Question: Why is it important for US presidents to release their tax returns? When leaders of other nations don't?

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 Why is it important for US presidents to release their tax returns? When leaders of other nations don't?

The premise behind the idea is the fact that we have laws that forbid a sitting president to profit directly from their position. Also, the concern that business priorities would conflict with national policy. For example, if it was found out that Trump had invested heavily in US Steel manufacturers, then his tariffs against Chinese steel would be motivated by personal interest instead of national interest. Releasing tax information would allow authorities to see if there are any existing business ventures that would fall into these categories.


Question: Why can't water get hotter than 100 degrees Celsius?

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 Why can't water get hotter than 100 degrees Celsius?

You *can* get water hotter than 100. The key thing is that when water turns into water vapour, it cools down. So when you boil water, it heats up until the rate of heat loss from boiling equals the rate of heat gain from the heat source. Then it's being heated and cooled at the same rate, so it doesn't change temperature. 100 degrees is the point where this happens at sea level standard pressure. To get it hotter than 100 you need to stop it boiling, so you can either increase the pressure, or you can have the water in a perfectly smooth vessel with no nuceleation sites. You can then heat water hotter than 100. It's quite easy to microwave water hotter than 100 in a glass, but that's really dangerous. As soon as the water is picked up, the vibrations will often cause it to suddenly boil. See URL_0


Question: How do the forces of gravity and magnetism differ?

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 How do the forces of gravity and magnetism differ?

Every force has a sort of "Charge". For gravity, we call that charge "Mass". In electromagnetism, we call it "Charge". In the strong force, we call it "Color Charge". We don't really have an understanding of fundamentally what these charges are, we just know that they carry force, and react to other charges. The intensity of the charges is really what sets them apart. Electromagnetism is about 10^36 times as strong as gravity. It's why a simple magnet that fits in the palm of your hand can offset an entire planets worth of gravity. One single pound of pure electromagnetic charge has the same strength as the entire planets worth of gravity. The thing is, electromagnetism has two poles (positive and negative) which cancel each other out. Gravity has only one pole, and no cancellation happens. As it happens, the strong force with its color charge has three poles. It's why we call it "color" charge. Much like we arbitrarily chose "positive" and "negative" to be the two opposing poles of electromagnetism, we chose "red", "green", and "blue" to represent the poles of the strong force, as all three together cancel out, similar to how red, green, and blue all add to make pure white. The strong force is about 100 times as strong as electromagnetism, and is responsible for keeping atoms together.


Question: Why does television have so much bandwidth compared to Internet?

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 Why does television have so much bandwidth compared to Internet?

The advantage television has here is that one signal is sent out by the transmitter, and everyone receives the same signal, and no return signal is needed, and different channels are using different frequencies. With an internet line, every end user is receiving an unique signal. (Also, 1080p is rarely used OTA, it's usually 1080i or 720p.)


Question: What is block-chain technology and how does it work?

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 What is block-chain technology and how does it work?

Okay, I am going to actually try to ELY5 So imagine you, me and 3 other people (Johnny, Sally and Steve). All 5 of us have a book and pen. The book contains record of the balance of all 5 of our bank account. Like so * You: $5 * Me: $3 * Johnny: $2 * Sally: $25 * Steve: $0 Johnny wants to sell 5 of his apples to Sally for $20. Sally doesn't actually have physical money, she just has the balance that we all say is in her account. We all note in our respective books that Sally has given Johnny $20. Then Johnny gives Sally the 5 apples. So the new balances in our journal are Like so: * You: $5 * Me: $3 * Johnny: $22 * Sally: $5 * Steve: $0 BUT Steve is a scumbag. He tries to write in his journal that Sally gave HIM the $20. So his journal is different: Like so * You: $5 * Me: $3 * Johnny: $2 * Sally: $5 * Steve: $20 Let say Steve now tries to spend his $20 to buy some gum from me. Steve tries to pay me $20 but we all look in our journal and see that Steve's balance is $0 and he can't pay me $20. Similarly if we were to check Johnny's balance we would all conclude that it was $22 and not $2 like Steve claims. This is esentially block-chian but with millions of People. Everyone has a copy of everything. The main difference is things are anonymous. So we wouldn't know each others names. But everyone knows the balances of each and every account and what transactions occur in it. A few people can try to change the state of the whole thing but the truth is determined by the consensus of the majority.


Question: How do gymnasts/dancers/figure skaters not get dizzy?

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 How do gymnasts/dancers/figure skaters not get dizzy?

They do what's called *spotting,* where they focus their eyes on one spot and turn their head and body at different speeds, so that they can spend most of their time with their eyes fixed on that spot. You'll often notice gymnasts, dancers, and figure skaters' heads seem to whip around really quickly compared to their body, like [this]( URL_0 ). They spend as much time as possible focused on one point and quickly turn their head to get back to that point, which helps avoid dizziness and improve balance.


Question: Should we expect DNA based alien life or is DNA only one possibility which happenned only here on Earth?

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 Should we expect DNA based alien life or is DNA only one possibility which happenned only here on Earth?

