Question: How does carbon dating work and how can scientists reliably date things millions of years back?

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 How does carbon dating work and how can scientists reliably date things millions of years back?

Credit goes to u/GaidinBDJ from [This]( URL_0 ) eli5 thread There's a certain type of carbon (Carbon-14) which become incorporated into the bodies of living things (it's absorbed by plants from the atmosphere and then passed along as things eat those plants). When the organism dies it stops acquiring carbon-14 and the carbon-14 decays at a predictable rate. By measuring the current amount of carbon-14 (or, more specifically, measuring it's decay) you can come up with an estimate of how long a sample has been biologically inactive (i.e. dead) for. Accuracy (and how far back you can measure) depends on a couple of factors. First is knowing the level of Carbon-14 in the atmosphere at a particular point of time. These estimates are always being slightly revised. Second is the accuracy of your tools. The more exact you can measure the carbon-14 decay, the more accurate your result will be. And third is the age of the sample. The older a sample gets the less and less carbon-14 is present to decay. The general limit is currently around 50,000 years but there are some ways to date older samples. To put the accuracy in perspective: For a sample less than 20,000 years old I'd bet $10 it's accurate within 200 years and $1,000 that it's accurate within 1,000 years.


Question: Why do our noses run and eyes tear up whilst eating spicy foods?

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 Why do our noses run and eyes tear up whilst eating spicy foods?

The compound that we register as being hot is an irritant ment to teach animals not to eat the plants as a defensive mechanism. We have developed a taste for that burn because it triggers an endorphin rush (pleasure chemicals). But because it is still irritating to our mucus membranes. (Any body tissue that is wet and pink and can excrete mucus, saliva, or other fluids.) The body responds to the irritating chemicals by trying to wash them out or off. And that's why you tear up or your nose runs. Your body is trying to remove the chemicals that have stuck in your eyes and nose.


Question: When does avoiding long lines become macrophobia as opposed to a normal activity?

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 When does avoiding long lines become macrophobia as opposed to a normal activity?

You are found to have a phobia when you change your behavior to avoid a normal situation. For example, avoiding going to the store when they are busy is normal. But, avoiding going to the store AT ALL because they MIGHT have long lines would be a phobia. There also has to be a component of anxiety associated with the behavior change. Not liking long lines and being stressed out by them are very different.


Question: How do we not kill off bees by harvesting their honey? Don’t they need the honey to survive the winter?

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 How do we not kill off bees by harvesting their honey? Don’t they need the honey to survive the winter?

Bees will just keep making honey forever, they don't need all of what's in their hive and in fact if they overstock enough, the hive gets too crowded and they swarm (leave to form a new hive somewhere else) and something like 75% of all swarms die. Collecting honey keeps the hive manageable for the bees. Also hives in human care are constantly monitored to make sure they have enough honey, don't get deadly mite infections, and don't get eaten by predators. A human-maintained hive is basically bee heaven. If you want to help save the bees, support your local beekeepers. Because we kinda need bees to survive; no bees means like 3/4 of our food crops can't be grown, cuz they require bees for pollination. source: my cousin's a beekeeper (he also brews mead from the honey from his hives).


Question: Why does one get heavy sweating before getting healed from a fever?

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 Why does one get heavy sweating before getting healed from a fever?

A fever isn't actually the illness, it is the response. When you are feeling sick, your body will commit more energy towards immune response, and one symptom is a fever. What your body is doing is basically ramping up your body temperature in order to kill off whatever pathogen is ailing you. The danger of a fever is that it can kill you by denaturing (breaking down) the proteins in your brain and body (Think of cooking a hamburger). Your begin to sweat as a mechanism to prevent your immune system from killing you off. Sweating actually cools the body, and occurs as the body attempts to cool down once the fever has "broke".


Question: Why is the Socratic Method not being applied in today's teachings?

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 Why is the Socratic Method not being applied in today's teachings?

It requires a very skilled educator to use it effectively. It is exceptionally difficult to ask the _right_ questions that guide students to the discovery of the answer themselves. Poor usage of the method turns the lecture into an aimless Q & A session that never gets to the concept being discussed. I had a professor who used the Socratic Method exclusively, and he openly admitted that, despite teaching that way for 20 years, it took him (on average) 4 hours to prepare a 1 hour lecture using that method. Mapping out the pathways for a student to get to the right answer, and figuring out what questions help drive those paths, is time consuming even if you can do it well. Many educators don't have that kind of time, or are simply not skilled enough to prepare properly. It is far easier to simply tell students the right answers.


