Question: How do astronomers measure the distance a star is away from the Earth?

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 How do astronomers measure the distance a star is away from the Earth?

Speed is distance over time, and since the speed of light has been measured to a fairly high degree they can take the numbers from (for example) two measurements from a month or so apart and figure out the difference between the two angles relative to Earth. Unless I'm wrong that's [parallax.]( URL_0 )


Question: What is the easiest way to calculate percentages?

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 What is the easiest way to calculate percentages?

On a calculator? Turn 37% into 0.37. 250 x 0.37 = 92.5 In your head? You can get 10% by dropping one decimal place, and 1% by dropping two decimal places. 10% of 250 is 25, so 40% of 250 is 100. To get 37% you have to subtract 3% from 40% - 100 - 2.5 - 2.5 - 2.5 = 92.5


Question: Sending messages on mobile devices - How does it actually work?

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 Sending messages on mobile devices - How does it actually work?

Radio waves! Inside your phone is a little antenna which can be energized with electricity, on and off, at a super high frequency - millions of times per second.When this happens, the antenna sends out invisible waves which can be detected by other antennas. When you send a text message, a picture, or talk in a voice call, basically the same thing is happening inside the phone: your picture, voice or text is converted into a pattern of radio waves, and your phone beams that pattern out through its antenna. Radio waves can travel through the air, through walls, even through outer space! They have trouble traveling through certain materials, and they get weaker the farther you are away from the source, though, so the cell phone company has to set up towers all over town to make sure you're never too far away from one of their antennas. So at the other end, your friend also has a cellphone with an antenna, which is also talking to the cellphone company's tower. The cell phone company receives the message at their tower from your phone, and figures out which phone it needs to be delivered to, and then sends it back out the same or a different tower, to be picked up by their phone.


Question: Before technology and tornado warnings were invented, what would Native American tribes living in tornado alley do when a tornado was formed around their area?

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 Before technology and tornado warnings were invented, what would Native American tribes living in tornado alley do when a tornado was formed around their area?

Tornados are really small and the odds of getting hit just aren't that high. I'm from Iowa and we have hundreds of little farm towns spread out across the state, we also get a lot of tornados, but a town getting hit is still pretty rare, maybe only twice a decade. The rest of the time it just fucks up some field. Secondly, most tornados are only a few hundred feet wide and only travel overland at about 10-20 mph, so if you see it from far enough off you can run out of it's path. That's a much better choice than getting in a car. Cars are deathtraps, since you're basically stuck on the roads, which maynot go in any direction you want to go, they take time to get in and start and make it harder to find a safe spot if you do need to take shelter.


Question: why is it unhealthy to stare at phones for long periods of time (like on social media) but healthy to read books?

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 why is it unhealthy to stare at phones for long periods of time (like on social media) but healthy to read books?

Instant gratification is one concept related to this question. When reading a book, your brain is engaged in an activity that requires critical thinking and patience. To find out the ending to the book you have to finish it. The brain is ultimately rewarded with the satisfaction of completing the book and interpreting its meaning. This is delayed gratification. Social media is an activity that requires no critical thinking. It rewards your brain every 5 seconds by giving you “stimulating” information rapidly. This is instant gratification. One fear is that we are losing our ability to simply exist in our own skin and we use the instant gratification of phones to distract our minds. Also, it’s possible to have an actual addiction to social media.


Question: Why do women in the UK receive their pensions at an earlier age than men?

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 Why do women in the UK receive their pensions at an earlier age than men?

Historically, it came about because married women were not expected to work. If a man was older than his wife, he would retire at 65 and collect his pension but his wife would not yet be eligible. The couple would be forced to survive on just the man's pension until his wife reached 65 and could also receive a pension. Reducing the age for women to 60 was intended to (mostly) eliminate this problem.


Question: Why are lentils so cheap?

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 Why are lentils so cheap?

If you look at the bulk cost of [lentils on ycharts]( URL_1 ) the in 2020 was $14.60 to $22,20 for Hundredweight = 100 pounds At the same time [wheat on ycharts]( URL_0 ) in 2020 you get $4.54 to $5.43 for 1 Bushel that is 60 pounds for wheat so $7.57- $9.05 for 100 pounds. So the cost of lentils is between 1.9x and 2.6x the cost of wheat. Soybeans is around 1.1x lentils. Plants you can grow on fields on large scale and harvest with machines are very cheap. Plant protein is the cheapest form of protein, it is not surprising because crops like that are grown to be feed to cattle and other animals to produce food for use. It is a log more efficient for humans to eat the plants directly. The "problem" is that most think that the meat is tastier and prefer it. There is no secret behind them and other similar food. You might not be used to them because they are not popular where you live but they are a staple food on the Indian subcontinent.


