Question: How do we raise and lower our voice?! What is the actual volume handle?

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 How do we raise and lower our voice?! What is the actual volume handle?

You change the volume of your voice by blowing more or less air past your vocal cords. Kind of like blowing harder in a trumpet creates more sound. The air comes from your lungs offcourse. Edit: The amount of air that is being pushed out of your lungs is controlled by the diaphragm.


Question: How is currency exchange rate decided. How do people decide whether the dollar is whatever and why is dollar the metric?

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 How is currency exchange rate decided. How do people decide whether the dollar is whatever and why is dollar the metric?

The US $ is only the metric if you want to buy $. The exchange rate between € and Yen for exemple is obviously not in $. In general the rates are not decided by anyone, they reflect the flows of investment between two countries. If investments flows between EU / US increase in favor of the US for exemple, it means people are buying stuff denominated in $ and selling their stuff in € to finance it. So the US$ will appreciate vs. the € , in that case. Some governments use high interest rates on the country debt to lure investors and strengthen their currency, using the same mechanism


Question: What happen if I shut down my computer during an update ?

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 What happen if I shut down my computer during an update ?

It depends. In most cases it will be fine and the update will have to be redone sometime later. However in some rare cases you might break something. An update does a series of different changes to the computer. Doing changes to files, replace files, change system settings and sometimes do changes to the boot loader or the kernel. Some of these changes will have to be done together and will break your system if only one of the changes is done. For example if there are two library files that depend on each other and require the same version of each other. If one of these libraries gets updated but the other one is not before you turn off the computer then you may end up with issues and crashes.


Question: How does the US protect its technology from being stolen when selling F-35s and other military technology to foreign nations?

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 How does the US protect its technology from being stolen when selling F-35s and other military technology to foreign nations?

First, we generally only sell technology to our allies. This means that we aren’t too worried about those people stealing from us, because it’s easier for them just to buy more rather than trying to build their own. Next, that shit is *really* complicated. While it’s certainly possible to copy things (and stuff like that has certainly happened before) countries that do often end up in a “I’m doing it this way because that’s how it is, but I don’t know why I’m doing it like that”. As such they can run into big problems with maintenance because they don’t know how to fix problems that happen because they don’t know what is causing them. Often allies get around this issue by the US essentially “lending” them our own tech support and mechanics to run the maintenance on the planes/whatever (which also means if they ever turn on us we just have to pull support and watch everything fall apart). Finally there is the manufacturing aspect. Just because you know *how* to build something doesn’t actually mean that you *can*, and tolerances on military hardware can be **really** (like micrometer) tight. As an example of issues like this, consider that up until last year China couldn’t manufacture ballpoint pen tips, because their manufacturing lines couldn’t get tolerances tight enough to work reliably. So even if they did steal technology, there is a good chance that they can’t build it and have it work. Source: have worked at companies that build that kinda stuff.


Question: Why does music sound so much louder in your head when using one earphone compared to two even if they're both at the same volume?

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 Why does music sound so much louder in your head when using one earphone compared to two even if they're both at the same volume?

I don't think everyone experiences it this way (I'm pretty sure I don't) but it could just be because having a loud close noise from that coming at you from only one ear is way more noticeable and obtrusive, and you have your other ear for comparison to how quiet it should be. When it's in both ears you're more acclimatized and there's no jarring difference


Question: How do wealthy people utilize shell companies/corporations to avoid paying taxes?

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 How do wealthy people utilize shell companies/corporations to avoid paying taxes?

I run Bob's Lemonade Stand Inc. in the U.S. and I'm sole owner of the company. I'm subjected to 25% tax rate on profits, so my $1000 in profits mean $250 in taxes. (simplifying with a single tax rate, but in reality there are marginal rates meaning you only pay that top % on some of profits or income, not all). Now, I set up Bob's Lemonade Brand Holding LLC in a country with 5% taxes. I transfer the Bob's Lemonade brand, logo, recipe to this holding company. Bob's Lemonade Brand Holding LLC charges Bob's Lemonade Stand Inc. $800/yr in royalties for use of the brand and recipe. Bob's Lemonade Stand Inc. now only pays tax on $200 in profits, or $50. And Bob's Lemonade Brand Holding LLC pays $40 on the $800 in royalties profits it receives. Now, instead of $250 in taxes, I have only paid $90 in taxes.


Question: Before sheep shearing by humans was common, did all sheep just grow large, unmanageable coats that caused them to overheat or attracts pests and just eventually die?

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 Before sheep shearing by humans was common, did all sheep just grow large, unmanageable coats that caused them to overheat or attracts pests and just eventually die?

