Question: Why do people who are very rich able to get away with not paying their taxes?

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 Why do people who are very rich able to get away with not paying their taxes?

Because they can afford to exploit loopholes in laws to put their money in tax havens or other tricks and hire investment experts and lawyers to help them figure out all the details to make that work. Also many are tied in with lobbyists that influence the government to set regulations and laws that favor them and create loopholes. Of course some rich people are very giving with their money, either not playing these games or donating more to charities than they would have paid in taxes, but many aren't like that. Also I think the tricks are used to greatly reduce taxes paid, but not eliminate them usually. Not sure about that, though. P.S. That's in the U.S.A, but I expect it's similar most places.


Question: Why does you breath get all nasty overnight after you brushed your teeth and made it smell all nice?

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 Why does you breath get all nasty overnight after you brushed your teeth and made it smell all nice?

Bacteria are responsible for causing bad breath, and they thrive all over the mouth, but mostly on the tongue. The tongue is warm and has many more nooks and crannies on its surface for bacteria to hide than your teeth do. These bacteria reproduce all day, and when you brush your teeth, spit, talk, eat, or swallow, you're killing some of them by physically pushing them off your teeth, gums, and tongue, or by applying toothpastes or washes that kill them. Overnight, you aren't talking, or brushing your teeth, you don't spit, and your saliva production is reduced and swallowing is not nearly as frequent. This means those bacteria are able to reproduce like crazy since the things that normally kill them are all on hiatus for several hours while you sleep. Long story short, their environment is safe enough that they can multiply in number much more easily.


Question: If all motion, specifically velocity, is relative, then wouldn’t all temperatures also be relative?

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 If all motion, specifically velocity, is relative, then wouldn’t all temperatures also be relative?

Nope. For motion, it's hopeless to judge if something is stationary - we can only tell if it's stationary in our reference frame, so it's appropriate to call motion relative. But temperature is a measure of thermal vibration. In any reference frame, you can measure that and you could tell if it were zero. (It can't *be* zero, because thermodynamics reasons, but if it were, that zero would be measurable.) In recognition of that, Kelvin temperatures are also called absolute temperatures and the Kelvin scale starts at (say it with me) absolute zero.


Question: How do astrophysicists develop concrete theories about the universe through math (or whatever the hell it is they do)?

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 How do astrophysicists develop concrete theories about the universe through math (or whatever the hell it is they do)?

1) Look at the universe. 2) Make a model (usually involving some math) that accurately matches what they see. 3) Look at the model and basically say, "If this model is correct, what else should be out there?" 4) Go look for that other stuff. If you find it, celebrate, publish 1-40 papers, and gain some confidence that your model is right. If you don't find it, cry softly to yourself and start working on an updated model. Repeat forever, or until tenure is granted.


Question: What is a mormon and why are people so relieved when they stop being so?

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 What is a mormon and why are people so relieved when they stop being so?

On r/exmormon you see a lot of the relief coming from no longer viewing sex as evil, being free to drink coffee or even alcohol, wear clothing that isn't totally conservative, not have to donate time and money to the church, etc. The weird little thing that tickles me is women being excited about their "porn shoulders" i.e. wearing tank tops or dresses with narrow straps after having been told all their life that only sluts wear clothes where their shoulders are visible. Not exaggerating. Also Mormons are expected to donate 10% of their income each year, like the Church will literally call you in for an audit and make sure your bank records verify that you're paying the right amount. So you get exmos showing off how they just bought a Harley or took a couple's scuba diving trip to Jamaica with the money they saved from not having to pay the church anymore. Lastly, the Church is really time-intensive. It's not just that the Sunday services are long (they are), but there are administrative meetings during the week about church business, study meetings, additional training, and they're always demanding people volunteer for tasks even as simple as cleaning the church (instead of using all that money to hire a janitor). So exmos will post online about the cool things they did on a day when they would normally have been all tied up with church obligations. It's really fascinating stuff, worth checking out r/exmormon.


Question: why the resignation of Michael Flynn is such a big deal?

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 why the resignation of Michael Flynn is such a big deal?

He may have committed a felony by contacting Russia as a private citizen for the purpose of undermining official diplomacy efforts (specifically, he is believed to have told them that the sanctions Obama was putting in place would not be upheld by Trump). He might have gotten away with that, but he followed up by lying to VP Pence about it.


Question: How does HEX color code works?

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 How does HEX color code works?

