Question: How is a molecular clock calculated?

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 How is a molecular clock calculated?

To calibrate a molecular clock, you need something that's known and dated, like a fossil from the specific species in question. Then, once the rate of mutation is determined, you can calculate the divergence of species, although it's not always that easy, because mutation rates can fluctuate which leads to some degree of uncertainty. This can be minimized if you have more fossils from different time periods to look at, but that's not always possible.


Question: Light is the fastest thing in the universe but WHY does light travel/move at all?

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 Light is the fastest thing in the universe but WHY does light travel/move at all?

The exact answer to this question is actually pretty complicated, depending on how precise of an answer you want, and we have to have some understanding of field theories (either classical or quantum). Depending on which theory you are looking at, light travels through either an electromagnetic field or what's known as a massless gauge field. The names aren't important for being as broad as I'm going to be, so I'm just going to call it a field. So, imagine this field is a pond. If you poke the pond, it is going to send ripples out from where you poked it. These ripples do not immediately permeate the entire pond, but have to travel from point A to point B. However, they can only move so fast because of the properties of the water. Just the same way, when you excite the field (there are various ways of doing this) the ripples are now your light. Because of the properties of the field, the light can only travel so fast and so it takes a finite amount of time for the light to get from the excitation to another location.


Question: How are rechargeable batteries different from regular ones?

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 How are rechargeable batteries different from regular ones?

Batteries normally store their power through chemical energy. When power is drawn from them, a chemical is broken down that produces the electricity needed for whatever the battery is powering. However, the reaction cannot go on forever, turning whatever chemical is in your battery from one chemical into it's base elements/molecules. A rechargeable battery has a certain set of chemicals that, when depleted, will convert the broken down elements/molecules back into whatever chemical your battery originally used. The non-rechargeable batteries have a chemical that is essentially impossible to rebuild with electricity alone.


Question: Is there something about getting older that changes your mood?

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 Is there something about getting older that changes your mood?

I'll speculate on a few reasons based on observations of older people I know 1) lack of good sound sleep. Some older people get up several times a night to use the bathroom. This disrupts sound sleep. Also you lose melatonin or perhaps it is the ability to produce the same amount of melatonin which aids in sleep. 2) mood altering side effects of medication. As age increases it seems that many are on some type of medication. Some of that medication can directly impact mood. Some impacts sleep. 3) TV . Many old people have the news on constantly. All that is reported it seems are death and destruction 24/7. 4) lack of purpose - many had successful careers where they had responsibilities or families that needed their leadership and support. Now they have little to none. 5) lack of control - world values are changing around them and they don't have much control on these (e.g I would have gotten a whooping if I said that in my day, etc.) Also lack of control of their health. Their bodies are deteriorating and they can't stop it. 6) fear of death - many see their friends dying or getting illnesses. They may see subtle signs in their own bodies that lead them to believe something bad will happen to them soon, it is only a matter of time 7) lack of companionship - some older people live alone and don't get out much. Human companionship helps depression. What is really, really weird is that I was thinking your exact same question last night and was going to post it but didn't.


Question: why is it that a lot of soft drink inventors were pharmacists?

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 why is it that a lot of soft drink inventors were pharmacists?

Depends a bit where you are from, but generally speaking it was pharmacists selling carbonated mineral water. They probably thought it was a bit plain and added different things for health benefits (herbs) or for taste to add to resell value, and all of a sudden you had flavoured carbonated water, which is what most soft drinks are today.


Question: Is it possible to explain in layman's terms how ATP works as the energy currency of cells?

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 Is it possible to explain in layman's terms how ATP works as the energy currency of cells?

your mitochondria uses energy it gets from allowing protons to flow with their concentration to force phosphate groups onto ADP molecules. These bonds do not *want* to be made, so they have energy because it took energy to create them. This is potential energy , like when you lift something heavy. This energy can be used in other places in the cell by breaking this bond, releasing the energy used to form it.


Question: So, every star and or light we see with our naked eye in the night sky is/was a sun with orbiting planets?

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 So, every star and or light we see with our naked eye in the night sky is/was a sun with orbiting planets?

Not every single one, but the vast majority. Some are planets in our solar system, some are other solar system bodies like asteroids or comets, or even satellites we put up. A rare few are actually galaxies that are bright enough or near enough to be visible. Also not every star has planets, but we're learning now that most of them do.