It's pretty much guaranteed that aliens wouldn't have the same type of genetics that we do. DNA is only the molecule that came to be here on Earth. There's absolutely no reason whatsoever to believe it is unique. Hell, [we already have developed]( URL_0 ) many analogues artificially. And like Feynman says "The imagination of nature is far, far greater than the imagination of man".


Question: I understand the concept of how ray-tracing works, but what was changed to make it work in real-time on graphics cards?

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 I understand the concept of how ray-tracing works, but what was changed to make it work in real-time on graphics cards?

New algorithms simplify the computations required. Also, building GPU chips for ray tracing means the hardware is better suited for the specific tasks that ray tracing demands. We've heard for years that real-time ray tracing was decades away from being possible (or perhaps impossible), but that was assuming every single pixel was being ray traced. When you only ray trace a fraction of the pixels and then interpolate the results for nearby pixels, it becomes a lot more doable.


Question: In trading Options, why are option spreads better than just an option?

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 In trading Options, why are option spreads better than just an option?

Option spreads lowers your cost to get in on bull call spreads, which is a great place to start. Simple strategy, simple results. You could buy a SPY 340/345 debit spread. It works as follows, you buy a call at 340 while also selling a call at 345. The 340 call might cost you 2000 to buy, but you take in 1750 from selling the 345 call. So to get into the position it would cost you the 250 difference. Since their is a 5$ difference between your strike prices, if the stock is above 345 at expiration, you collect the difference of 500$, pulling in 250 profit. Compared to buying a call and having it the possibility of it expiring worthless, the spread is a safer strategy in my opinion.


Question: Why are we encouraged to not put things like oil and pills down the drain, but we're allowed to use things like drain declogger?

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 Why are we encouraged to not put things like oil and pills down the drain, but we're allowed to use things like drain declogger?

Oil congeals and creates blockages in pipes. Pills dissolve and the drugs inside them can contaminate the waterways the drains empty into, even after going through a water treatment plant. Drain declogger has neither of these issues. It removes blockages, gets rid of grease and oil buildup that may lead to them, and it and its by-products are effectively removed by water treatment plants.


Question: What happens to all the plastic that people collect on clean up drives from beaches, forests etc.?

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 What happens to all the plastic that people collect on clean up drives from beaches, forests etc.?

" doesn't it still end up in some dump or something?" It does, the problem is (in general), that it didn't end up in a dump the first time. It started it's life as litter tossed in roads (with drains to the lake/ocean), litter on the beach, litter tossed off the side of a boat, garbage blowing off a barge or, in some of the biggest cases, shipping containers falling off of cargo boats. The vast majority of garbage that goes to a landfill will stay in a landfill. The majority of plastic you find on a beach wasn't in a landfill to begin with.


Question: . Why is it that on back to back sunny days one day can be 80° and the next day it'll be 90°?

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 . Why is it that on back to back sunny days one day can be 80° and the next day it'll be 90°?

While most people think of weather as a form of induction, as energy moves from substance to substance, and creates our sense of heat as a result. That's not actually how the sun itself works, however, as the sun heats the empty space around it (and all celestial bodies in its field) with radiation. The scattering effect our atmosphere has on that radiation, and how that radiation performs induction in the atmosphere, is what makes up our planet's temperature (from the sun). That temperature varies from day to day as a result of weather pasterns moving the atmosphere that make them up, which shifts shifts the density of the atmosphere and as a result the amount of radiation that glances off our planet. This is why climate science, as a whole, looks at long terms data (and not day-to-day data) to measure the changes in climate over time. Here are [a bunch of diagrams]( URL_0 ) of that shielding/scattering effect from both our atmosphere and the magnetic poles to help you visualize it.


Question: How does caffeine improve the effects of paracetamol ?

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 How does caffeine improve the effects of paracetamol ?

Caffeine is known to have a mild but important effect in enhancing analgesic effects of drugs. It's not clear how but some hypotheses are: 1) improved drug absorption by lowering gastric pH and increase gastric blood flow 2) reduced metabolic clearance of drugs by reducing hepatic blood flow 3) blocking peripheral pro-pain adenosine signaling while activating anti-pain adenosine pathways in the brain 4) reducing expression of COX2 by blocking the adenosine receptor 5) changes in mood and emotional state that may alter pain perception There's evidence for all of these but it's not strong enough to call it fact (effect is real, but mechanism isn't certain). Caffeine mostly used as an adjuvant to painkillers (especially headache drugs), not all drugs.


Question: How come, when your fingers are “frozen” from being outside in the extreme cold, running hot water over them hurts like hell, while running cold water over them warms them up?

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 How come, when your fingers are “frozen” from being outside in the extreme cold, running hot water over them hurts like hell, while running cold water over them warms them up?

