Question: Why do different parts of The world use different types of electrical outlets?

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 Why do different parts of The world use different types of electrical outlets?

Different countries developed the electrical networks/cabling/standards at different times and independently of each other. There was no particular reason to conform to a single standard because international travel was not as widespread as it is now (as well as portable consumer electronics not being popular). Nowadays, there isn’t enough incentive to redo all the wiring to switch to one standard, so everything stays as is.


Question: why do humans hate being lied to?

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 why do humans hate being lied to?

Because in the end, it doesn't matter how you want things to be; it only matters how they really are. Lies, beautiful or terrible, prevent reliable decision making. As conscious creatures, caught in a turbulent sea of constant change, our decisions, our choices, define us. When someone lies to you, they are taking away the ability to define ourselves, and making those choices, those definitions in our stead.


Question: What is the difference between diesel & regular gasoline?

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 What is the difference between diesel & regular gasoline?

Fuels are comprised of hydrocarbons of varying lengths / densities. This includes aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, etc.) and saturated hydrocarbons, such as methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, nonane, decane, etc. (In increasing order of size). Refineries separate the various components using fractional distillation, with the lightest components boiling off first, and the heavier chains requiring greater temperatures to separate. Every fuel grade has a target composition, with a range of densities of the hydrocarbon components, plus additives and detergents etc. Gasoline is mostly hexane, with some heavier components. (e.g. C5-C8). Diesel is generally composed of somewhat heavier hydrocarbon chains (e.g. C8-C11). In a gasoline engine, a spark plug initiates the combustion inside the cylinder. In a diesel engine, there are no spark plugs. The diesel fuel ignites spontaneously due to the heat of compression, which is usually much stronger than in a gasoline engine. Diesel fuel has a much higher power density than gasoline, but this requires much heavier built engines to contain the greater cylinder pressures.


Question: How can you freeze in space, when there is no matter to exchange temperature with?

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 How can you freeze in space, when there is no matter to exchange temperature with?

There are 3 methods of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction and convection require some medium of transfer. Radiation however, does not, because it's the emission of infrared radiation, which is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, so heat does absolutely transfer in space, just only via radiation. And no, it's no where near as fast as in the movies because radiation is the slowest of the 3 methods. As for how long it would take for specific things to freeze, that depends on if they're directly exposed to vacuum or inside some sort of container or space suit because water behaves very differently in a vacuum. It also depends on how far they are from the sun or whether they're in sunlight or not.


Question: What causes significant explosions to produce the iconic mushroom shape cloud to form?

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 What causes significant explosions to produce the iconic mushroom shape cloud to form?

The explosion creates a region of low density hot gas. This rises. Typically, given it is a big explosion, there's smoke/debris which are then pulled upwards with the smoke. The stem. Once the gas reaches an elevation where the air has the same density as itself, it stops ascending and spreads outwards, with the debris it contains. The cap.


Question: Why are most smartphone touchscreens made out of glass instead of plastic?

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 Why are most smartphone touchscreens made out of glass instead of plastic?

Even though plastic screens don't crack and cost less, glass screens are more durable in the end. Glass cracks sure, but they don't get scratched as much, which is mostly what happens. Most phones are scratched more often than cracked so it's better in the long run. Think if you had to put your phone in the same pocket with coins and keys like some people do, you would get it scratched every time you put it in your pocket if you had a plastic screen. Also, glass screens are better for touchscreen devices since it makes it easier to register touches by the sensors. I watch a lot of phone scratch test videos and most smartphones with a glass screen will scratch at a Lv 6-7 on mohs hardness scale while plastic screens scratch at a Lv 3. Think about the new Nintendo Switch. It has a plastic screen because Nintendo thinks that you will have it kept tidy, and you won't have it in your pocket damaging the screen.


Question: Why/how does water activate soap to become bubbly and essentially usable?

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 Why/how does water activate soap to become bubbly and essentially usable?

This is a bit of a side note - soap does not need to be bubbly to be an effective cleaner. Things like dishwashers and front load washers use soaps that are low sudsing. The reason soap is effective is largely from the way it reduces the surface tension of the water. It does this because water is a very polar molecule - like little magnets that want to stick together. This is why water forms beads, and why you can fill a cup OVER the edge. The soap interferes with this polarity because it has one end that is like a magnet and one end that isnt. So it prevents the water molecules from sticking together. This is also what allows the water to encapsulate the dirt and oils and wash them away. Bubbles are optional. Some soaps are artificially made more bubbly by adding sugary substances. The 'stickiness' for lack of a better understanding allows the molecules to stick together in a way that nicely forms bubbles, but not in a way that significantly inhibits the cleaning action.