Question: Why do seemingly respectable websites allow junky clickbait adverts?

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 Why do seemingly respectable websites allow junky clickbait adverts?

They don't put the ads on their site themselves. They designate a space on their site and use third party services like Google of Facebook to display ads there. They have some level of control over what kind of ads appear, that's why you wouldn't see programming ads on a cooking website, but that's mostly about specifying certain keywords or topics. So this means that the ad provider may serve them ads about shady pyramid schemes or hot singles in your area.


Question: why don’t all phone services send texts over the internet (like apple’s iMessage does)?

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 why don’t all phone services send texts over the internet (like apple’s iMessage does)?

The short answer is that they don't because they didn't originally. *Short Message Service*-messages, as they are called in the GSM standard among other more recent standards, is a technical feature offered in the communication protocol used to communicate to and from the phones. Internet traffic relies on one or several other technical substandards that are also offered in the communication protocols. From the phone operators point of view, a SMS is awesome. Because they have full control. The problem, if you wish, is that since they have full control, they also have pretty pricey business models. Or had, at least. iMessage, WhatsApp, Line, Facebook Messenger, Google Hangouts, Signal, Telegram and all the others are internet services that happen to be linked to your phone number. SMS is a phone network service that is offered to your phone number. It doesn't necessarily have anything to do with the internet. The idea is pretty much that if the phone plan has a pretty decent cost for data (and often there is a monthly allowance of sorts in the data plan...) it's cheaper to use the data plan for your messages than to pay for each individual message that you send out. But. Smartphones too must follow the phone network communication standard. They *must* be able to receive SMS. Which means that they all can. No matter if your grandma has a brand new iPhone 11 (or whatever the newest one is?) or if she runs around with a Motorola from 1996, the terminal has SMS reception capabilities. And probably sending capabilities too. It's also a pretty dumb thing if you compare an iPhone and an Android phone; Google has their text messaging app. Apple has theirs. They don't work well together. If you want to communicate with others, you have to first agree on which app to use for your communications. With SMS, you don't. You just have to know the phone number, and that's it. Which is why your phone falls back on SMS every time it tries to communicate with someone who is not on iMessage. Because SMS always works. If you typed in the correct number, the message will be received.


Question: Why do humans find creative things more interesting than things in the real world?

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 Why do humans find creative things more interesting than things in the real world?

I think that humans find realistic representations of natural things interesting because of the amount of skill and attention to detail it takes to achieve high degrees of realism. To a monkey brain, a artistically talented individual is probably an excellent mate because they notice so much detail and they can communicate it so well. Observation and communication are keys to survival. There's probably something deep in the brain, some pathway, that rewards us for looking at these artistic creations. I am an artist who specializes in realistic dolls - model babies, if you will. I find my work in others fascinating to look at, but I know there are others that become uncomfortable but the realism. It's called The Uncanny Valley theory. I think that humans enjoy hyper-realistic art until it reaches the point where they can't discern art from reality easily and at that point the experience feels threatening/ too much like psychosis. I no expert, I just like to think about these things and I would love to hear from somebody who actually knows what they're talking about


Question: How is it that Cows can consume the same fibrous grass that makes every other herbivores scat into tight balls, somehow manage to produce turds of such low density as to be called "cow patties"? ?

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 How is it that Cows can consume the same fibrous grass that makes every other herbivores scat into tight balls, somehow manage to produce turds of such low density as to be called "cow patties"? ?

Basically because cows are not as good at conserving water as other herbivores. Because their bodies aren’t trying to save water they don’t spend the energy to reabsorb the water in their poop. An herbivore who lives in an environment where water is scarce wants to loose the least amount of water through its poop as possible, so their bodies spend the energy to pull as much water from their poop as possible. Water is not a limiting resource for cows, so their bodies are not adapted to be efficient at saving water.


Question: the difference between basic universal income and welfare?

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 the difference between basic universal income and welfare?

Welfare involves a test of some kind. You have to apply for it, there's paperwork to fill out and not everyone is entitled to it, you have to meet the criteria. With a UBI, everyone gets the money and then it gets clawed back for the richer folks via taxes. Everyone gets a payment, some people pay it back. The main advantage of a UBI is that it dramatically cuts down on the administrative waste of welfare, also is's intended to replace a patchwork of programs with a simple cash payment.


