Question: how are wealthy people’s net worths calculated and how is that money stored?

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 how are wealthy people’s net worths calculated and how is that money stored?

First of all, for most people, Forbes doesn't know, they just sorta guess based on information they have available. They may be right or wrong, they don't give a shit, they're just trying to get clicks. For many very wealthy people, generally for businessman (like A Bill Gates), they may have public records of a lot of their stock holdings plus purchases of real estate. This information is public and available, although it certainly doesn't show the whole picture and the rest is guessing. Athletes or movie stars, there may be records or reporting on their contracts and pay. But again, these are usually very very rough guesses and there's no penalty for being wrong. Most people's money will usually be in various investments in the stock market and often their home(s). Hell you don't even need to be "rich" for that. Middle class people even will have most of their net worth in the stock market and in their homes. Disposable income is simply not an issue, they have plenty of money to have available for day to day expenses in general accounts


Question: How do online retailers such as Amazon and Ebay confirm the legitimacy of their luxury items?

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 How do online retailers such as Amazon and Ebay confirm the legitimacy of their luxury items?

In short they don't. They're just a middle man. Some of the sellers on those sites depend on their reputation. The others can use escrow or just wait for someone who doesn't care. Others, for very high end and rare items, can use escrow. This is a third company with a good reputation. When you buy the good the seller gives the item to the escrow company. The buyer gives the escrow company his money. The escrow company validates the authenticity, then sends the money to the seller and the good to the buyer. The tests run are typically spelled out in the sale contract, as well as who pays for the escrow service and other contingencies.


Question: Does Jupiter actually have a surface in the traditional sense or is it just a ball of gas?

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 Does Jupiter actually have a surface in the traditional sense or is it just a ball of gas?

We can't say for sure. Atmospheric conditions there are so extreme, plus the radiation, that we haven't been able to send anything deep enough to find out. The last theory I heard is that there's probably a solid or extremely hot liquid metal core and a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen but as far as I've heard we haven't actually been able to measure it


Question: How is it possible that humans know that the universe is ever expanding if we have a limited space called 'the observable universe' that we cannot see past?

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 How is it possible that humans know that the universe is ever expanding if we have a limited space called 'the observable universe' that we cannot see past?

Because we have observed and recorded things in space moving away from each other over time at a constant and predictable rate. However it is a theory and there will be a paradigm shift if new, solid and replicable evidence is found that contradicts what we currently believe to be true.


Question: Why do people act so different when they are sexually aroused?

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 Why do people act so different when they are sexually aroused?

One possible aspect of the difference in actions is that sex is inherently gross. The smells, liquids, squishy bodies, etc. So when people get aroused their disgust tolerance rises and as soon as your done it starts going back to it's original level. Which actually doesn't cause many problems because the sex is the gross thing but now you're done so usually you're done being in the disgusting moment. But if you were lets say having sex in a place you wouldn't normally feel safe in, or if you were with someone you normally wouldn't be around. When your disgust tolerance goes to normal levels this can cause you to act different until you get out of that situation.


Question: What is the revenue model of WhatsApp? They don't run any ads, they don't have any subscription charges, and even the chat is encrypted so they can't track user behaviour. How do they generate money?

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 What is the revenue model of WhatsApp? They don't run any ads, they don't have any subscription charges, and even the chat is encrypted so they can't track user behaviour. How do they generate money?

I know a little bit about this - WhatsApp was purchased for a few combined reasons - one - to control a competitor from getting too powerful and eroding their core business; two - to prevent another competitor from acquiring them (TenCent) Three - Facebook was able to validate / check a massive amount of data (like phone numbers, names) in their master DB Four - there are plans to monetize WhatsApp that are being tested; mostly for b2c applications - like marketing messaging, linking WhatsApp numbers to your FB business pages, support channel / help bots, etc.


Question: Why do your eyes tear up really badly when you bump your nose, or when you pull out nose hairs?

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 Why do your eyes tear up really badly when you bump your nose, or when you pull out nose hairs?

I'm not entirely sure, but am pretty confident that it has to do with the naso-ocular reflex path. Your eyes and nose are connected by certain nerves, which cause the other to react when one is irritated. When you pluck a nose hair, you irritate the nasal mucose membrane, and the body reacts by trying to "flush out" the irritant via increased fluid secretion. Similarly a jab to the nose warps the mucosa causing similar irritation and secretion. The reflex nerve pathway will make your eyes secrete as well, and thus tears are produced, which will flow into the nasal cavity to help with the flush. It's also complicit in the eye symptoms due to allergies, and likely to contribute to ACHOO-syndrome (I kid you not, look it up!), also known as sun-sneezing.