Question: Why does soap bubble up when you disrupt the water it’s in?

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 Why does soap bubble up when you disrupt the water it’s in?

Soap reduces surface tension of water, which is to say, it makes water able to be thinned out/stretched easier. When you disturb soap water, you are pushing air into the water. This air wants to escape due to buoyancy, and when it tries to, it pushes water above upwards. With reduced surface tension, it is able to push water all the way out of the waterline forming a bubble.


Question: Why do some airplanes leave a white trail after them while others do not?

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 Why do some airplanes leave a white trail after them while others do not?

The same reason some mornings you can see your breath and other mornings you cannot. Just like you, airplanes exhaust hot, humid air as a result of burning fuel. When conditions are right in the surrounding air, that water condenses into tiny droplets which are seen as white trails, and other times it remains the same invisible exhaust.


Question: how does big game hunting, such as sanctioned trophy hunts in Africa, increase the hunted species' population size?

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 how does big game hunting, such as sanctioned trophy hunts in Africa, increase the hunted species' population size?

A lot of the time a good percent of the huge fees to go big game hunting is spent on preservation So with the money they get from letting someone kill one animal, they build the infrastructure, like food and pens and anti poacher guards, to save more than one. Additionally, it enourages people to save, preserve, and grow the numbers of these animals, since they can make big money off of them. Without this income, no one would have much interest in protecting these animals and breeding/cultivatibg their population/protecting them, and no money to do so even if they had the interest, so they'd be subject to all the harshness of nature and at the mercy of poachers


Question: What makes people pass out from pain? Is there a specific pain threshold that will make anyone pass out?

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 What makes people pass out from pain? Is there a specific pain threshold that will make anyone pass out?

I believe this to be an individual threshold. I had my knee hit the dashboard in a head on collision and drive the head of my femur through the back of my hip socket, In order to make clear headed medical decisions ( as I woukd be alone at hospital) I took no pain meds. Then they set a traction pin in my leg by drilling through the bone while I was awake, without pain meds ( my choice same reasons) I also did rehab and PT with just OTC anti-inflammatory meds. No narcs. So, I guess my pain tolerance is pretty high. I will say though, I screamed like a baby when they rolled me in xray to put a wedge under my hip. Never felt anything like that before. But now, after going through all that, I find my pain tolerance seems even higher as nothing really hurts as bad as tge worst thing I have ever felt. I imagine I am pretty atypical though


Question: What does it mean to have something notarized?

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 What does it mean to have something notarized?

A document that's been notarized has been approved by an a neutral and trusted public official called a notary public. Basically it means the notary witnesses and confirms the identity of the person or persons signing the document and that they understand what the document does so there's no question later as to its validity. This is usually required for documents that you really don't want questioned, like property deeds, wills, and powers of attorney.


Question: Are humans the only animals with a sense of humor?

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 Are humans the only animals with a sense of humor?

We aren't. We have a sense of humor that we can easily understand, but that doesn't mean that animals don't have one. Specifically, the more intelligent animals, like chimps and dolphins love to play around and mess with each other. Even dogs can get mischievous sometimes, though that may just be instinct.


Question: How do you make money by buying shares in a company?

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 How do you make money by buying shares in a company?

Two ways: 1. The value of those shares could go up in the future and you could resell them at a higher price than you bought them. 2. Many companies pay a dividend where they give a small amount of money to every person who owns a share of the company's stock.


Question: Why do old balloons shrivel up when you touch them?

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 Why do old balloons shrivel up when you touch them?

The oil in your skin. Latex is a semi-liquid oil based elastomer (elastic (stretchy) polymer). When it ages, some of that stretchy property is lost and some of the liquid leaks out. The oil in your skin makes a good lubricating replacement for it. It can rapidly be absorbed by the latex and your skin can rapidly absorb the liquid latex left in the surface of the old baloon. This unevenness in oil content makes the baloon wrinkly.


Question: what exactly is anti aliasing? I usually dont mess around with graphic settings in games, but recently I've gotten curious.

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 what exactly is anti aliasing? I usually dont mess around with graphic settings in games, but recently I've gotten curious.

your computer’s monitor is made up of a bunch of pixels, which are tiny squares that are each one color. this is great for drawing perfectly horizontal or vertical lines, but of course a diagonal line or a curve doesn’t perfectly fit into square pixels, so in order for these to not come out with jagged edges, we shade the edges, aka antialiasing. [click here for an example of before and after]( URL_0 )


Question: why when I’m standing on a moving train and I jump, the train doesn’t move around me?