Question: Why couldn't a world develop where there was no competition and prey/predators and all life was purely vegetarian?

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 Why couldn't a world develop where there was no competition and prey/predators and all life was purely vegetarian?

Vegetarian = eating plants. A world in which all life was either plants or plant-eating would have competition, predators (the plant eaters) and prey (the plants.) If you mean a world of all plants, there would still be competition. If there are 96 nutrients in a given plot of soil and each plant uses 10 nutrients, then when the 10th plant grows they will start competing over the last 4 nutrients. Any world with finite resources will have competition because eventually those resources get used up. So now we'll have plants that starve and die, but their nutrients don't get back to the soil automatically. For that you'll need a saprophyte to break this stuff back down so new plants can use them, which means we bring in bacteria and fungi. So now we can make a pretty stable loop of plants using nutrients and saprophytes returning them, but the saprophytes will start to compete over the dying plants. Eventually it'll turn out that a saprophyte that can get its resources from either living OR dying plants will be more fit than one that can only get it from dying plants, which means predation will return.


Question: How come it feels like you're freezing when you have a fever?

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 How come it feels like you're freezing when you have a fever?

Your brain has an area that keeps your body at a normal temperature, typically 98.6°F. When your body is below that you feel cold (your brain telling you to go somewhere warmer or put on a jacket) and to shiver to increase the temp back to 98.6°F. When you feel warm and sweat it is your brain trying to get your overheated body back down. When you get a fever it is because your brain changes the thermostat setting. Suddenly in order for you to feel comfortable you need to reach 102°F or whatever the new “setting” is. An environment that normally is fine will feel chilly bc anything below that temperature feels cool. And then when your fever breaks and the setting goes back down to 98.6°F you will be way too hot so your body responds by sweating to cool you down. If you have ever gone to bed with a fever and woken up thinking you wet the bed, but feeling much better, that’s why!


Question: Why do bugs in videogames appear or not sometimes if it's the same situation? Wouldn't it happen always if it is the same situation?

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 Why do bugs in videogames appear or not sometimes if it's the same situation? Wouldn't it happen always if it is the same situation?

Its not *exactly* the same situation, some things require some very very specific sequences of events. Even the perfectly repeatable ones are often rather obscure Some bugs are caused by memory errors where everything *was* the same until some random bit flipped and now its in a slightly different state. Maybe a process got stuck in a loop so it couldn't perform its housekeeping routine so you saw something you shouldn't have. Some bugs are just caused by weird seemingly unrelated occurences. Maybe it only occurs on Wednesday in September after the 10th between 10am and 12:59pm. Even if you go through the exact same steps, if you're testing it on tuesday you'll never get it. If they were obvious and easily repeatable they would have been caught before, every bug you see has a relatively low occurrence rate, but with thousands of users logging hundreds of hours you can find some really obscure bugs and glitches


Question: How do goggles/glasses that correct colourblindness work?

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 How do goggles/glasses that correct colourblindness work?

They don’t correct true colour blindness, they only work for people who have problems distinguishing close colours (eg different shades of red/orange/yellow). The filters on these glasses remove these problematic “in-between” colours, making the world look like a digital image with high saturation levels. This lets people distinguish colours very easily, because instead of a “smooth gradient” they have “large spikes” of colour.


Question: what's it called when water runs down the side of the cup while you're pouring it and how does it happen?

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 what's it called when water runs down the side of the cup while you're pouring it and how does it happen?

It has to do with surface tension. If you fill a glass up all the way and then add a tiny bit more, you will see the water form a little dome rather than spilling. Water will do its best to not break apart under stress. Completely falling away from the rest of the water in the cup when you're pouring it is something it would rather avoid since it would need to break the surface tension entirely and form a completely new drop, but if it can flow down the side of the glass, it doesn't need to worry about the surface tension for the part of the stream that's still touching the glass...but then gravity takes over since there's no longer anything beneath it and that causes the water to break away from the cup anyway. Since it already was sticking to the side of the glass for a while, it's flowing in a weird direction now and momentum (plus a little more surface tension) will make it go sideways for a while instead of straight down.


Question: Why is memorizing a speech backwards more effective?