No, we bred them to be that way. Original sheep that lived 15'000 years ago were of course able to live in the wild and didn't have fur as thick as modern sheep. Then someone thought that this fur looks nice and warm and decided to steal it from the sheep, until someone else noticed that when two sheep wit a lot of fur have a child, that child has just as much or even more fur! By repeatedly mating sheep that had lots of fur, the modern sheep came out.


Question: How/Why would water boil in space due to pressure, despite space being deadly freezing cold?

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 How/Why would water boil in space due to pressure, despite space being deadly freezing cold?

Not a perfect metaphor but I'll take a shot. Imagine a ball pit. On earth, gravity keeps all the balls in unless something pushes them out. In zero gravity, the balls would be free to float away without anything touching them. Water, and liquids in general, are similar. In this situation, Pressure from the air, our atmosphere, is like gravity in that it keeps the water together as a liquid unless you force it out using heat. In low pressures, there is less force holding them together, or so it takes less heat to separate and fly apart (boil/evaporate)


Question: Why do our bodies/ every living things body need water to survive?

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 Why do our bodies/ every living things body need water to survive?

Virtually all the chemical reactions in our bodies happen "in solution"...the chemicals are dissolved, or at least free floating, in a fluid. For humans (and all other forms of life we know about), that fluid is water. Water is what lets the molecules that "make us go" move around and interact with each other. Without water we're a pile of non-reacting chemicals. Try baking a cake without the wet ingredients and you kind of get the idea. We lose water to our environment constantly, since we're way wetter than our surroundings and we use some of it to carry waste out of our bodies, so we have to keep replacing it or we shut down and die.


Question: What are cast iron pots/pans and why are they favoured by many if they are apparently harder to maintain?

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 What are cast iron pots/pans and why are they favoured by many if they are apparently harder to maintain?

Thick iron pans which are cast to a form that for some reason most companies follow. Unlike a non stick coating, the beauty in a cast iron pan is that you use oil to leave a plastic like coating which happens when it gets to smoking temp. It’s called seasoning and can be pretty non stick. The benefits when cooking are due to its weight and thickness. Being so thick it can put a lot more energy for longer into something like a steak than a thin walled pan can. It takes longer to heat up but it holds that heat far better. That plastic coating (seasoning) is sensitive to being soaked in water for too long, and if you scrub too hard with soap you can remove it, so you hear lots of horror stories and wives tales about them. Usually once you get past the hipsters and trendy people trying to pretend like it’s somehow superior technology, most can agree cast iron pans are always good for cooking a few things like meats, and with enough care and attention can be good for a lot of things, but they aren’t life changing by any means. They have their pros and cons as most everything in life does.


Question: how does Samsung pay work?

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 how does Samsung pay work?

Samsung Pay works by emulating the magstripe on your registered card, so in essence it tricks the card reader into thinking you swiped an actual card. It's called MST. This allows you to use Samsung Pay in nearly any store, even ones with older card readers (like in small mom and pop stores). Apple and Android pay require NFC *for purchases in physical stores*. You can buy online with all 3 payment systems.


Question: What is the difference between a ledger balance and an available balance?

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 What is the difference between a ledger balance and an available balance?

Accountants usually define ledger balance as the account balance listed at the start of the day. Accountants usually define available balance as the ledger balance plus or minus any transactions so far in the day, possibly accounting for checks that are "in processing" such that the funds are expected to arrive but not yet ready to be used. To get a firm idea, you'll have to ask whoever is preparing the balances.


Question: Is it possible to have a heavy element to have the same amount of neutrons as protons and would it be stable?

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 Is it possible to have a heavy element to have the same amount of neutrons as protons and would it be stable?

> I've noticed the further up in the periodic table the more neutrons an element has. Yes. [This plot]( URL_0 ) shows the stability regions for stable isotopes. As the elements get heavier, there are more neutrons required. Hunting and pecking I found an isotope of Xenon which had the same number of protons and neutrons (54 each). It had a half-life of a few microseconds. I couldn't find anything heavier than that.


Question: What exactly are producers and directors doing when making a movie?

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 What exactly are producers and directors doing when making a movie?

Essentially, producers find the money and other resources needed to make the movie, while directors tell the cast and crew what they need to do to make the movie. The producer is kind of like the person who owns a business, and the director is the person hired to manage that business.


Question: What is the shadow we see when we close our eyes after seeing something really bright?

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 What is the shadow we see when we close our eyes after seeing something really bright?

It's called positive after image. It is usually because the photoreceptors of your eye are still sending signals to the brain for a brief of a second. this persistence is because of the molecular mechanism of vision in which there is a change in the pigments present in these receptors that initiates electrical impulses!