Question: Betting on a 9 horse race, why does a quinella box of 4 horses pay out less than a quinella box of 5 horses?

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 Betting on a 9 horse race, why does a quinella box of 4 horses pay out less than a quinella box of 5 horses?

You're trying to find pairs of horses. For a four-horse box there are 6 combinations (4 & times;3/2). For a five-horse box there are 10 combinations (5 & times;4/2). For a nine-horse race there are 36 combinations (9 & times;8/2) but that doesn't matter here, because it's the same number no matter how big your quinella box. So, on average, a 4-horse box will pay out 6/10 times as much as a 5-horse box, as long as there are at least 5 runners in the race.


Question: how do devices that use batteries, like phones, know the percentage of the charge remaining?

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 how do devices that use batteries, like phones, know the percentage of the charge remaining?

Hi :-) TL;DR: A full battery has more volts than an empty one. So for example, 4.2v=100%, 3v=0%. But it's not linear. & nbsp; Voltage of a battery drops when discharged over time. Some phone apps (or programs for your laptop) will even let you see the voltage. You probably have seen the 1.5 volt label on regular AA/Mignon alkaline batteries. It's actually a little higher initially. Then it will gradually go to 1.4...1.2v. Once it reaches 1 volt or less (drop off happens more suddenly), many devices stop working. Battery testers or battery circuits measure this voltage (or any $3 multimeter can to some extend if you add a load). Same with lithium batteries. Some may be labled 3.6V, but when full, they're over 4v. Under 3v they would get damaged, so devices (or a circuit on the battery pack) will cut off. This is the reason why old phone or laptop batteries will sometimes cause the device to just shut off at, say, 20%, as the old battery's voltage will drop unexpectedly fast compared to a new one (EDIT2: And when the load is high). So the percentage is just a "guesstimate" using the common discharge properties of a battery. Some smart programs will recognize old battery behavior though and compensate. EDIT: [Example discharge curve of an alkaline battery]( URL_0 )


Question: Why does intermittent fasting lead to "longer living" and healthier aging?

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 Why does intermittent fasting lead to "longer living" and healthier aging?

It is my understanding that it causes the body to go into more of a survival mode, rid itself of dead cells that were kind of hanging around not doing any good, and jump start creation of new stem cells. But the mechanism of action for this is still being studied and is not fully understood at this time.


Question: How does reflection of light on mirrors act on the atomic level?

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 How does reflection of light on mirrors act on the atomic level?

Physics rather than chem, and it's subatomic/wave rather than atomic. Light is a wave (or a particle, or both, but we'll stick to wave) of electromagnetic radiation which travels through a variety of media (air, vacuum, water etc.). Visible light is made up of several different wavelengths which we see as colours. The important thing here is that, as a wave, it is carrying energy. When light hits an object, it can be pass through, be absorbed, reflect or scatter, or any combination of these. When the light wave hits the mirror, the energy from the lightwave is absorbed by the atoms. This pushes electrons into higher energy states. This isn't a stable condition, and so the electrons release the energy. In a perfectly reflective surface, all of the absorbed energy is spat back out, perfectly mirroring the incoming energy. Across the entire surface of the mirror, this leads to the light being absorbed and then spat back out in a way that produces a "good" reflection.


Question: What's with the popcorn kernels that don't pop?

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 What's with the popcorn kernels that don't pop?

Popcorn pops because of steam pressure. The inside of the kernel contains starch and water, which are contained in a hard shell. When you heat it, the starch liquifies and the water turns to steam. When the steam pressure gets high enough, the shell explodes, the starch instantly solidifies, and the corn is popped. If the shell is broken, steam won’t build up. Bad kernel If it is too dried out, not enough pressure will build up. Bad kernal


Question: In a network breach (like the one in the news lately), how does the network security team know there's been a breach?

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 In a network breach (like the one in the news lately), how does the network security team know there's been a breach?