Question: How does the value-added tax work and how is it different from what the US does?

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 How does the value-added tax work and how is it different from what the US does?

A value-added tax is like a sales tax, except the seller gets to deduct the cost of their own purchase from it. For example, let's say you make widgets out of plastic: with a sales tax, you pay tax on the purchase of the plastic, and the person that purchases from you pays tax on the purchase of the widgets. You take a deduction of the tax you paid on purchase of the plastic, so the net result is that there is a tax only the *value added*--there difference in price between the constituent plastic and the widget you're now selling. Value-added taxes are more complex, but they also have more predictable economic effects because the tax on a consumer product is based on the value added and not how many transactions are made along the way. (In other words, the government avoids double taxation.) Value-added taxes have to be at much higher rates than sales taxes to achieve the same revenue, because of that; it's not wise to directly compare VAT sales tax rates. Do note that there is no federal sales tax in the United States. Sales taxes are normally implemented through state law and so vary significantly.


Question: How does a natural food like honey never expire, unlike other natural foods like fruits or vegetables?

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 How does a natural food like honey never expire, unlike other natural foods like fruits or vegetables?

It's not necessarily that honey is natural and fruit are unnatural. It has more to do with the moisture content. Food goes bad when bacteria starts growing in the food and begins to leave behind nasty byproducts that make the food inedible. This is normally fueled by the presence of water Sunlight is another way that food becomes spoiled and that's driven by the decay of compounds through UV light. In contrast, honey almost has no water which leads to a very hostile environment for bacteria. If a bacterium is able to start growing, the honey will quite literally suck the moisture out of it through osmosis, effectively killing it. Honey is also known to have a number of antibacterial compounds in it which also inhibits bacterial growth. Additionally, the acidity of honey is not ideal for bacterial growth.


Question: Why are bugs attracted to light?

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 Why are bugs attracted to light?

At nighttime, Moths and such are drawn to it because they are genetically programmed to navigate by the moon. Man made light has only been around for a couple hundred of the millions of years that keeping the only source of light over their shoulder has been working for them. They insist on trying (it's all they've known for millenia) to keep the moon over their shoulder, but it's not the moon.....It's your porch light, and they just spiral into it because it's not thousands of miles away.


Question: Why are non-driver car seats faced forward? Doesn't it make more sense for them to be faced backward, since the back of the seat would cushion you better in the event of a crash than a seatbelt?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why are non-driver car seats faced forward? Doesn't it make more sense for them to be faced backward, since the back of the seat would cushion you better in the event of a crash than a seatbelt?

Not all crashes happen from the front, sometimes people are hit from the rear as well. More to the point though the vast majority of the time people are not going to be in crashes and having people facing forward is a far more comfortable riding position. A car which is slightly safer in a collision but makes all the passengers violently ill while riding isn't going to sell very well.


Question: How my 8GB RAM can run files and games as large as 50GB?

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 How my 8GB RAM can run files and games as large as 50GB?

Not all of the program is loaded into RAM at once. Only portions are loaded as needed from the disk. It is also possible to define portions of the disk as as being "virtual memory" where it is treated as if it was real RAM but is actually on the much slower disk drive.


Question: Where is lightning made? Are they created in the atmosphere and it looks like they're coming from clouds or do the clouds create them?

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 Where is lightning made? Are they created in the atmosphere and it looks like they're coming from clouds or do the clouds create them?

Lighting is usually created in the clouds. As the wind blows droplets around inside the clouds, static charge builds up. It's just like shuffling on carpet in your socks, only much much larger. As the charge builds it will start to ionize the air (break down some of the molecules and make it conductive). Eventually one of these ionized pathways will reach the ground, and now you've got a conductive pathway between two very big charges (the earth and the cloud). A spark will jump between the two to even out the charges, just like touching a doorknob after shuffling on the carpet in your socks. That spark is lightning.


Question: If x amount of money were introduced (discretly, with no one noticing) to the market, how does the market "know" that that amount of money has been introduced (thus adjusting prices)?

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 If x amount of money were introduced (discretly, with no one noticing) to the market, how does the market "know" that that amount of money has been introduced (thus adjusting prices)?