Question: Why does our brain sometimes not initiate the fight or flee but make us unable to move when we experience intense fear?

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 Why does our brain sometimes not initiate the fight or flee but make us unable to move when we experience intense fear?

Thing is people wrongfully call it fight or flight but the real thing is freeze-flight-fight, in that order. Freeze is the first natural response. It not only is the most convenient way of dealing with most threats, but it also gives you time to think about what you want to do next. Then, if necessary, we go into flight mode. This is because even if you can win a fight, you will probably still get hurt, which can mean certain death in the long run (unable to hunt, run away etc) Lastly, we fight. You can read more about it in Joe Navarro's book What Every Body Is Saying.


Question: How is there nothing in space? I get that there isn’t necessarily air like we have in our atmosphere on Earth, but how can there be nothing?

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 How is there nothing in space? I get that there isn’t necessarily air like we have in our atmosphere on Earth, but how can there be nothing?

Most theories think the universe started out as mostly gaseous, but particles of matter attract each other through the force of gravity (which is something you get for free, as a fundamental property of matter). When matter starts to clump together, voids are left in space - and over a very, very long time, those voids get very large. There are still gas clouds out in space, but there is a lot of volume of space that contains nothing at all.


Question: Why does food have less taste when your nose is plugged?

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 Why does food have less taste when your nose is plugged?

To start off, your mouth eyes and nose are a lot more connected than people realize. It's why spicy food makes your nose run and eyes water. That connection is part of what makes smell an important part of taste. When you "taste" something that sensation is a mix of what your taste buds say as well as what your nose says. Your brain does this connection naturally 24/7. So when you plug your nose you're stopping one of those inputs that the brain is expecting. Making the food taste "different".


Question: What causes reactionary blinking upon hearing a loud, sharp noise like a hammer on a nail?

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 What causes reactionary blinking upon hearing a loud, sharp noise like a hammer on a nail?

It's a reflex to protect your soft, squishy eyeballs from shards of flying debris that occasionally accompany loud, sharp noises. A good rule of thumb for questions about why the body works in a particular way is to ask, "How would this trait benefit our caveman ancestors?" Imagine cavemen Agg, Oog and Ugg are sitting around the campfire on a hunting expedition. Agg is [bashing rocks together to make spear points]( URL_0 ). Oog is a twitchy fellow, and every time Agg strikes the rocks Oog can't help but blink and flinch. Ugg is a stoic warrior and ignores the noise altogether. Agg hits the rock too hard and sends stone chips flying everywhere. **CRACK!** Oog flinches, and the chips bounce off his eyelids. Ugg gets a bunch of stone chips in his eyes and scratches his corneas trying to dig them out, leaving himself half-blind. The next day, when the party is fleeing from a leopard, Ugg trips over a stick on the ground that he couldn't see. Ugg becomes lunch, while Oog survives to hunt another day. Oog goes on to father several kids, each of whom is a bit twitchy themselves. As generations pass, Oog's genes get mixed into the gene pool, and the population as a whole is a little bit "twitchier" than it would have been otherwise.


Question: When exhaling underwater, why do multiple bubbles come out and not a big one?

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 When exhaling underwater, why do multiple bubbles come out and not a big one?

Because the air that you exhale starts rising up to the surface right away, and doesn't wait for you to "inflate" the bubble to make it bigger. If you could swim upwards as fast as the air bubbles, you could theoretically inflate a big bubble like a balloon, while it rises up to the surface.


Question: Why is x=y a diagonal line on a graph?

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 Why is x=y a diagonal line on a graph?

If x = 1, then y also = 1. In a graph, that would be the point (1,1). If x = 2, then y also = 2. In a graph, that would be the point (2,2) If x = 3, then y also = 3. In a graph, that would be the point (3,3) Follow this logic, and draw a line between these points, and you will quickly see that it is a straight, diagonal line.


Question: How does shaking up a soda increase the pressure inside the bottle?

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 How does shaking up a soda increase the pressure inside the bottle?

