Question: What makes white things turn a dark yellow as they get older?

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 What makes white things turn a dark yellow as they get older?

There are two main groups of things which go through this transformation for different reasons. The first are things which have had a blue additive. This is commonly done in white paints, clothing, and plastics. It turns out that pure white doesn't actually look white to us when it is outside in the sun. To make things look white you want to make them be a little more blue, so the additive makes them look more white to our eyes. Overtime these additives breakdown and so the items return to true white, but this looks slightly yellow to us. The other is paper products. Paper products are bleached to make them look white, but if not treated properly there is a major component in paper that breaks down overtime into acid. This acid eats the paper slightly changing its color.


Question: Why do phones sound so much worse when on speaker?

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 Why do phones sound so much worse when on speaker?

The energy in a sound signal dies off pretty fast the farther away you get from it. This is fine for really small speakers that you put *very* close to your ears like headphones, earbuds, and telephone speakers. When you switch to "speaker" mode on a phone the speakers used are still very small and the power dies off pretty fast, unfortunately not all the frequencies die off at the same distance so the sound gets distorted.


Question: What are scientists doing to combat drug-resistant bacteria and superbugs?

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 What are scientists doing to combat drug-resistant bacteria and superbugs?

A lot of the work that is done is preventing antibiotic resistance bacteria from spreading. They can become a huge problem in hospitals, for example. All it takes is one sick person to be admitted, and it's possible for the bacteria in them to spread to other patients through a variety of routes. There's all sorts of new methods of sterilizing rooms and equipment, and routinely gathering samples from at-risk patients so you know early on if they've caught it. There are lots of new antibiotics in development, but there are also other possible treatments being studied, such as bacteriophages. Bacteriophages are viruses that infect and kill bacteria, but aren't dangerous for us. Research is also being done on how, exactly, bacteria can survive antibiotics. There are a lot of mechanisms, such as the bacteria having an enzyme that changes the structure of the antibiotic, being able to "spit" the antibiotic particles out of itself faster than they can get in, or mutating so that their molecules can no longer be recognized by the antibiotic. If we know these mechanisms, it's possible to try to develop new treatments that specifically target them.


Question: Is escape velocity strictly necessary to get into orbit? Why could a space shuttle not slowly ascend until it leaves the atmosphere?

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 Is escape velocity strictly necessary to get into orbit? Why could a space shuttle not slowly ascend until it leaves the atmosphere?

Well, firstly, no, escape velocity isn't necessary to reach orbit--\*orbital\* velocity is required for that. Orbital velocity at low earth orbit is around 17,000mph, escape velocity is 25,000mph. Now, while it would be theoretically possible for a rocket to ascend relatively slowly until it got above the Karmann Line and was in space, it wouldn't stay up there. The whole point of orbit is that it allows you to \*stay\* in space without having to constantly provide thrust to maintain your altitude against gravity, and to do that you have to travel sideways really, really fast. Very little of the fuel a rocket or shuttle burns is to gain altitude, it's almost all used to give it sufficient speed to be in orbit.


Question: Why does an applause eventually synchronize?

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 Why does an applause eventually synchronize?

Pressure. If I see one person clapping, I might think, "meh" and sit. Someone is going to start clapping with that person most likely (in certain places). Now, I have the pressure of two people subliminally telling me to clap. The reason it takes a long time is because the number of people clapping increases in a somewhat exponential way. 1, 2, 4, 8, etc.


Question: Why do SSRIs take up to 2 weeks to kick in, but only 2-3 days to wear off?

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 Why do SSRIs take up to 2 weeks to kick in, but only 2-3 days to wear off?

Imagine an empty swimming pool being filled with a hose. To be allowed to dive, you must fill the pool to the 8 foot mark, so you put a plug in the drain. It takes many hours to fill up 8 feet of water. The water level needs to rise 8 feet, to reach the 'effective level'. It's now 8' 1". Someone removed the drain plug. The water level only needs to fall more than an inch before it goes below the 'effective level, where it's not allowed to dive. Also, the drain is letting water out faster than the hose brings water in. So it only takes a few minutes before it's not safe to dive again. In this analogy, the SSR inhibitor is the drain plug.


Question: When a weather forcast says that there's X% chance of rain, how do they calculate that and what does it mean exactly?

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 When a weather forcast says that there's X% chance of rain, how do they calculate that and what does it mean exactly?

The % chance of rain is a combination of the percentage chance that there will be measurable rain in a given area and the percentage of the area that will have that range. So if a meteorologist is 100% confident that it will rain in an area, but only 60% of the area will get rain, they will say it’s a 60% chance of rain. If they’re 75% certain that it will rain, and 80% of the area will receive rain, it’s also a 60% chance of rain (.75x.8=.6). And if there’s a 60% chance of rain and 100% of the area will receive rain, there’s a 60% chance of rain.