It only "knows" when the money is spent. Imagine a really simple economy - Alice, Bob and Chuck. Alice bakes two loaves of bread every day, and Bob and Chuck both earn $1 per day, which they each use to buy a loaf of bread. Now, one day (as if by magic) Bob and Chuck both get $2 per day instead of one. Bob gets to Alice first, and buys both loaves of bread for $1 a piece, spending his full $2. Now Chuck is upset because he has money, but no bread. Supply and demand are out of sync - at the price of $1 per loaf, there is more demand than there is supply. Alice has two choices: - Bake 4 loaves instead of 2, and keep charging $1 to extract all $4 from the economy - Charge $2 per loaf instead of $1, extracting all $4 from the economy Alice, being a smart baker, decides just to raise prices.


Question: How do you distinguish artificial diamonds from natural?

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</answer>
 How do you distinguish artificial diamonds from natural?

You don't. The literal only difference between the two is that, by law, artificial diamonds have to have "lab made" engraved on the stone (usually on the girdle). Usually lab-made stones are better in terms of clarity and color, are larger, have more fire, and are all-around better than mined stones.


Question: Why is dimethylmercury so toxic? Can you be cured from mercury poisoning?

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 Why is dimethylmercury so toxic? Can you be cured from mercury poisoning?

So usually, your body has a hard time holding on to metals. You're made of organic compounds which basically interact in a mechanical fashion. Metals are basically little ball bearings that would much rather stick to each other. If you drink a shot glass of mercury, pretty much the exact same amount of mercury is going to come out the other end - basically the only part that'll make it into your bloodstream is the tiny part that vaporizes and makes its way into your lungs. Dimethyl mercury is a mercury molecule attached to a dimethyl group (an organic molecule), which acts as a handle for your body to grab onto. Organo-metals are generally not good for you, but dimethyl's are particularly bad news. Anything with a dimethyl group goes right through cell membranes(and latex gloves) like they're not even there. If you spill Dimethylsulfoxide on yourself (a common solvent in organic chemistry, and thankfully nontoxic) you'll be able to *taste it in seconds*.


Question: Why do people sometimes start crying whenever they have really big coughing fits?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why do people sometimes start crying whenever they have really big coughing fits?

Coughing is essentially very dynamic form of breathing out. Tear ducts are connected with nasal cave. It is possible, with extra force, to push out some air via this route. Coughing, especially violent, when you totally loose any breathing rhytm and might end up with closing mouth while coughing out, certainly counts as extra force. And it might not even be the tears at all, you can blow a runny nose content this way too. Or get runny nose while crying in a reverse process. But the gist is, tear ducts are one of the exits for your respiratory system - and you can push the tears out this way in some circumstances.


Question: Why is it so difficult for companies to sue Chinese companies for copyright/trademark infringement?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is it so difficult for companies to sue Chinese companies for copyright/trademark infringement?

The chineese court system simply does not care about copyright claims. This is similar to how the American court system handled the matter a hundred years ago. So any lawsuit in the chineese courts regarding copyright will often get dismissed, especially if it is a foreign company suing a domestic company for copyright infringement. This means you have to sue the chineese company in a different country which have the problem of enforcement as a court can only enforce the laws within its countries boarders. And if the chineese company does not have any assets in other countries this does not help.


Question: What is net worth and how is that determined?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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 What is net worth and how is that determined?

Net worth is your assets (cash, stocks, property you own, etc.) minus liabilities (things that cost you money or you’re still paying for). Example: if you have $1k in the bank, a car worth $5000, and no debt, your net worth is $6k. But let’s say you owe still owe $10k on a car loan...then your net worth is -$4k.


Question: What does i, imaginary number, mean in math?

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 What does i, imaginary number, mean in math?

> But what about i, how can a number be imaginary? & #x200B; Don't get hung up on the name, *i* is no more "imaginary" in the colloquial sense (meaning made up and not "real") than 1 or 2 are. i is simply the number where: *i*^(2)=-1 & #x200B; > Whats the purpose of it? Well, it doesn't really need a purpose. It's just the number you get when you take the square root of -1. That said imaginary numbers are actually super useful for modeling certain things that happen in the real world. For complex math reasons, *i* is related to trigonometry. And for other complex math reasons trig is used to model waves, so any math where you need to model a wave (like electricity) then imaginary numbers are super useful.


Question: What is counting cards and how do casinos know that someone is doing it?

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 What is counting cards and how do casinos know that someone is doing it?