Hex code are 6 characters, like so: FFFFFF Each group of 2 represents a colour, either red, green or blue and range from 0 to 255 in value (00 to FF). So say we want to have bright yellow, we would it code it like this: FFFF00 which would represent the RGB value 255,255,0. It is also possible to have an 8 character hex code, where the last 2 would represent the alpha, or transparency, value or the colour.


Question: Why is it not more secure to hash password multiple times?

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 Why is it not more secure to hash password multiple times?

The golden standard of password hashing is that there must be: 1) Significant time and effort spent on making a single guess 2) It not be practical for effort spent cracking one password be usable for cracking another 3) (Variant of 2 really) Doing work ahead of time doesn't help you Security by obscurity is not security by itself. It can be a layer, but you must not rely on it. If someone gets hold of your database, they may be able to get your algorithm. Once they have that if your password encryption scheme is garbage it will fall easily. Graphic cards can do millions to BILLIONS of sha-style hashes per second. The Internet is full of known and good password cracking applications. If your scheme doesn't meet these rules then your passwords can be decrypted easily. Now, I would like to point out that hashing a password multiple times IS a good strategy, and can fulfill rule #1. However to be effective the number of iterations needs to be HUGE, like 100,000 scale. pbkdf2 does this and it's considered an accepted best practice. (Rules 2 and 3 can be met with salting)


Question: How is the music industry dying but at the same time artists like Drake, Taylor Swift, J Cole etc. are racking in millions?

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 How is the music industry dying but at the same time artists like Drake, Taylor Swift, J Cole etc. are racking in millions?

It's not dying, it's just changing. Music as an industry will always exist because people will always want to be entertained. Artists no longer make most of their money from physical album sales, but instead will sell the album online for $0.99/track. Same ultimate endpoint, just a different way of getting there to stay with the times.


Question: Why do people in regions less exposed to sunshine have lighter skin?

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 Why do people in regions less exposed to sunshine have lighter skin?

Humans need sunlight to manufacture most of our Vitamin D. Evolution tries to balance that out with UV protection. Too dark and you don't get enough Vitamin D and die. Too light and you get skin cancer and die. Over time, various populations in different climates trended toward whatever balance best fits that climate. If you're somewhere with very low sunshine, you want really pale skin because you're not worried about UV damage and you don't have much sunlight to make Vitamin D so you take all you can get.


Question: Why do you need prescription lenses for VR? If you wear glasses but can see anything close to you clearly, would you still need them?

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 Why do you need prescription lenses for VR? If you wear glasses but can see anything close to you clearly, would you still need them?

The VR headsets does have lenses in them making the screen look like it is much further away then it actually is. Howver if you have a perscription then these lenses will overcorrect for you. You therefore have to wear glasses in order to get the focus point back to where it should be.


Question: Why are PC games released late?

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 Why are PC games released late?

Sometimes this is because the studio developing the game has singed an exclusivity agreement with that console's marketing department. Often times these agreements have some sort of expiration date after which they can release the game on other systems. There are pretty much never such agreements for a PC game, which means that either the game will drop on all platforms at once, or it will drop on just one platform, then wait many months before it goes to others if at all. On the other side of the coin I actually play a game where the PC updates are released as soon as they're done, but then the update for consoles has to go through the QA process for those console's stores, so the console update can be weeks to months behind the PC update.


Question: Why are most commercial solar panels only 25 % efficient?

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 Why are most commercial solar panels only 25 % efficient?

Photovoltaic solar panels *in general* have an efficiency limit of about 33%, enforced by physics and how electricity behaves, and is known as the Shockley-Queisser Limit. There have been efforts to go beyond that limit using things like lenses and mirrors to focus sunlight, but even then the world record of efficiency is only around 46% or so. After that point, modern commercial cells are capped at around 25% because that's the point at which increasing the efficiency starts to get particularly hard, and thus particularly expensive. More importantly, thermodynamics puts a hard limit on most of these kinds of energy processes, and the limit is essentially just a function of the difference in potential between the high-energy state and the low-energy state in a reaction. The simpler way to see this is in heat engines, and the efficiency is capped by the difference in temperature between the ambient (low-energy) and the inside of the engine cylinder where combustion happens (high-energy). With solar cells trying to focus in on an area of the sky around the size of our sun, the *absolute* limit for solar cells is around 69%.


Question: In the USA, why is the federal government seizing PPE/safety mask orders to hospitals?

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 In the USA, why is the federal government seizing PPE/safety mask orders to hospitals?