Question: Can somebody explain the Pareto Principle and just how and why it works?

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 Can somebody explain the Pareto Principle and just how and why it works?

The Pareto principle is a folk-logic observation that holds up as a general principle because most distributions are exponential. The assumption most people would have is that things are distributed evenly. For every person added to a group project, the team gets 1 unit better. But in reality most things get distributed along a *normal distribution*. Statistically, 1 in 5 will be outside the standard deviation which means 20% or so will have some kind of outsized contribution. If you have an economy where making more money means you can reinvest that money into making even more money, money won't be evenly distributed according to skill. It will concentrate at the extremes. Any time output (wealth in this case) is dependent on input + some function of output (wealth begets wealth), you will see something more like a Pareto distribution. The Pareto principle essentially states that 1 in 5 or so tends to be the major contributing factor of several fields. If you spend 5 hours writing a report, you probably wrong 80% of the words in one of those hours and spent 4 hours refining URL_0


Question: If one of the world's top medical journals classifies fluoride as a neurotoxin, why is it safe to consume in our water?

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 If one of the world's top medical journals classifies fluoride as a neurotoxin, why is it safe to consume in our water?

Everything is toxic in a high enough dose. Both salt and water will kill the shit out of you in high enough doses, but are also necessary to life. Any publication that talks about toxicity without providing dosage information is spouting nonsense. Lets demonstrate why dosage is important: Sodium chloride - LD50 3000mg/kg - Death by extreme hypertension, heart attack. Dimethylmercury - LD50 0.05mg/kg - Potent neurotoxin. Goes right through most protective garments. Will hurt the whole time you're dying. Both of those things will kill you, but I have 2kg of one of them in my pantry, and I wouldn't want to be on the same continent as 2kg of the other.


Question: What is an imaginary number?

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 What is an imaginary number?

I'll start from a bit far away. Historically, the first numbers in use were natural numbers. We needed them to state the amount of things - three cows, five enemies, eight days. Turns out, the naturals are nice in a certain way - if you add or multiply two natural numbers, you get another of the same kind (in formal terminology, naturals are closed under these operations). However, it is not the case for other operations. Next natural operation to want closure in is subtraction. If we have food for five days and we're going on a three day trip, we're fine. But if we go for eight day trip, we want to express the '-3 days' without having to convert the thing we talk about in the answer (from we have X day surplus to lack of food for X days). So of course, we get integers. Now we can subtract without having to invent any extra numbers. We also added zero (as we need to define what 1-1 is) but this causes some complications later. Next up - division. We obtain rational numbers - all of those are of form p/q, where p is integer and q - natural number. Note we forbid 0, and at this point "what is 2/0?" earns you a smack on the head. Don't even dare to ask how much is 0/0. Otherwise, our system is very neat - we can add, subtract, multiply or divide without needing anything else. This was all fine and cool until someone in ancient Greece proved that if we pick a square of side length 1, the diagonal is, in fact, not expressible as a fraction. This caused a lot of anger and concern, but pushed us towards real numbers. Without going too much into detail, we wanted to have limits - if we have any sequence of rationals that get closer together as we go along the sequence (take for example 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, ... - the numbers are going to 0, so that is the limit) - we want the limiting point to be an actual number. In rationals, the sequence 3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.14159, ... has no limit - it keeps jumping on rational numbers, but for any particular rational as we go along the sequence either we eventually are always above it, or always below - since our rational isn't pi. The reals are our solution. We don't explain a lot - we just say - if we have a sequence of rational numbers, and it tends to a limit, the limit is a real number. Luckily, if we have a sequence of real numbers tending to a limit, the limit is already a real number, so that's not an issue. We still don't divide by 0. This is where it stops for most daily life purposes, and you rarely need more outside more technical sciences. --------------------- So, finally we get to the question. With reals, we have defined sqrt(2). Can we define sqrt(-1)? not quite - a square of a number is non-negative. Or a broader problem: suppose I'm given a quadratic, with roots a and b; then I can write it as (x-a)(x-b). If it has one root, it is of form (x-a)(x-a), i.e., the root is repeated twice. But if it has no roots, we're stuck. Same applies to higher degrees - whenever there is a root we can factor it out, but there's no good sense of how many roots we get. This is what the complex numbers solve. We define i = sqrt(-1). That's it. Naturally, we still want division/addition/etc. to work - so in the end complex, or imaginary numbers are all those of form a+bi, with a,b reals. Turns out, this is bloody convenient - not only all the stuff from reals works as expected, but also any polynomial of n-th degree now factorises into n things of form (x-z), where z are the roots of it. n-th degree polynomial actually always has n roots (although some may be repeated)! There are many other convenient things about the complex numbers, and in a reasonable sense they're the well-defined set we hardly ever have to step out of. ---------- There are more generalisations of complex numbers. E.g. - Riemann's sphere. If you can imagine reals as a line, complex numbers are a 2D plane. if we imagine a sphere on this plane, and 'wrap' it up with the plane, you find that most reaosnable ways to wrap leave a single point - the one at the very top - open. We call that point 'infinity' and plug it in. Bingo - we have extended complex plane, where 2/0 is infinity, 5/inf = 0 and life is more or less good. It allows for even more operations, and we no longer have to lament about how 1/x is 'breaks' at 0, because now it is continuous. There are also cool things like sine/cosine being related to exponent - in fact, if you take the graph of sine and rotate it by 90 degrees in the complex plane, you get a graph of sinh = e^x + e^-x / 2, which leads to a damn lot of cool properties relating the trigonometry operations and those of exponentials. Another issue is the famous formula e^i*pi + 1 = 0. This implies e^i*2pi = 1 = e^0, so if we wanted a logarithm of a complex number, and we got a valid answer, adding 2 pi to it remains a valid answer, and in general we logarithm is no longer well defined. This goes into complex manifold territory, but I'm afraid I'm not qualified to talk about that part. ------ So yeah, in short: imaginary, or complex number, is of form a+bi, where i is a specific number/thing such that i^2 = -1. This makes many things work more intuitively in the complex plane that don't quite work with our usual, real, numbers, so it's loved by mathematicians and other related sciences.


