Question: Why do softer things like blankets feel warmer than things like rocks?

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 Why do softer things like blankets feel warmer than things like rocks?

When something feels hot or cold what you are actually feeling is the heat entering or leaving your body. So two objects at the same temperature might *feel* different against your skin depending on how easy it is for heat to flow between your body and the object. It's very difficult for heat to flow between solids and gases. Heat moves from one object to another mostly when the hot atoms hit the cold atoms and pass some energy over. (for the science nerds: yes I'm excluding radiative transfer since it's not the differentiating mechanism between OPs examples). Since atoms are further apart in gases, there's not a lot of gas atoms colliding against the solid object's atoms. However, heat flows better between solid-to-liquids, and solids-to-solids. That's because the atoms in solids and liquids are packed together, so they hit each other and pass around energy really well. Things like blankets, coats, and the insulation builders put in your house's walls, are filled with tiny air bubbles. That means for heat to flow through them, the heat has to pass from solid to gas to solid to gas to solid... Which is really hard to do. So not much heat leaves your body through the blanket, which makes them *feel* warm. Additionally, since your body continuously generates more heat, you can actually build up too much heat between you and the blanket since so little heat is leaving (this is why you might start sweating while wearing a winter coat even if it's freezing outside). However, if you touch a solid or liquid, such as a rock or water, which are at the same temperature as the blanket, they will *feel* colder because more heat will leave your body because heat flows better from solid-to-solid and solid-to-liquid. On the other hand, if the rock, water, and blanket are hotter than your skin, the rock and water will feel very hot compared to a blanket because more heat *enters* your body through the solids and liquids. This is why it's easier to burn yourself on hot water or metal than with hot air. This is also why you can freeze your tongue to a metal pole when it's cold outside. Sticking your tongue out into freezing air doesn't freeze your tongue right away because the heat flows too slowly (your body's heat generation can keep up). But, when your tongue touches the metal, so much heat leaves the tongue that it quickly freezes tight against the pole.


Question: how does something rough like sandpaper, make something smooth?

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 how does something rough like sandpaper, make something smooth?

The smoothness comes from the material being uniform in height. So if you have a rough block of wood, there's a whole bunch of bits of wood that are taller than adjacent bits of wood. When you sand it, you scrub away those taller bits until everything's on the same level.


Question: How do the bubbles/fizz stay in carbonated drinks?

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 How do the bubbles/fizz stay in carbonated drinks?

In a pool, the air above the water is at a low enough pressure that the gas in the water can escape. In a closed soda bottle, a little bit of gas will escape the liquid, raising the pressure in the air above it. This is why there is a sound (pressure release) when you open the bottle. However, before you open the bottle, the air pressure is high enough to force the gas to remain in the liquid. Gas moves from high pressure to low pressure, so if the air above the liquid is already high pressure, the gas will not move there.


Question: How do built-in random functions work in programming languages?

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 How do built-in random functions work in programming languages?

Any random function in a programming language is only pseudo random as you say. You give it a 'seed' and it manipulates the seed to give you a number that is pretty random for most purposes other than cryptography. But it will eventually start repeating and the number produced is deterministic (i.e., given the seed and the function, you can predict your 'random' number). So it doesn't 'pick' a number as much as just produce an output given an input just like any other function. If you see the full list [here]( URL_0 ), you'll see they are all just normal functions that take some input and produce a 'pseudo random' number as output. Beyond this though, cryptographically secure random numbers must come from some 'true source of entropy' which exists outside the digital system. You could sample say the voltage on an open wire or read the temperature of the system super accurately to say 10 decimal places and use the lower few numbers as a random number. In practice though, this number is then used as the 'seed' to then be processed to produce a 'true random number' that you can use for secure transactions and such.


Question: Why does metal change different colors when it's heated and allowed to cool?

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 Why does metal change different colors when it's heated and allowed to cool?

if you are talking about heating metal up to like 1500 C or more, it turns metal > brownish > reddish > white and back the same way because of something known as blackbody radiation. basically everything, coloured or not, transparent or not, will go through the same colour changes as it is heated, and begin to give off light at certain colours at certain temperatures. Basically brown (really just dull red) going to red / orange then white. Which is where 'glowing from the heat' comes from. if you're talking about certain metals (say, iron) turning bluish at times, it's because of the thickness of iron oxide (or any other metal oxide) forming at very precise thicknesses, causing something known as thin-film diffraction. Pre-requisite: you know that light is made of different colours, which means different wavelengths - wavelengths literally is a measure of distance. very small ones when we're talking about colours that we can see. back to metal: as iron (or other metals) are heated, they form the corresponding metal oxide (the metal is being burned!) and the thickness of the layer that grows on the surface, will be similar to wavelengths of certain colours, which causes light that shines on the metal to be bent a certain amount, depending on the thickness of the oxide (metal ash!) and when the bent light reaches our eyes, we see it as colour. Disclaimer: There's alot more science left out.


