Question: Why aren't all plastics recyclable?

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 Why aren't all plastics recyclable?

So there's a weird thing about chemistry... Any stable compound needs to have energy added to it before it can change to any other stable compound. That's why you have to light explosives or smack them really hard or whatever. So every combination of atoms that form molecules is stable if, and only if, all of the electrons can find basically a tiny lowland valley in their energy chart. So raw petroleum, and coal, All started as plant material, The oil of various algae and plants. They all got buried at once, where at once means over the course of the same million or 100 million years etc, and then the heat and pressure of the Earth basically jammed more and more individual oil molecules into longer and longer chains. So in a refinery what's really happening is that, slowly, crude oil is being pumped into the refinery tower and the application of heat and pressure allows useful molecules to be sorted into different layers and pumped away. The most volatile chemicals are things like acetone, which is very light and rise to the top, and beneath that is gasoline and beneath that is kerosene and so forth. Down at the very bottom just above the ash is where we find things like molten plastics and petroleum jelly. This entire refinery process is called cracking, and it sorts the useful parts from the toxic parts from the dangerous parts from the ashy useless parts. So when virgin plastic pellets of the various grades are made, basically that liquid stack has the particular chemicals they're interested in siphoned off and allowed to cool. In the case of plastics it's usually looks like a whole bunch of little tiny white pellets. And different pellets have different grades, and different grades of pellets will only bond with pellets of similar grades. I mean they'll bond with anything but they'll only bond well and uniformly with similar molecules. The entire field of chemical science is figuring out what bonds with what. The thing we're actually missing is that we have no way to recreate the original petroleum that we got out of the ground. We basically need to take the ash, the chunks of plastic, the Vaseline, the gasoline, the acetone, and just everything else and put it in chamber and supply it with a whole bunch of heat and a whole bunch of pressure for a whole bunch of time in order to recreate the crude oil. And people have tried to do this. There's one process that uses microwaves and wave guides and hydraulic presses and some other stuff to recreate crude oil more or less, but it's not as good as the real thing because we can't take the time and energy necessary to put it back into original equipment position. We also can't do it in bulk (as of yet). So when we're recycling plastic, most of the time we're just taking shreds of plastic, heating it up and jamming it together. A plastic bottle doesn't become a new plastic bottle, on average plastic bottle becomes a bench. The other thing is we have an unpleasant tendency to do things like color our plastics and add things like BPA to keep it flexible instead of letting it get brittle and stuff like that. We're basically polluting the plastic when we make it. So we have no way to get the plastic pollution out, and we have no way to gather up everything we need to make new petroleum out of the old stuff because we do things like burn kerosene and gasoline and throw acetone away and stuff like that. So you're basically trying to unbake a cake when you recycle. Advanced polymer chemistry is sort of like solving millions of individual jigsaw puzzles, and we've got certain ways to work them in one direction, but we don't really have any ways to work them reliably in the other direction. So we've got a very limited number of processes we can use to "reuse plastic", but we got something half as good and nowhere near as flexible as the stuff we started with. Unbake a cake, un-boil an egg, turn an adult into a child again Somebody else talked about injection molded versus pressure molded. But that's just the details. The stuff that turns the empty butter tub yellow and leaves it soft instead of brittle is far worse for future recycling the van the means of molding. The means of molding are important, I'm not saying they're not, part of the reason they're important is because of the chemicals we add to it and the different temperatures we use in the various processes. The thing is we used to have the perfect material for doing our soda bottles. We called it glass. Glass can be used again and again, particularly clear glass. And we used to use paper for bags until the plastic industry decided to convince us that we were killing trees and we should really use plastic, and now we've got a garbage patch in the ocean. We simply cannot make the furnace presses necessary to properly recycle any plastic at scale. So even if you think you recycling, a lot of it's just getting thrown away later, and most of the stuff that is getting recycled isn't being turned back into what it was that you just used. A bottle never becomes a bottle, a bottle becomes a parking stop in a parking lot. And then that can't be recycled at all. The sad and simple truth is that most chemical processes are very difficult to reverse, particularly if you've extracted energy in the process of performing them because it's hard to put exactly the energy you took out back in. The entire idea that recycling is the solution to plastic waste is basically blame shifting. If you perfectly recycled everything in your life most of it would still get redirected to the landfill after made you feel good to put it in a little blue bin. I'm not saying it's not worth doing, but it is not the solution, it's the guilt trip run by the industry. If we went to glass bottles and reserved the petroleum products for the rarefied processes and truly important products like medical plastics we could solve a lot of problems. We'd recycle the glass, and yeah we'd burn the medical waste or whatever, but then plastic would be a boutique industry instead of a gold rush. Edit: I corrected some of the mess made by my voice to text app. I'm sure there's much more mess in there. But I got a screwed up right hand right now so I can really do more than dictate into my phone.