Because the sensory nerves in your body do not measure temperate in absolute values. They measure them in relative values. So a nerve in you hand doesn’t go “hey this thing is exactly 20 degrees (Fahrenheit, but the concept applies for whatever measurement you want)” it can’t know that. All it can know is “hey this thing is much hotter or much colder than me”. So to your nerves. A hand that is 40 degrees being covered in 120 degree water (typical water heater temps) feels the 80 degree difference. And 80 degrees is a huge difference. That would be like putting your normal hand, ~80-90 degrees into 170 degree water. To the nerves in your hand, which react to differences in temperature. Those both feel the same and feel extremely hot and painful. Take that same 40 degree hand and put it in “cool” 60 degree water and it just feels a bit warm, like running your 80 degree normal hand under kinda hot 100 degree water. Tl:dr your nerves react to temperature differences, not necessarily the true absolute value of those temperatures.


Question: what happens when a pair of shears hits that creamy smooth glide-cut and what causes this?

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 what happens when a pair of shears hits that creamy smooth glide-cut and what causes this?

The first thing that you need to understand is that when you use scissors in the open close motion, you're not really "cutting". You're tearing the paper. You're just doing it really really.... really precisely. Put a piece of paper on the edge of a desk. Hold it down with one hand and pull the part hanging off in a downward motion and you can see it "cut" along the edge of the desk. And this is the same process that scissors use. Now the thing about the scissors themselves is that they're just two knives bolted or riveted together. So, when you find that sweet spot where the scissors glide through, this is where the blade of the scissors is actually cutting. The paper is no longer being ripped between two edges, it's hitting one of the blades and slicing to either side of that blade. Just like if you took a sharp chefs knife and sliced through it.


Question: Why is a larger digital camera sensor better than a smaller one?

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 Why is a larger digital camera sensor better than a smaller one?

When you have bigger pixel buckets, the buckets stay cooler and are more likely to absorb the light accurately. Think of it like this, the more light that hits your pixel buckets, the more they heat up. If you imagine it like water, the more light that hits the sooner that water starts to boil and gets very bubbly. If you have small buckets then the water boils faster. When the water boils, it bounces up and down and isn't smooth. This is like your pixels not recording the correct color - noise. So if you have a bigger bucket of water the more it takes to make the water boil. If you have a bigger sensor, and bigger buckets, the more likely you'll record the light more correctly and smoothly between the buckets.


Question: What is P value and why is 0.05 so important?

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 What is P value and why is 0.05 so important?

When doing studies that have some probability factor involved in it (say randomly sampling people), there is a chance that you may conclude a fact about something simply because of random chance in your study. Say for example it can happen that you flip a coin 4 times and every time it lands on heads. And then you conclude that all coin flips must land on heads as a result of that, which is wrong. This happened because of purely random chance. A p value denotes the probability of your experiment happening the way it did the way it did. A p value of 0.05 means there is a 5% chance that the results you got support your conclusion not because there is a bias for some reason towards such results (say a coin is heaver on one side than another) but because of just dumb luck. 0.05 is just known as the gold standard for concluding that something is "statistically significant," that is probably didn't happen because of dumb luck. But smaller p values are better, and should be possible to reach if there is a true correlation although this generally means doing a more expensive study.


Question: . How do we know everything is made up of atoms if we can’t see them? How did someone get the idea that atoms make up everything?

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 . How do we know everything is made up of atoms if we can’t see them? How did someone get the idea that atoms make up everything?

The original idea is actually really old.. Democritus came up with the concept that if you had a rock and broke it into small pieces, they could be broken into even smaller bits.. but at some point you will reach particles that can not be broken down any further. He named those particles indivisible- in Ancient Greek that’s ‘atomos’ which is where the word atom came from. Edit: Democritus not Aristotle.


Question: What is the difference between algebra and calculus?

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 What is the difference between algebra and calculus?

Algebra deals with numbers, and formulas / equations / relationships between numbers. Calculus deals with functions, and relationships / transformations between functions. Basically, algebra is "basic math"; you have numbers and you have rules about what it means to add, subtract, multiply, etc. You establish equations and functions (rules that numbers must follow). The rest of the math builds on top of this, by taking OTHER THINGS and establishing rules and relationships as if these things were numbers. Things like sets of numbers, vectors, functions, "surfaces", "fields", etc., you can define rules about how to add, subtract, and otherwise "interact" with them or the interaction between them. It's useful; for example geometry is about the interaction and properties of shapes and surfaces, and it's useful to have rigid logical / mathematical rules about how they interact. Because a lot of the real world objects are geometrical, and having the geometry rules helps with understanding these real world objects. So calculus takes functions (relationships between variables) and establishes some rules about them and how they can interact.


Question: why do light bulbs only seem to ever go out when turning them on instead of while they're already on?

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 why do light bulbs only seem to ever go out when turning them on instead of while they're already on?

when you turn on a conventional lightbulb it heats up in a flash, which stresses the filament. once it's stabilized at its new temperature it's generally fine, but it does happen that they burn out while on, usually if left on for a long time or if there's a power fluctuation


Question: Why do Australia's and NZ's climate differ so greatly?

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 Why do Australia's and NZ's climate differ so greatly?

