Question: You're not supposed to defrost meats in warm water due to harmful bacteria growth, you're not supposed to leave food at room temperature for long without being refrigerated because of harmful growth but, when you go to a buffet, food can sit out for hours under heat lamps and be fine?

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 You're not supposed to defrost meats in warm water due to harmful bacteria growth, you're not supposed to leave food at room temperature for long without being refrigerated because of harmful growth but, when you go to a buffet, food can sit out for hours under heat lamps and be fine?

There's a concept in food safety called the "danger zone". It extends from about 40 F / 5 C to about 140 F / 60 C. You can keep food below the lower end of that range, or above the upper end, for a while without it going bad. The reason is that this is approximately the range of temperatures that the bacteria that cause foodborne illness can tolerate well enough to grow. They can survive in lower temps, but they won't grow or will grow very slowly, which is why you can store meat in the fridge for a few days without problems. (They'll die at higher temps if they're kept that hot for a while, as in sous vide cooking, but can survive brief exposure.) The food at the buffet is (at least supposed to be) kept above 140 F / 60 C, so that whatever bacteria may be present can't grow effectively. The trays at a buffet usually sit above a pool of very hot water in addition to the heat lamps, which keeps them hot. (This is if the food does stay out for hours. It may simply be changed out regularly, in which case it can be kept in the danger zone.) You can take the "keep it above the upper end of the range" principle really far, because temps above 140 F / 60 C will kill almost all bacteria with prolonged exposure. This is the principle behind [perpetual stews]( URL_0 ), foods which were effectively cooked for years or decades.


Question: Why is grass usually cool even when it's super hot outside?

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 Why is grass usually cool even when it's super hot outside?

Grass requires a sizable amount of water to remain green and healthy through hot days. For example, the 123 golf courses in the Palm Springs area in Southern California use 25% of the region's water supply: URL_0 Water can hold a lot of thermal energy. Watering the grass and soil acts as a heat sink, making it hard to heat up the ground to higher temperatures on hot days. Plants also convert sunlight into food rather than heat. An area of concrete will just absorb sun and get hot while the same area of grass will turn part of the sun's energy into food so it will not be as hot.


Question: What is gunpowder and how does it work?

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 What is gunpowder and how does it work?

It contains fuel (carbon), an oxygen source (saltpeter- the natural form of potassium nitrate), and sulphur which is an accelerator (make the burn faster) Mixed together in the correct proportions and then add an ignition source (heat or flame) and WHOOSH! I used to be a pyrotechnition years ago and used to make my own. Not as good as the commercial stuff which is compressed but makes things blow up in a pretty way! And add a metal salt and you get different pretty colours too!


Question: I heard that recycling plants use magnets to sort aluminium from the rest of the rubbish. How, when aluminium isn't magnetic, does this work?

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 I heard that recycling plants use magnets to sort aluminium from the rest of the rubbish. How, when aluminium isn't magnetic, does this work?

They use alternating current to magnetize the sorting magnet. If you use permanent magnet then aluminium will not be attracted to it, but if you put aluminium in magnetic field that constantly changes direction this magnetic field will generate electric curent inside the aluminium. When electric curent flows trough metal it generates magnetic field and the aluminium becomes small magnet with opposite poles as the magnetic field that generated the current in the aluminium. But the current inside the aluminium is not permanent, it's only short spike of current so if the outside field stayed the same the aluminium would stob being magnetic after a split second. But the outside field keeps changing back and forth that means the spike of current in aluminium keeps occuring and the aluminium is attracted to the magnet. Edit 1: It was pointed out to me that I got the directions wrong. The aluminium would be pushed away from the magnet. Writing it here so I won't confuse people. u/intjengineer linked a video of this in action. Linking it here in case it gets burried in the replies. If you can find his comment uvote it so it can be visible for others. [video]( URL_0 ) Edit 2: OMG I am internet famous now! What will I do with all this sweet karma?


Question: On long drives when you realize you were completely zoned out from point A to B, are we aware of what's going even though you're zone out ?

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 On long drives when you realize you were completely zoned out from point A to B, are we aware of what's going even though you're zone out ?

This is known as [highway hypnosis]( URL_0 ). Let's say you have a journal where you write down important events. One of the days, you didn't write down anything for a lunch period because nothing major happened. Without that entry, you can't remember what you ate but you don't feel hungry. You obviously didn't choke on your food or forgot how to breathe so you were functioning normally. The same thing happens when driving sometimes. Your body is alert during those driving times but because there were no notable events, it doesn't record that time period into memory. When you try thinking back to it, you can't recall it since the information was not saved.


