Question: Why is there only a single common ancestor for life? if it happened once couldn't it happen again?

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 Why is there only a single common ancestor for life? if it happened once couldn't it happen again?

Your question is pretty vague, but I am going to assume that you're asking if we have any proof that all current life branched off from a single starting organism, rather than multiple organisms over time. The most conclusive evidence of this is the existence of the [genetic code]( URL_0 ). In short, the genetic code is the rules for translating DNA codons into amino acids. A codon is a group of 3 DNA bases. For DNA to have an effect on the organisms it is within, molecules within the cell "read" the DNA, and create long chains of amino acids based on what they read. These amino acid chains go out into the cell and do "stuff". Back to your question, we believe that all currently living organisms branched off from a single starting point because all currently living organisms use the same genetic code. They all translate DNA codons to amino acids with the same rules. For example, the codon AUG will always be translated by the cell into Methionine, whether it's in a human, a penguin, an orange tree, or yeast. It has been found that some exotic species translate 1 or 2 codons into different amino acids (a result of mutations), but the others remain the same as all other life on earth.


Question: How does a car radio know the name of the station, and the song playing ?

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 How does a car radio know the name of the station, and the song playing ?

There is a standard for this called the Radio Data System. It is a low bandwidth data signal that is sent on the audio but at three times the frequency of human hearing. So people can not hear it but a chip in the radio will be able to decode it. There is not much bandwidth but it is enough to transmit some simple text messages for the front display, the time of day, other radio transmitter nearby in case the signal fades, traffic information to the satnav, etc. A very similar system is also used on DAB radio to transmit the same information. However on DAB there is a bit more bandwidth and you can actually transmit small images as well so a DAB radio might show you some album art or the logo of the show as well.


Question: Why is there is so much oil in the Middle East?

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 Why is there is so much oil in the Middle East?

Realize that what the area looks like now has no effect on the deeper geology or the presence oil. Why the Middle East? It has to do with what that area looked like 145 to 200 million years ago during the Jurassic period. At that time the Middle East was largely a shallow ocean that was fed by many different rivers. Over millions of years, organic materials (leaves, algae, fish, etc.) collected along the sea floor. Rivers from land also funneled organic materials into the ocean. As these layers continued to build over the years, the older layers were buried deeper and deeper. Fast forward to recent times and all that concentrated organic material has been cooked by heat and pressure into oil & natural gas. Beyond that, the Middle East has really great geology and reservoir properties for oil production. The reservoir is ideal, with high porosity (storage space for liquids in the rock) and permeability (ability for fluids to flow through rock). What does that mean? Not only is there a massive collection of oil, but it is really easy to get to and produce. These types of wells do not need much stimulation for flow, unlike shale oil deposits in the USA which require massive frack jobs and million of dollars of investment to make them flow. This ease of access allows the Middle East to produce more oil at a lower cost.


Question: How are companies that are non-profitable so massive/successful?

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 How are companies that are non-profitable so massive/successful?

Uber generates a ton of revenue, and reinvests that revenue back into itself in order to grow market share and improve services, features and hiring lawyers. They may not create much in profits yet, but the company is creating value for investors as it continues to grow. At some point, the growth curve will level off. At that time, you'll see more focus on driving profitability, reducing costs and managing expenses. It's hard to drive growth and profitability at the same time. Not impossible, but usually one takes precedence at the expense of the other.


Question: Why are computer CPUs so small? Wouldn't it be beneficial to make them bigger?

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 Why are computer CPUs so small? Wouldn't it be beneficial to make them bigger?

Electricity takes time to travel through wires. If you want to make a signal go to a bunch of different points quickly then you need to put those points closer together. This is what CPU designers are doing; by making their components smaller they are able to cram more points into a given area and achieve more without slowing down the process with more distance.


Question: If I buy a steam giftcard from GameStop, who is actually profiting?

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 If I buy a steam giftcard from GameStop, who is actually profiting?

Gift cards are typically "sold" to stores below face value, and the retailer of the card gets some cut of the proceeds for the card sale. I can't remember if steam handles the distribution of their own cards or not, but many gift cards are produced and/or distributed by a third party who may handle cards (and part of the back end system) for a lot of companies.


Question: What does a 4-D Cube look like?

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 What does a 4-D Cube look like?