Question: How are people supposed to know if other people are using their copyright without their knowledge?

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 How are people supposed to know if other people are using their copyright without their knowledge?

You are incorrect about copyright, you do not need to prove that you're actively defending it. This is commonly confused with trademarks, that can require evidence that you're willing to defend. Even in that case, some obscure guy in a far-off country using your logo probably wouldn't be a huge game-changer in court, but a judge probably would have a hard time with "I just didn't ever see it" defense if it's being commonly used.


Question: How come units of area are squared?

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 How come units of area are squared?

We create units by combing the units of the values used to calculate the value (e.g. speed is distance over time, so measured as metres per - divided by - seconds or miles per hour). Area is calculated by multiplying length and width (or any 2 dimensions). Length and width are measured in the same way, as distance, for example in meters. So to get the unit for area we multiply the unit of distance we want (metres, feet etc) by itself, so represent it as a square (m*m =m^2)


Question: Why does it make sense for an internet company to charge more money for a faster connection speed?

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 Why does it make sense for an internet company to charge more money for a faster connection speed?

The more traffic you want to be able to carry, the more that network will cost to build and to maintain. The equipment capital expenditure is a lot of it, but service contracts and transit opex is also more. As an example, you can get an old switch with 1 gbps interfaces for next to nothing. Getting a new one with 100 gbps interfaces is going to cost orders of magnitude more.


Question: What causes physics to appear realistic in animations / CGI?

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 What causes physics to appear realistic in animations / CGI?

There are basically three ways you can try to make something appear realistic: 1. Take what we know about how the things behave, use (or create) mathematical formulas that describe that movement, and implement those things in a computer program: Pros: Can be quick, easy, and cheap; Cons: the quicker, easier, and more cheaply you decide, the less realistic it appears. Even then, the math here doesn't always encompass everything. 2. Use a form of artificial intelligence to learn about reality in an attempt to emulate it. Pros: Over time can come up with some eerily accurate things. Cons: Expensive and time consuming. 3. Slap sensors on the thing you want to emulate. Make it do all the things you want to emulate and record the information. Pros: Is about as real as you can get. Cons: Only really good for humans. How can we tell when things aren't realistic? Well, you have an entire life spent looking at the real world. Your brain, outside the tiny nubs that run your body, is basically a squishy pattern recognition machine. So when it sees a pattern that it thinks it knows (a human being) but that pattern doesn't behave the way it should (unrealistic depiction), it throws off alerts basically telling you something is wrong. This is known as the uncanny valley and why things like zombies and super realistic robots are "creepy." They're close enough to being a human that our brain expects them to be human, but off just enough to throw up red flags.


Question: What causes a song to be stuck in ones head?

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 What causes a song to be stuck in ones head?

Ooh...I kinda know this one! Read a study that neurons in your memory cortex are firing when they hear a song. Basically, your mind is trying to connect the memory from beginning to the end of the song, so it keeps repeating it over and over, trying to find the end. Theory is, if you listen to the song stuck in your head to the end, the "loop" is completed, and your brain will move on.


Question: With hundreds to thousands of cars in a parking lot, how are wireless remotes able to have unique frequencies and not open the wrong car?

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 With hundreds to thousands of cars in a parking lot, how are wireless remotes able to have unique frequencies and not open the wrong car?

The frequencies are not necessarily unique. But they transmit a code that cars in the vicinity listen for. Even just a 5 digit code using just 0 to 9 would give you 100,000 possible combinations, so it would be pretty easy to make it *unlikely* that the same combinations will ever be in proximity.


Question: How do hormone responses occur so rapidly? When people are frightened/surprised, they can almost immediately feel a rush of adrenaline and heart rates rise, faces flush, etc. How do hormones reach appropriate organs so quickly? Why isn’t there more of a delay for the hormones to travel?

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 How do hormone responses occur so rapidly? When people are frightened/surprised, they can almost immediately feel a rush of adrenaline and heart rates rise, faces flush, etc. How do hormones reach appropriate organs so quickly? Why isn’t there more of a delay for the hormones to travel?

So there are already a ton of responses in this thread which explain it better than i can, i just want to add a reason why your heart can change its tune so quickly. You have a node in your heart which is called the sinus node. It has a "natural" tact of approximately 120 Beats per minute. As you know your resting heartrate is quite a bit lower (around 60-80). This is because your sinus node gets constantly throttled by your parasympathetic nervous system. Imagine someone who is pushing against a door -your sinus node- and someone holding against it from the other side -your nervous system-. If you experience a stimulus which needs a higher heartrate your parasympathetic system just stops blocking the door. Your sinus node suddenly has no resistance and burst through the door with full speed. This change can occur between two heartbeats so that this is the fastest way for your body to raise its heartrate.


