Question: How does CO2 warm the Earth? How is energy directed by CO2 back towards the Earth instead of away?

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 How does CO2 warm the Earth? How is energy directed by CO2 back towards the Earth instead of away?

Carbon dioxide absorb infrared radiation. Everything emits radiation based on its temperature. You may have observed that when things get very hot it starts glowing red and then even hotter it glows orange and then white. But even colder things emit light, it is just in the infrared spectrum where you can not see it. However you may have felt the warmth from a fire or a space heater even if it did not glow red hot. This is the infrared radiation. The entire Earth is radiating in infrared. And this is cooling down the Earth. However if there are things in the atmosphere which absorbs the infrared radiation, such as carbon dioxide, a large part of the infrared radiation will get scattered back into the ground. Technically the greenhouse gasses are also preventing incoming infrared radiation from warming up the Earth. However there are few sources of infrared light in the sky. Most of the radiation that warms up the Earth comes in form of visible or ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. And carbon dioxide is transparent to those colors.


Question: What will happen to us if Betelgeuse goes supernova?

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 What will happen to us if Betelgeuse goes supernova?

Betelgeuse may be one of the closer supergiants but it's still over 600 light years away, so no. Any high energy radiation would lose most of its density by the time it reaches us, and Earth's magnetic field would deflect any energy particles that happen to reach us. However it would be *really* noticeable and would be the brightest thing in the night sky for quite some time (and you'd probably also be able to see it during the day time as well)


Question: Why do Marvel movies (and other heavily CGI- and animation-based films) cost so much to produce? Where do the hundreds of millions of dollars go to, exactly?

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 Why do Marvel movies (and other heavily CGI- and animation-based films) cost so much to produce? Where do the hundreds of millions of dollars go to, exactly?

I work in film and have a VFX degree and here's how it goes: 1. About half the money, give or take, is for above the line talent. So you have your actors, directors, producers, ect. They get paid in a percentage or in absurdly high amounts for films. These people are also accommodate on set so production has to rent out luxury campers to house them for weeks or months at a time when on location. Then they need to hire drivers and trucks to move those campers. Top tier stars can make demands on top of that. I saw Jim Carrey's camper once and it had an entire astroturf lawn on top of it, with a picnic table, with a vase with flowers on it. Don't ask me why he wanted it, he just did. Those costs are in addition to percentages given to the talent directly, which can be millions each for an A list celebrity. If this is a movie like Infinity War you have multiple guys like RDJ and Cumberbach and like four guy named Chris who could carry a blockbuster on their own and want to be paid like it. 2. Actors who aren't the main cast still have to show up and get paid. Every random dude you see in the background is an actor who's in it to get paid. If you see a big crowd shot of like 500 people that means that's 500 people who had to show up, go through makeup and costumes, and be accommodated and then be paid. 3. What you have left over has to pay for production. At minimum it costs like thirty thousand dollars a day just to hire people to actually operate the cameras and set up lights and they usually work 12 hour days and have unions that demand good rates including overtime. This is a very basic cost for a minimum crew for a single day where you get maybe a few minutes of footage done. If you have those big 500 background days you need people to get people to manage those people. If you have complicated shots you need more people for that. 4. If you're out on location you need to pay the people who own that property. This can cost millions in and of itself if you need time and they know you have money. You also need to pay an entire team of people to show up and get the location ready, which means emptying out whatever furniture is there and replacing it with your own stuff you have to buy. These people are probably also working heavy overtime and have a union demanding pay accordingly. If you decide that isn't worth it then you need to get a studio and build the entire fake set from scratch, or pay a company to recreate it with CG, which isn't cheap either way. 5. This doesn't count the cost for pre and post production, which is two thirds of the process. You have writers, editors, storyboarders, previz, color grading, foley, and a dozen other departments that have to do work before or after the actual shoot. CG comes here in various phases and obviously isn't cheap. On a Marvel movie if you sit through all of the credits you'll usually see like 8 other companies contracted out to do this and that and if you actually follow through and look up those companies they have big impressive shot breakdowns of what they did and a crew of a hundred plus people who may or may not also be credited. If you sit through the whole credits of a Marvel movie you probably have thousands of individual names and there are probably three digits worth of people who didn't even make that list. Those guys don't work for free. This shit ain't student film.


Question: Why does water taste different after it's been frozen and then thawed from a freezer?

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 Why does water taste different after it's been frozen and then thawed from a freezer?

Two possible reasons. 1. Ice can absorb odors from your freezer (and attached fridge) which will change the taste. 2. If the water is cold when you drink it then your taste buds will be less responsive to the taste of your mouth and your impression of the aftertaste will differ from that of room temperature water.