Question: How can one infinity be "larger" than another if they're both infinite?

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 How can one infinity be "larger" than another if they're both infinite?

Mathematicians say that a set has equal size to another set when you can pair each element of one set with one element of the other set and vice versa. For example the sets {1,2,3} and {4,5,6} have equal size because one can pair 1 < --- > 4 2 < --- > 5 3 < --- > 6. Similarly the natural numbers {0,1,2,3,4,...} and the whole numbers {...,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,...} are of equal size because one can pair 0 < --- > 0 -1 < --- > 1 1 < ---- > 2 -2 < --- > 3 2 < --- > 4 . . . and so on. So you always pair every naturual number n with 2 * n and every negative number -m with 2*m-1. So you always have a pair. This does, however, not always work. For example the set of all real numbers (numbers with infinitely many decimal places) cannot be paired up in this way with the natural numbers. One can show that in every possible pairing which uses up all natural numbers there are still unpaired real numbers. Because there are always left over real numbers mathematicians say that the set of real numbers is lager than the set of natural numbers. EDIT: If you are intersted in the argument why we cannot pair the real and the natural numbers check out /u/40oz_coffee's comment about Cantor's diagonal argument.


Question: why nuclear waste can't be destroyed and if it lasts for 100s of thousands of years won't it just keep building up for a very long time? What do with it?

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 why nuclear waste can't be destroyed and if it lasts for 100s of thousands of years won't it just keep building up for a very long time? What do with it?

The first thing it's important to do is distinguish between High-Level Waste and Low-Level Waste. High-level waste is what most people think of when they hear "nuclear waste." It's the stuff that's not safe to be around like spent fuel, decommissioned reactors, medical and technical imaging sources, and nuclear weapon parts. Low-level waste is the vast majority of the waste produced. It's anything that existed in a potentially radioactive environment, and might potentially transport radioisotopes out of that environment. Most of it is literally trash. Used protective gear, dosimeters, broken tools from nuclear labs, and old scientific instruments. Bananas and Brazil nuts are radioactive enough naturally to qualify as low-level waste. In the US we very much operate on a "better safe than sorry" doctrine and so even though 99.99% of low-level stuff isn't harmful it is all treated as if it was. So, can nuclear waste be destroyed? Yes, it can. Spent reactor fuel can be turned into fuel for different kinds of reactors. We don't do this in the US, because of Cold War policies that were concerned with spooking the USSR (nuclear bomb factories and nuclear recycling reactors look pretty similar to a satellite). Other waste can't be "destroyed" really, but it can be safely contained where it is harmless. With enough effort you can essentially "water down" anything radioactive far enough that it meets a safe threshold. That's a lot more trouble than it's worth in most cases though. Edit: The stuff that's radioactive for millions of years also isn't a big concern. That means it's radiating *slowly*. One little particle at a time, over a very long time. The stuff you want to be worried about has a half-life in the 1-50 year range. Long-lived enough to stick around, and radiating hard enough to be dangerous.


Question: how do extra mathematical dimensions work?

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 how do extra mathematical dimensions work?

Mathematical dimensions do not need to relate to physical ones, and physical ones do not need to relate to spacetime. It's really a mathematical way to look at things. Let's say you have thing moving around. It has a position (x, y, z), a velocity, a mass that may change over time, and so on. Every one of those components can be considered a dimension in a vector space defining the state of the thing.


Question: Is it a coincidence that words such as 'destroy', 'demolish', 'devastate', 'decimate' all begin with 'de'?

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 Is it a coincidence that words such as 'destroy', 'demolish', 'devastate', 'decimate' all begin with 'de'?

No. English is really a mash of older languages. One of the things we got from latin and greek is words that a really combinations of other words. (Think dinosaur meaning terrible lizard) De- means to remove or reduce. I think the only one that's a coincidence is decimate. Which comes from dec which means 10. To decimate is destroy 1 tenth of something.


Question: How come soda tastes so much better when in a glass bottle instead of a can?

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 How come soda tastes so much better when in a glass bottle instead of a can?

