Question: Why do humans not produce Vitamin C in their bodies unlike most mammals?

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 Why do humans not produce Vitamin C in their bodies unlike most mammals?

We have what used to be the gene for producing vitamin C, but thanks to random mutations over generations, ours no longer works. Normally such a mutation would be quickly filtered out of the gene pool by being fatal to those who have it. But because we got enough vitamin C from our diet, the mutation didn't matter and has spread to the entire human population at this point.


Question: What happens to surplus political funds if a campaign ends prematurely?

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 What happens to surplus political funds if a campaign ends prematurely?

Assuming you're taking about the U.S.: There are a number of options. These apply to both candidates for office who drop out before the election, lose the election, or retire, and still have funds left over. 1. The campaign can save the money in case the candidate chooses to run again. 2. The campaign can donate the money to PACs and SuperPACs 3. The campaign can donate the money to national, state, and local party committees 4. The campaign donate directly to other candidates election campaigns 5. The campaign can donate to funds to charities 6. The campaign can return the funds to the donors The one thing that's *not* allowed is for the candidate to keep the money for personal use. Edit: Since people keep bringing it up, candidates can't *directly* transfer money from a campaign account to a personal bank account, but if they want that money, obviously there are some loopholes and unethical yet legal (or at least not illegal) ways to get it.


Question: If our current numbering system is more efficient than Roman numerals, is there another system better than the one we have now? Have we reached the best efficiency?

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 If our current numbering system is more efficient than Roman numerals, is there another system better than the one we have now? Have we reached the best efficiency?

In order to answer this, it's worth reviewing *why* the decimal system is better than roman numerals: - In principle, it can handle numbers of unlimited size, and it does so without adding extra symbols. - The magnitude of the number is proportional to its length. All numbers of similar magnitude use the same number of digits. - It can handle fractional numbers reasonably well. - There is always one unambiguous way to write a finite decimal number. - It generally requires fewer symbols than roman numerals. - It's easy to do ~~arithmetic~~ addition, subtraction, multiplication, and comparison on decimal numbers. That said, it has some limitations: - Very large numbers can be unwieldy. Extremely large numbers are impossible (the universe contains a finite amount of paper). - Most fractions can't be exactly represented, even common fractions like one-third. - Division is inconvenient. - Converting between fractions and decimals (or decimal approximations) generally requires doing division. There are other notation systems that perform better in some circumstances. And we use them! Fractions: - Can exactly represent any rational number. - Are easy to multiply and divide. - Aren't quite as convenient to add, subtract, or compare (you have to convert them to a common base). - Are not unique; two different fractions can represent the same number. Exponential notation: - Can represent much larger or smaller numbers than ordinary decimal notation. - …but only if you're willing to accept a bit of imprecision. - Easy to multiply, divide, and compare. There's binary notation, which maps each digit onto a single bit. There's hexadecimal notation, which is more compact than binary. There are various arrow-based notations for representing extremely large numbers. There are esoteric mathematical notations like continued fraction expansions and p-adic numbers. We have no shortage of notations, and we do make up new ones when necessary. EDIT: Clarified that division is not easy with decimals (though it's easy with fractions).


Question: How does the fire department find the origin from a big fire?

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 How does the fire department find the origin from a big fire?

Fire tends to burn upwards so start by looking for the lowest damage. Then reject anything that look as if was caused by burning debris falling down or flashover from radiation heating from above. Looking at [this image]( URL_0 ) it is clear that the fire probably started low down on the left-hand side (assuming there's not more damage on the rear faces). They may also do simulations with models. After the King's Cross underground station fire in 1987 a new fire propagation effect was discovered that was proved in simulations. Called the trench effect it occurs when flames are carried up a slope that is hemmed in at the sides like a moving stairway.


Question: If doctors have donor organs how come we cannot live forever and just keep getting surgery?

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 If doctors have donor organs how come we cannot live forever and just keep getting surgery?

The cells in the body eventually start to lose their ability to reproduce correctly, and heal themselves, and that's throughout the body. It's also quite common for organs to be rejected by the body, there is something from the donor that doesn't work well with the new recipient. Furthermore, eventually you'll have more than one organ failing at a time, and your body won't recover from a multi-organ transplant. Finally, no successful brain transplant has ever been done, so not all organs can be replaced.


Question: What, in terms of chemical composition, determines whether something will burn or melt when exposed to adequate temperatures?

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 What, in terms of chemical composition, determines whether something will burn or melt when exposed to adequate temperatures?