Question: How to movie theaters make more money with fewer seats?

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 How to movie theaters make more money with fewer seats?

Attendance has been declining for years, since you can make a pretty good home theater for not that much (and not deal with crappy people). So, if the choice is to keep empty seats or to have fewer seats with the draw of them being luxurious and retaining an audience (or bringing people back), you need to invest in upgrading.


Question: Can someone explain to me how AND, OR and NOT gates make it possible to do anything?

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 Can someone explain to me how AND, OR and NOT gates make it possible to do anything?

That's tricky without going into too much technical detail ;) Essentially, you can break everything the computer does to adding binary numbers and storing data. The adding numbers is done using a *Half adder* or a *Full adder*. Wikipedia has the diagram for either. Half adder: [ URL_1 ]( URL_0 ) Here, A and B are binary numbers (0 or 1). S is A+B so A=0,B=0: S=0 A=1,B=0: S=1 A=0,B=1: S=1 . C is the carry over (remember from written additional) for A=B=1: A=1,B=1: S=0,C=1 You can combine these together to be able to build hardware that can do addition of arbitrary-length binary numbers. If you can add, you can do everything else. Substraction: addition of the negative number. Multiplication: repeated addition of the same number. Division: Subtraction until you can no longer subtract and count the number of times you did the subtraction & #x200B; To be able to store values, you can use a *flip-flop* or an S/R latch: [ URL_3 ]( URL_2 ) This component stores a single bit. S is the Set value and R is the Reset value. If you put S=1, then the system remains in Q=1 and Q\_bar=0 until you put R=1 which causes Q=0, Q\_bar=1. This means that you can perpetually store the value that you have put into this. Put this simple thing together a couple of million times, voilá, you have a memory.


Question: Why is there 360 degrees in a circle, not something like 500?

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 Why is there 360 degrees in a circle, not something like 500?

There are 360 degrees in a circle because the Assyrians were the first ones to do geometry and write it down. The used the base-6 (senary) system. They are also responsible for 24 hours in a day, 60 seconds in a min., and 60 minutes in an hour. And supposedly the only word we get in English from that long ago people is the word abyss, which still has its original meaning.


Question: Why, with today's very detailed and distinguishable animation, do animated characters rarely wear different clothes?

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 Why, with today's very detailed and distinguishable animation, do animated characters rarely wear different clothes?

It is cheaper, either through paint and trace or CGI changing clothes requires extra work and so extra cost, so unless a change of clothes is essential to the plot they stay the same. In addition the audience associates a character not only by the way they look but also the way they dress.


Question: Why do rainbows have a circular shape?

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 Why do rainbows have a circular shape?

Rainbows occur as a result of the scattering of sunlight. The rain drops act as prisms, refracting light at an angle dependent on the light's wavelength, which is why all of the colours are separated. The source of the white light is the sun, and each colour (wavelength) will appear at the same apparent distance from the source. If you like, you can imagine a rainbow as a complete circle around the light source, but you typically only see part of the ring at any given time.


Question: How does fire produce/give off light?

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 How does fire produce/give off light?

It gives of light for the same reason any object does. It isn't special. Light is emitted when an electron gets bumped. In a light bulb flowing electricity (which is electrons) bump and hostile the electrons of the material that compared the light filament +or gas) Fire is created when a chemical reaction involving oxygen combustion occurs. When these reactions happen the molecules are violently ripped apart by the oxygen, and snap apart as other oxygen comes barreling in to laugh onto the atoms that used to make up the molecules. This violent set of collisions bounce around the electrons in those atoms, and nearby ones. This released light photons.


Question: What makes permanent marker so permanent?

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 What makes permanent marker so permanent?

The issue isn't getting it to stick, it's getting it to stay sticking in the presence of water. Water is a pretty good solvent for most things, and permanent markers have a combination of chemicals that don't react that much with water, meaning it stays sticking to whatever it was put on.


Question: Why do we need to use polygons in video games? What causes us to need flat polygons rather than simply having rounded shapes?

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</answer>
 Why do we need to use polygons in video games? What causes us to need flat polygons rather than simply having rounded shapes?

