Question: How is that Alcohol 70% is better than Alcohol 90% as disinfectant ?

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 How is that Alcohol 70% is better than Alcohol 90% as disinfectant ?

70% alcohol has 30% water, and that water is necessary for the alcohol to interact at all with the cells it’s killing. It’s like cooking pancakes. You know how when your pan is really hot and you put in pancake batter, it cooks the outside really fast? And then you can flip it, but it does the same thing to the other side and the middle doesn’t cook very well? 90% alcohol is like that. It doesn’t penetrate well into cells or clumps of microbes because it just fries everything it touches on the outside. The 70% alcohol is like cooking on medium heat with a moderately hot pan. It contacts the outside, too, but the water helps it penetrate to cook the inside (denature proteins deeper) as well. From URL_2 > The presence of water is a crucial factor in destroying or inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms with isopropyl alcohol. Water acts as a catalyst and plays a key role in denaturing the proteins of vegetative cell membranes. 70% IPA solutions penetrate the cell wall more completely which permeates the entire cell, coagulates all proteins, and therefore the microorganism dies. Extra water content slows evaporation, therefore increasing surface contact time and enhancing effectiveness. Isopropyl alcohol concentrations over 91% coagulate proteins instantly. Consequently, a protective layer is created which protects other proteins from further coagulation. > Solutions > 91% IPA may kill some bacteria, but require longer contact times for disinfection, and enable spores to lie in a dormant state without being killed. A 50% isopropyl alcohol solution kills Staphylococcus Aureus in less than 10 seconds (pg. 238), yet a 90% solution with a contact time of over two hours is ineffective. Edit: Because there’s been some confusion, I’d like to add two points. First, higher concentrations of alcohol solutions (specifically isopropyl) may still be superior as solvents, for use on things like electronics for cleaning, because water is generally bad for electronics. Second, what we’re talking about above you should think of as referring only to ethanol and isopropyl alcohol (which is not safe to consume). There are other alcohols but we’re just sticking to the ones commonly used. Edit 2: Some people have questioned the source, which is good and part of science. The source offered a decent write-up of what numerous PhD mentors have taught me, and it’s consistent with the science. At the risk of making this too long, here’s what the CDC has to say, from URL_1 Adding water enhances effectiveness of isopropyl and ethyl alcohols: > The most feasible explanation for the antimicrobial action of alcohol is denaturation of proteins. This mechanism is supported by the observation that absolute ethyl alcohol, a dehydrating agent, is less bactericidal than mixtures of alcohol and water because proteins are denatured more quickly in the presence of water Isopropanol and ethanol effective bactericides > The bactericidal activity of various concentrations of ethyl alcohol (ethanol) was examined against a variety of microorganisms in exposure periods ranging from 10 seconds to 1 hour 483. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was killed in 10 seconds by all concentrations of ethanol from 30% to 100% (v/v), and Serratia marcescens, E, coli and Salmonella typhosa were killed in 10 seconds by all concentrations of ethanol from 40% to 100%. The gram-positive organisms Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes were slightly more resistant, being killed in 10 seconds by ethyl alcohol concentrations of 60%–95%. Isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol) was slightly more bactericidal than ethyl alcohol for E. coli and S. aureus 489. Kills viruses at these concentrations > Ethyl alcohol, at concentrations of 60%–80%, is a potent virucidal agent inactivating all of the lipophilic viruses (e.g., herpes, vaccinia, and influenza virus) and many hydrophilic viruses (e.g., adenovirus, enterovirus, rhinovirus, and rotaviruses but not hepatitis A virus (HAV) 58 or poliovirus) 49. Isopropanol similar to chlorhexidine URL_0


Question: Why is it that a subreddit like r/shoplifting which openly supports and encourages illegal activity allowed to stay on the site?

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 Why is it that a subreddit like r/shoplifting which openly supports and encourages illegal activity allowed to stay on the site?

Talking about shoplifting techniques is not the same as *actually* shoplifting, nor is does it meet the bar for conspiracy to commit the crime. In the US, it's protected as free speech. This is completely different to the sorts of things that get banned, like child pornography or subs that actively call for violence. Those are illegal in themselves.


Question: During wartime, how do food shortages / rationing come to be? Isn't the country feeding the same amount of people it was before?

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 During wartime, how do food shortages / rationing come to be? Isn't the country feeding the same amount of people it was before?

A couple of reasons: 1) Many countries don't actually produce enough food, or enough of the right kind of foods, to satisfy domestic demands. So war interference with trade could cause problems. 2) Soldiers in combat consume a lot more calories than people sitting around doing their normal jobs, and the military knows that, so they will get first access to the food. 3) In a major war, a significant fraction of young men are likely to be deployed in the military context, and not working on farms or in food distribution. 4) Even if you're winning the war, the enemy may be able to steal or attack your food supply.


Question: How do credit card reward systems work and why do some people get more points/cashback than others?

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 How do credit card reward systems work and why do some people get more points/cashback than others?