Question: Why does cussing seem to increase our tolerance to pain when we get hurt?

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 Why does cussing seem to increase our tolerance to pain when we get hurt?

Scientists speculate that swearing, with rarely-used expletives*, activates the part of the brain responsible for fight-or-flight reaction (amygdala). In that state, your heart rate increases and your sensation to pain is dulled (probably accompanying an adrenaline rush). Also, research shows the swearing actually needs to be “real” to be effective, too (i.e., they actually need to be real ‘taboo’ words that aren’t used all the time). URL_0


Question: How does store bought chocolate milk stay mixed so well and not separate into a layer of chocolate like homemade sometimes does?

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 How does store bought chocolate milk stay mixed so well and not separate into a layer of chocolate like homemade sometimes does?

Emulsifiers. Look at the ingredients: other than milk products, sweeteners and cocoa butter the other ingredients in a store brought chocolate are pretty much emulsifiers. What are emulsifiers? They can make oil and water combine and stay that way. In fact most kitchens have an amazing natural emulsifier in their fridge (American) or on their counter or both! The egg. Or more precisely the egg yolk. See any recipe for home made mayonnaise. If you don’t see any emulsifiers listed then either a) they didn’t use any and rely only on tempering (see below) and good quality cocoa butter or b) you live in a country where it’s not compulsory to list E numbers for chocolate (yep there is a chocolate lobby and cocoa butter is expensive, so...) Note another important way chocolate stays firm is the dark, secret art of tempering. Tempering chocolate instills fear in all but the greatest pastry chefs. All store brought chocolate is tempered in the right way. We temper by raising the temperature of the “raw” chocolate and dropping it rapidly to a specific temperature. You might see pastry chefs scrapping and manipulating melted chocolate on a bench top: this is to cool the mixture down fast enough. And why are we doing this? To make certain crystals form and dominant in the chocolate. These crystal structure is rigid enough to handle room temperature but delicate enough that at body temperature, like in your mouth, the chocolate melts. Source: Live in Belgium. Edit: yep E numbers are European but the numbers are used around the world eg E300 additive will be labeled 300 (in say Australia). Edit^2 : probably not just emulsifiers - other comments explain it better


Question: How come when you’re watching a video on a device that you’re talking to someone with, they can’t hear the audio from the video but they can hear your voice?

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 How come when you’re watching a video on a device that you’re talking to someone with, they can’t hear the audio from the video but they can hear your voice?

Devices have a built in feedback-damping algorithm that removes the sound they’re generating from the signal they’re picking up. Otherwise the two devices could just keep sending the same sound signal in an eternal loop. Hold a cheap microphone up to its own cheap speaker for an extreme example of what happens if this feedback-damping isn’t present.


Question: How does the pressure of a storm system "become" low?

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 How does the pressure of a storm system "become" low?