Suspicious network traffic = The web server suddenly passing outgoing traffic to China or Russia. Or lots of odd entries in the server logs. Or a marked increase in traffic in general. Just things out of the ordinary. Why was it suddenly discovered? The odd network traffic. If you're a black hatter and suddenly you've discovered a hole in the network, you want to be quiet and just sniff around to see what you can find without triggering things. Then if you find a motherlode of chewy data, you want to get as much of it out as you can before you're found out, so you crank the outbound traffic to 11 to get all the data out before someone comes along and shuts you down. Or as happens sometimes, you pass on the "Hey, I just found this hole in the super secret network" on to your buddies and some jackass comes along and barges in, yelling and screaming at the top of his lungs.


Question: Why does water feel colder when it’s splashed than when you’re just sitting in it ?

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 Why does water feel colder when it’s splashed than when you’re just sitting in it ?

When you're sitting in water, you gradually warm a thin layer of water against your skin that will act as a buffer against your body and the colder water, slowing down heat loss. When you're splashed, your skin goes from normal to covered in a very effective heat conductor that pulls heat out of your skin in a localized way, which is felt much more strongly.


Question: How do companies like Valve which have a "flat" organizational structure work, seemingly without bosses or direction?

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 How do companies like Valve which have a "flat" organizational structure work, seemingly without bosses or direction?

These kinds of flat structures don't mean that there aren't leaders. Theoretically everyone is there to do something impactful to the industry, and the more senior folks have good business sense and can figure out what's most important to work on. Then, since you want to have a big impact, you join on with a cool, impactful project.


Question: Why do we have treatments like Frontline for dogs and cats, protecting them from ticks for a full month, but humans need to apply bug spray for each possible exposure?

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 Why do we have treatments like Frontline for dogs and cats, protecting them from ticks for a full month, but humans need to apply bug spray for each possible exposure?

Acceptable risk. It is acceptable to put a mild poison in a pet's body, because the poison is protecting them from what could presumably be a worse sickness. Pet's are also shorter lived, so the poison has less chance to cause harm. And most humans have the sense to not go in places where ticks are, or at least take precautions, like bug spray. Pets do not. But most humans would not want to take something every month that would most likely give them cancer in 20 years.


Question: What’s the physics behind soccer ball control first touch?

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 What’s the physics behind soccer ball control first touch?

Are you talking about cushioning the ball? If you are then it's just using your foot to slow the ball, in effect stripping the balls momentum in a small distance. Think about how you catch a ball. If you held your hand out flat and rigid, the ball would bounce off. You instead track the flight, and then use your hand and arm to move in the same direction as the ball is travelling, but slowing it as you do. The same is true when cushioning a football, just with your foot.


Question: How is height genetically transmitted? Is there a gene that says how tall you can grow? How does a gene "encode" what's your theoretical max height?

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 How is height genetically transmitted? Is there a gene that says how tall you can grow? How does a gene "encode" what's your theoretical max height?

About 80% of height comes from genes, and the rest from environmental factors such as diet. There are something like 700 different distinct genes that are known to effect height overall (usually by about a millimeter each), and that's only likely to be a quarter of all the genes that affect height in total. It's likely that many are being missed because they just don't have a noticible effect. And even then mostly scientists don't know biologically why most of them affect height, just that they do. One might make your bones grow slightly faster, one might give you a slightly longer puberty, one might make you process food more efficiently, etc.


Question: Why is it recommended to drink lots of fluids when we’re sick?

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 Why is it recommended to drink lots of fluids when we’re sick?

Our bodily systems go into overdrive when fighting an infection, which generates a lot of heat that we dissipate by sweating off to the environment, especially when we develop a fever. All that water is critically needed by our cells so we need to consume more water than normal, or we become dehydrated and less able to fight disease.


Question: what is an eigenfunction and how does one work?

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 what is an eigenfunction and how does one work?

A totally not mathy explanation for a five year old to (hopefully) understand. Imagine a magic box where you throw in different shapes. You can throw in anything, a cube, a ball, a pyramid shaped thing, anything that fits in the box. When you close and shake the box and open it back up, you will see another object inside. Maybe a blue pyramid gave you a green cylinder. But if the ball is the "eigenfunction" of the box, then throwing in a ball will give you out the same ball but maybe a bit larger or smaller and another shade of the same color.


