Question: Why is it a common joke that the French always surrender?

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 Why is it a common joke that the French always surrender?

In World War I, they had some bad commanders and lost a few major battles early on, ended up losing a lot of territory. Then the two sides dug in for trench warfare and so the rest of the war was fought on French soil. It's easy to read it as "rofl everybody else had to rescue France". At the start of World War II, France was the most dangerous adversary Germany saw - pretty substantial army, right on the border, with a crazy defensive network called the Maginot Line. So Germany's plan was to sucker-punch France early. They equipped an unheard-of proportion of their vehicles with radios, to keep command and control, and did a march through the mountains to get around the end of the Maginot Line. It worked fantastically. They got to a position where if France had fought they would have lost boatloads of soldiers and still lost, so they surrendered. Since then, they haven't had a lot of chances to win back Honor Points. They were driven out of Vietnam the same way the US was, they showed up for Desert Storm but were off on the flank where the action wasn't very heavy...and that's all the French military actions I can think of for now.


Question: If we pay for cable why do we have to watch advertisements?

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 If we pay for cable why do we have to watch advertisements?

Because you're willing to watch the advertisements on top of the cable fees. The company isn't just not going to advertise if people are willing to sit through ads even if they paid for cable. That would be like walking away from free money. The company has bills to pay and stockholders to appease. If you don't like it, vote with your wallet and stop paying for cable. That's how the free market works.


Question: Why are some men able to grow a beard and others not? Is growing a beard a sign of of wellness?

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 Why are some men able to grow a beard and others not? Is growing a beard a sign of of wellness?

some of it is diet but more of it is gentics. Asians for example tend to have a lot harder time and are less likely to grow a full on beard as you see it other races fun fact it was seen as very special if you could in many asian cultures


Question: Why do stocks plummet after major events? Cant stockholders just “stay calm”?

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 Why do stocks plummet after major events? Cant stockholders just “stay calm”?

Stock traders are predicting the future. When they think the future is certain, market fluctuation is reduced, and they can "stay calm". When they think the future is uncertain, the opposite happens. If they were to "stay calm" when the future was uncertain, they would be slow to react to things and they would lose their money.


Question: When your first response to hearing a new song is negative, what happens in the brain that makes us start to like it after hearing it over and over?

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 When your first response to hearing a new song is negative, what happens in the brain that makes us start to like it after hearing it over and over?

One theory that explains why we enjoy music is that our brain rewards us for making correct predictions. Being able to predict things had obviously been important for the survival of our ancestors, that's why our brain evolved to be this way. So when we listen to the beginning of a melody, the brain tries to predict the rest. If the prediction is right, we are rewarded with joy and consider the melody logical and beautiful. This also explains why we enjoy rhymes. Now, if the sequence of sounds didn't make much sense in the beginning, with each repeated listen we kind of get used to it. Our brain remembers how the melody ends, so it predicts the ending right this time and we start to enjoy it. Of course, for this to happen we should be free from stronger feelings (like the annoyance of being forced to listen to a song when it happens against our will).


Question: What is the difference between being brain dead, and being in a vegetative state?

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 What is the difference between being brain dead, and being in a vegetative state?

Brain dead comes with a declared time of death. There is no neurological function within the skull. On an exam a patient is without the ability to construct the pupils, move the eyes, cough or gag when a breathing tube is wiggled. The most protected part of the brain is the brain stem. It controls breathing. In brain death it no longer functions. (I can explain an apnea test later if desired) Another test used to confirm brain death is a brain flow study. Contrast dye (very mildly radioactive) is injected into the blood stream. If imaging shows there is no blood going to the brain you have brain death. Brain death is irreversible. The media often uses the term poorly creating confusion. If they “woke up” then they never were brain dead. Source: Years of practice in organ transplant. Now in palliative care. One of my patients was declared Friday.


Question: How are mathematical constants like π calculated?

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 How are mathematical constants like π calculated?

Using infinite series. For example, it was proven that pi = 4 - 4/3 + 4/5 - 4/7 + 4/9 - 4/11 +... So if you take this series and just add more and more elements, you will get closer and closer to pi. This specific series actually converges into pi very very slowly (you need a lot of terms just to get a few digits), but there are other series which converge much more quickly. Another example is Euler's number e, which is equal to 1 + 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! +...


Question: What is a reverse mortgage?

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 What is a reverse mortgage?

Regular mortgages are when a bank gives you a lot of money all at once and you pay it back a little bit at a time over a long time. Reverse mortgages are when a bank gives you a little bit of money over time and you pay it back all at once. If you don't pay for either type of mortgage, the bank gets your house. Usually the point where the reverse mortgage is paid back is when you either die, sell your house or you move out. If you're dead, your heirs pay it back or the bank gets the house.