EDIT: For the actual 5 year olds, feel free to ignore anything written between the (parenthesis) - this is extra stuff for people to Google-search for if interested. --- I program 3D graphics engines. To calculate a triangle, you just need 3 points and then you fill the space between them. This simple nature allows for some optimisation; we know that only the pixels between these 3 points will be modified when rastered. We can use this knowledge to simplify how the triangle is shaded, so simple texture mapping is just a case of interpolating texture co-ordinates between these points (keeping depth in mind for perspective correctness). There's more optimisations to be had here that will take a lot of explaining (our GPUs have evolved to be very good at dealing with space between 3 points). To calculate a rounded surface, you need an equation for the 3D curve, as well as the limits of the surface. Interpolating texture co-ordinates here would involve re-using that equation over and over again, quite the expensive operation. That equation may also "push" the pixels of the surface out into unexpected directions, so optimisations related to the flatness of a simple triangle are going to be much more difficult (they'd need the 3D curve equation to be used again - clipping would definitely be more complex). As a result, early graphics hardware evolved to be very efficient with triangles and all the research and development has been spent there, resulting in real-time graphics to be as amazing as it is right now in its current state. To go back and make a new way of rendering would involve a new class of graphics acceleration hardware that doesn't have all the years of development of the triangle-based hardware we have, that's not a good trade-off. The graphics hardware we have now is also great at sending additional information along with the XYZ positions of a triangle vertex, so we can send texture UV, XYZ normal, reflectivity, roughness, and more as additional numbers tied to triangle vertices and these get interpolated between the triangle points too, very handy. As GPUs get more and more generalised as compute-oriented machines, rather than triangle-rastering-oriented machines, we may see new types of rendering (real-time ray-tracing is possible now, as is voxel based rendering) but these almost always will be slower than using current hardware to render a triangle, so we see these techniques getting used in parallel to triangle-based rendering to achieve effects that aren't as efficient with a triangle-based world (voxels are fast for real-time global illumination, ray-marching [limited ray-tracing] is faster for limited reflections in scenes limited by the amount of triangles displayed). Perhaps one day we'll gain a "curve" shader where we can use a curve equation to do a perfectly smooth surface between the points of a triangle (I expect the nature of current raster hardware will allow for some cheats here, interpolating between fragments come to mind), but for the time being that's slower than just having lots of triangles to better estimate the curve with current hardware.


Question: why do beer guts on guys (I’ve never seen them on women or haven’t been able to tell) look like a pregnant belly (raised with a definite shape) whereas you can tell the larger stomachs caused from bad diets flatten out and have rolls?

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 why do beer guts on guys (I’ve never seen them on women or haven’t been able to tell) look like a pregnant belly (raised with a definite shape) whereas you can tell the larger stomachs caused from bad diets flatten out and have rolls?

"Beer bellies" are specifically visceral fat, meaning it's fat that's on your organs. This is caused by the consumption of **excessive** amounts of calories, not just "eating a little too much". This is also why "beer bellies" are usually very hard to the touch. Most fat accrued by just "eating a little to much" is subcutaneous fat, meaning it's just under the skin. This is the soft, rolly stuff you can pinch and squeeze.


Question: What are the main forces driving inflation in the U.S. right now?

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 What are the main forces driving inflation in the U.S. right now?

The eye popping numbers are in large part because they look at year over year comparisons. Think about where the country was last May vs. this May. The economy came to a halt, tens of millions were out of work, other business was drastically cut, demand for goods other than sanitizing wipes and toilet paper was low so prices were low. Now, everything's opening up, there's pent up demand, people have stimulus money, there are shortages of key components like microprocesors and lumber, logistics snafus like the ship stuck in the Suez Canal, and those fuel a jump in prices. As do labor shortages requiring higher pay. So last May was lower than usual, this May things are higher than usual. Looking at a multi-month trend may still show some inflation, but not as great as the small year over year snapshot.


Question: Why the U.S post a price before taxes rather than like some other countries who post the full price including tax?

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 Why the U.S post a price before taxes rather than like some other countries who post the full price including tax?

The sort answer: it's the way prices have traditionally been listed, and nobody wants to break from that tradition. It also helps with consistency, since taxes vary widely based upon where the purchase is occuring. Online stores wouldn't be able to list prices at all unless they knew exactly where the customer lives. Physical retail enjoys being able to charge the same pre-sales-tax price at different stores and advertising a constant price.


Question: How powerful does a nuclear warhead have to be to destroy our planet?

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 How powerful does a nuclear warhead have to be to destroy our planet?