Question: Since we have microscopic organisms walking around on our skin, do those microscopic organisms have organisms that are microscopic to them walking on their skin and so on?

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 Since we have microscopic organisms walking around on our skin, do those microscopic organisms have organisms that are microscopic to them walking on their skin and so on?

Yes. Well, sort of. (Note - this can't be exactly ELI5. Forgive me for going ELI15.) There's a type of little tiny organic robot called a "bacteriophage". It's an organism, but it's so simple that we're not sure it's really alive. It's a virus that makes more copies of itself by landing on and injecting its innards into a certain types of bacteria, kind of like how certain types of mushroom only grow on certain types of trees. The injection takes over the bacterium's internal factories, and instead of keeping the bacterium healthy, those factories start churning out more bacteriophages instead. These burst out and spread the party around. So they don't really "walk" on the bacteria's "skin" (which is really just a simple little wall to keep the bacteria's innards in and the outards out - and yes 'outards' is not a word but it should be), but they do land and inject. P.S. They look a lot like some of the weird wrecked injector-bots you see in some Stephen Universe locations.


Question: How is opiate tolerance determined?

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 How is opiate tolerance determined?

Tolerance is generally caused by a process known as down regulation. Down regulation occurs in cell receptors (the Mu opioid receptors in the case of painkillers like Norco) in response to sustained increases in receptor activation. The brain does this by reducing the number of actual receptors of the affected type. Decreased receptors decrease the binding activity of the receptors, thus reducing the effect of them.


Question: If blood is a biohazard, why are feminine hygiene products not thrown away in a more careful way?

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 If blood is a biohazard, why are feminine hygiene products not thrown away in a more careful way?

In a hospital setting it's treated as a biohazard because there is a much higher change that the owner of the blood is infected in some way (otherwise they wouldn't be in a hospital). Also, the blood isn't treated as a biohazard for the protection of the patients, it's more for the nurses and employees. They have to come into contact with blood far, far more often and from a much wider range of individuals than a typical person does. This increases their statistical change of being infected; thus it becomes wise to put more strict and careful controls in place.


Question: How do digital to analog conversions work?

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How do digital to analog conversions work?

Let's start by analog to digital conversion. Let's imagine a speaker, that moves back and forward, and we want to digitally capture what's happening. There are two things that need to be decided beforehand: - How often will we measure the position of the speaker (we call this *sampling rate*) - How precise will the measure of the position will be (we call this *bit depth*) For CDs, the standard is 44,100 measures per second (sampling rate of 44,100 Hz), and 65,536 possible positions (a bit depth of 16, e.g. 2^16 values). Why a value as high as 44,100 measures per second? The [Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem]( URL_0 ) says that reconstructing a _perfect_ wave is possible, with no discontinuities nor chopping, as long as the captured frequencies are half the sampling rate; in the CD case, that means sounds up to 22,050 Hz can be perfectly reconstructed (humans can't hear above 20,000 Hz, so we even have some wiggle room). The sole trade-off of analog-digital transformation is addition of some noise, caused by the non-infinite bit depth. At 16-bits, though, the level of noise is low enough to be a non-concern. So, we start recording. We store the first 16-bit value; could be `0110110010110101`, then the second, `1001011010001010`, then the next; we do this 44,100 times per second. On playback, the DAC reads 16 bits at a time, that gives position of speaker at time Tₒ; reads another 16 bits, gets position of speaker at time T₁, and so on. The DAC keeps a set of values, then applies the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem to recreate the analog sound wave. Without choppiness; without discontinuities. A recorded sine wave will not “look like” a staircase once digitized then converted to analog, it'll be smooth as baby skin. (Why no staircase? As the sampling rate is 44,100 Hz, the DAC _knows_ that the maximum frequency is 22,050 Hz; a “staircase-like” waveform is impossible when only using frequencies below 22,050 Hz) So your hunch is right, the DAC needs to wait for a bunch of bits before it starts outputting analog signal, but that process is *very* fast for hardware.


Question: Does warming up before running actually makes you run better or is it just placebo?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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 Does warming up before running actually makes you run better or is it just placebo?

Warming up is beneficial but warming up is not static stretches... Keep that in mind. The best way to warm up before any exercise is to do that exercise to increase blood flow to the muscles used in that exercise. So for running as an example, a warmup might be a short jog first before pushing yourself really hard. In weightlifting, the best warmups involve doing the exact same movement but with a lighter weight first. Same principle.


Question: If smartphones are basically small computers, why can't we easily boot up android on lumia?

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 If smartphones are basically small computers, why can't we easily boot up android on lumia?