One of the problems that has shown up in the coronavirus response is that there is a limited amount of medical equipment available and it simply isn't possible to increase the rate at which it is being produced. This is problematic because wealth is not divided evenly across the US. California is, by far, the wealthiest state. The San Francisco Bay Area, in particular, is the wealthiest area of that state. Throughout March, both California and municipalities in the SF Bay Area used their wealth to outbid other states and divert the vast majority of the limited amount of available medical equipment to themselves. But there were and continue to be virtually no coronavirus cases in the SF Bay Area and very few in California. This means that all of that medical equipment wouldn't have ended up where its needed - but rather in the few places that can outbid everyone else. At the start of April the Federal Government invoked the Defense Production Act to seize medical equipment headed to California, and to direct all future medical equipment production to the Federal government so that it could be redistributed according to need and not bidding power. This is known as "rationing" and is a common solution in times of crisis when there are limited resources available and its necessary to ensure that those resources are put to current use, rather than a warehouse in anticipation of future use for a handful of wealthy individuals.


Question: year-old who happens to do his own taxes: how do governments efficiently detect tax evasion without doing everyone's taxes for them?

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 year-old who happens to do his own taxes: how do governments efficiently detect tax evasion without doing everyone's taxes for them?

They do it efficiently by not trying to get 100% of all tax evaders, just like most stores don’t try to get 100% of shoplifters and other theft (otherwise everyone would be searched as they leave the store). They rely on computer analyses to understand what reasonable and common numbers are. A business whose expenses are significantly above average is far more likely to be audited. Likewise for someone making low income but still with charitable donations of 30%. People who live totally off the grid are more difficult to catch. But most people living like that probably don’t have high incomes, and might even be forgoing benefits such as the Earned Income Credit. State governments are more likely to after them than the IRS.


Question: What would happen in the minutes, hours, and days following a nuclear attack?

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 What would happen in the minutes, hours, and days following a nuclear attack?

That depends on so many factors. It would take over 20 minutes before the first warnings to the first bomb lands. In addition it would require some checking and double checking to make sure this was a real attack. There would be no time to evacuate but citizens would be asked to take cover as best they could. There is very advanced missile defense systems which would be able to take out most of the nuclear missiles. The president would be given different options. Even if there is a first nuclear attack sending nuclear missiles back might not be the best option. Or at least limit the response to not be overly aggressive. Because of the vast distances of our planet and the difference readiness states of the missile systems a complete nuclear war would stretch out for hours. Where the bombs have hit there will have been massive devastation. However the surrounding areas would not be that bad to begin with. Shock waves will get weaker the longer away from the center they are and will also be directed upwards into the atmosphere by buildings and hills. The radioactivity levels will not be deadly either. Modern bombs are designed to get as much energy as possible into making an explosion so any accidental isotopes is a failure in the bombs design. That is not to say there will be no radiation but it will not be as bad as some people might imagine. Going to the site of the Chernobyl reactor would be more dangerous then in the newly formed crater from a nuclear bomb. If significant amount of warheads will have been detonated the added particles to the atmosphere would cause some problems. This can vary from radioactive downpoor to completely changed climate.


Question: In statistics, what is simpson's paradox?

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 In statistics, what is simpson's paradox?

Imagine that you want to know if the average daily temperature increases, decreases, or stays the same over a six-day period. You start by measuring an average daily temperature for all six days. You also decide to divide the six-day interval into two three-day periods of data collection. Let’s say that you find that temperature increases over the first period of data collection (days 1, 2, and 3), from 70 degrees to 80 degrees to 90 degrees. Over the second period of data collection (days 4, 5, and 6), you find that temperature increases from 60 to 70 to 80 degrees. At first glance, it seems that daily average temperature must have increased through the six day period, since daily average temperature increased over time in both data sets (the first three days and the next three days). However, when both data sets are combined, you can see that temperature has surprisingly decreased over the six-day period. In other words, the average temperature over the first three days is 80 degrees, while the average over the last three days is 70 degrees. If you look at the overall trend in weather, you would see that temperature actually decreases over the six-day period (even though it increases over both periods of data collection). This is a paradox in the sense that it’s surprising based on what you would intuitively expect from each three-day period. This is a silly example, since no one actually studies weather in this way, and real examples of Simpson’s paradox are more complicated, but this is still the basic idea. Essentially, when you combine separate data sets, you can find an overall trend that is different from the trend shown by each individual data set. And here’s a good page about this ( URL_0 ).


Question: Why do games go crazy when alt-tabbing?

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 Why do games go crazy when alt-tabbing?