NZ is more southern than perhaps you realise, hey bro. Auckland at 36 latitude is slightly more north than Melbourne at 37. While Hobart at 42 latitude is more north than Christchurch at 43. & its a very dissimilar landmass, NZ having dozens of mountains taller than Australia's highest peak Mt Kosciusko


Question: Why do consumers continuously buy a product for its 'name' rather than quality even if they're aware a cheaper and better quality product can be purchased?

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 Why do consumers continuously buy a product for its 'name' rather than quality even if they're aware a cheaper and better quality product can be purchased?

> even if they're aware a cheaper and better quality product can be purchased? Because they're **not** aware. Most people aren't in a position to try every single comparable product. Especially when it comes to expensive electronics. So they have to base their purchasing decisions on popular opinion, which is often more tied to brand recognition than actual functionality.


Question: Similar to a recent question posted here, but not really. How does "consciousness" work? In other words, how am I me and not one of the other 7+ billion people?

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 Similar to a recent question posted here, but not really. How does "consciousness" work? In other words, how am I me and not one of the other 7+ billion people?

That's kind of a philosophical question. Scientifically, your consciousness is all just electrical impulses and brain chemicals. Philosophically, does that make you conscious and self aware or just an incredibly elaborate machine? There's no real "correct" answer. As for how you differ from everyone else as far as your consciousness goes, your genetics, experiences, and present biochemical/electrical state is unique versus everyone else which distinguishes your 'consciousness' from everyone else.


Question: Why does Apple have to have everything in their hardware/software proprietary? Why can't they make something that's open source or uses open source components like Android does?

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 Why does Apple have to have everything in their hardware/software proprietary? Why can't they make something that's open source or uses open source components like Android does?

They make more money on their proprietary connectors like the Lightning cable because other companies have to pay to make gadgets that work with Apple devices. Their homegrown filesystem has some sanity though: it made a LOT more sense when it was first invented years ago and the established players weren't as established, then as their OS evolved they didn't want to bail to a totally new one and break backwards compatibility.


Question: Why is the absolute zero the lowest possible temperature?

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 Why is the absolute zero the lowest possible temperature?

What does absolute zero really mean? --- You will often hear people say that absolute zero, or 0K, means that all atomic and subatomic motion stops. This is wrong. Electrons are bound to their atom's nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Thus we call electrons in atoms a "bound system", because the electrons cannot move freely. Quantum mechanics tells us, that particles in such bound systems cannot have any arbitrary amount of energy. They can only have a number of specified energies - so called energy levels. If the particle gains energy through interaction with the outside world, in can "hop" to a higher energy level. Now, the fact that there are discrete (non-continuous) energy levels implies, that there has to be a lowest energy level, right? And if we do the math, we find that the lowest energy level is not zero, but has so called [zero-point energy]( URL_0 ). What absolute zero really means, is that all particles are in this lowest energy state, which is called ground state. Why can a system never reach absolute zero? ------ Enter Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. You may know that the uncertainty principle tells us, that we cannot know the momentum and position of a particle beyond a certain point of precision. This is not the only uncertainty principle, however. Another such uncertainty principle is the [Energy-time uncertainty]( URL_1 ). This principle says, that we cannot know in which energy state a system is at a given time beyond a certain point of precision. Now, if a system was a the lowest energy state, and isolated from the outside world, it could never change energy states again. Which means, we would know its energy state perfectly precise for all times. Which violates the uncertainty principle. Thus, a system can never be at absolute zero. However, there are systems of negative temperature: What is a negative temperature? --- Negatve temperatures are not, in fact, colder than 0K. In a sense, all negative temperatures are even hotter than all positive temperatures. So.... how can the temperature of a system be negative? This is a consequence of the "proper" definition of temperature: **1/T=( & delta; S/ & delta; U)*_V,N_*.** Here, S is entropy, U is internal energy, V is Volume and N is the number of particles. What this equation says in words is, that 1/T (the inverse of temperature) is equal to the change in entropy over a variation of internal energy when volume and particle number are constant. Thus, **if the entropy of a system decreases as it gains internal energy its temperature will become negative.** This can only happen in very peculiar cases, as an increase in internal energy usually leads to an increase in entropy, but it is possible. Since those systems are kind of weird, they are not very stable. When a system of negative temperature comes in thermal contact with a "normal" system of positive temperature, the negative temperature system will lose energy to the normal system, because unstable systems want to become stable if they can. That is why I said negative temperature systems are hotter than positive temperature systems: a system A is hotter than a system B, if A will lose thermal energy to B when they come into thermal contact. Which is exactly what happens here.


Question: Does the universe have a center? Can you go out in any direction and return back at Earth?

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 Does the universe have a center? Can you go out in any direction and return back at Earth?

There's no center of the universe. If you go in one direction you will never circle back around to earth. The universe extends infinitely in all directions, and space itself expands at all points in all directions everywhere at once at the speed of light. Because of the way we observe the univrse however, there is an apparent center (but not a real center): You. Everything in the universe is moving away from everything. So from anyones point of view, they are the center of the universe.


Question: why is facilitated diffusion considered passive transport?

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 why is facilitated diffusion considered passive transport?