Question: how do weed killers like round up decipher between weed roots and plant roots?

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 how do weed killers like round up decipher between weed roots and plant roots?

Round up doesn't decipher, it kills almost any plant that absorbs enough of it, by inhibiting an enzyme plants need to grow. It doesn't generally kill woody plants, because it's typically sprayed on a large portion of the larger plants sensitive areas. The most popular targeted weed killer targets dicots (plants with two starting leaves) because most grasses are monocots (plants with a single initial leaf) and there are additional biologic differences in the plants so some hormones only affect one group.


Question: Why should we not brush our teeth after breakfast instead of after waking up?

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 Why should we not brush our teeth after breakfast instead of after waking up?

My mother is a dentist. She says that it desn't. Matter do you do it after or before breakfast, as long as you do it. The benefit of micromanaging it before or after breakfast are so minimal that it really doesn't matter. Just flush your mouth with water after eating so to get the food out.


Question: How come Americans can be fired (or layed off) for little reason and on short notice?

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 How come Americans can be fired (or layed off) for little reason and on short notice?

Compared to other countries, it's partly because labor unions have for a very long time had a bad reputation in the U.S. During the Cold War, they were portrayed as Communist sympathizers - consorting with the enemy. Even in modern times, most public examples of unions are things like bad teachers who can't be fired because they're in a union or bad cops who commit crimes but can't be punished because they're in a union. Even after the Cold War, the public narrative still portrays unions as evil. As a result, relatively few people in the U.S. are (or have been) in a union, and that lack of collective bargaining has resulted in far fewer worker rights/protections/benefits than in other countries. It's the same reason that we have fewer holidays and vacations, no maternity/paternity leave and limited sick time, and health care is still tied to employers (even though they don't want to deal with it either), etc. In addition, the U.S. has traditions of individualism and competitiveness. If you're a good person, then you should be able to pull yourself up by your bootstraps, succeed, and outcompete everyone else no matter the obstacles. And instead of thinking "Hey, if they get those benefits, then it'll be more normal and so it'll be easier for me to get those benefits!" you're supposed to think "That's not fair! I don't want them getting benefits that I don't get! That would make it harder for me to outcompete them!" and therefore you should block any social progress that doesn't directly affect you yet. (Although that also means that everyone else is blocking any social progress that would affect you.) In short, propaganda and divisiveness have been used to convince the population against it for generations. TLDR: An average American has been convinced that such benefits as job protection would be misused by other (lesser) people at his/her expense, while he/she is better and will never need them, and therefore should vote against them.


Question: Does math exist in nature or is it just a human construct and what about things like music or chess?

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 Does math exist in nature or is it just a human construct and what about things like music or chess?

This is a big philosophical debate and you won’t get a definitive answer. Math is artificially invented by us but the core ‘truths’ (axioms) we founded them on were decided to be true because they reflect real life. Whether or not the rest of math works because it’s intrinsic to the universe or because we conveniently made it that way is debated. I’ll admit I don’t actually know much about philosophy and my knowledge in math is early uni-level at best, so you can try searching up the terms “Mathematical Realism and Anti-Realism” for more in-depth answers.


Question: Can someone explain what we see in the Beirut explosion? Specifically what the big white puff is, and the darker cloud.

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 Can someone explain what we see in the Beirut explosion? Specifically what the big white puff is, and the darker cloud.

The white puff is caused by the condensation of water vapor in air, like you see in clouds. The cause is that the pressure wave from the explosion causes a rarefaction of the air immediately outside it, that is, outside the shock wave which is rapidly expanding outwards. Rarefaction causes a drop in temperature according to [Gay-Lussac's Law]( URL_1 ). This is the same principle used in your refrigerator or air-conditioner, where a pressurized gas is allowed to rapidly expand, thus cooling it down. All explosions don't necessarily cause the white puff (otherwise known as a [Wilson Cloud]( URL_0 .)). You see it more when the air is already humid (which was the case in this case, being right next to the sea in a warm climate), and when the explosion is very large (an atomic explosion or a very large chemical explosion). It's only seen when the explosion is **adiabetic**, meaning the shock wave is traveling so fast that there isn't time for the temperature change to dilute itself by spreading through surrounding air (which is the case at supersonic or hypersonic velocities). The darker, orange-ish cloud is the actual explosion which causes the white puff. That's the actual explosion which produced the shock wave that caused all the damage and the white puff. Generally, an orange cloud is a sign of a chemical explosion caused by nitrate compounds, which have that color. In this case, the speculation is that it was a warehouse with thousands of tons of ammonium nitrate that stored in it that exploded, so you would expect to see an orange cloud.