[Serious Eats]( URL_0 ) did a cool mini-study on this... indirectly. They were comparing mexican coke (which many people say is better than American coke, because mexican coke has real sugar) to American coke. Well mexican coke comes in a bottle, and you can read the story, but turns out that some people just prefer the taste/feel of the bottle (regardless of whats in it)... and its probably just psychological... i.e. that you THINK its better because its in a bottle.


Question: When stuck in vehicles, do flies need to fly at the speed of the vehicle when travelling? If not, why?

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 When stuck in vehicles, do flies need to fly at the speed of the vehicle when travelling? If not, why?

Would a fish in a fishbowl have to swim to keep up with the car? No, because he’s contained within the water, which is moving at the same speed as the car. Flies are inside the space (in their case, air) that is contained within the car. Think of the interior of the car as one big fish bowl, filled with air instead of water.


Question: What is syndicalism? I tried to look it up but couldn’t find anything.

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 What is syndicalism? I tried to look it up but couldn’t find anything.

*a movement for transferring the ownership and control of the means of production and distribution to workers' unions. Influenced by Proudhon and by the French social philosopher Georges Sorel (1847–1922), syndicalism developed in French labor unions during the late 19th century and was at its most vigorous between 1900 and 1914, particularly in France, Italy, Spain, and the US.*


Question: Why do humans kiss? Like why is it that specific body part?

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 Why do humans kiss? Like why is it that specific body part?

There are a lot of nerve endings on your lips to protect you from hurting yourself while you eat, so in the right context it can feel good. It's likely a learnt behaviour originating from when parents would pre-chew food for their babies and spit it into their mouths, how romantic.


Question: What would happen to the ink in a tattoo if you tattooed a baby/minor who had lots of growing to do? Would the ink disperse across the skin??

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 What would happen to the ink in a tattoo if you tattooed a baby/minor who had lots of growing to do? Would the ink disperse across the skin??

I don't know how to answer this exact question, but I have a (short) story that might help: my mom knows someone who tattooed her baby's feet on her shoulder/back. Very cute and all, but then she gained a lot of weight, and she ended up having a tattoo of giant feet because it got stretched out.


Question: Why do whales, dolphins, and other aquatic animals jump out of the water?

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 Why do whales, dolphins, and other aquatic animals jump out of the water?

It's not known why. A few theories as to the reasons. Maybe play, especially with smaller dolphins and porpoise. they also swim more efficiently as they jump out of the water, because air has less resistance than water. You often see this when they swim along side boats. Maybe part of their communication with members of their pod. Maybe to help rid parasites and barnacles that grow on their skin. Maybe to just look around. See also: URL_0


Question: Why was the draft so much more controversial during The Vietnam War than it was during World War II?

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 Why was the draft so much more controversial during The Vietnam War than it was during World War II?

Because the public approval for the Vietnam War was lower than that of WW2, and this became worst over the years. For WW2 the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbour, killing american and sinking american ship on american soil. German then declared war on the US, sinking ships with their U-Boat. It was a defensive war, and the population was ok with going to the defence of their country, and defeating Japan and Germany even in far away land. Vietnam on the other end was more of a political war. It was politician trying to stop communism to spread. The cause of the war wasn't really that important for most American and the lost of american soldiers oversea for such a cause was not well viewed.


Question: How do seashells get created especially the patterns on them?

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 How do seashells get created especially the patterns on them?

It’s basically an exoskeleton created out of chitin aka carbonate calcium (you know the rock that goes fizz when you add acid to it). The animals create it themselves. And you know your fingerprints are basically how a pattern that’s random? Same thing here. The patterns you see are the growth streaks that happen as the shell grows! Yep the shells you see are 100% organic and are a result of evolution!


Question: Is a regular audio file with sounds larger than an audio file of the same lengths without sounds?

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 Is a regular audio file with sounds larger than an audio file of the same lengths without sounds?

To a degree, it would depend on the format of the audio file. If it is a file type that allows for compression, then something with no sound would be highly compressible, and have negligible size, whilst the version with audio would be less compressible and so be bigger. If it was a format without compression, then both would be the same size.