Question: How does Planet Earth get all these insane angles and right next to animals without disturbing their natural choices?

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 How does Planet Earth get all these insane angles and right next to animals without disturbing their natural choices?

I make wildlife documentaries. This is an answer that I cut and pasted from a previous thread. I can't really say too much about long lens stuff cos I specialise on invertebrates. But for them what you do is use a mixture of sets and wild shot footage. You have certain things that you can't film in a studio and other things that you can't film in the wild. This is an example of the [former]( URL_0 ) And this the [latter]( URL_1 ) Say you want footage of the inside of a nest. You won't be able to get this in the wild without disturbing the animal. So you need to construct a specially made tank that will allow them to be calm relaxed and go about with their normal behaviour, but also allow you to light it and get good camera angles. The footage of the wasp in the tunnel in this [film illustrates]( URL_2 ) this. What I did was cut a sample tube in half, fill it with sand so it looked natural. Then stuck it to the side of an opti-White glass tank. Kept it in the dark till the wasp got used to using it, then once it had I just filmed away. Another big thing is editing. You can use careful editing to make it look like the animal is seeing something that is not actually there. For example; the scene of the harvest mouse in Planet earth two, when it is being hunted by a barn owl. The mouse was almost certainly shot in a set and the owl in the wild. The two bits of footage were edited together to make it seem like the owl was hunting the mouse. When in reality they were probably shot days if not weeks apart. Edit: I thought I would include a link to [this video]( URL_3 ) which has a sort of making of bit at the end.


Question: why do those dark rings under your eyes form? even with proper sleep, diet and exercise?

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 why do those dark rings under your eyes form? even with proper sleep, diet and exercise?

Has to do with blood pooling in the skin underneath your eyes. Could be genetic, staring at screens also can cause it, plus it just happens naturally with age and sun exposure. Even slight differences in sleep patterns can trigger it. It’s not really an indicator of anything, and most people have them, it’s just a weird physical quirk


Question: What causes the feeling of "heaviness" in your eyes when you're sad or depressed?

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 What causes the feeling of "heaviness" in your eyes when you're sad or depressed?

Your eyelids and eyebrows are muscles just like others, and they're pretty damn active just about all the time you're awake, so they experience fatigue when you're tired, even if it's low emotional energy or depression fatiguing you. Sickness, allergies, and even sun damage can swell your eyelids which can give you that sensation without much relief when you do close them. Some people also just get that sensation a lot easier because of the shape of the skin around their eyes.


Question: How can there be different sizes of infinity sets if all of the sets are endless?

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 How can there be different sizes of infinity sets if all of the sets are endless?

Imagine you wrote down every whole number starting from 1 and went on forever. That's an infinity. Now imagine you wrote down every whole *Even* number, starting at 2, then 4, then 6, etc. You can see that for every number in your second list, you can match it with a number in your first list just by dividing it by two. So 2 maps to 1 in the first list, 4 maps to 2 in the first list, 6 maps to 3 in the first list, and you can do this infinitely. This means that the second list is also infinite, but its the same size infinity as the first list. Now imagine you need to make a list of every decimal between 1 and 2. Where do you start? What's the first number in your list? 1.001? But that's bigger than 1.0001, which is bigger than 1.000000001. You can't find a starting point, and so you can't list the decimals all out, you can't count how many there are. This is also an infinity, but you can't link it to your first list. It is a "bigger" infinity than the first infinity.


Question: Why are ice cubes sticky?

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 Why are ice cubes sticky?

When you touch an ice cube there is either moisture in your hand or the heat of your hands melts a little bit of the surface of the ice. Over time (can be very short depending on how cold the ice cubes are) more heat transfers and that bit of moisture gets cold enough to freeze. Now your fingers are very loosely frozen to the ice cube.


Question: How do they isolate oxygen to fill tanks with?

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 How do they isolate oxygen to fill tanks with?

Most of the time is is done by cooling down air and when you reach the temperature oxygen become a liquid you can extract it. Air is mostly Nitrogen. oxygen, water, argon and carbon dioxide . The water and carbon dioxide will become a liquid(solid before oxygen and the other will become a liquid after It is a bit how you distill alcohol by heating it up and the alcohol boil before water but it is done by cooling it down instead.