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 Why is memorizing a speech backwards more effective?

Because it is a lot more difficult and takes a lot more active memory to recall words out of a natural sequence. With words in a standard order your brain can skip through bits because the subsequent words are virtually automatic as many of the words are set phrases which automatically follow from each other.


Question: What is the Euler-Mascheroni constant?

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 What is the Euler-Mascheroni constant?

Here are two nifty facts about numbers: * As n goes to infinity, the sum 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + ... + 1/n goes to infinity as well, but slowly. For example, at n = 100 this sum is still only about 5.1774, but it will eventually get larger and larger without bound. * As n goes to infinity, the natural logarithm of n goes to infinity as well, but slowly. Because the natural logarithm of n (or ln(n) for short) is defined to be the real number m such that e^m = n, n has to (literally) grow exponentially just to make the natural logarithm grow by some linear amount, but the natural logarithm does grow without bound. In fact, these two slow "goings to infinity" happen at the same rate. By this we mean that the difference between them, 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + ... + 1/n - ln(n), approaches a fixed constant value as n goes to infinity. This fixed constant value is the Euler-Mascheroni constant, and it happens to be approximately 0.5722. It has a tendency to show up somewhat frequently when the natural logarithm is lurking in the background, so it was given a name for convenience. Interestingly, some basic facts about it (like whether it's an irrational number) are still unknown.


Question: How does a multinational company pay it's taxes?

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 How does a multinational company pay it's taxes?

Things obviously get a bit more complicated than this, but at the basic level, they usually have separate subsidiaries operating each country (though we may consider the EU a single country for this purpose). Each subsidiary then has its own separate profits that it earns in the country it operates in, and it pays taxes on those profits. It may then send post-tax profits to the parent company or some other subsidiary.


Question: How was money inserted in society?

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 How was money inserted in society?

I want goats, and have chickens. You want chickens, but have horses. I don’t want horses, so you need to find goats. Goats aren’t super easy to find, so you give me a shell, telling me it’s worth 5 goats. I believe you. This is obviously a very simple summary of how we transitioned from a bartering system to a monetary system. Money is something that we just agree has value, even if it doesn’t in and of itself.


Question: why is it difficult for cameras to capture such things like snow falling on film when we can easily see with the human eye?

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 why is it difficult for cameras to capture such things like snow falling on film when we can easily see with the human eye?

Cameras take discrete frames, whereas [our eyes continuously capture light using a biological process]( URL_0 ). Let me elaborate. A camera always has a shutter over top the sensor when you're not using it. When you take a photo, the camera drags a small sliver of opening over top the sensor,[like this]( URL_1 ). That exposes the sensor to just enough light. To do video, that process is repeated 30 times per second. The problem is when you get motion. Cameras can shoot at really fast shutter speeds -- i.e., how long the sensor is exposed to light. For example, 1/4000th of a second. When you do this 30 times a second, the individual pieces of snow are frozen in place. Stutters result, because your eye can tell that the pieces of snow are jumping from spot to spot. Keeping the shutter open longer allows the pieces of snow to drag across the sensor, introducing blur. This blur smooths it out and makes it less jarring. So, if you set up your camera just right, snowfall can look normal. The other reason why it is hard to capture snow is because a DSLR can have an exceptionally shallow depth of field. This means that only one small teeny tiny plane can be in focus at once. Everything else is super blurry. This is a problem when capturing snow, since the likelhood of snow falling EXACTLY in your plane of focus is unlikely. Therefore, 95% of snow is all blurry, and only like 5% is sharp and visible on camera. This is different from what *you* see, because your pupil constricts when you go outside (because it's so dang bright). This smaller opening means that your eye -- when outdoors -- has incredible depth of field. It's able to get EVERYTHING in focus. So like 80% of the snow will look nice and sharp and visible to your eye.


Question: what happens to a file when it is uninstalled from a computer?

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 what happens to a file when it is uninstalled from a computer?