It's because the carbonation actually has two different states, a gas and an acid. When you take carbon dioxide gas and put it under pressure next to a liquid like water or soda or cider or beer, that CO2 actually reacts with the water to form a fairly unstable acid called "carbonic acid". It's unstable enough that as soon as the pressure goes away, the carbonic acid molecules start breaking back down into water and carbon dioxide molecules. Open a carbonated beverage container and over a little while the breakdown transforms all of the carbonic acid back to carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide bubbles off, and the container of liquid goes flat. And a shock makes the instability a lot worse. If you increase the instability by pouring a just-opened beverage from on high, the shock causes the carbonic acid to rapidly break down, which is why pouring soda too fast causes a huge foam-up. Ditto when you tap a glass of beer with another glass of beer. And if you shake the bottle or can of soda without opening it, you're breaking a whole bunch of carbonic acid into carbon dioxide - a gas - and it really increases the pressure in the can because all that CO2 can't leave. But wait a while, and the pressure will force the CO2 to form back into carbonic acid... and the pressure will reduce so it won't blow up when you open it.


Question: How do share prices actually change in real time?

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 How do share prices actually change in real time?

There is no "algorithm". The share price listed is simply the last price that a trade was executed at. It doesn't have any deeper meaning on the face, its just a general indicator of the amount that last transaction occurred at. Any buyer or seller could (and do!) name *any* price they wish to buy or sell at. The share price listed just helps you judge what others have recently bought/sold at. The exchange's purpose to to match a buyer and seller who want to execute at the same price. So if I want to sell at $10 and a buyer wants to buy at $10, it will match us.


Question: How did the universe get to be so big?

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 How did the universe get to be so big?

Nothing can move *through* space faster than the speed of light, but the space *between* sufficiently distant objects can increase rapidly enough that light emitted from them *right now* will never be able to traverse the distance, and the farther apart they are the more rapidly the space will grow. The overall rate of expansion has also been accelerating over the past few billion years, and this is expected to continue forever. The entire universe also did not emerge from one infinitely dense point. The observable universe was contained with a very tiny volume, but it wasn't infinitely small, and entire universe was still far larger than this, and may possibly be infinite. At some point shortly after the big bang, the universe entered a brief "inflationary" period where its size increased drastically before returning to normal expansion. All of these factors lead to the universe being much larger than one would think based on the speed of light alone.


Question: How does a towel work on a molecular level?

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 How does a towel work on a molecular level?

A towel consists of woven string. The string consists of small fibers. Those fibers have gaps in them, which get there by twisting and weaving. When you put a towel in water, water gets "sucked" into the gaps of the string. This happens due to the capillary effect. When all of the air-gaps are filled with water, then the towel is fully wet and can't absorb any more water.


Question: Why do people who say they are against "big government" fight for so many federal restrictions (marijuana, immigration, LBGT rights, abortion, etc.)?

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 Why do people who say they are against "big government" fight for so many federal restrictions (marijuana, immigration, LBGT rights, abortion, etc.)?

Mostly because they're concerned about big government meddling in their own lives but are happy for it to meddle in the lives of people they disagree with. It's basically just selfishness. You very rarely see people advocating for government intervention to stop themselves doing something harmful or wrong, only because they think *other people* should be stopped from doing things.


Question: Why can we easily distinguish between faces in photorealistic games and real faces?

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 Why can we easily distinguish between faces in photorealistic games and real faces?

> Many photorealistic games are indistinguishable from actual photos, except when human faces are there. What exactly is the difference? The difference is *you*. Humans are highly adapted to recognize slight differences in human faces because it is very useful for humans to tell humans apart. Crows for example might look pretty much all the same to humans but crows have no trouble telling each other apart as that is what they are adapted to do. So the reason human faces are so hard to replicate is because humans are unusually picky about them in particular.


Question: Why is heart cancer so rare compared to other types of cancer?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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 Why is heart cancer so rare compared to other types of cancer?

Cancer is a failure in growth regulation that results from mutations. The way tumors develop is these damaged cells divide and make daughter cells that are likewise damaged. Cells that divide a lot are more prone to cancer (like skin cells) Heart muscles don’t divide much so they don’t copy their dna mistakes and make damaged daughter cells.


Question: - How does a Boomerang work?

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 - How does a Boomerang work?

URL_0 I’m going to try my best to interpret here: basically a boomerang is built to have an aerofoil (wing) always at the top edge of the object. An aerofoil causes air to move faster around it, which creates lift. What this accomplishes is that the boomerang is pushed to the left (most boomerangs I’ve seen are left-rotating) from whatever direction it is parallel to. If you get enough spin that that aerofoil turns through enough air to push it just at the right rate and right amount, you can get it to come right back to you. Otherwise it whizzes past you and you duck anyways. This is my basic understanding. I may be wrong, at parts, but I know for a fact that the boomerang is shaped like a plane’s wing, and instead of getting lift upwards it gets most of the lift normal to the boomerang as torque.


Question: What would be the true difference between creating a show in one studio versus another?