Question: How can the US cripple a sovereign country via "sanctions"? How can one country crush another, economically, with this approach? How/Why is this possible, and what options do sanctioned nations have to combat the effects? Finally, what is the end goal?

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 How can the US cripple a sovereign country via "sanctions"? How can one country crush another, economically, with this approach? How/Why is this possible, and what options do sanctioned nations have to combat the effects? Finally, what is the end goal?

> Please explain "Sanctions" like i'm 5. Basically it is saying "I'm not going to do business with this country, and nobody else should do business with them either or I won't do business with them too." They can be targeted toward a narrow subset of all possible financial interactions such as specific goods or cover everything. > Why the US can do this, globally. Because the US can do it and nobody can stop them. Technically anyone can do such a thing but the more influential an entity is the more effective the tactic. You could personally start sanctions, a sort of boycott I suppose, but nobody would really care. > And what a sovereign nation can do to combat the US's seemingly bulling of nations with sanctions. They could try to convince other countries to do business with them anyway, or try to make such transactions secretly, or just do without the trade with countries which want to stay in the good graces of the US. They could do a lot of things, even declare war if they wanted. But not many of those are practical or likely to be effective. > There doesn't seem to be any other nation capable of such influence in the world economy. There really isn't any other entity as powerful economically than the US, it would have to be an alliance of many countries. Now I would like to take a moment to address the apparent whinging about the US "bullying" other countries with sanctions. It should be pointed out that the US has been not only the dominant economic power in the world but also the dominant military power for quite some time. At any other point in history such a country would be expanding its territory via military conquest, subjugating the indigenous populations and instituting their own governance almost always in explicitly exploitative terms. Sanctions are the ultimate in kid gloves for resolving foreign relations problems.


Question: How is monetary inflation sustainable?

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 How is monetary inflation sustainable?

Well, as time goes on, larger units become more prevalent and smaller units become less useful. The penny, once sufficient on its own to buy products, has since become more of an annoyance. Larger bills, like twenties and even hundreds, find themselves being used more frequently. We will eventually need to print larger bills, but that is a ways off.


Question: How the ancient government used to collect taxes from people in times where there was no national identify card policies to track them?

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 How the ancient government used to collect taxes from people in times where there was no national identify card policies to track them?

That depends a lot on the place in question. Most taxes back in the day were not income taxes, but property taxes. The tax collection agent would come to your house, look at all of your stuff (particularly your land) and then figure out how much you owed based on what you owned. This of course meant that you could reduce your tax by hiding your stuff. Can't hide land though, and land is the most important thing in medieval tax collecting, so it worked out OK. Then you send sacks of grain or whatever you were to pay your taxes in (paying in money was rare) to the tax guy. And if you didn't, then the tax guy's friend, who owns a very sharp axe, pays you a visit. Tracking people wasn't very important back then. If someone didn't have land, they didn't have much to contribute in taxes anyway, and if they did have land, then they could easily be found since they would have built their house on that land, or be working the land to make a living - and thus would not stray far from it. People who did not own land but still gained enough wealth to be worth collecting taxes from tended to be well-known members of high society, and would only be able to avoid taxes by fleeing to another society, leaving much of their wealth behind.


Question: What does it mean for an element to be "metastable", and how does decay of metastable elements differ from decay of radioactive isotopes?

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 What does it mean for an element to be "metastable", and how does decay of metastable elements differ from decay of radioactive isotopes?

Imagine a hill, and at the top of the hill is a small depression. A ball in that depression is metastable. It won't roll down the hill at any point, unless something gives it enough energy to get out of the depression. Once it's Out, however, it will roll to the bottom of the hill and reach a true stable state. An example is wood. It's metastable, but given enough heat in our environment, it will burn, releasing an excess amount of heat and in the process becoming stable.


Question: How is data transmitted through radio waves?

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 How is data transmitted through radio waves?

At its simplest, a wave can be characterised by two parameters: frequency (how often it goes from its highest value to its lowest and back), and amplitude (how wide of a difference there is between the peaks and valleys of the wave). [This chart]( URL_2 ) should help clarify what I mean. Let's start with analogue radio, transmitting just audio data. That data can be visualised as a wave, like [this]( URL_1 ). That's basically time going left to right, and value up/down. Transmitting this is basically a matter of communicating what the current value is. Fundamentally, your question boils down to: "how do we convey this value information over time through radio waves?" As it stands, there's two popular strategies to solve this problem. One is Amplitude Modulation, the other is Frequency Modulation — you might recognise these as AM/FM radio. Both use the same idea of a a so-called "carrier wave" (a wave that has well known amplitude/frequency characteristics), that you then Modulate (tweak) it in such a way that the tweaks are what conveys information. For Amplitude Modulation, you achieve this by modifying the amplitude of the carrier wave. Basically, the amplitude of the carrier maps directly to the value of the signal you're transmitting at each point in time. For Frequency Modulation, you achieve this by modifying the frequency, with higher frequencies corresponding to higher values. [Illustrated]( URL_0 ). When you tune a radio to a certain frequency, you're basically telling it "decode the data being transmitted over the carrier wave at this frequency". Now, I assume you originally meant to ask about WiFi, or other such digital communications systems. Well, that's basically the same principle. If you think of binary zeros and ones as being represented by different notes, then you're just playing a song that alternates between those notes _really_ fast. (this is _way_ oversimplified and probably quite misleading, but a good enough approximation for the purpose of illustration).