A hypercube looks like a regular cube to our eyes which only see in three dimensions. You can do a Google image search for hypercube and they can show you some sketches illustrating the concept. Certain tryptamines, especially dimethyltryptamine, may briefly give you the experience of perceiving them but the images are notoriously difficult to put into words later. When I try to draw them, I draw a tic-tac-toe frame and then turn my drawing 45 degrees and draw another frame diagonal to the first. Then draw an octagon connecting the outside line fragments. Spacetime is difficult to perceive to the sober eye.


Question: How can a multi-level marketing company not be considered a pyramid scheme?

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 How can a multi-level marketing company not be considered a pyramid scheme?

Listen to the podcast The Dream. It’s an MLM exposé and very well done. The reason MLMs aren’t considered pyramid schemes is that they’re very dedicated to lobbying politicians and running Chambers of Commerce to keep them from being categorized as such. That’s it. The co-founders of Amway (the Devoses, as in Betsy DeVos, and the Van Andels) run the US Chamber of Commerce. They use this power to keep the laws favorable to them.


Question: Will cancelling my oldest line of credit negatively impact my credit score?

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 Will cancelling my oldest line of credit negatively impact my credit score?

If you are in good standing there should not be any reasonable damage. Credit cards report your reliability. Canceling your agreement when you’re not in debt, and have no remaining payments shouldn’t interfere. However the ideal is to buy something with it. Even if it’s just groceries. Continued payments look better than good standing cancellations. I used to put about 150 on my card a month whether I Needed it or not. You pay more (depending on rates) but it speaks well of you. I


Question: Why are nocturnal animals attracted to strong lights? Shouldn't they fear them, like then diurnal animals?

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 Why are nocturnal animals attracted to strong lights? Shouldn't they fear them, like then diurnal animals?

Well, with moths, specifically. Their tiny little moth brains use light to navigate (the moon, basically). With the introduction of artificial light from us, the moth cannot navigate properly and is confused on which big shiny thing they should follow. So eventually they end up smacking their little moth faces against the big shiny thing they see first, otherwise known as your bedroom light at 3 AM.


Question: Why does it hurt so much when guys get kicked in the balls?

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 Why does it hurt so much when guys get kicked in the balls?

Because, evolutionarily, the only real goal you have is to have babies. and as a man to do that you need your testicles. Therefore, to encourage men to protect their testicles dearly, evolution lead to the testicles being very sensitive to any kind of possible damage/pain. So something that can really do damage, like a kick, is really really painful, to encourage you to keep yourself from getting kicked in the balls again.


Question: I've heard that soldiers during World War 1 played soccer together on Christmas. If this is true, how did hostile soldiers know that they were coming over for a game of soccer? Did anyone get killed by mistake? Were leaders willing to allow this? Didn't these soldiers hate each other?

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 I've heard that soldiers during World War 1 played soccer together on Christmas. If this is true, how did hostile soldiers know that they were coming over for a game of soccer? Did anyone get killed by mistake? Were leaders willing to allow this? Didn't these soldiers hate each other?

This is known as the Christmas truce. There is a lot of evidence supporting the fact that at several places along the western front on Christmas day 1914 the soldiers initiated a truce and some places even started to mingle. At this point in the war the soldiers had just been through 5 months of war and were experiencing their first winter on the front lines. There were no major offenses and soldiers on both sides had orders to defend the trenches and conserve ammunition. Although the fronts were noisy an chaotic during battles most of the trenches were quiet and calm most of the time. Both sides would just sit in their trenches waiting for each other to attack. Especially this early in the war before snipers and trench raids became common. So soldiers could listen to each other as the fronts were quite close in most places and looking over the battlements were relatively safe. A lot of soldiers on both sides knew multiple languages as is still common in Europe. So it is not that surprising that there were spontaneous truces on this Christmas day. & #x200B; Things were however quite different where French and Belgian soldiers were stationed. They were more motivated then the British as they were fighting for their home land. Quite a number of the soldiers in these armies even lived in the occupied territory. So to them the battle were not just a matter of national pride but a personal battle. Even among the British lines there were some level of distrust between the soldiers. Soldiers on either side refused to leave their trenches and machine guns thinking the enemy would turn on them. Some also hid weapons on them before facing the enemy in no-mans land in case they were jumped or even trying to initiate surprise attacks themselves. Most of the front line did not even experience the Christmas truce as soldiers never negotiated such thing. There were even attacks going on that day resulting in casualties on both sides in addition to casualties resulting from the normal skirmishes. So the Christmas truce were more of an exception then the rule and only happened once.