Counting cards just means keeping track of what cards have been played and what cards still remain in the game of blackjack. If you keep a running count, you can actually increase the odds of you beating the dealer to over 50% - which is something that casinos actively try to avoid. Casinos combat this by using multiple decks shuffled together and by shuffling every few hands - your count becomes far less useful if there are 6 decks shuffled all together. Card counting is actually not too hard to spot, because counters are trying to use it to their advantage. People who are counting cards will often wait until the odds of the deck shift in their favor (more 10's and face cards, fewer small cards), and then start placing bigger bets to take advantage. Dealers and pit bosses are trained in card counting and the dealer is usually keeping a count himself - if a person's bet seems fishy he'll notify the pit boss, and the people watching the game on camera will take note as well. Hell, I'm a terrible card counter and I don't tend to adjust my bet because I can't keep track of much beyond what's currently on the table, but I've had the pit boss called over plenty if I double down on a weird hand or something. As long as you don't do it too much and as long as you don't pack up as soon as you win, they won't interfere unless you're being very obvious about it. At the end of the day, you're still pretty likely to keep playing and give the money back. Often people try to work in pairs or groups to make it harder to spot them - one person playing normally, then signalling to the big better when a deck gets hot. The big better swoops in, wins a few hands, and backs out when it cools off. At the end of the day, there's nothing *illegal* about card counting, so all that a casino can do is kick you out. They're private companies and have the right to refuse service to you for any reason - being too good at their game is a valid reason in this case.


Question: Does the moons orbit around earth, earth around the sun and the sun around the milky way galaxy use the same orbital mechanic?

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 Does the moons orbit around earth, earth around the sun and the sun around the milky way galaxy use the same orbital mechanic?

Yup! It's all about motion and gravity just on different scales. Also fun to think about, in all of these cases the "point" the orbit is centered around is not the center of the object we think of as being the center, but someone between the center of the two objects, as even the smaller object pulls in the larger one, just not as much. In other words the earth is falling towards the moon, just not as fast as the moon is falling towards the earth.


Question: How does tax evasion by large multinationals work?

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 How does tax evasion by large multinationals work?

Take a coffee company who buys coffee in country A then it is placed into a small bags in country B and then sold in country C. Now any profits the company makes can be taxed in country A, B or C, now for most companies this would normally be country C, however if the company sets up sub divisions of its company in country A B and C and if country B has a very low tax rate it may do some sneaky accounting. Division A buys coffee and sells it on to division B without making a profit, division B then sells the newly packaged coffee to division C at a huge profit, division C sells the coffee to the public without making a profit. The company then pays minimal tax in country B and no tax in countries A and C and has successfully evaded tax.


Question: Tesla is considering going private, and allowing shareholders to keep their shares if they do. How does this work, and what's the difference between staying public and going private?

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 Tesla is considering going private, and allowing shareholders to keep their shares if they do. How does this work, and what's the difference between staying public and going private?

Shares in a publicly traded company can be purchased by anyone. If a person is looking to sell, they list their shares on an exchange, and whoever matches their price first gets to buy the shares. You have no control over who owns your stock. A private corporation can have whatever rules they want for who can own stock. They can set the rules on when shares are issued, when shares can be sold, and to whom. I used to work for a privately held Fortune 500 company, who would only allow active employees to own shares. When you retired, you had to sell your shares. Obviously a publicly traded company can't make such restrictions. I can't speculate on why Tesla would want to go private specifically, but it is likely so that they can control who owns their stock and what can be done with it.


Question: why is the 'single ancestor' theory so well accepted?

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 why is the 'single ancestor' theory so well accepted?

1. All life on Earth shares common biochemistry. Everything has either RNA or DNA (which are related to one another). 2. The way that genetic code is translated into proteins is almost identical for all life on Earth. 3. Seemingly-unrelated species have "neutral" features (things that confer no survival advantage) in common. And this is at a very fundamental level. For instance, proteins that can be encoded in DNA in a couple of different ways that are all functionally identical will be coded the same way for every organism that can produce that protein. 4. Many type of molecules used in biology are "chiral" (they "twist", so that they can be either right-handed or left-handed), and all the amino acids of all life on Earth are left-handed. If life had originated in multiple places, you wouldn't necessarily expect to see all these similarities. It would be possible, but not likely. Though I should add that it's entirely possible that rudimentary life originated multiple times, but only one of those progenitors survived and evolved into all modern-day organisms.


