Question: How does a RAID 5 file storage system use less space than mirroring?

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 How does a RAID 5 file storage system use less space than mirroring?

> How can the system restore any failed drive without having enough space to store all data in duplicate? Short answer: it plays Sudoku. Imagine having a table with 4 columns containing numbers and an arbitrary number of rows, and the sum of each row is constant. At that point you can erase any one column (but no more!) and still be able to recreate it. Do note that to recreate the missing column you need *all other three*. You lose one more, you're fucked. Well, RAID5 is the same thing, sort of. Your data is spread onto 3 drives and the 4th keeps so-called "parity information" computed according to a particular rule such that, in the event of the death of any one drive, the system will be able to use the data from the other three to rebuild the RAID. Suppose your data is made up of decimals and looks like: 4, 2, 3, 1, 8, 0, 3, 3, 0, 1, 2, 5 We can subdivide it into 3 columns (drives) like this: +---+---+---+ | 4 | 2 | 3 | +---+---+---+ | 1 | 8 | 0 | +---+---+---+ | 3 | 3 | 0 | +---+---+---+ | 1 | 2 | 5 | +---+---+---+ and compute a 4th column such that the sum of each row is always 10: +---+---+---+---+ | 4 | 2 | 3 | 1 | +---+---+---+---+ | 1 | 8 | 0 | 1 | +---+---+---+---+ | 3 | 3 | 0 | 3 | +---+---+---+---+ | 1 | 2 | 5 | 2 | +---+---+---+---+ Now your second drive dies because you bought that WD green crap: +---+---+---+---+ | 4 | ? | 3 | 1 | +---+---+---+---+ | 1 | ? | 0 | 1 | +---+---+---+---+ | 3 | ? | 0 | 3 | +---+---+---+---+ | 1 | ? | 5 | 2 | +---+---+---+---+ Rebuilding it, knowing that each row must add up to 10, is left as an exercise. The missing element in the first row must be `10 - 4 - 3 - 1 = 2`, and so on.


Question: Why does Congo have a near monopoly in Cobalt extraction? Is all the Cobalt in the world really only in Congo? Or is it something else? Congo produces 80% of the global cobalt supply. Why only Congo? Is the entirety of cobalt located ONLY in Congo?

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 Why does Congo have a near monopoly in Cobalt extraction? Is all the Cobalt in the world really only in Congo? Or is it something else? Congo produces 80% of the global cobalt supply. Why only Congo? Is the entirety of cobalt located ONLY in Congo?

Cobalt is mostly a by-product of copper and nickel mining. There are massive copper and nickel deposits in the Congo. However, another major factor is the lack of much mining and environmental regulation in the Congo. They can mine a lot of cobalt, cheap, because they pay the workers low wages, to work in dangerous conditions, with little regard to the effects to the local environment. So, it's simply cheaper for companies to buy Cobalt from the Congo than from many other places. Thus, it's much like two farms in your town growing apples. If Farm A can sell its apples for much less than Farm B, then Farm A is going to sell far more apples, even if Farm B can produce just as many apples as Farm A.


Question: Why use of chemical weapons is internationally frowned upon, and leads to retaliation air strikes. But it’s acceptable to blow people up and shoot them?

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 Why use of chemical weapons is internationally frowned upon, and leads to retaliation air strikes. But it’s acceptable to blow people up and shoot them?

Short Answer: By internationally held standards, yes. Bombs and bullets can be aimed, an unguided murder fog can't. Long Answer: The "rules of warfare" as they are known today are essentially the sum total of multiple decades of international discussion and negotiation, with multiple treaties forming the actual legal underpinning; the Geneva Convention being the most famous, but being one of several. Multiple weapons systems have been considered over the years as to what is and isn't appropriate for use in the course of war. A big factor is how precise the weapon is, which is to say how good it is at hitting what it's aimed at and *nothing else*, and how well it responds to operator control. For instance, grenades are OK because they don't go off until someone *chooses* to use it, and can refrain from using it in an unsafe/illegal situation, whereas the same amount of explosive in a land mine is frowned upon, because there's no operator control, it's stupidly easy to lose track of in the chaos of war, and there's zero assurance that it isn't going to be found by some poor schmuck a decade after the treaty is signed because they stepped on it. Landmines are an 'indiscriminate' weapon; one can not knowingly abide rules of engagement, avoid protected parties, etc., when using them, you just throw them out and hope for the best. Chemical weapons are **indiscriminate as fuck**. You're basically throwing a fog bank of nasty shit into the air and hoping the wind takes it where you want. Wind shifts by 3 degrees in angle and 1 mile per hour in speed? Then someone you weren't aiming at dies. Even disregarding the horrible physical effects, there's no reliable way to mass deploy chemicals in a combat setting in a way that could be considered safe or controllable. And after the fact, who's going to clean the shit up? A bullet or a bomb fragment comes to a stop, but chemicals can linger for a long duration, presenting a similar risk as land mines to civilians, neutral observers, aid organizations, and even allies of the nation that originally deployed it.


Question: How did manufacturing and inspection accuracy get to where it is today?

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 How did manufacturing and inspection accuracy get to where it is today?

The main concept is the idea of subdivision. Generally it is much easier to mechanically divide some physical quantity into equal parts (using some kind of rotating or balancing device) than to measure it in an absolute sense. This can be used to make more precise measuring tools. Let's say you can measure an absolute length to 0.1", so if you create a 1" piece it will have a length of 1" +/- 0.1". Similarly, an 10" piece will have a length of 10" +/- 0.1". If you now accurately divide that 10" piece into 10 equal subdivisions, each will be 1" +/- 0.01" long. The machines used to do this are called [dividing engines]( URL_0 ) and they were the key to more accurate measurement.