Question: How is it that Mitch McConnell can refuse to work on legislation passed by the House?

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 How is it that Mitch McConnell can refuse to work on legislation passed by the House?

From a [NYT article]( URL_0 ): > McConnell does not have the power to block a bill from being voted on. No senator does, not even the majority leader. Any senator can propose that a bill receive a vote. And if 51 senators want it to receive a vote, they can ensure that it does. Senate custom, however, has become that senators from both parties forfeit that power to the majority leader: The majority leader now decides what does and doesn’t get a vote. The tl;dr is basically that McConnell is avoiding voting on all these bills with the blessing of all the other GOP senators. A group of them could work together to force bills to be voted on if they really wanted to, but they don't.


Question: How were Congressional Republicans able to delay and ultimately avoid hearings for Merrick Garland, yet Democrats couldn't do the same for Brett Kavanaugh?

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 How were Congressional Republicans able to delay and ultimately avoid hearings for Merrick Garland, yet Democrats couldn't do the same for Brett Kavanaugh?

Correct me if I am wrong, but I believe the Republicans, in the past presidential term, held the majority in the Senate at the time when the confirmation vote required a 2/3 majority. The Republicans have also since changed the rules to simply need a majority vote (greater than 50 percent). The filabuster rules have changed as well. Republicans didn't like the rules so they changed them to suit their needs.


Question: Why does a can of shaving cream get colder after you shake it?

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 Why does a can of shaving cream get colder after you shake it?

I've never noticed them getting colder after shaking but pressurised cans usually get colder after you use them because when you let some of the contents out, the mass inside expands to fill the same volume of container. When gas expands it cools down. ...away to shake a can just now


Question: what is the purpose of super computers in the oil industry ?

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 what is the purpose of super computers in the oil industry ?

Imagine you really really want to know what is in your wrapped Christmas presents, but you only get to shake them and listen to the sound they make. If it was important enough, you might get a computer to help. If it was very very important you might want the biggest and best computer to help. Oil companies desperately want to know what is under the ground, so they know where to drill for oil. But the best way to find out (other than drilling) is to make the ground shake and listen to it. The super computers help them interpret the sounds, guessing what is under ground, so they know where to drill. Since it costs millions of dollars to drill an oil field, it is worth while to have very powerful computers to do this right. Edit: a word


Question: How far can your brain process length?

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 How far can your brain process length?

There are lots of factors that go into it, but what you're referring to is [depth perception]( URL_0 ). It's a really difficult question to answer because it depends heavily on the situation. For smaller distances it's usually known by having two eyes. But for bigger distances, or even close distances when you close an eye, it's based on how the features of a landscape shrink with distance ([foreshortening]( URL_1 )), and how big you'd expect the object to be up close. This also explains how a sense of distance can be present in a 2D image. So say you're standing in a featureless desert with mountains in the distance. To an East Coast city dweller they might seem to be 5 km away but could easily be 25 km away. Of course, if you know how to reckon distance in that situation and how big the desert and mountains really are, you'd likely be more accurate. Standing next to the mountains and getting a good idea of their scale is a good help, as are features of a known size like sand dunes or railway tracks which can give a sense of foreshortening. For huge distances, like celestial bodies in the night sky, we're absolutely horrible at it. You can try looking at the moon as it rises, and it'll look fairly big (and closer) near the horizon, but much smaller (and farther away) in the sky. A big part that has to do with a complete lack of references for foreshortening or size comparison when the moon is higher in the sky. Stars are even worse, and we can't really tell at all whether it's a brighter star, a bigger star, or a closer one. Not without good scientific measurement anyway.


Question: Why do large corporations, when losing lawsuits, usually have to pay millions to the winning party?

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 Why do large corporations, when losing lawsuits, usually have to pay millions to the winning party?

A few things going on here. First to acknowledge that big companies get sued non-stop, every day, for a million reasons, by all sorts of people, companies and such, some real, some fake, some good cases, some BS. Only an extremely tiny portion of these ever make it court or a judge or jury making a ruling. Basically everyone of these are settled out of court, generally for not much money, or zero. Now on to these big paydays. In the tiny amount of people in this category, usually they have a pretty good case to get this far, its also already been a really long time (these cases take years), and super expensive (good lawyers ain't cheap). If you get all the way to this point, and you win, judges are juries are pretty lenient for a few different reasons. One, that they companies can pay a lot, this might be a lot of money to you, but to them its like 3 minutes. Second, the person generally has suffered and needs to be compensated, and last, and probably most important: these large paydays are *meant* to be punitive to the company, its meant to be a punishment to these companies for doing bad stuff.