Hey! Something I am actually qualified to answer! I actually started a [beginner's guide/series to reward programs]( URL_2 ) on my blog and [my startup built an app]( URL_8 ) that helps you optimize your credit card rewards and find the best cards for your spending. There are two main parts that make up credit card reward programs: * Earning rewards * Redeeming rewards There are three types of reward currencies you can earn * Cash back * Points * Miles (points and miles are virtually the same and vary depending on what that specific reward program wants to call them. A lot of Airlines will use miles because you're "flying a certain number of miles when you travel" and others use points because they tend to be more generic - hotels, specific bank branded credit cards etc.) Let's break down each type of program: & nbsp; **Cash Back** Cash back is pretty simple - you earn a fixed cash percentage back on your credit card purchases based on an [mcc code]( URL_6 ) multiplier or a specific merchant (like Target or Banana Republic). For example, the [Amex Blue Cash Preferred]( URL_7 ) earns 6% cash back on groceries, 3% cash back on U.S. gas stations and department stores, and 1% cash back on everything else. You can read the Blue Cash Preferred [Terms and Conditions]( URL_10 ) and [Reward Terms]( URL_3 ) to see which MCC codes are included/excluded and also learn about every other limitation/quirk this card has. & nbsp; *The complicated part* The biggest complication with cash back cards are the limits/caps the issuers put on how much you can earn each year. With the Amex BCP, you only earn 6% on groceries on the first $6000 in grocery spend each year, then 1%. Some cards offer [rotating categories]( URL_11 ), like the Chase Freedom and Discover It cards. & nbsp; **Points & Miles** I'm bucketing points and miles together because although they have different names, they are effectively the same thing - a virtual rewards currency. Any non cash back reward program will be either points or miles. These include airline, hotel, car rental, supermarket, gas station co branded cards and more, as well as bank specific non cash back cards like the Chase Sapphire Cards where you earn Ultimate Rewards and Citi ThankYou cards where you earn ThankYou Points. Instead of earning a cash back % for each $ spent, you instead earn a points/miles multiplier on specific categories and merchants - The [Chase Sapphire Card]( URL_9 ) (CSP for short) earns 2x points on travel and dining and 1x for everything else. Of course, there are exclusions in the terms and conditions. & nbsp; *The complicated part* Redeeming points & miles is extremely variable, and the $ value for what the rewards are worth changes depending on a whole lotta factors. For example, if I redeem Ultimate Rewards from my CSP card for Travel I "get 25% more value when you redeem for airfare, hotels, car rentals and cruises through Chase Ultimate Rewards. For example, 50,000 points are worth $625 toward travel." < - Directly from Chase's site. That means if I redeem my points for non travel, they're worth less. The Points Guy does [monthly reward valuations]( URL_1 ), but IMO they're a bit too simplistic and I'm not sure he uses a big enough data set to make super accurate calculations. & nbsp; But, in this case above, if I can redeem 50,000 points for $625, that means each point is worth $.0125 each. Meaning that if I earn 2x on travel and dining and redeem for travel, I effectively am getting **2.5% back** per $ spent. & nbsp; To take it one step further, I'll use United's MileagePlus program. (In light of current events I still enjoy flying United, personally have their CC, and fly 3-4 flights for free each year). The miles on United's program vary depending on the airports you fly to/from, the time of day you fly, how far in advance you book, seat class, etc. This holds true on many other airlines as well. And even though United is a [tier structure]( URL_0 ) - if you select North America as your departure and arrival location it will show you the 10k, 12.5k, 25k chart - the flight values vary, so the more expensive flight I can get for 12.5k miles on way, the more my rewards are worth. Most recently I flew Orlando - > San Francisco and redeemed my miles for around 2.9cents each, so on each purchases where I earned 1x mile I got 2.9% back effectively, and any purchases with multipliers I got 5.8% back, effectively. & nbsp; To get even more complex, I can [transfer my Chase Ultimate Reward Points]( URL_4 ) as a 1:1 ratio to United. So purchases made on my CSP card at travel and dining and redeemed for the reward example above would net me 5.8% back. & nbsp; Take this system of changing reward rates above and apply it to hotels and other redemption types and it gets tricky. This is why a lot of people choose cash back cards with a flat 2% cash back, like the [Citi Double Cash]( URL_5 ), but many of us enjoy racking up points and miles and getting higher value when redeeming for travel (usually the highest). & nbsp; This is not a complete list, and there are so many more things to consider like annual fees, foreign transaction fees if you travel abroad, cards that offer airport lounge access, anniversary bonuses, spending bonuses, other caps and exclusions, sign up bonuses and more. And if you travel, you earn rewards just by flying the airlines and staying in hotels, so you can rack up points beyond just what the credit cards offer. & nbsp; & nbsp; **So who pays for rewards?** * Interchange Fees: The credit card issuer takes a cut of your purchase when you pay at a retailer. The rate on this varies but is usually higher then the redeemed value % on that purchase (plus a lot of rewards just sit around and are never redeemed) * Credit card debt: The interest that revolving card holders pay will fund reward programs much of the time. That's about half the US population. * Annual fees: The annual fee you pay on the cards will sometimes offset the reward value earned & nbsp; Tl;dr: You earn rewards a variety of different ways and redeem for different reward types where values change. Cash back is just a % back on your spending. All have exclusions and limitations to look out for. edit: formatting double edit: My first gold! Thanks stranger! Who would have thought it would be a comment about literally the one thing I know this much about because I work in it all day long.