Question: How does cauterization of a wound/blood vessel work?

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 How does cauterization of a wound/blood vessel work?

Cauterization heats up and blisters the tissue and causes blood coagulation to help sealing of the blood vessles. Chemical cauterization does this as well. So yes, it helps by actually doing controlled damage to tissues and vessels and makes them more susceptable to infection. However, when done in an emergency situation, it is better to save the patient from immediate bleed out and deal with infections later.


Question: What do the Catalan Numbers represent, and why are they so important?

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 What do the Catalan Numbers represent, and why are they so important?

Given an event which can only occur if another event has occurred to allow it the catalan numbers show the number of different ways you can order those events... So... you have tasks that you can start or stop... you can only stop a task if it has been started... there are multiple tasks.. you can start a task, stop a task, start a task, stop a task... you can start a task, start a task, stop a task, stop a task... & #x200B; you can't stop a task, start a task, start a task, stop a task. & #x200B; And you can't start a task, stop a task, stop a task, start a task... & #x200B; if you have one task, there is c(1) = 1 orderings that make sense (open/close) with two tasks there are c(2) = 2 orderings that make sense (open/close/open/close), (open/open/close/close) So, if you have three tasks... there are C(3)=5 orderings that make sense starting and stopping tasks.


Question: What is the procedure for when a demolition fails?

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 What is the procedure for when a demolition fails?

Controlled implosions aren't just about bringing a building down...its about bringing it down so the debris goes where you want it to. The actual amount of explosive force needed to bring a structure down is actually low (because of gravity) So if there is a screw up in the implosion process, the building is still coming down...just in a really unsafe way.


Question: What’s the difference between paranoia and reasonable suspicion?

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 What’s the difference between paranoia and reasonable suspicion?

Reasonable suspicion is based on, well... reason. It's something that your average person would understand as being suspicious. Paranoia is irrational and based on somebody's twisted perception of reality. Let's say you're walking around at night & some dude has been following you for the last 5-6 blocks. A reasonable person might think something was up and they might be getting stalked by a mugger. A paranoid person will see a bunch of white cars go by & be convinced that the cars are being driven by agents of some shadowy deep-state government agency that wants to track them for some unspecified reason.


Question: How if the air quality index is unsafe am I safer inside? Isn't it the same air?

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 How if the air quality index is unsafe am I safer inside? Isn't it the same air?

Nope, Air quality varies pretty drastically from inside to outside. Indoor air is predominantly filtered, usually through a ventilation system. If you are in a gazebo then sure, but if you have windows, a vent somewhere, or anything like that then the air is almost certainty better indoors away from cars and other sources. PM2.5 and O3 are pretty homogenous, but NOx is the third component of the index and that can change very drastically over distance. This is sorta like asking if you should be inside when its raining, sure your roof can have leaks but its still way better than outside. I work in an air quality lab if you have any more questions about air quality or AQHI (the index)


Question: What's the difference between crimes where someone has to press charges and crimes where you're simply arrested no matter what?

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 What's the difference between crimes where someone has to press charges and crimes where you're simply arrested no matter what?

Criminal offenses (crimes) are prosecuted by the state, and do not require anybody to press charges. However, in certain cases, it is impossible to convict without the victim cooperating (testifying). In those cases, if they refuse to testify (aka do not want to press charges), the charges are generally dropped. On the other hand, there are also civil offenses. These can be brought by anybody. In many cases, both criminal and civil offenses occur. For example, if somebody breaks into your house and steals stuff, they committed criminal offenses of breaking and entering, as well as others, which the state should prosecute them for, but you can also sue them for damage to/loss of property.


Question: How does a bot on this website scan all comments continuously for keywords to find relevant comments to reply to?

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 How does a bot on this website scan all comments continuously for keywords to find relevant comments to reply to?

Using reddit's API. See this link: URL_1 It contains the latest comments (which you can see when you go to URL_0 ) in a format that is compact and easily parsable by a computer program. Each entry in this page contains the actual content of the comment and various metadata, including when the comment was posted, who posted it, the original link to the comment, the comment and post's unique identifiers, and such. The bot can use the IDs to post a reply to the comment (again using the reddit API).


Question: Why does the sound of filling up a water bottle change the higher up it gets?

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 Why does the sound of filling up a water bottle change the higher up it gets?