Low pressure is caused by the rising of warm air. The sun heats the water around the equator and this causes the water to evaporate and make the air above hotter and humid. This warm humid air then rises upward just like what happens in a hot air balloon because it's become less dense. Because the air has risen there is less of it at the waters surface this causes the pressure to drop. This is also the reason for the rotation of the storm as the cooler air rushes in to fill the area of lower pressure it creates the rotation, clockwise south of the equator and counter clockwise in the north.


Question: Why are animals like birds and monkeys much louder than humans, even though their bodies and airways are much smaller than humans?

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</answer>
 Why are animals like birds and monkeys much louder than humans, even though their bodies and airways are much smaller than humans?

[Top 7 Loudest Animals]( URL_1 ) * Humans: 120 db ( [Loudest Shout]( URL_0 ) ) * Bird: 100 db ( Three Wattled Bell Bird ) * Monkey: 140 db ( Howler Monky ) As for why humans typically enjoy their 70-90 db conversations and never really evolved to push higher is more biologic than a matter of size. Humans don't need a daily scare tactic, or even a screaming contest to gain attention or to assert dominance. We have other effective ways to communicate with words and body language in most cases. So what we don't use or need in nature, will often shrink or evolve for efficiency or practicallity. The animal kingdom often uses more basic means of communication with loudness being a primal factor of how well the message is made. If you can guard yourself with a loud enough roar, or find a mate with it. This will be a trait to keep developing and may the best win. However, there's always a tradeoff in evolution and this loudness can mean a loss of other abilities or even finesse with it. I'd rather have our articulations and subtlety than a loud roar that's no longer of much benefit personally.


Question: How is lactic acid removed from our cells and blood?

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 How is lactic acid removed from our cells and blood?

It is oxidation back to pyruvate in cells in the body or converted to glucose in the liver. Lactic acid is produced when you do no not have enough oxygen. If you look at the chemical formula you can see that the difference is 2 hydrogen atoms Lactic acid C3 H6 O3 Pyruvic acid C3 H4 O3 So when you break down glucose for energy you have extra hydrogen atoms that is combined with oxygen and produce water. If you do not have enough oxygen you can produce Lactic acid from Pyruvic acid to store the hydrogen atoms. When Oxygen is available you can remove the extra hydrogen and produce water and Pyruvic acid The Pyruvic acid is used in the Krebs cycle that is used in to release energy.


Question: Why do ads on social media platforms load with no problem, while the videos endlessly buffer?

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 Why do ads on social media platforms load with no problem, while the videos endlessly buffer?

Usually for me its the exact opposite, so you have a false premise that this is just the same way for everyone. But I CAN answer the question in any case. The video on a site are hosted from that site, are using their bandwidth and subject to whatever issues anything else on that server has. The ads, on the other hand, are not coming from the site you are viewing them on. They are being stream instead from a completely unrelated ad server. So problems the affect the main sight won't apply to the ads and vice versa. As for the specific issues you are experiencing, that I do not know. For that you'd have to consult a subreddit dedicated to helping you diagnose technical issues.


Question: why is it easier to drag something heavy than it is to lift it?

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 why is it easier to drag something heavy than it is to lift it?

First off, that isnt always true. When you lift an object, you have to overcome the force of gravity holding it down. When you drag the object, you have to overcome the friction between the item and whatever it is sitting on. Gravity is constant, but the friction can change depending on the object and what it's resting on. Take a sports car. Some sports cars with racing tires on good asphalt can turn at over 1g because of how much friction they make with the road- they are easier to lift vertically than to push sideways. But if it was on ice instead, a lot of that friction would go away, and it would be easier to push the car on the slippery ice than to pick it up.


Question: What does the 'cosmic microwave background radiation' picture show and why is it oval-shaped?

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 What does the 'cosmic microwave background radiation' picture show and why is it oval-shaped?

This is the visual representation of the map of remnant radiation left over from the big bang (or shortly thereafter.) It is oval because it is a flat representation of what the sensors recorded from Earth looking outwards in all directions. The areas of higher temperature correspond to areas in the universe (again, from Earth looking outwards) that have a greater density of mass. This map shows that there is a correlation between the state of the very early universe (in terms of matter density) and the current state.


Question: Why does some thunder crack through the sky doing a csshhhkrr sound and other ones produce a deep bass-boosted BOOOM?

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 Why does some thunder crack through the sky doing a csshhhkrr sound and other ones produce a deep bass-boosted BOOOM?

It largely depends on how close you are to it. The closer you are, the better the sound. It should resemble a loud crackle. But as you move away from the thunder, the sound wave starts to disperse and the sound gets less clear. So you ear a *boom* type of sound. Picture the sound wave as a bunch of people pushing each other in evry direction. After a while there's less of a reason to push people so the *fuzz* in that crowed gets less obvious, less clear.