Question: Deep heat and other such creams. When you apply them, what is actually happening to give that intense hot feeling?

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 Deep heat and other such creams. When you apply them, what is actually happening to give that intense hot feeling?

Deep heat creams contains chemical compounds such as Menthol (an organic compound made synthetically or obtained from corn mint, peppermint, or other mint oils) and methyl Salicylate (an organic ester naturally produced by many species of plants, particularly wintergreens) which are also known as counter-irritants. They work by triggering receptors and causing the skin to feel cool and then warm. These feelings on the skin distract you from feeling the aches/pains deeper in your muscles, joints, and tendons.


Question: How does limiting buying of certain stocks, but not selling, help Robinhood meet their clearinghouse deposit requirements?

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 How does limiting buying of certain stocks, but not selling, help Robinhood meet their clearinghouse deposit requirements?

Robinhood doesn't buy $100 of CME when you place an order. That's 1/3 of a share, and there is no other market in fractional shares. Instead, they wait until they need 100 shares (a standard exchange transactional amount) and then they buy 100 shares and update their data base of which 300 people each own $100 worth (to extend your hypothetical). When you "sell" your $100, they do nothing but put money in your account. If enough people sell, then they sell 100 shares and "pay themselves back". Here is a problem if the stock is super volatile. You buy 1/3 of a share at $100. The next person buys 1/3 of a share at $102. ... The 300th person buys a share at $250. Now Robinhood buys 100 shares at $250, and only collected half of the $25,000 from you and your 299 friends. This is bad. So, instead, they predict what's going to happen and maybe buy 100 shares at $110. To do that, since Robinhood users have only contributed $500, they have to get the rest of the $11,000 from somebody. That means they have to have cash.


Question: Why are charged batteries heavier than empty ones?

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 Why are charged batteries heavier than empty ones?

E=mc^(2). Energy has mass. That said, the amount of additional mass is so small that it might as well not actually exist for any practical purposes. For instance, consider something with a huge storage capacity like a Tesla Powerwall. It can store 13.5 kWh, which translates to 4.86\*10^7 Joules. That's enough energy to fully power the average home for something like 16 hours. If you rearrange the above famous equation to solve for mass, you get: m = E/c^(2) Now let's plug in some numbers: m = 4.86\*10^7 J / (2.998\*10^(8) m/s)^2 Once we solve that equation, we discover that the fully charged Powerwall weighs an additional 0.54 micrograms. For comparison, that's about half the weight of a single grain of baking powder. The Powerwall's weight fluctuates order of magnitude more from random dust particles landing on it than from being charged. **** As an aside, this might give you some insight into why nuclear bombs are so powerful. 0.54 micrograms worth of mass is equivalent to the energy needed to power your home for 16 hours. The bomb dropped on Hiroshima converted about 700 milligrams (700,000 micrograms, less than one-third the mass of a U.S. dime) of mass to energy. If we use the same metric, that's enough energy to power your home for over 2,500 **years**.


Question: Why do England, Wales, Scotland and NI compete in world cups but join together for the Olympics?

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 Why do England, Wales, Scotland and NI compete in world cups but join together for the Olympics?

Many popular sports originated in the UK, so the first "international" competitions were between the nations within the UK. Now many other countries take part, but the idea that the UK nations compete separately has been grandfathered in. For example FIFA has an explicit rule that each of the four "British Associations" are members in their own right despite not being independent countries. However the Olympics involved many countries right from the start. So it was a team per sovereign state (more or less, some dependent territories have their own teams).


Question: Why does everyone believe that Social Security will run out in the future?

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 Why does everyone believe that Social Security will run out in the future?

Demographics. Social security is not a form of banking. Money from younger workers goes to older workers. The money younger workers "pay in" has long been spent when they retire. Today in the US people are living longer, and thus getting SS longer. They are also having fewer children (== workers) to pay taxes for their retirement. The only reason the SS system hasn't already run out of money is that younger immigrants are moving to the US in high numbers, including some illegally, and then their pay is being taxed to fund retirees SS payments.