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 why when I’m standing on a moving train and I jump, the train doesn’t move around me?

The train gives you its forward motion after you climb aboard and it starts moving. Everything in the train, you, other people, the luggage, the air, everything is moving forward at the same speed as the train. Things in motion tend to stay in motion unless there's some force acting upon them. Friction, or actually being pushed, etc. So if you were to jump straight up, and at that moment the train slammed the brakes for some reason, the train would slow down abruptly, but you would still have the same motion as before, because while you're airborne (from the jump) only the force of gravity affects you, and gravity pulls straight down, not sideways. So you would see the train suddenly stop, and a camera bolted to the train would record you suddenly moving forward. This is why they have seatbelts in cars. You're going at the same speed as the car, but if the car hits something, IT would suddenly stop, but you'd be still [going forward at the same speed]( URL_0 ), and basically hit the front of the cabin and/or with possibly enough force to be thrown through the window.


Question: What is the Bayes Theorem and why is it useful?

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 What is the Bayes Theorem and why is it useful?

It's about correlation, and reverse correlation. Suppose you notice that 90% of people wearing hats are men. Is it therefore reasonable to assume that 90% of men wear hats? Well of course not - that example seems obvious, but there are lots of examples that aren't that clear. Let's say that 90% of cancer patients got a positive result in some blood test. If you take the test and get a positive result, does that mean there's a 90% chance you have cancer? Let's say that 90% of terrorist acts are committed by people from a certain country. If you see someone from that country, is there a 90% chance they're a terrorist? You can't just reverse the probability like that - it's flat-out incorrect. In maths terms, you write P(A|B) for the probability that A, given that B is true. From my first example, we can say that P(is-man|wearing-hat) = 90%, or 0.9 Now we want to flip that around and get P(wearing-hat|is-man). You can do this, but you need two more bits of information: the probability that *anybody, regardless of gender* is wearing a hat, and the probability that *anybody, regardless of hat-wearing*, is a man. Let's say that hat-wearers are 1% of the population, and men are 50% of the population. Now we have enough information to work with. * P(A) = P(is-man) = 0.5 * P(B) = P(wears-hat) = 0.01 * P(A|B) = P(is-man|wears-hat) = 0.9 Now, Bayes' theorem says that P(B|A) = ( P(A|B) * P(B) ) / P(A) * P(B|A) = (0.9 * 0.01) / (0.5) = 0.018 So there's a 1.8% chance that someone will be wearing a hat if they're a man. That's one hell of a long way from the 90% that a naive approach might suggest. Bayes' theorem is useful in all *kinds* of fields, but I've found it's super-good for yelling at racists with. If you want to know *why* Bayes' theorem works, take a look at URL_0


Question: How does gold end up concentrated in a vein on Earth, considering the contents originate from multiple separate supernovae?

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 How does gold end up concentrated in a vein on Earth, considering the contents originate from multiple separate supernovae?

So there are a *lot* of factors at play here so I'm skipping a fair bit. The current theory of how gold seams form is as follows: Deep underground, a lot of minerals are fairly homogenously dissolved in groundwater and, because it's underground, this water is at extremely high pressure (3000 atmospheres). Earthquakes at these depths can cause fissures and cracks to open up between the rocks, and when this happens the pressure drops to close to 1 atmosphere. This causes the water to vaporise, depositing all the minerals dissolved in it onto the surrounding rock, gold included. When the earthquake is over and pressure normalises, the water condenses and re-dissolves most of the minerals. Gold is not very soluble though, so it is less able to be re-absorbed and stays as a thin deposit on the rock. This process repeats over and over until a significant amount of gold has been deposited in a seam/vein. At this point some kind of geological activity is required to bring the seam to, or close to, the surface. Earthquakes, plate tectonics, volcanoes, etc can all do this. It's no coincidence that the (well, a) gold rush occurred in California, an extremely earthquake-prone part of the world!


Question: Why do carbonated beverages sometimes hurt to drink when they are super bubbly?

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 Why do carbonated beverages sometimes hurt to drink when they are super bubbly?

Its not actually because they're bubbly, but because of the carbon dioxide itself. The bubbles do enhance it though. When you drink something with carbon dioxide, enzymes in your mouth convert the carbon dioxide into carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is too weak to actually hurt you, but it can stimulate nerve endings in your mouth, which we feel as pain.