Facilitated-Type Transport proteins do not need ATP to change shape. The Transport Protein will change shape by just interacting with the solute passing though. It's like how a magnet could change the shape of a bunch of iron fillings/pieces if placed nearby. It's passive b/c the solutes move from a [high] to a [low] until they reach equilibrium. They are are not pumped like in active transport.


Question: Why do Hydrogen bombs produce a far more devastating explosion than Atomic bombs?

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 Why do Hydrogen bombs produce a far more devastating explosion than Atomic bombs?

There's a pit of Hydrogen in the middle of the fissionable mats at the core, then when is compressed, it super heats to the point of fusing the H atoms, which release Neutrons back to the Pu. This in tern allows for more of the Pu to go through fission and release more energy. A regular fission (Atomic) bomb doesn't get the extra neutrons, so less of the material and go through the fission process and therefor, less energy is released. More details here if you'd like: URL_0


Question: why does the number of neutrons in an atom affect its stability?

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 why does the number of neutrons in an atom affect its stability?

The subatomic particles in the nucleus communicate a force. That force (called the Strong nuclear force) is attractive and it pulls the particles together. Protons and Neutrons both communicate this force but Protons communicate an additional force and that force is not an attractive force. It can be attractive but only to an opposite electric charge and all protons have the same charge, so they repel each other. You have two forces in the nucleus, one from just the protons which makes everything want to fly apart and the Strong force which makes everything want to stay close and snuggle-y. The more neutrons an atom has the more force is pulling the atom's nucleus together. This gets really important when you have really big nuclei with lots of protons that really don't want to be close. It is also why Hydrogen doesn't need a Neutron. It is also noteworthy to say that the Strong force is a short range force. VERY short, like it acts on distance scales the size of the atom's nucleus. That's why all of the atoms aren't all one big super atom; the nuclei can't 'see' each other that way.


Question: How do 4chan raids work?

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 How do 4chan raids work?

So a thread, usually from /pol/ or /b/ decides, "fuck this person/group." And goes to do something damaging to their image. The best case of this is probably the Habbo hotel raids or the Taylor swift/mountain dew contests. Which were both successful and pretty well known. In the case of Habbo they came up with the story that all the virtual pools had been contaminated with HIV and/or AIDS. So every participant was to make a black avatar in the game with a suit and afro and block players from entering the pools while they stood in swastika formations. In the case of mountain dew it held a contest to name the new flavor and had write in options. "Hitler did nothing wrong" won. Taylor swift held a poll for what school she should go to for a concert. The winner was a school for the deaf. Justin bieber did something similar for his world tour and North Korea won. Less well known but frankly funnier is the retaliatory raids against Tumblr. Tumblr tried to raid 4chan with 3rd wave feminist and social justice posts trying to effectively stick their banners in mounds of shitposts. Little did they know 4chan had much more time with weaponized autism research and flooded Tumblr with gore and porn all tagged with feminist and social justice tags. Anyone searching for feminism would be met with gore. Some people think the original Tumblr raid on 4chan may have been instigated by a 4chan user from pol or /b/ similarly to how they have manipulated people with things like the waterproof apple software update.


Question: Why can we bend our index finger's first joint freely but we can't bend our other fingers first joint(thumb excluded) without the others slightly retracting?

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 Why can we bend our index finger's first joint freely but we can't bend our other fingers first joint(thumb excluded) without the others slightly retracting?

Your fingers don't move themselves. They're like puppets controlled by muscles in your arm. How they can move depends on where the strings (tendons) are attached. If you imagine a puppet hand (minus thumb) controlled by strings, with a glove (the skin) covering the hand and the strings, you'll get a better sense of the limitations.


Question: Why does time go so slowly when we're little, yet as we age, time seems to get shorter?

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 Why does time go so slowly when we're little, yet as we age, time seems to get shorter?

There are two possible explanations I know of. The first has to do with how your brain treats new experiences and information. When you experience or learn something new, your brain pays extra attention to it and you tend to consciously remember it more. Your probably remember your first kiss, first drink, first job interview, etc., but forget about a lot of the ones in between. When you're little, almost everything is new. Even if you're sitting in the same classroom most days, you're learning a lot of new stuff everyday. Since so much is new, your brain is actively paying attention and forming memories. When you're an adult, you tend encounter less novelty and do a lot of things on autopilot. When you're on autopilot, your brain doesn't really form memories so the time kind of seems lost. For example, people often don't remember driving to or from work. It's not because they didn't pay attention while driving, but rather their brains went on autopilot because they know the route well. That time they don't remember driving just seems to disappear as though it never happened. When you do enough repeat tasks like that, it can feel as though you have very short days, weeks, months, etc. because you don't have any memories to mark the passage of time. The second reason is that as you get older, periods of time seem relatively shorter compared to the amount of time you've been alive. For example, when you're 9 years old, a month is almost 1/100 of your life. If you have to wait a month to get a Nintendo, that's like waiting 1% of your lifetime. When you're 50 years old, a month is only 1/600 of your life. As a result, it seems like a smaller chunk of time.