Question: How do non profit organizations work?

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 How do non profit organizations work?

Non-profits operate just like regular companies, they just aren't for the personal gain of a group of shareholders. They still bring money in, have expenses, and have a surplus or deficit at the end of the year. Just like regular companies, there are accounting and tax rules for non-profits. So if a billionaire donates a bunch of money to start a charity, everything that charity does has to be accounted for. If the IRS believes he is using that charity for personal gain, he can be audited and forced to pay taxes and penalties (or even go to jail). As far as I know, there is no deadline for the charity to use the money, they can keep cash in their bank account. But once the billionaire donates the money, it's gone. He can't just dip into the charity's bank account because he wants a new yacht.


Question: In C#, why is the ‘float’ type only accurate to 7 digits? Why do you have to put an ‘F’ at the end of the value?

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 In C#, why is the ‘float’ type only accurate to 7 digits? Why do you have to put an ‘F’ at the end of the value?

The standard format for floating point numbers is IEEE 754. For a 32-bit float (as opposed to a 64-bit double), this would mean 1 bit for the sign, 8 bits for an exponent and the remaining 23 bits for the mantissa. 23 bits of mantissa can represent a range of values from 0 to 2^23 (8,388,608). Those are your 7 digits right there. You can't have any more precision because you don't have enough bits. With a 64-bit double, you use 52 bits of mantissa, which gives you 15 digits of precision.


Question: what does the 2 minutes to midnight on the doomsday clock mean ?

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 what does the 2 minutes to midnight on the doomsday clock mean ?

Its suppose to represent the threat of human annihilation (nuclear war) based on geopolitical unrest. It’s no more than someone’s opinion. The sad part is they have to keep moving it closer to zero to stay relevant. I’m not sure what they are going to do when they get under 1. Start using seconds instead of minutes?


Question: why do some shirts seem to shrink horizontally when washed and dried, whereas others seem to shrink vertically?

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 why do some shirts seem to shrink horizontally when washed and dried, whereas others seem to shrink vertically?

not entirely sure from this, can't see the shirts, but have seen similar situations. some fabrics, especially knits but also others, have a direction to them, the fabric is made in a way that the way the fibers are put together is not identical in all directions, like vertical vs horizontal, these tend to also stretch and shrink in non symmetrical ways. it's possible that you're shirts are made with fabric like that,but cut in different directions.


Question: Does a short-sighted person have 20/20 vision when looking at something up close (without glasses)? How does one measure this?

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 Does a short-sighted person have 20/20 vision when looking at something up close (without glasses)? How does one measure this?

20/20 vision is a term used to explain how well you can see something at a distance. The first "20" means you can see something clearly at twenty feet. The second "20" is the distance that someone without bad eyes would see it at. So with 20/20 vision, you can see something that is twenty feet away perfectly clearly, which is what a normal person can see. But if your vision is, say, 15/20, you have to be fifteen feet away to see an object clearly that a normal person could see at 20 feet. So here's how your eye works. Light comes in and is refracted, or angled, as it passes through your pupil. If your vision is fine, it is refracted correctly into the part of your eye that interprets it and decides what you're seeing. But if you are nearsighted, your eye is too short from front to back, so some of the light misses the target, or gets jumbled around. Your brain takes this information and in an attempt to explain it to you, it makes a "best guess" of sorts that results in blurry vision. Think about a spoon versus a melon baller or an ice cream scoop. Hold each one directly under a running sink faucet, about a foot from the tap. The spoon is going to spray water everywhere, but it isn't going to project it very far out directly because the curve is less sharp. The melon baller, on the other hand, will have much more range and won't spray as wide, because the curve will focus everything in one direction. The spoon is a nearsighted person. Keeping with that analogy, if you move the spoon close enough to the faucet, it will generally begin to act just like the melon baller because the water is hitting a smaller surface area on the spoon. What happens in your eye, though, is the angle at which that light is refracted changes as you get closer to an object, and will eventually get to a point where it is basically as good as a normal person's vision. And then it will keep going. But your brain can only see something so clearly, so it throws that extra information away. This is why if you wear glasses, your eyes will take a moment to adjust when taking them off to read. In case you're interested, the opposite is what happens if you're farsighted. The eye is too long. So at, say, thirty feet, their eye might be seeing things the same way a nearsighted person sees it up close where the brain is discarding extra information because it can't create a sharper image. But as the object gets closer, the angle of refraction causes some of that information to miss the target or bounce back out, creating a blurry image as your brain tries to make sense of the information it is getting.