Question: Why does pouring a beer diagonally into a glass make it froth less?

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 Why does pouring a beer diagonally into a glass make it froth less?

Because the liquid isn't experiencing the same energy from hitting the side of the glass at an angle, so fewer pockets of carbon dioxide are created and there's less froth. You can compare the force of the side of a glass with the difference between going off a 30 foot slide and a walking off a 30 foot wall.


Question: How does a pool table know to return the white ball when it's sunk, but keeps the coloured balls?

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 How does a pool table know to return the white ball when it's sunk, but keeps the coloured balls?

Years ago it used to be that the cue ball was ever so slightly larger than the other balls. Nowadays, the cue ball on most coin-op tables has a magnetic core. The return chute inside the table has a magnet that pulls the cue ballaway from the colored ball depository into a separate return chute.


Question: Why is it that when we think of a bad or unpleasant memory we grab our heads?

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 Why is it that when we think of a bad or unpleasant memory we grab our heads?

When we are thinking of a bad memory, we are feeling a sort of "a version" of stress from that situation. Stressful situations can leave us feeling exposed, so we naturally try to protect ourselves (head, or stomach are both vounerable parts of a body) and partially to isolate ourselves from momentary situation so we can deal with the stress. (Hands on your head isolate you a bit from your surrounding.) I imagine the tendency to "grab our head" can be especially strong if the "bad memory" is connected with feeling vounerable, exposed (also ashamed) or fearful.


Question: Why does starting stuff up take so much energy?

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 Why does starting stuff up take so much energy?

Basic law of motion, inertia- objects at rest tend to stay at rest and objects in motion tend to stay in motion unless acted upon by an outside force Basically objects need extra energy to start moving or changing motion (changing direction or speed) as opposed to continuously moving to break the static force of inertia


Question: water rings are much harder to remove from marble surfaces than others. How come?

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 water rings are much harder to remove from marble surfaces than others. How come?

Two reasons: 1) Marble is a relatively soft, porous surface, and the mineral crystals that water leaves behind can embed themselves physically in the surface. 2) Marble is composed primarily of calcium carbonate family minerals. Your typical municipal water supply will evaporate and leave calcium carbonate family minerals. The rings and the marble are chemically similar so you can't rely on cleaners that attack calcium deposits. That's why we use the silica-based granite for counters and high-traffic areas, it's much tougher and resistant to calcium stains.


Question: How does the Crocodile Dentist toy work?

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 How does the Crocodile Dentist toy work?

My guess is there is a disk directly below the disk that has holes for safe teeth to get pushed down through. The triggering tooth pushes the disk down and triggers the jaw to close. The disk gets spun every time you open the jaws and is randomized by that spinning.


Question: Why does it matter how much debt a country has?

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 Why does it matter how much debt a country has?

Manageable levels of Government debt are arguably a good thing. What's important is that a government can't be in a position where it cannot afford to pay it's Bonds when they become due without needing to borrow excessive amounts of money or slashing all of it's spending. This is what happened in Greece. To put it into perspective the yearly budget of the US is 3.8 Trillion, while the debt is 22 Trillion. Yes 22 Trillion is a lot of money, but you have to take economy of scale into consideration. That's comparable to a person that makes $50,000 a year owing $285,000 on a house. Which is just outside the 40% x 15 years rule. So it's a bunch of debt but not excessive. There's actually an entire industry built around government debt. The Bond market and retirement industry. Most of the governments debt is owned by individuals and pension funds in the form of Bonds. A bond is a termed loan where the government agrees to borrow X amount of money for Y years and then pays it back at Z interest rate. These are considered a very safe investment (the US government is constitutionally obligated to pay its debts) and as such much of the US retirement savings and pension funds are heavily invested in US bonds. So government debt in that sense is a good thing. Government debt is much more like corporate debt than personal finance. We keep being beaten over the head that personal debt is bad, and that's where this idea of all debt is bad comes from. *Why does the government keep doing something that they tell us is a bad thing?* Almost all the fortune 500 companies operate in debt, because borrowing money helps companies grow. When you talk about leveraged buyouts and corporate acquisitions these are almost always done with debt, few mega-corporations buy out companies in cash. The government operates in much the same way. If they need money now to operate it's easier to borrow than it is to get more money from taxes. Tax revenue fluctuates through the year so some months have less money coming in than others, so the government borrows to make up for shortfalls in the budget. To be perfectly honest this is also a big part of the problem. Raising taxes and slashing spending is an easy way for politicians to become unpopular, while borrowing money isn't seen the same way. That's a big part of the reason the debt keeps getting bigger. In a healthy state the government should borrow money to maintain programs and operations when the economy is low, and should pay back it's debt when the economy is strong. Unfortunately that often doesn't happen. The government has a tendency of borrowing heavily to pay for things like wars which rake onto the debt. Government debt is fine when it's well managed, but unfortunately more often than not governments fall into one of two categories. Left wing parties often spend too much on programs while not raising taxes enough, while the Right slashes taxes too much to incentivize business which put more of a burden on social programs and usually while running up military expenditures in the process.


