Question: Is there a cycle to hunger or sorts?

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 Is there a cycle to hunger or sorts?

First of all, hunger is caused by lack of nutrients in your bloodstream. Your cells aren't getting enough fuel, they signal for more fuel, and that signal causes the feelings we call hunger. So, when you eat, it takes time for nutrients to get from your digestive system into your bloodstream. So you can eat and still feel hungry - wait a bit, and the feeling will usually pass unless you ate too little. The chief biochemical signal to take food out of the bloodstream and put it into storage, is insulin. Your body is set up to try to avoid having too much sugar in the blood (prolonged high blood sugar causes all kinds of bad things, look up symptoms of untreated diabetes). Insulin signals the liver to turn carbs into fat, and the fat cells to take that fat and store it for later. So a meal that contains a lot of carbs can cause you to become hungry again sooner than a meal with no carbs. Suppose you don't eat anything at all when you feel hungry - then your pancreas responds to the lack of fuel by shutting off insulin production. Lack of insulin tells your fat cells, "OK, time to take fuel out of storage". So your hunger will ease off if you ignore it for long enough. This is why people who fast (eg, for religious reasons) find it gets easier the longer they go without any food whatsoever - because their body just goes into "take fuel out of storage" mode and shuts off the hunger signals until the fast ends.


Question: what is different about upload and download speeds that makes ISPs give you fast download but barely any upload speed?

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 what is different about upload and download speeds that makes ISPs give you fast download but barely any upload speed?

If an ISP can provide you with X amount of bandwidth, they then have to decide how much of it is divided into download and upload. To make your upload bandwidth higher, they would have to reduce your download bandwidth. The average user will value a higher download speed more, so that's generally what they provide. You can find ISPs that offer better upload to those who want it though.


Question: Why does caffeine greatly affect certain people (energy bursts, withdrawal symptoms, etc.) but not others?

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 Why does caffeine greatly affect certain people (energy bursts, withdrawal symptoms, etc.) but not others?

There are actually multiple reasons for this, but the main reason is your genetics! More specifically, genetics which affect your liver. When you drink caffeinated drinks, the caffeine enters your bloodstream, and circulates around in the blood until it eventually enters your liver. In the liver, the drug (caffeine) is metabolized (deactivated). Afterwards you pee out these metabolized blends. Where do your genetics play in? Well, your liver is actually made up of several enzymes, and each enzyme metabolizes several different drugs. Your genetics decide how much of an enzyme is produced, which in turn decides how quickly you metabolize a certain drug. ***Note:*** *I am by no means an expert and I did have to do minor research on my own to write this answer. I might have gotten some aspects wrong and I know for sure that my explanation didn't cover everything!*


Question: What's the difference between exothermic/endothermic and exergonic/endergonic?

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 What's the difference between exothermic/endothermic and exergonic/endergonic?

An exothermic reaction results in a positive transfer of heat, while an endothermic reaction causes a negative transfer of heat. An exergonic reaction causes a net increase in free energy, while a endergonic reaction causes a net decrease in free energy. What's the difference between heat and free energy? Heat is energy transferred during a reaction. Thus, you could think of an exothermic reaction as "releasing energy" and an endothermic reaction as "absorbing energy." Free energy is *all* of the energy that a system has to do work with. It includes the enthalpy of the system, but also is involved with the entropy. So a reaction can be exothermic and endergonic if it increase enthalpy but decreases entropy. A reaction can be endothermic and exergonic if it decreases enthalpy but increases entropy.


Question: How can/do we know if mathematics and the concept of numbers to be correct/true?

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 How can/do we know if mathematics and the concept of numbers to be correct/true?

There's a lot packed into this. Most mathematics is based on a series of axioms called the ZFC axioms. That's the most common formulation of the foundation of mathematics (or at least it used to be, can't say I'm up with this and it's honestly way beyond my level). From those axioms we build up the mathematical constructs and concepts and building on that. How do we known numbers are true? There's a few different ways that could be taken. It could be a pretty deep philosophical question. What do you mean by 'true'? Do you mean do numbers exist independently of us? If there is a set of 3 planets were there 3 planets before humans arrived with numbers? There's a few different positions on this like platonism, formalism, nominalism. Every position has a few issues. I'll link a nice video [here]( URL_0 ) and [here]( URL_2 ) and [here]( URL_1 ) and [here]( URL_3 ). You could instead be talking about how we know mathematical results in general are true. That's related to something called meta-mathematics, which looks at things like why proofs are proofs. It also touches on philosophy of mathematics and logic. What I'm trying to get at here, is these are not silly questions they're very complicated and have a lot of thought put into them. In those sorts of things we try to establish what makes something valid. E.g., We might look at a shape and say it can't be a circle and a square at the same time. Then we would try and formalise a rule for why that doesn't make sense (it's a contradiction). Then we would try to use that rule on other systems to see if it works there too. Why would we think these things are true though? Probably the best reason is how well mathematics translates to useful stuff. If it weren't valid and reliable, would we be able to use it so effectively? If you want more in depth, I'd suggest posting over at r/philosophy or r/askphilosophers (I'm assuming this one exists)


Question: Why are there such strict laws on what can/cannot be done with human remains?

