Question: How do enzymes work? I know that they speed up chemical reactions, but how?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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 How do enzymes work? I know that they speed up chemical reactions, but how?

Chemical reactions are all about energy and position. In regards to energy, some reactions need a certain amount of energy to start, even if the reaction ends up releasing energy in the end. Some enzymes help to reduce the amount of energy needed to start the reaction. In regards to position, some reactions require the various molecules reacting to be in very specific positions in order to proceed efficiently and in order for the correct reaction to occur. Some enzymes work by holding molecules in specific positions relative to each other.


Question: Why do large, orbital structures such as accretion discs, spiral galaxies, planetary rings, etc, tend to form in a 2d disc instead of a 3d sphere/cloud?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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 Why do large, orbital structures such as accretion discs, spiral galaxies, planetary rings, etc, tend to form in a 2d disc instead of a 3d sphere/cloud?

The really ELI5 answer. Everything wants to make a single ball of stuff because of gravity. But just like a centrifuge, spinning makes things want to go to the outside. Since they are only spinning in one direction, they only move to the outside in one direction. So you have a ball that is spinning and spitting out stuff in one direction, making it 2D. It is kept 2D because things attract each other, and the closes thing is in a 2D plane with it, so it keeps it in the plane.


Question: what are cramps and why do they hurt?

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 what are cramps and why do they hurt?

some one correct me if i’m wrong, but its my understanding that your uterus is mad that theres no baby in it so it tears off and gathers up the wall paper it had ready for the baby, plus the crib it just bought with all the baby clothes and throws it out the door. in short. your reproductive system builds up in anticipation of impregnation and when it doesn’t happen it needs to offload. cramping is you feeling the change it goes through as it “starting” with a blank slate. it happens to guys on a undrastic and miniscual scale. if they haven’t released any sea-man in a while they wake up wet. some guys don’t let it get to that though if they release often. sorry its so painful 😣


Question: correlation doesn't imply causation, then what does?

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 correlation doesn't imply causation, then what does?

Direct evidence. For example, if I say "everyone that drank water in 1800 is dead, therefore water kills you", that's not causation. Yes, the folks who drank water back then have died, but drinking water isn't necessarily what killed them, and everyone who drank anything back in 1800 is dead, so that isn't proof. So to prove causation, you need evidence that goes beyond just correlation.


Question: How does lightning know where to strike on the ground when the energy is in the clouds? How does it know that there is a metal pole on the ground?

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 How does lightning know where to strike on the ground when the energy is in the clouds? How does it know that there is a metal pole on the ground?

It isn't that it knows there's a metal pole in the ground, it's that the metal pole provides the path of least resistance. If you pour water down a hill, it's much more likely to flow in a ditch you dug than over bumpy ground. This is because the ditch provides the least resistance. The metal rod is the same way. Metal conducts electricity far better than your wooden house, so it'll go down a lightning rod to discharge it's energy in the ground before your house. If your house is the only option though, lightning may get channeled through it rather than the more resistant air around it.


Question: Why is it that sometimes pens stop writing in a certain point on the paper, but then write fine on a different spot?

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 Why is it that sometimes pens stop writing in a certain point on the paper, but then write fine on a different spot?

Friction. A lot of pens use a ball that rolls to put ink on the page. When they stop writing, the ball isn't rolling, it's just gliding, so no ink is being delivered. There isn't enough friction to make the ball roll. On another spot, there is enough friction to make the ball roll again and start making ink flow again.


Question: What are NFTs in the art world and why/how are they bad?

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 What are NFTs in the art world and why/how are they bad?

NFTs are non-fungible-tokens. They work pretty much like bitcoins only that they are unique and tied to an individual piece of art. So only one person can own this piece of art at a time. The enviroment suffers because to keep this system up a lot of computers need to run at full power to prevent people from cheating the system (who is right is decided by a repeated computation race, to cheat you'd need to win this reliably). So just keeping the system from collapsing takes a LOT of electrical power. I don't know why it's bad for the artist, but someone will propably chime in with that info.


Question: Why when you look at clouds you can’t see through them, but when you are in a cloud you can see some distance?

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 Why when you look at clouds you can’t see through them, but when you are in a cloud you can see some distance?

