Question: - Why do flies not die when you smack them?

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 - Why do flies not die when you smack them?

There are 2 few reasons. First of all, the power of your hand is divided by its surface, when you slap a fly, it only takes the amount of force you have in the section of your hand in contact with them (so less than a squared centimeter). Their body is basically an armour, so the shock is also shared on their whole exoskeleton. And finally,the wind of your hand will move them backward, so it already reduce the shock.


Question: - Why, when on a slow connection, does a video often manage to play through once, but have difficulty replaying?

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 - Why, when on a slow connection, does a video often manage to play through once, but have difficulty replaying?

Depending on the size of the video, your device's memory, and sometimes on the video player and video format, your computer/tablet/phone might not be holding the *entire* video in memory for instant replay. It's often the case, when streaming for example, for the video player to only hold 10 or 15 or 30 seconds of previous video in memory (often called the "buffer"). Which means, if you go back further than that, your computer will need to redownload that information again before it can be viewed. Other factors can be at play too; or some of the previous suggestions may not need be worried at all - it very much depends on a few details. But they are the most likely things to be encountered by the layman


Question: How can you explain the concept of Laplace and Fourier Transform using analogies to a kid?

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 How can you explain the concept of Laplace and Fourier Transform using analogies to a kid?

A Fourier Transform is a way of converting numbers representing a wobble to numbers representing how fast the wobble is. Sound is a wobble in the air. (gets out a guitar) When I pluck this string, it wobbles, which wobbles the air, which wobbles your ears, (pluck) and you hear the wobble. Now, what happens when I make it wobble faster? (pluck) The sound gets higher! Now, what if the sound contains multiple wobbles? (strum) How do we know what notes there are in the sound? Well, that's what a Fourier Transform is. (brings up a picture of a graph of a fairly simple waveform) You see the wobble? That wobble is made up of lots of different, simple wobbles. I'm saying wobble a lot! Wobble wobble wobble. Well, there are lots of different wobbles in this wobble, so we use a Fourier transform to turn it into (changes picture to graph of Fourier transform of function) this! You can see that the original sound (plays waveform on loop) is made up of this sound (plays simple wave), this sound (plays simple wave) and this sound (plays simple wave). (plays composite sound again). The Fourier Transform also tells you how far along the wobbles are. (animate the phase of a simple wave changing, showing a sort of shift along the complex waveform) Of course, you can use this for wobbles in other things too, like light, or water, or numbers. --- Break while we play with a slinky, guitar with strobe light, etc. to keep the interest of the five-year-old; omit this if there isn't an actual five-year-old involved. --- **Disclaimer: I don't understand what a Laplace Transform is; don't quote me on this!** A Fourier Transform is useful for wobbles along a line, but what about ripples in water? (Flicks tray of water, so ripples are visible.) To do this, we can use a Laplace Transform. A Laplace Transform tells you the same thing as a Fourier Transform, but can be used for values with two coordinates instead of just one. Yes, okay, you can play with the water.


Question: How does posting quality content attract viewers/followers/etc, when you have no viewers/followers/etc in the first place?

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 How does posting quality content attract viewers/followers/etc, when you have no viewers/followers/etc in the first place?

It doesn't. Quality content helps with retention, not acquisition. There is two part to producing entertainment. First, you need to bring people to you. Second, you need to keep them. Quality can only help you keep them. Keeping them is important, because to some extent, the viewer themselves can become a marketing campaign. If they like what you do, they'll refer to you. TL:DR quality stuff doesn't help attract. It help keep.


Question: What are fractals and why are they so trippy?

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 What are fractals and why are they so trippy?

The term "fractal" doesn't really have a formal mathematical definition\*. The two most commonly-recognized traits of fractals are probably: * Structure that goes down infinitely deep and displays self-similarity, so that if you zoom in on a part of the fractal, even if you zoom in a *lot*, you still seem to be seeing the same sort of structure you saw originally. This can easily be seen with the [Koch snowflake]( URL_1 ), for example. * Construction that starts with a simple shape and iteratively transforms it so that it becomes more and more complex, as shown by the [construction of the Koch snowflake]( URL_0 ). So basically by definition you have an object which has a large amount of complex structure very much unlike familiar geometric objects (circles, polygons, etc.). This, and especially the self-similarity fractals have, leads to them being perceived as "trippy". \* Sometimes "an object with non-integer Hausdorff dimension" is given as the technical definition of a fractal, but this doesn't really capture everything that is commonly called a fractal. For example, the [dragon curve]( URL_2 ) and the [Sierpinski tetrahedron]( URL_3 ) both have a Hausdorff dimension of 2.


Question: If muscles are what allow us to exert force, why is it that ligament tears severely reduce performance even after recovery?

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 If muscles are what allow us to exert force, why is it that ligament tears severely reduce performance even after recovery?