Question: What type of adhesive is on screen protector? It is crystal clear

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 What type of adhesive is on screen protector? It is crystal clear

It's called a Pressure Sensitive Adhesive or PSA. In essence, it stays wet so that it adheres to a multitude of surfaces, not only just by the bonding forces between atoms (intermolecular forces), but by physically entangling in the little mountains and ridges that are on all surfaces. What you may be used to is glue that dries: water or solvent (like alcohol or acetone) evaporates, leaving behind something (a polymer) that crystalizes into the gaps, and sticks to the substrate by intermolecular forces and partially by physical entanglement. But the issue with crystals is that they crack, so if it fails, it's not going back together. With a PSA, if it fails, you just stick it again, they're flexible polymers that don't crystalize. What another poster mentioned, LOCAs, or liquid opticaly clear adhesives, are used when you need to see through the adhesive, like on a phone screen. They can be PSAs or set adhesives.


Question: Cpk vs Ppk in Manufacturing?

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 Cpk vs Ppk in Manufacturing?

Because it is much easier to calculate CpK rather then PpK although with computers nowadays it isn't as much of an issue. Secondly, as a regular customer I am not as much interested in measures of variation within a batch but rather more interested that every batch is similar. PpK will catch systematic drift in your process. So if one of your machines is wearing out slowly - one parameter may be slowly drifting - this shows up in PpK faster than in CpK if batches are small relative to the speed of the "mean drift". PpK is more likely catch setup errors. If running a batch process involves setup, sometimes a setting can vary from batch to batch. The CpK measure for each batch may well show control. Why this a bit of a secret is that tighter control of PpK and CpK is expensive - more maintenance, longer setup, more fallout/downtime and/or may require buying higher quality raw material or worst case more expensive equipment.


Question: Why do psychiatric hospitals work? Won't people act completely different when they are taken out of their familiar enviroment? Or when they are after the treatment thrown back into their 'old lives'?

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 Why do psychiatric hospitals work? Won't people act completely different when they are taken out of their familiar enviroment? Or when they are after the treatment thrown back into their 'old lives'?

Usually the main interventions offered by psychiatric hospitals are providing a safe environment where inpatients can be monitored and kept safe in a way that's not possible in the community, and regular medication (particularly for psychotic/affective illnesses) that eventually stabilise a patients mental state until theyre safe to be discharged home However, It's true longstay psychiatric admissions can be deskilling in terms of ability to manage day to day life. I live in the UK and its common for a psychiatric admission here to last a couple of weeks or a month (though obviously every case is different), even for psychotic/affective illnesses


Question: Why won’t “old phone” be able to work in a 5G network? Do we have to get new phones when 5G becomes a more prominent thing?

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 Why won’t “old phone” be able to work in a 5G network? Do we have to get new phones when 5G becomes a more prominent thing?

The way I like to explain it: Think of network technologies like languages. 5G speaks Arabic. 4G speaks Chinese. 3G speaks English. Your phone now only speaks Chinese and English. You will need a new one to understand Arabic. It gets more complex than this, in a technical sense, but the concept is the same.


Question: Does the brain control every single cell inside of the body?

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 Does the brain control every single cell inside of the body?

The brain doesn’t tel each and every muscle cell to contract. It instead sounds out a chemical signal through our nerves. It travels down the nerve until it reaches the group of muscle cells, where the terminal (end) nerves release chemicals that cause the contraction of muscle cells. Cells in our body basically work like independent units in a huge collective system. The brain is like the executives that send out an order to get something done, but they aren’t worried about each and every cell doing their job, just that the job gets done


Question: What allows heat to cast a shadow?

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 What allows heat to cast a shadow?

Light is bent or refracted by whatever it passes through. In a room of uniform temperature, the light is bent the same way everywhere so you see a uniform image. Heat causes turbulence in the air so the light is bent in a more chaotic manner. You're seeing this as a wavy image in the shadow. This is also what causes mirages and the wavy pattern that one can see on top of a car hood when the engine is hot. This happens not only to light, but any part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio signals are disrupted in the morning and the evening, thermal inversion. As the air quickly heats up or cools down, the radio waves are distorted by the same effect. Thus causing a distorted signal and static in the radio program you're listening to at those times.


Question: If I understand this correctly, freckles and a tan are both the result of the sun triggering the release of melanin. What determines which one it will be? Also, in that case why can we get freckles on skin not exposed to sunlight, but can’t get a tan on unexposed skin?

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 If I understand this correctly, freckles and a tan are both the result of the sun triggering the release of melanin. What determines which one it will be? Also, in that case why can we get freckles on skin not exposed to sunlight, but can’t get a tan on unexposed skin?