Question: If the civil war was about slavery, then why did the amendment banning slavery not just make the south become it’s own slaving nation?

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 If the civil war was about slavery, then why did the amendment banning slavery not just make the south become it’s own slaving nation?

That's what the southern states did, they split away from the United States and attempted to become their own country were slavery was permitted. Also, I think you misunderstood a key point in the movie. Nobody believed that ending slavery would end the war, but the opposite. In the movie, one key dilemma that Lincoln faces is the decision between ending the war early, or pushing to end slavery. At some point in the movie, some Confederate diplomats talk with the North and offer a type of peace deal. However, the peace was conditional on abandoning the banning of slavery. In the debates, one of the Democrat delegates, when hearing that South is willing to end the war, says something like, "well, we should obviously not pass this amendment and make peace right away, ending the war is more important than ending slavery." Lincoln chooses to push to end slavery, even if that means ruining peace talks with the Confederacy.


Question: Why does hot water feel hotter when moving your submerged hand through it, rather than holding it still?

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 Why does hot water feel hotter when moving your submerged hand through it, rather than holding it still?

Because there are tiny hairs and imperfections on your skin that trap air. This helps insulate your hand ever so slightly. When you move your hand it helps dislodge that air and now the water is touching more of your hand and water transmits heat better than air. Second, when you put your hand in the water the water close to your hand won’t really move much after a moment due to drag (friction) this forms a laminar layer near your hand. As this layer transmits its heat to your hand it gets cooler and then the water next to it has to pass its heat to the layer and so on until it’s a game of “pass along”. When you move your hand you disrupt the laminar layer and now your hand is again touching the “hottest” water.


Question: How can audits and tax investigations go on for years or be dragged out with no conclusion?

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 How can audits and tax investigations go on for years or be dragged out with no conclusion?

Have you ever been reading a big novel, like any of the Game of Thrones books, and just stopped for the night because you got tired? Or it was past your bedtime? How about because you got bored, and then the next time you pick up the book you have to go back a few pages and re-read a section because you missed a key part of the action or some little detail that made you go “wait, what? Who’s this character? When did they come in?” Magnify the length of the book by a thousandfold and then multiple the boredom factor by a hundred, for a bunch of accountants and auditors pouring over spreadsheets that DON’T read clearly and linearly like a novel. So every paragraph has to be read and re-read for every new plot point, person, etc that comes into the story. Now imagine you’re debating what one paragraph or another is going to mean for whether a character lives or dies at the end, but George RR Martin is live-tweeting brain farts from his trampoline instead of finishing the book, so now you’re really confused over whether someone will live or die and can’t tell if the person who was just killed off is actually dead or is going to be resurrected later. And if they get resurrected maybe it’ll be as a Night King zombie, but maybe not because it could be the Red Witch doing the resurrection. That’s how your average corporation’s tax audit can drag on for years with no conclusion, leaving every accountant trying to finish with a serious case of mental blue balls.


Question: Are there massive objects made of minerals that would be like stone suns?

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 Are there massive objects made of minerals that would be like stone suns?

Well, there are big, rocky planets. If you get a ball of material that's around 1/10 the mass of the Sun, the gravitational crush at the center will be intense enough to fuse hydrogen and your ball will want to turn into a star itself. If the whole ball is made of stable elements like iron that don't want to fuse, then you could just get a hot glowing rock - but if there's a decent amount of hydrogen or helium then the object's mass will 'ignite' fusion reactions in the core. So we'd be unlikely to find a Sun-sized space rock that actually looks like a rock. Even our neighbor Jupiter isn't too far short of the ignition threshold, and sometimes people refer to it as a 'failed star'.


Question: Why does mint make everything feel cold?

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Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does mint make everything feel cold?

Mint contains menthol. Menthol is a compound which triggers a protein responsible for signaling the sensation of coldness to the brain. Basically, it tricks your body into thinking it’s cold in the same way capsaicin tricks your body into thinking its hot. These proteins are meant to react to temperature, triggering signals when the temperature is colder than usual. Menthol binds to these proteins, causing the same response.