Bones are connected to other bones by ligaments. They help stabilize the joints in our body. If you tear a ligament, the joint is not stable and thus cannot work like its supposed to. Its kind of like a door hinge. If you break one of the hinges, or it becomes loose, the door can't open and close properly. With muscles, ligament tears can affect performance because since you can't continue to move the joint effectively, and your muscles aren't being used like they are supposed to. A muscle that isn't being used effectively gets weaker over time, and thus may not be able to keep the joint stable even after the ligament heals. This is why it takes so much physical therapy to get back to where you used to be. Finally, broken things (especially our bodies) tend to never operate at the exact same level as before being fixed. With the door hinge for example, repairing it is possible, but it may not be as strong as it once was since its overall structural integrity has been damaged. This is the same with the body. You can fix damage, but it typically won't be "as good as new" in most cases. There are some exceptions with our body however, like muscles and bones, which are designed to grow back stronger from damage. Our tendons and ligaments (as well as other, more vital organs) aren't designed this way.


Question: I’ve seen numerous studies claiming that clean and renewable sources of power (solar, wind, etc.) are now cheaper to build than it costs to operate coal plants. If this is the case, why aren’t such plants being phased out more quickly?

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 I’ve seen numerous studies claiming that clean and renewable sources of power (solar, wind, etc.) are now cheaper to build than it costs to operate coal plants. If this is the case, why aren’t such plants being phased out more quickly?

TLDR: Suppose you own an old brick house. Replacing it with a new brick house might be expensive and cost more in heating than replacing it with a stucco house. That doesn't mean you're going to knock your house down tomorrow and build a new stucco one. \--------------------- Once a plant is built, the question of "should we use it or should be build a different new plant?" is always being asked. But the coal plant maybe cost a billion dollars to build, and the replacement solar plant maybe costs a half a billion. Maybe the utility still owes half a billion for the loans it took out to build the coal plant. It has to keep using the plant and paying down the loan for years until it makes sense to just eat the rest of the cost of the loan, borrow another half billion, and build the solar plant.


Question: please: Why is a declining birth rate a source of panic for national governments?

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 please: Why is a declining birth rate a source of panic for national governments?

There is no fundamental problem. The problem is something we have collectively created for ourselves: an economic model that requires constant unending growth to support itself. Overall, people have contributed enough to fund services for themselves into retirement. But a government that sees this money just sitting there for years is going to use it for other things in the meantime. And it's okay, because the population has been growing: there are more *young* people to tax than there were in the older generation, so the money they appropriated away from social security for those older people is made up for because of the increased tax income from the next generation. But if that next generation *isn't* actually larger, then suddenly the math doesn't work out. They've already spent the money that should have gone to social security for an older generation, but now the expected windfall from a larger new generation hasn't shown up as promised. That is clearly a *problem*. It is avoidable in theory, of course. But that requires a responsible allocation of funds, and keeping money saved for unexpected changes like this. By and large, when governments have found themselves in a surplus, they haven't kept that money for emergencies but instead immediately find ways to spend it that will impress the populace in an attempt to guarantee re-election. As we know, the earth's resources are finite and populations cannot sustainably grow forever, so it is an absolute certainty that a system dependent on infinite growth will collapse at some point. The question is, will we just adjust to a more forward-thinking plan, or will everything fall apart disastrously? Unfortunately, no way to know.


Question: Why do dimpled golf balls go farther than smooth?

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 Why do dimpled golf balls go farther than smooth?

The dimples trip up the air, and create turbulence in the air flow around the golf ball. Turbulent flow causes less drag on a golf ball than "laminar" (the air is in smooth layers around the ball) flow. The turbulent, mixing flow reduces the vacuum behind the golf ball compared to a ball where the airflow was smooth.


Question: How can napkins/paper towels absorb water upwards into the paper towel against the force of gravity, i.e into sections of the towel that are above the water line?

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 How can napkins/paper towels absorb water upwards into the paper towel against the force of gravity, i.e into sections of the towel that are above the water line?

It's because of something called capillary action. Wikipedia's description of the physics: > Capillary penetration in porous media shares its dynamic mechanism with flow in hollow tubes, as both processes are resisted by viscous forces. Consequently, a common apparatus used to demonstrate the phenomenon is the capillary tube. When the lower end of a glass tube is placed in a liquid, such as water, a concave meniscus forms. Adhesion occurs between the fluid and the solid inner wall pulling the liquid column along until there is a sufficient mass of liquid for gravitational forces to overcome these intermolecular forces. The contact length (around the edge) between the top of the liquid column and the tube is proportional to the radius of the tube, while the weight of the liquid column is proportional to the square of the tube's radius. So, a narrow tube will draw a liquid column along further than a wider tube will, given that the inner water molecules cohere sufficiently to the outer ones. URL_0 Simplified: Liquids get sucked in to little holes with a force greater than gravity, and napkins are filled with lots of little holes.