Question: How do “infinite” video games work? How does the game understand the pattern that must be used to create the game, and is it possible to reach a point where the game will basically loop because it won’t be able to create any more new levels/road?

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 How do “infinite” video games work? How does the game understand the pattern that must be used to create the game, and is it possible to reach a point where the game will basically loop because it won’t be able to create any more new levels/road?

You basically keep on throwing some dice, and the result is interpreted as what to do next. Eg, you get a 5, and that means you're going to make a mountain. You throw some dice again, and that determines the mountain's height. And so on. You can have effectively infinite worlds this way, but on large scales they tend to be rather bland. It's easy to make vast tracts of land, but hard to make them interesting. You can easily have endless variations of hills, grass and lakes, but after enough of that you'll keep on getting more and more of that, while it won't repeat itself it still won't look very different from the previous thousand iterations.


Question: How do waterfalls freeze while in motion?

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 How do waterfalls freeze while in motion?

They don't. They freeze over time. First the water mist that is deposited on nearby surfaces freezes. Where the water is flowing slowly, droplets can freeze while still attached, and films of water flowing down over the top of those frozen droplets can also freeze, causing icicles. Eventually the river starts to freeze over and form ice dams, which slow down the flow of the river, until the flow even in the middle is slow enough to form these icicles. Eventually there is no flow, and what was a waterfall is all icicles. But this has happened over some time - hours, days, weeks or months. It just happens to still look something like our normal impression of a flowing waterfall.


Question: How come we can get close enough to take images of Jupiter's moons, but can't land a rover-like device on the surface to take images?

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 How come we can get close enough to take images of Jupiter's moons, but can't land a rover-like device on the surface to take images?

Some locations we're very cautious of landing on because of potential biological contamination, like Europa. That being said, we could totally land an object there and rove around. But satellites let you see the entire surface. You probably want to find interesting landing sites first, then send your rover, which is going to be less-wide ranging. Funding definitely plays a role in the number of missions and the type however. Probes can fit a lot of things into one mission. Look at this Moon, look at that Moon, check out this planet and that planet. Your rover is a one-off. Land on Europa, and you aren't leaving.


Question: How can companies or individuals claim a whole YouTube video for a 2 second piece of media?

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 How can companies or individuals claim a whole YouTube video for a 2 second piece of media?

Youtube is the one that decides their policy, and this is the policy that Youtube has in place. YouTube could do another policy, but they didn't. They give little, if any information publicly on why they decide to have this policy. It really is as simple as that. There are lots of laws around copyright and such that impact this, but they are all fairly minor in comparison to the fact that youtube holds the keys to the realm and is the one that really makes the rules


Question: How do computers remember to turn back on during the restart option? Isn’t it temporarily shutting the computer down?

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 How do computers remember to turn back on during the restart option? Isn’t it temporarily shutting the computer down?

Inside of your computer is a "smaller computer" (usually called an "embedded controller") that is always on, even when the rest of the computer is completely off. It does things like keeping track of time (note that the clock on your computer doesn't reset even when you unplug it), handles the power button, often also power/hard drive/battery LEDs, fans, etc. It also manages power delivery to various components and can talk to the rest of your computer. When you tell the computer to reboot, the EC switches everything off, but knows to switch everything on again later.


Question: Why do gallon jugs "gulp" whenever you pour them out?

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 Why do gallon jugs "gulp" whenever you pour them out?

If you just turn it upside down, it "chugs," but it is possible to pour it in a smooth fashion. The issue is that you have to allow for air to flow in to displace the water/milk/whateverjuice flowing out. If you don't, then you get large bubbled "Blorking" up the stream and disrupting it. Another trick is to rapidly swirly something like a 2 liter bottle to create a vortex, which allows liquid to flow out while air continuously flows in through the funnel.


Question: Everyday we breathe CO2, and it's everywhere on our lives, but if you take away an Oxygen molecule and get CO, it becomes poisonous (Carbon Monoxide). Why is this?

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 Everyday we breathe CO2, and it's everywhere on our lives, but if you take away an Oxygen molecule and get CO, it becomes poisonous (Carbon Monoxide). Why is this?

The reason why Carbon monoxide is dangerous is because it has a strong binding affinity to hemoglobine - the molecule that binds and transports oxygen through our blood. In fact, the affinity with Carbon monoxide is higher than oxygen. So what will happen is that your bloodcells will take up carbon monoxide in the lungs, instead of oxygen, and your blood will not contain enough oxygen for all your cells. CO2 has a far lower binding affinity to hemoglobin and is in fact used to regulate breathing. (High co2 in the blood causes us to breath more instead of low oxygen)


Question: How do food & drink makers mimic the taste of fruit?

