Question: ! What is the difference between genetics, and epigenetics? My experience thus far has been in nature vs. nurture, and epigenetics sounds like it is a grey area in the middle.

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 ! What is the difference between genetics, and epigenetics? My experience thus far has been in nature vs. nurture, and epigenetics sounds like it is a grey area in the middle.

In many ways, you're closer to right than you think. Genetics is your DNA, which I like to describe as a football playbook, here's how you can do a lot of things, and heres what you should do in response to certain things,. Always. Epigenetics is the handwritten notes on the margins, and the tabs you use to get to a specific section. When you hand off your 'genetic playbook' to your kids, some of the notes go with it, and some of the notes get lost. We don't understand epigenetics yet, and there's a lot about genetic regulation we haven't the foggiest idea about. Histones, the scrolls that help organize your DNA can be modified to make the section of DNA they contain more accessible, or less accessible. This is handy for turning off/on age related genes, or genes that promote energy use when you're starving. If it helped you, odds are it might help your kids, so it gets inherited, or gets recreated in them through similar experiences. It's complicated, and it's still poorly understood.


Question: how do we know the universe is 13.8 billion years old?

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 how do we know the universe is 13.8 billion years old?

We don't, but that is the number the best models and experiments we have at the moment give us. Cosmologists and astrophysicists look at the universe (the bits of it we can see). They try to figure out how it works, and from that how it used to work. One of the big hints is "universal expansion"; the universe is getting bigger. By working out exactly how fast this is happening and working backwards, it is possible to calculate when it was infinitely small. This gives us about 14.5 billion years based on current best estimates. But that assumes universal expansion is constant. More recent data suggests it isn't; it is increasing slightly. Which would give us an even older universe. Except more detailed models of the early universe suggest it was expanding very, very quickly for a bit, so we get a younger universe. The 13.8 billion years number is based on data gathered by the [Planck project]( URL_1 ), which ended in 2013, published in 2018. This matched well with data gathered by the [WMAP project]( URL_2 ) which ran until 2010, results published in 2012. Cosmologists took the huge amounts of data on the universe these projects provided (microwave "pictures"), put that into the current best model for the universe (the [Lamba-CDM model]( URL_0 )), did a lot of pretty complicated maths, and got out 13.77 billion years. The data is probably fine. But the models are still best guesses (really good guesses, based on decades of research, experimentation and observation, but still not completely proven), so the age estimates are only as good as the models.


Question: Why do blockbuster movies like Avatar and End Game have there success measured in terms of money made instead of tickets sold, wouldn’t that make it easier to compare to older movies without accounting for today’s dollar vs a dollar 30 years ago?

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 Why do blockbuster movies like Avatar and End Game have there success measured in terms of money made instead of tickets sold, wouldn’t that make it easier to compare to older movies without accounting for today’s dollar vs a dollar 30 years ago?

Industry news focus on money because studios want to make money off releasing the film. The amount of money made versus the amount of money spent on making and marketing the film is what people in the film sector are interested in. It's not supposed to be a scientific comparison, and not relevant for whether the movie is good of course.


Question: What’s the physical difference between a low end budget speaker and a high end pro one?

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 What’s the physical difference between a low end budget speaker and a high end pro one?

First, high-end and professional speakers are not the same. What you hear during concert will never work well at home. Second, speakers and speaker cones are very important, but it's just part of what makes a high-quality speaker. Budget speaker cones are made basically from paper with flimsy suspensions and tiny coils. The quality drivers are heavy, with very stiff and light cones, often made from composites and exotic materials. Generally, speakers to be high quality have to be very stiff - and usually heavy. Plastic is one of the worst materials for speakers. I don't think there is a way to judge the driver visually only, there is much more to it.


Question: Why does steel wool burn with a match or when touched by a battery, shouldn’t it melt or not burn at all?

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 Why does steel wool burn with a match or when touched by a battery, shouldn’t it melt or not burn at all?

Iron only melts at very high temperature so a match can't melt it. Iron reacts easily with oxygen: rust is just iron oxide. Reactions work better and faster at higher temperatures. If iron is made into a form where it has a very large surface area, as with steel wool, then a little surface rust is affects all the iron. Heating it up speeds up the rusting which then releases enough energy to maintain the heat and this chain reaction is what fire is. Normal rusting of steel releases heat too but it's so slow and spread out over a large area that it's not noticeable.


Question: How do animals know which plants are edible and which are poisonous?