We tend to say the file is deleted. The computer has a disk that acts like a like a filing cabinet. The computer keeps a list or table that tells it where the files is stored on the disk - similar to which draw on hanger in the filing cabinet. So the table might say - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long, and file 2 is stored at address 140 and is 50 pages long, file 3 is stored at address 190 and so on. If you ask the computer to delete file 2 then it will just delete the name of the file from the table. After deleting the file the table might be - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long and file 3 is stored at address 190. So the file is still on the disk but the computer cannot find it from the table anymore. Next time a file is to be saved it might put it in the space the file 2 is using. If say file 4 is also 50 pages long then the computer might use the space file 2 uses and the table might be - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long, and file 4 is stored at address 140 and is 50 pages long, file 3 is stored at address 190. File 2 has then been overwritten. Unlike real files the file on a computer is a row of switches that can be set to 0 or 1. When a new file needs to use the row of switches they are just switched to the new values. Hope my analogy helps and doesn't confuse - the main point is that in most systems the file is not deleted, the index is deleted, and the space reused. There are also other ways for the computer to manage the disk.


Question: Does the U.S. defense budget make the States more money than it spends?

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 Does the U.S. defense budget make the States more money than it spends?

The US Defense Budget is one of the largest job programs in that country. Every state gets tons of money and jobs. The joke about defense programs goes like this: Q:”What’s the best way to ensure your defense program doesn’t get canceled?” A: “Have it built in all 50 states” It’s a joke but fully true. Defense spending means jobs. Good jobs.


Question: How do we know what the other planets in our solar system are made of if we don't have the technology to take samples?

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 How do we know what the other planets in our solar system are made of if we don't have the technology to take samples?

Using the science of [spectroscopy]( URL_0 ), astronomers are able to analyze the patterns of emission and adsorption of specific wavelengths of light coming from celestial bodies, which tells them what elements are there in that celestial body. Basically, every single element on the periodic table of elements has its own a particular fingerprint in terms of the way it interacts with light. Light interacting with Hydrogen has a different fingerprint from light interacting with Helium, or Oxygen, or Iron, or whatever. These fingerprints can be seen by taking the light coming from a star or planet, spreading it out into a rainbow, and then looking for lines of missing light in that rainbow that correspond to particular elements.


Question: How come when you are hungry your stomach feels nauseous? It seems like a design flaw that when you're hungry, you don't feel like eating anything.

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 How come when you are hungry your stomach feels nauseous? It seems like a design flaw that when you're hungry, you don't feel like eating anything.

When you start to get hungry your body starts preparing for food by producing stomach acid and other fluids that will help with digestion. If you don't eat, those fluids are still there in your stomach and for some people that can create a sensation of nausea. It will fade if you keep not eating as those fluids will be reabsorbed by your body. Or you can eat something ~~blad~~ bland, like bread or crackers, to put the fluids to use and that should help as well. Edit: Thanks for the gold!!


Question: What does it mean to say a disease is eliminated from a country?

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 What does it mean to say a disease is eliminated from a country?

Normally it means there are no new cases reported in a certain time frame. That time can depend on the disease since some diseases have incubation periods, etc. but IIRC it's usually a few years. Obviously there can be a dearth of reporting in isolated low-infrastructure regions like the Congo but more developed countries like Mexico tend to have a pretty good handle on how many cases of a disease there are.


Question: Why does chewing gum become unchewable after a while?

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 Why does chewing gum become unchewable after a while?

Chewing gum uses a food-safe polymer (a substance like plastic or rubber) as a base. When pure, that polymer is actually pretty stiff and flavorless. The gum companies add sweeterners, flavors, and softeners to the gum to make it nice and chewable. The chewing eventually pushes all those added ingredients out of the gum base, and it reverts to the original stiffness.


Question: Why does looking at a twisted wire or metal fence cable up close make my eyes freak out?

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 Why does looking at a twisted wire or metal fence cable up close make my eyes freak out?

I'm having a tough time with the ELI5, so how about an ELI12? When your eyes focus, your brain is taking the same small area from the image from each eye and using it as a place to combine them into one image. When you look at a fence like that (or many other repeating patterns), your brain isn't exactly sure which of the small areas to match up. Instead of taking the same square of fence from each eye, it takes a different square (such as the one next to it) and then merges the image. Since this is the mechanism we use to determine depth, it can really be disorienting when things "look" to be at a different distance than we otherwise expect. As a side note, this is how we see those 3D pictures in the crazy pattern. That pattern tricks our brain into merging the pictures from each eye in a slightly different place, causing us to see an image with depth. For more info, you can read about [parallax]( URL_1 ), [depth perception]( URL_2 ) and those neat 3D images, [autostereograms]( URL_0 ).