Freckles are actually over active melanocytes (cells responsible for melanin production.) when you tan you are also increasing the amount of melanin you have as a whole , while freckles do not do that. The reason freckles can appear on either unexposed or exposed skin is because it is less dependent on the sun. Sometimes melanocytes just go into overdrive producing melanin. Edit: I was wrong about tanning increasing the amount of melanocytes


Question: Why can airlines have the movie rights to recently released movies so quickly, but it takes a lot longer for Netflix and other streaming services to add new movies to their catalogs?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 Why can airlines have the movie rights to recently released movies so quickly, but it takes a lot longer for Netflix and other streaming services to add new movies to their catalogs?

Streaming services are the last to acquire rights to the video because they represent the customer segment with the lowest profit margins. Why should a customer pay more to see the movie in a cinema/airplane when they can watch it at home anytime they want? The airlines are willing to pay a higher price per customer to capture passengers, and movie theatres are willing to pay even more, which is why they get the rights in that order.


Question: How does capitalization of spending particularly R & D spending work?

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 How does capitalization of spending particularly R & D spending work?

This isn't really an ELI5 theme, but I'll try. First, what are assets and what are expenses? An ASSET is something that lasts a long time. It's semi-permanent, like a dump truck or a building. An EXPENSE is something that is instant, like a business lunch with clients, the cost of hiring a consultant, or the mileage you incur on your own vehicle when doing company business. These show up in different ways when the company does its financial paperwork, and here's the key difference: An asset can have financial sheet implications **over many years**, but an expense has financial sheet effects **in the current year only.** (There's tons of gray here, this is the simplest case and I'm going to touch accruals.) To apply them, you pick which you want to use by putting the financial numbers for costs incurred against different accounts, where some are asset accounts, others are expense accounts. You're "capitalizing" (creating capital) when you assign those values against asset accounts, including R & D ones. And then auditors are usually legally required to look at your company to make sure you're assigning them properly so you can't just make up rules on how you want to move that money around. Why even do it? This changes things like how healthy the company looks to the people that want to buy its stocks on the stock market, or how much tax it pays at what point in an asset's lifetime. A good investor looks at capital versus expenses and makes decisions based on how much is in each. & #x200B;


Question: When we try to think of the next word to say why do say "umm/uhh" or stutter rather than just silently pause?

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 When we try to think of the next word to say why do say "umm/uhh" or stutter rather than just silently pause?

Psychologically, humans don't like silence in conversation. It feels awkward, especially if we've just been asked something and we feel we need to respond. Additionally, conversation is a two-way street, and it's sometimes hard to determine when someone intends to "give up" the floor, so to speak, so that another person can speak. Linguistic filler helps to keep our place, letting the other people know we intend to keep speaking.


Question: What makes popping candy pop?

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 What makes popping candy pop?

Pop rocks are candy pieces with little bubbles inside that have a large amount of gas. When these bubble lining weakens because you're mouth dissolves the sugar the gas escapes causing the pop. The process of pressuring the gas in is simple as blowing a lot of gas into the candy when it's still not hard then solidifying it. Gas will fall out of the syrup and get trapped.


Question: Why do phone cameras record video in verticle format by default when held in their normal position when a horizontal image is the default when watching any video?

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 Why do phone cameras record video in verticle format by default when held in their normal position when a horizontal image is the default when watching any video?

The camera sensor is rectangular. It does not rotate. So by holding the camera vertically you are also holding the sensor vertically. The camera *could* crop the video down to a lanscape orientation, but it will be at the cost of vastly reduced resolution (you're literally ignoring more than half the pixels on the sensor). Just hold the phone the right way around


Question: why do we move less often while sleeping as we grow older?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 why do we move less often while sleeping as we grow older?

Its something to do with the connections in your brain being fully aligned after puberty which leads to your body shutting itself down properly during sleep. Thats why you move less and are less likely to wet the bed,, Unless you are really drunk, and then the drink blocks those connections.


Question: How does the concept of "Buy one get one free" works in marketing? How does this strategy prove profitable for companies?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 How does the concept of "Buy one get one free" works in marketing? How does this strategy prove profitable for companies?

Option 1. The cost of the two items is profitable or at least breaks even, at the sale price of 1 (ie it costs the seller $1 for one item they the sell for at least $2) Option 2. Loss leader- you come in to buy the special and walk out with other items that are more profitable.


Question: psychological effect of solitary confinement, why is it considered a form of torture?