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 How do animals know which plants are edible and which are poisonous?

they cant always. part of it is training (being taught by their parents/colony/whatever), part of it is just by smell ("this smells like food"), part of it is trial and error. had to get rid of a couple of plants when I got my last cat, due to them being poisonous for her


Question: How does smoke ward off mosquitos?

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 How does smoke ward off mosquitos?

Mosquitoes (and gnats, for what it's worth) are super tiny little critters with super duper tiny little respiratory systems. Their little lungs (or equivalent, I'm not sure exactly what insects use to breathe) can't handle filtering out the smoke particles, so they stay away from it and seek a cleaner air source. This is also why you'll often see the internet recommend burning incense if you have a fruit fly problem in your home, it really doesn't take much to suffocate them to death. Humans have this same aversion to smoke! I don't know may people who would willingly sit on the smokey end of a campfire. While humans won't die standing at the smokey end of a campfire (for most sets of circumstances), it's just plain easier to breathe the clean air and we move upwind. Mosquitoes do the same thing!


Question: How do we find the area of a country?

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 How do we find the area of a country?

One of the most common ways is known as "geodesic triangulation". finding the area of a triangle is relatively simple. Even irregularly shaped triangles can have their area calculated without any extra math. So you draw triangle after triangle within the borders of a country, measuring each edge you draw. As you reach the irregular borders like meandering rivers and coasts you just draw and measure as many smaller connected triangles as you can fit along the winding border. Then you just add up the are of all the triangles. Though admittedly this is not entirely accurate because of the curvature of the earth and the effect that has on the true land area, but it's the easiest way to visualize the process. In fact, the triangle method was and still is used as the primary method by surveyors. In fact in 18th century France 4 generations of the Cassini family used the survey equipment of the time to do this geodesic triangulation and map out France. At first it was just the borders to get an accurate depiction of what the king owned, but a map of a country without features is just an empty shape. So the Cassini family spent the next years using the same method (using known points like towns and geographic features) to map roads and other points. The Cassini maps are so accurate that old roads and towns whose position is measured with gps and more modern means, more or less line up perfectly with what the Cassini's measure by hand over 300 years ago


Question: How do livestream concerts work when the musicians are in different locations? How are the musicians able to play in sync without lag issues?

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 How do livestream concerts work when the musicians are in different locations? How are the musicians able to play in sync without lag issues?

If any of these concerts were perfectly live (i.e., straight from the performers) it would be an unrecognizable mess of sound. Generally the feeds from the individuals are sent to a production team who sync the feeds and broadcast the synced feed. So really there is an amount of delay between when the performers play/sing to when you see it. Similar to sports broadcasts


Question: How does negative selection work?

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 How does negative selection work?

Positive selection is rewarding a creature because of a trait. Negative selection is punishing a creature because of a trait. A peacock has a large tail. If the large tail helps it find mates and reproduce that is positive selection. If the large tail makes it unable to escape predators and it is killed that is negative selection.


Question: What happens to the money that large corporations pay in fines due to malpractice against their customers?

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 What happens to the money that large corporations pay in fines due to malpractice against their customers?

Fines are paid to the government or governing organization. They go into the gov's bank account to be used for paying for any gov stuff. Fines are a punishment for doing the wrong thing. Damages are paid to the people that were harmed by the activities. Damages are a way to attempt to repay a person for the harm that was caused.


Question: Why does hot water hurt the body? What about intense heat hurts the body so much?

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 Why does hot water hurt the body? What about intense heat hurts the body so much?

Hot water heats your body. Our cells only work in a fairly narrow range of temperatures. When it gets too hot, lots of proteins start breaking down, and proteins are necessary to live, so any cells that get that hot start dying. Our body doesn't like its cells dying like that, so it sends pain messages to the brain to get your hand away from the hot water.


Question: What feature of sound waves allows the same music note to sound different in quality from instrument to instrument?

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 What feature of sound waves allows the same music note to sound different in quality from instrument to instrument?

The fact that instruments sound different when playing the same music is called timbre. When a note is played, the fundamental frequency isn’t the only frequency produced, you also get overtones that are part of the harmonic series (these frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency). Timbre comes from how pronounced each overtone is. So despite the fact that the fundamental frequency can be the same between instruments, the relative loudness of the overtones may differ.


Question: Is a static shock asymmetrically painful? Like is it better to be on the positive or negative side of this transaction?

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 Is a static shock asymmetrically painful? Like is it better to be on the positive or negative side of this transaction?

I don't have a van de graff generator to properly test it, but I believe the side that starts positive will be more painful. When arc welding more heat goes to the positive side, this is especially apparent when TIG welding, if you use positive voltage on the electrode, you'll melt the end of it into a ball. I assume for a static discharge the positive side will still be getting more energy, so more pain.