Question: Why is it that some people struggle to remember simple things (names, dates, conversations, etc) yet are able to categorically memorize more trivial things (the periodic table, sports stats, world capitals, etc)?

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 Why is it that some people struggle to remember simple things (names, dates, conversations, etc) yet are able to categorically memorize more trivial things (the periodic table, sports stats, world capitals, etc)?

I'll be interested to see what sort of answers you get from others actually knowledgeable in this area but I recently took a genetics test and was surprised to learn that there are some suggestions that specific genetic markers can indicate what kind of memory performance you have. For instance, I was found to have the genetic marker for [episodic memory]( URL_1 ). I think the hypothesis relates to [this]( URL_0 ). Edit: a summary of my understanding is that episodic memory relates to memory of experiences and all the context for specific events, not necessarily the facts of the event themselves. The other would be semantic memory relating to facts independent of experience (so things like trivia). Recognising the difference between the two (and the fact that I lean more towards one and not the other) helped explain why I can be nearly finished with a 500 page book that I really enjoy but couldn't tell you what the names of the book / author / main characters are but I could tell you every little detail of things that happened, sights and sounds described etc. It was really fascinating that my genetic results correlated with this.


Question: How has the previous generation “ruined the housing market” for millennials?

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 How has the previous generation “ruined the housing market” for millennials?

The short answer, we don’t make as much money as they did. Slightly longer answer: US household median income in 1970 was $9,780 which has a buying power of $64,700 in today’s money. The current median US wage is 61,800, about $3,000 less or effectively 5% less money available per year than they did. Next, median home sale price in 1970 was $23,600 or $155k in today’s dollars. The median sale price in Jan 2018 was $330k; double what they were paying ‘back in the day.’ So, you have to spend on average 25-50% more money to get a home with 5-10% less money. This is all due to wage stagnation relative to productivity and inflation. Or otherwise said, wages did not keep up with the cost of goods and your dollar just doesn’t go as far.


Question: Why does a good amount of painkillers help with inside pain but not outside pain?

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 Why does a good amount of painkillers help with inside pain but not outside pain?

I think this is related to the fact that painkillers such as Ibuprofen and Acetominophen (two main ingredients in Midol) stop or block your body's transmission of pain: > When you take a pain reliever like ibuprofen, it keeps injured or damaged cells from making and releasing prostaglandin. When the cells don't release this chemical, it means that the brain won't get the pain message as quickly or clearly. So your pain goes away or becomes less severe for as long as the cells aren't releasing the chemical.Acetaminophen works in the brain so you don't feel the pain. Basically pain killers are not 100% effective in removing the sensation of pain, but blocking enough of it so you can feel less for things like cramps but receiving a cut creates a lot of the prostaglandin and it gets picked up by your nerves. & #x200B; [Source]( URL_0 )


Question: Would a gallon of water weigh the sams as a gallon of ice?

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 Would a gallon of water weigh the sams as a gallon of ice?

Your subject and the text in the post ask two difference questions, > Would a gallon of water weigh the sams as a gallon of ice? > I mean if you take a gallon of water and weigh it, then take that same gallon of water and freeze it. The subject is a gallon of water and a gallon of ice, That is not the same as if you freeze a gallon of water because water expand when it freezes. So when you freeze a gallon of water the ice volume is larger then a gallon. A gallon of ice and a gallon of water does not weigh the same because ice float. If the weight per volume ie density was the same ice would not float but could be suspended in the water at any depth.


Question: If you try and speak in really strong wind, are your words literally being "blown away" or can people just not hear you due to the wind noise?

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 If you try and speak in really strong wind, are your words literally being "blown away" or can people just not hear you due to the wind noise?

As most of the answers here don't explain what actually happens I thought I'd give it a go. The reason this happens is due to the refraction of the sound waves. They refract as the wind speed increases with altitude, so even in strong winds, the wind speed at your feet is practically 0. This effect in a headwind causes the sound to refract upward and be lost faster and a tailwind the sound refracts downwards. If you google sound refraction in wind there are some good images which show the effect clearly.


Question: Why are instruments chambered to different keys? For instance, a clarinet is chambered Bb, whereas a flute is C, or concert pitch.

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 Why are instruments chambered to different keys? For instance, a clarinet is chambered Bb, whereas a flute is C, or concert pitch.