Question: If you were to stack blocks on top of each other into a tower, but each subsequent block is half the size of the preceding block below it, will the tower eventually stop growing?

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 If you were to stack blocks on top of each other into a tower, but each subsequent block is half the size of the preceding block below it, will the tower eventually stop growing?

Yes. In fact, the total tower after infinite blocks will be 20" tall. Imagine you were on a race course that's 100" long and you go 1/2 the distance from the start to the end. Now you have another race course that's only 50" long. Go halfway again, and you have a 25" race course. Each time you go halfway, you still have distance to travel remaining. Now, when you are adding blocks, just imagine that there is a finish line twice as long as your initial tower, and since each block halves each time you add a new one, you will never quite reach it except without adding infinite blocks.


Question: How do engineers know what an actual safe weight is for a bridge?

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 How do engineers know what an actual safe weight is for a bridge?

Let's make the world's most basic bridge. We'll use two cinder blocks and we'll put a piece of 2" by 12" lumber across them. The lumber exerts a load on the cinder blocks from its own weight. When someone steps on the piece of lumber, they'll apply a load to the lumber, which will cause it to bend, and will also apply load to the two cinder blocks. Depending on where they step, they'll apply different loads and different amounts of bending. Eventually a load will be applied that causes the bridge to fail. It could fail in shear, which basically means the piece of wood snaps in two. It could have a bending failure. Or one of the cinder blocks could collapse from the weight, which is a compressive failure. Because we're smart engineers, and more importantly we have a timber design handbook, we can look up how much shear load our beam can resist, and how much bending it can resist. We can also figure out how much force it would take for one of the cinder blocks to have a compressive failure. Whichever load is lowest is the working load for our bridge. In bridge design, you're essentially doing this process on steroids. Or on a computer. You have a great many elements, and they'll all be analyzed. The weakest link gives you the bridge load limit. If that limit is too low, you'll make that piece bigger, until something else becomes the weakest link, and your load limit meets what the code requires. And you're right, the load on the signs has a safety factor built in. The actual value of the safety factor depends on the code.


Question: How are "lab created stones" made? How is it possible to grow a gem artificially?

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 How are "lab created stones" made? How is it possible to grow a gem artificially?

Gems are crystals, so that means atoms, ions, and molecules arranged in a highly ordered structure. You make crystals when you freeze water. You can also make salt crystals by boiling the water out of brine. As you can see, some crystals are rather eager and willing to order themselves, sometimes it's unavoidable. Gemstones typically take a bit more work to generate artificially. Sapphire, ruby, and emerald are all aluminum oxides with different impurities in it. You can create this with just aluminum and a chemical bath, like with a salt or acid. Anodized aluminum - all those aluminum engine dressings and non-stick cookwares, have all had sapphire electrolyzed into the surface layer of the metal. It also increases the hardness of that surface layer. Others still take a lot more work. Different grades of steel aren't just the sum of their parts, it's also how the iron atoms align. Iron will align body-centered or face-centered, where face-centered steel is non-magnetic, even though it's iron! And that's just because of how the atoms aligned in the crystals! The term for this is Austenitic. Steel production is all about making crystals, and as much of the right kind of crystals at that. As the molten iron cools, crystals start to form and grow until the crystal boundaries bump into one another - and that's called grain. Some grades of steel, you can see this with the unaided eye. Speaking of a lot of work, there are some crystals that form at extremely high temperature and pressure. Synthetic diamond usually takes one carbon lattice, like graphite, and under these conditions and with some electrolysis, rearranges them into another, to make synthetic diamond. Other gems may require gas disposition, where a seed is washed in a plasma of ions that embed themselves one layer at a time. Aluminum forms a crystal lattice, but it's not clear. That goes to show all crystals aren't some clear gem. Steel and iron crystals are likewise not transparent. Glass is amorphous, which is exactly the opposite of a crystal - there is no structure. Aluminum can be made amorphous, like glass, but it's really hard to do that on Earth. We get something approaching amorphous aluminum, a product called ALON, which is aluminum oxide that is baked under hydraulic pressure until the molecules bond. We use it to make the best optics in the world, and bullet proof cockpit covers. If we could make aluminum glass, and spin it, we could make fiber optics with such clarity we could run trans-pacific cables without having to boost the signal to get it across the ocean. What's stopping us is what's called gravitational shear, that as the aluminum cools, gravity drags the molecules down, which encourages crystal growth. If we could make aluminum in space, or maybe if the moons gravity is low enough, we could do it there, avoid the sheer, and make aluminum optics and other products in abundance. Imagine submarines made of glass that could trivially withstand the crushing depths of Challenger Deep. Other gems aren't crystals at all, but minerals. Jade is a form of asbestos, which is fine to wear and handle, it's the dust from cutting and polishing that's especially dangerous. What makes asbestos so dangerous is the molecules are so small and so strong, they can pierce right through your cell walls and actually cut through DNA. That's what makes it a carcinogen, especially for your lungs. Baking soda is also a very hard, jagged little molecule that, while no asbestos, people like throwing it in their laundry - while fine on the occasion, it damages the fibers, so too much washing with baking soda will wear out your clothes. You can bake baking soda in the oven to make sodium carbonate (aka soda ash aka washing soda), but it has the same problem - use it, but don't celebrate it. I realize a fair amount of that may not have anything to do with your question. Enjoy!