Question: Why is Trigonometry used in so many applications that have nothing to do with triangles?

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 Why is Trigonometry used in so many applications that have nothing to do with triangles?

While the origin of the word relates to angles and measures of a triangle, it is probably more useful to think of a triangle as the simplest polygon and that an "extreme" form of regular polygons, ie with the "most" sides, is the circle. In that sense, the subject develops naturally to the study of circles and of particular importance in the real world, circular motion. With the further development in mathematics, it has been shown that any closed shape can be inscribed as a series of circular motions of circles of various shapes (although the number of circles might be very large to the extent of requiring an infinity of circles). The other property of circular motion is that it is periodic (ie it eventually repeats). This is very useful for the analysis of periodic motion - the simplest being what many people think of as "waves". Waves appear to be a very fundamental property of the universe (light waves, sound waves, radio waves etc etc) So the mathematics of trigonometry lead to circles and circular motion and then to waves and periodic motion in general. It becomes foundational to nearly all physics and engineering.


Question: What are the controls on the Earth's crust floating?

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 What are the controls on the Earth's crust floating?

It's mainly (2). Viscosity certainly isn't the preventative factor, because that's essentially how plate tectonics works (where cool, dense oceanic crust is subducted beneath lighter continental or oceanic crust). The entire earth, apart from the outer core, is solid, but the outer mantle has a low enough viscosity to allow flow to occur over geological timespans. There is a compositional difference between the upper mantle and crust. It's not *huge* and there is debate as to where this boundary actually is depending on whether you're a seismologist, geologist, geochemist or physicist, but the density without a doubt increases as you get deeper so apart from at plate boundaries, the [density structure is stable]( URL_0 ). As for why, it's because of the chemical differentiation that occurs when you melt the mantle. As you may be aware, the melting behaviour of systems with more than one component (e.g. mantle) is complex. The solid does not all melt at once. Instead, you form a liquid which often has a different composition from the melting stock. In the case of the mantle, this liquid is more silica-rich than bulk mantle so as long as you only melt small fractions of the upper mantle ( > 30% melt only occurs very rarely), when that liquid crystalises, you form a rock with more silica-rich phases (e.g. more plagioclase, less olivine), which also happen to be less dense. This is the reason why oceanic crust, the densest part of the crust, is less dense than the upper mantle.


Question: Why are the laws of physics impossible to break?

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 Why are the laws of physics impossible to break?

The laws of physics aim to describe the reality "out there". As such, they are the best way we can come up with to describe and predict the behaviour of physical objects. However, those laws and theories are not reality, they are just models and representations thereof. And these models and representations are by necessity reductive, as all models rely on simplifications and assumptions. Ultimately, however, those objects do not care about our description. The "laws of physics" have been falsified countless of times, the most prominent example perhaps being Newtonian Mechanics, which was superseded by the Theory of Relativity. In that sense, the laws of physics *can* be broken, which leads to a need to repair or replace those laws in order to be compatible with those new observations.


Question: Why do we get accents?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why do we get accents?

Children learn to talk by listening to how adults speak and imitating them. When a bunch of people in a certain area all talk the same way, kids growing up there mostly hear that way of speaking and learn it. Learning to imitate doesn't go away as you age, it just gets lowered in favor of talking "normally" with your childhood accent. It's still possible to pick up, but often takes deliberate effort to use the "new" accent instead of the "normal" one. As an example, I know someone who learned English in Great Britain as a kid, got made fun of for it in primary school, picked up a "normal" American accent, and reverts to the British one when drunk.


Question: what SAP does for companies?

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 what SAP does for companies?

I used to work for them - their big general product is SAP ERP software, which is 'enterprise resource planning'. Best way to think about it is that they have software and databases that handle business logistics. Their big business is selling their software, then renting out consultants to teach people how to use their famously unintuitive software.


Question: What will it look like when the student loan debt bubble "pops?"

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 What will it look like when the student loan debt bubble "pops?"

In a way this has kind of happened in the UK but reactions to it are muted so as to not destroyed the university system. Two years ago the government tried to essentially privatise the system by selling their loan book to banks. Those loans had repayment conditions such as time limits, fixed interest rates, and limits on the percentage of a person's income the debt holder could take. There was zero interest from the private sector and the government continues to hold most student loans. Subsequent analysis of this and economic predictions for the country in general now estimate that it will take so long for students to reach the repayment threshold (£25k I think, could be mistaken) and even longer for most recent graduates to make any kind of decent salary, that they will simply make lower payments until the loan expires and never clear the principal. TL;DR Education already costs more than it's worth.