Clouds are tiny droplets of water suspended in air. These droplets are spaced out quite a bit from each other and cause incoming light to bounce around and get scattered in all directions. This is why clouds appear white. When you are observing a cloud from far away, there are so many droplets in the way of the light and your eye (and therefore so many scattering events) that light can't go from the opposite side of the cloud to your eye without being scattered. This is why you can't see through the cloud. When you are inside a cloud and try to look at your hand, for example, because there are relatively few water droplets between your hand and your eyes, light is still able to reflect back to your eyes without being completely scattered. If this distance becomes too great, scattering dominates and you eventually lose visibility.


Question: Why have the salaries of athletes, actors, TV personalities, musicians way outpace salaries of traditional occupations over the past 100 years?

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 Why have the salaries of athletes, actors, TV personalities, musicians way outpace salaries of traditional occupations over the past 100 years?

Increasingly, salaries are tied to how replaceable we are rather than anything about how hard our job is or how much work is involved. Cleaners work very hard and long hours, but you can get someone else in to take over a job immediately with little training if someone quits, so they are paid crap money. Doctors/nurses/teachers are always in high supply because they are jobs that people want to do regardless of the pay, so they don't get paid much either. Celebrities that bring in lots of money for companies because of who they are as individuals are quite hard to replace. If you don't pay Dwayne Johnson enough to do the job you can't get another Dwayne Johnson. With movies, particularly, up until around the 60s (not exactly sure) there used to be a studio system where an actor/musician/director/writer etc. would sign a contract with the movie studio and they couldn't do a film for another studio until their contract was up or the studio allowed it - it's a bit like comic book movie franchises at the moment. Because actors were contractually tied to studios they couldn't demand ridiculous salaries or threaten not to make the movie, and when there are only a handful of studios the bidding wars can't really get that high when contract renewals come around.


Question: How can earthquakes be "predicted"?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 How can earthquakes be "predicted"?

Short answer: They can't be predicted, only detected. Medium Answer: You can sort of predict them on geological time scales (i.e. hundreds, thousands or millions of years) based on past patterns of earthquakes, but it makes predicting the weather next year look simple and reliable. Long Answer: Monitoring stations all over the world exist to detect seismic activity (and nuclear weapons, but lets ignore that here). Sometimes earthquakes seem to come after a period of smaller tremors, but usually there is one major purpose for these sensors; giving a short warning. If you have a sensor very close to various faults or volcanoes, you can send a warning at the speed of light while the quake itself moves at the speed of sound through the ground. That can add up to almost no warning, or a lot of warning, but any warning is better than nothing. Some plans exist to use these systems, or others which sense faster initial waves, to automatically engage certain safety systems. Power grids would "brace" for impact, trains would brake to a halt, and traffic lights would go red, automated warning evacuation warnings would occur. Even then, in the best circumstances, you're talking about minutes and not hours of warning. This is one reason why earthquakes are so dangerous, because while you can build to withstand one, you can't predict them accurately in terms of time or intensity (on the scale of a human lifetime or two at least).


Question: what’s the difference if any between working class and middle class?

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 what’s the difference if any between working class and middle class?

For most intents and purposes, the working class is loosely defined as those who hold jobs with lower barriers to entry, that are usually defined by the work they entail. This does not strictly refer to wage, but more towards the type of job they hold. This means that, with proper saving, the working class can be middle class, but usually won’t be able to make upper class. Examples of these are oil field workers, construction, etc. Blue collar jobs often fit the criteria as well. Middle class is where the wage comes into play. People that belong in the middle class usually do not have to worry about meeting monthly bills.


Question: Is there any scientific reason or scenario that you would use the term "Dihydrogen Monoxide" instead of "Water"?

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 Is there any scientific reason or scenario that you would use the term "Dihydrogen Monoxide" instead of "Water"?

No. The official name of the molecule as determined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is either "water" or "oxidane". The "dihydrogen" label is systematic but almost every small group of atoms in chemistry is given a different name. Methane (CH4) is officially "methane" and not "tetrahydrogen carbide". It is expected that a common three-atom molecule such as H2O would go by its common name "water".


Question: How does CPAP rid fluid from the lungs? (treating pulmonary edema with CPAP)

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 How does CPAP rid fluid from the lungs? (treating pulmonary edema with CPAP)

CPAP stands for Continuous Positive Airway Pressure. What it does is increase the pressure going into your airways (for sleep apnea/snoring, the positive pressure prevents your airway from collapsing). In pulmonary edema, there is an excess amount of fluid in your lungs. The areas that are submerged can't transfer air properly. This can range from discomfort to fatal consequences if you can't use your lungs properly. The CPAP helps overinflate your lungs to help more air get into non-fluid regions, helping you breathe. The increased air also can displace some areas of fluid and help ventilate or "dry" those regions out.