Burning and melting are not two exclusive processes. Melting is purely a physical change where the structures between molecules are broken using external energy and molecules enter a liquid state where they are free to move around a container. Burning is a chemical process where fuel and an oxidizing agent (in most cases O2) react to produce energy in heat and light. If you heated up anything in a oxygen free environment sufficiently, it would melt, even wood (but carbon has a melting point of 3500degreesC, so it would need a ton of energy). Meanwhile wood has a combustion point of 600degreesC for spontaneous ignition, so if an oxidizing agent is present like the oxygen we breath, it will combust long before it ever reaches a temperature it could melt at, even if the wood was in a vacuum. Edit: should say vacuum rather than oxygen free environment. No oxidants can be present


Question: why should you never reuse/fill water bottles?

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 why should you never reuse/fill water bottles?

There's no real reason not to, to be honest. Plastic bottles, specifically polycarbonate bottles, which have been the subject of much scare-mongering for years are fine to refill. The big worry about "chemical leaching" isn't a worry unless you're the sort of person to keep reusing the same polycarbonate bottle for years. Personally, I lose one or replace it long before then. To address chemical leaching specifically, one of the names that gets thrown around is bisphenol A. A study was done in 2009 [source]( URL_0 ) that found there was an increase in BPA metabolites after a week of drinking from polycarbonate containers, up to ~2 micrograms/gram. That dosage is essentially negligible to begin with. Added to that is that most (interestingly, all except for the USA) countries' food safety agencies have classed BPA as non-harmful. The reason that this name gets thrown around with such regularity is that someone suggested BPA might be linked to obesity. There have, to date, been no studies that have found compelling evidence to support it, but it sounds scary so people like to use it. Polycarbonate plastics are pretty stable under all normal conditions anyway, so leaching won't increase from that. As far as I know you either have to heat it to ~80 degrees C or above, or expose it to concentrated UV light to start getting any noticeable breakdown. With that out of the way it comes down to being the same as anything else you eat/drink from. Wash it between refills and you're fine. tl;dr : chemical leaching isn't something you need to worry about, wash between refills and you're fine.


Question: Why do laundry detergent bottles have the word "detergent" extremely small?

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 Why do laundry detergent bottles have the word "detergent" extremely small?

I was part of the design team that worked on this package and other laundry care products for P & G. The goal is to make your brand so iconic that its name replaces the product description. Brands like Kleenex and Q-tips have replaced "tissues" and "cotton swabs." P & G doesn't want you to buy laundry detergent and fabric softener, they want you to buy Tide and Downy, and they've invested enough in advertising to make sure you know what their product is. There really isn't any need to put it on the label and take up valuable space that could be used for other, more important communication - like what makes this particular bottle of Tide different from the other bottles of Tide? In this case, it was extremely important to make sure consumers know there are no dyes or perfumes in the detergent. That's why the bottle is white, instead of the usual Tide orange, and that remaining space is used to reinforce "Free & Gentle."


Question: Why does more sleep make me more tired?

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 Why does more sleep make me more tired?

I do not know the cause in your specific situation HOWEVER, the feeling of grogginess when you wake up is due to interrupting REM sleep (or "deep sleep", if you will). There are apps that claim to monitor your sleep movements and try to wake you up when you're not in REM sleep, thus keeping you from feeling groggy and tired when woken up.


Question: Why do we use the current signal waves for wifi even though they can get disrupted by walls? Is there a better solution, if so why aren't we using it?

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 Why do we use the current signal waves for wifi even though they can get disrupted by walls? Is there a better solution, if so why aren't we using it?

I think there are 2 reasons for this. The first one is that you don't want your signal to be able to pass through walls indefinitely. The wifi signal can pass through a few walls before it gets too weak, which is fine for most houses. Imagine that they could pass through walls without losing signal though. You'd have insane interference in crowded areas. If you live in a city you will already notice that your wifi list probably has 20+ wifi signals incoming. If this number was 100 times higher no one would be able to properly use their wifi anymore. The other reason is that if you did want to make signals that can pass through walls easily you'd need a bigger wavelength. Like radio waves. Those can easily pass through walls and are only stopped by tunnels. To generate such a wave you need a massive antenna though. Our routers at home are currently quite decently shaped. But imagine them being 10 times bigger. They'd be the size of your fridge. Which is also not very convenient.


Question: How do physicists derive new equations?

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 How do physicists derive new equations?