This is interesting and complicated, and involves a lot of history for each of the instruments. Here are some simple explanations for why you see this today. \- Historically, instruments such as the clarinet did not have as much sophistication in their design, and were not able to play as wide a range of notes. Instruments had to be tuned to a small set of keys, and and you would select the one you needed for a given piece of music. Think of a "C" vs "B" penny-whistle. \- Different instruments of the same family (soprano saxophone, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone) have different ranges - higher vs lower. But those differences aren't exactly 1 octave apart, often they are less than that, so they will all be tuned differently in order to accomodate. It is convenient, then for a given note ("C") to be played with the same hand position on each instrument, even though the pitch that is emitted is different. That way wind players don't have to learn new fingerings for every version of that instrument.


Question: Why do medications that control seizures also treat bipolar disorders?

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 Why do medications that control seizures also treat bipolar disorders?

I want to know the answer to this one too as I'm on one! Even my doctors have admitted that they don't truly understand why they work. Good news is, because it works so effectively, studies are and will be conducted so I reckon we'll have an answer in a few years time. Hopefully.


Question: How do logic gates work?

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 How do logic gates work?

MOSFET Transistors have 3 Pins, the source, drain and gate. When a voltage is applied across the gate, the area between the drain and source is depleted of electrons, creating “hole” charge carriers. Basically, imagine a highway between two cities jammed with traffic. I open up an exit, some cars leave the highway. The absence of cars is known as “holes” and instead of saying cars moving forwards, we say “holes” are moving backwards. The large number of holes reduces the Drain-Source resistance to near zero and allows current to flow, so the transistor is now “ON”. By arranging transistors in different patterns, you can feed the drain current from one transistor into the gate or sources of other transistors and create complex circuits, which act like idealized logic gates.


Question: - Why do they say you can ‘sweat’ the commin cold or the flu out when unwell?

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 - Why do they say you can ‘sweat’ the commin cold or the flu out when unwell?

Because they don't know what they're talking about. Fevers may be useful for combating some bacteria, but will not do much against the common cold or flu, which are caused by viral infections. People say this because they get sick, feel like shit, sometimes feel feverish or sweaty (though usually only lower grade fevers with most colds), then eventually feel better. They associate the fever and "sweating out" with getting better.


Question: Why is the instant reaction to getting hit with cold water to take a large breath in?

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 Why is the instant reaction to getting hit with cold water to take a large breath in?

This is part of the Mammalian Diving Reflex. URL_0 URL_1 > When the face is submerged and water fills the nostrils, sensory receptors sensitive to wetness within the nasal cavity and other areas of the face supplied by the fifth (V) cranial nerve (the trigeminal nerve) relay the information to the brain.[1] The tenth (X) cranial nerve, (the vagus nerve) – part of the autonomic nervous system – then produces bradycardia and other neural pathways elicit peripheral vasoconstriction, restricting blood from limbs and all organs to preserve blood and oxygen for the heart and the brain (and lungs), concentrating flow in a heart–brain circuit and allowing the animal to conserve oxygen.


Question: Why does shampoo not lather up well when you shampoo for the first time in a while?

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 Why does shampoo not lather up well when you shampoo for the first time in a while?

My sister told me a long time ago that dirt is the enemy of suds and that stuck with me. But it's basically true. Your hair has oils that are important to its structure. Those oils allow dirt to cling to it. Shampooing strips away those oils and thus the dirt. but remember dirt is the enemy of suds so you won't lather up the first time you do it. That's partially why shampoo instructions say to do it twice, to waste more product and to make sure your hair is actually clean. The second one will probably lather up considerably. Alternatively if you wash your hair too much it will always lather but you are doing considerable damage to your hair.


Question: How does infrared work in mapping the heat of things (like with thermal goggles) since it's just a form of light?

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 How does infrared work in mapping the heat of things (like with thermal goggles) since it's just a form of light?

All objects glow. The amount and 'color' of their glow depends on how hot they are. Really hot things can glow red or even white. At room temperature, things glow mostly in the far-infrared range instead. By measuring this glow, which is invisible to humans, we can measure the temperature of a thing. Edit: We actually do use visible and UV light to measure how hot something is. Even x-rays. It just has to be way hotter than most things on Earth are.


Question: What will happen if we keep wasting water?

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 What will happen if we keep wasting water?