Question: Would children be afraid of the dark if they were never exposed to ghost/monster stories/movies/etc.?

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 Would children be afraid of the dark if they were never exposed to ghost/monster stories/movies/etc.?

Yes. Fear of the dark/unknown is innate in humans and occurs in children at a fairly young age, typically toward the end of infancy and before they are toddlers. Now this can definitely be heightened by watching scary movies or being told scary stories, but it is not created by them.


Question: what actually happens when a molecule activates a receptor vs when an inhibitor molecule just blocks it?

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 what actually happens when a molecule activates a receptor vs when an inhibitor molecule just blocks it?

Think of the molecule as a key and the receptor as a lock. The "real" key will always be able to open the lock as intended. However, there are some keys that coincidentally have a similar shape to the "real" key, but not similar enough to open the lock. So when you try to open the lock with the similar key, instead of opening the lock, it gets jammed and it gets stuck. The lock is still locked while the key is stuck, which is a metaphor for how the inhibitor just gets stuck in the receptor without causing a biological effect.


Question: How are riders actually added to a bill in Congress?

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 How are riders actually added to a bill in Congress?

They're added as "amendments" to a bill. Getting a bill passed in congress is a game of give and take. Riders are often attached to important spending bills. Congress draws up a bill funding something important (usually the military). Everyone agrees that it must pass. Then powerful Senator Porkbarrel decides "Well, I also want the government to fund a 12 lane superhighway through my state that I will say to my constitutents 'Seee! I brought jobs! Re-elect me!!!!'. So he proposes an amendment for this spending bill to fund he road. Now, he's well respected in Congress and has lots of connections that could help other Congress-critters with their re-election bid. So they all sign on and vote for the amendment. Now, the bill heads to the president. He looks at it and says "Shit...I need to fund the military but there's also this bullshit rider". But he can't veto it otherwise his opponents will scream "SEEEEE! THE PRESIDENT HATES THE MILITARY! DON'T REELECT HIM!". So he signs off on it. There was a line item veto where the president could say "No, fuck this particular part of the bill". But he was axing all the riders and pork so Congress got together and got the supreme court to rule the line-item veto unconstitutional.


Question: Why do sugary drinks such as Kool Aid and Hawaiian Punch seem not to get cold despite how much ice one adds in it?

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 Why do sugary drinks such as Kool Aid and Hawaiian Punch seem not to get cold despite how much ice one adds in it?

It's the sugar. Adding sugar to a drink gives it more mass/volume than an equivalent volume of water. Koolaid is essentially sugar water. Sugar's heat capacity is less than that of water (it can store less heat per unit of mass), but not low enough to not have an effect. In this case, a 2:1 mixture of sugar/water will hold about ~125% more heat than an equivalent volume of water. In other words, a 12oz glass of sugar water will hold more heat energy than a 12oz glass of pure water. That means that you need to dissipate *more* heat from a koolaid mixture than you would plain water in order to cool both to the same temperature. There's also the issues of conduction (which is negligible in this case) and convection. In a still glass of koolaid, the dense sugar solution will sink to the bottom of the glass, and the cool, pure, melted ice water will rise to the top. There is virtually no convection happening here and therefore the temperature difference will only slowly travel across the small area where the two liquids meet. A stirred glass will better allow the cool ice water to mix with the koolaid solution. Edit for clarity.


Question: How do mathematicians and physicists come up with page long equations such as the "Standard Model Equation"? Where do they start and how do they test these equations for accuracy?

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 How do mathematicians and physicists come up with page long equations such as the "Standard Model Equation"? Where do they start and how do they test these equations for accuracy?

They start out by taking smaller mathematical equations that explain some specific phenomenon accurately. Then they grab multiple of these and attempt to combine them using overlapping variables and as they do this more and more you can get longer and longer equations. You then test each part for accuracy and each combination, if each initial equation is accurate, and check each combination to see if it creates any errors for the calculations of known test cases and if it doesn't then you continue on with more combinations and checking. This added with many people coming and scrutinizing these equations to make sure they are accurate you get very long equations that can either explain a variety of things, or you can have a very long equation that explains one very specific thing very well. Specifically how Lagrangian form of the standard model is written is a composite of 5 parts that explain the interactions of things like gluons, Bosons in order to explain the weak and strong nuclear force, along with parts of it explaining how particles interact with virtual particles and artifacts and such. Specifically, I don't know much about it, nor am I qualified to explain how that equation is written as that I simply don't know/understand.


Question: When people used to rely more heavily on well systems, how did they keep that water from being stagnant and unhealthy to drink?

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 When people used to rely more heavily on well systems, how did they keep that water from being stagnant and unhealthy to drink?

Stagnant results from when it has decaying organic matter in it, or some other pollutant. As long as a well is kept covered, there isn't much that can get in there. If they really thought it had a problem they could just remove all the water in the well, and more new, fresh, cleaner water would refill it.


Question: If a fire turns blue/colorless when enough oxygen is present, then why are campfires yellow/orange?

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 If a fire turns blue/colorless when enough oxygen is present, then why are campfires yellow/orange?