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 What would be the true difference between creating a show in one studio versus another?

Netflix isn't a studio, nor is xHamster. It is a *Producer*, the studio will remain the same, the production company provides funds, connections, and direction if they desire. Sense8 will likely continue filming with the same cast, crew, and directors, in the same physical sets and buildings as before, but now the paychecks will come from xHamster instead of Netflix


Question: Why is staring at a solar eclipse deemed to be dangerous and what is the difference from just staring at the sun?

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 Why is staring at a solar eclipse deemed to be dangerous and what is the difference from just staring at the sun?

When you look at the sun your eye goes "Damn that's bright, I better do something". This causes your pupil to shrink down REALLY small to not let much light in, and also causes a reaction to flinch away. Both of these protect your eye from damage. If you look at a not-quite-total eclipse your eye goes "This is pretty dark" and makes your pupil big to let lots of light in and doesn't trigger those protective reflexes. But any part of the sun "peeks" around the eclipse is just as bright as it was before, which means it can cause damage to the light sensitive bits in the back of your eye.


Question: What’s so special about oxygen that makes it needed in fire? Why isn’t it another gas that’s present in the atmosphere like nitrogen or hydrogen?

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 What’s so special about oxygen that makes it needed in fire? Why isn’t it another gas that’s present in the atmosphere like nitrogen or hydrogen?

Molecular Oxygen is (somewhat redundantly) an *oxidizer.* It’s a highly aggressive molecule that’s eager to steal electrons away from other molecules, breaking apart existing bonds and forming strong new bonds. This means it can release a lot of energy by tearing other, more complex molecules apart. Nitrogen is not a particularly aggressive molecule; it doesn't have much energy to release by reacting with anything. Hydrogen is not a common element in the Earth's atmosphere—it's so light it can float to the top of the atmosphere and be blasted into space by the solar wind; otherwise it tends to react with O2 to form water.


Question: Why do lights that are in the distance appear to flicker?

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 Why do lights that are in the distance appear to flicker?

When light travels through the air it changes speed based on whether it is travelling through cold, dense air or warm, light air. But, the air currents between you and the light are constantly changing. When a different density of air passes between you and the light the intensity will change which appears as a flicker.


Question: What is the scientific reasoning behind getting "hangry"?

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 What is the scientific reasoning behind getting "hangry"?

When you are hungry your body releases a whole bunch of hormones to get your body to metabolize stuff in to glucose, to feed your cells. Two of these (epinephrine and cortisol) hormones also happen to be our "stress hormones". So...when hungry you're likely act like you do when "stressed", which...is...irritable! edit: fixed the spelling of "epinephrine". Thanks /u/Zero_the_Unicorn .


Question: how are major food/drink companies allowed to keep recipes secret? Isn’t that a problem due to disclosure laws and the possibility of allergies?

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 how are major food/drink companies allowed to keep recipes secret? Isn’t that a problem due to disclosure laws and the possibility of allergies?

You can find a full ingredient list for any fast food chain online. Many will have the info in a pamphlet in person. The ingredients list on nutrition facts in the US lists things from largest quantity to smallest quantity, but it won't tell you that theres a tablespoon of paprika in a whole pack of hotdogs or anything that specific. Plus, many ingredients can fall under "natural flavors" or "spices". And that's perfectly legal


Question: What’s actually happening when old animated movies get “remastered”?

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 What’s actually happening when old animated movies get “remastered”?

Usually they find the old animation cells, or the film it was captured on, and upscale it with modern techniques. As it turns out, film is in a way a bit like modern imaging techniques. Rather than pixels, however, the film has grains which form their resulting images. Using modern techniques, its possible to scan these in and capture more of those grains, thereby upscaling it very well. The bigger the film (say 16mm vs 35mm) and the higher quality of the film stock, the easier it is to upscale it to higher resolutions. As for animation cels, its generally the same, scan them in using modern imaging devices. Even a basic desktop scanner can produce some pretty high quality images, let alone a commercial scanner.


Question: How is it possible to film light passing and bouncing of a mirror?

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 How is it possible to film light passing and bouncing of a mirror?

They use extremely fast camera shutters to capture a very short moment so you can see the light beam. However they can not reset the camera in time for the next frame so they cheat a bit by sending a new beam of light for the next frame. They make sure to synchronize the short beams of light with the camera shutter but offset it a bit so the beam will appear to move forward a bit for every frame. It is actually a different beam for every frame but the same setup.


Question: Is Salt still bad for you if you drink lots of water?

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 Is Salt still bad for you if you drink lots of water?