Question: Can any rock be a flint? I sometimes see people just bash 2 rocks together to create some sparks which they use to start a campfire, so which one of the two have to be flintstone to do so? And how do we identify a flint in nature? cuz for me they dont look that different from normal rocks

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 Can any rock be a flint? I sometimes see people just bash 2 rocks together to create some sparks which they use to start a campfire, so which one of the two have to be flintstone to do so? And how do we identify a flint in nature? cuz for me they dont look that different from normal rocks

When you use flint to create fire you are hitting a fire striker that is most of the time high carbon steel. The shape and hard edge on the flint are chipping away a small amount of metal from the fire starter and it is it that creates the spark and the fire. The sparks do not come from the flint. The flint can remain unchanged and you still have sparks but in practice, a small part of the edge will get broken off. Metal can be quite reactive with oxygen and a thin piece of metal that got hot from the removal process will spontaneously start to but in the air. You need hard steel for this process because the shaving needs to get hot to ignite in the air. So soft a steel and you only create metal shaving. The relative common Ferrocerium rod that is used as a fire starter today works in the same principle. Because of the cerium, they ignite a lower temperature than just iron. So it works in a softer metal rode where the shaving you create will not get that warm but enough for the cerium to ignite. Iron by itself would not ignite at that temperature. So the flint is a way to chip away metal. It is a hard stone that you can create a sharp edge on. Other stones can be used Wikipedia list chert, quartz, agate, jasper, or chalcedony as examples. You need a hard nonporous stone that you can create a shaped edge on to make a good striker against a fire starter. The stone needs to be harder than the metal If you ever have used an angle grinder to cut metal it produces a lot of speaks the same way as flit do. Grinders create sparks for the exact same reason. & #x200B; You do not even need steel. Iron pyrite or marcasite was used before humans could make steel. They are minerals with iron bonded to sulfur. You could use other metal, but iron is the most common. Deplete uranium projectiles that hit an armored vehicle will produce small and hot uranium practice that will ignite by them selfe. You can in principle get glowing particle release from any stone because any material will do that if they are hot enough. If they are hot about they could ignite the tinder. The problem lot of force is required and it is hard to direct spark to the tinder So even if your can creates space by hitting two random rock together with the high force it is very hard to create a fire with that. That way might work fine is you have an explosive gas mixture in the air around the stone but that is not a controlled or safe way to make a fire. & #x200B; So flint is commonly used because it is quite common and easy to create a sharp edge on. It is the metal you hit that creates the spark. You need a thin edge to deliver enough force to create metal shaving. You also need a system that do not require a lot of force so it can be controlled and be small and light so you can transport it.


Question: What makes different types of coffee taste different?

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 What makes different types of coffee taste different?

The three main things: Origin (location the bean was grown in), roast, and preparation **Origin**: Much like wine, where and how a coffee plant is grown is going to effect the flavor of the bean it produces. Coffee actually isn't grow in large quantities in too many places because the plant itself needs more specific conditions to grow well. A coffee plant from Brazil, Indonesia, or Kenya is going to produce different flavors in its beans. **Roast**: Coffee beans are roasted, the bean you take out is [green and raw]( URL_2 ). Essentially they are cooked before we consume them. For simplicity, we'll say there are three roasts, [light, medium and dark]( URL_1 ). A Light coffee means its lightly roasted. Its flavor will be bright have some zing, a little fruity and have a very "coffee" like taste. A dark roast will be robust, deep flavored, even chocolatey or toasty flavors. A medium is well, in-between both. **Preparation**: There are many ways to brew coffee and to grind it. Depending on the [size of the grind]( URL_0 ) and method of preparation you can extract more and different flavors from the ground beans. If you're just use to filter coffee, understand its only one of many ways to make coffee and using the same bean, with a different grind in a different method, may produce a substantially different flavor of final drink Preparation is incredibly important. Some fancy coffee places will have tastings where they take the same bean and prepare it different ways and you taste them all together and you can tell the difference.


Question: If scientists know that a chemical imbalance causes depression / other mental illnesses, why can they not be simply cured with meds?

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 If scientists know that a chemical imbalance causes depression / other mental illnesses, why can they not be simply cured with meds?

They do. There are many drugs such as SSRIs, MAOIs, TCAs etc that are used to change the level of some chemicals in the brain that are responsible for the condition of clinical depression. But the problem is that depression is a multifactorial disease and most of the times drugs are used as a temporary fix to stabilise the patient so a more permanent course can be take such as therapy. Also the prolonged use of medication can lead not only to dependence but cause many unwanted side effects.


Question: How do phone games that advertise paying you (supposed) real money, earn that money?

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 How do phone games that advertise paying you (supposed) real money, earn that money?