The problem is the drivers for the hardware. A driver is a piece of software, that tells the OS how to talk to the components (e.g. camera, wifi-chip, modem, graphics chip, processor, etc.). On the computer you got standards for most stuff, so it is possible, to get basic functionality working with a default driver, but to use all the special features a component has, you need a driver for this component. Then you got people building their pc themselves and if hardware manufacturers want them to buy their stuff, they have to provide drivers for the most common OS's, which is Windows and Linux. Also because Microsoft and all the Linux distribution creators want their OS to run on as many combinations of components as possible, they come with many drivers for the most common components. Mobile phones however are built in factories and with only one operating system in mind. so as a hardware manufacturer you only have to provide a driver that works for that operating system and the operating system only has to come with the drivers for the hardware of that phone. if you look at custom roms for android phones, you'll notice, that there are individual releases for each phone out there. that's because the OS needs different drivers for each phone. now in theory, you could make an android rom with all the drivers needed to run on a lumia, but getting those drivers will be the hard part. you might even have to write some of those yourself.


Question: How does alcohol subside certain kinds of pain?

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 How does alcohol subside certain kinds of pain?

Alcohol works on GABA receptors, which when triggered depress the central nervous system. Your nerves are perceiving less pain signals because the alcohol decreases nerve excitability. Medications that work on the GABA receptors, like gabapentin and lyrica, are traditionally used to treat certain types of pain. Check out this article that discusses alcohol’s relationship to GABA. URL_0 It’s important to remember, though, that alcohol causes inflammation in the body, and in the long run can lead to more pain.


Question: How exactly does the US school system works? How is it possible that students are leaving school with huge debts?

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 How exactly does the US school system works? How is it possible that students are leaving school with huge debts?

High school students are told that they MUST get a four year degree in order to be successful. So they apply to colleges they can't afford and are then told "hey its no big deal, you can get a student loan for the cost" so they sign the papers and BAM. just like that they are in debt to their eyeballs before their life begins.


Question: Why do people gasp when they see something shocking or surprising?

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 Why do people gasp when they see something shocking or surprising?

We are not 100% sure, but the most likely answer is that it is part of the fight or flight response. (mechanism) Your eyes see something shocking. The signal goes to a part of the brain known as the "reticular activating system". This system also coordinates other shit like breathing. It also "wakes up" other parts of the brain. In this case, it's all, "wake up, something shocking happened!" You take an extra gasp of air and prepare to run away!


Question: Why is high-caliber ammunition (such as .45 and up) more common and accessible in handguns and pistols than in rifles?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is high-caliber ammunition (such as .45 and up) more common and accessible in handguns and pistols than in rifles?

Long narrow rifle cartridges would not easily fit into a compact handgun. (Picture the depth of a pistol grip with that deep magazine inside.) Preference: shorter and wider. Meanwhile, a rifle barrel is long, so when you make one high-caliber (wider) it gets pretty heavy. And the magazine is not inside the pistol grip so length isn't a problem. Preference: long and narrow.


Question: What makes sunrises and sunsets pretty/colorful and could you predict what days they would be so?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What makes sunrises and sunsets pretty/colorful and could you predict what days they would be so?

We have an atmosphere. Our atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogin 21% oxygen and a few percent others. Mixed in there are pollens and dust, sand from sandstorms and pollution, smog We call them particulates. Light comes from the sun, white light. People say the sun is yellow, it is white. If you look straight at the sun in the middle of the day, you'll see it's white. & #x200B; Seven colours of the spectrum are within that light, so you are chemically ( the reitna of your eye)splitting that light into combinations of red, green and blue. & #x200B; now here is what happens: white light comes down from the sun. the particles in the atmosphere are about the same size as the wavelenght of the blue light thus the blue light will reflect and scatter off the particles in the atmosphere. & #x200B; However, as the sun goes lower on our horizen, the pathlenght of the light is much longer through the air. So the light passes more atmosphere, more scattering so the sky gets more blue at twilight, deep blue. & #x200B; much more blue gets taken out of the light of the sun via the scattering, but if you take that much blue, the sun doens't have blue light left, so the other side of the spectreum (red, oragen and yellow) are left. So that is why the sunset is amber coloured / red.


Question: How can the universe be infinite and expanding at the same time?

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</answer>
 How can the universe be infinite and expanding at the same time?