Question: Why do fuel prices jump UP 20, 30, or 50 cents at a time, but only come DOWN a few cents at a time?

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 Why do fuel prices jump UP 20, 30, or 50 cents at a time, but only come DOWN a few cents at a time?

The only reason you would get a sharp price decrease is if you have a sudden jump in supply or sudden drop in demand (without the other counteracting it). We don't really have a sharp increase in supply because refineries put out a pretty consistent amount of refined gasoline. We sometimes have sudden drops in demand, such as what occurred in March with Covid-19 taking over. Prices dropped hard then because the oil suppliers didn't drop their supply to match, so the refineries kept running at full power. As for the sharp price increases, this can happen when there is a sudden shutdown of a refinery resulting in a supply decrease. For example, if a refinery gets hit by a natural disaster, suddenly the output of gasoline drops hard.


Question: Why do so many Australians idolize Ned Kelly?

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 Why do so many Australians idolize Ned Kelly?

While he was a criminal, his story is much more in line with the likes of Robin Hood. Ned Kelly was a poor man who got the hell kicked out of him basically for being poor and decided to do something about it. The British dominated colonial government was basically just rich landowners beating the ever loving hell out of the poor Australians So Ned start robbing them. He robbed the rich, gave to the poor, and frequently used his ill gotten gains to help the communities of Australia. So while he wasn't a great guy in the scheme of things, idolizing him isn't unreasonable.


Question: Why are nutritional facts based on a 2,000 calorie diet when that's well below the average for humans?

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 Why are nutritional facts based on a 2,000 calorie diet when that's well below the average for humans?

That is the nutritional need for the average medium activity person to maintain a healthy weight. If you are highly physically active or need to put on weight or muscle you will have higher needs, and if you are trying to lose weight or are highly inactive you will have smaller needs. So in example: a soldier, high performance athlete, or someone doing manual labor could need as much as 4,000 or even 6,000 calories to maintain the output they require. But a sedentary office worker who is small and does not exercise may only need 1800 to maintain weight. Basic bodily functions and brain operations take roughly 1400 calories so going lower than around 1600 should only be done under a doctor's supervision. As to your other question. That is only below the average of wealthy nations who have a food surplus.


Question: What is Russia’s obsession with taking over the Ukraine? Is it a strategical thing or more of a power move?

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 What is Russia’s obsession with taking over the Ukraine? Is it a strategical thing or more of a power move?

Russia maintains that it is aiding the self determination of the region, and peoples there who self-identify with strong Russian ties and therefore 'want to join' the Russian Federation. However, it is worth noting that the region of Ukraine that Russia annexed, Crimea, contains an important port at Sevastopol that stays ice free year round. Russia operates a fleet out of this port and continued to do so with an agreement with Ukraine after its independence, and potentially felt threatened by political efforts in Ukraine to move away from Russian support in favor of the EU. A pro-Russia politician was elected President (Viktor Yanukovych) and then removed from power in part as a result of pro-EU protest movements. If they lost access to that port it would significantly reduce their ability to project force into the region, and so represent a threat to their military capabilities.


Question: How do scientists identify new elements and isolate them?

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 How do scientists identify new elements and isolate them?

They mostly try to make them in particle smashers, slam two particles together and try to get them to stick. Then you track the resulting particle in the particle beam until it decays into smaller things. While there is a theoretical "island of stability" containing stable supermassive elements, no actual stable superheavies have been made.


Question: What is "smiling depression"? How is it compared to other types of depression?

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 What is "smiling depression"? How is it compared to other types of depression?

As much as a student who slacks off during class knows; Smiling depression * person hides the symptoms. Also I think I read in a journal article somewhere that people with smiling depression have higher suicide rates because they're more likely to follow through (more motivated, have more energy to do it) * Hidden symptoms because they have a mindset that they shouldn't be guilty for feeling depressed Major/clinical/unipolar depression * person doesn't really hide the fact that they have depression. * 3 levels: mild, moderate, severe * can be melancholic or psychotic (eg. hallucinations, paranoia) Bipolar/manic depression * Periods of either really happy (mania) or really sad (depression) Seasonal depression * less sun = more darkness = more depressive mood. Typically during winter, for eg, when it's all cold, dark and rainy. * Starts and ends with the season.


Question: what causes this rain pattern?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 what causes this rain pattern?