Question: if a fly hovered inside a moving car, would it move along with it or be smashed against the rear windshield?

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 if a fly hovered inside a moving car, would it move along with it or be smashed against the rear windshield?

So it's all about whether the car is *accelerating* , not just moving, if the car is moving at a constant speed, not speeding up or slowing down, then in terms of physics affecting the fly, then it's the same as if the car was sitting still. But if the car is accelerating, then the fly would appear to be pushed back against the rear window, just the same as when you are in a moving car you feel nothing, but if the car accelerates, you feel yourself pushed back in your seat. Another example is when an aeroplane is taking off you feel forced back into your chair as it speeds up along the runway, but when the plane is airborne travelling at hundreds of kilometers per hour, you can walk around just fine


Question: What causes a phobia to make people so irrationally scared of things?

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 What causes a phobia to make people so irrationally scared of things?

I am 25 and I am dead scared of wall lizard.....I am not scared of other reptiles....I am not scared of alligators or crocodile I am just scared of wall lizards ...I see one in a room and I just can't enter that room for the next few hours and I don't know why I am like this


Question: How does an icicle form?

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 How does an icicle form?

It starts with a one water droplet hanging off of an awning. The droplet is held on to the surface with surface tension, then it gets cold enough for it to freeze. Then a second water-droplet flows down the frozen water-droplet, hangs on to the tip via surface tension, then freezes. Repeat over and over again, eventually it gets bigger and bigger. Ta-dah! Icicle.


Question: what does the 2 minutes to midnight on the doomsday clock mean ?

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 what does the 2 minutes to midnight on the doomsday clock mean ?

Its suppose to represent the threat of human annihilation (nuclear war) based on geopolitical unrest. It’s no more than someone’s opinion. The sad part is they have to keep moving it closer to zero to stay relevant. I’m not sure what they are going to do when they get under 1. Start using seconds instead of minutes?


Question: What’s the difference between toxin level and tolerance when it comes to substances like marijuana? If you go through a 10-day detox program and come out clean, is your tolerance reset as well?

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 What’s the difference between toxin level and tolerance when it comes to substances like marijuana? If you go through a 10-day detox program and come out clean, is your tolerance reset as well?

They are completely different things. "Toxin" is a largely bullshit term that loosely refers to whether a drug and its metabolites can be detected in your system to establish use. This varies greatly with the kind of testing they are doing and what kind of user you are. Tolerance is a physiological adaptation to a drug, rendering it less effective. Tolerance can degrade over time, but persists long after the metabolites are gone.


Question: Why do meats taste better when cooked with the bone in?

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 Why do meats taste better when cooked with the bone in?

Bone contains bone marrow which is rich in fat and sometimes blod cells (depends on weather the bone is young or old). This alone gives the meat, or the stew, a deeper taste, especially if the meat has little fat. Some people when they make stakes and such put fat instead of vegetabe oil, it's similar with bones.


Question: What prevents red meat from having salmonella?

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 What prevents red meat from having salmonella?

Nothing. Red meat commonly has salmonella, but there are some differences in how the meats contain the bacteria that make it easier or harder to spread. Beef is a typically denser meat, and Salmonella typically stays on the outer edges. So as long as you cook the meat to a proper internal temperature, you can get away with eating even rare steak. Ground beef is more problematic, as the process mixes the inner and outer layers of meat, introduces more liquid, and lowers the density. So, the beef has to be inspected further to ensure it doesn't start with too high of a level of contamination, and has to be cooked to a higher internal temperature to be eaten safely. Steaks can be served rare, but hamburgers should be cooked well done for safety.


Question: Why is someone who is 50% Black and 50% White considered a Black American rather than a White American, beyond them simply having a darker skin pigmentation than someone who is 100% White?

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 Why is someone who is 50% Black and 50% White considered a Black American rather than a White American, beyond them simply having a darker skin pigmentation than someone who is 100% White?

Because our society can be racist towards people of mixed ethnicity, and tends to treat them poorly. It's mainly that racist people don't stop and ask "Excuse me, do you happen to have any European ancestry?" but instead generalize and assume that anyone that has any African features at all is fair game to discriminate against.