It's hard to give a simple answer to this question, because not every equation is derived the same way. & #x200B; Some of them can be derived by pure observation and/or though experiment, like Newtonian mechanics or special relativity, but those are quite rare (the case of special relativity is very elegant and I think is quite accessible) & #x200B; & #x200B; & #x200B; But more often, you have a specific observation and a very general theory. What you do, in that case, is that you try to expand a little bit your theory to a very specific case, with the use of an idealized (and simpler) system by using approximations. & #x200B; To illustrate, I will give the example of something I'm familiar with: solid state physics. & #x200B; So we had a lot of observation on solids, with the conductivity (electrical or thermal), the volume, how it react with light, etc... But we can't apply directly the theories of electromagnetism, quantum mechanics and statistical physics on a solid, because with all the electrons and interactions, it would be too complicated. & #x200B; So we started with a simple approximation: what if the electrons didn't interact ? By doing this, we get to something that can be "easily" solved to get new equations. And if we compare to actual observations, even if it's not perfect, it works well on some materials ! With this, we can describes qualitatively how some solid works on the level of electrons. Of course, it doesn't work on all materials, as some have electrons that interact too much for the approximation to be close to reality. But now, we can try to expand the theory on building on the idealized free electron approximation, to get closer and closer to the description of real materials.


Question: What does the curing light at a dentist’s office do?

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 What does the curing light at a dentist’s office do?

Basically, the resin that the dentists apply to your teeth is made up of short-chain compounds, which is why they can flow easily. Shining the light on the compound induces chemical changes that make the compounds get a lot longer and tangle up with itself, causing it to harden and attach to the surrounding tooth.


Question: What is a "currency" and what is not?

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 What is a "currency" and what is not?

What you created is something less than a currency. I was going to say it was like scrip (where companies would give their employees coupons that could be used at company-owned stores, instead of cash) but it's not even like scrip. There are two functions of currency: - Store of value. Currency has to be able to be traded for almost the same amount of goods tomorrow as today, because if there's a significant change, I'll stop using it (either I will hoard it in anticipation of it going up in value or I will refuse to accept it as payment because it will become useless long term) - Medium of exchange. Currency has to be widely used, and freely exchangeable, to work. If it's too difficult to use something you try to make into currency, people will find something else. Your pseudo-currency is not very good as a medium of exchange. It's not freely transferable between people - they can only get what's on offer from the stall owners, rather than being able to buy Magic cards or something from their friends.


Question: What makes hot air look “squiggly”?

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 What makes hot air look “squiggly”?

> Why is that and why is this something exclusive to hot air? It isn't exclusive to hot air at all. You might notice that when you put your hand under water it also looks ripply, and it comes from the same sort of effect. What is happening is that hot air is less dense than colder air (which is why hot air balloons work) and as light passes between the different densities it is refracted or bent to take a different path. The turbulent interface between the hot and cool air makes a constantly shifting zone of slight refraction which you see as ripples in the light passing through it.


Question: How does fast(Flash?)charge work? What is limiting us to charge our phone/electronics to be fully charged in minutes?

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 How does fast(Flash?)charge work? What is limiting us to charge our phone/electronics to be fully charged in minutes?

A few reasons why fast charging is difficult. 1. Heat generation in the battery . No charging process is 100% efficient, they all make heat (except flow batteries which charge by replacing the electrolyte). 2. For lithium cells, overvoltage damages cells. In order to make higher current flow, a higher voltage is needed. Lithium cells are damaged by voltage over 4.3V. Their chargers use a constant current at first which can be fast, but once the voltage reaches 4.3V they have to stay at 4.3V for the rest of the charge. The current then declines as the cell reaches full charge. This is why 0-70% is faster than 70-100%. Tldr : you can't fast charge beyond around 70%. 3. Fast charging requires more current which needs either thicker wire or higher voltage along with conversion circuitry. 120W at 4 V is 30A. That is not possible in a thin wire or small connector. Existing USB uses higher voltage to limit current. The phones have conversion circuitry but scaling that up to 120W takes space and dissipates heat.


Question: Why can't files (documents, pictures, presentations etc.) open in some program be moved to a new folder while they're open?

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 Why can't files (documents, pictures, presentations etc.) open in some program be moved to a new folder while they're open?

It's to maintain version control. Let's say there are 3 people in my department at work who are required to keep a specific file updated. I start making changes at 12:05, but I haven't saved the file. The person next to me makes changes at 12:06 and then saves the file. I then save the file I have open. Well, all the changes the person next to me made are now gone because I've saved the file with the version I was working on. The easiest way to do this is to lock files. Granted, this isn't a great system because this situation would be better handled with a database, and not something like an excel file. A database records transactions (changes) as they happen in order. That said file locking is important for all operating systems so that important OS files that are in use aren't changed while in use, or the machine would crash.


Question: Why can two different people commit the same crime and get different jail time for it?

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 Why can two different people commit the same crime and get different jail time for it?