Question: What exactly is happening when you get sleep paralysis, and what causes it?

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 What exactly is happening when you get sleep paralysis, and what causes it?

Iirc basically the reason most people dont sleep walk and act out all their dreams physically is because our body releases a chemical throughout your body that effectively paralyzes you until you start to wake up. Sleep paralysis is when the chemical doesnt go away when you wake up for a long while. So you just sit there, unable to move or talk but your almost awake. I've had it maybe three times and its honestly terrifying because you cant call for help.


Question: If every cell in the human body is replaced in a 7 year period, how are memories retained longer than that?

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 If every cell in the human body is replaced in a 7 year period, how are memories retained longer than that?

Neurons are not really replaced. They stay with you until they die and do not get replaced for the most part, that's why cognitive abilities are reduced with age. Edit : That's also why neurodegenerative diseases are fatal and stroke can be devastating. Overall the scientific litterature indicates that new neurons do sprouts but very few (about 500 a day if I recall correctly against 90 billions of neurons already presents).


Question: If someone wins a major academic prize for math for solving an equation that was thought to be impossible, how do we know they did it right?

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 If someone wins a major academic prize for math for solving an equation that was thought to be impossible, how do we know they did it right?

They write down their step by step "proof" which includes every equation that they used to arrive at their answer. Other mathematicians then follow along their step by step guide and see if they reach the same answer and to verify that they did not make any math errors along the way.


Question: I just saw the results of a survey on the news. They had an error margin of "3.3 percentage points, 19 times out of 20." What's the error margin the remaining 1 time out of 20?

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 I just saw the results of a survey on the news. They had an error margin of "3.3 percentage points, 19 times out of 20." What's the error margin the remaining 1 time out of 20?

The other one time out of twenty, the margin of error is more than 3.3 percentage points. Let's say the result of the survey was 50% yes. This means that half of the respondents said yes to the survey. Now what does that say about all the people who didn't answer the survey? If only two people were asked, it doesn't say a lot. But if a lot of people were asked, the survey is very likely to be a good reflection of the general population (barring problems with the way survey respondents were selected, which is pretty common). So saying there is a margin of error of 3.3 percentage points 19 times out of 20 means that there is a 95% chance (19/20) that if you asked every single person, 46.7%-53.3% of the population would say yes to the survey question.


Question: Why are horses still so sound-sensitive, even though they were used in wars years ago? How could they have been used in wars?

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 Why are horses still so sound-sensitive, even though they were used in wars years ago? How could they have been used in wars?

They were trained. Horses aren't natural soldiers any more than people are. They had to be exposed gradually to the sights and sounds of battle, and taught what to do. There's a video on YouTube of a guy who demonstrates this; I'll see if I can find it. Here's one and I think he has a few more. URL_0


Question: What are magnets made of?

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 What are magnets made of?

Magnetism is created by the movement of electricity, typically electrons. Electrons spin, and orbit the nucleus of an atom (so they move), and they ARE electricity, so each electron is a tiny magnet. Most atoms have enough electrons spinning in opposition that the magnetic effects cancel out. Some atoms (iron, cobalt, nickel), the electrons spin the same way, so overall the atom itself is a magnet. So, going from individual atoms to quantities of a substance that we handle in day-to-day activities, there are about 10^20 - 10^23 atoms per gram or ounce of material, so the chance of them lining up all pointing in the same direction is very small. However, if you heat up the material to where it gets melty and the atoms get "loose", and then apply a magnet in the vicinity, the individual atoms will line up with the magnet, because of the magnetic forces. Then you cool the material to cold solid, and trap the atoms all lined up, so the individual atomic magnets all add up together to form a hand-sized magnet. [National Geographic Article]( URL_0 ).


Question: Why and how, given that there's no nerves in our brain, do some headaches feel like they are located inside our head rather than on the surface?

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 Why and how, given that there's no nerves in our brain, do some headaches feel like they are located inside our head rather than on the surface?

So, pain receptors are not what feel pain. Your pain receptors are activated by stimulus, and they send a message up to your brain. Your brain analyses this message, and *it* is what decides that you are indeed feeling pain. You feel pain with your brain, not your pain receptors. But without pain receptors to feed information into your brain, how do you get a pain sensation? Well, your brain is the boss. It can make you feel whatever it wants to. It can interpret what is going on however it wants to. And sometimes that means “my head is aching”.


Question: What's the current going theory for how life started? Was it an amino acid soup until one chain just happened to self-replicate?

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 What's the current going theory for how life started? Was it an amino acid soup until one chain just happened to self-replicate?