Question: What is the difference between a normal derivative and deriving on a particular point of a function?

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 What is the difference between a normal derivative and deriving on a particular point of a function?

On nice functions you can apply normal rules for derivatives to get a value or a function describing the derivative *everywhere* ( if you get a function and not a constant as result, you just insert the point you want to know the derivative of in the function to know the derivative of that location. But all functions are not so nice, some functions don't have an analytic description of their derivative, then you can go back to the definition of derivative and calculate it on a point, i.e. look at the value difference if you take a small step h forward, divided by the step length, then make h as small as you can without becoming zero. As to deciding where to derive it, you probably have a reason why you need to calculate this derivative, from that reason it should be obvious (although the answer may be "every point") - if you don't know where you need the derivative, I don't know why you'd want to calculate it in the first place!


Question: Why do we use the term "Matrix" to describe materials?

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</answer>
 Why do we use the term "Matrix" to describe materials?

A material that is a matrix is a material that has something else embedded in it, and the idea is that idealized it is like a little grid with things in it, like a mathematical matrix. So like, if you had a bunch of limestone, that would just be limestone, but if the limestone had a bunch of diamonds in it (for some reason), that would be a limestone matrix around diamonds, and you could imagine it like the limestone is the grid lines, and the diamonds are like the numbers.


Question: Can one-way blurring lenses exist? Why or why not?

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 Can one-way blurring lenses exist? Why or why not?

That is an effect of cylindrical, rather than spherical lenses. The simplest case: A glass cylinder will do a lens projection around its axis, flipping the image, while detail perpendicular to that axis just passes through it like through a pane of glass, essentially mirroring the image instead of turning it 180° like with a spherical lens. That is basically how the reversing arrow behind a glass of water works. In milder cases, a lens curves more in one direction than in the other. This causes the focal length of the lens to depend on the direction of the detail you are trying to focus on. This is known as astigmatism, because you cannot focus on a point - it either gets washed out in one direction to blur into a line, or both directions are somewhat blurry, being out of focus in different directions (e.g. too far to be sharp vertically, too near to be sharp horizontally). This is one of the most common defects in the eye (specifically the cornea), so an optometrist's prescription will have a CYL and AXIS (describing the magnitude and direction of astigmatism) in addition to the standard SPH (the strenth of glasses you need, basically).


Question: Why do various recreational drugs have such different effects, if most of them do the same thing: release more, or inhibit the reuptake of dopamine or serotonin?

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 Why do various recreational drugs have such different effects, if most of them do the same thing: release more, or inhibit the reuptake of dopamine or serotonin?