Salt intake doesn't really cause high blood pressure in normal healthy people. In people with high blood pressure, a reduced sodium diet reduces water retention and therefore total blood volume and therefore reduces blood pressure because of the reduced blood volume. If you are healthy and normal, you body regulates your water and sodium levels by regulating urination. If you drink a normal amount of water and eat a normal amount of salt, you'll be fine. Even if you have a day where you eat a ton of salt and don't drink much water, you'll be fine. Your body is working. If a doctor recognizes that you have a problem and directs you to have a low sodium diet, you should do it. If you are normal and healthy, sodium will not hurt you. Sodium actually keeps you hydrated and is very important. Rhino's rants on sodium: URL_0


Question: why does the Australian government fail to provide a sufficient upgrade to our broadband network even with the knowledge that the Internet will be as vital as the electricity grid was in the 19th century?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 why does the Australian government fail to provide a sufficient upgrade to our broadband network even with the knowledge that the Internet will be as vital as the electricity grid was in the 19th century?

Most of the people that make the decisions in the Australian government are the kind of people that don't think the internet is important. They are the types of people that buy the newspaper every day. If it's not something they grew up with, they don't really care about it. They are set in their ways, and they fear change. There is also no real motivation for them to do anything about it. Any actual upgrades worth having will take decades (how long has the NBN been going now?), and the party in control only cares about what they can take credit for in the current term (because they know full well they may not get another term next time). Think about how the internet has been working for a very long time. It has mostly been proivided using an existing copper wire telephone network, that has been in place for a very long time. Most of this copper phone network is all connected in the crapest way possible. Find an older apartment building, made some time in the 70s, then find the MDF for the phone system somewhere in the basement. It will be bare copper wires wrapped around bare metal termination posts, with no insulation, and not a drop of solder holding it all together (or any other form of positive fixation). [Here's one I had the pleasure of having to deal with a few years ago.]( URL_1 ) Apparently there was nothing wrong with this system, and the connection issues were a problem with my modem or plain old operator error... [Ever seen one of these on the side of the road?]( URL_2 ) Care to guess what ther are? These are accessible connection nodes for the same copper phone network. They look very similar inside as the MDF pic I posted above. They use slightly newer technology though, called a [punch-down]( URL_0 ) terminal. This uses no insulation just like the older system, and it uses nothing but the pressure of the wire forced between two metal tabs to make the connection. It is used for one reason and only one reason, that being it is extremely quick to use. But just because it is quick doesn't mean it is good. The issues with the NBN are simple. The original idea was to install a completely separate system that specifically **DID NOT** use this crappy old technology. It was supposed to be fibre-optics to your house, Australia wide. Then the ruling party of the government changed, and the new one decided that the proposed plan was not required. They figured the people didn't really *NEED* super fast and reliable internet (see the start of this rant), so now we have super fast internet that stops around the corner, and then it's connected to your house using the same crappy old copper phone network. I would go on, but this should be enough to show you why we are only ranked 55th in the world for internet service, and why it's not going to change any time soon.


Question: When consciously breathing, why does it feel like we're controlling the intake of air via our mouth (ie: sucking in air), rather than manually expanding and deflating our lungs?

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 When consciously breathing, why does it feel like we're controlling the intake of air via our mouth (ie: sucking in air), rather than manually expanding and deflating our lungs?

Because there are nerve endings in your mouth to detect all the effects of the air rushing in, such as changes in pressure, cool vs warm air, etc. There really isn't this sense of feeling inside your body (you feel other things internally, like pain, but not the same way). So, other than some sensation of your chest rising or falling, your brain gets most of the sensation of breathing from your mouth (or nose/sinuses). If you "felt" things inside your body the same way you feel things on the outside of your body, you would be overcome with sensation all the time and there wouldn't be any real value in feeling that.


Question: Why is it so hard to eject water from our ears?

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 Why is it so hard to eject water from our ears?

Your ear canal isn't a nice, straight tube. It's bendy and very narrow. It isn't too hard to see why it would be difficult for tiny drops of water to work their way out of a bendy, narrow tube. Eventually water should roll out. If you start to experience pain, or it doesn't work its way out after 2-3 days, then you should consult a physician.


Question: After binge-watching Kitchen Nightmares episodes, why do health inspectors allow restaurants to continue to operate in such filthy conditions?

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 After binge-watching Kitchen Nightmares episodes, why do health inspectors allow restaurants to continue to operate in such filthy conditions?