There is no generally agreed upon theory. But one of the more prevalent ones currently is the [RNA world hypothesis]( URL_0 ). Today we have DNA with the main role of storing genetic information, and proteins as the main functional unit that performs the majority of biological processes and cellular functions. RNA can be both a molecule for storing genetic information as well as a functional molecule, although it doesn't do either of those as well as DNA or proteins. In the RNA world hypothesis, the origin of life happened with RNA, and then DNA and proteins came later to take over for most of what RNA did originally as more specialized and efficient molecules. As for the first RNA, again we don't know but one hypothesis is similar to what you propose in your question. There was a nucleotide-rich soup with some source of energy that caused the nucleotides to spontaneously form chains. Some of these chains happened to have the property that they were self-replicating, and at that point evolution by natural selection kicks in. The sequences of nucleotides that are better at self-replicating become more prevalent than the ones that are worse at it, or can't do it at all. Any mutation that makes them better at replicating would replace the previous ones. Eventually mutations would occur that cause the RNA to use other molecules in the environment to form a protective barrier, creating the first cell. And so on until you have Kevin Hart.


Question: Why does the wind seem to drop in the evening after a windy day? Its never as windy when it gets dark

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 Why does the wind seem to drop in the evening after a windy day? Its never as windy when it gets dark

Wind is caused by the difference in air pressure in different places. Warm air is less dense than cold air, so it wants to rise up and cold air wants to fall down. Cold air will push warm air out of the way, typically upwards where the warm air will be pushed away, cool down, and fall down elsewhere to continue the cycle. Those different air temperatures pushing each other around is wind. During the day, the Sun is warming the ground, which is warming the air. Air doesn't absorb visible light very well - obviously, that's why you can see through it. At night, the Sun...isn't. So there isn't as much energy warming the air. There is less of a difference between the warm air and the cold air, which is why there is less wind at night *generally speaking*. Also, if it's been windy all day that means the air has been mixing and moving and shoving other air out of the way *all day*. That particular weather front may have simply pushed the other front out of the way already and there's not much left until the next one moves in.


Question: Whats the difference between a countries gdp and ppp?

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 Whats the difference between a countries gdp and ppp?

GDP is usually expressed in two ways - in absolute currency amount (let’s say USD) and converted to account for different purchasing power or PPP (purchasing power parity). The latter one is useful for comparing the effect of GDP on lives of people between two countries. For example, let’s say we have two countries, A and B with the same GDP of $10. The only thing you can buy, for simplicity, is milk. In country A, $1 buys 1 liter of milk. In country B, $1 buys 5liters of milk. Although in absolute numbers the GDP is the same, person living in country B has more purchasing power than the person in country A.


Question: Why are anal muscles involved whenever one sneezes ?

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 Why are anal muscles involved whenever one sneezes ?

Hahahaha there's no delicate way to put this. It's to prevent you from forcefully shitting yourself. Humans evolved over time with certain traits that are suited for social groups. Groups that just pooped where they ate and lived died off. Somewhere along the line we developed a trait to clench up when we sneeze, that provided an advantage, that group bred more successful offspring, and eventually the trait became prominent in the species.


Question: What causes gum to lose flavor and why do some guns lose flavor quicker than others?

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 What causes gum to lose flavor and why do some guns lose flavor quicker than others?

There are lots of things that disolve out of gum quickly: sugar, certain flavorings, etc. Jucy fruit, for example, is sugar sweetened and it's primary flavorant is water soluble, so the flavor disappears down your throat. On the other hand, mint gums are flavored with menthol, methyl salicylate, spearmint oil, or something along those lines. Those are all oily and don't disolve well. So, they stick around.


Question: What keeps blood "alive" after we donate it?

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 What keeps blood "alive" after we donate it?

A part of you body that's separated from you like blood, or a severed limb, doesn't simply die instantly. All the cells that don't suffer some kind of direct damage simply keep on doing their jobs like normal until they run out of sugars, oxygen, or simply die off through their normal processes. If the cells are no longer connected to you, the first thing they're likely to run out of is oxygen. However, they only use up their oxygen when they're working - when they use energy to perform slcell functions. That's usually all the time, but if the cell is brought to a very low temperature safely (there are special techniques to make that happen), the cell's functions slow down and it doesn't use energy - and oxygen - as fast. That means the cells are still alive when they get put into another person.


Question: How do movie profits work? What constitutes a film that has "broken-even"?

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 How do movie profits work? What constitutes a film that has "broken-even"?