EDIT2: A lot of people say it's too complex and includes extraneous information. I agree, and will edit this to be more nicely digested later. *Never let your brain drink and describe!* MORE EDIT: I hope everyone who comments understands that this isn't a perfect answer, and no answer is. There are a billion ways to simplify talking about the same exact, specific thing, and not every single person will understand the way it is explained. I encourage all of you who say this is "too complicated, I'm literally five years old and you suck" to use Google... The brain is the most complex organ and computer in the universe we know of, practically. It DESERVES a high level conversation. It REQUIRES high level conversation, because using analogies and metaphors is an EXTREMELY POOR way to convey the information about what is actually happening, to develop a real understanding of this question. It would be depriving you of a beautiful, incredible thing that is our brains to just tell you "drugs work like drugs because drugs are like keys and receptors in your brain are like locks, so they activate and you get high." That's dumb as shit, and it doesn't even BEGIN to express how fucking awesome our brains are. *"LI5 means friendly, simplified and layman-accessible explanations - not responses aimed at literal five-year-olds."* I know most of you are white twenty-somethings with nothing to do at work. Relax, read through more of the comments in this thread if you don't like mine. I'm not going to get mad at you because you don't think what I said was right or explained it easily enough. That's okay! EDIT: ["Yo, yo, stump me..." "Sex? Talk about sex? Like dude, I haven't ever done that topic before..." "Yo man, stump me, talk about **WEED!!**"...]( URL_7 ) There are multiple neurotransmitter systems which have high or low concentrations in certain brain circuits - parts of the brain that apparently have a specific function. The actions of drugs are directly related to their affinity for particular receptors (strong, moderate, weak) and their binding type (agonist/activator vs antagonist/deactivator, in basic terms... The following may not be entirely accurate, and shortcuts in language will be used to more easily express the idea. Still a good overview though!) Hallucinogens, for example, mostly operate on 5HT, or serotonin receptors.(DA=dopamine, NE=norepinephrine, 5HT=serotonin, GABA=gamma aminobutyric acid, etc... DAT= dopamine transporter of the synapse, NET = NE transporter of the synapse, etc...) There are many serotonin receptors in the gut, which is one reason why hallucinogenic substances can cause transient nausea, for a specific example. The 5HT subtype, 5HT-1A is most closely related the the "psychedelic" experience often described, and has a high density in the hippocampus (related to memory,) the amygdala (emotional response and emotional memory,) and the prefrontal cortex (decision making, thought processes, etc.) You can see, then, why a "trip" acts like a "trip" on a basic level. The actions of drugs is MUCH LESS about "more dopamine here, less dopamine there," than it is, "this drug tends to cause activation of this particular circuit which leads to this more complex behaviour with x many iterations and variations, and suppresses circuits here which reduces xyz behaviour." Confused yet? Perfect! All drugs have different, but interrelated effects. Some don't touch dopamine or serotonin at all, and some drugs actually reduce the actions of those, yet can remain recreational. The most common and most used recreational drugs almost invariably hit a dopamine target, but not all of them. A good rule of thumb is if it hits dopamine as an agonist directly or indirectly, it's abusable. Similarly, sex, food, and all the other lovely behaviours we enjoy? Probably have a basis in indirect dopamine agonism. A "downer," like benzodiazepines, doesnt actually DIRECTLY affect dopamine or serotonin. It does, indirectly, with what you might call "downstream effects," but primarily, benzos operate on a specific site, which isn't the normal site that GABA binds to. GABARs, or GABA receptors, have MANY separate sites for drugs or other molecules to bind to. The benzodiazepine site is one of them. When bound, it tends to sensitize the GABAR to GABA, the neurotransmitter, which leads to a depressive action in MANY areas or circuits of the brain. GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain. Benzos are highly specific. This inhibitory action prevents or reduces neuron activity and "firing" of electrical signals. This is why memory doesn't quite work, you dont have all gears engaged, etc... Not all your neurons are firing! Alcohol, or ethanol, its a very peculiar molecule. It permeates nearly all membranes, and equally diffuse throughout cells (including neurons) in the body. It leads indirectly to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and other limbic areas, which are associated with the feeling of reward and learning. It also operates on GABARs, and 5HTr's, and glycine receptors, and NMDA and AMPA receptors (sometimes associated with learning, tolerance to drugs, dissociation, anesthesia...) and quite literally almost anything we have knowledge of in neuroscience. It's also destructive and damaging to cells in any quantity to some degree. Compare the following, which are all similar to dopamine, and bind to DARs in some form or another, as well as NE. receptors. The molecular and atomic nuances of drugs are extremely important in determining their effects: all receptors are slightly different, and subtypes are variant as well. This leads to your question - different drugs have different effects, because atomically, they are different, and bind differently to the variety of sites they can possibly attach to. Each of the following drugs have extremely different effects. Methamphetamine: URL_8 MDMA, or 'ecstasy': URL_6 Ephedrine, originally used as a popular and highly effective OTC decongestant: URL_5 Amphetamine, like Adderall, Dexedrine, etc...: URL_0 Propylhexedrine, ~~a shitty, halfway jerkoff of a molecule pretending it's a decongestant~~ lavender flavoured cotton filled with bullshit people like to try to get high off of: URL_2 **Phenylephrine, a shitty, halfway jerkoff of a molecule pretending it's a decongestant:** URL_4 Dopamine, our best friend and the reason we get up in the morning or do anything repeatedly: URL_3 Norepinephrine, a stimulating, flight of fight hormone which has extremely different effects and binding sites compared to DA: URL_1 I'm sure you know the difference between methamphetamine and propylhexedrine, for example. The difference? A couple of carbons and aromaticity in the main phenyl ring. One is an extremely addictive drug which will destroy any congesting you may have from a cold, and the other is a piece of shit masquerading like it does anything in cough syrups because lawmakers are scared. The proof is in the molecular structures and our hardware, which has many many subtypes and main types of receptors! EDIT: This blew up kind of large. I meant 5HT-2A, guys. I mistyped one number. My bad lol EDIT: Lots of people are asking about cannabis, more info here I guess: URL_7


Question: how does foam prevent/suppress fires exactly?

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 how does foam prevent/suppress fires exactly?

If you looked at the foam under a microscope what you would see is it looks kind of like a honeycomb in which large pockets of air are trapped in a web of very thin, non-flammable liquid. The non-flammable liquid component of the foam is forming a physical barrier that prevents oxygen from reaching the fuel underneath. At the same time, the foam itself is mostly air. Air is a really poor conductor of heat in general and essentially does not conduct heat at all if you can prevent convection from happening (basically, if you can prevent the hot air near the heat source from mixing in with fresh, cold air). The fact that the air in the foam is, well, trapped in there prevents convection. This means that foam is an exceptionally good insulator. To generate a fire you need fuel, heat, and oxygen. If there is a fuel spill then you now obviously have a fuel source. But if you smother that fuel underneath a layer of foam then you've prevented it from being exposed to heat or oxygen - either of which will prevent a fire. Finally, at least as to water - aviation fuel is lighter than water. If you spray water onto it the fuel just rises to the top and you really haven't accomplished much. If the fuel is already on fire then the water gets superheated as it "sinks" through the burning fuel. This causes it to instantly flash to steam which then expands outwards, creating a rapidly expanding bubble of burning fuel. This is also known as an explosion. Foam, on the other hand, is exceptionally light so it remains on top of the fuel. This is obviously more useful for preventing a fire in the first place and doesn't result in an explosion if you spray it onto fuel that is already on fire.