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 Why are there such strict laws on what can/cannot be done with human remains?

In modernity most of the laws regarding handling of human remains have to do with preventing the spread of disease. Though there are a number that have their roots in religious practices as well. In the US you are allowed to be buried in a number of ways. The normal casket, an old fashioned pine box, a cardboard coffin, in the tree pod thing, on private land (though have to mark the grave and notify people there is a grave if you sell), at sea, via cremation (including scattering the ashes so long as there is no health risk and you have permission of the property owner.), etc. You can also donate your body to science, which has in the past even included essentially being taxidermied and put up in a museum.


Question: How do pilots manage to land on runways so perfectly, and not go 10 meters to the left or right and crash?

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 How do pilots manage to land on runways so perfectly, and not go 10 meters to the left or right and crash?

FAA licensed flight instructor here! I get excited when an ELI5 is in my wheel house. The short answer is... practice. In calm winds, lining up with the runway's dashed centerline is actually one of the least challenging parts of a landing. It's basically not too much harder that tracking your car down the middle of the lane. Student pilots (and experienced pilots) tend to have much more trouble maintaining a safe and stable speed and "glidepath" down to the runway. Where things get tricky is when you have a crosswind. Pilots will line up with the runway in a "crab angle." In this case, the nose of the plane is pointed slightly into the wind and the aircraft track slightly sideways towards the runway. It's like a boat going across a river. In order to go directly across, you have to point the bow slightly into the current so you don't drift downstream. You don't want to land sideways, so just before touchdown the pilot will point the nose straight down the runway with the rudder and then bank the wings slightly into the wind. This is called a "sideslip" and it ensure the plane will be pointed straight down the runway while the bank angle of the wings prevents the plane from drifting downwind. The upwind wheel will often touch before the downwind wheel. Here's more info.... URL_0 Most of the time pilots are landing using visual references out the cockpit window and flying by hand, even passenger jets at major airports. This is called a visual approach. It sounds kinda crude, but air traffic controllers at big airports prefer them because they can usually get more planes lined up for a runway at once, thereby increasing an airport's capacity. But what if you can't see the runway? Most runways at big airports are equipped with an Instrument Landing System (ILS). Basically, the pilot follows a radio signal through the clouds/fog/rain/snow down to the runway. The goal is to break out of the clouds or get close enough to the runway that you can see it and land on it. A basic ILS approach will get you down to 200ft and 1/2mi from the runway before you have to go around and land somewhere else. Some airports are equipped with CATIII ILS approaches where you can land at almost zero visibility. URL_1 These days, GPS based approaches are becoming increasingly popular because you can create curved approach paths and the airport doesn't have to invest in a ground-based radio signal system. As for autopilot... it's very rarely used all the way down to the ground. Normally the pilots will turn it off when they drop the landing gear and fly by hand. Sometimes they might use the autopilot to intercept an ILS but then turn it off once the runway is in sight. Fully automated landings are only done in very low visibility. They require so much extra button pushing to set up that it's usually easier to hand fly the plane when conditions permit. *I should note that while I'm a flight instructor, I'm not an airline pilot and haven't flown any big jets. I don't want to give away my job but I work pretty closely with them.


Question: Why would someone choose to lease a car versus purchasing a car?

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 Why would someone choose to lease a car versus purchasing a car?

The people I've known that have leased cars do it because they just like having a new car every couple years. It was nothing to do with affordablility, in fact it's the opposite, they didn't mind having a constant car payment, they just preferred not to deal with older cars. They go in, get a brand new car, drive it for 3 years and give it back and get another new one. It's just a matter of personal preference really. The issue with a leased car is you have a limit on the number of miles you can put on it. Usually 10k to 15k a year. So if you live in a city and don't do a lot of driving you can have a brand new car every couple years. And usually you can get a good deal on the car at the end of the lease should you decide to buy it.


Question: ; Why does higher compression equate to more power in an engine?

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 ; Why does higher compression equate to more power in an engine?