Fire is dangerous, especially for a five year old. But you can definitely be my helper and I'll teach you how to build a big, safe fire that makes blue or white flames. It's entirely possible to get blue flame in a campfire, it'll just be lower down, near the coal bed and the fuel. Fuel is the word I'm going to use when I'm talking about the wood we're going to burn, because it's important to remember that any wood near a fire can catch on fire. If we build a campfire with a good structure that permits plenty of airflow and and promotes the flow of the burning fuel up through the center, it creates a "jet" that pulls air into the bottom and lets the fire travel out the top. There's tons of ways to skin that cat, though. **Let's talk about the first part of building a fire, and that's safety. Always be sure to have a big bucket of water near your fire with access to more water nearby. Also, only build campfires inside of fire rings. This can either be a ring of stones stacked up or a big metal donut. Also, be sure to build your fire in a spot where your fire has 30-40 feet of air above it. Your fire will have a big invisible column of heat coming straight off of the top of it, and it is incredibly hot. That's called your updraft, and it can easily light tree branches overhead on fire; it can melt plastic and ignite even the heartiest lumber.** **Be sure to have some heavy leather gloves nearby, as well as a solid fire poker. Your fire poker can be metal, or you can make one by taking a sturdy piece of wood that's about 4-5 feet long and putting in your bucket of water, then into your coal bed, then back into the bucket, and into your coal bed, over and over until the lower end of it becomes blackened and soggy. You should be able to wrangle fuel around with it without the poker catching on fire. Just be sure to keep doing the heat and quench steps to keep your stick fire resistant.** **And last but not least, only one person is in charge of the fire. You can call him the 'fire marshal' and that person should be the only one that every puts anything into or takes anything out of the fire. The fire marshal is a big responsibility, especially because you can't leave the fire until it is put out. That means even if your friends go to have fun somewhere else or go to sleep, you have to stay with the fire until you put it out.** My preferred way when camping where you have a proper fire ring, access to plenty of water, and lots of fuel (think small bonfire versus campfire) is to build a four-legged teepee out of dry, stout timbers of a half-arm length with a stone under each leg to raise it up and stabilize it a bit. Centered beneath that structure, build a standard tinder- > kindling- > small diameter fuel teepee fire, starting with the tinder inside of a kindling teepee and then adding the small fuel wood to the outside after the kindling gets started. You'll need to leave space to feed more kindling in so that you can get everything rolling. Keep feeding this until you can start to feed it more small fuel. You do that by laying the small fuel along the outside of the existing teepee. Eventually this will become a pretty happy little fire and this can continue to to be fed increasingly larger diameter fuel. This is the big teepee from above: Key: o - stone = or || - wood fuel o || o== ==o || o The smaller fire is on the ground directly under the point where all four legs meet. This fire will eventually become the start of your coal bed as the most volatile parts of the fuel burn away and leave behind longer burning stuff. There should be plenty of room for air in all directions and the fire should still be centered beneath your larger teepee. The larger teepee, for its part, will most likely star to char along the 'inside' (the parts of the fuel facing your smaller fire). What you've created is a very hot spot on the ground with a pretty hot housing directly above it, which creates an updraft and a boost to that updraft. Picture this updraft like a geyser or the bottom of a lava lamp. The hot air rises up quickly and is carried away and cool air rushes into the hottest spot to be heated up and carried away. The fire builder/marshal should only be able to hold a leather or other fire-resistant gloved hand 3-4 feet above your larger teepee for a few seconds at this point. That heat is your updraft. If you're exercising proper fire safety, there's someone who is actually responsible for the fire tending it and no one else is goofing with it. In that case, the 'marshal' can start placing a ring of larger fuel inside the fire ring, but spaced a bit away from the stone bases of the teepee. This is mostly to dry out any surface wetness and get it ready to add to the fire. Your larger teepee should start burning proper before too long. Once any of the four members start to burn, add another similar piece of fuel to the larger teepee in one of the diagonal opposite spaces from that burning piece. Key: o - stone = or || - wood fuel o || < --- burning o== ==o * || * < --add wood here o Keep this process up; once a member starts burning in earnest, reinforce your teepee by adding more fuel across from it. Be sure to leave space for the coal bed to get air between the legs. You want to try very hard to maintain the teepee shape. You should get blue/white flame on the coal bed and very bright yellow flames from all of your fuel. This is already really long, but another good option is to use large half-arm to 3/4-arm length pieces of fuel to build a four-walled "lincoln log" structure that's 3-4 pieces of fuel tall on top of four corner stones. Then, inside of the of that structure, build the above mentioned teepee starter. The inside of the lincoln log structure will char and begin to burn burn from the bottom to the top, and the air will flow freely underneath and through your walls and travel up through the center of the structure. Then, in order to add fuel, just put fresh wood on top of the wall in oppsoing pairs or four at a time. It's not as stable as the teepee when it starts to really get burning, but it looks really cool and can be built up quite tall. Just not any taller than would fall out of the fire ring were it to collapse and tip over. **When you're done enjoying your fire, the fire marshal should use the fire poker to collapse the fire into a big pile and then carefully pour the bucket of water slowly into the inside and bottom of the fire. It'll sizzle and hiss for a surprisingly long time. You may have to do this with two or three bucketfuls of water. Use your fire poker to stir the coal bed and the fuel around until it stop smoking, steaming, or making any sounds. The very last step is to take your hand out of your glove and put it down very close to the fire. Move your hand around and make sure you don't feel any heat. Once you're certain that it's all cold, you can even try touching some of the larger pieces of left over fuel. Everything should be 'cold' to the touch. Never leave a fire unattended; always make it cold-out before you leave your fire ring.** TL;DR: Build your campfire so that air is drawn to the bottom by high heat and channeled upwards unrestricted and you should get blue/white flame on your coal bed.