Our groundwater is already being used at a rate much faster than it can be replenished. We'll need to rely on desalination in the future, which at the moment is very expensive and energy costly. Not to mention the transport of that water to inland areas. There's a reason why companies are buying up water rights left and right. And it's not because water will be free and plentiful in the future. So to answer the question; if we keep wasting water, millions may be forced to migrate and millions may die of dehydration. Expect water rations in the future (who knows how long that is). And it's not individuals wasting the water per say. You taking a ten minute instead of a five minute shower is not the main cause of groundwater being depleted. It's the unsustainable practices tied to agriculture and factory farming. It's a societal problem that no single individual is at fault for.


Question: Why do so many car commercials try to appeal to viewers emotionally rather than advertise features of the car?

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 Why do so many car commercials try to appeal to viewers emotionally rather than advertise features of the car?

Because that's how advertising works best. Human decisions are built on emotions and how you view yourself more than on logic. A lot of the psychological theories used for advertising are based on the theories of freud and the subsequent work of his nephew, Edward Bernays. EDIT: for more try here : URL_0


Question: why are eletric cars less harmful to the planet than oil cars?

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 why are eletric cars less harmful to the planet than oil cars?

Simple reason: they burn gas for for fuel. Many and most companies don't use coal for fuel anymore so the energy from grid electricity is cleaner than by an internal combustion engine. Nuclear, hydro and green power technologies make these sources of power much less of an emitter of greenhouse gases. Even power that is generated through combustion has gone towards natural gas or biofuels because of emissions regulations. So it's still cleaner, and watt for watt of power less expensive than gasoline powered cars.


Question: Why does 60 degrees outside feel completely different from 60 degrees inside?

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 Why does 60 degrees outside feel completely different from 60 degrees inside?

Because temperature alone does not account for things like the sun heating up your skin, wind, humidity and various other factors. There are many different ways of measuring how hot or cold it feel heat index which takes into account humidity and global wet bulb which takes into account other factors like the sun's intensity


Question: why does cheese come in wheels and some other brands come in blocks?

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 why does cheese come in wheels and some other brands come in blocks?

Most 'rind' cheese, cheese that naturally forms a harder/protective exterior, comes in wheels because that's a good shape to get more cheese inside less rind. The rind is edible but not generally considered good eating. The wheel shape is a nice compromise between an easily transported shape and volume/surface area. Also, at this point it's just tradition. Many more modern and/or processed cheeses come in blocks that are wrapped in plastic because that's a hygienic way to get the most cheese in an easily transportable package. A rind is unnecessary and wasteful and the cheese may not be able to form a rind anyway. Even more modern cheese comes pre-shredded in plastic bags with some anti-fungal powder mixed in. Most people buy this type of cheese because it's more convenient, so it often costs less/unit than block cheese. In some cases stores only bother stocking block cheese because WIC welfare requires them to and/or won't pay for pre-shredded cheese, even though it's cheaper.


Question: How do fighter jets detect that they've been locked as a target of a missile?

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 How do fighter jets detect that they've been locked as a target of a missile?

Ooh! Finally! A question I'm 100% qualified to answer! ELI5; a radar is basically what you get when you put a radio on the Steve Rogers super serum. It detects and tracks targets by sending out a ridiculously powerful pulse of radio energy and listening for that energy bouncing off of an airplane and back to the source. Now, any radio can be picked up by another radio, so modern fighters have antennas and receivers all over that will detect when a radar is targeting them, and alert the pilot. Such a system of antennas is called a Radar Warning Receiver and is standard on any military aircraft. We even have specialized "Anti-Radiation" missiles that use the same principle to attack enemy SAM sites. I'm an ex-Air Force avionics tech who's super passionate about this stuff. If you want a more in depth answer, or want to know anything else about modern avionics, hit me up, I'll talk your ear off! The cat-and-mouse game of engineers designing radars to avoid detection by RWRs, and engineers designing RWRs to detect these new radars is also an interesting subject Edit: Oh sweet Jesus this blew up! I didn't know I'd be doing an AMA today lol. Don't worry, I'll get to all you guys, but it might take a bit lol. And thanks for the awards, strangers! I appreciate it!


Question: How do square rigged ships sail in upwind? Can they at all?

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 How do square rigged ships sail in upwind? Can they at all?

It is called tacking, you can alter how the sails "catch" the wind, so can push you from side to side rather than in a single direction Sails actually work best when the wind is on the "quarter" rather than directly behind them so all the sails are being pushed. By tacking you can slowly in general head into the general wind direction, but never moving directly into the wind.


Question: Difference between NAT vs ARP?