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 psychological effect of solitary confinement, why is it considered a form of torture?

It’s not sensory deprivation in prison, because solitary is far from quiet. In fact, people are screaming and kicking their cell doors constantly. They sing songs, call out to one another, play games, tell jokes. Anything to pass the time. The hardest part is not knowing what time it is. The lights are always on, and someone is always awake and making noise. There are no windows to see outside. With nothing to distract you, and no way to gauge how much time is passing, the ego starts to implode. People who aren’t already unstable don’t tend to lose it too bad, but it definitely brings out the worst in people. I spent 14 days in the hole once. For me, it was meditative. I had a routine, and I just worked out and walked laps inside my cell. I slept when I was tired and ate when food was offered. If people were talking about something I was interested in or if I thought of a good joke I’d get on the phone (what they call yelling underneath your cell door). I wouldn’t call it torture, but then this was prison solitary, not Guantanamo-type mindfuck torture solitary.


Question: What's the difference between source code and the code you can find in the progam/files?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 What's the difference between source code and the code you can find in the progam/files?

Source code is made to be readable by humans, while the data in a typical executable (what you mean by 'program') is made to be readable by a computer's processor. For example, I might write something like this in source code: int x = 14; But in fact, this human-readable instruction requires quite a bit of extra work behind the scenes. The exact work depends on the language, but one example might be: allocate space for an integer and store an address to that space store the value 00000000000000000000000000001110 [i.e., '14' written in binary] to the address from the previous step add x to the list of currently used variables But even this is human readable. In an executable, "allocate space" would be identified by some numeric code (say, 1010111101101), "store an address" would be identified by another one (say, 0011111001000), "store this value to this address" by another (say, 0001000101110), and so on. So in an executable, this would read as something like: 1010111101101[some location to store the address goes here]0011111001000000100010111000000000000000000000000000001110[the location from before goes here] Which is obviously not very useful to a human eye!


Question: What's the difference between religion and cults?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What's the difference between religion and cults?

Honestly, in a lot of ways there really aren't a lot of huge distinctions. Cults and Religions both rely on a faith-based belief system that people must adhere to regardless of, and contrary to, common sense, reason, and Scientific evidence. Religions become "Cults" when their controlling behavior starts isolating people from non-believers, controls their income, life choices, dress, and drastically demands perfect obedience to the authority of the Church or Leader. Usually they have some fantastical belief that varies from that of traditional organized religions. Good examples would be Scientology, Cell factions of radical Muslim terror groups, pretty much any Fundamentalist church (lol), Snake handlers, Nation of Islam, et cetera, et cetera.


Question: Why did old TVs have be set on channel 3 if you wanted to play anything linked to it such as a VCR, DVD player, or game console?

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 Why did old TVs have be set on channel 3 if you wanted to play anything linked to it such as a VCR, DVD player, or game console?

The game consoles had a built in “video modulator” that took the video/audio and basically had a miniature tv station transmitter inside them. TVs at the time usually just had an antenna input, they didn’t have countless video input ports like TVs do now. So the only way to get video from your game console was to pretend to be a TV station.


Question: What would happen if a lot of people went into a single bank and asked to withdraw all their savings?

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 What would happen if a lot of people went into a single bank and asked to withdraw all their savings?

This is known as a 'run on the bank'. It has happened before. Individual branches don't carry a lot of cash so once the branch runs out, it closes until more can be delivered. As long as the bank itself remains solvent everyone will eventually get their cash. Thing is, people generally only do this when there's a whiff that the bank has problems. In that case other banks would probably not be willing to lend that bank enough cash and it would go bankrupt. This has also happened and is why, in the US, we have the FDIC. This is the Federal Deposit Insurance Company. They insure regular bank accounts for up to $100 grand per person.


Question: When someone is "fighting sleep" to stay awake, what exactly are they fighting?

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 When someone is "fighting sleep" to stay awake, what exactly are they fighting?