Question: What is demonetization? How does it work as an economic strategy? And what is a measure of its success?

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 What is demonetization? How does it work as an economic strategy? And what is a measure of its success?

The idea is that you have 2 types of currencies in a modern economy. Controlled and uncontrolled currency. Controlled currency is currency which is exchanged by means that leaves a register, meaning the goverment or a controlling authority can control and keep records of currency exchange made, This is mostly done for tax reasons. Uncontrolled currency is basically currency you can exchange freely without any record being kept of the exchange, so taxation of those exchanges is near impossible. This could be bank notes, Precious metals, in some countries some bonds. Demonitazion is when a goverment or the central bank of a country decrees that a specific free circulation uncontrolled currency is being retired or its exchange is being controlled. An example is if a european goverment wanted to tackle untaxed money (aka, black money), so they decree that business are no longer allowed to accept 500 euro notes and all notes much be exchanged at banks or the central bank, and any note which is not turned in before X date is no longer valid as it is being removed from circulation. Upon reducing a large denomination note from circulation they are making the transport of large ammounts of currency harder to do and therefore making it harder to store currency in cash. An example is India earlier this year that removed larger notes from circulation as a action against tax avoidance. Also a good example is the UK where the biggest bank note is 50 GBP (around 65 dollars). This mesure has another use, the idea is that money is debt, you have a 5 dollar bill, that bill doesnt mean you have 5 dollars... it means that the issuing authority of that bill, let it be the Federal reserve or the central bank of the state you´re in owes you 5 dollars. Now the idea is that the value of the currency is basicaly the resources that issuing authority has, originaly it was backed by gold/silver but today its more of a calculation based on the GDP, Labor and resouce value divided by the volume of the currency in circulation. Meaning that if i have X value and i issue 1000 dollars, the value of each dollar is 1/1000 of X value, so the more money in circulation the less its worth, so as a action against inflation or as a recapitalization of its currency an issuing authority might decide to demonetize the currency by reducing the volume of currency in circulation, therefore raising the value of each individual currency unit. you had 1000 dollars for X value in circulation, you buy back 200 dollars, so now X only has to back 800 dollars, so the value of each dollar is X/800 instead of X/1000.


Question: If women had never been allowed to work, would a working family man still be able to afford a house and to provide for his family with only his job?

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 If women had never been allowed to work, would a working family man still be able to afford a house and to provide for his family with only his job?

Not likely without individual governments engaging in massive economic programmes to distort their economies. The problem you run into is that you’re trying to keep up with other developed nations with one arm tied behind your back, by artificially cutting your productive workforce in half. So, you need to make your workforce twice as efficient, pay them twice as much AND keep prices for domestic goods and services from rising very much. Alternately, the government could run huge programmes to subsidize goods and services. That way you could pay the same as now, but still cut your labor force. Getting that subsidy money is tricky unless the government has vast natural resources (e.g., oil) to sell for decades. You could also forcibly “de-industrialize” and try to make “stay-at-home” savings/value competitive with working wages. If you shifted your country back to a pastoral scheme, that non-working spouse could raise animals, farm, make all the family’s clothes from scratch or otherwise eke out enough value to be equivalent to what they could buy if they worked for $40k/year or whatever. Here the stay-at-home spouse is participating in the economy, just in a more subtle manner.


Question: Why do americans use 'cups' for cooking instead of weight?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why do americans use 'cups' for cooking instead of weight?

First off; you don't measure with weight either. You measure with *mass*. Less flippantly; it's much easier to measure a volume than it is to measure a mass/weight, particularly given that one absolutely requires a scale to do it accurately. In addition, since most ingredients for foods don't experience significant changes in density at standard conditions, measuring something by volume is just as good as measuring by mass/weight; a cup of flour measured out today is going to be the same amount of material as a cup of flour measured out a year ago.


Question: How can we get such good quality photos printed on clothing/t-shirts?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How can we get such good quality photos printed on clothing/t-shirts?