Question: - Why is it easier to rebuild muscle than to build it in the first place?

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 - Why is it easier to rebuild muscle than to build it in the first place?

I'm not a professional in any way but I've been lifting weights for about 15 years now. From what I understand when you start working out most of what you're trying to do is building muscle memory. Simplified it means the more you do something the better you get at it. That's why it seems easier to get back into it after being away for awhile. You may have lost strength but your muscles remember the movements.


Question: They teach you things like Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe. How do they know??

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 They teach you things like Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe. How do they know??

Theory - Big Bang released a lot of energy. Lots of energy means particles fly apart from each other. The most common element will then be hydrogen since it consists of the least number of particles. By the same logic, the second most abundant will be helium. Experiment - Astrophysicists observe emission spectra (intensity of various incoming light frequencies) to identify elements. Elements can only emit light of particular frequency. Thus, the emission spectra "encodes" the type of elements observed.


Question: what is the whirling wind noise heard when putting your ear to a glass?

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 what is the whirling wind noise heard when putting your ear to a glass?

It is **not** the blood flowing through your ear or head. You can prove this yourself simply by pressing the cup to your head such that it seals completely; if it was the blood flow in your ear/head then the sound should continue, but you will find it almost entirely is cut off. Instead the sound you hear is ambient noise reflecting off the interior of the cup (or shell) and jumbling together into unrecognizable white noise. Some people think this sounds similar to crashing ocean waves, a similar jumble of uncountable individual noise from millions of water droplets.


Question: What is the actual difference between shampoo and body wash?

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 What is the actual difference between shampoo and body wash?

Very little. Shampoo, shower gel, bubble bath and liquid hand soap all have the same basic ingredients. One you'll often see in there is PEG (polyethylene glycol) with a number after it. The number is how long the polymer chain is and therefore how gloopy or runny the stuff is, and that's often the main difference. Shampoo may have some additional ingredients to condition your hair or whatever, some hand soaps have different scents etc. but they're all just variations on the same thing.


Question: how every country can have national debt? Then which country is at the receiving end?

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 how every country can have national debt? Then which country is at the receiving end?

National debt is debt national government owe to anyone, including other governments, companies, individuals, and even other parts of the same government. If you have a US Saving Bond (for example) then you own a piece of the US national debt. Keep in mind, debt is just the amount of money a government owes. It isn't zeroed out if someone else also owes that government money.


Question: Why do miniguns have to "rev" or spin up before being able to fire?

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 Why do miniguns have to "rev" or spin up before being able to fire?

A minigun is actually unloaded until you push the trigger. It can take a fraction of a second for the feed mechanism to get up to speed so it can load the chambers of the gun until the gun actually starts firing. And you do not want the feed mechanism to go at an odd speed as it is possible for the components to become misaligned and the gun will jam. The motors in the miniguns are therefore quite powerful and spins the gun up to speed in just a fraction of a second. However this can be noticeable if you try to aim it at fast moving targets. But it is nothing like the delay you might see a minigun in some popular video games have. This is done more for game balance purposes to make the minigun less powerful.


Question: How is it that basically every country has a national debt?

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 How is it that basically every country has a national debt?

Personal debt and national debts aren't really the same thing. Governmental debt is typically issued through things called bonds. When a bond is bought, the government guarantees that the owner of the bond will be paid interest for their investment into the government. Most of this 'debt' is owned by the public. So in this way, national debt is more analogous to a a stock: People will buy bonds (like they buy shares of a company) and get paid in interest (like some companies issue dividends to shareholders) over a period of time, usually 10+ years. However, interest rates for these bonds are typically very low, right now a 30 year bond has interest rates of 3.1%, which is far below what you would expect to average on the stock market. So why would anybody purchase a treasury note or bond? Because you are essentially guaranteed your interest payments; the US has *never* defaulted on a single payment like this. So it becomes very attractive to people, countries, or organizations that want an extremely safe place to stash their money and have it grow. Of course, it's entirely possible for countries to default on this stuff, it happened to Greece a couple years back. As I said before, the US has never defaulted, and if they do start defaulting, you probably have more to worry about than getting paid your 3% interest rate. So the TL;DR is: People investing in the government is what generally creates national debt. Investing in the US government through bonds and notes is essentially the safest place you can put your money and still earn reasonable interest on it, as it has never failed to make a payment. Though it's possible for countries to default on their payments, creditors can't simply walk up and demand all of their owed money. Edit: Missing words


Question: Why do rates of growth use exponents and rates of decay use Euler's number?

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 Why do rates of growth use exponents and rates of decay use Euler's number?