Expansion means that everything in the universe is moving away from everything else. We do not need a border for this to work. Consider the number line of whole numbers. This number line is infinite in the positive and negative direction. Yet, we could re-arrange it in a way that the distance between any two neighboring whole numbers increases from one unit to two units. That is we re-arrange the number line from this ... -5\_-4\_-3\_-2\_-1_0_1_2_3_4_5..... to this ...-5\_\_-4\_\_-3\_\_-2\_\_-1\_\_0\_\_1\_\_2\_\_3\_\_4\_\_5.... This re-arrangement is an expansion of the number line, since each object (each number) has been moving away from all other numbers. Since the number line is infinite in both directions, however, we have seen that infinite objects can expand.


Question: What's the difference between a hotel, motel, resort and inn?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What's the difference between a hotel, motel, resort and inn?

They are general categories that hopefully convey what one can expect from the establishment. A hotel would have full features, including indoor hallways, room service, laundary, and maid service (to name a few examples). The word motel derives from "motor" and "hotel" and were originally meant as a place for motorists to stop while driving places. They have sparser amenities and rooms that often open onto the parking lot. An Inn is meant to connote a more traditional, less corporate, but small-ish accommodation. Often an inn is in a setting that is itself a destination (unlike a motel) but doesn't offer the services or luxuries of a hotel. Anything that calls itself a resort is doing so because it wants to convey that you can enjoy your vacation largely at the resort itself. So you would expect it to have a pool, nice views, and other activities on or adjacent to the location.


Question: how do enzymes come into contact with substrate ?

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 how do enzymes come into contact with substrate ?

Random collision in chemical soup. But yes it does come in contact with the substrate. Everything in your body at the molecular level is essentially based on a series of complex probabilities: things swimming around bumping into one another, some interactions have higher affinity so higher probability they last longer and so the reaction that is meant to happen, happens. This is true for enzymes, signaling, tagging, etc. But there's also compartmentalization making some things come in contact with specific things much more often. But there are also some physical non random interactions on the big scale, like motor proteins moving on the microtubules carrying cargo and such. So you do have some fixed proteins, a whole infrastructure of microtubule/actin/etc architecture. Edit: English


Question: How to understand/read odds ratios in sports?

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 How to understand/read odds ratios in sports?

An easy way to look at at is if you stake(the amount you bet) the number on the right, then you will win back the number on the left plus the number on the right, assuming the bet wins. E.g. odds at 5/1, I stake £1 and the bet will return me £5 plus my £1 stake = leaving the shop with £6.


Question: How is insurance both profitable and useful to a customer?

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 How is insurance both profitable and useful to a customer?

To the customer, insurance is a fixed loss to prevent a rare but potentially catastrophic loss. Insurance is built around risk pools. If 1 out of 1000 $500k homes burns down every year then the insurance company will bundle people in similar risk homes together, everyone pays $510 per year so the insurance company takes in $510k but pays out one $500k fire claim each year profiting $10k. Each person is out $510 per year, if they were to instead save that premium for 10 years they'd only have $5100 which wouldn't do them any good if their $500k house burned to the ground. The odds of their $500k house burning to the ground are reasonably low, but in the event that it occurs it would be financially devastating. In general, people cannot effectively save enough to cover what their insurance potentially covers. Insurance protects you against rare but exceptionally expensive events for a fixed cost. Its not gambling because you never "win", you just lessen your losses


Question: why is baking soda and vinegar a recommended drain cleaning method?

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 why is baking soda and vinegar a recommended drain cleaning method?

It isnt. When you mix vinegar and baking soda it makes CO2, not the most effective cleaner. People believe vinegar/baking soda work because it has such a cool reaction, but that does not make it so. Now on the flip side, vinegar and baking soda seperate are great cleaners. Hot vinegar is a very effective calcium deposit remover (hard water stains) it also works well cleaning glass and just as a general cleaner. Baking soda works well as an odor eliminator and as a scrub (like comet). I use it as a face scrub. People hear that both work for cleaning, they see an impressive reaction, they think combined it must work even better, it just doesn't. I have heard the argument that the build up of gas pushes the clog down the drain, but unless you somehow cap the other end I cannot see how that could possibly work.


Question: how do mathematicians find so many digits of pi and how?

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 how do mathematicians find so many digits of pi and how?

We know of various infinite sequences of numbers which get closer and closer to pi as you add on more terms of the sequence. In principle you can just keep working on one of those sequences and find as many digits of pi as you like. There's little practical purpose for calculating so many digits. NASA plans interplanetary missions with just 15 digits, and around 40 is enough to calculate the circumference of the observable universe to the nearest atom. There's some mathematical interest in seeing a few million digits in case there's anything interesting about how the digits are distributed, but we've gone a long way past that. It's now just a convenient calculation to demonstrate how fast and powerful your computer is (or your huge collection of computers spread across the world, as the case may be).


Question: What is a right to work law?