They earn money from advertisements and end up giving out only a tiny amount of that. You will find that most of those kind of games are some sort of chance games and have a high threshold to actually cash out. It will then usually have something you can buy to increase your chances either with your points or real money. Things like refilling the timer or entering a draw. Some people may be lucky to get a bigger amount, say $50. But most of it will be something like getting 25cents a day if you're lucky. The company may be getting a couple cents per advertisement viewed but for you to gain 25 cents, you end up watching 50 advertisements. Then there's the people who watch all the ads and spend time but then decide that it will take them too long to reach the cash out threshold which is generally set to around $20 or more. For example, you have 100 people who, in total, watched 10000 advertisements which earned the company $100. One of them won $50 and they're happy, the rest kept only getting 25 cents and have $1-5 in their accounts. To cash out, they need $20. So they have given up. So the company gives out the $50 and have another $50 left which will probably never be given out.


Question: When soap breaks down the cellular membranes of cells why/how is it safe to use on our skin?

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 When soap breaks down the cellular membranes of cells why/how is it safe to use on our skin?

Our skin has a layer of dead cells on the top, as well as natural oils that form a somewhat protective barrier against certain things like soap. When your hands dry out after washing them a lot, that is your oil barrier being removed. Individual cells and viral particles pretty much don't have as thick of a lipid (lipids are fats/oils) layer as our entire skin surface does, so the soap degrades them more quickly. Our bodies are also able to produce much more oil to keep our skin healthy than each little particle can, so after our hands dry out some we still have living cells beneath the dried out dead ones that can generate more oil. However, not all pathogens are extremely susceptible to the killing effects of soap, which is why scrubbing and washing off vigorously for \~20 seconds is so important: good soap in the right concentration actually forms small little bubbles called micelles which surround dirt, pathogens and other debris, and allow them to become much more water soluble. That slippery feeling is the soap working, so make sure you feel that before you finish scrubbing, and continue to scrub as you wash away with warm water!


Question: Why Can’t the worlds Billionaires feed poor countries?

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 Why Can’t the worlds Billionaires feed poor countries?

The money cost of "solving world hunger" is quite low. The political complications are high. Most starvation in the world is caused by things like wars and other political conflicts. Getting the food to the people who need it is the problem, not buying it. That means the billionaires would either need to bribe warlords (counterproductive) or get their own private militaries (expensive, and also probably not something you want to happen)


Question: How does the damage and lethality of an arrow shot from a bow compare to a bullet shot from a rifle?

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 How does the damage and lethality of an arrow shot from a bow compare to a bullet shot from a rifle?

It's entirely possible for an arrow to pass completely through an unarmored person. Same for rifle bullets. Most deaths from either were due to blood loss or infection, but instant death is certainly possible for critical traumas for either. The main advantage of bullets over arrows is portability, rate of fire, and ease of use: most longbowmen carried about twenty or thirty arrows in war, could shoot about ten aimed arrows per minute, and it was said that to properly train an excellent longbowman you started by training his grandfather.


Question: How does my car's A/C work for years and years - where does the burnt Freon (or whatever) go?

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 How does my car's A/C work for years and years - where does the burnt Freon (or whatever) go?

Freon doesn’t burn. The heat (or energy) in the cabin air in your car is used to convert the Freon into a gas, so the heat is pulled out of the air making it feel cooler. The Freon is then condensed outside the cabin of your car. Condensing the Freon from a gas to a liquid pulls the heat out, and the AC dumps that heat into the atmosphere outside the cabin of your car. Freon is in a continual loop from gas to liquid. If your AC has a small leak in the loop, you can lose Freon over time.


Question: Does the set of all sets contain itself?

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 Does the set of all sets contain itself?

In [naive set theory]( URL_1 ), the set of all sets contains itself, because it is a set, so it must contain itself. However, naive set theory results in paradoxes, for example, does the set of all sets that do not contain themselves, contain itself? If it doesn't contain itself, then it must contain itself. But if it does contain itself, then it must not contain itself. This is called [Russell's paradox]( URL_0 ). To deal with that, mathematicians came up with different ways to formulate set theory to prevent these kinds of paradoxes. The most popular is called [Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]( URL_2 ). It disallows this type of set construction. So, asking about the set of all sets is a bit like asking what 1 + blue is equal to.


Question: My science teacher said, in physics 5x5=30 but in traditional mathematics 5x5=25. However in physics 5.0x5.0=25. why?

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 My science teacher said, in physics 5x5=30 but in traditional mathematics 5x5=25. However in physics 5.0x5.0=25. why?