The station's radar is showing a common form of noise or flawed reading. Radar stations scan in circles and there are various kinds of noise such as ground clutter, temperature variations which can turn the radar beam into the ground, and patches of phase transition where liquid water reflects radar waves better than frozen crystals of water. The radar station which is having trouble is directly in the center of those circles.


Question: How does a Queen of England choose her King?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How does a Queen of England choose her King?

When there is a Queen on the ruling throne, there is no King. Her spouse will have another, lower title (like Victoria's husband Prince Albert ("His Royal Highess the Prince Consort"), or Elizabeth II's husband Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh). She may marry anyone she chooses, but in reality will tend to choose someone of noble heritage. When she dies, he is not her heir, because he is not a descendant of a former King or Queen. The throne passes to one of her descendants unless she has none, in which case to a sibling or another relative.


Question: How does stomach acid not affect your stomach itself, and how does it stay in your stomach?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How does stomach acid not affect your stomach itself, and how does it stay in your stomach?

The stomach has a layer of cells that constantly produce mucous to protect the inner layers of the stomach from the acid. And the acid stays down because between the esophagus and the stomach itself there is a ring of muscles (kinda like an anus) that prevents the stomach content from flowing back up. Hope this helps :-)


Question: Are numbers and mathematics written and performed the same way in all languages and cultures?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Are numbers and mathematics written and performed the same way in all languages and cultures?

These days mostly yes. But historically no. Chinese has its own number-writing system which is still used sometimes, and Japan independently created a lot of what we call geometry hundreds of years ago but with a totally different way of describing it. And arithmetic can be done several different ways and still get correct results, even within U.S. elementary schools let alone different countries.


Question: Why is the sky Red, Orange, Yellow, and Blue, but never green? ROYgBIV tells me that the light wavelengths should go from yellow to green before they get blue.

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is the sky Red, Orange, Yellow, and Blue, but never green? ROYgBIV tells me that the light wavelengths should go from yellow to green before they get blue.

It does turn green during a sunset it's just hard for us to see it because of how vivid the other colors are. Take a thick piece of paper, ideally black paper and cut a 1"x1" square in the middle. Then during the next clear sky sunset hold the sheet of paper two to three feet away from your face and look through the hole. Position it so the hole is over the "border" of where the sky turns from yellow to blue. You should see the green easier then.


Question: Why do Bluetooth speakers take so long to connect to phones that are regularly connected to the speaker?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why do Bluetooth speakers take so long to connect to phones that are regularly connected to the speaker?

It helps to think about the Bluetooth connection like a hose with lots of spurting instead of a nice stream. To make the audio you hear seem smooth, the receiver will usually have some buffer it uses to store the information before playing it. This is kinda like having a bucket with a smaller hole which you run the hose into so that as long as more is going in than out, the stream stays smooth. Once the buffer is full the first time, the audio starts playing and any connection issues get smoothed over. The delay is probably one part the actual connection time and the rest is the buffer filling up so it can start playing.


Question: How does entropy prove why time only goes forwards?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How does entropy prove why time only goes forwards?

Think about burning a piece of toast. Can you unburn the toast? No. Why not? Because we didn’t change the toast into a new thing called burnt toast, we just burned up part of the toast. The way our universe works, so far as we can tell, this only goes one way. Once you burnt the toast you can’t make it back the way it was. Even if you had a way or rebuilding it, it wouldn’t be the exact same toast. Even if you found a way to rebuild it with the exact same stuff and it was the same toast (impossible as far as we know) then you would have needed to spend lots and lots of energy to do that, which means we still lost something, right? Not quite. We didn’t lose anything, really we didn’t even lose anything when we burn the toast. We just converted what was toast into other things. The universe didn’t lose anything, it still has the same amount of stuff it had before. We see it as loss because the heat and burnt crumbs aren’t as useful to us. The universe doesn’t care for toast, it’s not picky at all, it just wants to keep all its stuff. So it’s not that stuff disappears, it just gets turned into less complicated stuff by breaking it down into its most basic parts, including just plain old forms of energy like heat and light. This may not seem like a big deal, but stretch it out of millions and billions and trillions of years and it starts adding up. Eventually everything get’s less complicated, which means eventually everything becomes the same thing. To put this in human terms, everything dies. When we see this happening we call it time passing. Time and Entropy are twisted together, one has to be that way because other is. Break one and you break the other.