It's not that higher compression ratios create more energy from the same fuel/air charge, it's that they allow more of that energy to be converted into mechanical work by the engine. By crushing the fuel/air charge to a higher compression, you can release more heat energy from the charge per cycle, which equates to more mechanical energy into the piston, which equates to more power from the engine.


Question: What makes each cell in a fetus differentiate into different types of cells?

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 What makes each cell in a fetus differentiate into different types of cells?

You've asked two questions here, I'll answer the second (and easier) one first. Gametes (sperm and eggs) are created by a process called meiosis. Basically a cell divides and, instead of getting its DNA being copied to each daughter cell, the DNA is instead split in two so that each daughter gets half. So for humans, each gamete gets 23 single chromosomes. So when a sperm cell finds an egg, it enters and the egg changes its outer layer to prevent other sperm cells from entering. The sperm cell inside is fully absorbed and its DNA is joined up with the DNA of the egg to form one complete set of chromosomes which is 23 pairs. Every cell that is produced by the egg inherits all 23 pairs of chromosomes **except** for the gametes that the egg itself produces in the case of females. So the mechanism that distributes the DNA of the parents happens right at fertilisation of the egg. Your other question is a bit harder to answer because we still are not completely certain what causes the cells to separate into layers, pre-organs and organs. There is certainly an extremely complicated system of DNA switching that causes certain portions to be turned on and off at certain times. The switching is probably regulated by methylation of the DNA which permanently alters gene function in certain cells. How that occurs is still an active area of research. However, it's likely that methylation causes cells to release chemicals or show proteins on their surface that cause them to clump with other cells of the same general type. Over time, the methylation of DNA makes cells more and more specialised and so they clump into to smaller and more specialised units. Moving back onto firmer ground, the cardiomyocetes are a highly specialised cell which has probably undergone multiple rounds of methylation. The began as the primitive streak in an embryo which steadily grew into the mesoderm. The mesoderm grew and differentiated into the gastric system and the heart, lungs, bones and many other internal organs. So cardiomyocetes don't get scattered because they can't be scattered. Only cells in the mesoderm ever go on to become heart cells. Even if one of the cells did happen to scatter somewhere else, it wouldn't become a heart because it wouldn't get the right signal from the surrounding cells to **tell** it to become a heart. If the pre-heart cells did get scattered, you'd probably end up with a dead embryo which would spontaneously abort. Source: I did developmental genetics at university a long time ago and haven't really kept up with the reading as it's not my area any more. Any errors are purely my own.


Question: How do the City, District, and National Governments operate in Washington D.C.?

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 How do the City, District, and National Governments operate in Washington D.C.?

I lived in DC so I can answer this! Washington, DC is unique in the United States in that it is *not* part of any state or territory, but is instead a *federal district*. As a result, Congress retains the ultimate authority to decide whatever it wants regarding the internal affairs of the District. In 1973, Congress passed the District of Columbia Home Rule Act, which set up a local government for the District that devolved a number of powers from Congress to an elected body known as the City Council, which is comprised of eight geographic wards with one council member as well as four at-large council members and a chairperson voted on by the entire District. The City Council is responsible for the majority of District-wide governance similar to a combined state and city. Below this are area neighborhood commissions (ANCs) that cover a few square blocks each and are overseen by volunteers. However, there are two key twists here: * The City Council does not have universal powers at the local level. Certain areas of governance, such as the Height Act and specific planning areas, are retained by Congress. * Congress has the authority to overrule the City Council. This is very rarely used, if ever, but remains a contentious feature and is derived from the powers granted by the Constitution. The main area where this comes into play is budgetary authority: the City Council is tasked with creating the local budget and was required until recently to submit this every year to Congress for approval. While Congress would typically agree out of principle, there is the potential for certain items to be rejected. There are a number of areas of unwritten agreement about what local government can and can't touch and how much leeway it has, largely dependent on the composition of Congress (Democrats are largely for more power at the local level, Republicans against). So what does this mean? Essentially, there is a constant game of tug of war between DC and Congress. Residents of Washington, DC are required by law to pay federal taxes, but do *not* have voting representation in Congress (they have a non-voting delegate, Eleanor Holmes Norton) because a strict reading of the Constitution only grants. You'll see the phrase "taxation without representation" on licence plates issued by DC as a protest about this fact. Statehood is highly popular within the District, but would require a constitutional amendment and ratification from other states that is highly unlikely barring a huge shift in Congress' make-up and internal opinions. Long story short, DC is a weird grey area that straddles the line between a city and a state and has a unitary level of governance with oversight. It has a set of devolved powers and is largely left on its own, but constantly has the threat of congressional action against its policies, such as assisted suicide. Its residents are federal taxpayers that do not get full representation in Congress and most do not agree with the current setup, but there is little chance of changing it in the short-term.