Question: How do we waste Water?

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</answer>
 How do we waste Water?

It's more that the water cycle doesn't always put water in places where it is easily accessible or usable by humans. The water exists, but if it goes back to the ocean, it becomes much harder for humans to use. Likewise, it takes a lot of energy to clean and purify water to be drinkable by humans, so allowing that water to evaporate and go back into the oceans means that all that effort to clean the water was wasted.


Question: How does soap kill bacteria and viruses?

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 How does soap kill bacteria and viruses?

Regular soap doesn't kill bacteria, it just washes them off you. Yarr! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [ELI5: If laundry soap isn't antibacterial, what happens to things like salmonella, if you got raw chicken on your clothes? ]( URL_2 ) 1. [ELI5: How does soap actually kill bacteria? ]( URL_3 ) 1. [ELI5: How does antibacterial soap kill bacteria? ]( URL_8 ) 1. [ELI5: How does soap actually kill bacteria? ]( URL_0 ) 1. [Does soap kill germs or remove them? ]( URL_7 ) 1. [ELI5: How does antibacterial soap actually kill bacteria? ]( URL_1 ) 1. [Does all soap kill germs? From farm-made bar soap to Axe bodywash? ]( URL_4 ) 1. [ELI5: How does soap kill bacteria? ]( URL_5 ) 1. [ELI5:if we have to use soap to kill the bacteria on our hands, then why is just using water to clean fruit/vegetables enough? ]( URL_6 ) 1. [ELI5: Why does using soap and water (well, hand-washing in general) such an effective method of preventing the spread of disease? ]( URL_9 )


Question: why are people so against automation in factories if it makes things safer and produces more goods? is it just that people are losing jobs? but there are different jobs that open up.

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 why are people so against automation in factories if it makes things safer and produces more goods? is it just that people are losing jobs? but there are different jobs that open up.

Often there are different jobs, but not the same amount. Picture a factory with 10 workers. They replaces those 10 people with a machine. The new jobs that will open up will be machine maintenance, which is 1, maybe 2 roles? Potentially the machine does so well that it's started to increase the workload. So now the company might need an extra person when the goods come in and one when the goods go out. So you created 4 roles, which still leaves 6 people out of work.


Question: How/why do people end up with astronomical health care bills "after insurance" if they have good insurance and an out-of-pocket max?

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 How/why do people end up with astronomical health care bills "after insurance" if they have good insurance and an out-of-pocket max?

Insurance companies can bypass that max by claiming that the procedure is "not in network" or can decline coverage at their whim. It's all a scam to keep the money in their coffers. It's why we need to join the rest of the civilized world and have a centralized medical plan. Cut out the insurance middlemen altogether.


Question: Why does everyone seem to think that drinks in glass (cups/bottles) are better than drinks in plastic cups and bottles?

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 Why does everyone seem to think that drinks in glass (cups/bottles) are better than drinks in plastic cups and bottles?

Glass is generally chemically inert, which is why labs use glassware and not plasticware. Some plastics can leach chemicals into the contents. Not all, but since most people don't know which ones are safe for what purpose we rely on manufacturers to choose wisely. That puts your health in the hands of people who's only motive is profit and who will not be held personally liable if there's a stuff up.


Question: What do people mean when they blame the "older generation" for ruining housing and the economy?

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 What do people mean when they blame the "older generation" for ruining housing and the economy?

In general, the baby boomer generation went to college, got married, bought houses and retired from companies they had worked for for many years. Millennials, on the other hand, generally haven't got the earning power to do that. They often graduate college in debt or skip college entirely, generally don't have long-term relationships or have several non-traditional relationships, can't afford to buy houses and change jobs when opportunity arises or circumstance dictates. This is because the cost of college has skyrocketed, the cost of housing has skyrocketed, no one can afford to tie themselves financially to another person because divorce is expensive, and companies no longer provide the cradle-to-grave benefits that they once did since it makes more financial sense to offshore production to somewhere where companies don't have to pay for pensions, safe working environments or living wages in America. Since boomers are generally making the decisions at large corporations, speculating in the housing market, lobbying for insurance companies and by and large were in charge during the time millennials came of age, many millennials blame them for screwing over their generation. Boomers usually respond with "work harder, like we had to do" and ignore the fact that prices and values for *everything* were much, much lower when they were the age of the millennials.


Question: how does a CPU work?

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 how does a CPU work?