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</answer>
 What is a right to work law?

I'm stealing this paragraph from Ballotpedia, which explains the concept > A "yes" vote is to uphold the contested legislation, Senate Bill 19, which would enact a right-to-work law to mandate that no person can be required to pay dues to a labor union or join a labor union as a condition of employment. Tldr: such a law prohibits mandatory union membership as a condition of employees.


Question: Why does fish meat need to be in ice all the time? Is there something unique to seafood which causes it to decompose faster compared to other meats? Chicken, beef or pork for example...are never accompanied with a 'put this on ice ASAP' type of label

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does fish meat need to be in ice all the time? Is there something unique to seafood which causes it to decompose faster compared to other meats? Chicken, beef or pork for example...are never accompanied with a 'put this on ice ASAP' type of label

Fish are cold blooded animals adapted to live at lower temperatures. This means that their molecular machines are tuned to work at temperatures that would stop any mammalian ones. When we die, enzymes in our bodies keep working for a while, breaking out our bodies and making the inner bits available for bacteria to eat. To preserve bodies from decomposition, we chill them down. This brings the enzymes out of the temperature they work best at and the process is slowed down. But fish enzymes keep working even at low temperatures and they keep working fast at ambient temperatures. That's why seafood decomposes fast.


Question: How do rivers of molten rock flow without melting their banks? Presumably they're flowing through the same type of rock: wouldn't it have the same melting point?

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 How do rivers of molten rock flow without melting their banks? Presumably they're flowing through the same type of rock: wouldn't it have the same melting point?

It's about energy transfer. Let's use a house on a hot day as our first example. Outside is really really hot, let's say 40C/104F but you had the AC running earlier (not right now, but recently) so the inside of the house is 25C/77F. If you touch the wall inside the house it's roughly the same as the air inside the house. If you touch the wall on the outside of the house it's roughly the outside air temperature. That one wall has a range of 15C/27F across it. That's because it takes time for energy to move through an object and a solid object can be a whole range of temperatures. Additionally before the center of the wall reaches 40/104 the inside of the wall would have increased in temperature as well, so the energy isn't just transferred to the edge of the solid material. Now let's think about the energy required to cause that change. If I want to raise 1kg of water from 20C to 21C it's 4200 J. However if I want to take a kg of 100C/212F water and turn it into a gas (still at 100C/212F) it takes 2,300,000 J. There's a massive amount of energy required to change the phase of a material from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas. So, if I have liquid rock flowing over solid rock, the energy that transfers has to be massive. During that time the liquid rock closest to the solid rock is losing energy and the solid rock is transferring some of the energy from close to the liquid to further away. There's then also the question of how quickly the material can transfer energy. When I place an ice cube in warm water, all that energy in the water doesn't immediately melt the entire cube. It takes time because there's a limit on how quickly each material can transfer energy. This limit exists for transferring within itself and also to other materials. It's not really a limit because the larger the temperature difference the faster the energy will transfer but it means different materials transfer energy at different speeds and for the point of this topic the key is that all energy doesn't transfer at one time. So, in our example of the melted and solid rock, there's also a finite amount of energy that can be transferred. So now we have a finite amount of energy that can be transferred, a really large amount of energy needed to melt it, energy transferring away from that really hot edge into other solid rock, and the energy in the liquid edge decreasing as it transfers to the solid material. All of these find a balance and the end result is that most of the solid rock won't melt.


Question: What is Triple point and how does it occur?

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 What is Triple point and how does it occur?