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 How do food & drink makers mimic the taste of fruit?

Yo ho ho! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [ELI5: How do they make artificial flavors taste like certain fruits without using any of the actual fruit? ]( URL_4 ) 1. [ELI5: how are fruity flavours replicated for foods and drinks without actually adding fruit? ]( URL_3 ) 1. [Do artificial fruit flavors really taste like the fruit they are called? ]( URL_8 ) 1. [ELI5: Artificial candy flavors like banana & watermelon (et al) don't really taste like the real fruit. Yet these "candy" fruit flavors are usually pretty consistent among all candies, drinks, etc... Where did/do these pseudo-fruit flavor parallels come from? ]( URL_5 ) 1. [ELI5: Why don't artificial fruit flavors taste anything like the actual fruit? ]( URL_2 ) 1. [ELI5:Artificial food flavoring ]( URL_6 ) 1. [ELI5: How does "artificial flavoring" work, and create something so distinct as grape or other fruits? ]( URL_7 ) 1. [ELi5: How are artificial flavors made? ]( URL_1 ) 1. [ELI5: How do they make artificial flavors? ]( URL_0 )


Question: What is the most common cause for tiredness?

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 What is the most common cause for tiredness?

**The the most common causes for tiredness:** * **Poor quality sleep** When it comes to sleep, it’s all about quality, not necessarily quantity. Poor quality sleep can lead to many health issues and, of course, tiredness. If you have bad sleep, you are more likely to have impaired brain function, weight gain and increased risk of diseases. Sleeping less than 7-8 hours per night is linked to an increased risk of heart disease and stroke. Sleep deprivation can cause pre-diabetes in healthy adults, in as little as 6 days. Many studies show a strong link between short sleep duration and type 2 diabetes risk. * **Depression and anxiety** Depression is a neurological disorder, however it has some physical side effects. One of the most prominent symptoms of depression is lack of energy. People who suffer with depression often find it very hard to get a good sleep. A large contributing factor to depression is stress. Experts say stress can exhaust the brain and lead to depression, which always seems to trigger more vicious cycle problems: you’re depressed so you become more stressful; you have trouble sleeping so you feel tired; you feel tired so you don’t feel like doing anything meaningful anymore’. This cycle of poor sleep fuelling tiredness means that, for some, depression can be extremely hard to beat. * **Lifestyle** The key to improving your sleep, and therefore your time awake, is by improving your lifestyle. There are certain factors which play a vital role in good sleep. You can easily improve your lifestyle by stopping these bad habits: * Dehydration Not drinking enough fluids can make you feel sluggish and give you headaches. Other symptoms of dehydration are, including fatigue and tiredness, headaches and poor concentration. You should drink at least 6-8 glasses of water a day. * Disturbed sleep Shift work and being woken up regularly can affect your mood. The NHS say ‘If you have a disturbed sleep pattern – for instance, if you work night shifts, sleep in the day or look after young children – it can be difficult to get a good night’s sleep, and you’ll feel tired during the day’. * Poor diet– Sugary foods, caffeine and junk food all have a negative effect on your body. It’s also important not to skip breakfast or drink alcohol before bed. * Bad sleep hygiene Not having a regular night-time routine, using phones in bed and using the bedroom for anything other than sleeping or relaxing can ruin the sleep. * **Medical conditions** There are lots of different illnesses that cause tiredness. They range in severity but most can be treated easily. The most common illness that causes tiredness, especially in women, is anaemia. This occurs when the body doesn’t have enough iron to produce red blood cells, causing a lack of oxygen in your organs. Symptoms of anaemia include tiredness and lethargy, heart palpitations and shortness of breath. It is most commonly caused by blood loss, but can also occur when there is a lack of iron in the diet.


Question: Why aren't metropolitan transit services (such as subways, commuter rail, and Amtrak) privatized in the U.S.? Put another way, why does the U.S. lag behind the rest of the world in providing reliable, high-speed transit services?

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 Why aren't metropolitan transit services (such as subways, commuter rail, and Amtrak) privatized in the U.S.? Put another way, why does the U.S. lag behind the rest of the world in providing reliable, high-speed transit services?

Subways don't lend themselves well to privatization because they depend completely on city-owned rights of way -- that is, they are underneath the streets. As for other rail service... Amtrak exists because privatized rail service was failing. Even with its subsidies, Amtrak offers an alternative to air travel that is slower and more expensive, except for places like the Northeast, with large cities closely packed together. It's really hard for a private company to want to enter a market where their competition can already do it faster and cheaper.


Question: why didn't Ukraine attempt to defend crimea back in 2014 when Russia started its annexation?

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 why didn't Ukraine attempt to defend crimea back in 2014 when Russia started its annexation?