It depends what you mean by "the same crime". First, every state has a different criminal code, with different penalties attached. In Delaware, stealing a car carries a sentencing range of 0-2 years, but in Arizona it's 3.5-7 years. Even within a state, the details of a crime (and the effect on the victim and the public) can vary significantly. For instance, the Arizona vehicle theft statute that I mentioned would apply to stealing a brand new car and keeping it, essentially depriving the victim of tens of thousands of dollars. It *also* applies to borrowing your friend's car and keeping it for 15 minutes longer than you said you were going to. Obviously, those two criminals shouldn't necessarily face the same consequences. Even when you're literally talking about the same crime -- say, if two people work together to steal a car -- there may be differences. Maybe one person felt bad, cooperated with the police, and worked to pay the victim back, while the other concealed evidence and lied about what happened. Maybe one has a long history of similar offenses while the other doesn't. Maybe one was mainly responsible for the plan while the other was basically duped into joining in. And so on. In general, the justice system tries to see that similarly situated defendants receive similar sentences -- but what makes people "similarly situated" can be complicated.


Question: Why is it hard to breathe when its windy?

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 Why is it hard to breathe when its windy?

Air moves over pressure differences from high pressure to low pressure. When you breathe in, your diaphragm contracts, creating low pressure, thus forcing air to flow into your lungs. Due to [Bernoulli's Principle]( URL_0 ), fast moving air will be at a lower pressure than stagnant air. Therefore, the pressure difference between the ambient air and the low pressure your body creates to breathe will be smaller. This reduces the airflow into your lungs, and your body has to work harder to get air.


Question: What happens when a country doesn’t have anymore debt?

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 What happens when a country doesn’t have anymore debt?

They realize they have good credit and can borrow money to improve infrastructure/stimulate economic growth for a fraction of the cost than if they paid for these things up front. As long as the rate of borrowing is less that the rate of return, it is in the country's best interest to borrow. To leverage their money. So they do. PS: I don't have a financial background, but I don't think there's a single country with 0 national debt. It wouldn't make much financial sense for the reason given above.


Question: why are swimming pools regularly painted with a light turquoise color? Wouldn't a darker color help retain heat to keep it warm?

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 why are swimming pools regularly painted with a light turquoise color? Wouldn't a darker color help retain heat to keep it warm?

For starters, not everyone wants a warm pool, particularly those who live in warm states. Many pools have the option to be heated for use in cooler weather. The light blue color makes the water look fresher and allows the owner to better see when the pool may need additional maintenance, or in order to find something that has sunk to the bottom.


Question: what does it mean for a country's economy to be "strong", and how does a country strengthen its own economy?

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 what does it mean for a country's economy to be "strong", and how does a country strengthen its own economy?

I think a lot of an economy's strength comes from the stability of the currency and the opportunities of the market. Can I trust that this five dollars you pay me for this bag of potatoes will still be worth five dollars tomorrow? A week from now? What about a year? Twenty? Yes depreciation happens from inflation but wages can sometimes catch up (although not nearly as quickly). It also has a lot of do with the exchange of opportunity in the market amongst the people. Do people in this country have skills that are important and marketable in their home country? Can these skills/Foods/items be traded with other countries for what one cannot get at home? And for a reasonable price? Having something to barter with makes it easier to get things in the world.


Question: How does wearable tech like Fit Bits and Apple Watches track our sleep cycles to show different stages of sleep throughout the night?

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 How does wearable tech like Fit Bits and Apple Watches track our sleep cycles to show different stages of sleep throughout the night?

They don't track your sleep, they just say they do, but they don't actually do it in a legit manner. Thats the real deal. Tracking sleep is actually a really complicated process requiring some complex specialized equipment and conditions. These devices just magic up some estimate that basically takes into account generally just the amount of movement you do while sleeping overnight and some data regarding your heart rate. There is no indication this is a good measure or that these devices are accurate, nor is this how an actual sleep study would take place. That is unless you look at one single study that says they are just as accurate and good as more complicated sleep tracking devices... you know, the only study that says it works... paid for and conducted by fitbit... hmmm.


Question: How does depression/anxiety medication change someone’s attitude so drastically?

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 How does depression/anxiety medication change someone’s attitude so drastically?