Your teacher is talking about something called "significant figures". Significant figures talk about precision or accuracy in a measurement. Imagine measuring the length of an object with a ruler. This type of measurement isn't necessarily precise, right? You might measure something out to be 4.9 millimeters but your friend might guess it's closer to 5.0 When you say something is "5" centimeters, you're saying it is 5 whole centimeters but aren't talking about how many 10ths of a centimeter it is past those 5. The notation "5.0" says something like, "we're certain it is 5 centimeters and 0 whole tenths of a centimeter". Carrying it out further, "5.01" would be, "5 whole centimeters, 0 tenths of a centimeter and 1 hundredth of a centimeter". Now this is where 5.0x5.0 and 5x5 give different answers. You want to use the *least precise* number when doing calculations. The number 5 has one significant figure. When you multiply two numbers with one significant figure together, your result should be written with one significant figure. Basically, if you're doing a calculation, your answer can't suddenly be more precise than the measurements going into that calculation if that makes sense. Therefore, that answer is 30. There are a lot of rules for when a digit is considered significant or insignificant. You can read a lot more about it [here]( URL_0 ) 25 as an answer would say it's "two whole 10 units and 5 whole single units". The number "30" just says it's "three whole 10 units and we can't be exact about how many single units it is". Hopefully that starts to explain it.


Question: why depth of field effect in video games is not used to increase game performance by rendering the out of focus parts at lower resolution?

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 why depth of field effect in video games is not used to increase game performance by rendering the out of focus parts at lower resolution?

Blurring parts of the image is actually going to be even more demanding on the graphics card. Instead most games DO in fact switch to lower quality versions of objects and terrain at long distances since they're too small and too few pixels to notice. In some games it's actually quite noticeable when they instantly transition between low and high quality versions. They just don't bother to try hiding it, or if they do they use something simpler like a fog effect.


Question: Why can't magnets be used to create a motor that never stops?

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 Why can't magnets be used to create a motor that never stops?

Because a motor has to drive something else to move also, and in doing so the energy input that began the perpetual motion you describe gets dissipated. This causes that motion to slow and eventually stop. Edit: Just to add, most perpetual motion displays (often toys) use an object that doesn't appear to stop spinning once it starts. What's happening here is that the magnets are used to reduce the resistance to the objects turning as much as possible, so nothing slows it down. This doesn't work for a motor because a motor that is not being resisted is essentially doing nothing.


Question: Why are various human ancestors (Neanderthals, Denisovans, modern humans) considered different species?

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 Why are various human ancestors (Neanderthals, Denisovans, modern humans) considered different species?

Despite being a literal science, taxonomy (the classification of animals) is not an exact science. Species change and evolve very slowly over time and there is no definite "point" where they stop being one species and become another. Because of this, the lines become blurred between different organisms and catagories change a lot. It is true that as a general rule of thumb, people tend to refer to whether organisms can produce fertile offspring in nature. A mule is the offspring of a donkey and a horse, but it is not fertile -- it cannot reproduce, not even with other mules. This is because horses and donkeys don't even have the same number of chromosomes (64 and 62 respectively). When animals reproduce, each parent passes along half of their chromosomes to the child. In this case, the horse gives 32 and the donkey 31 for a total of 63. However, when it comes time for a mule to potentially breed, the odd number of chromosomes cannot be split evenly in half. This means that the animal is infertile -- it can't produce babies. On the other hand, humans (referring here to modern *homo sapiens*) and Neanderthals both have 46 chromosomes. This makes it possible for them to have fertile offspring. Nonetheless, the resulting hybrids very well may have had some birth defects and a lower rate of fertility, with only a small portion going on to have their own children. Either way, their genes were added to our own gene pool. This is a phenomenon referred to as "introgressive hybridization." In more simple terms, this means that the genetic information from one species from the past is present in the population of a later species. Modern humans are not Neanderthals but most of us have a small amount of their genes. This has also occured with Denisovans, as you mentioned. Essentially, the answer to your original question is that nature simply doesn't fit easily into simplified catagories. Many designations we have are arbitrary. Even things as broad as "mammal." For example, when did a dinosaur descendant stop being a reptile and become a bird? Nowhere; these are labels we assign based on criteria that aren't always as clear cut as you would think. This is no different with species, so trying to come up with "rules" for differentiating them is helpful but never concrete.


Question: Why do skyboxes break when going out of bounds?

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 Why do skyboxes break when going out of bounds?

What should the video card display in those areas where there aren't any objects or textures? There is no information to be shown so that part of the display register just isn't updated, meaning it keeps whatever value was put in their last. That is what you are seeing with the "broken" areas of the image.


Question: What exactly is different about hair conditioner formulas that make them better at certain jobs? (Volumizing, Split Ends, Etc.)