Where I live, health inspection is something of a racket. Some restaurants never get inspected, and some get some kind of warning before the inspectors are coming, and some get inspected often. The ones that have several inspections a year are the restaurants that are doing well and the owners clearly have money. They get failed for something stupid (at my restaurant they like to fail us for leaving dry rags in the kitchen. Clean rags for cleaning. They need to be in a bucket of water to pass health inspection.) then they pay a fine, and get inspected again a couple days later. Thus the health department makes money from the fines, and the restaurants get unlimited "second chances" to stay open. If they closed them down they wouldn't make money from the multiple inspections and fines.


Question: why when we are having a stroke it is more noticeable in the left side of our body?

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 why when we are having a stroke it is more noticeable in the left side of our body?

I am interpreting your question as asking why right-sided strokes, which affect the left-side of your body, are more noticeable. Whenever you’re showing stroke symptoms on the left side of your body, it means that the stroke occurred in the right hemisphere of the brain. Movement and sensation on each side of your body is controlled by the opposite brain hemisphere, e.g., left side of body is controlled by right side of brain. Usually, strokes that occur in the left side of the brain and affect the right side of the body are more noticeable. This occurs because the left side of the brain is more involved in fine motor skills required to perform actions such as writing and because the left side is also involved in speech.


Question: What makes physics engines for games more complicated than just applying the basic Newtonian laws of motion?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What makes physics engines for games more complicated than just applying the basic Newtonian laws of motion?

It is exactly that simple. Projectile motion in video games is super easy. As you said, it's just kinematics. The problem is that if you have 1000 different objects for which physics needs to be calculated, even projectile motion can become taxing on your cpu. Further, you also need to include collision physics, which is *much* more complicated mathematically, and much more computationally intensive. Now imagine a collision that causes 10,000 particles to break off of the colliding objects. All of a sudden you go from two objects traveling at each other at speed, to crunching collision physics and 10,000 trajectories. Now if you add other components like drag, wind, adherence, the Coriolis effect, etc, you realize it's really quite hard to deal with. MUCH easier to approximate physics in behaviors of specific objects and accepting the imprecision.


Question: Why was the NYC transformer fire blue?

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 Why was the NYC transformer fire blue?

The core of the transformer is usually solid iron, or iron-infused ceramics. Atomic iron (II) burns gold in normal flame, but bright blue in an electric arc, such as in a damaged transformer. I would guess that the transformer used iron-infused ceramics, since the smaller pieces of iron would burn much easier, explaining the abnormal brightness of the flame.


Question: How can someone DDOS servers of multibillion dollar company (Blizzard) and how hard is to track the person who does it?

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 How can someone DDOS servers of multibillion dollar company (Blizzard) and how hard is to track the person who does it?

The "D" in "DDOS" stands for "distributed", and it means that there are many computers on the attacking side. Those can be from a botnet where the attacker has managed to install some sort of software on them. Or they can even be volunteers, where somebody posts a call for action on some forum and people voluntarily join in. If you consider that somebody with a good connection might easily have 100 Mbps or more available, it adds up to big numbers very quickly. Also consider that while Blizzard has a lot of servers, individually they're not that strong. If a given machine has say, 10 Gbps networking, then that particular machine only needs to be attacked by about a hundred machines or so. Bringing down a single machine might be plenty. It could be a particular server the attacker wants down, or worse it might be some sort of central authentication server. Then nobody can log in even though you've just taken 1% of the datacenter's total capacity. Then there are amplification attacks. For instance, if you find something you can send to a server that's small but produces a large response, this works in your favor. You send 100 bytes of junk, you get a 1KB error page back, that's the victim doing your work for you. Now you only need 1/10th of the bandwidth on your side to take up all of theirs. One can also attack other resources rather than just the network. For instance if disks are slower, or if some particular action consumes a lot of CPU time you can get a lot of effect that way. If the server needs 10 ms to process a given command, you only need to send 100 of those per second, and suddenly the CPU is 100% busy.


Question: How do we know instruments used in measuring the properties of distant objects (e.g. the mass of a star) are calibrated correctly?

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 How do we know instruments used in measuring the properties of distant objects (e.g. the mass of a star) are calibrated correctly?

Calibrating any measurement instrument is a combination of trial-and-error and testing agreement with mathematical models. If an instrument is measuring the thing it is designed to measure, doing this consistently, and getting results that make sense according to calculations about what they could/should measure based on how they work, then we would generally take them to be reasonable instruments. As our understanding grows, and as we encounter, analyze, and correct errors based on unexpected influences (e.g. human error, poor construction, degradation of the instrument, etc.), the idea of an acceptable instrument may change a bit, but the general idea is there.