Because as the bottle fills the space the sound is bouncing around changes. When you're filling up an empty bottle the sound is coming from relatively far away, as opposed to the top where it's moving a small distance and thus has a different frequency (sound). It's similar to putting your finger on a closer to further hold on a wind instrument, but with water.


Question: Is there a limit to how high a sunscreen's SPF can be, or could you theoretically create a product that has an SPF of 1000 or more? What is the limiting factor?

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 Is there a limit to how high a sunscreen's SPF can be, or could you theoretically create a product that has an SPF of 1000 or more? What is the limiting factor?

SPF stands for Sun Protection Factor. A sunscreen or other source of protection multiplies your natural sun protection by its SPF rating, by only allowing a fraction of the UV rays to get through to your skin. So if you are not naturally very sun-safe, like me, and in the middle of the day you can go outside for say 10 minutes without getting burned, SPF 30 allows only 1/30th of the UV rays through to your skin, and theoretically extends that time by a factor of 30 to about 300 minutes (5 hours — a luxury!). The + means that the sunscreen may have a higher factor, but the listed number is the highest that regulating bodies have seen evidence for. That’s why the maximum (in Australia at least) used to be 15+, then increased to 30+ and now 50+ — both the sunscreen and the testing have improved. The regulations vary in different countries, though, and there have been cases in which sunscreens have been found to be less effective than the SPF rating with which they are labelled. It’s not just sunscreen that has an SPF rating; anything that blocks some or most UV rays can be rated this way. T-shirts, parasols and hats can also have SPF ratings, though obviously they only apply to the bits of your body they are shielding. So you could theoretically have an SPF of any number, but the limiting factor when it comes to sunscreen specifically is mostly what regulating bodies have determined can accurately be tested for, and that they are happy to label. Remember too that it’s not just about the UV-deflecting properties, but how long it’s likely to stay on in water or over sweat, how well it covers you, and whether it comes with adequate directions for you to apply it consistently and appropriately. (Adapted from an old Medium thing I wrote in 2016.)


Question: How does a war last for years?

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 How does a war last for years?

In modern times you often aren’t fighting a country. You’re fighting a group of people. There’s no reason for them to surrender as long as new people are still joining their movement or as long as you still have troops. If your war is against America, for instance, you’ll basically have to wait out the fall of western civilization to win. If your war is against people who disagree with foreign intervention, you’ll have to either kill every single person who disagrees or wait for another culture to take hold. Neither of these things will happen anytime soon so here we are.


Question: Animators of Reddit, when producing an animated film, do the voice actors read all their lines first and the animation is made to match the actors' lines, or is the film animated first with the voices second to match the animation?

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 Animators of Reddit, when producing an animated film, do the voice actors read all their lines first and the animation is made to match the actors' lines, or is the film animated first with the voices second to match the animation?

The voice actors read all their lines first. Many scripts for animated films are recorded and then never made into full movies. Other times, they'll record the script with one actor and then replace a character's voice with another voice actor before starting the animation of the movie. The actors get paid a lot of money, but that cost is still nowhere near the cost of doing all the animation. The animation is also very time consuming, while the voice acting can completed very quickly.


Question: what is the benefit of credit cards?

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 what is the benefit of credit cards?

When you use a credit card you are using the bank's money and not your own so you have more consumer rights on the borrowed money like being covered by section 75 of the consumer credit act in the UK. So if you get defrauded or get a bad deal it's extra protection than losing your own money. Also you can get cards that are interest free or if you clear your balance in full each month you can have up to 56 days (I think possible a few days less) to pay the money without accruing interest on purchases. Also the using of a credit card and paying it off on time etc can build your credit score showing you can be trusted to get loans or mortgages down the line. It's not all roses though and on the flip side it's a really easy way to borrow money and if you don't keep on top of it you can end up spending lots of the bank's money and end up in a spiral of paying some money off then using it again and staying it debt. It all comes down to your personality I guess. They have benefits for sure. If you get one you can ask for a low limit or reduce the limit to an amount that you can comfortably pay off but still give yourself a balance that can do your online shopping. Sorry for the essay.


Question: What does a company like Pepsi have to gain by spending millions of dollars to "sponsor" the Superbowl halftime show?

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 What does a company like Pepsi have to gain by spending millions of dollars to "sponsor" the Superbowl halftime show?