Question: Why is 3D printing products usually cheaper than the normal way of making the product?

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 Why is 3D printing products usually cheaper than the normal way of making the product?

For mass production, it's usually not. For a small, plastic object, mass production would be done using something like injection molding. They make a metal mold, then inject molten plastic into it. Depending on the size and complexity, you can put out ~200 parts per hour, while a 3D printer may be able to do 1 or 2. With injection molding, the biggest cost is making the mold and setting up the machine. But you only pay that once. So it's the same whether you're making 10 parts or 100,000. 3D printing will probably be cheaper if you only need to make 10, but injection molding will definitely be more cost effective for 100,000. 3D printing also allows for the production of parts in a single step that would require multiple steps with traditional methods. For example, making hollow parts with injection molding requires making multiple pieces and joining them together.


Question: Why does everybody go to work when the stores are open, and the stores close when everyone has time to go shopping?

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 Why does everybody go to work when the stores are open, and the stores close when everyone has time to go shopping?

Business hours. Businesses want to operate during normal hours that banks are open allowing ease of operations and communication with other companies and within their own. Retail tends to stay open later to accommodate the extra business that comes after the workday. A surprising amount of business is still conducted during the day due to single worker households.


Question: How do transparent colors work?

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 How do transparent colors work?

In this case, the extra two characters on the string imply you're using the alpha channel which indicates how transparent that color should be. Like the R, G, and B before it, it's a two-character hexadecimal value which equates to the decimal range between 0 and 255. A value of 0 means the color is fully transparent, and 255 the color is fully opaque. If no alpha value is used, it's assumed you want it to be fully opaque. To draw a translucent layer on top of an opaque one, you would want to use linear interpolation. Basically, this puts the two layers on a linear scale with one being the source, the other the destination, and the alpha value telling how much of each the final product will have. The equation for linear interpolation is typically of the form Ax + B(1-x) with A being one end, B the other, and x a fractional value between 0 and 1. To apply this to pixel colors, we first separate the colors into their different channels (r, g, and b). Then for each channel, you can run the equation to find out the final value. Since the alpha value can range from 0 to 255, we'll take the alpha / 255 to be our 'x'. In the example you gave, it has an alpha of 0x0F (decimal 15), so 'x' is 15/255 and (1-x) is 240/255. Putting this through the color channels, the red channel is 255 * (240/255) + 0 * (15/255) = 240 0 = 0xF0. Green is 0 in both, so it remains 0. Blue is 0 * (240/255) + 255 * (15/255) = 15 = 0x0F. So your final pixel color is #F0000F It can get even more complex if multiple layers have translucency. In which case, you have to take into account the alpha value of both the underlying layer and the top layer. If you want the math you would apply to each channel in this case, you can use the equations found at URL_0


Question: How does s thermos/cooler keep things hot/cold and why do the high end ones, like Yeti work better?

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 How does s thermos/cooler keep things hot/cold and why do the high end ones, like Yeti work better?

Thermos is technically a brand name, but it's been genericized much like "kleenex" and "Dumpster" have been. That style of container is technically a "[vacuum bottle]( URL_0 )." They work by having a (usually glass) inner bottle inside a (usually steel) jacket with partial vacuum between them. Vacuum is terrible at transferring heat, so hot stuff stays hot and cold stuff stays cold. Coolers are slightly different. Similar concept; there's an inner lining, an insulating material, and an outer casing. The insulating material is often some kind of foam insulation, which is also bad at thermal transfer but not as bad as vacuum. You can actually make a primitive type of cooler with a terra cotta pot, wet sand, and a smaller terra cotta pot. I haven't tried that yet, but it sounds interesting. High end ones work better because high end everything tends to work better than the bottom-rung gear. Better design and materials, tighter construction tolerances.


Question: What are SPACs (Special Purpose Acquisition Company) and what do they do?

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 What are SPACs (Special Purpose Acquisition Company) and what do they do?