You have your in-game settings configured for Full Screen, which means your video card is only rendering the game and is no longer rendering anything on your desktop for that screen. When you alt-tab in full screen mode, the video card has to drop rendering for the game and switch to rendering the desktop again, which is why everything goes to black and depending on poor/lazy code in the game, can cause a crash or take an extended period of time. This is why Borderless Windowed mode exists, the video card continues rendering the desktop behind the game, so alt-tabbing is very seamless while still providing a full-screen look.


Question: Where does the heat energy produced by humans go?

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 Where does the heat energy produced by humans go?

A lot of it gets radiated back into space. Everything that has temperature emits light. Most things that we think of giving off heat are emitting light in the infrared spectrum. That light does its best to make it back into space This is actually why greenhouse gasses are such a concern. They are an issue explicitly because the prevent that infrared light from escaping into space, in effect working like a greenhouse does.


Question: How much money do Jewelers make knowing they have to stock their entire store with gold and diamonds?

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 How much money do Jewelers make knowing they have to stock their entire store with gold and diamonds?

The rule in the jewelry business is "triple key", meaning if the wholesale price is $1000 the jeweler will usually start the price at $3000. This helps deal with the extra costs of running a jewelry store, which are quite high. This may sound like a large markup, but consider most retail markups are 5x or higher compared to wholesale. As opposed to what another commenter said, most jewelry on display will be considered "memo" merchandise, meaning it is not owned by the shop but by a wholesaler, it is being held by the shop until it sells or the memo expires. When sold, the jeweler pays the wholesaler for the merchandise and keeps the difference. Source: nearly 10 years in the business


Question: Why are navy, khanki and dark brown considered to go with almost anything in fashion, but mint green, dark purple or burgundy aren't?

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 Why are navy, khanki and dark brown considered to go with almost anything in fashion, but mint green, dark purple or burgundy aren't?

That is a culturally subjective observation. Depending on the culture, some of these colors might not even exists as clothing, for example certain African tribes. Simply put, color palettes are cultural, therefore why certain color combinations are more appealing than others is dependent on the societal and individual level. The colors you mention are not universally considered well-matched.


Question: How and Why does a magnetic field exist?

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 How and Why does a magnetic field exist?

There are a large number of forces that don't require touching. For instance gravity. Objects get pulled towards each other based on their mass. There is another force called the electric force. Objects with a negative charge repel other objects with a negative charge and attract objects with a positive charge. The reason for this has to do with subatomic particles. There are things called electrons which are the negative particle. They repel other electrons and attract the positive particle protons. Just like gravity they don't need to touch for this to be the case. They experience a force away from each other that gets weaker the farther apart they get. So, objects with more negative charge than positive charge experience have an overall negative charge. Magnetism is when you move a charged object in reference to other charged objects. When that happens the object experiences a different force perpendicular to the the direction of it's movement and the force of the attraction or repulsion. A magnet is an object where all the electrons are moving ways that they all create a magnetic force in the same direction. They build on one another and create a large magnetic force.


Question: Why does hard plastic turn white when you bend it regardless of the colour ?

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 Why does hard plastic turn white when you bend it regardless of the colour ?

[Also from thread of same title]( URL_0 ) > From thread with the same title > It is due to what is known as "stress induced crystallization". As mentioned before, many polymers are semi-crystalline, containing both crystalline and amorphous (non-ordered, think spaghetti) regions. When the crystalline region size is on the order of the wavelength of light, it can scatter light making the plastic opaque. For polymers that are entirely amorphous, you have no crystalline regions and thus the polymers are transparent. As I mentioned above, you can think of the amorphous regions as something similar to spaghetti, a messed of tangled polymer chains. When you bend the plastic (i.e. stress), you are forcing those polymer chains to align in the axis of strain, inducing crystallization in that region, which can then scatter light and turn the plastic opaque or white.


Question: Why are oceans affected by the moon’s pull, but other bodies of water like lakes are not?

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 Why are oceans affected by the moon’s pull, but other bodies of water like lakes are not?

Well, the short answer is that they are- the impact is so small however that it's basically insignificant. This is largely due to the enormous difference in size between oceans/lakes. Edit: I believe the great lakes have measurable tidal changes.. but we're talking literal centimeters. You'd never be aware if you weren't specifically measuring for it.


Question: Why is ice often associated with slowness in games?

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 Why is ice often associated with slowness in games?

I'm guessing you've never been somewhere cold. Yes, becoming cold can make you lethargic. Your body is using energy to try and heat itself so you can become exhausted just trying to walk while very cold. Not to mention colds impact on circulation which can make it hard to use your limbs and slow you. The effects of hypothermia on the mind as well, making thinking difficult and, once more, slowing you down.