They did. The Ukranian soldiers stationed on Krimea were simply caught off-guard and got completely and utterly overrun to the point where picking up a firearm was suicide. That combined with the fact that russian propaganda convinced the majority of the krimean population to join russia (before the invasion) lead to Ukranian soldiers getting hindered by their own people, who wanted to join russia. Ukraine did send soldiers to the front (and still is btw) but its a stale war right now. No advances on neither side pretty much. I just yesterday saw a video of a few journalists inside the last Krimean Ukrainian-Controlles military base. The soldiers just watched, completely unarmed, as russian soldiers surrounded them, until a Tank broke through a wall into the compound. The Ukranian soldiers just stood and watched as it was just suicide even looking at a gun.


Question: when you see videos of fights, and the losing guys’ stiffen up or spasm after a hit to the head, what is happening in their brain and can they recover?

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 when you see videos of fights, and the losing guys’ stiffen up or spasm after a hit to the head, what is happening in their brain and can they recover?

They had a brain injury. In a fight, this usually happens when someone gets hit in the head by a hard punch to the chin, a hit to the head, or falling over and hitting the ground with their head. The brain gets smashed up against the skull, and then bounces back to hit the other side. This causes something like an electrical storm in your brain, which travels on down your nerves and causes rapid constriction of the muscles. This can cause permanent damage, but most of the time it's just temporary.


Question: . Why does some media from the 60's and 70's look horribly grainy and other media crystal clear?

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 . Why does some media from the 60's and 70's look horribly grainy and other media crystal clear?

There are several factors, including: * whether it was shot on film for theatrical release, or videotape for TV broadcast * the quality of the equipment and film stock used when shooting on film * how well looked-after the original was, and how much it degraded over the years Good quality celluloid film provided fantastic "resolution", better even than 4K. (I put "resolution" in quotes because it's not really appropriate when talking about celluloid film.) But that kind of film needs a lot of light, so the studio has to get lots of expensive (and, in those days, really very hot) lighting. Film that works in lower light levels is more visibly grainy. Film noir was a genre of movie that worked around these limitations: these are those cheap black-and-white movies, often crime thrillers, known for their creativity in using shadows and patterns of dark and light to evoke a particular mood without needing so much expensive equipment. Anything made in those days for TV, though, will be very low resolution. The NTSC standard used in North America had a total of 525 lines, while the PAL and SECAM systems used in Europe had 625 lines (and in the *very* early days, British TV had only 405 lines). Not all of those lines were even visible, so when DVD Video first came out (designed for these early systems), it had a vertical resolution of 480 in North America, and 576 in Europe. Put that on a 4K screen (with a vertical resolution of 2160), and you can probably see the individual pixels. In answer to your question about photographs, the graininess of them is due to the limitations of *printing* technology at the time. The original photos would have looked pin-sharp, but in a cheap publication they would often look quite bad. If you look at a photo in a newspaper from the period, you can easily see the individual dots. Very often, if high-quality illustrations and photos needed to be included in a book, they were printed using a different process and inserted into the book later. Those pages were often kept together near the middle of the book, and were noticeably glossier and thicker than the other pages. The text would refer you to, for example, "fig. 3 on plate 4", and you'd have to look for that page if you wanted to see the image.


Question: Purchasing Power Parity and why some analysts prefer it over nominal GDP when talking about a country's strength?

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 Purchasing Power Parity and why some analysts prefer it over nominal GDP when talking about a country's strength?

In short...nominal GDP is just a number, and doesn't take into account prices (ie inflation). Take country A, which has a nominal GDP of 10,000 but everything costs $1,000. Now you have country B with a nominal GDP of 500 but everything costs 10. On the surface, A is better off since its nominal GDP is 20x bigger than that of B. But what's the point of all that money if everything you want to buy is so expenive? That's where prices (inflation) come in. In A, you could only buy 10 items (10,000/1,000) while in B you could buy 50 (500/10) so in reality, people are better off in B since they can buy more things (assuming you think things are good). Nominal GDP is rarely used to compare countries. It's usually Real GDP (nominal GDP taking into account inflation) that is used. Purchasing power parity takes into account the different currency exchange rates (which are affected by inflation/price levels), between two countries, thereby putting the two country's on a more even ground for comparison.


Question: When a video is lagging/internet cutting out, why does the audio keep playing for a while after the video has stopped?

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 When a video is lagging/internet cutting out, why does the audio keep playing for a while after the video has stopped?

Because the audio and video are not entirely connected. You can load audio data from a video file without loading the video, and you can load video data from a video file without loading the audio. It's also not necessarily a 1-for-1 ratio - one MB of audio data in a file might cover 30 seconds of audio, whereas one MB of video data in a file might cover half a second of video.


Question: why most software these days take a huge amount of ram more than 60% just to run basic stuff? for example like most browsers?

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 why most software these days take a huge amount of ram more than 60% just to run basic stuff? for example like most browsers?

Websites have to be more responsive because studies show that if things hang for more than half a second, the user is more likely to close the tab or click "back" and move on to something else. To help be more responsive, some websites are constantly preloading information you might need so you don't wait after you click. GMail is an example; even when not connected to the internet, you can view the first X messages in your inbox despite never having opened them before. All that is in your RAM. Memory leaks can also be an issue. Badly written software may keep storing old data but never release it and free up that RAM space until the software stops. Other user enhancements can be RAM heavy. It used to be that you could only "undo" in Photoshop like 3 times by default. The program would have to keep multiple full copies of the last states of the image in memory, which could be massive. Now by default even more past states are kept in memory - at least 20, I believe.