These types of medications generally focus on building up, restoring, or correcting the way your brain uses neurotransmitters. This allows your brain to behave closer to the way a normal brain behaves. Neurotransmitters do exactly what it sounds like they do; they allow your brain to communicate with itself and your body correctly. When they're not working the right way, your brain doesn't respond correctly to stimuli. Think of it like having a broken leg all the time. With depression/anxiety, you're just walking around trying to get by with a broken leg for your whole life. It hurts, it's exhausting, and no one seems to understand that you have a broken leg. You can't do the same things that they can do, but they don't seem to notice or care. You feel helpless, you feel like an outcast, and you feel like no one sympathizes because all they do is compare your broken leg to the sprained ankle they had that one time. And because your neurotransmitters aren't behaving correctly, sometimes it feels like you don't even have a broken leg, so you try to do things that an able-bodied person can do, and you end up failing and you feel even worse about it. With proper treatment (depression/anxiety medication and therapy), your doctor is giving you a cast, painkillers, and crutches. You can get around a lot easier, you aren't in so much pain all the time, and eventually it's going to heal and you can take the cast off, stop using the crutches, and stop taking the painkillers, and you're going to be more-or-less the same as everyone else. The feeling of freedom and joy that you get from no longer having the broken leg that you've had your entire life is going to cause a massive change in personality. You're going to be comparing that miserable, painful, disabled life that you had before to this new, pain-free, fully able life that you're living now. Suddenly **everything** is better.


Question: How do pay-day loans work, which companies should I avoid, and are their better alternatives?

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 How do pay-day loans work, which companies should I avoid, and are their better alternatives?

What are they? - They are short term loans (typically less than a month) intended to gap fill. They usually have VERY high interest rates, but are much more accessible than traditional bank loans. What companies should I avoid/are there better alternatives? - To my knowledge the entire industry is kinda shady/scummy. This is not a business that is very savory, but it is a necessary evil. If you really only need $50-80 you would be better off borrowing that from a friend and paying them back in a couple days.


Question: Why can chess games end in draw while there are still many pieces in play?

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 Why can chess games end in draw while there are still many pieces in play?

There are several ways to draw in chess: * Threefold repetition. The same position, with the same side to move, appears three times. It doesn't have to be three times in a row. * 50 move rule. 50 moves are made without a pawn being moved or a capture being made. * Stalemate. The player to move has no legal moves. Their King is not in check but any possible move would put it in check. * Insufficient material. It's absolutely impossible for either player to checkmate the other. * Draw by agreement. The players may agree a draw. Now, if both players can see that the game is going to end up as a draw by one of the other reasons, if knowing the skill level of their opponent neither feels they will be able to win, then it's common to agree a draw. It saves the hassle. If draw by agreement was removed, players could simply deliberately repeat a position three times and claim the draw that way.


Question: What is this article describing regarding Federal Reserve liquidity injections?

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 What is this article describing regarding Federal Reserve liquidity injections?

In short, there is such a thing as 'money supply' and 'money demand'. If your interest rates are very low then you aren't 'creating' money. Interest rates are one way we make money out of thin air. If your interest rates are near zero, as they are now, then money supply tightens which is a problem. So the Fed 'injects' money into the economy as a way of making sure there is enough supply of money to keep the economy going. Don't think of money as the paper thing in your hand - it is a theoretical construct. What this article is suggesting is that what should be happening, banks are getting access to nearly free cash that is then lent to people in the *real* economy (say, a restaurant owner that needs capital to upgrade his/her kitchen) at a small interest rate to keep the *real* economy going - is not reliably happening. Instead, banks are using this capital to boost their economy. The solution is to raise interest rates, which will cause pain in the financial industry and consumers but for a short(ish) amount of time when everything finds a new equilibrium (or ceteris paribus if you are so inclined).


Question: What is the difference between Raman Spectroscopy and Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy?

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 What is the difference between Raman Spectroscopy and Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy?

Hard to ELI**5** SERS, so this is more like ELI**undergrad**: You can, to a rough approximation, think of a molecule as being a bunch of little masses (the atoms) attached to each other by little springs (the bonds). Just like collections of masses on springs, molecules have lots of different ways they can vibrate and what, exactly, those “vibrational modes” are is very dependent on what the masses and springs are and how they are connected to each other. Raman spectroscopy uses the inelastic scattering of light off molecules to tell us about how they vibrate. As the specific vibrational modes are highly dependent on the structure of the molecule, Raman spectroscopy can very quickly give us a lot of information about its structure! Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) first places our molecules of interest onto a surface of some sort (usually a metal or silica). The surface will either absorb energy from other modes (say, fluorescence) and/or enhance the response from Raman. This means that a weak Raman signal can be radically enhanced, while potentially interfering (and less informative) fluorescent (et al) signals are suppressed. Putting the molecule on a surface can also change how it vibrates a bit, so you have to be aware that the SERS spectrum usually isn’t *exactly* like the free Raman spectrum. There’s also SM-SERS, in which the Raman signal is so enhanced that a spectrum can be obtained from a *single molecule* (“SM”). This is usually accomplished by putting the molecule between two metal nanoparticles that act kind of like antennas for the signal and alter the local electromagnetic properties around the molecule.