Question: Why does you feel weak right after waking up?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does you feel weak right after waking up?

In most cases you’re dehydrated and hungry. You haven’t drank or eaten in 8-ish hours. Even though you’re not exercising in your sleep, your body still burns energy just to stay alive, and you lose water into the air as you breathe. Drinking more water in general and especially late in the day or before bed may help with this.


Question: How does substance dependence work?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How does substance dependence work?

Lots of drugs make brain flooded with happy chemicals , brain gets used to being flooded with happy chemicals, brain receptors get used to this. Brain desires to return to happy land, drugs take you to this place and the brain knows it, the more you take the more likely to become dependent.


Question: What does separation of church and state actually mean if politicians can bring up God in their arguments?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What does separation of church and state actually mean if politicians can bring up God in their arguments?

It means that the government can't make any laws giving any one religion extra benefits or discriminating against any one religion. In other words, it has to treat all religions equally from a legal perspective. It does not mean that politicians have to give up their religious beliefs or hide them once they're elected. That would be a violation of the First Amendment which grants *everyone* the right to practice whatever religion they want.


Question: What actually is a Gömböc and what does a "shape" need to be considered one?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What actually is a Gömböc and what does a "shape" need to be considered one?

Have you ever seen one of those "Weeble" toys? They're little rotund figures with more weight on the bottom on the top. If you try to push them over, they always return to an upright position, hence the slogan "Weebles wobble, but they don't fall down." In geometry, those are called "mono-monostatic" shapes. They have one stable point of balance and technically one unstable point of balance (if you place them *perfectly* upside down, they will stay that way). It's relatively easy to make such an object by building it out of heavier materials on the bottom than on the top. The Gömböc adds to the challenge by forcing you to use the same materials throughout. The formal conditions are that it must be "homogenous" - have the same density everywhere - and convex - essentially that you can't strategically make parts of it hollow. Mathematicians proved that a particular shape satisfies these properties, and everyone thinks that's cool enough to build statues and toys of the shape.


Question: How are we able to increase things like our lung capacity or condition? Aside from practice and condition training, what incites the improvement?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How are we able to increase things like our lung capacity or condition? Aside from practice and condition training, what incites the improvement?

Lung capacity doesn't change but the way the body utilises the oxygen does. That's why people living at high altitudes with lower oxygen are able to function. Some develop more red blood cells to transport the oxygen and others get better at the exchange where air from the lungs crosses into the bloodstream Athletes train in low oxygen environments for this adaption which they keep for the season or part of it but overtime will revert back without the external stimuli.


Question: What’s the science behind people’s “smells”?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What’s the science behind people’s “smells”?

Like the good bacteria that live in your gut and help you break down food, everyone has a unique "fingerprint" of good bacteria species living on their skin. The types and amounts of these bacteria can change over time, but they are mostly determined by genetics (e.g. how your specific immune cells react to different bacteria), diet (i.e. which compounds the bacteria are exposed to from your food), and the people/places you spend time around (which all have their own bacteria that might rub off on you). Because genetics, diet, and social life have the strongest effect on this "fingerprint," families or people who share living spaces tend to have more similar smells. This "fingerprint" of bacteria can eat pretty much any component of sweat, and when they do, all of the parts that aren't water or salt can be convert into "smelly" compounds. Thus, which "smell" compounds are produced depends on which types of bacteria are present on that person's skin. To go a bit past five, people have three main types of sweat glands: Eccrine glands produce mostly salty water to regulate temperature, they're always producing it at some level, and they do so all over the body but mostly on the hands, feet and head. Sebaceous glands produce mostly oil to lubricate the skin and hair (think the waxy substance associated with bad dandruff or acne), they're pretty much always active and don't change secretion rates much, and they are mostly found near hair follicles but occur everywhere except the palms and soles. Apocrine glands produce a mix of water, oils and a bunch of other stuff, they are most active when the person is stressed, and they are found mostly in places like skin folds that you probably associate with sweat smell (armpits, between the legs, etc.). The compounds produced by apocrine glands are the ones that have the strongest "sweaty" scent, which is why sweat smells are most associated with things like armpits and stress. But since the eccrine and sebaceous glands are more consistently active for most of the day, they have much larger contributions to what you would think of as a person's usual "smell."