There are a few ways. You can print on to thermal transfer paper and then use an iron to transfer the image, which gives you great results but will start to crumble quickly in the wash. You can screen print, where you print the image onto separate masks for each colour, then apply dye through those masks onto the shirt - that's expensive for a one off, but is good for short runs. You can get computer controlled sewing machines and actually stitch the pattern into the shirt, which isn't as detailed but is very long lasting.


Question: what is a labor union? What are the pros and cons? Why are people in favor or against them?

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 what is a labor union? What are the pros and cons? Why are people in favor or against them?

An employer-employee power balance is - by nature - heavily skewed towards the employer. This imbalance can be addressed by legislation (granting more special rights to employees) and by a unionized work force (meaning the employer now has to deal with a large influential entity instead individual and vulnerable employees). A rational employer does not want this, of course, since it'll only result in a loss of leverage and power.


Question: Why do we get angry and frustrated when we’re in pain?

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 Why do we get angry and frustrated when we’re in pain?

Psychologist here! We do something called emotional regulation, which is a cognitive process. Our brains can only process a certain amount of input every second, so it needs to filter out a lot of the things our senses perceive at any given moment. Pain is high priority, so it is hard to filter out. Compare it to a person shouting over a conversation. Pain makes the brain busy, so regulating emotions become a second priority. It also triggers the body's stress system, which activates chemicals that make you more emotional and aggressive. It's complex to say the least.


Question: What is the psychology behind having an imaginary friend?

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 What is the psychology behind having an imaginary friend?

Forgive me, for I'm not an expert, nor do I have any qualifications that would be considered remotely Psychological, but I would think it has something to do with Love. Or more specifically, it's a coping mechanism. We all want to be verified in life. We all want to experience something with someone else, to make sure your not dreaming, in a candid sense. Did you see that shooting star? Did you hear that? Or was it just me? With others around, you have a sense of place and value. Biologically, and mentally, we're pre-disposed to exist collectively - it's an evolutionary advantage. Besides, life is far too difficult to go it alone, and sometimes we all need to ask for help. I would argue that perhaps as a child, and even though you ultimately know you need all the help you can get, it's hard to see life from someone elses point of view and accept assistance. You start to form opinions and develop your subjectivity, alongside other people who often don't think like you. When the world starts to *conflict*, one way to cope is to create a vision of someone who is always there and is always ready to agree with you. Someone who appreciates your existance. 'Adults' do it all the time, but in a less obvious, more dilute way. The personification of even inanimate objects is akin to imaginary friends. A car that someone loves, which they talk too and often touch, caress, feel? ...I once watched a documentary of people who have very *intimate* relationships with architechtural structures. It's much the same, but as an adult, it's much more difficult to bring their imaginary love into the real world, without attributing it to something physical. Pets provide a much needed companion or love. But it's fine if you own a dog and treat it like a human being by naming it - that's not an imaginary friend at all! (That's not exactly what I mean to all the dog lovers! I totally understand that pets have a genuine compassion for their owners and the domestication of animals has been happeneing for long enough that breeds become integral to even our own species survival). Were all just looking for that somewhat 'perfect relationship' and as a child, and having a much stronger ability to believe, thoughts, ideas and even friends, can often manifest, much more clearly, into reality.


Question: What is an Operating System?

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 What is an Operating System?

It’s software that creates a standard interface for other software to control the underlying hardware. Think of how cars work. Every car has a steering wheel, gas and brake petal and so on. But you can have a high performance engine underneath the hood. An operating system is like everything between the steering wheel and the actual engine that makes the car go. And cars are designed in a way that you don’t need to relearn how to drive a car when you get a new one. It’s still just a steering wheel and a gas petal.


Question: Why do people snore when they sleep but not when we're awake?

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 Why do people snore when they sleep but not when we're awake?

Snoring is due to the fact that your mouth muscles are not tightened and that you usually have your head tilted back (or at least horizontally with your nose pointing to the celling). Basically, your palate loosen and your to~~u~~ngue roll back a bit thus kind of blocking the airway, but not totally which is why it makes so much noise. Now, when you are awake, your mouth muscles are more tightened so you are not blocking your own airway.


Question: Why aren't high energy photons more massive than low energy photons?

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 Why aren't high energy photons more massive than low energy photons?