Planets are pretty big thing and pretty hard to destroy. Even if you somehow managed to shatter a planet to pieces the pieces would just be drawn back to each other to reform a planet unless you pushed the pieces very, very hard away from each other. There is a theory that Earth was impacted by a very large and fast object very early in its development and that the impact was energetic enough to push out a massive amount of molten rock and debris that eventually formed our moon. That was literally an earth shattering kaboom and the planet still was only changed but not destroyed in the process. Wikipedia says that the largest nuclear explosion ever was when the Russian tested their Tsar bomb. It was theoretical a 100 megaton bomb but they tested it at 50 mt which works out to be about 2.1×10^17 J. Wikipedia also gives the energy released by the asteroid that killed all the dinosaurs (except birds) as 5×10^23 J. This means that impact was about 2 million times stronger than the strongest atomic bomb and while it certainly ruined the day for everyone a round at the time it didn't destroy the earth or kill all our ancestors (little furry things that they were). Wikipedia also gives a value for the gravitational binding energy of Earth (which I assume would be needed to overcome to blast the planet apart) as 2×10^32 J. This would be 10^15 (a quadrillion) times higher than the largest nuclear explosion ever. You can't really imagine a quadrillion times of anything with a human brain, but it is a lot. We can't scale up nuclear bombs that big. So the Earth is safe from being blown apart by man made nuclear explosion. That is good. As the above value for the dinosaur killing impact shows we are probably also safe from completely destroying our own ecosphere on top of the planet. It is much more fragile than the planet itself, but it has survived explosions a million times bigger than anything we ever made and came out fine eventually. So we won't kill the planet or life on earth. Humanity is even more fragile than life on earth. The giant impact above killed of all land species bigger than a medium sized dog. That sort of thing would have a good chance of killing of humanity. Even more fragile is human civilization. You don't need to kill of all humans with the explosion just make it big enough that the survivors will be bombed back into a stone age. That would be still too much for s ingle full yield tsar bomb, but the nuclear powers of the world have enough bombs to be able to confidently cause a collapse of human civilization, with a small but non-zero chance of total human extinction. The earth will be fine. We won't.


Question: Why is stepping on a rusty nail worse than a fresh and clean nail?

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 Why is stepping on a rusty nail worse than a fresh and clean nail?

A fresh and clean nail will go in smoothly. Once your skin is punctured the opening will just glide over the smooth nail the rest of the way. And the tip is so fine that it will not have any struggles puncturing. A rusty nail as all kinds of gunk and isn’t smooth anymore so whenever it punctures your skin, instead of going in smooth there is a lot of resistance. Also the rusty nail is dirty and will leave nasty stuff inside your skin getting you sick.


Question: Pluto is really really far away, like so far that not much light from the sun should get there. why are images of Pluto so well lit?

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 Pluto is really really far away, like so far that not much light from the sun should get there. why are images of Pluto so well lit?

Pluto is fairly well lit, mostly because the sun is stupidly bright, and the cameras on the probes are optimized for lower light levels than a camera on Earth would be. Pluto is about as well lit as the surface of the Earth just after sunset but before it gets really dark. This means that it's better lit than the inside of most offices(your eyes are weird so it may not seem that way) and combined with a large camera at close range with longer exposures you can capture plenty of light to make it look well lit. NASA cameras also use a cheat to get better pictures. Instead of a sensor with Red, Green, and Blue elements on it they have multiple skinny sensors that capture a narrow strip of Red, a strip of Blue, a strip of Near IR, and then they overlay all of those strips and stitch them together. This gives them more sensitive and lower noise sensors for each color band, and more wavelengths than you can see with your eye to let them add some details.


Question: Why can’t people walk after certain injuries (not obvious paralyzing injuries)? Do you just forget how to walk and have to remember?

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 Why can’t people walk after certain injuries (not obvious paralyzing injuries)? Do you just forget how to walk and have to remember?

Sometimes the injury is to the leg, hip, or back and it prevents walking for a time. Sometimes it is to the head, ears, or toes and changes balance and so that has to be relearned or recovered from. With the elderly you also see a lot of people barely being strong enough to walk getting an ailment that puts them bed ridden for a few weeks or months and that is enough time for their muscles to atrophy enough that they slip below the line of being capable of walking any more.


Question: How can metals get stressed?

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 How can metals get stressed?

Metals, down at the molecular level, are crystals. The molecules are arranged in a (mostly) nice regular structure. When you bend a metal a little bit you just distort the bonds and when you let go everything goes back to where it was. This is why most metals spring back when you let go. But. If you bend them really far, you actually rearrange bonds in the lattice and the distortion becomes partly permenant. That's why, if you bend it far enough, it doesn't spring all the way back. If you keep bending it back and forth, distortions in the lattice keep building up and the metal is getting stressed. Just to complicate things, unless you're \*extremely\* careful to grow single-crystal metals, you'll always have tiny dislocations and cracks even when the metal is new. Those little local distortions can cause what's called "stress concentration", so even if you don't bend the metal far enough to cause a bulk distortion, you can spawn tiny localized distortions near the stress concentrations. Over time, these grow and spread and eventually result in big cracks, and eventually your metal breaks. This is called "fatigue", and happens to almost all metals if you cycle them enough times or at high enough stress (there's a trade between how many cycles and how much you bend it).


Question: what is happening inside your stomach when you become hungry and start feeling those rumbles?

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 what is happening inside your stomach when you become hungry and start feeling those rumbles?