Question: How come when some airplanes fly by they leave the white streak of smoke and others dont?!

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 How come when some airplanes fly by they leave the white streak of smoke and others dont?!

The white streak you're referring to is known as a contrail. It's just visible water vapor from the engines exhaust (like cars make in cold or really humid conditions). It only shows up at certain atmospheric conditions (based on temperature and relative humidity) and those change based on the altitude. Generally the higher you climb the lower the temperature, so contrails will start appearing above a certain altitude where the temperature drops enough for the water vapor to become visible. It is possible to see them at ground level when it is extremely cold out, but normally above mid 20 000's feet.


Question: How can one pipeline deliver different brands and octanes of gasoline? How do they separate them at the destination?

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 How can one pipeline deliver different brands and octanes of gasoline? How do they separate them at the destination?

All of these folks saying pipelines only deliver crude oil are incorrect. While that is the most common scenario there are some large pipelines that transport gasoline and diesel refined products along with typical crudes. These pipelines are batched systems and the operators account for an interface mix of the products (transmix). This is a sacrifical cut of a lower quality product to maintain the quality of the higher value product. The batch train lineup in the pipeline is carefully scheduled to avoid contamination.


Question: What is the Glasgow scale and what is its relation/how is it used with dementia, Alzheimer’s, or other degenerative and mental health problems?

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 What is the Glasgow scale and what is its relation/how is it used with dementia, Alzheimer’s, or other degenerative and mental health problems?

The Glasgow Scale is a way to quantify someone's Level of Consciousness and Orientation Three are three categories: * Best eye response * Best verbal response * Best motor response Best eye response is ranged from 1 to 4 where: * 1 = none (patient doesn't open eyes for anything * 2 = to pain (patient only opens eyes to painful stimuli) * 3 = to speech (patient only opens eyes to verbal stimuli) * 4 = spontaneous (patient opens eyes without needing any stimulus) Best verbal response ranges from 1 to 5 where: * 1 = none (patient cannot speak) * 2 = incomprehensible speech (attempts to speak are made but actual words are not understandable) * 3 = inappropriate words (patient can speak more clearly but no sense can be made of them) * 4 = confused (patient makes some sense but doesn't know one or more of the following (who he is, where he is, what day/time it is or what is happening at the moment) * 5 = oriented (patient is fully oriented and has no confusion, speaks clearly and logically) And best motor response ranges from 1 to 6 where: * 1 = none (patient has no motor response to any stimuli) * 2 = extension to pain (painful stimulus causes limb extension * 3 = flexion to pain (painful stimulus causes limb flexion) * 4 = withdraws from pain (pulls limb away from painful stimulus) * 5 = localizes pain (moves hand to source of pain in attempt to remove the pain) * 6 = obeys commands (normal voluntary motor response) So a normal person with nothing wrong with them will have a GCS of 15. Someone who is confused but otherwise normal will have a GCS of 14. In cases of dementia, Alzheimer's or other mental health problems, the patient may have a GCS baseline less than 15. GCS is helpful in identifying further or acute deterioration of patient's mental status if there is a drop in their score from baseline.


Question: If there are billions of micrometers of bacteria on your body, why can't we see their corpses after the many times we clean ourselves?

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 If there are billions of micrometers of bacteria on your body, why can't we see their corpses after the many times we clean ourselves?

When you wash yourself, you're not really killing millions of bacteria, you're washing them away. Even if you were dousing yourself in alcohol, you wouldn't simply be choking the life out of giant bacterial colonies, leaving ruins in the wake of their malodorous civilization, you're actually dissolving the lipid layer around them, basically causing them to disintegrate so there's no evidence. Also, bacteria are so incredibly tiny you need a LOT of them to actually see a colony.


Question: Why can’t we donate insulin the way we can donate blood?

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 Why can’t we donate insulin the way we can donate blood?

why would you want to? we can make insulin synthetically so there's no need for people to donate it. and insulin isn't consistently produced by your body and it wouldn't be easy to extract. we can't make blood/plasma so we need people to donate it or otherwise we wouldn't have any for transfusions.


Question: Why does earth’s axial tilt affect our climate significantly more than perihelion even though the latter brings us 5 million miles closer to the sun?

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 Why does earth’s axial tilt affect our climate significantly more than perihelion even though the latter brings us 5 million miles closer to the sun?

Solar power radiated per unit area decreases with distance from the sun in accordance with the surface area of a bounding sphere at that radius, proportional to r^2. So, from perihelion to aphelion, the ratio difference in energy intensity is 91.4^2 / 94.5^2 , or about a 6.5% reduction. Conversely, the intensity of radiation striking the Earth's surface is proportional to the sine of the angle of incidence. The Earth is tilted approximately 23.5°, but that swing is either side of the equator from winter to summer, so the effective difference is actually double that. This corresponds to about a 27% difference in energy intensity from winter to summer at either tropic. So, the axial tilt represents over four times as profound a change in energy input as is caused by the change in proximity to the sun.


Question: There is so much discussion about the amount of oxygen and carbon in our atmosphere. But, 80% of our atmosphere is nitrogen. Where does nitrogen fit in the whole circulation process? How is it made, how is it used, and what does it get turned into?