Question: How are desert Oases formed?

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 How are desert Oases formed?

There are underground "lakes" or "rivers" called aquifers. these massive amount of water underground, protected from the sun, exist all over the world, even in deserts. say you have a river, miles of desert, and then a mountain chain. When rain falls in the mountains and gets absorbed by the ground, it has to go somewhere. Chances are that water is going to go downhill towards that river, underground. This is the Aquifer. if along that path the ground suddenly dips down low enough that the water is back on the surface. you get a spring, or an oasis. Where the water is coming up from an underground source. Check out this image as a pretty good way to visualize it: [ URL_0 ]( URL_0 ) its a scroll or two down the page, the drawing.


Question: How do people "Discover" things or numbers in mathematics?

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 How do people "Discover" things or numbers in mathematics?

There's no reliable way to discover a good question - it's just intuition. When you spend your life doing math you might develop an intuition, or a physicist or engineer might come and ask you to answer a particular question. These question are answered via proof - formal logical deduction. It's not all that different to everyday deduction (It's raining. Rain makes the ground wet. Therefore the ground is wet.), but with a larger set of assumptions and more stringent requirements on correctness. (The ground is wet. Rain makes the ground wet. This is *not* sufficient to say it's raining, since other things could also make the ground wet, like someone washing their car). Constructing these proofs is partly technique and partly intuition. A lot of times the chains of reasoning are extremely long, so you need to make long-range guesses of where to go to complete your proof. Frequently when making these proofs, mathematicians will either invent or stumble upon (depending on how intentional it was) other mathematical structures. Now these structures are new things mathematicians ask and answer questions about! As a simple example, we have long known about polynomials and solutions to them (like quadratic equations). In the process of trying to prove that a general solution exists for cubics (ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d = 0), mathematicians found that they couldn't avoid occasionally taking the square root of -1. This prompted them to create imaginary numbers to complete the proof in general, and now we had a whole new type of number to ask questions about!


Question: what is the meaning of true positve ,true negative ,false positive and false negative?

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 what is the meaning of true positve ,true negative ,false positive and false negative?

AFAIK, First value: observed, Second: expected PS: thanks /u/schnutzel 1. True positive: Expected to be true, and was true. 2. True negative: Expected to be false, but was false. 3. False positive: Expected to be true, but was false. 4. False negative: Expected to be false, and was true. For example, the term 'false positive' is used by antivirus companies. False positive is when antivirus thinks that file is a virus, but in reality, it's not a virus (so it was true (expected by the antivirus), but was false (observed by humans)). In this context, I answered the question.


Question: If the corpus collosum is cut, can I communicate to my left ear with speech?

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 If the corpus collosum is cut, can I communicate to my left ear with speech?

I'm working on my PhD in cognitive neuroscience so let me see if I can answer your question! You're entire body other than your face is contra-laterally controlled (right hand is controlled by left hemisphere etc). However, technically, stimulus from your eyes goes to both hemispheres so for simplicity we will say that input to your left eye is processed in your left hemisphere and input to your right eye is processed in the right hemisphere. Since language processing is done almost entirely in the left hemisphere, this poses some issues. If your right eye is shown something, then your right hemisphere is activated and processes that info. Your left hand could attempt to carry out the task. However, since language is controlled by your left hemisphere, you WOULD NOT be able to speak the information for your left brain to hear. It would be impossible! You could only speak the information out loud if it was shown to your left eye/left hemisphere. TL;DR It's complicated, but no, talking to yourself would not solve your problems!


Question: what animals with eyes on the sides of their head see exactly? Can they see both their sides at the same time?

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 what animals with eyes on the sides of their head see exactly? Can they see both their sides at the same time?

Hold your finger in front of your face and slowly move it around your head. Follow it with your eyes keeping your head facing forward and try to note the position at which you can no longer see it. You may find that if you wiggle your finger when you can no longer see it then you can sense the movement (sort of like a T Rex), and that the point at which this happens is slightly behind you. This allows you to be alerted to movement slightly behind you and turn your head to focus on it more clearly and make sure it's not dangerous. What's weird is how instinctively we use it, so much so that we don't even know it. It's hard enough to fully understand how we perceive our own vision without even trying to understand other creatures. We are primarily a predator species, but with eyes slightly further apart than something like an eagle, allowing us to focus on prey in front of us, but also be aware of dangers to our sides without turning our heads. For prey species like deer, having eyes on the side of their head allows them to look even further behind them than we can to give them a better chance of spotting predators. They don't need to focus on their prey because grass doesn't run away. It's been pointed out that I got sidetracked and off the point I was originally steering towards. What I think I was trying to get at is that you mostly perceive your vision to be continuous, but you have blind spots, and spots that can only sense movement. Things like the finger experiment I mentioned above expose your own vision's shortcomings. Animals like deer likely perceive their own vision to be continuous, but the part of their vision that's directly in front of their face would act like yours does at the side. Imagine having a blind spot directly in the forefront of your vision. Sort of like how most of the time you don't see your nose until you think about it. Like you are right now. Sorry. *edit* didn't realise this was going to be a gold-worthy response but thank you kind stranger. Never had one before so I don't quite know what to do with it. Maybe I'll build a school for grasses that can't run good and want to learn how to do other stuff good too.