E = mc^2 is only a shortened version of the full equation. The full equation is E^2 = m^2 c^4 + p^2 c^2, where m is the rest mass of the particle. A photon, by definition, **has no rest mass** i.e. m = 0. So it's equation for energy is E = pc. This means that higher energy photons have more momentum. Note that in relativity, something doesn't have to have mass for it to have momentum. EDIT: to add a bit more to your ideas about relativistic mass, we normally don't really speak of that in physics. We talk instead of the momentum increase of a moving particle and normally use mass only to refer to the rest mass (the mass an object has in the reference frame where it is stationary), which is unchanged across reference frames. Energy can look like mass from far away, however, and this is how most of the mass in the Universe arises - the energy of the strong force which holds quarks inside protons and neutrons looks like mass when you look at them from the outside. This binding energy is how the vast majority of the masses of protons and neutrons arises.


Question: How can companies, specifically like Spotify, continue to operate while losing so much money?

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 How can companies, specifically like Spotify, continue to operate while losing so much money?

Tldr: investors thinks that spotify will eventually make money, so have granted them large amounts of cash that they can burn until they finally start making a profit, which can hopefully pay back the original investment. Long answer: There are no special rules. If you're losing money then eventually you will run out of money, and if you run out of money you can't stay in business. So what's happening to Spotify? Well they simply have access to enough funds to support these losses. Looking at their most recent financial report, which shows their activity as of September 30 2019, in the 9 months leading up to the report, spotify made 23 million dollars. Wait a minute, that means spotify is making money haha. Well lets pretend that spotify was still losing money like it was last year. From their 2018 annual report, for the entire year of 2018 spotify lost 78 million dollars. The cash they had at the time was 891 million. So basically spotify has so much money that it can sustain losses for a long period of time before it goes bankrupt. This money comes from investors who believe spotify will eventually start making money (which it looks like it finally did), and they believe that over time they can gain back their initial investment and more


Question: Why does hay fever not bother you when sleeping, but if you wake in the middle of the night or first thing in the morning, BAM! suffer city?

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 Why does hay fever not bother you when sleeping, but if you wake in the middle of the night or first thing in the morning, BAM! suffer city?

There are cells in your body called MAST cells that make histamine when something you are allergic to touches them. Histamine causes the hay fever. It has a natural cycle that is synced to your sleep/wake cycle. Histamine production peaks during the night and you immune system is doing the most uncomfortable work while you sleep. When you wake up, you feel what your body has been up to and it is unpleasant, but not as unpleasant as being awake for this 'critical' work would be.


Question: Why can you only see the at edges of your peripheral vision in the dark?

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 Why can you only see the at edges of your peripheral vision in the dark?

The center of your vision is filled with color sensitive cone cells. They're great at telling colors and giving a crisp image, but need a lot of light to work. The far periphery of your vision is mostly light sensitive rod cells. They can work even in extremely low light conditions, but can't differentiate colors. In a very dark room, the cones in the middle are useless but the rods at the edges can still resolve some detail. You may also notice that your vision is also oddly greyscale in the dark, because the rods are doing most of the work.


Question: Koan - A riddle without a solution, used in Zen Buddhism to demonstrate the inadequacy of logical reasoning and provoke enlightenment. What does this mean?

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 Koan - A riddle without a solution, used in Zen Buddhism to demonstrate the inadequacy of logical reasoning and provoke enlightenment. What does this mean?

Zen draws on the Buddhist tradition of belief that the world as we experience it -- both individually and between ourselved -- is an illusion, and that gain a true understanding of what is, what it is like, and so on requires disengagement from the illusion. Logical thinking demands interaction with the illusion. Koans are meant to present situations/questions/etc. that are nonsensical in terms of logical understanding, the underlying goal being to push the ponderer to abandon logic and thus disengage with the illusion that is the world.


Question: Why can't we solve the Theory of Everything (Grand Unified Theory)? What are some missing links? Do we think it can be solved?

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 Why can't we solve the Theory of Everything (Grand Unified Theory)? What are some missing links? Do we think it can be solved?