Question: what is the difference between black tea flavours? the ingredients just say "100% ceylon tea"

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 what is the difference between black tea flavours? the ingredients just say "100% ceylon tea"

Everything about a tea can effect its flavor. What varietal it is, where it is grown, how it is grown, what's in the soil, what fertilizers or pesticides are used, when it is picked, how it is picked, how much it is oxidized, how the oxidation was stopped, how it is dried, how it is processed and how it is packaged. And that's just before it reaches you. If the ingredients only say 100% Ceylon tea, that just means it is grown somewhere in Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon. English breakfast, for example, is usually a blend of different black teas to give it an extra strong and malty flavor so it stands up to lots of sugar and milk.


Question: Why are robin eggs blue?

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 Why are robin eggs blue?

Colorful eggs evolved as a strategy to fight *parasitic brooders*. Those are birds - at least in this context, there are other animals that do it, but we're talking about birds - that lay their eggs in another bird's nest, alongside the nest-builder's eggs. The parasitic brooder gets free parenting! Their young get fed and taken care of by other birds, and the parasitic parents never waste their own energy doing it. This is bad for the "host" birds, though. They have less resources to use for their own babies. In fact, many parasitic brooder young instinctively kick other baby birds out of the nest, or fight and kill them. This means the "host" parent doesn't waste food on other babies, which suits the parasitic baby just fine. It's not like it has to worry about the continuation of its host's species. To stop this, many birds have evolved bright colors and patterns to their eggs. It makes it easy to spot parasitic eggs. If your egg is bright blue and the parasitic brooders lay plain white eggs, well, that one doesn't belong, kick it out. Of course, parasitic brooders co-evolve with the species around them, including species commonly used as hosts for their parasitic young. So they can *also* evolve eggs that match their hosts' eggs. That's risky, though, since it means they're evolving away from what the eggs look like for any other species, so they get stuck using *only* that species as a host. In [this picture]( URL_0 ) you can see two cardinal eggs and a parasitic cowbird egg. Can you spot the difference? The cowbird egg is a *little* bit smaller. Now here's a picture of [robin eggs and a cowbird egg]( URL_1 ). There's no chance the robin won't notice that!


Question: What is the difference between an associate degree, a bachelor's degree, a master's degree, and a doctoral degree?

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 What is the difference between an associate degree, a bachelor's degree, a master's degree, and a doctoral degree?

Years of college mainly, and doing a dissertation for the doctoral. An associates degree is typically 2 years of college. A bachelors degree is typically 4 years of college. A masters degree is around 6 years of college. To get a doctoral you need to go past your masters and I think do some more classes then do a dissertation and have it reviewed and stuff. I don't know the exact process here. You can think of it as a character in a game. You have a stat for "knowledge" and each higher level degree gives you more points in knowledge. Also, some careers require you to have higher degrees than others.


Question: On a racing circuit, is the purpose of the rumble strips to slow down the car?

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 On a racing circuit, is the purpose of the rumble strips to slow down the car?

The rumble strips are used to define the outside of the corners. Taking a wide line into a corner is often the fastest way to take that corner (called the racing line). The rumble strips both help the driver identify when they are on the limit (leaving the track is a penalty) but it also is a deterrent because the strips are uncomfortable to go over and can damage the car. Going onto the strips might be uncomfortable but that extra foot of space can be worth a few tenths a lap so the driver will take the risk.


Question: Water boiling after microwaving it?

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 Water boiling after microwaving it?

It's a phenomenon known as [superheating]( URL_0 ), and it's really dangerous! This happens because the glass you're using is particularly clean. See, water cannot by itself start boiling without a special formation around it to start turning it to steam, called [nucleation sites]( URL_1 ). These can be dirt or even crevices of the glass you're boiling the water in. When you put in a teabag, it will introduce nucleation sites where the water can then start boiling. This will cause a chain reaction by making more disturbances (due to boiling bubbles), which causes more nucleation, causing a feedback loop which might cause the whole container to spontaneously bubble uncontrollably, causing splashes and burns. Be careful!


Question: When you get an organ removed, such as a kidney, what fills its place in your body?

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 When you get an organ removed, such as a kidney, what fills its place in your body?

Just wanted to note that the kidney is not in the peritoneal cavity with the rest of your organs, the space where it was will flatten, enlarging the peritoneal cavity a little and thus replacing the lost space with your other organs. In the case of day your liver, you would only donate part of it, and it would grow back to almost full size over a month or so.