Question: Why is cell service so erratic in the mountains? Mountains don't move, so why is the connection not constantly good or bad?

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 Why is cell service so erratic in the mountains? Mountains don't move, so why is the connection not constantly good or bad?

For one, rock and other materials on a mountain can block signals (akin to how yiu might Not Have service underground in a tunnel due to the dirt and stone. Secondly, On rigid mountains, it can be hard for cell companies to place anntenas, as they usually require flat services for support.


Question: Is there something surrounding the universe?

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 Is there something surrounding the universe?

Usually when talking about the shape of the universe, they’re talking about how space time curves. It’s...complicated because it involves extra dimensions that aren’t intuitive to us. But basically there’s three options for the universe. Either it’s ‘flat’ and has no curve, is a ‘sphere’ and has a positive curve, or is more of a ‘saddle’ shape with a negative curve. Which shape it has depends on how dense the universe is. We don’t need to see all of it to tell if it has a curvature, it’s just geometry. If the universe is curved, triangles don’t have 180° like they do if it’s flat. The earth is a good example since it’s a sphere. If you were on the equator and walked to the North Pole, then turned 90° and walked back to the equator, you could make one more 90° turn to get back to where you started. You just made a triangle with 270°. You don’t need to see all of the earth to do this, and it wouldn’t look curved while you were walking since it’s so large. But you’d be able to tell it’s curved just by measuring stuff on it. This is called non-Euclidean geometry, and a curved universe would be non-Euclidean. The universe is really big though. Really really big. So it’s hard to measure anything like that. We’ve tried and found that it’s mostly flat, but there’s still a margin of error that would leave room for it to have a small curve (positive or negative).


Question: what is a Markov chain and the Monte Carlo method?

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 what is a Markov chain and the Monte Carlo method?

A Markov Chain is a system where something transitions from one distinct state to another with probabilities depending only on the current state. Let's start with a coin flip. If you get heads you take a step right (+1) and tails take a step left (-1). You start at 0. So at step 1 you move to 1 with 50% chance and to -1 with 50% chance. I just flipped a heads so at step 2 I'm at +1 and flip a coin again following the same rules. So now I will be at 0 with 50% chance or at +2 with 50% chance. Where I end up at each step depends only at where I am now. It does not matter how I got there. Whether I got to +1 on step 1 or step 51 won't change the likelihood of going to 0 or +2. Monte Carlo simulation is where you use randomness to change the inputs to a system and use the outputs to approximate the the expected value of certain parameters: average, variance, etc. Using these together allows you to run a Markov Chain using a Random Number Generator thousands, if not millions, of times and build really close estimates without having to perform really nasty integrals.


Question: Why do airlines charge less for flights out of small cities (stopping over in a major hub) and more JUST from that major city?

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 Why do airlines charge less for flights out of small cities (stopping over in a major hub) and more JUST from that major city?

It has to do with competition. A flight from city A to city B to city C is not competing with flights from city B to city C. It’s competing with A-D-C with different stopovers and A-C nonstop. If one airline dominates airport B (which is the case for many large US airports; just not the few largest like NY’s and LA’s) that will make flights out of B more expensive. But that doesn’t apply to other flights using B as a stopover, so if airport A has more competition between airlines than B, then A-B-C will often be cheaper than B-C.


Question: How do animators figure out how much to move clay models/drawings for each frame?

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 How do animators figure out how much to move clay models/drawings for each frame?

Skill, practice, using live action references. It is quite common with animation to film the same actions live, and then use those as a reference for the animation. There are videos on youtube of this being done by old school Disney animators. I know that Aardman used to point a video camera in the same direction as the proper film camera. This would be shown on a small TV set so they could see the camera's eye view of the scene. They would use a felt tip pen to track certain features of the scene (such as a character's nose) to make sure the movements are fluid.


Question: - Why do communications companies make themselves so impossible to get hold of?

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 - Why do communications companies make themselves so impossible to get hold of?