When a growing company wants to go public as an IPO, the traditional process requires a lot of disclosures, accounting, paperwork, filings, legal fees etc. as the company readies itself for public stock sale. This can take a long time and be costly. n alternative method is a SPAC. This kind of company raises money from (usually very well heeled) investors with the goal of short circuiting that process. The investor money is pooled and a SPAC is formed that does nothing, but announce plans to acquire other companies. The SPAC then goes public with a very simple IPO (simple because the company does nothing, yet). Then the SPAC acquires a real company that wants to go public. Now the stock in the SPAC is really just the valuation of the acquired company and the acquired company is for all intents and purposes public, skipping all of the usual process.


Question: What is the difference between the UV light from a lamp and the sun’s light when curing nail polish or resin?

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 What is the difference between the UV light from a lamp and the sun’s light when curing nail polish or resin?

Two differences that result from intensity and spectrum. The intensity thing is that you can control the wattage output of a UV lamp, but you can't control the sun. Timing exposure under a UV lamp at a known wattage is going to be more repeatable. The other part of it is that sunlight is made of lots of different wavelengths of light, but only the UV portion of the light acts to cure the resin. The other wavelengths just warm it when absorbed. If you are aiming to cure something quickly you can put in a lot more useful energy from UV light than you can with broad spectrum light before the resin heats up too much. So using a UV lamp will usually be faster by a lot, unless it's a very low power UV lamp.


Question: Why does glass break when there’s a sudden temperature change?

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 Why does glass break when there’s a sudden temperature change?

Hot things expand and cold things shrink. Most people know this... But objects can be hot in some areas and cold in others. Thus objects can be expanded on one side and contracted on the other side due to the temperature difference in the various parts of it. But for this to happen the object is going to have to be bent and warped around a bit so that the expanded side and contracted side remain part of a single solid piece. Glass is brittle - it doesn't bend much, and will easily break if forced to to change shape. Heat it up and cool it down gradually and evenly so that doesn't happen.


Question: What is a Pseudo-Riemannian manifold?

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 What is a Pseudo-Riemannian manifold?

I’m going to assume you don’t know what a manifold is? The difference between a pseudo riemannian manifold and a riemannian manifold is somewhat technical and unimportant in this context. So, a riemannian manifold is actually 2 things: a differentiable manifold, and a so called “metric tensor”. A differentiable manifold is an object that “looks” like normal Euclidean space (think a plane) if you get close enough. For example, the earth, being a sphere, is an example of a differentiable manifold because when we get very close, it looks flat. The second condition that we need is this metric tensor. It’s a functions which takes its inputs as 2 tangent vectors (again, picture the earth - tangent vectors are straight lines that touch the earth at exactly one point on the surface. Just like a tangent line, if you know calculus). It outputs a scalar that tells us some information about how the original space might look, but in a simpler setting.


Question: why do our fingers curl when our hands are at rest?

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 why do our fingers curl when our hands are at rest?

The muscles that control your fingers need to be at rest at the point directly between fully open and fully closed, in order to allow ample movement both ways. If they were fully outstretched at rest, the closing of your hand would take twice the effort by those muscles and your arm would look considerably different.


Question: why do smelling salts wake you up as they do? And what are their limitations?

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 why do smelling salts wake you up as they do? And what are their limitations?

Smelling salts are basically a really strong smelling powder, which irritates your nose, making you take a big breath. They were used for rousing people who had "fainted" from a shock, a bad smell, or the sight of blood. They can occasionally make people focus on the smell or simply breathe more deeply, which can prevent a syncope. They don't do anything when someone is actually unconscious though, and they can cause irritation of the airway if used frequently.


Question: Why does oxidation of iron (i.e. rust) typically happen when it's exposed to water but not air?

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 Why does oxidation of iron (i.e. rust) typically happen when it's exposed to water but not air?

So in air oxygen is bundled up as a nice stable gas in the form of O2. It's happy how it is and isn't looking to make any new bonds however water is a polar compound that's more than willing to create new bonds. The Iron gives up electrons which hydrogen ions pick up(to go on to form hydrogen gas and to bond with oxygen for more H2O) the remaining Iron ions will pair up with some hydroxide ions forming Fe(OH)2 and Fe(OH)3. Both of these are a type of rust by themselves but the Fe(OH)3 will crystalize into Fe2O3 which is the more common form. Essentially rust isn't a straightforward chemical reaction of "get some iron and oxygen and you're done!" it requires trading ions between hydrogen and hydroxide before it gets to its final form. It can occur from just the air but it requires moisture, it's also sped up in the presence of salt which is why you'll generally find cars from towns and cities close to the sea rust a lot quicker and it's why rust on boats can be a big problem.


Question: Why do we cringe over thoughts and memories?

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 Why do we cringe over thoughts and memories?