Every part of the body is constantly interacting with the brain and sending signals. When you touch something your nerves are sending signals to your brain so you "feel" for example. Other signals are involuntary (like signals for you to breathe or make your heart beat), and this includes your other organs like the stomach. A motion occurs periodically to move food around called "peristalsis". It's just muscles in your stomach contracting and literally sending waves through your intestines to push food and other foreign material through. A few hours after digestion, when the stomach is empty, it sends signals to the brain saying that it's empty and needs food. This triggers peristalsis, and causes the waving motion to push any remnant material/food through, and is the cause of the tummy rumbles. The main trigger of the tummy rumbles is called the Migrating Motor Complex, and you can read about it on wikipedia here: URL_0


Question: Why do we see the slow-mo version of the movement of fan blades when it moves really quick?

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 Why do we see the slow-mo version of the movement of fan blades when it moves really quick?

You only do under electrical light or on video. Both are generally caused by the so called aliasing. The former case is due to the stroboscopic effect - you only see the blades properly every ~ 1/100 sec (lights driven by the power network actually blink with the network frequency of cca 50 hz depending on the region, but it is too fast to notice otherwise ) , and your eyes interpret the regular "jumping" at fixed angles as a different rotation than there really is. On video, the same occurs due to the fixed sampling or "frame rate" of the camera.


Question: Clowns are typically meant to be silly and fun, why is the fear of them so widespread? Does that fear have an origin?

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 Clowns are typically meant to be silly and fun, why is the fear of them so widespread? Does that fear have an origin?

Clowns are [a kind of trickster]( URL_2 ), which in myth and legend can be both funny and scary, foolish and cunning (think Loki, Pied Piper, Puck, etc.). They break rules and are unpredictable. It also has been noted that the clown's painted faces are "[familiar, but off]( URL_0 )", distorted, and hide their real faces-- all of which lends to a disturbing presence. [Evil clowns]( URL_1 ) date back at least to Edgar Allan Poe's short 1849 story, "Hop-Frog" and appear in operas form the 1880s and 90s, eventually making its way into comics as the Joker in the 1940s. Further, serial killer and amateur clown John Wayne Gacy and Stephen King's novel "It" helped to further push the idea of evil clowns into the popular consciousness.


Question: How does colored cloth retain its dye?

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 How does colored cloth retain its dye?

There are many different types of dyes (acid, azo, cation, mordant, sulfur, natural pigments, etc) with varying degrees of colorfastness. The two strongest and most colorfast types of dyes are azo and reactive dyes. Reactive dyes react when they come in contact with the fibers, creating a new compound. Azo dyes are similar, they use dye coupling to create the compound. The fabric is soaked in one chemical, and then a different one. The two chemicals react, creating the azo dye in the fabric. With both these types, the dye is created inside the fibers and bonded with it, making it permanent, in contrast with traditional methods of dyeing - soaking fabric in a pigment and using a mordant to help it hold on to the fibers.


Question: Torrents. Could studios sabotage them if they actually wanted to?

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 Torrents. Could studios sabotage them if they actually wanted to?

They do try to overload a torrent with clients that you can't really connect to. I forget the term for it, flooding maybe, but essentially it stops people from downloading or reduces speed to a crawl. They can also submit bad files to the major sites so that people searching for a torrent may end up picking a bad torrent instead of a real one. You wouldn't realize it was bad until it had finished downloading. However these methods are pretty ineffective. Major sites have uploader rankings, torrent ratings and comments systems and probably also actively block bad content so it's fairly easy for the "legit" version to surface. If flooding is severe then people end up resubmitting the file under different names to create paths that aren't being poisoned, and its difficult for the company orchestrating the attacks to adapt to cover them all.


Question: What's, biologically, the purpose of a fetish?

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 What's, biologically, the purpose of a fetish?

There's not a biological purpose to them, as far as we can tell. One leading theory as to how fetishes occur is that when someone is very young, it's possible for them to have a very powerful emotional moment that gets their brain to fixate on something. That fixation can develop onto a fetish. It's basically our brains going "WOW. That was really intense. Now I can't stop thinking about it..."


Question: What is the difference between Dopamine, Endorphins and Serotonin?

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 What is the difference between Dopamine, Endorphins and Serotonin?

Two of the three of these are neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that relay information from one neuron to the next. The three you listed serve different purposes and complete different tasks. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is linked with your pleasure systems in the brain. Serotonin is another neurotransmitter linked with your sleep, dreaming, and general arousal. Endorphins are morphine like chemicals that act as the brain's natural painkillers. I hope this answers your questions.


Question: Can physicians/hospitals legally decline to provide certain medical services, such as an abortion? What about in cases of emergency?

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 Can physicians/hospitals legally decline to provide certain medical services, such as an abortion? What about in cases of emergency?