We have two freakishly accurate theories: general relativity and quantum mechanics. They both make incredibly accurate predictions that have stood up to almost every experimental test we've thrown at them so far, which is an enormous achievement for any scientific theory. And they mostly don't overlap....quantum mechanics only really shows up at very small scales (the level of individual atoms & molecules) while general relativity describes gravity, which is generally so weak over quantum distances that it doesn't matter but is the major force dominating very large scale things like solar systems, galaxies, etc. The major problem is that the two theories are incompatible...they can't both be true because one contradicts the other in those spheres where they overlap. We don't have a quantum mechanical explanation for gravity and we don't have a "general relativistic" explanation for quantum phenomenon. In almost all practical situations this doesn't matter, because the theories only overlap in places we generally can't go, like black holes, but it drives physicists nuts because there's only one universe so there ought to be one set of physical laws, not two (or more). We have no reason to think it \*can't\* be solved, but we can't solve it yet because nobody has come up with a theory that explains \*both\* general relativity and quantum mechanics (which is a requirement for any grand unified theory) that we can also experimentally test. String theory might be it, but we've got no way (yet) to test the predictions. It might be something else entirely. So the challenge is that we need to come up with one theory that covers the phenomenal accuracy of both quantum and general relativity, but also makes predictions we can test that would allow us to tell them apart.


Question: Why do banks even issue mortgages? Wouldn’t they get significantly better returns in the market?

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 Why do banks even issue mortgages? Wouldn’t they get significantly better returns in the market?

Why do some people sell candy bars (7-eleven)? There's demand for it, *someone* can make money by selling it. And you need to have money in order to invest it. Also, it's not as simple as the average rate of return. There are a lot of people who want to beat the market, or who invest more actively. E.g., if I predict the market is about to collapse, the rational thing to do would be to take all my money out of the market and buy up mortgages (well, ignore the fact people default for this example lol). Spread across many people, loans are basically a fixed income (you can predict exactly how much money you will get over X period of time). There are a lot of strategic reasons people like things like that. Another example: if I'm retiring soon, it may be wise for me to move away from risky market investments and move toward safer ones. Finally, I can sell my array of loans to an investor. Let's say I'm done doing the loan business. I can say "Hey, I predict this set of loans will produce $100 over X years. How about you pay me $15 now, and I let you collect that?" So loans are also "resold" in other ways sometimes.


Question: How do we modify rice or other foods to include more vitamins?

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 How do we modify rice or other foods to include more vitamins?

For any processed food they add powders containing the vitamin or mineral that they say they are adding. One of the easiest ways to show this is almond milk with added calcium if you put a container of almond milk into a clear container and put that container in the fridge you'll see a powdery residue on the bottom of the container. Source I'm an analytical chemist and a majority of the testing I do is for stuff like this. Also bonus fact rice can have high levels of arsenic.


Question: Why is it that the center of a watermelon is the most tasty part of it?

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 Why is it that the center of a watermelon is the most tasty part of it?

Fruits have tough rinds to protect from very small animals that aren't capable of distributing the seeds well. If the inner flesh of a watermelon was exposed, insects could swarm and eat all of the sugary material while not carrying the seeds away. However, a large bird or primate would be able to break the fruit open and ingest both the flesh and seeds, defecating them out far from the source. Through natural selection, this causes those fruits to be more successful in their environments. Then, we humans domesticated and specifically bred the fruits to have a far larger ratio of flesh to rind, because it tastes good.


Question: How does "the shot" (birth control) last so long?

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 How does "the shot" (birth control) last so long?

If you want to look at metabolism and excretion of any drug, check out the pharmacokinetics section. From the article, I'd guess * Because it binds well to proteins in blood plasma, it's harder for the kidneys to filter out the drug (proteins don't enter the filtrate in the nephron [the filtering unit of the kidney]) * Intramuscular (into the muscle) and subcutaneous (injected just under the skin) route avoid enterohepatic recirculation, where the drug is constantly run through the liver, with only a fraction of the drug entering the main bloodstream with each pass. I would guess this is why the oral half life is a matter of hours. * The drug also has a higher affinity for its cellular receptor than natural progesterone, which means that it stays in the cell, regulating DNA expression for longer than progesterone. There's probably way more to this that's above my head though. Source: Biomedical Sciences student that's forgotten his Pharmacology module already.


Question: What is a god complex?

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 What is a god complex?

A person's belief that they are in control (in one way or another) of everything or almost everything. For instance, if I believed that my parents died in a car crash because I wanted it to happen, that might be an indication of a god complex. If I had similar beliefs for many other things that happened in my life, it would be a God complex. God complexes often come coupled with immense feelings of guild and some megalomania.


Question: Why is a fresh water stream close to the mountains rather blue-ish and not transparent?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is a fresh water stream close to the mountains rather blue-ish and not transparent?