Question: Why are there minimum donation amounts?

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 Why are there minimum donation amounts?

There are material costs involved in donation processing. If for example you gave me a cheque for ten cents, it would cost both you and me more money in bank fees than 10 cents to process them. So especially if its a non cash donation they want you to spend enough that they dont lose almost all of it to transaction fees.


Question: If it takes 24-72 hours for food to digest, how come sometimes you can eat bad food and get diarrhea 5 minutes later?

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 If it takes 24-72 hours for food to digest, how come sometimes you can eat bad food and get diarrhea 5 minutes later?

When the body detects something so bad that it needs to expel it ASAP, it can either go up (vomit) or down (poop). When you get sudden onset diarrhea, it isn't necessarily the food that you just ate that is coming out your butt. The body is trying to get rid of the bad stuff in the gut....so all the stuff already in the system is hurried along.


Question: why do people zone out?

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 why do people zone out?

Humans are easily distracted, we've all got a lot going on in our heads at any given moment and sometimes it's easy to get caught up in a deep thought while you're awake in daily life. Often called 'daydreaming', it can happen when you're bored or disinterested in your surroundings, when you're stressed, or a variety of other emotions that would cause you to wander off in thought.


Question: Why do humans start feeling hot and sweaty when nervous?

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 Why do humans start feeling hot and sweaty when nervous?

It’s the part of your nervous system that protects you when you’re in danger. Your body is designed to run away from tigers and such, not take tests or speak in public. Having your heart rate go up and moving your blood to different parts of the body is useful when fighting a wild animal but not as useful when you’re sitting in a desk - so it just makes you hot and sweaty.


Question: I’ve read that the death sentence is costs the state more than a life imprisonment. Why is this so? How?

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 I’ve read that the death sentence is costs the state more than a life imprisonment. Why is this so? How?

As u/vxngn noted, a large part of the higher cost comes from the appeals. The appeals costs include the attorneys’ time, judges’ and clerks’ times, even juries for retrials after successful appeals. The death row aspect itself also raises costs however; the prisoners on death row are housed separately as well, with increased security. That increases administrative costs to house them to about double a regular prisoner.


Question: How does Greece have so much debt?

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 How does Greece have so much debt?

It is a combination of things and timing. Greece was doing really well in the early 2000’s and money was flowing into the country from tourism and foreign investors (mainly investing in shipping). Leading up to 2008, the Greek government forecasted continued high growth rates and went on a spending spree, mainly in the form of social programs. When the 2008 financial crisis hit, Greece was hit really hard. Their two main sources of income, tourism and shipping, took a big hit as people around the world reduced expenses (less stuff to ship) and stopped taking expensive vacations. In response, the Greek government attempted to enact austerity measure to cut back on spending. This did not sit well with the Greek people who had grown dependent on social programs. Due to this political pressure, the government decided to raise taxes instead to make up for the short falls. This huge taxation created an unintended consequence of many Greeks starting to evade taxes. Wealthy Greeks started moving money out of the country, mainly to Switzerland. Many business owners started to require cash payments and started under reporting their income so that they could avoid taxation. This created a grey market where it is estimated that around 25% of Greece’s GDP was going unreported and untaxed. The Greek government’s tax collection agency was also very poorly managed and was not able to enforce their laws effectively, meaning most people got away with tax evasion. Many of these business owners realized that the penalties and fines for tax evasion where less risky than the chances of going bankrupt by paying extremely high taxes. So, this combination of a dwindling economy, high cost social programs, and low tax recovery forced the Greek government to take on large amounts of debt to run their country and continue to fund social programs.


Question: How does an explosion cause death?

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 How does an explosion cause death?

From the outside, pressure waves and flying debris crush the organs and cause other damage, causing death. From the inside, pressure waves push organs and tissues out of place at a high rate of speed, never mind the shrapnel from whatever exploded. The sudden, traumatic loss of blood pressure and vital tissues results in death.


Question: Why does sleep help you recover from illness?

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 Why does sleep help you recover from illness?