Question: why is a chip on a credit card considered ‘safer’ than swiping the magnetic strip?

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 why is a chip on a credit card considered ‘safer’ than swiping the magnetic strip?

Magnetic strips can be much more easily duplicated than the chips. The strip can be duplicated just by reading the swipe, since the data it gives *is* the data it has. The chip, instead, gives an encrypted code based on what you ask it by combining the value you gave it with a secret one it has, and even if you ask it hundreds of times, you won't be able to figure out the secret number it stores inside it. When the reader says to it "what value do you get when I give you Value Y?" the chip responds with what it gets, and then that is checked by the institution that issued the card (who know the secret number too so can do the same calculation and see if the results match).


Question: How does the chain reaction in a nuclear bomb end?

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 How does the chain reaction in a nuclear bomb end?

The key is the massive energy release - that leads to the bomb material being dispersed, disrupting the chain reaction. **It's literally blown apart.** Imagine a room full of people, where one person farting causes 2-3 *nearby* people to fart. Once farting starts, the room smell becomes so odious farters become increasingly desperate and inventive in finding ways to escape. Once enough get out of the farting area, there won't be enough farts smelled to sustain the farting. If you're running the fart-a-thon, you design the farting chamber to maximize farting - trapping farters to get as much farting as possible before they escape (you also want no farting beforehand) **Edit:** Only a few materials release extra neutrons (and energy) when they are hit with a neutron. These are rare and need to be refined to high purity levels. Other materials don't release energy, recombine when split, or absorb neutrons. I know my analogy stinks - it only covers farters (nuclear fuel/bomb materials). Other materials can slow, scatter, absorb, or reflect neutrons. **There are a few main ways to enhance farting:** - Gather as many farters as you can (They used 1/3 of the electricity ever produced in the US and piled all the U in one bomb and all the P in another) - Compress the farters together so they can't escape before as many of them fart as possible (They use explosives to compress a subcritical core into a critical mass) - Get a few of the more noxious farters in a breakout room with a bean buffet, and once the farting starts, start them stampeding into the other room of unsuspecting farters (Use neurton-reflective materials to focus the neurtons from the first stage onto the second stage core. [Really scary stuff]( URL_0 ).) Critical mass can be converted into a spherical diameter, and it's [different for different materials]( URL_1 ). For process facilities and material handling (where you DO NOT want an explosion) the piping and vessels have maximum sizes to prevent material building into a critical mass.


Question: Are there any random interactions/reactions in physics we know of or should we be able to calculate every outcome 100%?

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 Are there any random interactions/reactions in physics we know of or should we be able to calculate every outcome 100%?

Yes, there are. The most famous of these is half life. The half life of a substance is how long it takes for 50% of that substance to decay. So, if I have 2kg of a substance that has a half life of 10 minutes, in 10 minutes I will have 1kg left - the remainder will have decayed to a different substance. However, if I have a _single atom_ of that substance, there is a 50/50 chance that it will decay in 10min. As far as we know (right now) it is _random_ whether or not that particular atom will decay in the half life. Now, is this _truly_ random or do we simply not understand decay well enough to predict it - well, there is a Nobel Prize in your future if you can answer that question.


Question: why do your eyes react quickly to light but slowly to a lack of light?

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 why do your eyes react quickly to light but slowly to a lack of light?

Most of the answers in this thread are completely wrong or only partially correct. Here's the reality of the situation. You have two main types of light receptors-- rods and cones. The way light receptors work is that each receptor has a tiny pigment molecule inside them. When the pigment molecule absorbs a photon of light, the pigment molecule is destroyed and triggers a chemical reaction that enables the receptor to "tell" your nervous system it detected light. The receptor then temporarily shuts off until the pigment can be regenerated. Rods are much more sensitive than cones in low-light conditions, or scotopic conditions, so in the dark, the main type of photoreceptor that is detecting what small amount of light is around are your rods. However, in high light conditions (aka photopic conditions), they are overwhelmed, because all of the rod's photopigment (a molecule called rhodopsin) is destroyed and they essentially shut off. So when you go from photopic conditions to scotopic conditions (light-- > dark), your cones fail to detect the small amount of light available. Your rods, while theoretically able to detect the light, have no more photopigment because they've been completely washed out by the high-light conditions they've just exited. They need to regenerate their rhodopsin before they can function again, and that's what happens when your eyes "adjust" to darkness. When you go from low light levels to high light levels, you blink a bit and are woozy because your rods are rapidly overwhelmed, but once their rhodopsin is completely washed out, your cones take over quickly (since they were always ready to go, even in dark conditions-- they just couldn't "pick up" the light), and enable you to adjust quickly.