Question: Why does the many-cosmoses theory imply there is an alternate copy of ourselves?

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 Why does the many-cosmoses theory imply there is an alternate copy of ourselves?

The many-worlds interpretation is a particle physics idea that attempts to explain what’s really happening when something is in superposition. It’s more of a guide on how to interpret particle-wave duality. It doesn’t really have much meaning at the macroscopic level, that is not the purpose. Edit: multiverses are a completely separate idea relating to how we explain why our universe’s constants have the value they do


Question: why is not voting for candidate X a vote for candidate Y?

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 why is not voting for candidate X a vote for candidate Y?

Mathematically it's not, but in a two-party political system like that of the US it effectively is. The US election goes by total number of votes... roughly speaking. Let's make a comparison. You're in class in school, but the teacher's off ill. You've got a substitute teacher, but he's awesome so he's just going to let you watch a movie instead. He has two movies: Jaws 3 and The Clone Wars. He decides to let you, the students, vote on which movie you're going to watch. There are 30 of you in the class, and he decides that whichever movies gets the most total votes is the one you'll watch. So far, Jaws 3 has 15 votes and The Clone Wars has 14. Now, you hate both of these movies. But you hate The Clone Wars *slightly* less than Jaws 3. You have to watch something, and the Clone Wars would be better than Jaws, because at least you're not terribly frightened of clones like you are sharks. If you vote for the Clone Wars, the teacher will get the deciding vote. This means there's a 50% chance of you watching Jaws or watching the Clone Wars. If you abstain from voting, Jaws wins - there is a 100% chance of you watching Jaws. So, by not voting for the Clone Wars, you ended up with the movie you would have liked to watch the least, because you are - as previously mentioned - mortally afraid of sharks. Now that's a pretty shit comparison, but it does the job. The idea is that the fewer people who vote for candidate X, the fewer votes candidate Y needs to win: If 5 people abstain from voting, Jaws only needs 11 votes to win, instead of 16, because The Clone Wars only got 10 votes instead of 15. "Not voting for X is a vote for Y" is not strictly true, but it's a bloody good political slogan to get people voting for your guy: At least X isn't quite as bad as Y.


Question: what does it mean that the verb is 'reflexive'?

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 what does it mean that the verb is 'reflexive'?

You have eyes. Two of them! When you look at stuff, we call you the subject, and we call the stuff the object. Now imagine yourself looking into a mirror. If you do it right, congrats! You are seeing yourself. You are both the person looking (subject) and the stuff being looked at (object). Reflexive verbs are reflective in the same way as the mirror. It reflects the action (looking, or whatever the verb is) back onto the subject. Just like you can look at yourself, you can wash yourself, get yourself out of bed, sit yourself down, and so on. Remember that old prayer: Now I lay me down to sleep? That's the same thing!


Question: Why is your mirror image in a spoon upside down?

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 Why is your mirror image in a spoon upside down?

Place the spoon in front of your face: the *lower* part of the spoon is curved *upward*, so it reflects what's *above* your eyes; the *upper* part of the spoon is facing *downward*, toward the ground, and so it reflects what's *below* your eyes. The lower part shows the above, the upper shows the below: the image is upside down.


Question: How does special effects work in movies that were shot on film?

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 How does special effects work in movies that were shot on film?

The go-to was called [rotoscoping]( URL_0 ). Essentially, artists would draw what they wanted on top of every frame. Take for example starwars. The actors would hold heavy sticks, then post filming they'd add glow and a colored lightsaber on 24 frames for every second of film. It's just as inefficient and time-intensive as you'd think. Second, in today's world you can turn film into digital and do all the fancy motion-tracking and adding of digital layers on a computer.


Question: How does dissociative identity disorder work?

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 How does dissociative identity disorder work?

The different alternates usually know about each other, but sometimes they don't. And many times an alternate may lose time but it's when a different one is "forward" and running things. Like all things mental health, everything is so personalized that sometimes its meaningless to talk about diagnoses in general terms. My own bipolar 2 presents very differently than others with the same diagnosis, for example.


Question: Is there anything the US government can do about companies moving their wealth offshore to avoid taxes?

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 Is there anything the US government can do about companies moving their wealth offshore to avoid taxes?

Yes, but exactly what to do about it has been a consistent debate for very very long time in business and in government, and in the end, not that much has happened to be too impactfull. There's even a debate about whether these companies really want to bring some or all of their cash back to the US or if they may prefer to hold it overseas instead. Its also not just a US thing either of course, plenty of countries have issues with large companies doing complicated multi-national ventures in order to manipulate their regulations and tax burdens.