Question: why isn't dental care (usually) covered by healthcare?

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 why isn't dental care (usually) covered by healthcare?

Because insurance is dumb the more you dig into the logic of it all. Of course dental should be considered part of health insurance. There are studies that link dental hygiene to heart health. Change is hard to get though in established industries and merging two industries against those industries wishes proved difficult and cumbersome. There would most likely be job cuts, increases in health premiums, and for a few years as the kinks get smoother out a lot of information and logistic headaches for the insured as they try to navigate the newly merged industry.


Question: how do singularities’ mass work?

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 how do singularities’ mass work?

It's infinitely dense. It is however FINITELY massive. Density = mass/size Finite mass/infinitesimal size = infinite density. As you get closer to a heavy object, you need to go faster to escape. When talking about a black hole, usually the radius is how close you can get before the speed you need to escape is the speed of light. A heavier black hole will have a larger radius. Gravity is exponentially stronger as you get closer.


Question: whataboutism. Do I not understand it because I always expect an actual answer?

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 whataboutism. Do I not understand it because I always expect an actual answer?

It is usually used as a means of justifying bad behavior by attacking another person (usually a third participant who isnt even there to defend themselves) Example: Mom scolds you for stealing your sister's candy. You reply "Well what about when dad tells me to say I'm 10 at the movie theater even though I'm 11 so we can get cheaper seats" You know mom wants to have a solid relationship with Dad and by asking this you throw dad under the bus so she will let you get away with stealing your sister's candy because if she is condemning you for stealing she is condemning dad as well. It doesnt actually prove your actions good, it just divides the other parties involved (mom and dad) against each other in an attempt to get out of trouble through relativistic morality and potentially causing infighting amongst the parties involved. At the end of the day it erodes at the fundamentals of law, order, justice, and peace by attacking other people's hypocrisy. And while the statement about dad might be objectively true it doesnt actually make what you are doing correct or good. In conflates the idea of fairness in relation to hypocrisy with justice.


Question: Why does our language nowadays seem so much more informal?

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 Why does our language nowadays seem so much more informal?

Language has actually always had both a formal and informal element. But historically it was only the "rich" who could actually afford a good enough education to learn how to read and write - peasants / the working class didn't have the time or desire to extend their education that far. Some cultures actually took it one step further and actively prevented the lower classes from learning how to read and write. & #x200B; Paper, etc required to write things down also used to be both rare and expensive meaning that it took extra effort to actually record something in writing. Especially before the invention of the printing press. & #x200B; This has created a bias in recorded history meaning that what was written down was mainly only ever the formal version and informal language was only ever passed down by mouth. & #x200B; In the modern world though most people now have access to a basic enough education to know how to read and write and it's very easy to keep a record of stuff so everything can be written down. Informal language is easier to use so is more popular meaning that just by weight of numbers there's more informal language being used and recorded than formal style writing.


Question: How does memory foam work exactly?

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 How does memory foam work exactly?

Memory foams are viscoelastic polyurethane foams, which have low resilience. Resilience is the technical term for how fast the foam springs back when compressed. The foam industry uses a standard ball bounce test, where they drop a steel ball form a certain height and literally see how high it bounces. Standard polyurethane comfort foams have pretty high resilience, with ball rebounds in the 40%-45% range. Memory foams measure in the 10%-15% range. They tend to feel "dead" compared to standard foam. Note that this isn't how hard the foam feels, how supportive it is, or how dense it is - those are each different properties that can be measured and controlled in the polyurethane formulation. Now, here's the good part. Resilience is usually a function of temperature. A warm foam is much springier than a cold foam, and that property can be manipulated by how much of what kinds of polymers go into the foam formulation. Heat-activated viscoelastic foams are tuned to become substantially more resilient between room temperature and body temperature. When you warm up part of the memory foam, it conforms to your shape. When you get up, they hold their shape! That can be a down side in a mattress, where rolling over puts you onto cold hard foam until your body heat can activate it again to conform to your new position. Note that most modern foam mattresses today have only a layer of memory foam among other layers of different kinds of foams. For example, the top few inches might be special high-resilience foam, with another couple inches of memory foam, and the bottom half being standard supportive foam. For history, it was invited in the 60s by NASA for cushioning aircraft cockpit seats. In the 80s they released the technology to the public. In the 90s Tempur-Pedic brought it to market. Since then, costs have come down substantially and memory foam had shown up in all kinds of applications besides beds, cushions, and pillows. Foams are very safe by the time they get to the consumer. The actual process of making a polyurethane foam involves highly reactivate isocyanates, which can be a severe respiratory irritant. But, they react very quickly during the foaming (on the order of minutes), and any excess isocyanate is consumed when it reacts with humidity in the air. Consumer goods like mattresses need to pass testing like CertiPUR to prove that there are extremely low levels of organic compounds evaporating out of the foam. Generally, a foam mattress lasts just as long as a spring mattress, in the range of 8-12 years.