Question: Why do people say that flushing a toilet in the same house that someone is showering in makes the water extra hot? Is it just a myth or does it actually happen? If it happens, why?

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 Why do people say that flushing a toilet in the same house that someone is showering in makes the water extra hot? Is it just a myth or does it actually happen? If it happens, why?

In some plumbing systems, flushing the toilet pulls cold water from the lines that supply cold water to the shower. In a shower with a mixing valve setup, cold and hot water are mixed to provide warm water, and the drop in the cold water pressure can cause a hot surge in the shower. This all depends on how the water supply pipes are plumbed in the house — this happened in the house I grew up in (built in about 1980), but not in either of the houses I’ve owned — built in 2008 and 2015. Depends on how the piping is set up.


Question: How are artificial flavors produced?

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 How are artificial flavors produced?

scientists are able to isolate the chemical compounds responsible for a flavor. Then they can synthesize compounds either identical to it, or similar to it. They sometimes will combine multiple compounds to produce more unique flavors that aren't found naturally. Other times they will use chemical compounds completely unrelated to the original, but still create a similar taste. The people who do this have to have extensive knowledge on flavors, how to describe flavors, what compounds cause what flavors, and how to make them without accidentally coming up with dangerous compounds. Its exactly as difficult as it sounds. Very few people are involved in this, even compared to a lot of other highly specialized fields.


Question: How do polders create more land?

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 How do polders create more land?

You build a large water-resistant wall around the area, and then you use pumps (often powered by windmills) to remove the water. As a draining help, if the local tides are really huge you can open floodgates in your walls when the local tide (temporary sea level) is lower than in your polder.


Question: Why is it that people procrastinate?

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 Why is it that people procrastinate?

Many people do it due to perfectionism and anxiety. For example, I’ll put off essays because I’ll worry that if I start an essay early, I won’t be able to do as good a job on it as I would if I’ve had more time to think. I’ll wait and wait, even though I know that if I keep putting it off I’ll end up turning it in late. Then I’ll convince myself that I should just accept the late points because I’ll be able to write a better essay with more time and get a better grade (even with points off for lateness) than I would if I’d just written it on time. Attention span (especially ADHD), time management, and distraction also play a huge role in procrastination. Sometimes you just want to do something more interesting or fun than the task at hand, and sometimes you’ll be researching something for a paper and end up in a Wikipedia blackhole, reading about the history of the McChicken at 3 am when your essay is due at 9:30 am. Depression plays a role too. Sometimes you just can’t muster up the energy to complete the task on time. People procrastinate for many reasons, but according to my extensive experience with procrastination and the many sessions I’ve spent talking about procrastination with psychologists, these are the main reasons.


Question: What force is creating new spacetime (and at an accelerating pace)?

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 What force is creating new spacetime (and at an accelerating pace)?

Dark energy is what causes the expansion. We aren't completely sure what dark energy is. It could be a result of how gravity works or it could be its own new force. Either way from what we can tell is empty space contains dark energy at a constant energy density. This means as new space is created so is new dark energy. This new space and dark energy also contribute to the expansion giving a run away effect that we see today.


Question: Why does spilt oil look multicoloured?

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 Why does spilt oil look multicoloured?

It's pretty complicated, if your really curious I suggest you pick up a copy of Richard Feynmans QED. It busts it down for the layman without a background in calculus. For example instead of integrating complex numbers he explains it as spinning arrows. Its actually a really fascinating book, highly recommended. To answer your question though the top surface and the bottom surface of the oil slick both reflect some light, if the thickness of the oil is just right the light cancels out. Different colors require different thickness of oil, the rainbow is created due to varying thicknesses. The mechanics of it all is in the book I mentioned.


Question: How much clean, drinkable water is left on Earth and what is being done to combat an eventual shortage?

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 How much clean, drinkable water is left on Earth and what is being done to combat an eventual shortage?

Clean drinking water is not a global issue, however it is a bunch of local issues. The amount of clean drinking water available is only affecting the local water systems. So it does not make sense to measure how much clean drinking water is available in Switzerland when you are looking at the water levels in the US. And secondly clean drinking water is a renewable resource that replenishes fairly often. The problem is therefore not that we have a lack of clean drinking water but that the clean drinking water does not reach the people who need it but is instead used for other things along the way.


Question: What causes inaccuracies in our current model conventional physics at certain points, such as at extremely hot temperatures?

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 What causes inaccuracies in our current model conventional physics at certain points, such as at extremely hot temperatures?