#### ELI5 answer You get sleepy for two reasons. Your body senses light and knows when it's day time and when it's night time. Based on the time of the day, it sets the time to an internal clock. When this internal clock tells your body its close to night time, it makes chemicals that make you sleepy. Another reason you feel sleepy is that when your body uses energy, it makes chemical called adenosine. When you stay up for a long time, there is more and more adenosine in your body and it makes you feel sleepy. When you sleep, your body destroys this chemical from your body and that is why sleeping helps when you feel sleepy. #### More technical answer The level of a one's sleepiness depends on the time of day in relation to the their internal clock and sleep pressure. The internal clock controls our physiological circadian rhythm in many ways. For example, it controls how much melatonin and orexin are released into our bodies. Melatonin is a chemical that helps us fall asleep and orexin is a chemical that helps us wake up. The circadian rhythm is naturally synchronized, based on the amount of ambient light, in such a way that the middle point of sleep takes place at around 4 am. Although the rhythm can adapt to changes when we travel to different time zones, it can only adapt about 15 minutes per day which is why we experience jet lag. Even more than the circadian rhythm, sleepiness is based on the so called sleep pressure. As soon as you wake up, your body starts producing a chemical called adenosine. As long as you stay awake, your body keeps producing more adenosine and it slowly builds up in your body. The more adenosine you have in your body, the sleepier you feel. The effect of caffeine is based on removing or dampening the effect of adenosine. Caffeine prevents adenosine receptors in our body from detecting adenosine and thus alleviates sleep pressure. However, caffeine does not remove adenosine from our body which leads to a strong sleep pressure once caffeine is no longer affecting us. #### Source Walker, Matthew P. Why we sleep. New York: Scribner, 2017. [Why We Sleep - Wikipedia]( URL_2 ). *Walker is the professor of neuroscience and psychology and a sleep researcher in the university of Berkeley in California, USA.* #### Learn more about sleep [Sleep is your superpower - Matt Walker]( URL_1 ) (TED talk, 20min) [Matthew Walker on the Joe Rogan Experience]( URL_0 ) (Podcast, 2h) Edit: Typo and formatting. Edit 2: Added more ELI5 type explanation.


Question: What are the reddit bots? How do people go about programming them to do weird, mostly unsuccessful tasks, and why?

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 What are the reddit bots? How do people go about programming them to do weird, mostly unsuccessful tasks, and why?

A reddit bot is an automatic computer program that polls reddit for new comments and/or posts and responds accordingly. This is done using [reddit's api]( URL_0 ): just like you can go to URL_1 to get a nice page which shows you the subreddit and the newest posts, the program goes to URL_2 and gets a concise, properly formatted list of the newest posts, which can be easily parsed by the program. Other API functions let the bot access the comments. Using this info, the program can then use the same API to post a comment in one of the posts.


Question: Why is plastic so bad for the environment if it's raw material literally comes out of earth ?

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 Why is plastic so bad for the environment if it's raw material literally comes out of earth ?

The raw materials are converted into something nature has never experienced before. There are no organisms capable of processing it, so plastic trash might as well be everlasting rocks, but with no positives and countless negatives for the environment (especially marine life). The problem is that plastics are less robust than rocks. They break into micro-sized fragments which are absorbed by marine animals. Imagine eating a mouthful of sand with every meal. That will screw up your digestive system. Also, plastics can be made in Long thin shapes like plastic bags / ribbons. These can tangle easily, and choke animals to death, or block their digestive tract. Because it doesn’t degrade, there is no option but to slowly die. If an organism evolved to digest plastic, there would be less problems with plastic trash. Floating bits would break down into hydrocarbons and become feed material for plants. Unfortunately, evolving an organism capable of doing so will be slow. Look up the Carboniferous period. The exact same thing happened with wood lignin. When woody plants first evolved, nothing digested wood pulp and it just littered the entire world. Literally miles deep of coal rocks were formed from this wooden layer not decaying and slowly being compressed. Eventually some fungi evolved to digest it and now we don’t worry about “wood pollution”.


Question: What biological functions exactly drive sexual attraction in heterosexuals? How and why is it different for people of other orientations (if so)?

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 What biological functions exactly drive sexual attraction in heterosexuals? How and why is it different for people of other orientations (if so)?

Evolution is a guessing game whenever a genetic combination results in succesful reproduction it's like winning a free spin and big parts of that combination get to try again. Hormones and body chemistry create urges that coincidentally create opportunities to share genetic material. Very rarely that results in a succesful combination of genetic material but WAAAAY more often it doesn't. Men can be attracted to infertile women, pregnant women, post-menopausal women and pictures of women. All of those would have the same chance of producing fertile offspring as a man being attracted to another man. Genes dont plan, they gamble.


Question: How does overall wealth actually increase?

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 How does overall wealth actually increase?