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 There is so much discussion about the amount of oxygen and carbon in our atmosphere. But, 80% of our atmosphere is nitrogen. Where does nitrogen fit in the whole circulation process? How is it made, how is it used, and what does it get turned into?

Nitrogen is just very inert, it's not reactive and is not easy to take out of the air for use in reactions. But there is a cycle, naturally [nitrogen fixing bacteria]( URL_0 ) take nitrogen from the air and turn it into nitrogen compounds like ammonia, this is what plants and other organisms use to incorporate nitrogen into other compounds (it's required for many amino acids). These bacteria typically live in the roots of Legume (plants like soybeans and peas). Thus nitrogen is a critical fertilizer for plants and it's required for all plants but not "fixed" many places. We use a synthetic process to make ammonia, the [haber process]( URL_1 ) because we needs LOTs of ammonia to grow crops on a huge industrial scale the way we do. We spend over 1% of all the worlds energy doing this, essentially to accelerate the nitrogen cycle. All that nitrogen eventually goes into living things to make their proteins. Some things will eventually release the nitrogen back as a gas (some bacteria will do it, as will just burning plant/animal matter). In general, there isn't much movement outside of this bacteria and human pathway to take nitrogen out of the air, and it's very stable in the air, so things tend to just turn to N2 and stay that way.


Question: Why is putting alcohol in ones ear a treatment if one has water in their ear? Does it have something to do with alcohol's viscosity? I understand it's disinfect ones ear, but how would it dislodge water or other foreign fluids?

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 Why is putting alcohol in ones ear a treatment if one has water in their ear? Does it have something to do with alcohol's viscosity? I understand it's disinfect ones ear, but how would it dislodge water or other foreign fluids?

It has to do with volitility, not viscosity, meaning that alcohol evaporates quicker than water. By pouring in alcohol, the mix of fluid in the ear goes from essentially 100% water to mixed water and alcohol. That mixture is then poured out of the ear, which leaves a potentially similar total amount of fluid in the ear as before, but a significant fraction of that fluid is alcohol, rather than water. This alcohol-water mixture evaporates in whole faster than just pure water would. Also, the alcohol inhibits the fungal growth associated with swimmers-ear, so the ear canal is significantly dryer by the time the environment isn't horribly toxic to fungus by virtue of alcohol concentration.


Question: What makes bouncy things bounce?

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 What makes bouncy things bounce?

Things bounce because they are mauluable enough to to compress when struck but retain integrity so they expand back to there original shape. When bouncing a ball is strikes the ground and compresses then when it can't compress any more is expands repelling off the floor and bouncing. Any object that "bounces" will act in a similar manner but it probably won't be as obvious as it is with bouncy balls


Question: Why can live events be done in ultra HD on television but when its streamed on the internet the quality is usually super low?

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 Why can live events be done in ultra HD on television but when its streamed on the internet the quality is usually super low?

The streaming quality depends on your internet connection as well. Assuming it’s a good connection, (at least for YouTube, but I assume for other services) when a video is first uploaded, it uploads in standard definition to ensure that it at least exists. After time, assuming the user has the settings correct, it automatically re-uploads itself in HD. It could very well be that you are watching the recorded stream before it has had a chance to auto-upload in HD.


Question: How is APR worked out?

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 How is APR worked out?

1300% APR is illegal interest in most countries...not even a loan shark would charge that kind of interest. Anyways. Nominal APR is the rate per period, multiplied by the number of periods in a year. So 2% compounding monthly is a nominal APR of 24%. There is also the effective APR, which takes into account the compounding. 2% compounding monthly is an effective APR of 26.8%. Usually when you see a rate advertised, it's the nominal APR, not the effective APR. As you can see, the more compounding periods, the more the nominal and effective APRs differ.


Question: Why do our hands shake when we are nervous?

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 Why do our hands shake when we are nervous?

When we are nervous our blood starts pumping more and we create a chemical called adrenaline. This was used so that we could run faster back when needed to run from scary things in the cavemen days. However when we are nervous our body thinks we need to run from a scary thing and creates adrenaline.


Question: How do we save an image in our computer?

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 How do we save an image in our computer?

It might help to think of a simple image file as a little map and a set of instructions for reading the map! In the map part, the file gives the computer a grid and tells it, "Okay, in this location on our grid, you'll have a red pixel. Right next to that one, another red pixel, and then two blues." So you end up with a grid of pixels. In the instructions for reading the map, the file might include rules like how many pixels fit in each row, the preferred resolution, info about whether the image is compressed, all that stuff.


Question: how do scientists determine the age of cave paintings?

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 how do scientists determine the age of cave paintings?

Lots of ways. If the pigments were made from something that was once alive, then the pigments can be dated using radiocarbon dating. A certain form of carbon decays at a set rate, and since the living thing only adds carbon to itself when its alive, you can track the ratio of radioactive carbon to regular carbon and estimate a date. This has some drawbacks, especially if the area was subject to burning, and it can only tell you how old (approximately) the thing used to make the pigment was when it died. That's still pretty useful though, at least within a specific time range before it's too hard to figure out the age. Another way works if you're in a cave with layered paintings. If you can date one or two layers, but not some other ones you can get minimal or maximal ages for the layers above and below the dated ones. You can also date the rock itself, and the mineral deposits that build up for many many years. This is done using a variety of methods, including uranium series dating. Most of all, you can look at the layers laid down over time, both on the ground of the cave and the walls of the cave itself. By comparing known processes and events such as floods, mineral deposits, and more, you can set a timeline for the surface of the cave. This process of studying the strata (stratiography) is just like what archaeologists do when digging in the ground; it's just on the wall of a cave instead of in the ground.