From an evolutionary view it is beneficial for us to easily remember bad memories. This helps us avoid repeating mistakes we have witnessed and keep us out of dangers way e.g. My friend was eaten by a bear in that cave, I remember this in great detail and avoid that cave in future so I'm less likely to be eaten by a bear. I think it might be similar for things we find embarrassing. It's dangerous to do things that alienate you from a group since we are social creatures that rely on acceptance and group work to survive. If we remember things we've done before that threatened our social standing then we aren't likely to repeat the behaviour in future and avoid exclusion. That's just speculation though. Edit: for people asking for more info on this I highly recommend looking up evolutionary psychology. 'Evolutionary theories of emotion view emotions as adaptive traits - they help the organism to adapt to the demand of the environment and thereby survive' (Izard, 1977; Plutchik, 1984). [Here is some info on evolutionary psych and emotions]( URL_0 )


Question: How was code written on the very first computers?

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 How was code written on the very first computers?

Initially, not at all. The computer was a fixed purpose machine. You just built it to do the task you needed it to do. Think of say, mechanical calculators: you don't program them, you make their parts to perform the right function, and that's it. Later, you had machines you could rewire to change their functionality. Later, you can program a machine by toggling switches on a panel, or poking holes in a piece of paper. And then you start bootstrapping a programming language, where you write a program by programming operations by hand (switches or paper) that is going to use some input device to read something more human-friendly and turn it into something the machine understands. One of the first is an assembler, which is simply giving instruction numbers human friendly names. Rather than inputting "00000101 00000001", you write "ADD AX,1" which is way more human friendly.


Question: If you're travelling at the speed of sound, will your voice be delayed if you spoke?

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 If you're travelling at the speed of sound, will your voice be delayed if you spoke?

No. Sound is not a physical object, or an energy field. It is a regular movement of air, like trembling wind. How fast it moves is governed by how far a molecule can tremble before it makes the one next to it tremble, so that it's faster in thick mediums like water, and slower in thin mediums like air. Because all of the air that's trembling on the ISS is also being moving really fast, the distortion behaves like the entire ISS is perfectly still. If you were in a convertible car going the speed of sound, your voice would still move at the speed of sound in all directions. If you're passing by me and say 'hello', I'll hear the split second you're passing me at the normal speed and volume. But the sound of your 'hello' will all be stuck right in front of you from your perspective while you chase it as fast as you can go. This builds up over time with stronger and stronger vibrations until it causes a 'sonic boom', shredding outwards in all directions as you pass in front of the sound. But again, it's not that it's delayed, it still arrives in the same amount of time no matter what you do. It's just that you might arrive before it. Though if you were talking to someone in the front seat from the back, they would never hear you until the car slowed down.


Question: Why do we perceive 100 or 10 as "complete" ?

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 Why do we perceive 100 or 10 as "complete" ?

One way to think about it is that we use a decimal system. In other words, once we hit 10, we start a new round of counting. But...do we really perceive 10 as complete? Or, to put it another way, do we *only* perceive 10 as complete? We also think of 3 as complete. Olympic winners are given gold, silver or bronze. We also think of four as complete: four seasons, four elements, four personality types, four Beatles. We also think of 5 as complete...who are the top 5 of a sport is often a question. There are just certain numbers that we use a lot...and they can give us a sense of completion.


Question: Why are there a hundred different AR variants, Glock variants, etc., aren't they all more or less equally pricy/accurate/ergonomic? What differences do all these variants have from each other?

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 Why are there a hundred different AR variants, Glock variants, etc., aren't they all more or less equally pricy/accurate/ergonomic? What differences do all these variants have from each other?

For Glocks, this is absolutely not the case. Take a look at [this comparison matrix]( URL_0 ) on Wikipedia -- as you can see, not only are there several different calibers (bullet sizes) available, but there are a lot of different sizes, and those size differences can affect how easy the gun is to conceal, and how much recoil it generates when fired. ARs are a bit of a different beast. The prices can vary *wildly* from one manufacturer to another, and they can either perform similarly or, again, wildly differently. There are also different bullet sizes available, but it doesn't vary as widely as in the Glocks.


Question: How was the first clock programmed?

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 How was the first clock programmed?

pretty much everything these days uses a crystal oscillator, such as quartz, which you can manufacture at difference frequencies. these oscillators "vibrate" or modify an electrical field at a precise frequency which you can then use to generate clocks for digital circuits or keep track of time for watches. there are other types of oscillators which vibrate at different frequencies depending on what your use is.


Question: Why isn’t an Einstein’s Cross a circle instead?

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 Why isn’t an Einstein’s Cross a circle instead?

[Because the lensing galaxy isn't equally distributed around its center of gravity. If the object responsible for the lensing had perfect rotational symmetry around the axis of the line of sight, then you'd see a circle, an Einstein Ring. However, the galaxy responsible for the lensing may be more disk-shaped than spherical, which would give it two axes of symmetry, both in the plane of the sky, thus the pair of dots.]( URL_0 )


Question: how were maps created in old times?