When we convert raw materials into other resources, the value increases. Raw steel and rocks isn’t that useful, but build a building and you can house people/do commercial activities. Wood isn’t useful, but you can print knowledge on paper and books are more valuable than raw wood. This concept extends to ideas, not just physical materials. A new technology like self-driving cars increases the value of the economy. A new app that allows you to easily order food delivery also adds value. As Long as economic activity exists, humans are constantly transforming resources, and value will increase.


Question: How effective are online petitions really? Can I actually change something?

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 How effective are online petitions really? Can I actually change something?

In the UK, any petitions on the UK Parliament website get a response from the government at 10,000 signatures and a debate on Parliament at 100,000. But the petition has to be something the Government or House of Commons is actually responsible for, and it doesn’t necessarily mean it will change anything significantly. So this is one narrow example of online petitions that may possibly work, but only for UK citizens and residents and only for certain issues.


Question: How does the universe not have an edge? If the Big Bang was the start of all space, expanding from an infinitely small point, in what did that expansion take place? And what is the universe expanding in?

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 How does the universe not have an edge? If the Big Bang was the start of all space, expanding from an infinitely small point, in what did that expansion take place? And what is the universe expanding in?

It's infinite, so probably no edge. You could literally travel for all of time, and not reach the edge. Therefore, no edge. The reason you can't comprehend it isn't because it isn't true. It's because we are talking about seriously high up there shit, and you are a three dimensional creature. You can't even perceive Time as a whole. None of us can. The universe is infinite. But we're honestly getting to the point where physics is exploring the idea of a multiverse. Stephen Hawking's last designed experiment is meant to test to see if they can detect our universe rubbing up against another one. Now if you can rub on something you must have an edge right? Wrong. The universe is still infinite. We just can't reconcile those facts logically because to us that's like a 2D being trying to describe their piece of paper. To them, it wouldn't have an edge. They are walking along, hit the edge, then BAM. To us it looks like they teleport to the other edge. But to the 2D being, he just keeps on walking, never seeming to stop, just circling the paper endlessly. That's us. But a step up from 2D. The multiverse is NOT 3D. It's MUCH more. And this will make things far more difficult because we are literally dealing with things we are physicially incapable of truthfully understanding. TLDR: the Universe has no edge, but still might be rubbing up against other universes. This means while the universe is infinite, it likely does exist "inside" the multiverse.


Question: When a signpost indicates X miles to somewhere (a town/city), is there a particular part of 'there' to where the distances is measured to?

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 When a signpost indicates X miles to somewhere (a town/city), is there a particular part of 'there' to where the distances is measured to?

A lot of cities have a defined referance point as to where the center is and all distances are calculated from. Usually the town hall or the town square. The official centers of big cities is usually quite famous. For example the official center of London is a point in Trafalgar Square, even though this point is in the city of Westminster and located about 2 miles west of City of London. If there is no such defined center it is common to use the population center or just use an arbitrary spot. Most of these distance markers do not need to be accurate enough that the actual location of the center within the city center is important. This also shows as a lot of them is rounded to a more estetical number and usually placed where it fits the best rather then at the exact marker point.


Question: Why are court sentencing sometimes done at a later date, even when the defendant is already found to be guilty?

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 Why are court sentencing sometimes done at a later date, even when the defendant is already found to be guilty?

There is a lot of information that may be brought up to help a judge decide the sentence. A probation officer may deliver a presentence report which includes information about the defendant's criminal history, education and employment, financial circumstances, marital status, psychological health, etc. The prosecutor may make remarks. The defendant has a right to speak. The victim may be brought to give remarks. Etc. All of this takes time to prepare.


Question: why do diesel motors have a much more “heavy duty” sound than regular gas motors?

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 why do diesel motors have a much more “heavy duty” sound than regular gas motors?

Diesel engines have no spark plug. Compression alone causes diesel fuel to ignite. As a result the compression needed in a diesel engine is much higher than a gasoline engine. To handle the nigh pressure inside the engine they must be made much heavier than a gasoline engine and the fuel explosion sound that is made is louder.


Question: What exactly is happening when you feel thirsty?

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 What exactly is happening when you feel thirsty?

ELI5 version: when the amount of water in your body is low, your body can detect this (combination of blood pressure and how concentrated sodium is in your blood. There is a specific center in your brain designed to deal with this, and it causes the feeling we know as thirst