CPUs can be sort of likened to digital and ridiculously tiny versions of relay logic. Inside is pretty much millions and millions of switches, and everything a computer does is boiled down to mathematics that can be run through these switches, using binary (0s and 1s, off and on). For example, let's add 1 + 2. 1 for the computer might be represented as 0001 (this is knocking off tons of 0s at the beginning to simplify it) and 2 is represented as 0010. Mash those two together and you get 0011, which is representative of 3. But what about 2 + 2? 0010 + 0010? It would come out as 0100, but why? Perhaps it's easier to write it out like a math problem we've done thousands of in school. 0010 + 0010 But since we're using binary instead of base 10 like in normal math, by reaching 2 in that third column there it reverts to 0 and carries a 1 to the next column to the left. Sort of like how in 25 + 15 The two 5s would equal 10, so the 0 goes at the bottom in the answer part and 1 gets carried over to the other column and makes that column add up to 4, so the answer we get is 40. And CPUs can do the math, really really REAAALLLLY fast.


Question: Is the fastest sperm to reach and fertilise the egg necessarily the fittest or healthiest? If not, what usually determines its success?

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 Is the fastest sperm to reach and fertilise the egg necessarily the fittest or healthiest? If not, what usually determines its success?

Mostly luck. It's not necessary fittest or healthiest of all, because most sperm cells aren't lucky by definition of luck. A group of sperm cells will move together and many of them should die out just to make path to their target easier for other cells. But to fertilize the egg, they should be healthy enough and to complete some "checks". That is like a basic check that their DNA is not damaged badly, under the point when cells become unable to do it's job, but not enough to ensure that DNA don't have any mutation - they almost certainly will have some minor mutations.


Question: How can companies operate for years with negative incomes of billions of dollars?

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 How can companies operate for years with negative incomes of billions of dollars?

Capital contributions and loans! Basically, almost any business won't be able to be profitable right from the start, it has to buy and build before it can sell, etc. The first way it gets money is from people who exchange money for shares. If there are future profits, the shareholders get a percentage. Beyond that, they can borrow money, either from a bank or selling bonds. The loans need to be paid back, with interest, but not immediately. The rate of interest reflects how likely lenders think they are to get their money back. Uber has received enormous capital contributions, because people think it will, someday soon, be very profitable. Uber has raised about $25 billion from investors who will get a share of any future profits.


Question: why is Cosby's sentence 3-10 years? Why isn't it a definitive number?

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 why is Cosby's sentence 3-10 years? Why isn't it a definitive number?

Because the law in PA stipulates that there must be a minimum and a maximum sentence, with the minimum being no more than half of the maximum. This means that Cosby has to serve 3 years before being eligible for parole, and no more than 10 years if parole is denied.


Question: How do our brains work for driving big vehicles like semis, concrete trucks and dump trucks and able to just glance at a tight turn at fast speed and have maybe less than an inch without hitting something but clear it knowing you will without looking twice?

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 How do our brains work for driving big vehicles like semis, concrete trucks and dump trucks and able to just glance at a tight turn at fast speed and have maybe less than an inch without hitting something but clear it knowing you will without looking twice?

The brain works by making pathways inside it. When you do something for the first time, it has to create a new path. These paths get more defined the more you do that thing. The more defined a path is, the easier and smoother you can do it. A beginner driver would have to take more time to make those turns, but an experienced driver may be able to do it almost effortlessly.


Question: Why do precious metals make good catalysts?

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 Why do precious metals make good catalysts?

There are a few reasons. Actually a lot of metals make good catalysts. A lot of the early work on catalysts was done with base metals like iron and nickel. However the reason why precious metals have become favoured is that they’re easier to work with. They don’t tend to react to oxygen like base metals do, and this stops the base metal catalysts working. Interestingly more work is being done with base metal catalysts because of what we’ve learned by using precious metal catalysts. Some cool stuff may hit the market place over the next few years.


Question: Why there aren't any human size insects?

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 Why there aren't any human size insects?

The Square-cube law, and the fact that they don't have lungs. If you increace the size of something, its height increases by a factor of n, its surface area increases by n^2 , and its volume increases by n^3 . Double the size of something, and you increase its height by 2x you increase its surface area by 4x and you increase the volume by 8x. Oxygen transfer takes place over the area of a surface. The amount of tissue that needs oxygen is based on its volume. Double the size of an animal, it gets 4x more oxygen, but it has 8x more tissues that need oxygen, so now it's effectively getting about 1/2 of the oxygen it needs. Insects have holes in the sides of their abdomens that they breathe through. That's enough for a creature that small. But mammals have lungs. Lungs are shaped like trees. A shape that maximizes surface area, to have enough area to transfer enough oxygen to live. For reference, an adult human's skin has an area of about 2 m^2 their lungs have a surface area of about 100 m^2, or about the size of a tennis court. If like insects, humans breathed through their skin, they'd only get about 1% of they need. Which is why you can't have human sized bugs.