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 Difference between NAT vs ARP?

> both protocols translate requests from a public facing IP (say from a router) to the device on the network that requested it. This is wrong, actually. ARP is used within a network; NAT is used for cross-gateway (local network to Internet) traffic. The Address Resolution Protocol is how a computer determines another computer's MAC address (Media Access Control), and it applies within a local network (Ethernet cables and switches only; no routers, no gateways). *Edit for clarity: Here, I'm using the term "router" much more strictly than the consumer might. The router on your desk can do ARP, but that's because it's acting in an intra-LAN capacity when it does. In order for computer A to send a message to B, it needs to know its MAC address. If it doesn't have it in its local cache, it has to ask every computer it can see "Hey, what MAC address goes with this IP address?" NAT, on the other hand, is primarily used to defeat *IPv4 address exhaustion*. The router keeps track of what internal machine initiated a communication, and then maps the *port* contained in the outgoing packet to the computer's internal IP. Then, when it sees data coming in on that port, it knows to swap out the computer's internal IP before sending the data back.


Question: did we invent math or discover it?

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 did we invent math or discover it?

A bit of both. There are 2 philosophical schools of thought about numbers. One, any intelligent being will understand numbers. There's something obvious about the idea of 3. Two, certain parts of math were clearly invented. Like calculus. Ideas like the square root of negative 1, isn't even a real number. But it critical to some complicated math concepts. Zero was invented independently by the Babylonians, Mayans and Indians (although some researchers say the Indian number system was influenced by the Babylonians). The Babylonians got their number system from the Sumerians, the first people in the world to develop a counting system. Six hundred years later and 12,000 miles from Babylon, the Mayans developed zero as a placeholder around A.D. 350 and used it to denote a placeholder in their elaborate calendar systems. Despite being highly skilled mathematicians, the Mayans never used zero in equations, however. Kaplan describes the Mayan invention of zero as the “most striking example of the zero being devised wholly from scratch.”


Question: Why does ice reduce swelling?

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 Why does ice reduce swelling?

Your body restricts blood flow to cold parts of your skin to conserve heat. When you dramatically cool down your skin with ice, your body reacts as if it's in a cold environment and constricts blood vessels flowing into that area as if to conserve heat. Swelling is the result of blood vessels dilating to bring additional blood and resources to a part of you that has been damaged. The constriction to "conserve heat" counteracts the dilation in response to damage so overall less blood flows into the area and swelling is reduced.


Question: How do floods like Houston flooding happen with all the modern technology and drainage systems we have? How do they even happen?

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</answer>
 How do floods like Houston flooding happen with all the modern technology and drainage systems we have? How do they even happen?

Finally, something in my wheelhouse! So, I'm a civil engineer, specifically I do surface water management - so I design culverts, ditches, dams, other water management structures. There's a concept in hydrology called "Return Period," and it's another way of looking at the probability of an event. So if you hear people talk about an N-year event, that's an event that has a 1/N chance of being exceeded in a given year. A 2 year event has a 1/2 (or 50% chance) of being exceeded in a given year. A 25 year event has a 1/25 or 4% chance of being exceeded. So on and so forth. Everything is designed for a given return period, and it's all a question of risk tolerance. You could absolutely design all of your ditches and storm sewers and stuff for 100 year events, or 1000 year events, or even the PMF - the Probable Maximum Flood - which is so big that it doesn't even have a return period. The problem is, what municipality wants to spend the money building a storm sewer to pass a 1-in-1000 year event? It would be totally oversized and cost a ton of money, when chances are you'll never actually get a 1-in-1000 year event during the service life of the structure. So usually what we do is we establish guidelines based on the consequences of failure. Dams are a really good example. For a dam, you look at how many people live downstream of the dam, and how much property would be damaged (and how many people would lose their lives) if the dam were to be overtopped or to fail. And you pick your design return period off of that. As a general rule of thumb, we design things that are small with low consequences of failure for either 2 years or 10 years, we design things with moderate consequences of failure (property damage but no loss of life) for 20 years, 50 years, or sometimes 100 years, and we design things with significant consequences of failure for 100 years, 1000 years, or the probable maximum flood. I hope that helps!


Question: Why are nut allergies and gluten intolerance so prevalent and serious in certain populations (like in much of the US), and negligible to the point of being even considered a myth in other parts of the world?