Customer service is an expense. It doesn't generate any revenue for them and so it's a low priority. The only reason it gets any attention in most companies is because good customer service can prevent a customer from moving to a competetor but in most places communications companies have monopolies or duopolies so there's little risk in loosing a customer due to bad service. So they set up the bare minimum number of people to answer questions, they force customers to answer their own questions and set up automated systems with technology that isn't anywhere near maturity with the idea that they can answer enough customer questions to get by and avoid most formal complaints.


Question: How do sites that don't display ads make money?

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 How do sites that don't display ads make money?

As website you can make money by selling ads, but also by selling user data. Alternatively, the site is devoid of money making schemes as part of its growth strategy, and will monetize once it secures enough market share. Why bother showing adds when you barely get 100 visitors a day, better keep it add free to develop a proper following ,and only then switch on the adds.


Question: Why is your voice different when you speak another language?

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 Why is your voice different when you speak another language?

In brief: while we tend to think of phonetic-phonological mapping as segmental (the English /t/ is mapped to [ɾ] in certain environments, for instance, in words like ‘set’ [sɛt] vs. ‘setting’ [ˈsɛɾɪŋ]), which is relatively well researched, the reality is that languages have melodic mappings as well: these specify the intonation, the contour and even vocal modality — for instance, switching from the modal register to the fry register (as is common in certain American accents, e.g. the California Valley). These differences are quite sharp. Consider for instance female Middle Class speakers in U.K. vs. a comparable group from the U.S., you will find that the following generalization applies: Significantly more British speakers employ “chest voice” (lower pitches and darker timbre but, let’s be clear, not a physiological register) compared to their American counterparts. As for why, that’s anybody’s guess at this point. It’d be hasty to jump to conclusions when we’re missing critical data - or any data, for that matter. But the picture is not so straightforward: there are numerous melodic encodings in numerous dialects and speakers make a largely unconscious decision (but a decision nonetheless) as to which patterns they employ; I suspect their linguistic knowledge of such melodies is greatly expanded compared to pre-Modern cultures via mimesis and exposure. I also strongly suspect that whether consciously or unconsciously, via greater exposure speakers acquire an early sense of the social prestige (or lack thereof) of various forms, which may affect their choices. Very good question to ask, precisely because this is, officially, the least researched area in phonetics and phonology. The articulatory-phonetic aspect of it is rather well understood: we can either generally identify the myofascial phenomena which constitute the change in vocal coloring, register, timbre and pitch. The phonological structuring that identifies where the melodies map to the grammatical entities - now that’s an idea for a research program. [source]( URL_0 )


Question: How can I find real, unbiased news?

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 How can I find real, unbiased news?

There is no such thing as unbiased news. Any news source will, at minimum, introduce [selection bias]( URL_4 ), consciously or unconsciously, when they decide what to report on. It's also important to get biased, opinionated content too, because it's impossible for a layperson to do all of their own analysis - the insights of smart people like Paul Krugmen and Charles Krauthammer can go along way. So best to get your news from a variety of different sources, and to avoid extremely biased sources like Salon and Brietbart. The best news sources have a full editorial staff and separate their news and opinion sections. I recommend: **Soft Paywall:** [The New York Times]( URL_5 ) - hard news, centre-left editorial content [The Washington Post]( URL_1 ) - hard, mostly political news, various (mostly leftist) editorial content [The Wall Street Journal]( URL_7 ) - economic news, various (mostly right-wing/libertarian) editorial content **Free** [BBC News]( URL_0 ) - hard news [CBC News]( URL_6 ) - hard news, mostly liberal editorial content [NPR News]( URL_3 ) - hard news [Vox]( URL_2 ) - leftist editorial content.


Question: What causes an Existential Crisis to trigger in our brain?

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 What causes an Existential Crisis to trigger in our brain?