Question: why is Griddy (the Texas electric company) charging people extremely high prices (~$5,000) this month, when people didnt even have electricity?

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 why is Griddy (the Texas electric company) charging people extremely high prices (~$5,000) this month, when people didnt even have electricity?

Some electric companies in Texas have fixed rates, others will charge variable rates based on supply/demand. This can be good if more power is produced than needed, price goes down and you get a lower price than fixed rate. But you get shafted if prices spike higher. Price jumped from $0.03 KWH to $9.00 KWH.


Question: what do these Wall Street "quants" actually do?

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 what do these Wall Street "quants" actually do?

Broadly, they create and estimate statistical models of financial assets. The 'quant' is short for 'quantitative', which means they try to make trading decisions based on hard (quantifiable) data rather than subjective evaluations of an investment opportunity. Those statistical models can take all different shapes and sizes. Some may be mathematically simple but focused on speed to take advantage of trading opportunities that are only briefly available. Others can be much more complex and used to inform long-term trading strategies. The details are, of course, proprietary.


Question: Earth's magnetic field is huge. What stops our metals from slamming into the ground ?

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 Earth's magnetic field is huge. What stops our metals from slamming into the ground ?

Earth is not magnetic, Earth has a magnetic field. There is a bit of a difference. It is not like the ground you stand on attract metal (well, it does due to gravity, but that has nothing to do with metal specifically, just all matter). Metal is, however, affected by the magnetic field. Think of a compass, it works exactly because the magnetic field pulls the metal needle. Now, where does your needle point? Not toward Earth itself, right? It points parallel to Earth (well, somewhat - Earth is not flat, but you get the idea). This is because the magnetic field is kind of "parallel" to the surface for most places on Earth (some differences when at the magnetic poles, obviously). You can also think of a magnet with two poles. Try to put another magnet near it, does it try to get to the center? No, to the poles, right? Same for Earth and your compass or other metals. Now why don't all metals go towards the poles then? Because the magnetic field is quite weak. Again, think of the compass, you have to make it so that it floats relatively easy with hardly any friction to make it move. If a small needle can hardly move, then making bigger metal parts move is even harder. Gravity is actually pulling much more on metals than the magnetic field (and gravity it self is an extremely weak fundamental force, but let's not get deep into that). Another thing that matters is how the magnetic field "looks like". It is uniform. It doesn't actually try to pull things toward the poles (or repel) - it pretty much just align things. This, *again,* is the behaviour you can see with a compass.


Question: Why are the bottom of clouds flat and the tops are fluffy?

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 Why are the bottom of clouds flat and the tops are fluffy?

2 separate atmospheric metrics are in play here. Temperature, like we are all familiar with, and dew point: the temperature at which the moisture contained in normal, clear air condenses and forms tiny droplets (visible moisture, like fog or clouds). As you rise in altitude, starting at ground level, the temperature decreases at a rate of roughly 2 degrees Celsius, or about 3.5 degrees Fahrenheit, per thousand feet of altitude, while the dew point stays roughly the same. This means that the spread between temperature and dew point gets smaller and smaller, until the point at which they meet, and visible moisture forms (ie clouds). This is why it’s possible to make fairly accurate predictions about where the base of clouds will form, and why they tend to be, a lot of times, pretty level at the base. Once the warm, rising air becomes cooled and condensed air, it becomes denser than the warm rising air beneath it, and reaches its peak altitude before settling back down. This creates a cyclical motion within the clouds that give them their puffy, pillowy look. This is obviously a simple concept that applies mostly to fair weather, cumulus clouds, which I picture when you phrased the question as you did. The truth is that weather systems are very, very complex and are worthy of some people’s entire specific careers. Hope this helps.


Question: Why is gargling salt water known to help with sore throats, but eating chips doesn't?

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 Why is gargling salt water known to help with sore throats, but eating chips doesn't?

There's a phenomenon called 'osmosis' which plays its role here. When two different liquids with different concentrations are separated by a semipermeable membrane (the one that allows one-way flow only), the liquids would flow in such a way that they attain a state of equilibrium, i.e. now the concentration of both the liquids is same. The bacteria which cause the sore throat also have their skin similar to a semipermeable membrane. When you gargle with salty water, the inner 'fluid' of bacteria (which makes them live, in a literal sense) oozes out (in order to equalize the concentrations of these fluids-salt water and bacterial body fluid). This kills the bacteria and their 'active fluid' is washed away when you gulf-out the liquid. Thus they loose their dominance on the sore throat and you feel relaxed.