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 What exactly is different about hair conditioner formulas that make them better at certain jobs? (Volumizing, Split Ends, Etc.)

The fats, oils, and detergents used...as well as concentrations of these compounds. This is also the difference between shampoos and conditioners. Different fats, fatty acids, oils, foaming agents, and salts react to dirt and hair and things differently. Removing or keeping certain oils and dirt-stuff in hair has X effect (sometimes good, sometimes bad), so conditioners designed to yield X effect will use a compound that keeps/removes one type of "filth" more effectively and removes/keeps a different type of "filth" more effectively. Let's use "Dye retention". You want something that won't wash out the color, so you want to avoid the "soaps" that aren't effective at removing chemicals with the same chain-length as hair-color dyes.


Question: Do gases like helium always change your voice by a certain amount of octaves, if not, why?

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 Do gases like helium always change your voice by a certain amount of octaves, if not, why?

This is actually a pretty complex question. I'm afraid I don't have an analytical answer but the result is unlikely to be a multiple of octaves. When you make a tone with your voice, you're using the air to vibrate your vocals chords. The speed at which these skin flaps vibrate is what gives your pitch. The way the skin moves is actually linearly dependant on the speed of sound in the gas. The speed of sound in a gas is not linearly related to density, the elasticity of the gas comes into play. So if the gas you're breathing has a speed of sound which is half, double, quadruple (and so on, basically powers of 2) that of air, the note you generate will be a natural number of octaves from the note you intended to generate. This should happen regardless of that vocal range you generally operate in.


Question: How is nutritional information for food (calories etc.) calculated and how accurate is what we see on the label?

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 How is nutritional information for food (calories etc.) calculated and how accurate is what we see on the label?

If we know nothing about the food, we use a calorimeter, which essentially uses the food as fuel to heat up a specific amount of water a number of degrees. From that, there is a formula to calculate the amount of energy in the food from how much the temperature of the water changed. I would assume that this is run many times on many random samples of the food and averaged. The weight of the food should be the only thing that really changes how accurate the calorie information is, but that is usually very very close to what the package dictates. However, I would assume that because we've done this so many times to some foods, we just add up the agreed upon calorie count per weight unit of the ingredients in a serving of food and put that on the label. For example, we know how many calories in 1 ounce of potato slices and the number of calories in 2 tablespoons of vegetable oil, so for a new brand of chips, it's just addition. For other nutritional information, like potassium content, for example, I would assume that there is a chemical reaction that's used for a close approximation of the value. Like in basic algebra, we would have knowns for all the values of the equation that requires potassium except for the one we are looking for. We put the food, or molecular part of the food that we know has the potassium component in the same quantity as a serving, in the environment which would trigger a chemical reaction, and see how far the reaction goes. How much of our control substance changes in color or temperature or whatever other easily observed factor. Reactions pretty much don't ever go perfectly to completion, so there is very likely an invisible +/- this many units of the mineral or vitamin on the food label. I'm a Nutrition major, and I do a decent amount of lab work, so I think that these methods would make the most sense.


Question: Why are some states (especially in the Midwest, such as Kansas and Oklahoma) more prone to tornadic weather?

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 Why are some states (especially in the Midwest, such as Kansas and Oklahoma) more prone to tornadic weather?

The Appalachian mountains, and the Rocky Mountains form a kind of corridor that funnels arctic winds farther south into North America than they would travel otherwise. They also tend to channel moisture rich warm winds north from the Gulf of Mexico. This combination over mostly flat plains leads to there being a lot of tornados where these two air masses meet and mix.


Question: Why do ants only walk in a straight line and touch their heads with each other?

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 Why do ants only walk in a straight line and touch their heads with each other?

Ants leave chemical trails behind them to help guide the colony to food that's been discovered. They walk along these chemical trails, which is why you get lines of ants instead of hordes. The current theory on why they touch heads is to identify that they're of the same colony (via smell) and therefore are following back to base the right ant trail.


Question: How do desk measurements work? example Size 55 1/8x25 5/8 "

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 How do desk measurements work? example Size 55 1/8x25 5/8 "

55 and 1/8 an inches long by 25 and 5/8 inches wide. So if you are looking at it from where you sit, that’s about 4 and a half feet from right to left, and it extends just over 2 feet from you You say“by” when reading the x allowed. Measurements with this layout are always length, by width. And if there is a third measurement, that will be height


Question: Why is the order of operations in the order that its in?

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 Why is the order of operations in the order that its in?