I don't know *all* the finer details behind this, but the general "Hollywood Math" is that movies need to earn double their production budget to break even. One reason is that the studios don't get 100% of the profits from ticket sales, so even if those profits are about equal to the production budget the amount the studio gets is less than that. Marketing costs also tend to be separate from a movie's production budget, so that can add a significant amount of money to the amount a film needs to make to break even in terms of *overall* cost. > If "The Man From Uncle" did make a loss then why is a sequel being considered? If a movie does "good enough" and seems to have a decent-sized audience that would go see a sequel, studios can adjust the budget based on anticipated sales. If the first movie made a decent amount of money but didn't recoup its budget, they can make the next one on a lower budget (the reverse is also true: big success = bigger budget for sequel). Also, some films that weren't very successful at the box office end up becoming more popular over time and make a lot of money off of DVD/streaming sales, and the studios figure these new "late-comer fans" would go to see a sequel.


Question: What makes a solar flare so dangerous?

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 What makes a solar flare so dangerous?

A solar flare itself is not dangerous. Solar flares often (but not always) cause coronal mass ejections, which are huge clouds of charged particles that can be launched towards earth. Two things happen when that cloud gets to earth. 1) The particles hit satellites directly. This can corrupt or even destroy processors and memory onboard the satellite, rendering it pretty much brain dead. A brain dead satellite cannot be controlled or orbit corrected, therefore it becomes a hazard to other spacecraft. 2) The particles smash into the earth's magnetosphere. The magnetosphere then rings like a bell. That ringing can induce very voltages in long wires, such as power transmission and telephone lines. Voltages that power and telephone systems are not equipped to handle. Circuits can blow, transformers can explode, things will get ugly. On September 1, 1859, a massive flare erupted from the sun and it's associated CME hit about 16 hours later. For the next day or so, there was a huge magnetic storm that induced currents in telegraph lines. Telegraph operators got zapped and they could actually run the telegraphs without batteries. March 9, 1989, was another large solar flare that had consequences on Earth. The induced power line currents caused circuit breakers and generators in Quebec to trip out and put a good portion of the province in the dark.


Question: Why did we go from BC to AD? Were the people back then aware of the change or was it something we labeled later on?

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 Why did we go from BC to AD? Were the people back then aware of the change or was it something we labeled later on?

The numbering system we use today was put into use in the year 525 AD by the Christian church. All the years before that were made part of the AD/BC system retroactively. No one in the year 200 AD said "hey, it's the year 200 AD." They numbered their years through other means, like the reign of the current Roman emperor or the founding of Rome itself, or other regional methods.


Question: Calculating radiation received at distance from light source?

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 Calculating radiation received at distance from light source?

It's simple, it's like spreading butter. The radiation from the bulb is 10W, and will be spread over the surface of the room. A room of 2m radius will have 4 times the surface of a room of 1m radius (surface grows quadratically). Therefore, the power received is scaled by 1/distance^2 . Notice the unit is W/m^2 . So no, the further you go, the less power you receive. And therefore, the more powerful you need the lightbulb to be if your goal is to disinfect the room. Note that anything in the shadow won't get disinfected...


Question: Why is 2% inflation better for the economy than 0% inflation?

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 Why is 2% inflation better for the economy than 0% inflation?

Inflation incentivizes people to do something with their money order to grow it so they outpace inflation. So you have a lot more people investing than you would have otherwise. Those investments help grow businesses and create jobs. It also encourages spending so those new businesses that were created thanks to those investments have customers.


Question: Why didn't Gilbert Luis, who was nominated for Nobel Prize 35 times win?

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 Why didn't Gilbert Luis, who was nominated for Nobel Prize 35 times win?

It's somewhat controversial and no one knows for sure, but one of the members of the committee was a buddy of one of his enemies and it's believed that he blocked him from ever winning to help his friend get back at him. It's all just speculation, although there's apparently some evidence pointing that way.


Question: When an ex drug addict talks slowly and slurs their words even after been sober for years, what parts of the brain have been damaged and how are they damaged? Is it reversible?

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 When an ex drug addict talks slowly and slurs their words even after been sober for years, what parts of the brain have been damaged and how are they damaged? Is it reversible?

Generally, the left hemisphere (side) of the brain is involved with processing speech and language. Parts of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes are activated when you formulate / choose what you want to say, and the motor cortex (part of the frontal lobe) -- particularly Broca's area -- lights up (meaning that it displays the most activity during brain scans) as you speak. So it's likely that any damage caused by drug use affecting speech occurred mostly on the left side of the brain. The specific types and amount of damage would be difficult to determine without actually testing an individual in that situation, but it would be fairly safe to assume that synaptic response has been damaged, so messages to and from the neurons in those areas may only be slowed down or might be blocked in any number of places. If they've gone years without help, some degree of the damage is probably permanent, but with proper assessment and therapy they might be able to repair some of it, but there are a *lot* of factors involved in that, not the least of which being age.