You're also (and this is important) **Not Subjecting your immune system to new, and different stressors** with your decreased activity. & #x200B; Imagine it as a point buy system. You generate 100 points per hour. * Operating Cost(Heart beating, steady breathing) is 10 points/hour. **You must buy this.** * Immune response is 5/Hour Per foreign material type(I.E. Pneumonia is independant of say, herpes, or swine flu.) * Physical motion is 15/Hour * Separation and digestion of ingested materials is 10/hour * Mental Stress is 25/hour * Physical stress is 30/hour Buying each of those things at 1 point per hour spends 95 points per hour. Now when your sleeping normally, you can discount 70 points worth, and buy heavy into immune response. & #x200B; The more you sleep, the more you can buy into immune response, by "Sacrificing" points you'd spend on things like.. Getting pizza(Physical motion, Digestion) with your peer group(Mental stress) and that girl you kind like(More Mental stress), One of the peer group may also have their own sickness which you could be exposed to(which is then a second Immune response cost). & #x200B; Source: D & D Nerd.


Question: How do video streaming services like Netflix or Amazon obtain the original video files from their license providers?

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 How do video streaming services like Netflix or Amazon obtain the original video files from their license providers?

Depending on the service, licensor, and contractual agreements, they either receive the file from a digital distributor or they receive a direct upload from licensor to licensee via a portal or API. Digital distributors need some explanation, so: Digital distributors are like physical distributors, but for digital products; if you're a record label, you don't upload your music to 20 different music stores yourself and then collect the money, you pass your work to a digital distributor, check some boxes on a web form to indicate the formats and regions where you want it licensed, and they do all the work of uploading your music to iTunes/Google Play/Tidal/etc and collecting the revenue for you.


Question: How is it possible to remember entire song lyrics but find it difficult to remember text in other forms?

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 How is it possible to remember entire song lyrics but find it difficult to remember text in other forms?

Well, for one, by the nature of things you only really only hear the *good* Songs. Meaning only the best artists, with the best access to mass media and equipment took time to pick out only their favorite and likely successful songs that would make it to your ear. So those songs are incredibly well designed to do one thing. *Be memorable*. On the other hand, written information has the luxury of not being memorable. I mean most information isn't even prose. It's literally on the page simply *because* we knew no one would remember it. Having said all that, there is an aspect of human nature as well. We've evolved to be great pattern recognizers. Melody and rhythm, by definition, give us a pattern our mind can anticipate. When you find yourself trying to sleep and you're being distracted by a noise. Pay attention, *why* it's distracting. What you'll realize is that your brain is constantly waiting on that next note of sound to come but it can never anticipate it. This takes your focus off the task and makes you look for the pattern or rhythm in a noise that will never have one. That's why water dropping or white noise from a TV is so bothersome, it's so unnaturally without a pattern. Whereas a fan will eventually lull into a pattern the brain recognizes. I say all this to say that melody and rhythm that lyrics follow usually go along 4 beat or 8 beat patterns. They rarely exceed 10. So these 8 variations of beat are very easy to remember. It's no longer 24 or 30 items, it's now 3 or reputations of the same beat. Your mind was only designed to memorize up to a certain number. Even memorization experts, typically, deploy different hacks and tricks to lower the number of items they have to actually memorize, they pack things together into easier, more digestible groups or patterns.


Question: How do you track the value of a currency? How do you know how much is a dollar really worth?

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 How do you track the value of a currency? How do you know how much is a dollar really worth?

It depends how you want to track it. If you want to track it in country over time (the value of a dollar today vs. the value of a dollar at some point in the past), you use the Consumer Price Index (CPI), where the price of a set basket of goods used by a large number of American households is tracked over time. This is done, in the US, by the Bureau of Labor Statistics if you really want to dig into it. The alternative, is, as you suggested, to compare it to other currencies. Typically, when you hear on the news that the dollar is weakening or strengthening, that's what they're referring to. This has more to do with import/export than anything else (unless you invest in the currency markets). If the relative value of a dollar drops in comparison to the euro, American import companies that sell European goods have to exchange more dollars to get the same number of euros to buy European goods to import, which means when you go to buy them, they cost more.


Question: On TV crime shows, the police or FBI are always aiming at the perpetrator with the perpetrator aiming back. In real life, is it the same? If so, how do the agents or officers know if the criminal is going to shoot?

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 On TV crime shows, the police or FBI are always aiming at the perpetrator with the perpetrator aiming back. In real life, is it the same? If so, how do the agents or officers know if the criminal is going to shoot?

Cop here: In real life if someone points a gun at us, we'll generally shoot them until they're no longer a threat. In very limited, specific circumstances where we can't fire (like a bad backdrop), we'll seek cover or move until we have a better shot. For a barricade situation like if they're in a building, SWAT will be called.


Question: How does oxygen work in submarines when underwater?

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 How does oxygen work in submarines when underwater?

