonds and in between bonds. That flexibility is what prevents brittleness, but also leads to softness.


Question: Why do some sites put a box when you press ctrl backspace when it should delete the entire word?

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 Why do some sites put a box when you press ctrl backspace when it should delete the entire word?

Not all text boxes are created equal. Some are programmed to behave differently according to certain inputs. In this case ctrl+backspace will delete an entire word according to the way some are designed, and others will insert a "box," which is a visual representation of a "control character," a special non-text symbol that gets used for various purposes in different kinds of programs. When one of these boxes appears you can know that the way that the box was designed does not include allowing ctrl+backspace to delete a word.


Question: If an animal is isolated will it develop characteristic of a normally raised animal like feeding habits, hunting tactics, or mating rituals?

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 If an animal is isolated will it develop characteristic of a normally raised animal like feeding habits, hunting tactics, or mating rituals?

This is very much depending on the intelligence level of the animal. More intelligent animals, such as higher mammals (dogs, apes, dolphins, rats, etc), learn a lot more from their parents than less intelligent animals (lizards, snakes, fish, etc). Intelligence essentially allows animals to some extent forgo instinct (a rigid set of rules on how to behave that is ingrained in every individual from birth) and instead learn how to behave. This allows them to adapt to a wider range of challenges in life a lot more quickly, but also not develop properly if isolated from others who can teach them how to behave. So less intelligent animals will essentially behave the same in all respects whether isolated or not, while more intelligent animals may lack certain behaviors if they don’t have the opportunity to learn from their peers.


Question: Why are there multiple types of command line interfaces in windows rather than just one? Command prompt, Powershell etc.

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 Why are there multiple types of command line interfaces in windows rather than just one? Command prompt, Powershell etc.

Powershell is the NEW command prompt. Cmd really only lets you run - from a dos prompt - the applications in your path (environment variable) or in the local folder which you normally could run by finding the executable in Windows Explorer. You can "script" cmd by using batch files, but DOS/Windows .bat file syntax essentially is just what you could type line by line in a cmd window, nothing more. In order to interact with files, system parameters, registry values or running applications you'd have to write a cmd executable program to do so. Powershell on the other hand does everything cmd does, but includes support for plugins and scripting - if you like, its very similar to a UNIX/Linux style "shell" - it can launch programs, interact with running programs, can be scripted and provides APIs to maniupulate files, parse file contents etc. if you ever find yourself cursing while you attempt to troubleshoot a complex .bat file, seriously look into Powershell scripting. So much nicer.


Question: What would the international response be if a super power, say Russia or China, tried to invade Mexico?

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 What would the international response be if a super power, say Russia or China, tried to invade Mexico?

The US would be like ya, nah and fuck up their fleet before they could make landfall. More interesting question would be if the US tried to invade Mexico, what would the response be. The US could veto any NATO or UN security council action and I don't see who else would try or be able to stop it.