Question: When astronauts are in space, they experience weightlessness in "zero gravity." But, the Earth's gravity is strong enough to hold satellites and the moon in orbit. So, what is zero gravity? Why aren't astronauts bound to the closest surface by the Earth's gravity but instead can float?

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 When astronauts are in space, they experience weightlessness in "zero gravity." But, the Earth's gravity is strong enough to hold satellites and the moon in orbit. So, what is zero gravity? Why aren't astronauts bound to the closest surface by the Earth's gravity but instead can float?

They aren't really experiencing zero gravity. They're experiencing *most* of the gravity we experience here on the surface. They are floating because while in orbit, they, and the shuttle/station/etc that they are in, are in free fall. It's the same way people float inside the Vomit Comet airplane, they're all falling at the same rate as the plane, so they seem suspended in their surroundings. The important distinction is that an orbit is falling laterally fast enough that, unlike the vomit comet, it won't intersect the ground at some point. They fall "past the earth" which redefines which way you are falling into a continuous circle.


Question: How do chord progressions work?

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 How do chord progressions work?

So to understand chord progressions, it really helps to understand how scales work, and how chords are built. So, the easiest way to talk about this is to start with the C major scale. Most scales in western music have 8 notes (or, well, 7 notes and the octave of the 8th) (there are some exceptions). We do C major because it allows us to avoid sharps and flats for reasons I'll go into in a bit. The C major scale is easy to remember for that reason. In order it goes C D E F G A B C If you sing those notes out loud at the correct pitch, it is the "do re mi fa so la ti do" scale that so many are familiar with. The order is important: The root note, C, is also called the 1st note, or I. D is note II, E is note III, etc. These note positions also correspond to chords; as pointed out in another reply, the chords in the major scale going from 1 to 8 are Major minor minor Major Major minor diminished Minor. The standard "chords" that we know are derived from the scales of the notes in question, and are usually that scale's 1st, 3rd, and 5th stacked on top of each other. so C major, looking at our chart, is the notes C, E, and G. Play those notes together, and you have a C major chord. Now, it might be tempting to think now about D major, and think that you'll get it by going D E F G A B C D but that would be wrong. That is wrong because there are sharps and flats, and music isn't perfectly logical in its' naming conventions... basically there are what are called half-steps that result in sharps and flats, except in the cases of E/F and B/C. F is a half-step up from E, and C is a half step down from B. And the way that scales are constructed isn't really based on the notes, but the intervals between them, in half and full steps. The major scale starts at the root note, then: * note II is a full step up from I, * III is a full step up from II, * IV is a *half step* up from III, * V, VI, and VII are whole steps up from IV, V, and VI respectively * VIII is a half step up from VII So a D major scale would actually be ~~D E F# G# A# C D~~ D E F# G A B C# D The final bit is the minor chords. This is a bit complicated theoretically, but for this question, you take your 3rd note and move it down by half a step. So if you wanted to play a C minor chord you'd play C, E-flat, G. This can be a lot to get into your brain, if my experience as a bad guitarist trying to learn theory has taught me anything, so I hope this made some modicum of sense. EDIT: Thanks to u/TheUglyAlpaca for the correction, don't know what I was smoking when I wrote out the D Major scale like that.


Question: Why are things that are wet with cold water so much harder to dry than those wet with hot water?

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 Why are things that are wet with cold water so much harder to dry than those wet with hot water?

It’s all to do with evaporation. The hot water heats up the surface it is on and any friction from a cloth to dry it then causes the water to evaporate. Cold water cools down the surface it is on meaning more friction is needed to get the water to evaporate


Question: Why do big things move slowly? (Ex: Giant robots or dinosaurs in movies)

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 Why do big things move slowly? (Ex: Giant robots or dinosaurs in movies)

The amount of force it takes to accelerate something scales with the mass...if it's big, it's heavy, and if it's heavy you need more force to move it at the same speed. You \*can\* overcome this by just using a lot more force, but then something called the square-cube law kicks in...the amount of force your muscles can apply scales with the cross-section of the muscles (which is roughly the width squared) but the mass of the thing scales with the volume (which is roughly the width cubed). So the larger you get, the harder it is to maintain big enough muscles to keep the acceleration constant. In practice, you don't maintain acceleration, you see something in the middle...moving somewhat slower, but also gettting much more muscle-y. This is why elephants have way fatter (relatively) legs than horses or humans.