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 Why are nut allergies and gluten intolerance so prevalent and serious in certain populations (like in much of the US), and negligible to the point of being even considered a myth in other parts of the world?

It’s most likely that the rate of reactions in the population hasn’t increased but the social awareness, rate of diagnosis, and restricted diets limiting exposure has seemed to increase the number and severity. For most of human history something like a food allergy wouldn’t even have been a consideration because of the lack of food in general and a severe reaction may not have been correlated to the food when everyone else is fine. Over time we’ve become knowledgeable and sensitive to correlation...almost to a flaw. So now, instead of allowing children to have mild reactions and carefully exposing them to new foods over and over we have an indefinite all or nothing mentality about their diet at the smallest reaction.


Question: why flying takes so much out of you physically and mentally when you haven't done anything but sit there?

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 why flying takes so much out of you physically and mentally when you haven't done anything but sit there?

A few reasons. First, airplanes are pressurized to an altitude above sea level; usually between 6,000-8,000 feet. This means there's not as much oxygen as at sea level. While it's not enough of a decrease for you to be aware of, it does tax your body a bit more, especially on longer flights. If you've ever done any hiking or mountain climbing at high altitudes, you'll recognize that you get fatigued much more quickly than at sea level. Second, airplane is is very dry. This tends to make people dehydrated. Third, travel is just plain stressful. You're packed into a small area with a bunch of other people (and their germs) for hours on end subject to engine noise, various cabin noises, people bumping into you...etc.


Question: Why can we not access all of our memories?

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 Why can we not access all of our memories?

If you have a library of 5 books, it may be small, but you know where those books are any time you need them. If you have a library of 1 billion books, good luck finding the one you need. It'll take a lot of time. That's basically it. While it'd be nice to have infinite memory, 1) where would we put it? 2) it'd take forever to find the right ones when we need them. The brain doesn't have infinite storage and it doesn't work infinitely fast. So it can't do it.


Question: Why doesn't the flame on a candle just burn up the wick and go out before the was melts?

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 Why doesn't the flame on a candle just burn up the wick and go out before the was melts?

The wick does just that, it wicks up the melted wax which is actually what comprises most of the fuel for the flame. Which is why the wick itself burns so slowly. And as the wick grows too long and charred that section can no longer absorb the melted wax from further down so it slowly shrinks down the candle as the wax is burned off.


Question: How do people determine if X poison/venom is 10 million times more harmful than Y poison/venom?

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 How do people determine if X poison/venom is 10 million times more harmful than Y poison/venom?

/u/Bigted1800 is indeed correct, but that's not really a complete definition. For toxicity, there's so many factors that come into play that it's really hard/unbelievably unethical to test for, so we use something called the LD50. That's the Lethal Dose 50% number, i.e. *this* amount will kill half of people exposed to it. Why we use this number isn't immediately clear, so I'll provide an example. A BAC (Blood Alcohol Content) is considered "fatal" once it hits over .375. Well, that's all fine and good but people have survived .6 and people have died from .15, because due to genetics, habitual issues and blood chemistry, some people "hold" their liquor better than others. Take someone from SE Asia with characteristic "Asian Flush", alcohol allergy and it's going to take a lot less to kill them than a hard drinking slav. The LD50 accounts for this over a population and gives us and idea of when "acute toxicity" (when harm is done) kicks in. The long and the short is the LD50, even for the 50 that don't die, it's still not a good idea to reach this point and gives us a number to use. So when someones says, "Oh, fentinol is X times as toxic/deadly as heroin" it's based on a comparison of their LD50. Say 5mg is the LD50 of heroin (please don't use this as gospel truth, this is an example) and the LD50 of fentinol is .5 mg, you can say that feninol is 10x as toxic since it takes 10x less to reach the LD50. This extrapolates out to all sorts of venoms, over the counter meds, ingested poisons, the works, they all got LD50s as it's really our best guess.


Question: What is the legal reason that a president might not be able to be prosecuted?

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 What is the legal reason that a president might not be able to be prosecuted?

Well, there is no legal precedent to indict a sitting president because it has never happened before and there is nothing in the constitution that provides for this. Ultimately it would be the Supreme Court that would have to decide. Oddly enough they are trying to fill an opening in said court and ultimately Trump (who has been implicated in a federal crime) has to appoint what would be a decision that can impact this decision. & #x200B; Ultimately, we are in mysterious territory because outside of Nixon, we really haven't been in in the position to actually indict and prosecute in a federal crime. The only closest comparison is Clinton who committed perjury and was impeached in the House. I think that was a state crime and it resulted from a civil lawsuit. Trump and Cohen is a bit different. & #x200B; Impeachment is a totally separate process and happens under Congress.