They absolutely can but in an emergency must then help arrange transport to a facility that can perform the needed procedures. This is very common for trauma services, cardiac surgery, etc. Most Catholic hospitals that do not perform abortions have no objection to life-saving care that incidentally requires the death of a fetus, such as ruptured ectopics, etc. They won't perform elective abortions.


Question: How exactly do two gasses (Hydrogen and Oxygen) make a liquid when they are together?

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 How exactly do two gasses (Hydrogen and Oxygen) make a liquid when they are together?

A molecule is not required to share any characteristics whatsoever with the atoms it's made up from. That's why we can take sodium, which is a soft metal that spontaneously burns when dropped in water, and chlorine, a toxic green gas, combine them together, and get a delicious white crystalline solid (aka common salt). As for the combination of the gasses, no, oxygen and hydrogen won't spontaneously condense into water if you mix them together. You need something to spark the reaction--literally, in this case; a spark or flame will heat the gas mixture enough to start the reaction going, and since the reaction is exothermic (produces heat) then it will keep going once started until all reactants are consumed. The practical upshot of this is, if you have hydrogen and oxygen mixed together in their ideal 2:1 ratio and you apply a spark, the whole lot will blow up in your face producing hot water (e.g. steam) as the product.


Question: when you cook meet to it’s specific “safe” temperature, does all the bacteria die at the exact moment it reaches that temperature or is is a steady death?

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 when you cook meet to it’s specific “safe” temperature, does all the bacteria die at the exact moment it reaches that temperature or is is a steady death?

They don't all die at the same instant. Every different bacteria has a different time/temperature curve...longer exposure to lower heat will result in just as much kill as shorter exposure at higher heat. This is how pasteurization works in beer/milk (low temperature, long period). Depending on the bacteria, they get \*happier\* as you increase from freezing-to-fridge-to-room-to-slightly-warm. Then they start to die. Like /u/Lurkesalot said, up around 165F they're basically all dead so you don't need to stay at that temperature for any period of time. At boiling they're all stone cold dead, hence boiling water to make it safe(er). But if you're at, say, 150F you may need to hold there for a longer period to get the same amount of dead bugs.


Question: Why do economists say that rent control is bad?

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 Why do economists say that rent control is bad?

Because rent are dependant on supply and demand. When the supply of habitation is lower than the demand the price go up. Rent control artifically keep the price of rent low, but this doesn't change the core problem. If the rent stay low, it become less interesting for people to build affordable habitation. So either they build less in that city, or they build something else that is more profitable for them. The supply and demand stay the same, so the price of construction go up and the price of land go up too. The only realy way to keep rent low is by increasing the supply and rent control is doing the opposite, it's a temporary solution that make thing worst on long term.


Question: why does exercise, and receptive movement become more automatic? example: i’ve been running more, and i’m barely aware my legs are moving now

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 why does exercise, and receptive movement become more automatic? example: i’ve been running more, and i’m barely aware my legs are moving now

Your brain remembers movements. When you are learning a new activity, you have to fine-tune every step of the process. This requires getting sensory info, info from the muscle, and decide if it's going correctly. Once the 'flow' is defined, your brain condenses that whole process, and kicks out all the feedback you get back during the process. The whole thing is executed in one block, not pieces like it is when you're learning


Question: How does a person know if he/she belongs to lower middle class, middle class, upper middle class community?

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 How does a person know if he/she belongs to lower middle class, middle class, upper middle class community?

According to Fussell, the man who literally wrote the book on American classes (keep in mind that he was writing 20 years ago, so the class markers have shifted a bit): Upper middle * earns a high income (not inheriting their wealth) from professional service jobs like investment banking, law, or medicine, but isn't established enough to join a higher class. * tends to be more egalitarian in gender roles * likes to show off their education (stuff like naming pets after obscure authors) Middle class * Marked by an obsession with others' views of them. * Are company men (and women), they're frequently hired from state schools and taught that being a team player is the key career goal, so they move more than other classes at the company's request * deep desire to appear proper, so tends to write unecessary thank yous, and give gifts beyond what would be expected (stemming from a desire to do the proper thing). * interests in products or services that sell exclusivity Lower middle class (Fussell doesn't use that name, but it's similar to his high prole class): * desires to be exactly on time to social events. * works in skilled work and crafts, is insulted if seen as/combined with less skilled labor. * places a high value on sports * tends to prefer flashy cars and appliances While there are always exceptions, money is an important part of US classes, the middle classes are generally marked by stable employment, but not having what the bankers call "fuck you money" which is enough money to tell your boss off and quit, without worrying about money for the rest of your life.


Question: Does the closest number to 10 exist?

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 Does the closest number to 10 exist?

The number doesn't exist. You can always find a number than lies between any two numbers you pick (just add them and divide by 2). So if you think you've found a solution, you can also find a number between your solution and 10. But that means that your solution must have been wrong. There are ideas like the hyperreal numbers which do include a closest number to 10. However, they're not part of "standard" mathematics. They're more the result of mathematicians thinking "I know no solution exists, but what would math be like if we just assume that one does exist?"