Question: What makes a device "safe to remove"?

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 What makes a device "safe to remove"?

So let's say you're writing in a book. If I let you finish what you're writing and update the table of contents, it's all good. The book can be 'safely removed' from your desk. But, if I just pull the book away, you might still be writing. Now it's unfinished, and the last bit won't make any sense. It's similar in a USB drive. Safely removing it means the computer has stopped working on it, both reading and writing. If you pull it out during an operation, you could just lose the data, or break the drive entirely.


Question: How stress profile for any object is generated based on it's shape, state and density?

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 How stress profile for any object is generated based on it's shape, state and density?

Stress profiles in arbitrary objects, especially if it's from an impact (like a fist hitting a wall) as opposed to a quasi-static load (like setting a weight on it and only looking at what happens after the weight has been there for a long time), is graduate level material. I'll do my best, but there's only so far this can be simplified. The first thing you need to grasp is the idea of a strain wave. So we'll start with a pool noddle lying on the ground. If you grab the end of the noodle and flick it, the whole noodle won't all move at the same time, right? The part closest to your hand will go up, then the motion goes along the length of the noodle until it reaches the far end. The noodle isn't "rigid;" when you pulled on it it deformed, but more than that, it took time for the far end of the noodle to "realize" you were pulling on it. The way that force propagated down the noodle is a strain wave. We call it a wave because the mathematical equation describing the strain state of the material takes the form of the wave equation. The thing to recognize about a strain wave is that it has a finite speed. This is obvious in the pool noodle, but its still true for stiffer objects (like a bar of steel). It's just that the speed of the wave is much much higher, so as far as the naked eye can see the entire bar moves at the same time. Fun fact! The speed of sound in a material is the speed of a strain wave in that material. Now back to your original question. What does the stress profile in an object look like when I hit it? Well, it depends on when you look at the object. Immediately after impact, the only part of the object that has any stress at all is the part in contact with your fist. The strain waves radiating out from the impact haven't gotten anywhere yet. As time moves forward, more and more of the material will start to be in compression; this will move out like an expanding sphere from the impact point (unless your material is weird and the wavespeed is not the same in all directions. If that is the case, you would have an ellipsoid). Eventually, the waves will encompass the whole object and everything will be under stress. But wait! It's more complicated than that, because strain waves do funny things when the wave speed changes. And the wave speed changes a LOT at the surface of the object, since the speed of sound in air is much much lower than in the object. The waves will (partially) REFLECT off the surface, and they change sign too. A compression wave becomes a tension wave going the opposite direction. Think of a long thin rod of balls connected by springs. If I push on one end, the compression wave will move down the rod. All the balls will get closer together until the wave reaches the far end. Since there is nothing stopping the end ball from moving, it will just start flying away. But now it's pulling on the second to last ball, which gets yanked forward...then the third to last ball, etc. We have a tension wave going the opposite direction. Same thing happens with the atoms that make up an object, only more complicated because it's in 3D. So shortly after impact, we've got a bunch of strain waves bouncing around inside the object. If the object can't just fly away because of the impact, you'll eventually reach an equilibrium where the waves bouncing around don't change anything. Parts of the object will be compressed, while others might be in tension. This is what you were probably thinking of when you asked for the stress profile. If the object isn't constrained (and so can just fly away), the equilibrium will be 0 stress in the object, but the object will be moving.


Question: Why do skunks’ spray linger in the air for so long?

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 Why do skunks’ spray linger in the air for so long?

Skunk spray is mainly made of up chemicals called thiols, which are structurally similar to alcohols but contain sulfur atoms. For some evolutionary reason (or accident), our noses are VERY sensitive to this class of chemicals, and most of them smell quite strongly. The smells of sweat and onions are also due to thiols, and they're added to natural gas to give that "gas" smell. Skunk spray can be detected in parts of about 1 per 10 billion in the air, which is very, very low.


Question: If the volume of the water in the oceans is always roughly the same, why is the difference beetween high and low tide so significant?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 If the volume of the water in the oceans is always roughly the same, why is the difference beetween high and low tide so significant?

You take a rectangular container and you fill it with water. Now you lift the container at one end a little bit, the water flows to the lower part. Now you have high tide at one end, low tide at the other and exactly the same volume as before. High and low tide is just the moon pushing the water around on Earth.


Question: how comes kinesin protein can "walk"? Aren't proteins unorganic stuff able to just do simple movements based on chemical reactions?

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 how comes kinesin protein can "walk"? Aren't proteins unorganic stuff able to just do simple movements based on chemical reactions?

Proteins are organic, they are long chains of carbon with stuff dangling off. Kinesins "walk" because reactions (e.g. splitting ATP to ADP + P) can change the shape of a protein. Something as simple as binding an ADP instead of an ATP can radically change the shape of a protein, so that if the "rest state" of the protein is ATP-bound with the "right foot forward", splitting that ATP to an ADP changes the protein to the next stage, "left foot forward." Releasing that ADP and binding another ATP will reset to the rest state, and it will have taken one step forward. The same principle is used in the actin/myosin motor, where a myosin head "walks" along actin fibers to create muscle contractions.