Question: How do satellites distinguish between all the billions of signals emitted by all the devices in the world?

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 How do satellites distinguish between all the billions of signals emitted by all the devices in the world?

Very few of the devices that people use day-to-day communicate directly with satellites (aside from GPS, but it only receives data broadcast from the satellites to every GPS devices). If you do not own a boat or an airplane, you likely also do not own any device that can transmit to a satellite (this is actually true even if you do own a boat or airplane, but you're more likely to find satellite phones and similar devices in these places). You of course *can* buy such a thing, but they're expensive to operate because two-way satellite communication has very limited bandwidth. Satellite TV can send lots of data because it sends the exact same data to every device listening. Rather than working like a whole bunch of individual telephone calls, it's essentially just one big loudspeaker aimed down from space.


Question: Why does 30°C outside seem too hot, when bath water at 37°C seem comfortable?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 Why does 30°C outside seem too hot, when bath water at 37°C seem comfortable?

Your body is constantly making heat as a byproduct of using energy. Your body also needs to be at a constant temperature to run. If that excess heat is not removed, your body will go into a fever and may shut down. Your body needs to lose heat at a constant rate to feel comfortable. Heat transfer through the air is not as fast as through water. Water transmits heat 24 times faster than air. This is why boiling something at 100 deg C cooks faster than baking something at 180 deg C. You'll lose heat faster in 37 C water than you do in 30 C air.


Question: Are the liger and the tigon from the same species and how is that determend?

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 Are the liger and the tigon from the same species and how is that determend?

I believe the tigon an liger are not considered the same species because of the order of the parenting. Tigon is a tiger male with a lion female, and a liger is a male lion with a female tiger. The species name for each is different: "P. tigris♂ × P. leo♀" for tigons and "P. leo♂ × P. tigris♀" for ligers. Ligers and tigons are not the same species. But brother and sister tigons are. The fact that they are sterile does not affect the fact that they belong to a particular species. EDIT: After some additional research, TIL that there are recorded cases of Tigons and Ligers mating and successfully giving birth to firther hybrids, such as a lion tigon cub.


Question: What kind of orders do the various ranks of a military give their subordinates?

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 What kind of orders do the various ranks of a military give their subordinates?

Here's a rundown of how the US Army operates, from smallest group to biggest: * Fire Team: A Fire Team is comprised of 2 Riflemen, one being the Team Leader, a Grenadier, and an Automatic Rifleman used when small recon or special missions are required. Led by a sergeant. * Squad/section: A squad, which is the smallest element in the Army structure, is typically made up of four to 10 soldiers and normally is commanded by a sergeant or staff sergeant. Some units have two squads that made up a section, commanded by a staff sergeant. * Platoon: Normally, a platoon includes 16 to 44 soldiers and is led by a lieutenant with an NCO as second in command. A platoon usually consists of three to four squads or sections. * Company: A company contains three to five platoons and a total of 60 to 200 soldiers. It's commanded by a captain with a first sergeant as the commander's principal NCO assistant. If the element is an artillery unit, it's called a battery rather than a company. If it's armored or air cavalry, it's called a troop. A company is a tactical sized unit and can perform a battlefield function on its own. * Battalion: This encompasses four to six companies and between 300 and 1,000 soldiers. A battalion normally is commanded by a lieutenant colonel, and a command sergeant major serves as principal NCO assistant. A battalion can conduct independent operations, if they're of limited scope and duration, and operates its own administration. An armored or air cavalry unit of equivalent size is known as a squadron. * Brigade: A brigade includes 1,500 to 3,200 soldiers, and a brigade headquarters commands the tactical operation of two to five combat battalions. Brigades normally are employed on independent or semi-independent operations, and normally are commanded by a colonel with a command sergeant major as senior NCO. In some cases, a brigadier general may assume command. Armored cavalry, ranger and special forces units in this size range are called regiments or groups instead of brigades. * Division: A division, with 10,000 to 16,000 soldiers, usually consists of three brigade-sized elements and is commanded by a major general, who is assisted by two brigadier generals. It can conduct major tactical operations and sustained battlefield operations and engagements. Divisions are numbered and are assigned missions based on their structures. Divisions perform major tactical operations for the corps and can conduct sustained battles and engagements. * Corps: A corps includes 20,000 to 45,000 soldiers and is made up of two to five divisions. It's normally commanded by a lieutenant general, who is assisted by a command sergeant major and an extensive corps staff. The corps provides the framework for modern multi-national operations. * Field army: A field army combines two or more corps, with 50,000 or more soldiers, and is typically commanded by a lieutenant general or higher-ranking officer. * Army Group: An army group plans and directs campaigns in a theater of operations, and includes two or more field armies under a designated commander. The U.S. Army hasn't used Army Groups since World War II.