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 how were maps created in old times?

Imagine you want to draw the outline of a strangely shaped building. If you walk around the outside of the building looking at the angles and length of the walls you could probably draw a reasonably accurate depiction of what it would look like from above. That's how maps were drawn but from a boat.


Question: Why is the temperature of the heat death of the universe so low?

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 Why is the temperature of the heat death of the universe so low?

Not sure where you've heard that temperatures always rise. The general trend of systems over the long term is to go toward the state of maximum entropy, which means the available energy will spread out until the entire universe is at the same temperature. Needless to say, the cold, empty parts of the universe take up a lot more space than the hot, occupied ones, so the overall temperature of the whole thing once it hits stability is going to be very low, in the same way that dropping a cup of boiling water into a pool full of ice isn't going to make a huge difference to the temperature. Note also that energy is never created or destroyed, merely turned into other forms. The fan is using electricity, which is ultimately generated from chemical, nuclear or other means, and the overall energy taken from the universe as a whole while generating the electricity is more than the fan will add back in.


Question: physical media for movies has changed over the years. From VHS to DVDs to Blu-Rays it seems like they are constantly upgrading. Why haven’t music CDs done the same? Changing formats for better sound quality.

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 physical media for movies has changed over the years. From VHS to DVDs to Blu-Rays it seems like they are constantly upgrading. Why haven’t music CDs done the same? Changing formats for better sound quality.

They have. First there was vinyl records, then we had 8 track cassettes, then we had tape cassettes, then we had cds, now we're working with digital formats only. The only real difference is that in music has occasionally been more of a factor in making the upgrades. vinyl records actually have really great sound quality but it's really hard to put a record player in your car.


Question: what are the main questions in cartography nowadays?

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 what are the main questions in cartography nowadays?

A big one is datums, or standard reference points. For example, a vertical datum that everyone is familiar with is “sea level” lots and lots of things are measured based on how high they are “above sea level”. But what exactly is sea level? Seas are constantly changing and shifting all over the earth and changing at the same location everyday with tides. So, to answer that(At least one North America), back in the early 1900s the US Government ran a program to find this standard, and they originally based it on the average sea level across a bunch of different tide stations to find a good average. Which was good enough for their time and technology. They also did the same thing horizontally, they picked a reference point, a place in Kansas, (cuz it’s near the center of the country. gave that its Official latitude and longitude measurements and put a metal disk in the ground with that information on it as well as a number you could reference in a giant chart. Because they then went around the entire Country and installed millions of these reference disks to act as official latitude and longitude marks for the surrounding area to base itself of off. And again that worked well enough for their time and technology. Well, as technology progressed, we did it again in the 80s to make it even more accurate. And nowadays, this process has actually been underway for the past couple years, and a new North American Datum is expected to be put into place in the mid 2020s that is even more accurate than before because again, we have new technology. Traditional cartographers still exist as well, because even though we can pull up satellite images of most of the world, putting a big picture up on the wall is difficult to use as an actual map, so towns and cities and states still hire cartographers to make these maps, though they aren’t necessarily charting new area, a lot of work goes into improving how maps are designed.


Question: Why do our fingers always feel colder to the touch than our arms? Despite being in cold room at constant temperature.

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 Why do our fingers always feel colder to the touch than our arms? Despite being in cold room at constant temperature.

The body shunts blood to the core to keep your core at 98.6 degrees. So if you’re a little cold, blood flow to extremities is reduced as a warmth conservation method. Also, blood flow in the hands is a lot less than in the arms. And the hands have a lot of surface area relative to volume, meaning heat is lost more quickly there.


Question: Why do no carb and all fat diets work? Shouldn't they become fat from eating fat?

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 Why do no carb and all fat diets work? Shouldn't they become fat from eating fat?

Lets break this down a bit because the main problem is duplicate names Fats in foods are lipids, fats on you are adipose tissue. Everything you eat gets broken down into its basic blocks which get used for energy(calories). If you're consuming more calories than you burn then your body will pack some away in adipose tissue for the future. It doesn't matter if those calories come from lipids or carbs or sugars, your body packs them away the same What matters is calories in versus calories out


Question: When the “restart” option is pressed on a console, how does it know to turn itself back on?

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 When the “restart” option is pressed on a console, how does it know to turn itself back on?

Think of it more like an interrupt of the power. For example, you turn a light on in your house and it says on until you turn the switch off. Now add a button to the circuit between the switch and the light bulb. When you push the button the light turns off and when you release the button it turns back on because a spring pushed the button back out so the power can flow again.


Question: How were old maps made to be so accurate without satellite imagery or any idea of what a country looks like from the sky?

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 How were old maps made to be so accurate without satellite imagery or any idea of what a country looks like from the sky?