Question: What who loses money on unsold food, the supermarket or the food manufacturer?

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 What who loses money on unsold food, the supermarket or the food manufacturer?

Strictly speaking the supermarket that sells the food will be making a loss, but they will factor in a certain amount of "wastage" into their purchasing and pricing strategy. Say the supermarket wants to buy a new range which a seller wants to sell for £1 per unit, and the supermarket thinks they can sell at £2 per unit, but they think that 10% of the stock will go unsold. If they buy 100,000 units, their outlay is £100,000, but they only sell 90,000 units, making back £180,000 - a profit of £80,000. 10,000 units are lost. The supermarket might at first instance: * Deem this acceptable * Lower the price slightly to, say, £1.95 in the hope that they sell more (if they sell an additional 2307 units on this pricing they make more money overall and waste fewer units) * Try to negotiate a better deal with the seller based on the size of the order. In reality it's likely that they'd look at a combination of the second and third options. Let's say that ChainMart^TM negotiates a deal to buy in at £0.95 and decide to sell at £1.99 to get a better result through [psychological pricing strategy]( URL_0 ). In an ideal world they'd sell all the items and make a profit of £104,000, but they know that this won't happen. Instead, the result of the better pricing is that they expect wastage of 9% rather than 10%. This lets them buy 100,000 units at £95,000 and sell 91,000 units for £181,090 - a profit of £86,090 against the previous £80k. Not bad for a few pennies shaved off. But supermarkets have one more trick up their sleeve: reductions. On the last day that the product is good, let's say that ChainMart^TM drops the price of the items that are going to be wasted to cost price. During the morning they sell 25% of the remaining items (2,250) at cost. This brings in an additional £2,137.50. Later in the day, they do a second round of reductions to 70% cost (£0.67) and sell another 25% of the remaining items (1,687.50), bringing in an additional £1,130.63. The final amount of stock wasted is 5,063. ChainMart^TM has made sales of £181,090 at full price, £2,137.50 at first reduction and £1,130.63 at second reduction, for total sales of £184,358.13 against costs of £95,000, or a profit of £89,358.13. Although they've "lost" £14,641.87 in potential profit from the ideal scenario, they've made £9,358.13 (11.7%) more than if they'd bought in at £1 and sold at £2, and £3,268.13 (3.8%) more than if they'd kept a static pricing strategy having renegotiated the purchase price and amended the selling price. tl;dr - Wastage gets factored into pricing and is negotiated out. Supermarkets will often use reductions to increase sales before items are wasted to recoup costs. It is more efficient to sell an item below cost just before wasting it than it is to just waste it, so this is often attempted. Edit: Formatting and minor mistake in maths.


Question: How are synthetic drugs made?

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 How are synthetic drugs made?

Let's take ibuprofen (Advil) as an example. You can start with components from crude oil to make a molecule called cumene. Then you react it with a molecule related to the acetic acid that's found in vinegar to get to the basic structure of the product. You modify that intermediate by reacting it with hydrogen, and afterwards with carbon monoxide to give the complete structure of the molecule you want. Although every drug is made by a different process, some starting from natural products, some from artificial, it's quite usual to get the product you want by this sort of multiple step chemical process. Purification at various stages gets rid of side products from the reactions and unreacted starting materials.


Question: - Why is perfect pitch required to play a theramin properly?

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 - Why is perfect pitch required to play a theramin properly?

It isn’t, it just makes it a LOT easier. A lot of practice can eventually get you thereish. However it should be noted that a theremin is a really strange instrument in how it functions and can be prone to really wacky variations in pitch that you might not see with a normal instrument. Guitars have frets, wind/brass instruments have valves, and even violins and stuff without huge overt indicators aren’t that hard to play mostly correct. I’d probably compare them to something like a trombone which had less defined methods of pitch accuracy. Making sure you’re hitting note changes/intervals correctly is obviously really important. Listening is just as important as watching/the feel of it. In a theremin, you use the position of one of your hands to control the pitch, which is obviously a great avenue for human error. Being able to make corrections on the fly is where having perfect pitch helps.


Question: Why are multi-level marketing (MLM) companies, like Herbalife, allowed to continue their business when they operate like a pyramid scheme?

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 Why are multi-level marketing (MLM) companies, like Herbalife, allowed to continue their business when they operate like a pyramid scheme?

To know why MLMs are legal, one must study what is a pyramid scheme, and what makes MLMs different from pyramid schemes, and that means going back to 1975, to a case called FTC vs. Koscot Interplanetary. Koscot Interplanetary is a fancy name for a cosmetic company ran by "Glenn Turner". You join the company by paying $2000, then you have to buy $5400 worth of cosmetics (supposedly for resale). However, you don't get paid for selling cosmetics. You get paid by recruiting others to also pay $2000+$5400 just like you did. The more you recruit, the better you got paid. FTC sued Koscot in 1976, calling it an "entrepreneurial chain", and helped the court to formulate what became known as the Koscot Test The Koscot test has four parts: * 1.The participant makes a payment of money to the company; * URL_2 exchange of (1), the participant receives the right to sell a product (or service); * URL_1 exchange of (1), the participant receives compensation for recruiting others into the program; * 4.The compensation (3) is unrelated to the sale of products (or services) (2) to the ultimate user. In other words, a pyramid scheme is basically a fraudulent business because it only pretends to sell things, but in reality is paying people for recruiting more people to pay into the business. (source: URL_0 )


Question: How do trust funds work? I hear them mentioned a lot, but I have no idea what they are or how you're supposed to get money.