If we think of water, it can be a gas, liquid, or solid. Another important point is that when a substance is a liquid, it has a maximum and minimum temperature based on the conditions of the room. If you go an boil water, it will never be hotter than 212F/100C, and even if you keep heating it with a flame, the added energy will cause molecules to become a vapor, not make the water hotter. Additionally, if you put water in a freezer, it will never be colder than 32F/0C and any reduction of water will cause freezing. If we have a liquid, we know that the water pools together, but doesn't have a solid shape. If you spill it, the spill will mostly be connected but can spread out. The reason it stays together is that the water molecules (and all molecules) have forces holding them together (Known as: hydrogen bonding through van der waals forces). If we heat up the water, we know that it can boil and become a gas. This is because we've added more energy so the molecules want to move fast and they can break away from the pack. When you boil water on a pot, the bubbles come from the bottom because that is where the water is the hottest, and the bubbles are vapor that want to leave the water and move around freely as a vapor. Additionally, we know that if we cool the water we can make a solid. The ice happens because the intramolecular forces are too strong for the energy in the chilled water to break, so it becomes a stable structure. Remember, temperature really is just how much energy is the system, so by raising the temperature, we make the molecules move or vibrate faster. However, Pressure can affect these changes. If we increase the pressure, the molecule have less space to move around. So even if you took liquid and heated it up past 212F/100C, it wouldn't boil. The reason for this is that with higher pressure, there are more air molecules, and those air molecules are repelling other air molecules back into the water. So now with higher pressure, the molecules don't boil at 212F/100C, but they can boil at 300F or 200C or higher temperatures because of the higher pressure. (This is how a pressure cooker works. By raising the pressure, you can boil something in water that is hotter than the maximum temperature at room pressure). Similarly, if we lower the pressure, this will encourage molecules to leave the liquid and enter the air and will therefore, lower the boiling point of water. (If you climb mt everest, this is important to know, as the water may never be able to be hotter than 100F/38C so you wouldn't be able to cook food without a pressure cooker). So pressure and temperature have influences on when a object can boil/condense and melt/sublime. There's a third thing that can happen where a solid goes to a gas or a gas goes to a solid. When dry ice is left in a room, it sublimes, or goes straight from a solid, the dry ice chunk, into a gas, the fun misty vapors. These processes are also affected by temperature and pressure. At certain times with different pressure and temperature, ice can also sublime into vapor.. So the triple point is where the pressure and temperature are at a place that allows the solid, vapor, and liquid to all exist without forcing a transition and having one be favored. If we look at a phase diagram: URL_0 We can see that when crossing the red line, the ice goes to solid to vapor or vice versa (sublime/deposition) when crossing the green line it goes from solid to liquid or vice versa (freeze/melt) and when crossign the blue line it goes from liquid to gas or vice versa (boil/condense). At the triple point, the liquid,solid, and gas coexist in a stable state.


Question: How can we determine root cause of fire with any degree of accuracy when fires are so destructive?

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 How can we determine root cause of fire with any degree of accuracy when fires are so destructive?

My uncle is an arson investigator. I've asked this question. Many things tell an experienced investigator where a fire started and how it spread. The way certain materials react to different temperatures, like carpet, linoleum, drywall, paint, wood, electrical wiring, they can tell where the fire was hottest. Thickness of smoke residue on walls and ceiling and vertical level of smoke lines. Spread lines on ceiling, can tell which direction fire fed from and how large fire was at each point in the structure. They can identify and test for accelerants and residues. Using all these clues, and the knowledge they've acquired from investigating so many other scenes, they can usually tell exactly what happened. Sometimes even when an entire structure is gone, they can tell certain things you think would be impossible.


Question: Why are thunder and lightning common with rain but uncommon with snow?

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 Why are thunder and lightning common with rain but uncommon with snow?

Thunderstorms require moisture and warm air currents. This is why they are common in the summer. Moisture in the air supplies the storm with water and ice particles. As moist air moves upwards in a cloud due to warm air curents, these particles rub against each other and generate charge much like rubbing a rubber balloon on your hair. Water higher up in the cloud freezes and becomes negatively charged. Positively-charged unfrozen water eventually falls to the ground. This large difference in charge sets the stage for a streak of lightning to connect two regions and discharge them. In snow and winter, there is less moisture in the air and it is colder. This is the opposite of what a thunderstorm needs to form.


Question: How much do clouds weigh?

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 How much do clouds weigh?

Clouds weight can vary, but a good sized one can weight 1.1 million pounds. There are 2 primary reasons clouds can be thay heavy and still float. First in terms of composition, clouds will be compromised of millions or billions of tiny ice crystals that by themselves dont have much weight for gravity to bring down. Combine with updrafts (either light or heavy) pushing the particles up, which helps negate the downward motion of the particles, and this allows clouds to "float". URL_0 Here is a scientific american article explaining this concept a bit more.


Question: Do other galaxies in the sky move?

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 Do other galaxies in the sky move?

Other galaxies are as "fixed" in the sky as the stars are. The galaxies are of course moving -- most of them away from us, and all of them very very fast -- but their movement isn't noticeable within the span of human civilization. The galaxy M31, for instance, is called the Andromeda Galaxy because it's in the constellation Andromeda. It's always been there, in that spot, and always will...moving into the far future, it will be the stars making up the constellation that will drift away before M31 does. Here's an analogy: put an object in the center of the room and pretend it's the sun. Now walk around the object, pretending you're the Earth. At one point, the "sun" will be in front of the door, then later it will be in front of the couch, then the window, then the TV, and so on. Those things in the background are the stars or constellations that the sun moves through over the course of the year (the series of constellations that the sun passes through are called the zodiac). But if there's a window in the room, you are able to see a mountain fifty miles away. That's a galaxy. The mountain is *always* going to be in the window...it won't be "in" the couch or the TV.