Question: How does a sleeping person know the time?

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 How does a sleeping person know the time?

What you're describing is circadian rhythm. Part of your brain called the Hypothalamus controls your circadian rhythm, which is basically a 24 hour internal clock that is running in the background of your brain and cycles between sleepiness and alertness at regular intervals. By getting regular sleep, and having a regular schedule, you basically tell your brain "OK, at this hour of the day we need to be up and at 'em and ready for the day". So since your hypothalamus is keeping track of the full day's cycle, whether you go to sleep at 9pm or 11pm it knows that roughly "now" is 6:30am, which is when I've been programmed, by repetition, to be alert. This is the reason it's very difficult for someone who works night shift, to suddenly change to day shift, because they're abruptly trying ot reprogram their circadian rhythm and shift ahead 12 hours. You brain's not yet conditioned to release melatonin during the day instead of at night to make you sleepy, and thus you're sleepy when you need to be awake.


Question: How come water pouring into a cup sounds like it increases in pitch, but never seems to get higher pitched?

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 How come water pouring into a cup sounds like it increases in pitch, but never seems to get higher pitched?

It has to do with the nature of standing waves. As the cup fills, the space between the water and the top of the cup shrinks, resulting in a shorter wavelength, which means a higher pitch. In short, it's the same reason that a trombone makes a higher pitch when you pull the slide in.


Question: Why is it that whenever we buy a new electrical item like headphones or similar, it is usually pre-charged but only a bit rather than fully charged?

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 Why is it that whenever we buy a new electrical item like headphones or similar, it is usually pre-charged but only a bit rather than fully charged?

Modern lithium batteries break down if they're left fully charged for a long time, *or* if they're allowed to discharge completely. When the device reads 0%, it really means 0% of the safe amount (and 100% is really 100% of the safe amount). They will *very slowly* discharge over time, so to safely stay on the shelf *after* manufacture, after storage, after shipping, and not either end up dangerously discharged there needs to be *some* charge, but they also can't be stored fully charged. So they're partially charged, usually about 2/3s full.


Question: Why are almost all ready to bake foods, cooked at either 375 or 425 f?

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 Why are almost all ready to bake foods, cooked at either 375 or 425 f?

Most foods we put in the oven are baked between 350 and 425 degrees F. Ovens cook food by heating the air around the food and letting the heat transfer in through the air. Getting above 300 is important because you don't get browning below that temperature. However, the air in ovens doesn't transfer heat perfectly, so you have to go a bit above 300 to ensure that you actually get the food to that temperature. Going over 425 is rare because you end up with a burnt outer layer. It takes time for the heat to penetrate to the inside of food. If you get the outside too hot too fast it will burn up before you cook the inside. Sometimes you might stick something under the broiler (above 425 F) to brown the top of it, but that's usually only after you've cooked the inside. What temperature you pick in that range depends on what you're cooking. If you want to cook something nice and slow without browning it, like a casserole, you can pop it in at 350 or maybe even 325. For something like bread you usually want a higher temperature around 425 so the bread rises before the gluten sets and so you get a nice crusty outside. Or for puff pastry you might want around 400 so you get a more rapid release of steam between the layers, which makes them puffier, without browning the pastry too much. Boiling, for comparison, gets the job done faster at 212 F because water transfers heat much better than air. However, you can't brown anything by boiling it because the food doesn't get above 300F.


Question: How do companies that seem to have a monopoly in their space (Google, CollegeBoard, just to name a few) circumvent anti-trust laws?

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</answer>
 How do companies that seem to have a monopoly in their space (Google, CollegeBoard, just to name a few) circumvent anti-trust laws?

Well, first of all, governments don't let it slide forever. For example: URL_0 But more importantly, just being a monopoly is not inherently illegal. What's illegal is using your position as a monopoly to stop others from competing with you, or making conditions unreasonably bad for customers. For example, in the big anti-trust case against Microsoft back in the day, they weren't prosecuted because Windows didn't have any reasonable competition. They were prosecuted because they forced all Windows users to use Internet Explorer by default (making it hard to switch), so nobody could compete with Internet Explorer. So for anti-trust laws to really apply, the government has to prove the company was abusing its monopoly position.


Question: why is wax clear when melted but opaque in a solid form?

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 why is wax clear when melted but opaque in a solid form?