Your brain is essentially a future simulation machine. The brain can be split into 3 main chunks (I'm simplifying): the hindbrain, responsible for many instincts; the midbrain, responsible for many emotions and sensory integration; and the forebrain, newest and best at future planning. The forebrain takes longest to develop. It tends to be in teenage development that people have their first epiphanies about existence and their place in the universe. This hits emotional triggers very hard, and is written into your memory as an important experience, to make sure you remember it. Why? The theory is a sense of purpose and value of your life has survival value. You're more likely to live with a strong ability to predict the future, and "purpose" is very much tied to future planning. Crises can happen when you lose that feeling of euphoria tied to future planning. And since it was tagged in your brain as super important, you feel a sense of loss that is very strong. Edit: credit to u/starfirex for pointing out that I describe brain structure using an outdated model. All 3 "chunks" have been evolving this whole time. I meant to use it only as a frame of reference for the forebrain and its function. Edit 2: There's gold in them thar hills! I will celebrate with an awesome definition to share. [Connectome]( URL_4 ): a comprehensive map of all connections in the brain. It hasn't been done in humans yet, but is as important for us to learn as the human genome. I hope to see it all mapped out some day. Edit 3: a good chunk of this is indeed speculative. This is way beyond what researchers can test. Attempt at a reasonable explanation: [The forebrain]( URL_2 ), as well as mid and hindbrain, are structures which develop differently along the neural tube. A tube becomes your brain and spinal cord. Perhaps some better read folks out there can help me with a definition of epiphany. My Principles of Neuroscience class defined most new thoughts as "connecting two previously separated concepts in a novel way". I assumed the definition of an existential epiphany to be something like connecting pathways responsible for "self" with "purpose" or "the rest of the world". One of my profs said it in a way that I am retelling: your brain is searching to connect two or more concepts. Under MRI, it appears to be mild activity in many structures. When a connection with meaning is found, there is a sudden burst of activity. A sudden burst can lead to [long term potentiation]( URL_1 ), a fancy way of saying the memory is likely to be stored in long term memory. If this long term potentiation is paired with emotion (likely through the [amygdalae]( URL_0 )), it does two things: further consolidates the memory, and adds emotional content whenever the memories are recalled. The thought process can also be tied to a rush of [endorphins]( URL_3 ), which is essentially feel-good juice that your pituitary releases. The "loss" I refer to could be a number of new things that you have experience since you had the original epiphany. Reality sets in? You lose confidence? Have you become accustomed to the mindset without new stimulus? Then you may no longer trigger the entire pathway, and lose the paired endorphin rush. My background is a BSc in Neuroscience. Good scientists will see that I didn't include enough primary lit. I am an amateur attempting to explain the unexplained, but I think my logic and theory is sound.


Question: How does Iodine (pill form?) help reduce the effects of radiation poisoning if you’re already irradiated?

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 How does Iodine (pill form?) help reduce the effects of radiation poisoning if you’re already irradiated?

It doesn't. Potassium iodide does one thing and one thing only: It protects your thyroid by blocking it from taking up radioactive iodine-131 which can cause thyroid cancer. It does nothing if you take it after exposure and it doesn't protect any other part of your body or protect you from any other radionuclide.


Question: What are the obstacles preventing us from moving to plant-based plastics?

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 What are the obstacles preventing us from moving to plant-based plastics?

Partly the toxicity. However, plants require energy to grow (to power the tractors and crucially the fertilisers). This energy has an environmental impact. We don't know what damage this is causing. Nor do we know what damage the waste plastic is causing. As this is a judgement call and not fact at this point, most companies go for status quo.


Question: Objectively, what are the limitations of carbon dating?

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 Objectively, what are the limitations of carbon dating?

The biggest limit is time. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730 years, which means that it can't determine the date of things older than ~50,000 years. It also really works best for organic materials. While some inorganic materials can also be dated, there are a good number of things (mainly, things not made of carbon) that simply can't be dated using this method.


Question: Why isn't there a bunch of craters decorating our planet like the moon?

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 Why isn't there a bunch of craters decorating our planet like the moon?

Well, for one, there are - Earth has [dozens of large impact craters]( URL_0 ). And in fact, the most visible sign of a huge impact on Earth is, well, the Moon itself (which was formed by an impact of such violence that it melted a good chunk of the planet and knocked a few percent of its mass into orbit). But Earth's geology is very different from the Moon's in several important ways: * Water and wind cause rocks to weather much more quickly on Earth than they do on other worlds. This means that large features on the Earth's surface quickly erode away in most places, leaving many of the largest known impacts in dry and rocky areas (like Meteor Crater in Arizona). Living things also contribute: plant roots wedge into cracks in rock, bacteria live in the pores of stones, biological chemicals react with rocks, etc. * Earth has active plate tectonics, which eventually recycle most of the Earth's crust back into the mantle. Only a few places on Earth are as old as the Moon's surface, or even very old at all. The land I live on is only a few tens of millions of years old, and is a scraped-off remnant of an ancient plate that is now hundreds of miles below me in the mantle. Most big craters are very old, so while Earth probably did have them in the distant past, only a couple remain on fragments of very old plates. * Earth's atmosphere slows small objects down, or even burns them up or causes them to explode due to the stress of reentry. An object has to be reasonably big to make it to the ground - the asteroid that made Meteor Crater, for example, was roughly the size of a house.


Question: why is C-4 or plastic explosives so powerful for being so small?

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 why is C-4 or plastic explosives so powerful for being so small?