A lot of work, and a process called triangulation. Basically, you take a high spot, figure out two other spots, measure the distance and angle between them, and calculate the area of that triangle. Repeat over an entire country. Also, maps were not really super accurate as to what an aerial view would look like, they were just accurate as to the distances between objects, and lengths of roads and such.


Question: What exactly is a magnet pulling from the other metal?

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 What exactly is a magnet pulling from the other metal?

Moving electrons cause a magnetic field. That's because the underlying quantum field is electro-magnetic. The quantum fields are a part of the construct of the Universe. When an electron moves in a circle, it generates a dipole magnetic field through the center of the circle. Electrons also spin, but that property is not directly connected to magnetism. Electrons in atoms of matter go around the nucleus in a circular way. In some atoms there is an arrangement of electrons which cancels out their magnetic effects. Atoms of these substances are non-magnetic. In other elements, the electrons don't cancel each other out. These elements have magnetic properties. In ELI5, you're a lot better off when you ask one question at a time. Some of your later questions are not understandable because your earlier questions presumed incorrect things. Also, please search, there are many, many fine explanations of magnetic properties. Search gets you better answers faster than asking again.


Question: Do animals get cranky when they're tired like humans do? If not, why not?

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 Do animals get cranky when they're tired like humans do? If not, why not?

Sorry - this probably isn't an ELI5 but I already wrote it up! :D & #x200B; Cranky is a manifestation of stress. You can be cranky when you have had a stressful day (physically or mentally) and you have not been able to get the rest you need to let your brain sort that stress away. This can be chronic - i.e. someone with PTSD might be always cranky - because they are always under stress (anxiety). You become cranky because your brain is being over-loaded in a way. It has so much input that it begins to respond more erratically to those inputs because it is now responding more with haste and less with precision. & #x200B; Tiredness (lack of sleep) can cause crankyness because your brain **has not had solid downtime** rest and sort away that stress. & #x200B; Its that state of agitation/instability created by the extra stress. & #x200B; Animals also have this response. If you're using your dog/cat as an example, you might not see much because your dogs and cat have relatively stress-free lives. They have no food shortage, no predators, a nice home and a loving owner. We also don't see it as much in animals because **animal** **stress come in bursts** and they have a fairly simple life/schedule. Their stress is transient. They aren't living in a society with multitudes of sources of stress like we are. Its the life they were adapted to live. Furthermore, any animal in long-term stressful situation is probably in a situation where it will die soon. (Predators harassing them, food shortage etc). & #x200B; So its not that crankyness doesn't exist for animals. They just experience stress in bursts and their lives are not as complex as ours. The complexity of our lives increases our base level of stress. & #x200B; & #x200B;


Question: Energy transfers from the hand to pluck a guitar string. This energy is then transferred into vibration which travels through the air to our ears. Energy doesn't die, so where does the energy go once it's hit our ears?

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 Energy transfers from the hand to pluck a guitar string. This energy is then transferred into vibration which travels through the air to our ears. Energy doesn't die, so where does the energy go once it's hit our ears?

I'm not an expert in acoustics or physics by any means, but I would think most of the energy dissipates exponentially in the soundwaves, as they are going out in a complete sphere from where the sound originates, so the energy hitting your eardrum is just a tiny fraction of what was put into the guitar string. But then the eardrum vibrates and the bones connected to the eardrum move and the electrical impulses go into your brain and the cochlea absorbs some and your skull absorbs some.


Question: why does poking a bruise sometimes feel good even though it’s painful?

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 why does poking a bruise sometimes feel good even though it’s painful?

The pain and pleasure centers of the brain are right next to each other, and mild pain can cause them to get "confused" (as far as I understand it). It's the same reason why some people like spicy foods and spanking in bed. I'm guessing that how masochistic you are is determined by how easily your pain and pleasure centers get confused.


Question: How did bread or beer taste or how was it different pre-1960?

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 How did bread or beer taste or how was it different pre-1960?

There are different types of grain, some have a higher protein content than others (yeast don't care much about the difference as long as their basic nutrition needs are met), and some have more starch (years do care about that since its their food supply). When grain is ground up and placed in warm water (say 145-152F) enzymes that are present will break down teh longer starch molecules into smaller sugars that yeast can digest. Modern agriculture allows us to grow grains (barley, wheat) that are better for brewing than those found in the past. But would it affect the taste? There might be some difference between species of barley (2row vs 6 row), but probably more of the taste difference is from the different types of hops used. Also, different strains of yeast will impart different tastes, especially if fermented at a higher temperature. I don't think the grain today vs 1950 would impact the taste of commercial beer much. It would be other factors (hops, ale vs lager, additives, yeast). Also consumer preferences change. You would have a hard time getting a nice IPA in 1950 compared to a lager.