The blue comes from the sunlight. Water is usually most pure at the head of the watershed. So local minerals and dead plants have not had enough time to stain the water. The creamy appearance is from glaciers grinding the rock that it slides over. Bonus fact: Make sure never to drink that type of water without filtering and boiling. The finely ground rock will help you become a human fountain from two ends.


Question: Why is standard deviation a better measure than mean deviation?

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 Why is standard deviation a better measure than mean deviation?

In some way, both are measures of the dispersion, and none is better than the other in an absolute way -- for a given purpose one or the other may be more advantageous. Compare with the measures of centrality: median, arithmetic, geometric, harmonic means have the same type of relationship. Now standard deviation has nicer mathematical properties which make it often more convenient (for instance you can compute the standard deviation of the union of two datasets if you know the standard deviation, mean and size of the datasets; see also the central limit theorem) even if it is less easy to give an intuitive meaning to the number (it is possible: Wikipedia has a geometrical interpretation in its entry, but you have to think in n dimensions)


Question: As Francium is the most unstable element, how much more energy will it generate if it is split compared to, let's say Uranium?

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 As Francium is the most unstable element, how much more energy will it generate if it is split compared to, let's say Uranium?

The half-life of an element doesn't really say anything about the energy release per-atom when fission occurs. Fr223 to Ra223 produces 1.149 MeV of energy Boring U238 to Th234 produces 4.270 MeV of energy, but only once every 5 billion years. Shorter half-life isotopes release more heat overall because the decay is so much faster, but all this really does is make the material difficult to process and handle. The heat buildup is often sufficient to melt or vaporize samples, rendering them useless.


Question: Why would the government classify Alien activity ?

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 Why would the government classify Alien activity ?

It is almost guaranteed that evidence of extraterrestrial life would destabilize the planet. We've seen how people behave at a Walmart on Black Friday - How would they act if they found out there was a superior species *out there*? Fear, hope, riots, gatherings would occur. Everything you know and love about your society would become insignificant. We'd suddenly become a global society, finally identifying as *human* rather than American or Chinese, black or hispanic. Governments would lose control after a large portion of our species becomes unified in such a manner and the rest descend into an existentialism induced chaos. How then would we find structure? Who is in charge of the entire planet? How do you decide? It would be much safer to keep knowledge of extraterrestrials from the common people and avoid such an embarrassment to the visitors. We're basically still the same creature that evolved to survive on the plains of Africa. Sometimes we need to maintain this sort of control over our society. The aliens might even realize this themselves and command us to keep it a secret. They'd have to understand the reality or else they'd simply fly some of their ships over our cities or start a broadcast on all frequencies. Supposing this, we would presume then that Governments would decide (or be instructed) to begin unifying the planet culturally in preparation for this extraterrestrial-based social unification. Globalism would be encouraged, peace and understanding would be encouraged. Wars would slow down or vanish completely... But instead we see that petty wars over money and territory continue to this day. We see wars against terrorism on TV, but read on the internet that we're the terrorists. We still see petty squabbles and social striations. We still let our own people die of starvation while others are forced to undergo drastic surgeries to reduce their weight. We'll force women to reproduce and then wait patiently to put that unwanted child into prison 18 years later. If the government(s) are in contact with extraterrestrials then those extraterrestrials are probably not the ones that we'd want to meet. If they were then we would expect much different behavior from our financial elite and our governments. We might expect those aliens to be non-benevolent anyway. You don't end up with advanced technology from a friendly environment. Wars and struggle are what inspires intelligent beings to create technology. What use is a nuclear reactor when your food is plentiful and weather pleasant? What good is a fortress when you have no enemies? What is Human history, if not an ongoing succession of greater technologies grinding lesser ones beneath their boots? The idea that any star-faring civilization will be the same ones who've been forced to bend and break their environment to survive could be reason enough for the riots and chaos of an Earth now made aware of extraterrestrial intelligence. Imagine you're a peaceful alien and humans landed on your planet. Would you be worried? You would if you knew about our history genocides, hate, and destruction.


Question: How do reward systems make you addicted?

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 How do reward systems make you addicted?

Excitement and anticipation are powerful motivators. If you repeat an activity, and get rewarded for it, your brain releases endorphins and other chemicals. Keep doing it and you begin to react with pleasurable chemicals *before* you open the box, the anticipation starts the cycle of your brain's reward center. It's basically addiction, which is just how our brains naturally respond to repeated fun activity.


Question: Is Australia the continent, or is Oceania? What's the difference?