It’s pretty much a convention, really it could be wherever you want, assuming you still have some parenthesis rule, you can write anything and it will work, you just need to put the parenthesis in different places The point of having an order is to remove ambiguity without the need to add parenthesis For example without any rule 7\*5-2 could be 33 or 21 depending on if you make the subtraction before or after the multiplication, but you can just say (7\*5)-2 since we’ve said we keep the parenthesis rule, this is no longer ambiguous However it’s really common to multiply stuff and then add it together, and putting parenthesis al the time is messy, so we say, do multiplication before addition, it just makes life easier This can be applied to the rest of operations as well, and then you can chose an order for all of them that fits, and the that PEMDAS was the one we chose


Question: What determines which color an object is?

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 What determines which color an object is?

There are two main ways color is determined: by colors absorbed or by colors reflected. & #x200B; By colors absorbed is much more common. Everything colored contains substances called pigments or dyes that absorb certain colors. The colors of light that are not absorbed by the pigments or dyes are the ones that reach your eyes and tell you what this object looks like. The exact colors of light absorbed depend strongly on the actual shape/structure of the pigment or dye. For example, the molecule chlorophyll in plants absorbs both red and blue light, but does not absorb green. The green light passes through and reaches your eye, so you see the leaf as green. & #x200B; Color can also come from structures in the material that reflect and strengthen a particular color. This is called "structural color". Good examples of this include bird feathers and butterfly wings. The Blue Morpho butterfly has tiny structures in its wings that amplify blue light, making its wings appear blue. Birds commonly have feathers that appear black as a background, but also have structural pigments that scatter green or blue light, resulting in a green or blue sheen on the feathers.


Question: Why are the cones in our eyes blue, red, and green, instead of the primary colors that make up everything (Blue, red, yellow)?

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 Why are the cones in our eyes blue, red, and green, instead of the primary colors that make up everything (Blue, red, yellow)?

> the primary colors that make up everything (Blue, red, yellow)? You are talking about the subtractive primaries used for painting and printing and their correct names are cyan, magenta and yellow. They are what you use when you start with a white canvas and add paint or ink to subtract light. For example, yellow paint subtracts blue light leaving only red and green light for your cones to detect. Using the names blue and red for the paint primaries cyan and magenta is common but technically wrong. The colours of your cones, red, green and blue, are the additive primaries used by TVs and similar displays which start with a black screen and add colour.


Question: Why are most pills cylindrical: Aside from being easier to swallow, wouldn’t a powder form work best?

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 Why are most pills cylindrical: Aside from being easier to swallow, wouldn’t a powder form work best?

I work in pharmaceutical QC and have been involved in testing tablets. It's a easy shape to form in molds, when you're medium is a powder. You do get other shapes, but the further you move away from disks or cylinders, the more precise you have to be with temperatures and pressures used in the forming molds. Tablets have to pass a friability (breakability) test. The tablets are tumbled in a drum and you can only lose a certain amount of surface area before failing the test. Shapes with more hard edges tend to fracture and break at these hard edges, and are more prone to failing. So manufacturers tend to keep to round shapes. Sachets of powder have been used, but suffer from two main issues. They tend not to be as stable in terms of shelf life. The whole surface area of loose powder is exposed to factors that may degrade the product. They deliver a full dose fast, so are unsuitable for timed release medicine. Most tablet or capsule forms are carefully formulated to deliver the dose over a specific time frame. From minutes for some painkillers or angina meds, to 24 hours or more for meds used to manage chronic conditions.


Question: Why do we bop our heads when hearing music?

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 Why do we bop our heads when hearing music?

I’m one of those people who can’t stay still when hearing music. I don’t even have to like it... if it has a beat, I’m a-boppin’. Meanwhile my husband is the exact opposite. He could be having a mind trip to Alpha Centauri on some vintage Yes, and he wouldn’t move a muscle. It’s incomprehensible to me. I absolutely did NOT understand how anyone can sit still without it meaning they thought the music was utter shit— in my world, sitting still to music takes effort so it’s a deliberate insult. Then one day, I read an article stating that, in music-wigglers like me, the area of our brain that processes music lies very close to the motor cortex. In layman’s terms, hearin’ that groove makes us wanna move.


Question: Why is there a seperation between the body and the mind such that we are incapable of controlling all bodily functions manually (such as digestion)?

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 Why is there a seperation between the body and the mind such that we are incapable of controlling all bodily functions manually (such as digestion)?

Our ‘mind’ is basically just the complex problem solving part of our body, so it only does things related to that. ‘We’ are capable of controlling all bodily functions manually in the sense that we are our bodies, and our bodies control them. It isn’t our conciousness’ job to control them, so it doesn’t. Kinda like saying why can’t we walk with our eyes? Not their job.