Question: How is Bill Gates still the third richest person in the world?

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 How is Bill Gates still the third richest person in the world?

It's because he has so much money, and money makes money. When you have $100 billion and can earn 8% a year on it, you can give away $5 billion a year and still add $3 billion to your net worth every year (and it compounds from there). He actually has about $118 billion in holdings, even though he's given away nearly $40 billion to his charitable foundation. And he has an entire captive investment firm working daily to maximize the return on his wealth - this team knows how to uncover and pounce on opportunities, how to minimize frictional costs and taxes, etc.


Question: How does radiation both treat and cause cancer?

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 How does radiation both treat and cause cancer?

Radiation can cause damage to the DNA in your cells. When the radiation causes a mutation in the area of your cell responsible for reproduction, the cell can just keep replicating itself over and over, and not know when to stop, thus creating a cancerous tumor. Stronger doses of radiation can straight up kill cells. So as long as you kill mostly cancer cells, that helps to treat it.


Question: Why is the area of a circle πr² ???

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 Why is the area of a circle πr² ???

There are a few cool ways to see this in several levels of explanation, so I’ll just give a few neat ones: One way to think about it is to divide the circle to a lot of small slices, like a pie. Every slice is almost like a tiny tiny narrow triangle. The surface of a triangle can be calculated by the height times the base divided by 2. In our case, the height is the radius, but how much is the base? We don’t know. We do know however that all of the bases of all of the tiny triangles together make the entire circumference of the circle and we know how much that is: it’s 2**pi**r. So the area has to be 2**pi**r**r**1/2 which totals to pi**r^2. A different way to see it is using a function that describe a circle. y=Sqrt(R^2-x^2) is the upper half of a circle. We can calculate the surface under that using a definite integral and we get exatcly 1/2*pi**R^2. We double that to get the bottom half and get the area of the circle.


Question: ; how and why does a company like yamaha produce and manufacture professional grade music equipment and professional grade boat engines, two completely different things?

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 ; how and why does a company like yamaha produce and manufacture professional grade music equipment and professional grade boat engines, two completely different things?

[A quick internet search]( URL_1 ) can help: “Because diversification guarantees long term stability and growth to an organization. If one product goes down in sales, others cover up for it. Yamaha is a large conglomerate with two major subsidiaries; Yamaha Corporation, makers of musical instruments, audio equipment, and electronics, and Yamaha Motor Company, makers of motorcycles, ATV’s, watercraft, and other accessories. The company started as a musical instrument manufacturer over 120 years ago and is the largest piano manufacturer in the world. In 1955 the established the motors subsidiary by building their first motorcycle, eventually growing into a separate, quite successful business.” That’s just an amateur’s answer, but [here]( URL_0 ) is another, more official one: “Japanese company Yamaha was founded in 1887 as a piano manufacturer. But after WWII the company leveraged its expertise in metallurgy to branch into motorcycles as well, creating a most diverse product range. Today, the company not only makes musical instruments, bikes and motorcycles, but sporting goods and robots as well. But motorcycles and musical instruments remains their bread and butter and Yamaha’s origins are still reflected today in their logo—a trio of interlocking tuning forks.”


Question: why is it that neuroscientists and psychologists generally disagree about the reliability of connections between the two fields?

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 why is it that neuroscientists and psychologists generally disagree about the reliability of connections between the two fields?

Because many of the supposed "neuroscience backs them up" claims are rarely, if ever, provable. Neuroscience can tell you *how* a stress response works, but it doesn't necessarily tell you *why* some people have an exaggerated stress response, for example. People like authority, and scientific rigor is a type of authority. So it has become popular in psychology to make all sorts of claims about biological processes and such. But this also creates an environment rife with fallacies, leaps in logic, failure to distinguish correlation from causation, and half-truths. In reality, so much of human psychology is unknown. Psychology as a field is experiencing a replication crisis, and you can look at 30 different studies and walk away with 60 different explanations.


Question: what keeps train tracks grounded to the floor?