Question: What happens to people who got in debt from medical care but then they're unable to pay them at all and it's all too late?

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 What happens to people who got in debt from medical care but then they're unable to pay them at all and it's all too late?

The hospital can send it to collections. If they think they can get any sort of money out of you they may sue you and get a court order to garnish wages or force the sale of some assets. If you're, say, a broke homeless person that won't ever likely have significant money they won't bother and will just eat the loss.


Question: How is sepsis and septic shock without an infection possible and why is the mortality rate higher?

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 How is sepsis and septic shock without an infection possible and why is the mortality rate higher?

Quick definitions: sepsis is often defined as a systemic inflammatory response with a known or suspected source of infection (though the definition of sepsis has been frequently revised over the years!). Septic shock is further defined as sepsis with persistent hypotension and/or poor organ perfusion after fluid resuscitation. Though sepsis technically requires a source of infection to be diagnosed, there are many cases of *presumed* sepsis or septic shock in which no single infectious cause is established. Why? Sepsis is often presumed and treated accordingly because it's so common in the hospital! So the vast majority of patients with shock in the setting of (1) a normally functioning (or hyperfunctioning) heart and (2) a normal volume status (e.g., not hemorrhaging, anemic, or otherwise hypovolemic) are frequently considered septic until proven otherwise. Though I wasn't aware that mortality is necessarily higher in patients without an identified infectious source (please link to an article if you've found one!), this finding wouldn't surprise me. This is because: * A presumptively septic patient is usually treated with a broader range of antibiotics that aren't as precisely "targeted" at an identified infection. For example, a patient who has been found to be septic from a confirmed urinary tract infection (UTI) can receive a tailored antibiotic regimen that is more likely to eradicate the underlying UTI, thus resolving the patient's sepsis. However, if there's no confirmed infection to treat, clinicians often have to resort to a "scattershot" empiric antibiotic regimen that has broader but comparatively weaker coverage. * There are a few places that doctors will look for infection first because (1) they're easier to evaluate and (2) they are more common sources. In the ICU, a common pattern of evaluation for undifferentiated sepsis includes taking cultures from the blood, the urine, and the respiratory tract (sputum or tracheal aspirates) as well as performing a chest x-ray to look for pneumonia. If these preliminary evaluations are negative for infection, we'll often look for subtler and rarer infections that are also potentially more severe—such as endocarditis, an infection of the heart valves that is much more difficult to eradicate. * If sepsis hasn't been confirmed via the detection of an infectious source, it's possible that other mechanisms are in play that mimic sepsis and will not respond to the same treatments. For example, patients in liver failure often "look septic" on paper because impaired liver function can lead to a critically ill state that resembles septic shock. Treating acute liver failure with antibiotics and fluids alone is highly ineffective (in fact, many types of liver failure are difficult to treat in general). So outcomes in these cases may be worse.


Question: How does your body/brain stop you from rolling out of bed every night while tossing and turning?

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 How does your body/brain stop you from rolling out of bed every night while tossing and turning?

I have very little knowledge, but for what I know, your brain releases an hormone (I don't remember the exact name but a quick google search will help you) that paralyses you, while you sleep. When your brain releases this stuff but you're not totally alseep yet, is when some people experience "sleep paralysis".


Question: Given that the universe does not have a center, and all positions are relative, what's wrong with saying Earth is the centre and that the Sun revolves around it?

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 Given that the universe does not have a center, and all positions are relative, what's wrong with saying Earth is the centre and that the Sun revolves around it?

Nothing, we do it all the time. Every time you say you are driving at 75 mph, and not something closer to 70,000 mph, you are implicitly assuming the earth is stationary and everything moves around it. Problems arise when you assume choosing the earth as the center is somehow special or meaningful. If you are guiding a space probe to Jupiter, assuming everything travels around an insignificant speck like the earth is pointless and creates unnecessary complication. Far better to use the Sun and/or Jupiter as a reference on such a mission. And when you get further out, saying the motions of galactic super cluster is governed by a tiny rock a billion light years away, that is just idiotic.


Question: Is it more beneficial to eat or skip breakfast?

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 Is it more beneficial to eat or skip breakfast?

Tldr; when you eat doesn't matter nearly as much as you might think, just make sure you eat an appropriate amount each day. The studies that purportedly show breakfast is the most important meal of the day usually involve schools in low-income areas that provide breakfast to students for free (essentially meaning that very poor kids get 2 meals a day insaread of just 1). The real lesson is that malnourished kids don't do well in school. The idea that breakfast is somehow more important than other meals isn't well supported by evidence. You'll see lots of conflicting studies on whether it's good to eat 1 or 2 big meals, or lots of small ones, but the overall health differences are tiny. Overall, you burn a certain number of calories per day, and injest a certain number. Your body is very good at storing extra calories as fat, regardless of time of day. Most people in developed nations eat too much and excercise too little. The best diet is one you can stick to, so if cutting out breakfast is the easiest way to reduce calorie intake, then it's the best option for you.