Depends on the submarine. Non-nuclear submarines have a snorkel they use to pull in air for their primary engine. If they want to submerge completely they typically switch to an electric engine and typically the batteries used to run this will last shorter than the air in the submarine will keep the crew going, though some commercial submarines don't have an electric engine and therefore just can't stay submerged and running more than a few minutes before both engine and crew dies. Nuclear submarines produce their own electricity in such vast quantities that they can afford to spend some ripping apart water at the molecular level to produce oxygen and hydrogen.


Question: What caused the yellow color on electronic stuffs (computers. game consoles) from the 80's and 90's?

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 What caused the yellow color on electronic stuffs (computers. game consoles) from the 80's and 90's?

UV and heat can degrade components of the plastic, and the new degraded bits have this brown coloring It is often though that the culprit is a certain bromine based fire retardant, but I’ve also heard it sometimes happened in plastics that don’t have it You can sort of bring it back doing what’s called “retrobriting” which consists of using UV light again and hydrogen peroxide. This essentially turns the plastics back to being white, although that has been linked to making the plastic more brittle


Question: How does Noise Cancelling Work?

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 How does Noise Cancelling Work?

Sound is a compression wave, which means it’s alternating regions of air pushed together and pulled apart, hundreds of times a second. If the headphones put out sound that pushes during the pulls and pulls during the pushes, adding them together ends up with no variations at all - so no sound.


Question: How does spacecraft send images back to earth?

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 How does spacecraft send images back to earth?

By radio. Like your cell phone, images are digital structures. The spacecraft uses a network connection to send those structures as a series of packets. For example, the InSight spacecraft on Mars uses the two Mars Orbiters as relays, just the same way your phone uses the local cell towers. The orbiters send the data to the Deep Space Network dishes around the Earth (there are several so that one is always pointing in the right direction).


Question: Why do manned rockets re-enter the atmosphere so fast? Why can't we just really slowly come down so as to avoid the heat friction?

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 Why do manned rockets re-enter the atmosphere so fast? Why can't we just really slowly come down so as to avoid the heat friction?

Slowing down requires fuel. Fuel is very heavy and taking it up with you is difficult. The more fuel you have, the more fuel you need just to haul the weight of that fuel along with you. It's much easier to slow down by just slamming into the atmosphere and letting the air act as a brake.


Question: - How is there snow on the Himalayan mountains if the peak of the mountain goes above clouds?

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 - How is there snow on the Himalayan mountains if the peak of the mountain goes above clouds?

The majority of clouds that produce your major rain/snow are much lower in the atmosphere yes. But clouds can go all the way up to 50 to 60 thousand feet, twice the height Everest, and all clouds are made of some sort of water/ice crystal. So even If you don’t get as major cloud systems depositing snow, there is still some. Tl/dr: Everest and the Himalayas don’t go above every cloud


Question: What did the KGB do during the Soviet union?

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 What did the KGB do during the Soviet union?

I acknowledge they use inhumane methods (and I'm not apologetic for what they did, just stating what the did), but it is basically the "internal security" for the Soviet Union: safeguarding the Soviet Union against perceived or actual threats like political dissidents, nationalists/separatists, and, terrifyingly, anything they suspect to be "anti-Soviet" in nature. They also conducted foreign intelligence services (instead of just national intelligence services like counterintelligence). Think of them as an amalgamation of the FBI, CIA, NSA with none of the oversight or holdback that those US three-letter organizations have now. & nbsp; & nbsp; TLDR: they were a brutal and inhumane organization that served the Soviet Union's interests, not just a mere security service to protect the now-defunct Soviet Union, and that they "protected" the Soviet Union from within and without. & nbsp; & nbsp; PS: Happy cake day :D


Question: My state put a small income tax ( 0.1% or so) to fund its public transit system. Why not just raise ticket prices to do the same?

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 My state put a small income tax ( 0.1% or so) to fund its public transit system. Why not just raise ticket prices to do the same?

Raising the fares would cause more people up find another way to get to work, so it would actually hurt the transit system. It would also hurt the people who can least afford to have a higher cost, while a higher tax subsidizes the poor with the income of the rich who would never consider taking the bus.


Question: What is so impressive about "Cheddar Man" (9000 B.C.) being related to a living person who lives nearby?

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 What is so impressive about "Cheddar Man" (9000 B.C.) being related to a living person who lives nearby?

I dunno where you’re getting 5-15k years old. The accepted figure for the emergence of H. sapiens is around 200,000-250,000 years ago Additionally if the Cheddar Man was found 9000 BCE, than its 11,000 years old. In terms of importance, I’m not all too sure but it was England’s earliest fully intact skeleton, and those always have value as you can compare the genomes with the body shape and make observations about genetic disorders and how human genetics have changed over 11,000 years Edit:numbers


Question: Why are humans attracted to certain color combinations over others?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why are humans attracted to certain color combinations over others?