Question: - What is a "watershed moment"?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 - What is a "watershed moment"?

Picture a hill near river. As rain comes towards the hill on the opposite side from the river it flows off but at some point the water hits the ridge of the hill and starts flowing towards the river all the area of the hill water flows into the river is a watershed. It sheds water into the river. A watershed moment is the point of events where things change. From that watershed point everything leads to some new future because of that change.


Question: Why are grease stains so hard to remove from clothing?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why are grease stains so hard to remove from clothing?

Grease repels water, which is one of it's usages. A washing machine uses water and water soluble detergents to clean your clothes. As the grease repels water, the water (and therefore the detergent) can't get in to do it's stuff. It's like trying to wash your hands while you're wearing latex gloves. The water and soap can't get through to your skin, so it can't clean your hands. Manually removing as much grease as possible, applying detergent or other cleaning products directly to the grease, or washing at a high temperature can help open up the grease to allow washing to occur.


Question: Is poverty a necessary aspect of capitalism?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Is poverty a necessary aspect of capitalism?

No it is not. A natural outgrowth of capitalism is income inequality, but poverty is not a requirement. It is theoretically possible for a capitalist system to reach a level where the lowest of the low are not in poverty but merely at the bottom of the scale. Of course all that theoretical stuff is not super useful in the real world, hence why pure (anything) is generally not a good idea.


Question: How is data transmitted through cables?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How is data transmitted through cables?

Depends on what kind of data and cable! There are many protocols but I guess the general concept is pretty much that one device controls whether there is a voltage or not (if it’s digital) and another device can detect it. There are some protocols (like hobby RC servo signals) that measure how long the voltage is high (and the signal repeats very rapidly many times a second) and others where the rate is determined by a clock signal, so every time the clock signal changes, the voltage on the line is checked again. One way to think about this would be that the device reads the voltage every time the clock changes and interprets the reading as a 1 or 0 (if there is a certain voltage or not). By sending very rapid signals, it can put together a string of binary bits that can be combined to form bytes and so on (depending on what the device is doing and how it is set up). Depending on the protocol there might be a “start byte” for example where the signal is held high for a certain number of clock ticks, and similarly an end byte, so the other controller knows it’s not misinterpreting something.


Question: How do doctors scan for allergies? Like the specific what are they looking for in the body and how.

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 How do doctors scan for allergies? Like the specific what are they looking for in the body and how.

When I took an allergy test as a child they had a bunch of what looked like needles that had different common allergens on the end. They basically touched the needles to my skin and waited. After a few minutes if the area on the skin reacted,by turning red/swollen like a bug bite then that would be an indicator that you are allergic to that substance. That was probably 30 years ago.


Question: what exactly is different in the muscles of gifted strenght athletes?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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 what exactly is different in the muscles of gifted strenght athletes?

While one certainly can have big muscles without strength, I would say it’s probably down to technique and timing through repetition in training. But if you are talking about only 1 rep max it’s most likely technique. Other factors are recovery time or strength in small muscles in static hangs etc.


Question: How do they replicate scents for scented candles?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How do they replicate scents for scented candles?

they aren't replicating a meadow, that's just the name they chose to describe a propietary scent. people been maunfacturing scented candles for millenia. even when it's a simple mix of recognizeable parts like peppermint/lemon/whatever, the overall combination would likely be dubbed something more clever or convenient than "lavender-vanilla-honesuckle-anise-clove mix" nowadays there are artificial ingredients involved... but especially in the early stages these lab-synthesized elements would be developed by mimicking a real scent. "meadow" is probably a blend of imitation wild flowers or honeysuckle with something mildly earthy mixed in, whereas "fresh" is probably a neutral alkaline smell with a bit of something citrus or herbaceous added.


Question: How do binary systems (pcs etc.) handle decimal points ?

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 How do binary systems (pcs etc.) handle decimal points ?