Question: How does soap foams up when you rub your hands together and why is this process suppressed when your hands are oily?

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 How does soap foams up when you rub your hands together and why is this process suppressed when your hands are oily?

Soap foams with water because soap lowers the surface tension of water. Think of surface tension as pulling on a rubber band. The harder you pull the higher the surface tension. Air trapped inside the water/soap mixture gets stuck because the surface of the mixture isn't pulling very tightly, so it is very easy to deform. If you were to increase the surface tension of the bubble, the bubble will burst. Oil has a high surface tension as well. So as it mixes in, the bubbles find it harder to form. --- Additional fun fact: soap lowering the surface tension of water is exactly why we use it to clean not only dishes, but ourselves too. I've heard someone say "soap makes water more 'wet' ". I don't know if that's a good way to say it, but the idea is that the lower surface tension means it is easier for water to get under debris and dislodge it from your skin, dishes, laundry, and anything else you're trying to rinse down. Soap does not kill bacteria on your hands, it simply helps the water wash it off and down the drain. You can buy Anti-bacterial soap, but that does not kill viruses. This is why the most recommended way to prevent contracting COVID19 is to frequently wash your hands and scrub for 20 seconds. You dislodge any foreign elements, and wash them down the drain.


Question: How do people "grow out" of allergic conditions like Asthma?

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 How do people "grow out" of allergic conditions like Asthma?

This is ELI5, so simply put, your body gets used to the allergen that it overreacted to in the first place. The protein/carb/lipid tags on the foreign body are so familiar to your immune system there isn't any reason for it to go into a reaction. In theory most allergies can be "cured" this way, but for some reactions the risk isn't worth it. For less severe allergies, this is the basic premise of this aspect of immunotherapy.


Question: The observable universe..how did they know that it is there?

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 The observable universe..how did they know that it is there?

We can see our observational universe because it is billions of years old, and the light has had time to travel to us. Radio waves from us have only traveled some 100 years. As for outside our observational universe, it is our best guesses among many different fields. But we never will know for sure.


Question: What are annuities, what are the different types, and what are the differences within them? How can they be used to advance one financially?

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 What are annuities, what are the different types, and what are the differences within them? How can they be used to advance one financially?

Actuary here. I've worked with annuities at a life insurance company for several years. There are two basic types of annuities, deferred annuities and payout annuities. Deferred annuities act like a bank account. You put money in and it grows at a fixed rate or some other rate determined directly or indirectly by a market index (depends on the type of deferred annuity you have. These are usually used before retirement. The money grows tax deferred, which means that you don't pay taxes on the earnings until you start withdrawing the money. Payout annuities provide income, either for retirement or from a lawsuit payout (aka structured settlements). These can have both life contingent and non-life contingent pieces. Life contingent means it's dependent on the life of the person. This makes life contingent annuities good for protecting against living too long in retirement. Non-life contingent means a fixed amount of time, e.g. 20 years. You'll often see a "life annuity with 10 year certain." That means that it pays out for the maximum of 10 years or the life of the person with the annuity.


Question: how and acid or base causes burns to the skin. What happens at a chemical level?

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 how and acid or base causes burns to the skin. What happens at a chemical level?

Typically, what happens is the breakdown of fats and proteins in the skin. Many parts of the body have carbonyl groups, which in the context of skin means a carbon double bonded to an oxygen, single bonded to a carbon, and single bonded to one other thing. That other thing might be a nitrogen with other stuff attached in the caste of protein, or an oxygen with other stuff in the case of fats. When a strong acid or base gets on skin, it attacks the carbonyl, and replaces the "other thing" with either the base, or water in the case of acid. So by sort of "kicking out" an essential part of the chemicals that make up skin, acids and bases break down tissue and cause burns. With acids, this is somewhat reversible, but with bases it's essentially irreversible, which is why bases cause much worse burns


Question: How do radio waves work? Are some stronger than others to get signal?

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 How do radio waves work? Are some stronger than others to get signal?