Question: What happens to condensation in double walled water bottles?

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 What happens to condensation in double walled water bottles?

The likelihood is that between the walls of the bottle is absolutely dry air - air that never contains enough moisture to condensate on that inner wall. Or better yet, a vacuum. That's how vacuum flasks work - by not having air between the layers, just having a vacuum then ~~air cannot transmit across the gap by convection flow in the liquid~~. (edit - whew I was tired when I wrote that) *heat cannot transmit across the gap by convection flow in the air*. Condensation is when moist air hits a cold surface, so if the air is dry in that gap (or there is no air) there'd be no condensation in there.


Question: with wildly different writing styles, left to right, right to left, and more importantly in columns, how do international programmers make everyone's name display correctly?

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 with wildly different writing styles, left to right, right to left, and more importantly in columns, how do international programmers make everyone's name display correctly?

Most online only sources use the standard English model when they're expected to be used internationally; even ones that are developed in places like Japan or Korea. If possible, they also like to make regional specific alternates, which is called "localization". With regards to things like news agencies, they tend to localize their websites. If you're accessing from China, for example, they'll have their site formatted in the Chinese standard. This involves having native speakers on staff, but it definitely pays off for making things accessible.


Question: Why does almost every cooking recipe require an oven temperature of 350 degrees fahrenheit?

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 Why does almost every cooking recipe require an oven temperature of 350 degrees fahrenheit?

It's tempting to just provide the link to the YouTube video I watched on this literally yesterday, but I think that's frowned upon, so here's the explanation: In the past, wood-fired ovens didn't have thermometers, so recipes written for wood-fired ovens had instructions for a "slow" oven (a slow-burning low fire), a moderate oven, or a hot oven (roaring fire). Baking/roasting has a "sweet spot" where the Maillard reaction (the chemical reaction that results in golden brown crusts on things) kicks in. Too cool and you don't get that reaction, too hot and you get burning. Turns out 350 degrees is a "moderate" oven that's just right for (a) getting the Maillard reaction while (b) still cooking the insides of the food without (c) burning the outside. Here's the video: URL_0


Question: How exactly does sound travel through walls?

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 How exactly does sound travel through walls?

Sound is merely pressure waves of molecules bumping into other molecules, transferring energy. When the wave hits a solid object, some of the energy is transferred to the wall, allowing the sound to propagate through it. Then the molecules making up the wall push on the air molecules of the other side, allowing you to hear through the wall. Some energy is lost or reflected in the transitions, thus why the sound is muffled. And some frequencies transition better than others.


Question: Why can't corporations keep the economy afloat?

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 Why can't corporations keep the economy afloat?

Most corporations are like most people. They buy everything on credit and then pay it back over overtime. If the economy collapses they have to cut costs like everyone just to survive. The annoying part is the people at the corporations making those decisions are not like most people they have a enough money to survive any economic downturn.


Question: What is the mathematical constant, "i?" And, what is the importance of it?

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 What is the mathematical constant, "i?" And, what is the importance of it?

Complex numbers can be written using two notations. Polar which is a magnitude and an angle, and rectangular. Rectangular gives the magnitude along the real axis and separately the magnitude along the imaginary (i) axis. If you took both notations together, you'd see that the magnitude and angle in polar form exactly matches the hypotenuse formed by the magnitudes from the real and imaginary axes in rectangular form. If you are still confused, I'd suggest researching more on complex numbers. They are a very useful mathematical construct especially if you plan on studying any form of engineering.


Question: Why do expo markers sometimes erase flawlessly but other times become dried on smears that are impossible to get rid of without cleaner?

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 Why do expo markers sometimes erase flawlessly but other times become dried on smears that are impossible to get rid of without cleaner?

Usually, it has to do with the quality of the whiteboard you are dealing with. Older whiteboards have lost a lot of their original gloss, making them more finicky to erase (especially with strong colors like red). New whiteboards, you will notice, almost never have this problem. Using cleaner on whiteboards, esp. all-surface as opposed to WHITEBOARD cleaner, exacerbates this because it wears down the surface faster. So does erasing the whiteboard all the time. Other times, of course, it has to do with the quality of the marker. If it's kind of old, sometimes it gets a bit gummy--especially weird off-brands that may or may not have any consumer standards.


Question: Why does our power outlets have three different holes (live, neutral and ground)? Why can't there be just one?

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 Why does our power outlets have three different holes (live, neutral and ground)? Why can't there be just one?

Electricity has to run through something to work. Like a river through a waterwheel. Live is where the electricity is coming from. The high point of the water. The neutral is where the electricity is going after it flows through your device. The low point of the water. Ground is a special place so that if the electricity escapes to somewhere it shouldn't, the power goes into the ground instead of more important things.


Question: Why do humans have vestigial organs like an appendix?

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 Why do humans have vestigial organs like an appendix?