Question: How did we discover how old the universe is if we weren’t around to see it?

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 How did we discover how old the universe is if we weren’t around to see it?

We've observed that the universe is expanding, and this expansion is accelerating. We know this because of the Doppler effect. Basically, when something moves quickly away from you, the wavelength of their light gets stretched, giving off a red-ish appearence. We can use this red shift to figure out roughly how fast the universe is expanding. If the universe is expanding now, perhaps it's always been expanding, so we work backwards to predict how long it would've taken for the universe to go from 0 size to how it is today.


Question: When popcorn is popping, why do only some of the kernels pop?

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 When popcorn is popping, why do only some of the kernels pop?

Popcorn has water in it that gets heated expands and breaks the kernel casing making popcorn. Now just like any produce you get are slightly different from the rest. The casing may be thicker, less water in the kernel, or whatever. Thsi can effect cooking times. Also not all kernels get the same amount of heat


Question: Why does steam exist below the boiling point of water?

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 Why does steam exist below the boiling point of water?

I don't see the correct answer here yet, so here goes: what most people call steam is not steam at all, but water vapor. Steam is actually invisible. If you can see it, it is not steam. What most people call steam is actually water that has cooled back down to the point where it is not steam any more, but tiny droplets of water suspended in the air, which is called vapor, not steam. Water vapor can form from things other than steam. It can happen when a lot of water evaporates from something warmer than air (like your oatmeal. Or your breath on a cold day) , and the condenses into vapor as it cools in the air.


Question: If I have $100k in available credit from credit card companies and/or banks and find out I'm about to die, what stops me from blowing the $100k before I'm dying and how would they recover their losses?

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 If I have $100k in available credit from credit card companies and/or banks and find out I'm about to die, what stops me from blowing the $100k before I'm dying and how would they recover their losses?

> If I have $100k in available credit from credit card companies and/or banks and find out I'm about to die, what stops me from blowing the $100k before I'm dying Nothing stops you from using your credit. That's what the credit is there for. For you to use. Now, if you use it in a suspicious manner it might get flagged and temporarily blocked, but a quick call should sort that out. > and how would they recover their losses? So your real question is how to creditors get money from deceased debtors. The answer is: they file a claim against the estate, the executor of the state has to sort it out and make sure that all creditors get paid. If there isn't enough money to go around, then there are priorities and such that dictate who gets what and how much. Usually this is determined by the local laws and precedents.


Question: Why does ADHD medication have the opposite effect on people who don’t have ADHD?

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 Why does ADHD medication have the opposite effect on people who don’t have ADHD?

This is really cool one and none of the answers so far seem to cover it. youre talking about paradoxical effect of stimulants. But it's not really paradoxical. "Focus" is a thing part of our brain does. It's a function that a particular region is responsible for. One way you can think of the brain is as a team made up of many individual players. Each has their role and comes up with their own ideas and suggests them to the mind as to what to work on or think about. If it's a football team, you can think of the players in different positions. ADHD can be thought of as a team where the coach is asleep and unable to get the team organized to make a specific designed play—and although the team as a whole may be full of energy and running around all over, they aren't going to be able to move the ball forward. ADHD medications are stimulants but seem to calm down the brain because there is a partof the brain that is *underactive* in people with ADHD who's job is to **calm down and coordinate** the other parts. Think of this as the "coach". We're bringing coffee for the team, but the coach is the only one who really likes coffee and is the only one asleep. The stimulant affects the entire brain—but preferentially targets the coach. It also happens to be that the coach is just below the level of alertness needed to do his job in people with ADHD. In other people, the coach is already awake, and more stimulants just amp up the whole team.


Question: what are electromagnetic waves made of?

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 what are electromagnetic waves made of?

They're not "made" of anything in the physical sense. They're simply a representation of periodic energy fluctuations. Electromagnetic waves consist of both electric and magnetic field waves. These waves oscillate in perpendicular planes with respect to each other, and are in phase. The creation of all electromagnetic waves begins with an oscillating charged particle, which creates oscillating electric and magnetic fields. We typically visually represent these waves, or try to understand them, by equating them to waves we can see physically like waves in water, but in reality there's no physical substance to the waves, simply an oscillating measurable energy change.


Question: If our skin regenerates and being replaced constantly, why do beauty marks not disappear?

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 If our skin regenerates and being replaced constantly, why do beauty marks not disappear?