Basically it's caused by crystallization in the wax. Most modern candles and crayons are made from paraffin wax which contain the CnH2n+2 hydrocarbon formula. When solid, these alkyl chains are rigid and align and crystallize. These crystallites scatter light which leads to higher opacity. When heated, the alkyl chains lose their fixed structures and the crystallites melt. the resulting amorphous liquid no longer scatters light.


Question: Why has the potency of marijuana increased over the past few decades? Will the potency continue to increase?

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 Why has the potency of marijuana increased over the past few decades? Will the potency continue to increase?

The Iron Law of Prohibition. This is a term coined by Richard Cowan in 1986 which posits that as law enforcement becomes more intense, the potency of prohibited substances increases. It is based on the premise that when drugs or alcohol are prohibited, they will be produced in black markets in more concentrated and powerful forms, because these more potent forms offer better efficiency in the business model—they take up less space in storage, less weight in transportation, and they sell for more money. For example, in the era of alcohol prohibition, people started drinking more whiskey than beer. Why? It's easier to smuggle more alcohol content this way because whisky contains more alcohol than beer. Another example is opiods. Opium gave way to heroin once the substance became harder to obtain legally. In the era of marijuana prohibition, the same rules apply. If it's possible to increase the potency (other Redditors here have explained how this can be done), economic forces dictate that it will indeed increase so long as prohibition persists.


Question: If I do an international bank transfer from bank A to bank B, at any point does bank A send physical money to bank B?

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 If I do an international bank transfer from bank A to bank B, at any point does bank A send physical money to bank B?

No, For international transfers there's actually something called a 'Vostro' account. A bank in say the US doesn't actually have their own accounts with Euros or something in it. So when you want to send money to like, Germany what they actually do is take your money, then instruct the German bank that already holds some of their money to give it to you, or to give it to your bank then they give it to you. Then periodically the two banks will settle up or top up the accounts as needed and send an institution to institution transfer to each other for the difference between sent and received money. It is possible that some banks will send actual cash to fill their accounts, but they'll do that on the bank level, they're not doing it in response to individual wire transfers.


Question: Why is it so necessary for some TV shows to have a live studio audience? Why can’t they just use recorded laughter for laugh tracks?

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 Why is it so necessary for some TV shows to have a live studio audience? Why can’t they just use recorded laughter for laugh tracks?

Just as speculation, but as an Australian I have noped out of several US shows within the first five minutes due to canned laughter. I find it creepy and disingenuous. Also, real-time reaction means people laugh when things are funny, whereas canned laughter seems to me to be used as a device to help the viewer realise a punchline was just delivered, because it would've gone unnoticed otherwise on account of being unamusing.


Question: What causes everyone to have different fingerprints? Is it from DNA only or some outside reason? If it is from DNA, would a kids fingerprints resemble that of the parents at all since they partially share DNA.

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 What causes everyone to have different fingerprints? Is it from DNA only or some outside reason? If it is from DNA, would a kids fingerprints resemble that of the parents at all since they partially share DNA.

People don't all have different fingerprints, at least to the limit of our ability to distinguish them. They just are likely to be rare enough that only one person in about 100,000 or so will share a print, meaning it is strong supporting evidence in a trial. It is not however absolute evidence identifying someone 100%.


Question: Why do phones lose connection when flying? Isn't airplane altitude well within cell tower range?

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 Why do phones lose connection when flying? Isn't airplane altitude well within cell tower range?

For a couple reasons. 1. As u/AllReligionsAreTrue guessed, towers focus their antennas towards the ground, so they send and receive less well to things at high altitude. 2. Your phone is a relatively low power transmitter, and you're inside a sealed metal tube. That's pretty much a worst case scenario for trying to get a signal through. 3. The cell network *really* can't handle a device moving at very high speed. Cell service works by handing your call off from tower to tower as you move, and there is a lot of complicated techno-wizardry that goes on to make that all seamless to the user. That means there are a lot of assumptions made in the system, and one of them is that you won't be moving at mach 0.8 and bouncing to a new tower every 10 seconds. Start doing that, and the system stops working.


Question: Over 1,000 nuclear tests have occurred at the Nevada test site. Why wasn't there any major repercussions?

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 Over 1,000 nuclear tests have occurred at the Nevada test site. Why wasn't there any major repercussions?

The vast majority of nuclear tests are or were carried out underground so the escape of radioactive fallout was severely limited if not prevented. Surface, underwater, and aerial testing was banned by the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, initially signed by the US, USSR and UK and subsequently by most other nations. URL_0 Edit - corrected typo


Question: Why is one 100% polyester fabric different than another 100% polyester fabric?