Question: What are derivatives in Calculus and where could one actually use this in the real world?

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 What are derivatives in Calculus and where could one actually use this in the real world?

Derivatives in calculus are formulas for the rate of change of a function. If I'm walking 1 m/s in one second, 2 m/s in the next, 3 m/s in the third, one could describe my speed overtime as 1*t where t is the number of seconds I walked. The derivative of this function (1) is my acceleration, or the rate at which my speed changes. Derivatives are used in ***a lot*** of places. Basically any problem that involves optimization, whether in engineering, economics, physics, statistics, or really anywhere involves taking a derivative. To understand why this is, consider the following example: The efficiency of an engine as a function of the speed at which it's operating. If you were to graph it it would probably look something like [this]( URL_0 ). If we wanted to find the speed at which the engine is most efficient we could take the derivative of that function and find where the derivative (again, the rate of change) is 0. This corresponds to when the graph changes directions. Since there's only one point where that happens (the max), we know we've found our optimal speed.


Question: How do interest rates affect the economy?

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 How do interest rates affect the economy?

Interest rates affect the cost of borrowing. Contrary to popular belief, central banks do not control interest rates. They try to regulate the money supply to influence them but ultimately the market sets the rate. Interest rates are a function of many things. How much money is available to lend, how much risk there is, aggregate quality of investments available, etc. When interest rates are high, it is expensive to borrow so companies invest less in new projects. People are incentivized to save money instead of spending it and to borrow less for major purchases. Stocks and other risky investments become less attractive because low risk investments good. When interest rates are low, all of the opposite happens. However, low interest rates tend to cause speculation and mal investment. Also the money supply increases because people make more loans using fractional reserve lending. All of this causes inflation to rise.


Question: What are network ports and how do they work?

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 What are network ports and how do they work?

If you think of your computer as an apartment building, you can think of ports as the apartment numbers. You order a package (data) to the building (your IP), it needs to know which apartment it goes to (200). It gets more complicated. Like some apartment are designated (by default) to receive certain things like pizza, strippergrams, and bouquets of flowers. While others send out random letters to pen pals with the full address so, when they respond, your prison buddy knows where to send it. Edit: to clarify, your router acts like a door person and keeps tracks of which apartment# sends out which package, so this is where the instances where some things use a random port


Question: Why is it that playing a PC game at 30 FPS looks so bad, yet playing a console game with a 30 FPS cap looks buttery smooth?

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 Why is it that playing a PC game at 30 FPS looks so bad, yet playing a console game with a 30 FPS cap looks buttery smooth?

There would be a lot of factors that could cause it to look less "buttery smooth": Typically console games will be optimised for 30fps on that platform. So when playing a game like GTA , there will be a standard graphics setting that will work the same for every console. Each console is practically identical at this point where performance differences are quite minor. Companies will also market and optimise for whatever console pays the most or which platform the game is going to sell the most on. This would explain why you may find choppy frames in PC. There are many why fps will begin to fluctuate. One being that the hardware is out of date and may not be powerful enough to keep the frame rate constant. The game may not be optimised for PC and have frame rates of 12 - 15 etc then suddenly surge to 30 when a cutscene is played (this is from pre rendered scenes). You may just be used to a 60 fps experience from PC gaming and a 30 fps experience from console gaming. Anti-aliasing may be disabled making frames less stable (what makes frames transition smoother)


Question: Why do we sometimes get unexplained VERY long hairs in random place on your bodies?

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 Why do we sometimes get unexplained VERY long hairs in random place on your bodies?

Hair follows "growth cycles" where they grow and then go dormant for a bit before growing again. Sometimes individual hairs break out of the cycle and just grow constantly, forming a long hair faster than it is worn down. They are otherwise normal hairs which are just stuck on grow for some reason.


Question: Why does bottled water contain sodium?

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 Why does bottled water contain sodium?

Unless it's been distilled, then sodium \(and other ions\) are pretty much always present in water. Depending on where the water came from, they could have been absorbed from rocks or soil that the water touched, or from contact with living creatures like plants or animals. Sodium dissolves in water very easily, so if water contacts any sodium it will take some of it. Sometimes sodium is added on purpose to affect the hardness or the flavor of the water.