The eye evolved to be sensitive to things that were beneficial to our ancestors survival. Spotting a ripe red fruit in tree full of green leaves, for example. People actual preferences are developed over the course of their lives, but at a certain level it comes back to the eye having evolved to spot certain kinds of things, mostly related to food.


Question: Are any non-human animals known to have allergies? Are certain species sometimes allergic to people?

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 Are any non-human animals known to have allergies? Are certain species sometimes allergic to people?

I don't know about allergies to humans, although I wouldn't be surprised to see animals allergic to our skin flakes. Yes, animals can be allergic to all sorts of things. Allergies happen when a body's immune systems interprets a benign thing, say pollen, as a threat and attacks it. Allergies can also be specific to medicines or foods. Many dogs actually need to be on antihistamines due to allergies. Working in emergency veterinary care I see emergency anaphylactic shock in pets quite often.


Question: How does Hulu make a profit now that a membership comes free with a Spotify subscription?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 How does Hulu make a profit now that a membership comes free with a Spotify subscription?

Hulu made money before they were a subscription service, they went freemium a bit too early in the game before netflix started making originals that were better than Network TV and started really dominating the market, now they are fighting for second against Amazon and HBO and they can't compete on service offered so they need to compete on price. Bundling their "pay" service in such a way as to make it available for free to as many people as possible helps them get more people to use their service who otherwise wouldn't because they feel they are getting something for nothing. I get hulu free with my sprint phone. Do you think for a second anyone switched to sprint to get the hulu? no way.


Question: why do liquigel tablets (eg: advil) work faster than regular ones?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 why do liquigel tablets (eg: advil) work faster than regular ones?

You're on the right track! Whenever you take an oral medicine, your body has to somehow turn that into a liquid (i.e. digestion) that can easily slip into the bloodstream (i.e. absorption) and get to where it needs to go. Since liquigels are more liquid (it still counts as a "solid" due to the casing around the liquigel) than solid tablets already, it can get to the blood more easily and go to the part that hurts. Thank you for asking this question! It was fun trying to explain this snapshot of the field of biopharmaceutics with you 😅


Question: If an electron is thought if more as a wave than a particle, how does it have a mass?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 If an electron is thought if more as a wave than a particle, how does it have a mass?

What is mass? Mentally, do you associate the property of mass as belonging to something? As you delve deeper into the physics of the small, "real world" intuition starts to break down. What we think of as mass might arise from an interaction of disturbances in one field with another field. Bottom line: calling it a wave or a particle does not necessarily associate it with a property of mass. Meaning, waves = no mass, particles = mass is not a true intuition.


Question: If muscles are made of cells, how do parts of a cell move?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 If muscles are made of cells, how do parts of a cell move?

Muscle cells can be visualized as long tubes with a string running through them. The tube is attached on one end. The string is attached somewhere else. The inside of the tube has "hairs" on it. When the muscle contracts, it pulls the string into the tube by bending those hairs to drag it in. This reduces the length of the muscle. When the muscle relaxes, the hairs let go.


Question: Why are cuts in the sea/saltwater virtually painless as opposed to the same cuts on land?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why are cuts in the sea/saltwater virtually painless as opposed to the same cuts on land?

You are salty. Seawater salinity differs around the world, but it's usually closer to the salinity of a wound than fresh water. If you want to clean out a wound painlessly on dry land, use saline (salted water). If you get a cut in the Dead Sea, it hurts more than usual, because its salinity is ten times as high as normal sea water.


Question: why aren't we taught foreign languages the way children learn to speak?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 why aren't we taught foreign languages the way children learn to speak?

Babies have a unique language ability that's get lost the more we age, I immigrated into another country when I was 3 and I could still learn just by listening (that's why you should raise your kids at least bilingual from the start) laster in life that language learning center slows down and it gets very hard to learn new languages.


Question: What goes the gigahertz (ghz) actually mean in terms of a computer processor, and how does that translate to actual performance?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What goes the gigahertz (ghz) actually mean in terms of a computer processor, and how does that translate to actual performance?

Your home clock probably makes a tick. That tick happens once per second. We also call this one hertz. If it were to be fast and tick twice per second, we could call that 2 hertz. A gigahertz is 1 billion of something per second. In this case, 1 billion cpu ticks per second. A CPU does various kinds of logic and computation, the issue is the way this works depends on proper timing. Each basic step has to be completed before the next begins. This requires some kind of circuitry to time all of these operations to make sure that they don’t happen too fast and your logic becomes mush as steps aren’t completed before they are needed. We call this timer a clock, and a gigahertz a clock speed. Modern processors run at 4 gigahertz approximately, 4 billion computation steps per second are achieved by them. It’s a feat of modern engineering that we can go this fast. If you can speed up the clock of the same design of CPU without having steps be incomplete, then the steps happen faster and thus you increase the speed at which the computer calculates.