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 what keeps train tracks grounded to the floor?

The weight of any train going over them pushes down on them, in addition to their own weight and the static friction coefficient between sleepers and ground is higher than the rolling or sliding friction coefficient between train and track. Combined with the structural strength of the tracks this means they won't be moved significantly by the train under normal operation. If the train gets pushed sideways, they do move.


Question: How does the Moviepass business model work? How do they make money off of $10 a month when it's more than $10 a movie in some places?

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 How does the Moviepass business model work? How do they make money off of $10 a month when it's more than $10 a movie in some places?

How do they make money? **They don't**. The company is subsidizing tickets using venture capital money. [They're hoping that if they get popular enough, theater owners will give them some money]( URL_0 ): > Lowe acknowledges that his company is subsidizing ticket buyers and will lose money in the process. However, he believes that MoviePass will be able to prove its value to movie theaters and studios, and that in the future they will cut the company in on their additional profits. Theater owners could also either pay MoviePass back with advertising or give them a percentage of the concessions sales.


Question: When it comes to action movies, what makes the concept of fighters wearing business suits so appealing to watch?

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 When it comes to action movies, what makes the concept of fighters wearing business suits so appealing to watch?

There's a few aspects to this trope. First is that a business suit is actually quite a restrictive garment, so being able to kick ass while handicapped in such a way makes it seem more impressive. Second is that a suit gives the impression that the wearer is a professional. That this is business to the character, not something personal. Third is that it can be a good indicator for the danger increasing. Early fights will end with the suit remaining pristine, while later on, we'll see the suit end up with bloodstains and tears or having pieces removed. [Here's a link on the TVTropes article about this.]( URL_0 )


Question: In music production, you generally don't want multiple low bass voices because of phase cancellation. Why then do bands and orchestras usually have more than one bass voice, and phase cancellation doesnt seem to be an issue?

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 In music production, you generally don't want multiple low bass voices because of phase cancellation. Why then do bands and orchestras usually have more than one bass voice, and phase cancellation doesnt seem to be an issue?

Phase cancellation only really exists in the recorded music world. In acoustic music, it’s extremely difficult to produce two waves at a perfect 180° phase with each other, and once you factor in complex overtones and slight variations in tuning, two acoustic instruments (or two singers) are almost never going to phase cancel, and if they do, it’s only fleeting. Two recorded and auto tuned voices are much more likely to phase cancel, especially if it’s two recordings of the same person or instrument. Also, outside of the studio, you can’t change the volume on specific instruments easily, and bass voices, particularly singers, tend to be harder to hear than their treble counterparts, so ensembles are forced to pile in as many of them as possible.


Question: When you’re hungry, is your body asking for food or telling you to eat?

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 When you’re hungry, is your body asking for food or telling you to eat?

Your body is telling you to eat. Most likely, your body does not need the nutrients right at the moment when you become hungry. We come from a ancestry of hunter gatherers. The only way for us to survive was to go and hunt our own food. Once our hunter gather ancestors felt that need to eat, that is when they would go hunting for food. Your body can function well for very long without food.


Question: How does adding 's' to end of 'http' make it protected against hackers?

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 How does adding 's' to end of 'http' make it protected against hackers?

The S stands for "secure", specifically it means that the connection between your browser and the website is encrypted using the TLS protocol. The TLS protocol does two things: 1. When you connect to the server, the server sends you a digitally signed certificate. The certificate is used by your browser to validate the server's identity, i.e. make sure that the entity sending you the certificate is indeed reddit and not a hacker pretending to be reddit. 2. After validating the certificate, the client (your browser) and server set up an encrypted connection, so that all the data transmitted between them is encrypted. This means that it is hidden from anyone who intercepts the communication, and that it can't be manipulated.


Question: How does a volcano erupt?

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 How does a volcano erupt?

Beneath every active volcano is it's magma pocket. When the pressure in the magma pocket from the gasses and the magma itself builds up enough, it overcomes the pressure that the layers of stone above the pocket are able to withstand, there's an eruption. The more pressure is built up, the more the eruption's violent. Savvy?


Question: Does anyone know what Toxic Stock is and why it would be considered unethical to sell a Toxic Stock item?

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 Does anyone know what Toxic Stock is and why it would be considered unethical to sell a Toxic Stock item?

Likely the store was not able to sell it for a high enough price, compared to the price the distributor was willing to give for the return. It literally would cost them money to sell you the product, making it "toxic" As for the later call, they probably were denied the return, meaning they had to get rid of the product, and it would have looked better on paper to give the item away in exchange for a donation (meaning they could claim the purchase price of the item) rather than sell it.