Physics student here! In a lot of our models we use approximations to turn an equation we have no way of solving into one that can be trivially solved. Thing is, these approximations tend to have an area of parameters the situation needs to fit for the approximation to be accurate. For example, the equation of motion for a basic pendulum includes a sin(x) term. This is a pain in a differential equation, so we use the Taylor series for the function sin(x) and notice, that if x is small, we can make an approximation sin(x)≈x, effectively removing the sin(x) from our equation. Now, note that we specifically stated that the approximation is only good with a small x. Thus, our model will naturally be faulty if we try to use it to describe a situation where x is not small.


Question: Why does it seem quite common (relatively) that women athletes happen to be LBGTQ+, where it appears not as common in men sports?

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 Why does it seem quite common (relatively) that women athletes happen to be LBGTQ+, where it appears not as common in men sports?

Queer person here, I don't know a hard answer but here are some possible explanations that come to mind: A large part of being LGBT is challenging/rejecting gender expectations. So, for a woman who hates being forced into a dress and makeup (and maybe wants to spend more time around half-naked women), sports could be extra appealing. That said, there are PLENTY of gay men who are into fitness and sports. Trust me. It may be easier for queer women to come out. Men's sports has always been a pretty hostile place for gay men, whereas most women's sports have reputations for being very progressive spaces. I can imagine there's a lot of pressure on a gay NFL player to keep quiet - less pressure if you're in the WNBA. Finally, maybe that perception is just that - a perception that's not rooted in reality.


Question: when people describe babies as “addicted to ___ at birth”, how do they know that? What does it mean for an infant to be born addicted to a substance?

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 when people describe babies as “addicted to ___ at birth”, how do they know that? What does it mean for an infant to be born addicted to a substance?

Me and all 7 of my siblings come from a heroin/crack/ meth user. We all had the shakes and seizures when we were born. A multitude of other withdrawl symptoms correlating to drug use. 7 different siblings, 7 different fathers. Crazy life. She is at Chino Womens Prison for the next 20 years as of last year. Crazy life. Edit just to say that social workers are over worked, underpaid and emotionally destroyed within a few years. Edit 2. There is a lady in this world who has taken in hundreds of kids. And im not exaggerating. Last time i went to go speak with her she estimated that she had taken in and nurtured about 300 kids in her stint as a short term and long term foster mother. Her husband deserves as much credit as well. They are in their 90s now but they have never received any recognition and they have never asked for it. But if there are such things as angels, that is what they are. I will upload a happy picture of me and 11 of my foster brothers and sisters all sitting in high chairs while they cooked in the background. It will make you guys smile. Edit: Dam, you guys are really serious about this AMA...


Question: ; Why can you not thaw ground beef then refreeze it and thaw it and then consume it?

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 ; Why can you not thaw ground beef then refreeze it and thaw it and then consume it?

Answer: The refrigerator guarantees thawed meat didn't ever go into the Goldilocks zone for bacterial growth. **Technically** any thawing method is safe as long as it doesn't give bacteria time to multiply - this would be very hard for someone to do with a microwave unless they were trying to prove a point "that it can be done".


Question: Why does a marshmallow, when burned completely, leave hard black charred material behind? Is that made up of carbon?

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 Why does a marshmallow, when burned completely, leave hard black charred material behind? Is that made up of carbon?

Marshmellows are essentially pure sugar. Sugar is made of of three elements: Carbom Hydrogen Oxygen The products of said reaction, given perfect quantities of all elements, are CO2 and H2O. That said, the reactions are not perfect, and there is more carbon left over at the end. It remains in an elemental state, being solid Carbon (black char) that you see.


Question: how/why does the loss of one oxygen atom from CO2 (thus turning it into CO aka carbon monoxide) cause such profound differences in effects on human biology?

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 how/why does the loss of one oxygen atom from CO2 (thus turning it into CO aka carbon monoxide) cause such profound differences in effects on human biology?