In addition to making it even more visible, it's the profile. To sponsor something that big, there's a huge level of cost and prestige that comes with it. It's a win for the company to partner in this way, but it also creates the image that they're doing well enough to do these things. It also creates a huge marketing advantage. I know a grocery store in my area has a contract that Pepsi uses all the promotional space in the store during Superbowl and coke is limited to regular shelf space. The store tries to capitalize on the event, and Pepsi, as a sponsor, is linked to the event, so the store pushes it and vice versa. "Get your official superbowl beverage" for the party is a nice sales point.


Question: Are Index's just lists/sub sections of the market or are they more than that? It confuses me when people say it's to measure the market.. if that's so can someone explain it to me? Thanks

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 Are Index's just lists/sub sections of the market or are they more than that? It confuses me when people say it's to measure the market.. if that's so can someone explain it to me? Thanks

Indexes in a way are yes just lists of companies on the market combined together, really well known ones include the Dow or S & P. This is why you hear about companies being added/removed from these indexes. These typically have a wide variety of companies on them, which is why they are used to represent the market generally.


Question: What is a socialist economy and what is the difference between a socialist economy and a capital economy ?

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 What is a socialist economy and what is the difference between a socialist economy and a capital economy ?

In a capitalist economy the means of production (The places and tools that make things. Factories, mills, shops, etc) are owned by "Capitalists" who are private individuals. Laborers sell their labor to capitalists in exchange for a wage. In a socialist economy the means of production are owned by the people, either as small groups (worker-owned shops) or as the state (government owned business). Laborers still work for a wage, but also maintain an ownership share in the business. Socialist economies can also be planned economies, which means that a central organization plans economic output.


Question: What is a “super computer” and what can it do?

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</answer>
 What is a “super computer” and what can it do?

Thus far no ELI5.... Humans did math with pen and paper or whatever until calculators were created. Which does basic math for us quickly. A computer is basically a calculator created to do MORE math faster. A regular calculator can do 1 "math" at a time. A 5ghz CPU in a desktop computer can do ~5 billion of "Maths" per second. So a super computer is basically a bunch of regular computers working together. So if a super computer has the equivalent 1,000 of Desktop computers working together it 1,000*5billion = 5 trillion "Maths" per second. Being able to do the same math as 5 trillion calculators in 1 second allow us to analyze incredibly large amounts of data faster. Data analysis is the core of prediction of things. Such as weather. TLDR: A bunch of computers connected to each other can do Math faster than 1 computer alone.


Question: Can frequencies too low or high for us to perceive damage our hearing?

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 Can frequencies too low or high for us to perceive damage our hearing?

I saw a TV programme where they did a test of the "brown note" and subjected someone to a 4 Hz frequency at high amplitude. Basically massive speakers with a lot of energy driving them. The sound engineer in charge was insistent that everyone wear these big hefty ear muffs to protect their ears because, even though the sound is in audible, it would still cause damage at that amplitude. In short, a 4 Hz "sound" is moving pressure waves, and high amplitude means a greater difference in pressure between the peaks and troughs of the wave. Your ears are sensitive to changes in pressure, so these "loud" inaudible frequencies would still cause inner ear pain and damage.


Question: Why does spilt oil look multicoloured?

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 Why does spilt oil look multicoloured?

It's pretty complicated, if your really curious I suggest you pick up a copy of Richard Feynmans QED. It busts it down for the layman without a background in calculus. For example instead of integrating complex numbers he explains it as spinning arrows. Its actually a really fascinating book, highly recommended. To answer your question though the top surface and the bottom surface of the oil slick both reflect some light, if the thickness of the oil is just right the light cancels out. Different colors require different thickness of oil, the rainbow is created due to varying thicknesses. The mechanics of it all is in the book I mentioned.


Question: A lot of languages have their own numeral system, how did the arabic one become the most common?

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 A lot of languages have their own numeral system, how did the arabic one become the most common?

Europeans widely used the Roman numeral system for many centuries, but if you've ever had to do work with it you'll quickly see that it's functionally retarded. When the Europeans and Middle Easterners started getting into more prolonged contact during incursions into Spain and the resulting crusades, word of their much more elegant system made its way back into Europe. When Europeans later sent naval traders all over the world, they brought this math with them.


Question: How and when did the ancients figure out that the planets and stars are large objects and not dots in the sky?