There are two possible interpretations of your question: A ) How do non decimal bases represent a decimal point (I.e what is "a half" in binary") B ) How to computers (or other systems that use binary or have a fixed number representation) represent fractions? I'll answer both. A : The 'decimal point' is not something the decimal base has sole ownership of. All bases have a fractional component, it just works in different powers. In decimal 3.21 means "3 'ones', 2 'tenths', 1 'hundreth' In binary 1.011 would mean "1 'one", 0 'halfs' 1 'quarter', 1 'eigth', or 1.375 in decimal. Each 'binary fraction' is half as large as the one that came before it. In ternary each point is a third as large, in hex it's one sixteenth. It works just the same as in decimal, just uses N as the base instead of 10. B : There are two main methods computeres use. A fixed point representation or the more common floating point representation. A fixed point simply states "In ever X bits, the decimal point is there". If you see a number '01100111' you simply just decide to see it as '0110.0111' and interpret that as a binary number. the upside is it's simple. The downside is you're limiting yourself to a very fixed range and representation. A floating point representation means that the decimal point isn't fixed. The common standard uses scientific notation, essentially. Instead of going "25.5" it goes the equivalent of "255 x 10^-1" by storing the binary equivalents of 255, and -1. The upside is that you have versatility and range. You can express a large range of numbers with a lot of power over what ranges or precision you need. The downside is that you can't always hit all the fractions you want and it's a bit more complicated, but that's something fixed point also has. Floating point doesn't deal well with very large or very tiny numbers.


Question: How do composite fractions like f(g(x)) work?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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 How do composite fractions like f(g(x)) work?

Do you mean functions? You put a number into g, and get a number out. You use this output of g as an input of f, and get a number out from f. That's all a composite function does at the most general level. Some things you have to be careful about is that because you have to put inputs into g, the number you use has to make sense to put in g. Like if g(x) = sqrt(x), it doesn't make sense to put a negative number in (assuming real valued functions).


Question: How does the luxury tax work in the NBA?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
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 How does the luxury tax work in the NBA?

The NBA has a "soft cap", versus the "hard cap" that the NFL and NHL have, and MLB has no cap (though they do have luxury tax, I think). A **hard cap** means that there's a strict limit on how much a team can spend, and teams can distribute that money however they want. In contrast, the NBA has two levels, the **soft cap** and the **luxury tax**, which work together. Teams can sign any player until their total salaries reach the **soft cap** - this is why teams try to clear out cap space to sign free agents, like the Knicks are doing now. Once they reach the soft cap, they're restricted to using certain exceptions. (One of the big ones is called the Bird exception, which lets teams go over the cap to sign players who have been on the team for a certain amount of time.) Once a team's total salaries hit the **luxury tax**, they get taxed based on how far above the threshold they are and how long they've been paying the tax. The tax payments are then redistributed to the non-tax teams. So the soft cap prevents a team with a super rich owner from signing every great player in the league, while the luxury tax makes it more and more expensive every year to keep the team together. Imagine you're at a restaurant and want to order a bunch of different things on the menu. The soft cap means the waiter says you can only pick dishes that have a total price of $100. After that, you can keep ordering seconds (or thirds, or fourths, etc) of the same dishes, but the luxury tax says each time you order it'll cost more.


Question: When investing in a mutual fund for retirement, where does the wealth come from?

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 When investing in a mutual fund for retirement, where does the wealth come from?

> where does the wealth come from? The companies the fund invests in become more profitable over time, producing greater profits that pay out greater dividends to shareholders, increasing the value of the equity you hold via the mutual fund. > am I just making others poorer No. The return you get is a portion of the increased wealth the company generated. If I take seeds and grow vegetables I've made myself richer without making anyone else worse off. In this analogy you are providing me with money to buy seeds and getting a cut of the profit I make when selling the vegatables. > contributing to the wealth gap? Yes. In general, if you are able to save and earn a return on those savings you are accruing wealth far faster than someone who cannot afford to. As such, you're growing richer far faster than someone who is poorer. That said, it is pretty much completely incorrect to say that that is bad for society.


Question: how can lonely cloud survive in a crystal clear sky?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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</answer>
 how can lonely cloud survive in a crystal clear sky?

In the absence of winds in the atmosphere, the "lonely cloud" would certainly dissipate. However, the rotation of the Earth and the different gradients of heating (of the soil and water) that the Sun causes, result in the atmosphere having currents of wind, and areas of higher and lower pressure and temperature. Water molecules stay in the air based on pressure and temperature. They condense to the fog droplets that you see as "a cloud" based on pressure and temperature. And rain condenses out of a cloud based on pressure and temperature. So, basically, the "lonely cloud" is in a "pocket" of different pressure or temperature, bordered by winds (that you can't see) that keep it in that shape.