Question: Why dont limbs grow back?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why dont limbs grow back?

Think of repairing a cut as a result of a function, rather than the body consciously knowing it needs to repair it. When you break the skin barrier and hit blood, the blood is being pumped by the heart and bleeds out of the cut, where it clots and hardens when it is exposed to the air. Then over time your body regenerates skin cells from it’s base layer and that clotted blood falls off. That’s why a scar forms for deep cuts as the base layer that skin grows from becomes deformed due to damage. However, the design and function of entire limbs have many base layers of cells that are removed (like bones, nails, hair, skin, and blood vessel designs and things of that sort). Theoretically, stem cells may give us the ability to regrow limbs, but for now these base layers of cells just have a function and our body has mechanical functions (in a sense) to keep the body alive. There’s also the release of hormones that cause our body to have responses (like swelling to stabilize a damaged site, adrenaline to speed up our reflexes and increase our pain tolerance, and other things) which cause different functions to occur that aren’t occurring constantly (like blood pumping and skin growing). If we effectively could utilize stem cells to behave similarly to hormones, then this could be a possibility. But for now it just doesn’t happen naturally.


Question: How exactly is Robinhood manipulating the market and is there any real chance they get sued and lose?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How exactly is Robinhood manipulating the market and is there any real chance they get sued and lose?

They limited trading in GameStop, AMC, and others which might have made some sense due to the unusual activity with those stocks. Halting trading in a particular stock is often done at the stock market level. But since Robinhood unilaterally stopped people from buying the stock (but not selling it), it meant only their users were unable to buy it. Since Robinhood caters to small, typically young, individual investors, it meant only large institutional traders could buy those stocks for a period. (Some other stock trading apps followed suit but not all.) I wouldn’t be shocked if they got sued, though I doubt they’d lose if they fought it. Since fighting a class action lawsuit is expensive, it’s probably most likely to end in a settlement where they pay some money and agree to clearly state a policy or whatever.


Question: How can electromagnetic induction work on insulators when they don't have free electrons?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How can electromagnetic induction work on insulators when they don't have free electrons?

So I'm not sure I understand exactly what you're asking, but it sounds like you're basically asking about how insulators can have something like static electricity which can help them attract other objects even though they don't have free flowing electrons. If that's the case there's two things. The first is that this isn't really induction. Induction is when you create an electric current in a conductor using a magnetic field. That's not what's happening here. The second is that this able to happen precisely because insulators don't have free flowing electrons. It's been a little while since I've dealt with electromagnetics, but in a conductor if you add or remove charge because electrons can flow freely that charge will distribute evenly throughout the entire material, and will direct the flow towards earth if possible. So unless the conductor is well isolated the effect is negligible. In an insulator that charge can't move, so if you build up a bunch of charge on the surface it'll just stay on the surface because it can't go anywhere else. So you build up a bunch of negative/positive charge in one place and that makes a potentially noticeable effect much easier than in a conductor. So an insulator can still have charge, but that charge can't move, and that's part of what makes it so easy to build up static electricity in insulators like a balloon.


Question: They say the universe is expanding, but stuff is getting further away. Does that mean the universe is just stretching itself out rather than actually expanding?

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</answer>
 They say the universe is expanding, but stuff is getting further away. Does that mean the universe is just stretching itself out rather than actually expanding?

Both. You blow up a balloon, it expands by stretching the balloon to cover a wider area. Blow it up enough and it will pop because it can't expand any more. The universe is like a balloon that keeps blowing up but never popping. It's a hard concept to understand, that something can expand infinitely.


Question: If atoms are 99,9% emptiness, how can they keep things together ? Like, if my skin is 99,9% emptiness, why is it able to keep blood and organs in it ?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 If atoms are 99,9% emptiness, how can they keep things together ? Like, if my skin is 99,9% emptiness, why is it able to keep blood and organs in it ?

Touching, as you probably consider it, does not exist. All interactions take place at a distance - like magnets. While electrons are, as particles, incredibly tiny (even compared to other things on an atomic scale), they still repel other electrons and *very forcefully so* if those other electrons get too close. So, while an electron does not physically occupy the space in an atom, it still has claim to that space and will prevent other electrons from occupying said space.