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 How and when did the ancients figure out that the planets and stars are large objects and not dots in the sky?

The Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Greeks, and other ancient cultures mapped the night sky in detail and discovered that Mars, Jupiter, and Venus had unique paths through the sky compared to the Stars. They new they were something special and called them planets but likely didn't understand the nature of their relationship to Earth. They believed that the Sun, the Moon, and these planets were all related and in orbited around the Earth. Galileo Galilei is generally thought to be the first person to make detailed observations of the planets with a telescope. Edwin Hubble was the first to discover that many observed nebula were actually galaxies.


Question: How do odor eliminating sprays work?

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 How do odor eliminating sprays work?

This is actually a really interesting topic! First, you have to know what smelling is. Basically, things that "smell give off little parts of themselves that float around in the air. If one of the particles goes up your nose, it connects with olfactory (smell) receptors in your nose which send a message that your brain interprets as a smell. Now, the difference between odor masking vs odor eliminating. Odor masking is basically just putting another, stronger smell over the bad smell to try to block it out. But odor eliminating is way cooler. Scientists found a group of molecules called cyclodextrins which look like molecular donuts: they form a ring with a hole in the middle. The ring is constructed in such a way that odor-causing molecules get trapped in the middle of the donut and can't get out. When it gets trapped, it can no longer interact with the receptors in your nose and your can no longer smell the offending stench. This is what Febreze uses to eliminate smells. The real trick then is to find good-smelling molecules to add to their product that won't get trapped by the cyclodextrins! Here's some more information that isn't exactly ELI5 but illustrates how cyclodextrins work. URL_0


Question: Why do B’s and E’s in music not have sharps?

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 Why do B’s and E’s in music not have sharps?

This is a part writing thing. To write triads, you need chords that are all thirds apart. If you write a triad in C, you can use C, E, and G to make a major triad. C and E are a major third apart, and E and G are a minor third apart. But not all keys work like this. If I’m writing a song in F# Major (or much more likely, improvising over that chord), my V chord starts on C#. However, if you make a major chord, you’ll notice that a major third up from C# is F. Here’s where this starts making sense. Triads have to be two letters apart. C D E F is 4 letters apart, which means that in order for this chord to work, F must be labelled E#, or else the V chord in F# won’t make sense (C# E# G# vs. C# F G#). You’ll also notice that Fb and Cb are just E and B, respectively. These are enharmonic equivalents that are substituted into keys that need them for chords to make sense as written. These keys are F# and C# (E# and B#) and Gb and Cb (Cb and Fb). The reason why you don’t see them is exactly like you would think; they’re hard to sight read! Most music is not written in these keys because accidentals are harder, especially these four. Usually if you need these keys, it’s because you play a transposing instrument, or are improvising over that chord. B.B. flat instruments, for example, would be playing F# every time they play tunes in E Major. Another way to think about it is this: The key of C# is exactly like the key of C, but with all 7 notes sharped. We call C a ‘B sharp’ only because major scales can’t have 2 of the same letter in it. EG: C# D# F F# G# A# C C# Even though if you play all these notes it will sound correct, you’ll notice that we have doubled letters, which destroys how these chords are put together on the theory side of the house. So we use B# and E#. Source: Halfway done with a Bachelors of Music


Question: How can we still breathe through our nose with water in our mouth and the head tilted backwards?

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 How can we still breathe through our nose with water in our mouth and the head tilted backwards?

The mouth and nose both lead to the same airway. If your mouth is closed or holding something in it, that makes no difference as you haven't SWALLOWED the water or started the process of swallowing it. Plus you can still breathe through your nose. When you swallow liquid or food, your main airway closes off to prevent choking. Head tilted backwards makes no difference, gravity plays a part in swallowing as do your muscles. You make it harder to swallow with your head tilted back but it is possible.


Question: Mathematics and physics are linked together but is that possible to prove something mathematical with physical experiments? Conversely, can we prove by math something that we cannot experience?

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 Mathematics and physics are linked together but is that possible to prove something mathematical with physical experiments? Conversely, can we prove by math something that we cannot experience?