The answer depends on what you think of as a "beauty mark". [For the purpose of this response I'm going to call any skin mark, ie. freckle, wart, mole, scab, etc., a "blemish".] A very simple, broad answer is that the cells that make up most of these types of blemishes aren't just sitting on the surface. A little more detail: Skin is made up of multiple layers, and depending on what the particular type of blemish is, the condition of the deeper, cell-producing layer is responsible for whether it stays or goes away. For example, a very small cut may only effect the outermost layer of the skin (the cells in this layer are all already dead). It will make a scab that eventually falls off, and will not leave a scar. This is because the layer that creates new, live skin cells, located down below, wasn't harmed. Therefore it continues to create healthy cells rather than "scar cells", and the wound heals as though nothing ever happened. What does this have to do with beauty marks? Well, new cells are constantly dying and falling off from the top layer, but are simultaneously being replaced by those beneath them. When the deeper layer that creates new cells is damaged in any way, the cells it makes from that time forward are also damaged, and appear as blemishes as they push upwards toward the surface. If you're thinking of a nicely located freckle or mole as a beauty mark, these do not go away because they were created by sun-damaged cells. Prolonged UVA/B exposure, particularly in fair skin types, causes the cell-producing layer of the skin to become damaged. The skin reacts by henceforth producing melanin cells, a protective complex that give our skin, eyes, hair, etc., their color. These melanin saturated cell clusters push toward the top thus forming freckle or mole "beauty marks". Warts on the other hand, actually have their own individual blood supplies. They do remain partly because of the same type of cell turnover process that I described above, but they are also anchored below the epidermis by a blood vessel. This is why you should never try to remove one yourself--they will bleed when that vessel is cut. Birth marks also have perpetual cell turnover like freckles, warts, and moles. However, they continue to be formed because of genetic code that tells the cell-producing layer to form cells that appear a particular way. This is still a fairly simple over view, as there are lots of other types of skin marks that could be considered a "beauty mark". However, I think this gives you a general idea of why they don't disappear.


Question: When we started to understand that the giant bones we found in the ground were from Dinosaurs ?

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 When we started to understand that the giant bones we found in the ground were from Dinosaurs ?

It really wasn't until the late 1700s/1800s before scientists began realizing the earth was really old. People had probably been finding fossils since ancient times (legends of giants and dragons etc) but didn't realize what they were until the rise of comparative anatomy and knowledge of geographic processes. They realized that geologic formations in the past were caused by erosion/volcanic activity/etc and those processes took a long time to occur. The discovery of a huge lizard skeleton in a Dutch quarry in 1760s made people realize there were animals that no longer existed. They began to notice that certain fossils only existed in certain sediment layers and no human remains except in the uppermost layers. Some people though still don't accept that the earth is ancient... 40% of the US believes it is only ~6000 years old.


Question: How is titanium so light, while remaining so strong?

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 How is titanium so light, while remaining so strong?

When we talk about strength, what we mean is that the material is very hard to deform. For a metal, that means that the atoms are very rigid and unlikely to move. This can be achieved by several methods. Firstly, Titanium alpha alloy has a hexagonal crystal structure compared to iron’s cubic shape. Imagine a beehive structure vs chessboard. The hexagonal hive structure has no 1 line which bypasses all the “cells” of the hive unlike the square chessboard. That concept is scaled up to 3D in metals. This makes it hard for the atoms in titanium alpha to “slide” when pushed and the metal becomes harder to deform. Secondly, the grain size of titanium is significantly smaller (1-3microns vs 10-100microns). The grain size refers to the area of the metal which is uniform. You can treat it as if they were tiny crystals which make up the metal. Since the grain size is smaller, there are more grains per unit volume and the “surface area” between them is greater and there is more “friction”. Again this makes the metal harder to deform. Finally, the atomic size of titanium is larger. The spaces between atoms is therefore also larger. This means that you can stuff more dopant atoms of smaller sizes into the region between the titanium atoms, again making it harder for the atoms to “slide”. This doping technique is what makes alloys like bronze much stronger than their component metals (copper + tin).


Question: – > Where did the Big Bang get its matter from?

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 – > Where did the Big Bang get its matter from?

No one really knows. As far as we know, matter _and_ energy were created during the Big Bang - it didn't come "from" anywhere, it came into existence at that moment. Moreover, existence _itself_ was created - there was no "from" that could have provided anything, because "from" didn't exist prior the Big Bang.


Question: In simple terms, what is fracking exactly and why is it controversial?

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 In simple terms, what is fracking exactly and why is it controversial?