Question: Why does sound quality drop when the volume is too high? What causes it to sometimes sound 'grainy'?

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 Why does sound quality drop when the volume is too high? What causes it to sometimes sound 'grainy'?

A [typical speaker]( URL_0 ) is a cone of paper that's attached to a magnetic system, with the magnetic force moving the paper up and down, according to the frequency of the music or sounds that are played. To make louder sounds, the speaker cone has to vibrate more vigorously, and as explained above, at some point the physical constraints in the speaker prevent the cone from accurately moving with the music, resulting in distortion.


Question: Many drugs say that their mechanism of action is not fully understood, what drugs have their mechanism of action fully understood, and what determines it to be "fully understood"?

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 Many drugs say that their mechanism of action is not fully understood, what drugs have their mechanism of action fully understood, and what determines it to be "fully understood"?

When you hear that a mechanism of action (MOA) is not fully understood, what they are saying is that there is no good explanation for how taking a drug produces it's therapeutic effect. I think a good example of a drug where we know the MOA is insulin. Insulin binds to a protein on the outside of cells called the insulin receptor. When the insulin receptor binds insulin, it causes many chemical changes inside the cell which results in effects such as cellular uptake of glucose and energy storage in the form of glycogen and fat. The reason it is well understood is because ther have been many, *many*, experiments that have shown us exactly what insulin is interacting with and what chemical changes are occurring in response.


Question: How does Carbon Dating work?

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 How does Carbon Dating work?

When organic organisms are alive, they absorb naturally occurring Carbon 14 isotopes from the environment. Carbon 14 decays into Carbon 12 at a half life of 5,730 years. When an organic organism dies, it stops absorbing Carbon 14, however the Carbon 14 it has absorbed continues to decay. So by measuring the ratio of C14 to C12 in the specimen and knowing the half life decay rate, you can pretty accurately calculate how old the specimen is. This only works for organic materials, and cannot be used on metals or stone. So when dating an archeological site, the scientists have to find something organic, like a woven basket, to Carbon date.


Question: How come multiple wireless providers can all claim they have the best speeds? Isn’t wireless connectivity and accessibility something that can be objectively measured and ranked?

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 How come multiple wireless providers can all claim they have the best speeds? Isn’t wireless connectivity and accessibility something that can be objectively measured and ranked?

They use different metrics to determine what is "best", because "best" is a subjective term in marketing. They could be referring to "the best wireless speed compared to two other local service providers that haven't upgraded their equipment in twenty years", or "the best wireless speed available in Sedona, Arizona." You have to read the fine print to determine what their metric is. When it's all big-brand companies, they often use metrics gathered from different sources. For example, Verizon might use URL_0 to determine "best speed", but they also might throttle their speeds outside of the URL_0 domain; whereas Comcast might use average speed for the top 10 most popular websites.


Question: Why do some TV shows hide well known logos with tape?

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 Why do some TV shows hide well known logos with tape?

> What legal repercussions could happen if they don’t tape up the logo? Nothing. The Apple logo is trademarked but that only prevents you from slapping the trademark on your own products, it doesn't prevent you from incidentally including the logo in a video you produce. Some logos are also protected by copyright. If all you're doing is videotaping a copyrighted logo up close then that is actually copyright infringement, but in the case of your documentary that's not what's going on. You are allowed to use a copyrighted work if your use of the work is "transformative". That doesn't mean what the internet thinks it means, but its extremely clear that if the copyrighted logo is incidentally recorded as part of a documentary interview then showing the logo in that context is "transformative" within the legal meaning of that term. So why do they do it? Its an industry standard to block out the logos because broadcasters can, and do, charge to have the logos unblocked. That doesn't mean that's why your particular documentary did that. A weird thing about human nature is that people tend to copy whatever the biggest person in their industry is doing. Sometimes this results in weird behaviors because people copy things without understanding why they're copying them and that sometimes leads to behaviors being copied over into circumstances where the behavior isn't necessary. So for example, its possible that your documentary didn't have any real reason to block out the Apple logo but did anyways because they saw the big TV networks doing it, didn't understand why it was being done, and assumed that there was some legal purpose for it even though there was not.


Question: How does frequency turn into sound?

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 How does frequency turn into sound?

It’s not meant to represent anything or any sound in particular, it’s bunch of different frequencies being played in sequence, it’s pure tones that you don’t really hear normally, music instruments don’t sound like that, they sound like many different frequencies played together. However pure pitches like this can be useful to test how well your stereo or your hearing works on various frequencies Side note: YouTube can’t really reproduce sounds above 16000 Hz or so, so it’s not really a good test anyways