The lowly appendix, long-regarded as a useless evolutionary artifact, won newfound respect two years ago (2007) when researchers at Duke University Medical Center proposed that it actually serves a critical function. The appendix, they said, is a safe haven where good bacteria could hang out until they were needed to repopulate the gut after a nasty case of diarrhea, for example. URL_0


Question: What happens in your brain when you pass out?

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 What happens in your brain when you pass out?

In simplest terms, there is a nerve that runs through your body that when stimulated causes vessels to dilate. If overstimulated they dilate too much and your blood settles to the lower part of your body. When this happens your brain does not get the blood (nutrition and oxygen) that it needs. Your brain is very smart and realizes that it's not getting what it needs and makes you pass out so you'll lay down and in doing so, give the brain the blood it needs. When the brain gets what it needs you wake up.


Question: Why do some things seem to cause heartburn within minutes, while some things need to digest before causing heartburn like an hour later?

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 Why do some things seem to cause heartburn within minutes, while some things need to digest before causing heartburn like an hour later?

Heart burn occurs due to reflux of stomach acids back into the esophagus , and this occurs due to a not so tight lower esphageal sphincter (junction between your esophagus and stomach ) Normally it's tight and closed and only opens up when food reaches it but a lot things could affect it. Heavy meals require more acid to digest and if you take a nap afterwards , you essentially removed the effect of gravity by laying down and would almost always get a heartburn . Some foods, spicy , caffeine and such relaxe The esphageal sphincter making it easier for the acid to regurgitate back into the esophagus.


Question: How do mathematicians figure out absurd odds?

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 How do mathematicians figure out absurd odds?

They don't really "figure them" out, instead they measure them. Taking your example: Around 300 people in the US tend to be struck by lightning on an annual basis (according to medical treatment data), putting any given individual's chance of being struck by lightning in a given year at 1 in 1.08 million. Your odds may vary based on line of work, geographic location, etc.


Question: How do Venus flytraps digest pray?

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 How do Venus flytraps digest pray?

The head of the flytrap seals itself and essentially becomes a ‘stomach’ of sorts Once the pray is trapped and sealed inside the head, it begins to release enzymes and chemicals which break down the prey and digest the essential nutrients. It can’t always digest everything and often you’ll find parts of insects dropping out after it’s finished eating Mostly the external carapace of the creature which again will eventually break down and add nutrients to the soil around it ☺


Question: How much money do Jewelers make knowing they have to stock their entire store with gold and diamonds?

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 How much money do Jewelers make knowing they have to stock their entire store with gold and diamonds?

The rule in the jewelry business is "triple key", meaning if the wholesale price is $1000 the jeweler will usually start the price at $3000. This helps deal with the extra costs of running a jewelry store, which are quite high. This may sound like a large markup, but consider most retail markups are 5x or higher compared to wholesale. As opposed to what another commenter said, most jewelry on display will be considered "memo" merchandise, meaning it is not owned by the shop but by a wholesaler, it is being held by the shop until it sells or the memo expires. When sold, the jeweler pays the wholesaler for the merchandise and keeps the difference. Source: nearly 10 years in the business


Question: How and why do rechargeable batteries tend to drain faster and faster as time goes on?

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 How and why do rechargeable batteries tend to drain faster and faster as time goes on?

Imagine a rechargeable battery not as one battery, but as thousands and thousands of tiny batteries. So if your rechargeable battery has 10,000 cells, when it's brand new let's say all of those are working. As you discharge and recharge the battery, some of those cells will start degrading and going bad. So maybe after 10 charge cycles you only have 9500 working cells. And after 100 charge cycles you might only have 8000. So if you started out being able to run a device for 10 hours off of this battery, after 100 charge cycles it might only last 8.


Question: What exactly is in blood and how come some animals are able to survive without it?

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 What exactly is in blood and how come some animals are able to survive without it?

Very, very few complex animals do not have circulation. Flatworms, nematodes, jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals are among the species that do not have a circulatory system and thus do not have blood. Their body cavity has no lining or fluid within it. They obtain nutrients and oxygen directly from the environment that they live in. The only non-red blood animal I know of is the octopus. Octopus blood is blue because it contains a protein called Harmocyanin. This compares to Hemoglobin in mammals, which is the "red" part of mammal blood. (The color actually depends on the amount of oxygen in the blood, but that's a different question.)


Question: What causes glitch worlds/levels in video games?

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 What causes glitch worlds/levels in video games?