In terms of ELI5, the answer is no to both questions. Science (physics) and Mathematics have, at their basis, a very fundamental difference in what it considers "knowledge". Science, in general, operates by observation (empirical) and inductive reasoning. Science "proof" is evidence and credence based. In fact most scientist would probably avoid words like proof and truth in their scientific explanations. So it is usual to hear terms like "most likely explanation" or "to the best available evidence" or "highly correlated to". This is how science works - things are good enough until something better is found. Mathematics works by deduction and logic. Proofs in math are irrefutable and typically abstract given a set of axioms. This is a very different way of thinking of knowledge. Mathematicians are much more comfortable using terms like proof and truth relative to their work. In fact most of math is non tangible, it is abstracted to "perfect shapes", "perfectly known measures", "perfectly random distributions" etc. There are no such things in the physically observable universe.


Question: If a rocket is re-entering Earth and is about to land, how can we hear the sonic booms even though the rockets were slowing down?

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 If a rocket is re-entering Earth and is about to land, how can we hear the sonic booms even though the rockets were slowing down?

Took me a little while after reading your question to work out what is unique about a booster landing versus a fighter jet or Concorde. When a fighter jet is flying overhead at a constant speed much faster than the speed of sound, you hear a sonic boom. The sonic boom travels out as a cone. When that cone of boom hits you is when you hear the sonic boom. Closer to speed of sound the flatter cone. What’s the difference with a reentering booster? The cone is pointing vertically... ie. you are coming back in from space... there isn’t a point where the cone intersects the ground (well, the cone is travelling in the direction of the booster so does wash over you once the booster has already landed) Also the boosters speed isn’t constant so doesn’t build up into a single cone of boom. So with the landing booster, you will probably only get the single crack of it slowing past the sound barrier followed by the roar of many imperfectly formed sonic boom cones hitting you. (Actually you also get several cracks because about 3 or 4 different points on the booster are creating sonic booms)


Question: What is a virus's purpose? How is our purpose any different?

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 What is a virus's purpose? How is our purpose any different?

A virus does not have a purpose. Purposes are assigned by minds and a virus has no mind. A virus's *function* is to create more viruses. Similarly humans in a biological sense have no purpose. Our *function* is like that of any other biological creature in that we make more humans. However we also display the emergent property of having a mind and that mind can create goals and exert actions in order to obtain those goals, giving those actions the conceptual quality of "purpose". Those purposes are dependent upon our minds and are a subjectively assigned conceptual quality.


Question: how big or strong does a battery need to be before it can harm an average person if dropped in a tub of water with them? Could a cellphone or ipad hurt them if not plugged in?

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 how big or strong does a battery need to be before it can harm an average person if dropped in a tub of water with them? Could a cellphone or ipad hurt them if not plugged in?

The average phone battery is around 4 volts. You won't actually feel anything up to 40ish volts. That means you'll have to drop four or more car batteries in a bathtub with you to even begin to feel a shock. To put that into perspective. It's much easier to kill a person with a car battery by bashing their head in with the damn thing, then it is to kill them by connecting it to a person's body.


Question: Why can’t a spaceship in orbit slow down beneath e.g the speed of sound, to fly down to earth like a normal plane?

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 Why can’t a spaceship in orbit slow down beneath e.g the speed of sound, to fly down to earth like a normal plane?

Newton's First Law of Motion: Every object in a state of uniform motion will remain in that state of motion unless an external force acts on it. Meaning: An object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon. A ship orbiting the Earth is traveling at orbital velocity, which varies depending on how high that orbit is. For example. the orbital velocity of the International Space Station is 4.76 miles/second. To slow down to even the speed of a plane in flight - ~600 miles/hour (or 0.16 miles/second to keep our units consistent) - means decreasing speed by 30x, which would require expending a _massive_ amount of energy simply slowing down, and that means _fuel_. Thanks to the [tyranny of rocketry]( URL_0 ), fuel needs are not linear - they are exponential (since each bit of fuel you carry requires more fuel to lift that fuel, which requires fuel to lift that fuel, etc.). It is far, far more economical to simply let the atmosphere to the "braking" for the ship, rather than having the ship carry enough fuel to slow down itself.


Question: . Why can’t robots be programmed to click a box that says “I am not a robot”?

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 . Why can’t robots be programmed to click a box that says “I am not a robot”?

The button checks the micro movements of your mouse to see if it's predictable like a robot or random like a human. That being said, robots can defeat all types of captchas with reasonable accuracy, but defeating the ones that make you click on images of stop signs takes more expertise and is a higher barrier of entry for would be spammers.