[RDX]( URL_1 ) is the actual explosive used in C-4 and all other plastic explosives (so far as I know). What makes C-4 C-4 is the fact that they mix in plasticizers with various properties to give the explosive the desired traits (can be hit with hammer, can survive high temperatures, etc). To answer your core question, 'why is it so powerful', well, for reasons I don't understand, the most powerful explosives we've managed to manufacture all are based on having as many N2 and O2 pairs swap to NO pairs as quickly as possible. URL_0 < ---no, for real, look at that list (sort by R.E., higher is better. Effectiveness relative to TNT) and realize that almost every single one of them involves Nitrogen and oxygen in varying arrangements. RDX happens to be fairly dense, meaning you get more N2 and O2 pairs per unit of volume. RDX is also relatively easy to manufacture (at scale; not in your home!) compared to other explosives with higher densities. So...that's why it's so powerful for its size. They managed to find a gemoetric arragement of N2 and O2 pairs that: 1. Decomposes quickly into NO pairs (hence the orange smoke on almost all nitrogen based explosions). {The black smoke in C-4 comes from the carbon-based plasticizers} 2. Is fairly dense in its molecular form (so you get more N2 O2 pairs per unit volume)


Question: I often hear how scary and dangerous Biotechnology (gene manipulation etc.) is or will be. Why is it that? What is so scary about it?

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 I often hear how scary and dangerous Biotechnology (gene manipulation etc.) is or will be. Why is it that? What is so scary about it?

Normally I am just an observer, but this is a topic that is important to me. The truth of it is it is no scarier than traditional breeding methods such as selective breeding. The process that got us dogs from wolves. In fact many modern biotechnology products are safer because we have more control over what changes we are making, rather than making a bunch of random changes until we get something we like. The true reason it is so scary to many people is because they don't understand it, and we fear the unknown. Asking questions, and being willing to listen to people who spend their lives studying a subject, is one of the best ways to end the stigma against biotechnology. It is a tool just like any other. It is highly regulated, and a more controlled version of traditional breeding methods that go back 1,000s of years.


Question: Why do hospitals and asylums get abandoned?

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 Why do hospitals and asylums get abandoned?

The Asylums were often abandoned because funding from the Federal Government and State Governments that provided for the indigent people in them was ended in 1950s. Some argued for the stopping because it was felt that institutionalization was not good. But instead of providing a replacement for the asylums people with severe mental illness have mostly been abandoned by the government if their families and friends are not able to provide for them. Hospitals tend to shut down if better facilities are built nearby, or if the population of the region drops below a level that can support the hospital.


Question: What is codependency and how does it work?

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 What is codependency and how does it work?

It's being excessively dependent on another person for validation or approval. For example, the situation between an addict and an enabler; the drug addict is dependent on the enabler for money, food, shelter etc (whatever it is to survive and keep using their drug of choice); whereas the enabler feels useful (they have purpose) in knowing that the drug addict needs them. So their existence is validated internally. Neither one is able to break away because they are both reliant on getting something from the relationship. This exists with overbearing moms and their kids too. Codependents often pair with narcissists or people who have borderline personality disorder; they tend to attract each other. Both parties have serious self esteem issues and the relationship is often parasitic and toxic, often even quite abusive. It's hard to conquer codependency and break free from such a partnership. They describe breaking codependency as being almost as hard as quitting a drug itself. There's a lot more to it but I hope this helps a bit.


Question: Why does bathroom sink water seem to taste different than kitchen sink water?

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 Why does bathroom sink water seem to taste different than kitchen sink water?

Measure the temperature difference of the first 20 seconds of water. That can make a huge difference to taste. Ground water is often cooler than the extra house piping needed to reach the bathroom. Aerators often found in bathroom taps to prevent splashing change the taste too (and get gross, they need removing & cleaning). Your kitchen faucet probably cost twice as much as the bathroom fitting, and is more likely to use ceramic valves and noble metals that don't impart a bad taste. As the most frequently used faucet it will hold fresher water too.


Question: Why is so much water used when mining lithium?

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 Why is so much water used when mining lithium?

Well, you need to extract the lithium from the ground. One way to do that is to drill a hole, inject water, wait for the lithium salts (the most common form in which lithium is found) to dissolve in the water and pump the brine (water + salt) back up. You can then evaporate the water to separate the lithium from the water. You need a lot of water to do this.


Question: how can tiny amounts of dangerous drugs be lethal?

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 how can tiny amounts of dangerous drugs be lethal?

Your body is pretty sensitive to some things, and the ratio of mass isn't always the best way to make it work. You're a lot bigger than a bullet, too. The botulism toxin is one of the deadliest poisons, in part because it doesn't get used up, and affects nerve cells - one molecule can kill a cell and move on to the next one, and it doesn't take many dead nerves to cause trouble. Polonium-210 is extremely radioactive, so it's essentially shooting tiny bullets at your cells from the inside. And the bullets themselves are alpha particles: so small, that even tiny amounts of polonium can release billions, and each one can wreck a cell. If its ingested, it will pass through your system, firing all the way through, and hitting many different bodily functions.