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 How do trust funds work? I hear them mentioned a lot, but I have no idea what they are or how you're supposed to get money.

I have 100 million that I am pretty sure I'll die with. I also have children or beneficiaries who, for whatever reason, can't be in control of that money. Maybe I want to give it to my grandkids and I don't want their parents to appropriate it, maybe my children aren't good with money and I suspect they'll spend it carelessly, maybe the person has a mental health problem so I'd rather not give to them directly to but still want it to be used for them. A trust is essentially giving money to a third party to care for and manage with the understanding that it will only be used for what I have decided it can be used for. Maybe I want the trust to pay out a salary or an allowance every month or year, maybe I want it to be used only for a new house or school expenses. Maybe I want to leave it to the city of Philadelphia with the understanding it won't be used for 200 years. Point is, it's a way to protect a sum of money after the original owner is no longer in direct control of it. The colloquialism "trust fund kid" implies someone is being fiscally supported by a trust to supplement or supplant their income, essentially giving them more freedom in their life to not work or make more income. It would differ from inheriting the money outright because the beneficiary couldn't do whatever they want with it, say reinvesting the whole sum in another business.


Question: How do animated films made entirely with CGI have production costs in the $150 - $200 million range?

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 How do animated films made entirely with CGI have production costs in the $150 - $200 million range?

If you want a video of a person or a plant you just find a person or a plant and take a video. If you want an animated, computer-generated rendered video of a person or a plant you need to *build a person or plant from scratch*. That means you make its shape, you decide how it moves, you decide what its surface materials are and how light interacts with it, you decide how it interacts with other object, the sounds it makes, etc. All those things take the time and effort of skilled professionals with specialized equipment. That means money. Think about the difference between taking a photo and painting a portrait. Just because you don't need a model for the portrait to be painted you wouldn't assume the painting is much less expensive, right?


Question: What prevents a store or organization from using my card information?

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 What prevents a store or organization from using my card information?

If you mean using your card to buy stuff then nothing. The reason they do not do it is that is illegal and would ruin their business when customers learned they were stealing customers' card information. Also, the credit card companies would revoke their ability to use charge cards to accept as payment to sell their items/services. They would go out of business very quickly and face criminal and civil lawsuits. In short, it is in no way worth it for them to try under any circumstance. You card has a credit limit so the few thousand dollars they might get is massively outweighed by the consequences. That said there are shady and outright criminal organizations who will setup short-lived websites to lure you into giving them your credit card information so they can rip you off. It is up to you to be careful and only deal with reputable merchants that you know and trust. On the upside one of the things you get from using a credit card is protection from ripoffs like this (to some extent...details may vary from card-to-card and by law). In short, if someone uses your credit card illegally you are (usually) not on the hook to pay that bill. Just keep an eye on your account and report illicit activity immediately.


Question: How do they program computers to understand programming?

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 How do they program computers to understand programming?

The chipset (CPU, etc.) has a set of very simple instructions, like "copy the value from this spot in memory to that spot" and "add 5 to this". They're very low-level, simple instructions, but when you combine them, you can build compilers/translators so that higher level languages can translate down into that low level language. So you can say "x = 5 + y" instead of "move the value at memory location y into register Q, then add 5, then move the result which is in register R into the memory location pointed to by x". Same thing, but you don't have to specify every step in detail. Layers upon layers of that translation and simplification make modern software development possible. Ultimately, it all gets translated to the most basic of instructions - "copy whatever's here to there, then jump to this other place". Those few basic instructions (copy, jump, add, etc.) are baked into the hardware. All software, no matter how complex, ultimately has to express itself in terms of those few simple operations. It can do so because those few hardware supported instructions are infinitely combinable into turing-complete software - software that can do anything that the hardware is capable of. So modern software is built upon layers upon layers of translation, but at the end, after all that translation, it's just a bunch of really simple operations like go here, do this, then go here. And those few simple operations are built into the hardware.


Question: What is the relationship between atoms and elements?

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 What is the relationship between atoms and elements?

An element is a type of atom. All atoms belong to one and only one element. Iron, for example, is an element. All iron atoms belong to thev iron element. The number of protons and neutrons vary between atoms. The number of protons determine which element it is. If an atom has only one proton, it is a hydrogen atom. If it has two, it is helium, and so on. The number of neutrons determine which isotope it is. The number of electrons determine the charge of the atom. If it has the same number of electrons as protons, it is neutral with no charge. If it has fewer electrons, it is an ion with a positive charge.


Question: How can acid eat through metal, but not a glass/plastic cup?

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 How can acid eat through metal, but not a glass/plastic cup?

I'm not sure about the exact solution they are using, but I'm going to use aqua regia as an example. Solid metals are composed of metallic atoms arranged in a metallic lattice, with metallic bonds connecting them NOT chemical bonds. These are much weaker and can be sheared with less energy. Gold, as we know, is very unreactive to most things (one reason why it's used in coins and jewelry). However, aqua regia (3:1 mix of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid) is a special mixture that produces extremely reactive atomic oxygen. This mixture reacts with the gold and forms chloroauric acid that is soluble in water. On the other hand, glass is a very stable material and tightly bonded, which prevents most chemicals from breaking the bonds inside it and causing cracking. One exception is hydrofluoric acid, which is used to etch glass and must be stored in even more unreactive polymeric containers, like polyethenes and such.