Conventional oil deposits consist of oil that exists as an underground pool that's under pressure. To get it out of the ground all you need to do is to drill down into it. Because the pool is under pressure, the oil will naturally flow up to the surface. Once you've extracted enough oil there won't be enough pressure for it to come up on its own, but you can inject water down into it, increasing the pressure and causing more oil to come up. What puts pressure on the oil is that there is a layer of rock sitting above it. Dirt is very dense while oil is not. Because oil is lighter than the surrounding dirt it naturally wants to "float" up through the dirt to the surface. But it can't pass through the rock layer above it and so gets trapped. Sometimes the rocks sitting above an oil deposit are semi-permeable to the oil. This means that the oil can enter the rock, but the rock acts like a filter and traps it, preventing it from rising any higher. The way that you extract this oil is that you drill down into the rock and then pump high pressure water into it. This causes the rock to break apart, creating channels that flow out into it. You then pump a solvent into those channels. This solvent pulls the oil out of the rocks and into the channels you created. You can then pump the oil out of those channels and to the surface. The controversy around fracking has three components: The first is in the solvents that are used. The chemical composition of the solvents are considered trade secrets, so nobody knows what they are except for the companies using them and the EPA (in the US). If the rock that's being broken apart is close to an underground aquifer that people are using for drinking water then there is a chance that the solvents can get into that. The second is that the process of injecting high pressure water deep into the ground creates, well, underground pressure which can cause minor earthquakes. Those earthquakes are too small to cause damage to modern buildings, but it is possible for them to damage the kind of very old brickwork buildings you see in some parts of Europe. A significant source of opposition to fracking is more political than it is about the health effects of it. Fracking produces relatively cheap oil, so people who don't want oil consumption to rise oppose it on that ground. Fracking is also a high technology industry - only a handful of US companies have the expertise to do it. Fracking has resulted in US oil production surging to an all time high. This, in turn, has caused the global oil market to be oversupplied. This oversupply is largely to blame for Venezuela's current economic collapse, and is causing serious economic issues in most OPEC countries. As a result, OPEC has put a significant amount of money into anti-fracking lobbying.


Question: How is a leech or tick able to get lots of blood from anywhere, but a nurse with a needle has to hit a vein?

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 How is a leech or tick able to get lots of blood from anywhere, but a nurse with a needle has to hit a vein?

The nurse with the needle is trying to get a lot of blood. Poke your finger with a small needle and a drop of blood will come out. A drop is quite a lot for a small animal. (also, the saliva of these animals has anti-clotting agents preventing the wound from closing, keeping the blood flowing)


Question: Why does a CPU need so many transistors?

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 Why does a CPU need so many transistors?

A couple of things. But generally modern processors do things in a much more complex way to boost performance. Some features they have that old CPUs didn't have are. 1. Branch prediction, they guess at what the next instruction is, and start work on it before it happens. 2. Due to branch prediction, when they are wrong they undo the work they just did. 3. They have pipelines, so they actually handle multiple instructions per cycle, while still taking multiple cycles per instruction. 4. To do that, they need multiple copies of registers, and multiple copies of things like ALUs that get loaded with the bits that need to be done. 5. To support all of the above, they actually read in predicted instructions, and decode them to microde operations, and then sort those operations and optimize them so they get fed into the different units in a better order. 6. They support much more complicated instructions, to encode more operations in less instructions. 7. And finally, they have many more cores and cache, largely this means they duplicate everything to get more processing power.


Question: Do steroids actually enlarge the head?

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 Do steroids actually enlarge the head?

Moon face is the result of fat distribution to the face--the head is not actually getting bigger. It's a common side effect of Prednisone, an immunosuppressive corticosteroid, but can also result from prolonged anabolic steroid use. The specific mechanism that causes this is not known, but longer use generally corresponds with more prominent showing.


Question: What’s actually happening when an organ is failing/“shutting down”? Is it lack of blood flow and tissue death, or does it just stop functioning in some way?

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 What’s actually happening when an organ is failing/“shutting down”? Is it lack of blood flow and tissue death, or does it just stop functioning in some way?

Correct, it's both of those things. Organs are just composites of tissues with a similar structure and/or function. They work in concert to accomplish some purpose needed by the body. When those tissues are dead or damaged, the organ looses the ability to perform that function effectively. If your heart fails, it means it not longer has the means to accomplish it's job of cycling blood around the body. If your lungs fail, you can no longer exchange gases from the blood at a level sufficient to breathe on your own. You can see how either of these might easily lead to a chain reaction of multiple organ failure, which is why it's such a big deal when it happens. Hope that helped