They both actually use the same formula: N = a(1 + r)^t where a = initial value, r = growth rate (negative for decay), t = time However, this formula assumes discrete growth/decay, like interest compounded monthly. When you have a bacterial culture, the bacteria don't wait until the end of each hour to divide, they are doing so continuously. You can try to simulate this by expressing the rate over increasingly smaller intervals of time. Let's say each hour, 10% of the bacteria in your culture will reproduce, and you want to know how much it will grow over the 10 hours. We could use an interval of 10 hours, naively multiplying the growth rate by 10: (1 + 10 * 0.1)^1 = 1.1 This assumes the bacteria wait until the end of the 10 hours and 10% divide, which of course is wrong. They are dividing continuously, and some of the new ones will produce new ones, compounding our growth. So let's try 1 hour instead: (1 + 1 * 0.1)^10 = 2.59 That's a lot more. Better, but they don't wait until the end of the hour, either, so let's try minutes: (1 + 1/60 * 0.1)^(10 * 60) = 2.716 And seconds: (1 + 1/3600 * 0.1)^(10 * 3600) = 2.7182 Is that number starting to look familiar? Of course it does, it is e, Euler's constant. In fact, this is one of the ways e is defined, as the limit of (1 + 1/n)^n as n approaches infinity. This gives us our formula for continuous exponential growth as: N = e^rt **TL;DR** It isn't about growth vs. decay, it is discrete vs. continuous.


Question: How does bank money lending work? They let you borrow money that doesn't exist?

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 How does bank money lending work? They let you borrow money that doesn't exist?

The money does exist, but in effect, two people have it at the same time. Lets say that the only two people in the world are Bonnie and Clyde. Clyde has deposited $10,000 into the bank. Bonnie wants to buy a new house, and goes to the bank for a loan for $8,000. The bank happily gives Bonnie the loan and she buys Clyde's house for $8,000. Clyde takes his check and once again deposits it into the bank. Clyde had $18,000 when only $10,000 existed at the begining!? You may scream. In a way...yes. Indide the bank vault, there is only $10,000 of cash. What if Clyde wanted to withdraw all his money? This would be called a "bank run" when a lot of people all try and withdraw all their money, forcing the bank to run out of current cash and likely force it to sell assets or close (or both). This has actually happened in the US in the past. A couple factors make this unlikely. 1) Even the small banks are pretty large. If one or two people withdraw all their money, chances are its not even a dent in the banks cash reserve. 2) The federal government mandates banks keep at least a certain level of cash on hand. This ensures banks are not operating completely without cash. 3) The Federal government insures most legitimate bank deposits up to $250,000. This means that even if you think a bank may fail, you dont necessarily need to withdraw all your cash asap because its insured. You are protected. 4) Banks have assets, just not cash. That $8,000 loan that Bonnie took out above? That is an asset to the bank, it is worth something. If something happened, the bank could sell that loan to someone else in order to get the cash it needs.


Question: How does simply stirring milk (e.g. whipped cream, churned butter) change it into “different” food?

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 How does simply stirring milk (e.g. whipped cream, churned butter) change it into “different” food?

The whipping means tiny air bubbles get in to the liquid. The fatty molecules of the milk gather round these bubbles and protect them, and the bubbles cling together, making the liquid more gloopy. When you say cream is heavier than milk, I'm afraid you're misled. Milk has a higher density than cream, meaning a litre of milk weighs more than a litre of cream. But it might feel like cream is heavier because 1) it's thicker (more *viscos*) so it's harder to drag a spoon through, and 2) a spoonful of cream is probably heavier because you can have a heaped spoonful. Milk doesn't heap well!


Question: How it is determined where one ocean starts and another one ends?

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 How it is determined where one ocean starts and another one ends?

It is largely arbitrary. The oceans are designated to aid navigation and geography. Of course there are general temperature differences and salinity differences, but it is just one big mass of water, which freely flows together. Of course the oceans don’t know they are separate, and whales swim between them heedless of what we call them.


Question: Why is Windows 32-bit referred to as x86 and not x32 while 64-bit is referred to as x64?

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 Why is Windows 32-bit referred to as x86 and not x32 while 64-bit is referred to as x64?

The 8086 was an early Intel processor which led to the 186, 286, 386, and 486. The architecture was called x86 and anything compatible with it was x86 compatible. These were some of the earliest and most wide spread 32 bit processors. Then AMD comes along and extends x86 to support 64 bit addresses and they name it x86-64. This later got shorted to just x64 for most situations x86 and x64 both refer to architecture styles not bits, but those architectures are built for 32 bits and 64 bits respectively so many people use the terms interchangeably.