Well! The theory and applications of radio waves is extremely vast and often complex (*pun intended for those who get it*). Radio waves are just a subsection of the general electromagnetic waves. In nature there are two fundamental fields called **Electric field** and **Magnetic field** which are at the base of all electro-magnetic fenomena. A set of equations called **Maxwell’s equations** describes how these fields can ripple and propagate through space, creating what we call electromagnetic waves. Radios use those waves to transmit and receive information. As you supposed yes, the frequency plays a role in how well the wave is transmitted through space, and higher wavelengths (which means lower frequencies) are able to better convey the transmitted power to the receiver. Moreover, the modulation (AM vs FM) also plays a role, since AM can travel further than FM — at the cost of lower transmission quality.


Question: How can non-ionizing radiation cause radiation injuries?

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 How can non-ionizing radiation cause radiation injuries?

The full text of the part you are quoting is > **Have Radiation Injuries Resulted from Microwave Ovens?** > > Most injuries related to microwave ovens are the result of heat-related burns from hot containers, overheated foods, or exploding liquids. Most injuries are not radiation-related. That said, there have been very rare instances of radiation injury due to unusual circumstances or improper servicing. In general, microwave oven radiation injuries are caused by exposure to large amounts of microwave radiation leaking through openings such as gaps in the microwave oven seals. However, FDA regulations require that microwave ovens are designed to prevent these high level radiation leaks. & #x200B; What they say is that most injuries if from stuff that you heat up in the microwave and the touch so it is not because humans are hit directly by microwave radiation. Some are by getting hit by microwave radiation that have leaked out because of bad design or damaged ovens. So humans get damaged by geting heated up by microwave radiation directly. Both will be thermal damage but in different way where one in by getting hit by microwave and the other is by hot food. The eyes are especially sensitive and microwave can damage the retina a like how sunlight or a bright light. In sunlight UV light that can be ionizing is the most damaging but a green laser can damage the eyes permanently even if there is not other frequency involved. So both are thermal damage but delivered in different way. On is when you touch the stuff inside when the microwave is off and the other happen when the microwave is running. Separating the two is important because of how they happen and what you should do to refuse the risk. So There is some other text of how microwaves is dangerous to human where eyes and testes are most sensitive. > **Microwave Ovens and Health** > > Microwave radiation can heat body tissue the same way it heats food. Exposure to high levels of microwaves can cause a painful burn. Two areas of the body, the eyes and the testes, are particularly vulnerable to RF heating because there is relatively little blood flow in them to carry away excess heat. Additionally, the lens of the eye is particularly sensitive to intense heat, and exposure to high levels of microwaves can cause cataracts. But these types of injuries – burns and cataracts – can only be caused by exposure to large amounts of microwave radiation.


Question: Why do music and podcast apps give warnings about downloading something over data, but not when streaming something over data? Wouldn't they use the same amount?

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 Why do music and podcast apps give warnings about downloading something over data, but not when streaming something over data? Wouldn't they use the same amount?

Not necessarily. Streaming is only using data while you're actively listening. Let's say it's a 1 hour podcast and the file size is 100MB. You could download it which would definitely use the entire 100MB, or you might stream only part of it, get maybe halfway through, and you've only used 50MB in that case. ETA: Some apps use lower quality audio when streaming as well. Apple Music by default will give you a lower quality stream when on cellular. (You can switch this option in Settings.)


Question: What's to stop someone from setting up 2 credit cards to constantly pay the same amount on each other in an endless monthly loop?

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 What's to stop someone from setting up 2 credit cards to constantly pay the same amount on each other in an endless monthly loop?

The fact that you can't really do this. Using a credit card to pay off a credit card is called a "balance transfer". This service comes with a fee (usually like 5% of the balance). So you can't do it endlessly. Also credit card companies can track how many balance transfers you do and restrict you from doing them if they see you constantly doing it.


Question: Why does adding one extra atom to a molecule change it from a necessity for life to life threatening?

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 Why does adding one extra atom to a molecule change it from a necessity for life to life threatening?

Molecules' behavior is defined by the bonds *between* the atoms more-so than by the atoms themselves. The types of atoms just lay the groundwork of which connections are even possible. H2O has 2 very stable H-O bonds, and all atoms are "satisfied" because their outer electron shells are filled by sharing electrons. Full shells are a low energy state, so the bonds don't easily break. H2O2 on the other hand has a double-oxygen "bride" with hydrogens at the end. Those H-O bonds are fine, but a single bond between 2 oxygen atoms doesn't really want to exist. And then you have the fact that this very similar molecule H2O is much much more stable, so it's not hard to see that it wants to kick out the extra oxygen atom. It's much more energetic, and therefore can react with many more other substances. You don't want very reactive stuff in your body, because life is all about tightly controlled chemical reactions.