Question: how did computers get so smart at playing chess ?

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 how did computers get so smart at playing chess ?

Chess is a unique game, in that each piece has only certain moves that can be performed at any time, and thus one can predict which moves will be done many turns in advance, and each move to counter them. There is really no "randomness" in chance. This allows a computer to be programmed to constantly monitor the positions of each piece on the board, and do exactly that, think 10+ turns ahead and figure out each counterplay to each possible movement of each piece on the board, your own and your opponents. & #x200B; It's very close to what a grandmaster in chess does, however, a computer is not subject to stress or other interferences.


Question: How is Google Photos able to give you unlimited storage completely free?

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 How is Google Photos able to give you unlimited storage completely free?

Many reasons : 1. You're not actually going to use that much space. Google can advertise "Unlimited space", most people will only use a fraction of it. 2. If your read carefully the Terms of Service, it's not really "Unlimited". There are conditions. But it will *feel* unlimited, cause the limit is way beyond what the average user does need. 3. You're the product. You get free storage, they get free data about you, that they'll turn into personalized advertising. It wouldn't be free and unlimited if Google had no way to make big bucks out of it.


Question: How did our measurements of temperature(Celcius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin) come about?

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 How did our measurements of temperature(Celcius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin) come about?

Fahrenheit's just weird, so we'll get to him later. Celcius makes sense. People saw that shit could get hotter or colder, and that this was seemingly limitless, so they just picked a point to call zero. For convenience, they chose the temperature that water freezes to be zero and the temperature that water boils at to be 100. That's easy enough, eh? Only later, we found out that there actually *is* a 'coldest temperature' - this temperature turns out to be -273C. *Absolute zero*. It turns out that this temperature is actually pretty important for some physics/chemistry, and so a new scale was invented. Kelvin. They used the same degrees as celcius for convenience, but shifted everything over so that 0 kelvin is absolute zero, so you will never see something at negative degrees kelvin. Fahrenheit is like celcius, but the temperatures chosen were a lot more random. A kelvin-analogue for fahrenheit was made, but because fahrenheit sucks for scientific stuff anyways it was never used much. I forget its name. ------------ Gonna add more in an edit in a bit When measuring things at room temperature, kelvin is overkill, since all of your temperatures will be in the hundreds. As such, celcius and fahrenheit are still regularly used for normal activities. As for other measuring systems, that's its own question.


Question: How exactly do people who upload pirated content (suppose from Netflix) benefit from it?

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 How exactly do people who upload pirated content (suppose from Netflix) benefit from it?

Some do it simply because they want to share the stuff. There is a whole political movement that disagrees with the copyright altogether. Some do it for fame. Game cracking is basically a race between different competing teams. Some do it for money, some download pages pay a share to uploaders to attract content wich in turn attracts more people who watch the ads before.


Question: If I get eight hours of sleep, when my alarm rings I feel like death warmed over. If I get six hours of sleep, when my alarm rings I feel chipper and ready to get up. Why is this?

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 If I get eight hours of sleep, when my alarm rings I feel like death warmed over. If I get six hours of sleep, when my alarm rings I feel chipper and ready to get up. Why is this?

Is this always at a specific time of day? For example, when you sleep and wake after six hours, is it always at a particular time, like 7AM? This is an important detail. For example, I have a condition called Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome. What that means is that my circadian rythm is out of sync with most people's. Where most people generally feel tired around 10 - 12PM, and wake between 6 - 9AM, I feel tired around 4AM and like to wake around 12AM. For people with DSPS, our sleep schedules are *very* rigid. If I try to force myself to sleep and wake at the wrong times, I essentially do not get any quality sleep, and feel like shit. It is important to note details like you have noted. This helps you calibrate your sleep schedule. Sleep comes in 5 stages. We cycle through the stages, 1 - 4, and then REM, throughout the night. A good night's sleep consists of 3 - 6 full cycles of this. Waking up during or right after REM can help you feel refreshed. Right after REM ends, we rrevert to stage 1, which is the "lightest" and closest to waking of all stages of sleep. So it is relatively easy to shift from REM to waking, and you'll feel refreshed and remember your dreams on top of that. However, waking up in other stages can make you feel groggy. Your body wants to complete the cycle, and waking up in stage 2 or 3 makes you feel "incomplete", because your body wanted to complete the full cycle, and the brain takes a while to get adjusted to being woken up right in the middle of the cycyle. Sleep experts recommend trying to keep track of when you hit certain stages; if you can time yourself correctly, you can make sure you're always feeling good and waking right after REM.