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 Is Australia the continent, or is Oceania? What's the difference?

Australia and Oceania are different places. It is confusing, because Australia the country lies in Australia the continent. Oceania is a place full of islands, made up of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. There are islands that are part of the country of Australia, just like there are islands that are part of the United States (aka Hawaii), in Oceania.


Question: How do CPUs have such a high wattage and such a low voltage?

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 How do CPUs have such a high wattage and such a low voltage?

yes, they do. They run at such a high speed that the transistors are always switching, and therefore they're pretty much always in their linear region and burning power. They tend to have upwards of 8 seperate power phases for high end CPUs. Look on the motherboard, near the CPU there's a bunch of massive inductors. each one is a power phase.


Question: how does Lamotrigine work as a mood stabiliser?

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 how does Lamotrigine work as a mood stabiliser?

So as with many psychotropic drugs the exact mechanism of action (MOA) is unknown but we know that they do work. Lamotrogine is classed as an anitepileptic drug but alongside others such as sodium valporate there is sufficient evidence that they are effective in treating bipolar 2 disorder and is used in that context as a mood stabilizer. Some of the proposed MOA include altering cell membrane sodium transport and alterations in the metabolism of serotonin. Colloquially it is explained as acting of neurotransmitters that effect mood and behaviour (dopamine, serotonin, gamma-amniobutyric acid and glutamate), by altering the levels in the brain which result in a stabilisation of mood. In short; puts the mood signals and transmitters in the brain back into there normal range and function which helps put moods back into a stable normal range.


Question: How does increasing fluid intake help when you’re sick with the common cold?

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 How does increasing fluid intake help when you’re sick with the common cold?

With cold,you lose much water unknowingly by the nasal secretions. Just to replace those fluids we advice patients to be hydrated enough so that the patients urine is clear or pale yellow. Same with vomitings or diarrhoea. With fever ,you lose water by peripheral vasodilation to keep off the heat which causes dehydration.


Question: If I sell stock, who buys it?

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 If I sell stock, who buys it?

The stock market matches buyers and sellers in real time. You own shares in XYZ Corp you want to sell. So you put in a sell order. At the same time, the exchange is taking buy orders from investors wanting to buy the stock. It matches the buys and sell orders. If there are more buyers than sellers, the price will go up. If there are more sellers than buyers it'll go down. Until there is a balance in shares demanded by buyers and sellers.


Question: Why does spinning make you dizzy?

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 Why does spinning make you dizzy?

We have structures in our inner ear called semicircular canals. Think of them like tubes filled with hairs and liquid. And as we move around, or change our orientation, this liquid squishes around the hairs, and the hairs tell our brains how we are situated based on which ones are getting squished. Getting dizzy is overstimulating those hairs. Kind of how very bright light would overstimulate our eyes, loud noises with our ears, etc.


Question: If love, feelings of happiness, loneliness, etc., are just chemical reactions in your brain, why can't things like loneliness be cured just by supplementing them with the missing chemicals?

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 If love, feelings of happiness, loneliness, etc., are just chemical reactions in your brain, why can't things like loneliness be cured just by supplementing them with the missing chemicals?

Maybe one day we might be able to. We still only have a basic understanding of the brain. It's like asking why the Wright Brothers didn't fly to the moon. There is so much we still don't understand about the brain and medicine. We get a step closer every day. Technically I guess you could cure loneliness by drugging someone to the point they are mentally numb to everything but I don't think that's what you meant.


Question: The earth is about 4.5 billion years old, but at what physical point do scientists classify a planet's age as 0?

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 The earth is about 4.5 billion years old, but at what physical point do scientists classify a planet's age as 0?

When it started to be a planet. To be a planet, it needs to fit three criteria: A planet is an object in orbit around the Sun with a diameter greater than 2000 km. A planet is an object in orbit around the Sun whose shape is stable due to its own gravity. A planet is an object in orbit around the Sun that is dominant in its immediate neighbourhood. So, basically, it needed to coalesce into a stable shape and clear out the immediate neighbourhood. There's no hard-and-fast answer of when it "became" a planet. There's no point where you can say "Before this instant, it was not a planet, but now it is." Just like how if you have a pile of seeds, and then take one seed away at a time, you can't say there's a specific time when taking away a single seed made it from a pile into something that isn't a pile anymore. Obviously if you have only one seed, it isn't a pile. Is two seeds a pile of seeds? Probably not.