The following is *technically incorrect* but *conceptually correct* - simplified for ELI5 purposes. Level data in, for example, a Mario game, looks like this: AAAAAAAA AAAAAAEA AABBAABB AACCAACC AACCAACC DDDDDDDD Where A = empty space, B = top of a pipe, C = vertical pipe, and D = brick ground. E = empty space with a Koopa in it. All 24 letters have some different tile and/or enemy associated with them. (In reality games don't use letters, but might use bytes with 256 values, or 2- or 4-byte pairings etc... but I'm simplifying things here) (Also, obviously most Mario levels are way bigger than 8x6 tiles, but I'm not typing out more than that!) When you enter a new level, the code says "OK, go to the 38,794th line in the code and read 6 lines starting there to get the level data." But sometimes that "38,794" gets corrupted by some bug, and instead the program reads "OK, go to the 12,804th line of code and read 6 lines starting there to get the level data." And what do we find at the 12,804th line of code? THE_PRIN CESS_IS_ IN_ANOTH ER_CASTL E.______ WELCOME_ Uh-oh, it's actual text, meant to get displayed in another place. But our level-building routine doesn't know that. It just sees letter-codes for various tiles. So it builds a level using those codes. T is a question block, H is the left side of a cloud, E is empty space with a Koopa... The end result is a nonsensical jumble when viewed as a level.


Question: In 1933, the US government confiscated gold from the citizens. How did they get people to turn in their gold?

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 In 1933, the US government confiscated gold from the citizens. How did they get people to turn in their gold?

By offering them money for it. A lot of people didn't turn in their gold, and as a result were prosecuted. This was usually a result of them attempting to sell their gold, or withdraw it from banks. Keep in mind also that the law allowed for any individual to own up to $100 in gold coins.


Question: Why do some sneezes not continue to happen?

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 Why do some sneezes not continue to happen?

There are two likely culprits here. First, you likely have a small amount of irritant, making it less of a problem. Cells can individually handle the problem before signals are sent to the muscles that contact causing you to sneeze. Two, some outside factor inhibits it. Pressure can soothe the irritation or another physiological reaction can occur (ie-mucous production that traps the irritant).


Question: How does a CEO tweeting about their stocks being overpriced cause people to lose so much money?

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 How does a CEO tweeting about their stocks being overpriced cause people to lose so much money?

When you buy a stock, you're buying a small small piece of the company, you're quite literally a part owner. Fluctuations in price are largely forecast or opinion driven, and if the speculation/outlook of a stock is too high, the stock is at risk of a quick crash. If someone says that a stock is overpriced, particularly a higher-up insider, it raises a lot of doubt, and some people will "panic sell"


Question: subsidized healthcare and education, what are the concerns and benefits?

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 subsidized healthcare and education, what are the concerns and benefits?

Concerns: 1) Rich and middle class white folks being scared that their tax money might go to benefit some illegal black gay welfare queen that should just get off her lazy ass and go get a job. (Please note the sarcasm when reading "illegal black gay welfare queen"). As far as I can tell, this is the only argument I've ever heard against subsidized and social medical care. Benefits: 1) Everyone gets access to basic preventative medicine. 2) Nobody dies because "Oh, I've had this stabbing pain in my appendix for 3 days now, but I know I'll never be able to pay the bills *GAK...falls over dead*". 3) Cost of emergency room visits are now reduced because the hospital doesn't have to charge $4000 for a broken finger to make up for the 8 other people who came in for whatever reason and then never paid their bills (I use $4K for a broken finger as a legitimate example ). 4) The 70-year old folks living on $1200/mo social security no longer have to make the choice between eating and getting their prescriptions. Edit: Formatting


Question: Why can't we stop our minds from thinking about the things we don't want to think about?

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 Why can't we stop our minds from thinking about the things we don't want to think about?

From a meditative standpoint: The minute you've made the decision that you don't want to think about X, your mind is doing a lot more than you may notice. In order for it to *even be* a thing that you don't want to think about, your brain has already created concepts including: X itself, how X made you feel, and what it reminds you of from past experiences, as well as a desire to avoid X for fear which may come from numerous places. All of this may not be obvious on site, in the middle of the moment that you're trying to go to sleep and you can't get a scary thing out of your mind. All you're trying to do is *relax relax relax* but you constantly check yourself to see if X is gone from your mind, but just doing this will bring up the sequence of thoughts you just were having. So, before long, you are freaking out not only because of X, but now because of the very fact you won't stop freaking out. Control slips very quickly, and impressions are often made afterwards that these thoughts are all out of your control, or worse, indicative of a mental illness or maybe a chemical imbalance. The crux of the issue is rarely visited, and it's not hard to see why if you're the type that can't stop thinking about the crap you hate thinking about. The real issue is not anyone's *ability* to calm their mind. It's more along the lines of lacking the patience and tools. When you spend all of your life *being a brain* it's very tough to realize what you're doing when you can't get a thought out of your head. But it starts with letting yourself be okay with the fact that those unpleasant thoughts are there, rather than treating them as things that *need to leave right now*.


Question: Since glasses make your vision near perfect, will a person with near perfect vision putting on your glasses have your vision?

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 Since glasses make your vision near perfect, will a person with near perfect vision putting on your glasses have your vision?

No. Glasses are correcting the lens of your eye not focusing the light into a point at the back of your eye correctly. They are either going to shift the focal length forwards or backwards. If someone puts on your glasses it's going to be blurry, but in the exact opposite way. Think of it like stilts. If you're four feet tall and wear foot tall stilts you'll be 5 feet tall. If a 5 foot tall person puts those on they'll be 6 feet tall, not 4.