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 Why is one 100% polyester fabric different than another 100% polyester fabric?

Polyester is just the name of a certain type of material. There are actually lots of different polyesters, each with different properties. It's sort of like how we say that something is plastic, but clearly plastic water bottles are made of all kinds of different plastics. It's just a catch all term, you'd have to know the specific kind of polyester that your fabrics are made of to know if they are *exactly* the same.


Question: the difference between adsorbent and absorbent?

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 the difference between adsorbent and absorbent?

If I read correctly, adsorption in terms of chemistry is when things stick to the surface of a solid or liquid creating a film. Absorption is when things are taken in by something. So with a sponge adsorption would be the water sticking to the outer surface, where absorption the water is held inside the sponge.


Question: Is there a point at which something is so small that it doesn't emit sound? (e.g. a cell, DNA)

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 Is there a point at which something is so small that it doesn't emit sound? (e.g. a cell, DNA)

Sound is just vibration. Even something small like a cell's processes are not 100% efficient when it comes to doing its thing, and so energy is 'lost' in the form of vibrations. I suspect that if you had ears that were sensitive enough to pick up these vibrations, you'd find it quite noisy down there.


Question: Why is it so hard to inhale when strong wind is in your face? (AKA sticking your head out of a car window)

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 Why is it so hard to inhale when strong wind is in your face? (AKA sticking your head out of a car window)

You have a [reflex]( URL_0 ) to not inhale if something that feels like water hits your nose / face. At high speed, air puts pressure in your nose and on your face kinda like water would, and "colder" is also interpreted as "water". This is a basic reflex that's very difficult to "override."


Question: Why does someone suddenly develop an allergy to a substance that was accepted by the body previously?

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 Why does someone suddenly develop an allergy to a substance that was accepted by the body previously?

Short answer: We have no idea, but we also kinda have an idea. Long answer: So basically your body is constantly looking for things to kill. White blood cells of your innate immune system are constantly sampling the environment, taking in proteins and other molecules. Whenever they find something, they take these to lymph nodes and present them to the white blood cells of your acquired immune system. Your acquired immune system white blood cells are called B-cells and T-cells. The antibodies made by B-cells are responsible for allergic reactions. (Particularly the IgE subtype of antibodies). There are three important things to know about these cells. 1. Each B and T-cell is designed to look for one thing and one thing only. 2. This thing they are designed to look for is completely random. Their only training is to *not look for your own proteins*. Aside from that, they have completely random receptors that may or may not ever bind to or find anything. 3. New ones are constantly being made. This is how you develop immunity to infections, and why vaccinations work. When you're first exposed to an infectious agent, it takes a few days to weeks for your innate immune system to *find the right B and T-cells* for that infectious agent. You may not even have the right B and T-cells (This is why most people cure themselves of hepatitis B and some people are life-long infected. Some people just don't have the right B and T-cells for that infection). What this means is you can eat peanuts at age 5 and be fine. Then when you're 7 you *randomly* produce the specific B and T-cell that looks for proteins in peanuts. Then when you eat a peanut at age 8, you suddenly have an allergic reaction to it. Now it does get more complicated. If your B-cells produce an IgG-type antibody response against these foreign bodies, you don't get any allergic reaction. Tons and tons of people have immune response to peanuts or pollen. It's just IgG, so they have no symptoms or problems. Allergy requires an IgE-type response. The real question isn't why we make a response to allergens, but why some people produce an IgE-type response. To this question, we have absolutely no idea. Since IgE is used to fight worm infections, some people believe it has to do with regulatory dysfunction caused by us living such hygienic and sterile lives. But that isn't even theory, that's just hypothesis. Edit: /u/pistonrings is right as well. There is also the concept of molecular mimicry, I forgot to go into. Basically think of it like this. You have a B-cell that finds a viral protein. It makes tons of antibodies against that viral protein. The virus is gone. Now the B-cell starts rearranging its genes and redesigning its antibodies to be even more effective. During this refinement process, it could potentially produce an antibody that also targets your own cells. This isn't really responsible for allergies, as far as I'm aware, but is the basis of a lot of autoimmune problems, like Guillain-Barre syndrome.


Question: What does a university accreditation do?

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 What does a university accreditation do?

Accreditation for a university says "this place doesn't just SAY it provides a university-level education -- it actually does so, as validated by a jury of its peers. You can trust a degree from this place to have covered the usual topics, be graded at the usual level of difficulty. This is *not* a scam or a place where you can just buy your degree and not learn anything." Accreditation is what separates schools that advertise in the back pages of magazines from places which hire PhDs.