well I cant help too much on the chemistry side but can speak from a medical standpoint, see below. Stole this from a website: **Carbon Monoxide** (CO) is a chemical compound which contains one carbon atom and one oxygen atom and is also a colourless and odourless gas. Unlike CO2, it is entirely human-made and is not naturally present in the atmosphere. It is produced during the incomplete burning of organic matter, which can occur from motor vehicles, heaters, or cooking equipment that run on carbon-based fuels. CO is therefore spatially variable and short lived in the atmosphere, where it has a role in forming ozone at a ground level. When carbon monoxide is present in concentrations greater than 35 ppm it is toxic to humans and animals, as it prevents the blood from carrying oxygen. Rest of this post, is me: Medically how it prevents the blood from carrying oxygen is a fairly complex question, but ill do my best. Carbon Dioxide, which is naturally formed by our body, is actually only found in low concentrations in our blood. At higher concentrations in the blood it can be just as deadly as carbon monoxide. The vast majority of Carbon Dioxide however, is converted into carbonic acid which quickly dissassociates to bicarbonate (HCO3-) \[not harmful\] and a Hydrogen Ion (H+) using an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. Where it is transported to the lungs or kidneys, where the same enzyme then converts it back to CO2 to be released by exhaling (CO2) or in our urine (as HCO3-) so it cant do any damage. In regards to the CO you need to have a basic understanding of how oxygen is transported in the body. In the most basic form, we breathe in oxygen, the high concentration of Oxygen in the air we breathe causes previously bound CO2 (relative small amounts of actual gas) to be released by hemoglobin (a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen, CO2, and few other gases) and the oxygen (usually a few molecules for each hemoglobin protein) takes its place and is transported around the body to where it is needed. The body knows where the oxygen is needed because there will be a high concentration of lets call them activity markers (basically molecules showing cells are doing work....H+, C02, etc). This high concentration of activity markers tells the hemoglobin to release the oxygen to that area, because oxygen is needed for the cells to continue their work. THe CO2, H+ etc is then picked up and headed back to the lungs / kidneys and the cycle starts over again. Carbon Monoxide is an issue because when in the human body, it not only binds to hemoglobin (like oxygen and CO2) but has a stronger affinity (wants to stay bound) to hemoglobin. Therefore when in the human body, the carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin and stays strongly bound to it preventing oxygen from being bound (at the lungs) and released to where it is needed (legs, brains etc), so the body doesnt get the oxygen it needs to survive leading to first confusion, blurry vision, headaches, vomiting etc, then loss of consiousness and eventually death, unless treated. In the simpliest of terms, Carbon Monoxide itself doesn't do damage, it just prevents the human body from getting the oxygen it needs. vs. Carbon dioxide, which is naturally found in our body, and therefore has multiple methods of getting released OUT of the body, but technically in high enough concentrations can do the same thing.


Question: how do some areas have more than one power supplier since I would assume they would be using the same power lines and infrastructure?

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 how do some areas have more than one power supplier since I would assume they would be using the same power lines and infrastructure?

There are a number of ways thus can be done, but in general the model breaks the system up into different parts. The first part produces electricity. There are numerous power suppliers, e.g. dam operators, coal plant operators, nuclear plant operators, etc. These power generators sell their output to various distributors who are the second part of the system. People then buy their power from these distributors who are paying the producers to generate electricity. All the electricity produced within a region by the generators then gets put into the electricity pool or grid. There is a third part of the system that handles transferring generated electricity to the consumer. They own the wires, transformers, etc. They charge the distributor a fee to use their equipment to sell it to the end user. So there are a bunch of different producers generating power, a bunch of distributors buying power from generators and selling it to consumers but usually only one grid operator that delivers electricity from the producer to the consumer.


Question: How can the global economy survive while most countries are in debt, and that debt continues to grow?

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 How can the global economy survive while most countries are in debt, and that debt continues to grow?

Countries being in debt is a complicated topic and not exactly the best measure of their economic health when taken as a single piece of data. For instance: a lot of hullabaloo has been raised about the US's debt, but it is rarely pointed out that like 1/4 of that is owed by the US government to itself (ie: state department borrowed however much from department of interior). If there is a tipping point for global economic collapse, it's only speculative since we have not actually seen that many instances of global economic collapse. We've learned that it's probably a good idea to separate the banks that hold people's money and the banks that invest in businesses and regulate those, and it's such a reliable failure mode that not even 20 years after those regulations were lifted, we fucked it up and the banks bamboozled us into another recession. So maybe we should start there. But by and large, having debt can be good, as it allows you to invest money elsewhere and earn a return. As a micro-example: Say that you have $1,000,000 in the bank, and you find a house you want to buy for $1,000,000. You *could* pay cash for it, but you wouldn't have any spare cash left over. Or you could pay a $200k down-payment and then take out a 30 year mortgage, then invest the other $800k in an investment that should yield you ~10%, which over 30 years should make you more than the interest you're paying on the mortgage. Should that investment vehicle look like it's going to fail, you pull your initial $800k out and pay off the rest of the mortgage and keep whatever profits you've made.