Question: Why does it take half a year to decode an airplane's black box?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does it take half a year to decode an airplane's black box?

Imagine someone’s car crashed and you want to understand what happened. You have a recording of the crash, but it’s not a video - it’s a recording of the exact speed each wheel was doing, what the brake pressure was, what the position of the accelerator was, the engine temperature, the air con setting, and so on. You’d eventually be able to understand a lot about the crash, but you’d need an expert to look at all that data and tell you what it meant. Now imagine that for an aeroplane except there are several hundred times more pieces of data to look at, and the ultimate cause of the crash may be buried deep in one obscure sensor reading. That’s what you’re ‘decoding’ with a black box. Edit: thank you for the gold and awards! My first ever!


Question: how do all fixed costs become variable costs in the long run?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 how do all fixed costs become variable costs in the long run?

Fixed costs are only set at a specific cost for the contract period. When the time comes to reevaluate the contract, there could potentially have been changes in cost of operation that would require a change in cost for the next contract. Rent would be a fixed cost. You and your landlord have contractually agreed to a fixed rent price per payment period; probably monthly. Somewhere along the way, there could potentially be rennovations or increased costs in maintenance that your landlord has to eat for the time being. Then, when you go to renew your lease, your rent has gone up because you are now taking on the added costs that accrued over the last lease period.


Question: what does resetting a router actually do and why is that the most common internet fix?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 what does resetting a router actually do and why is that the most common internet fix?

Your in-home router usually does a few separate jobs. First, it literally routes data: from one computer to another in your local network, and between your local network and your ISP's network (and on to the internet). Second, it provides local network devices with their local IP addresses. Third, it acts as a Domain Name System server, helping local computers match names (like URL_0 ) with IP addresses (151.101.1.140). To do all of that it needs to acquire and maintain its own IP address on the ISP network, and then maintain various tables in memory where all that data is stored. When you restart your router, you cause it to wipe out its copies of existing data and restart its connection to the ISP network. This can fix several different kinds of problems, which is why rebooting your router seems like a magic fix to lots of network problems.


Question: Why does some scientists/countries still want to go on the moon ?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does some scientists/countries still want to go on the moon ?

The moon is the closest large object to earth in space, so going to the moon allows us to develop and test a lot of technology related to landing on and moving around on solid, non-earth objects. Mars would be better to colonize for several reasons (atmosphere, temperature, soil, similar hours in a day, etc.), but we don't have the technology to set up a space colony yet and the moon is a much closer place to do testing.


Question: How does the newer generation of captcha determine I'm not a robot? (The one where all you must do is click)

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How does the newer generation of captcha determine I'm not a robot? (The one where all you must do is click)

It tracks mouse movement. If it was a bot it would immediately click the checkbox after it was loaded. You as a human have to move your mouse cursor to the checkbox and this movement is not in a straight line. So basically they just check mouse movement and time between checkbox being rendered and when it is clicked. There sure is much more going under the hood but thes is the basic idea.


Question: Why does the brain not like change?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does the brain not like change?

You might like the book "Thinking, Fast and Slow". We are geared for survival. Survival is basically broken down into two aspects: "Don't get killed" and "Don't waste energy" Being alert and aware of your surroundings is energy intensive. If you are in a familiar place, you can let your guard down. This conserves energy. If you are in a new place or a new circumstance, you must be vigilant and aware, ready to move at a moments notice. This is tiresome and taxing and costs extra energy.


Question: Law in UK, how does it work? (According to wikipedia, it does not have single constitution, what does it mean?)

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Law in UK, how does it work? (According to wikipedia, it does not have single constitution, what does it mean?)

It’s based on precedent - something similar happened before, and this was the outcome *then*, so that should be the outcome *now*. Obviously, it’s a bit more complex than that, and laws get passed by Governments to introduce new laws to update previous versions, but there’s a lot of legal precedents involved.


Question: How do field drug tests return so many false positives?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How do field drug tests return so many false positives?

Field drug tests are designed to be very cheap, and very easy for an amateur to use. Therefore they are not very *specific* -- that is, they just test whether the mystery substance reacts with one or two chemicals in a specific way. This makes it very likely that some *other* substance would also react in the same way. Imagine if you had to tell whether an animal was a horse, but you only got one or two specific questions. You'd end up getting a positive for zebras, ponies, donkeys... anything very much like a horse.


Question: Prior to playing, musicians tune their instruments to a specific note or small set of notes. Why do orchestras tune to A while bands tune to B♭?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Prior to playing, musicians tune their instruments to a specific note or small set of notes. Why do orchestras tune to A while bands tune to B♭?

Strings tune to A because every string instrument has an open A (they can play A without putting fingers down to change pitch) as one of their strings; by tuning that note, which is given from the oboe, the winds and strings are unified. Bands tune to a Bb because brass instruments are made so that Bb is the fundamental pitch (sounding Bb, regardless of the name of the note on that instrument). This means brass instruments can play a Bb without pressing down any keys. Woodwinds often tune to one these notes out of convenience; Bb is a crappy note for bassoon, for example, and so is F, the other common band tuning note, so balloons often will use A.


Question: how are the people that run churches/religions living such luxurious lifestyles? Literally living in palaces. Apart from collection plates, where is the money coming from?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 how are the people that run churches/religions living such luxurious lifestyles? Literally living in palaces. Apart from collection plates, where is the money coming from?

I've been a pastor for 16 years. I have an undergrad degree in social work and purposefully worked in an area that served poorer communities for 8 of those years where I made less than $25k per year plus a small parsonage. The vast majority of people who work as ministers don't make much money at all and many denominations require a graduate degree. Now days I serve a church in a much wealthier area and make a middle class wage but our church still spends about 25% of our gross income on helping the poor and homeless. Most pastors work 60+ hours a week and don't make much money. This is pretty typical in my experience for most ministers and churches. Just like teachers or social workers we don't go into this work for money. I've do it because we love it. Those ministers who you see on tv who have jets and make millions of dollars are probably less than 1%. I think they're scoundrels who manipulate people with fear and promises of future wealth if they just give in faith. They use all kinds of schemes - selling "blessed" handkerchiefs, tickets to healing rallies etc. It's a bunch of nonsense.


Question: Why is true randomness near impossible?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is true randomness near impossible?

True randomness is not impossible... It’s impossible for a modern computer built on certain principles and logic. How you you create a random number? Even as a mental exercise, if you were to write down a set of rules to come up with a random number on paper, how would you do it? You’re not allowed to say think of a random number.


Question: why do Orchard Growers periodically chop all their trees down?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 why do Orchard Growers periodically chop all their trees down?

Fruit-bearing trees are at peak production and health for about 10 years after they start fruiting. After that, the tree is much more susceptible to disease and pests. Orchards are planted in rotation so there are always productive trees when others need to be culled. The lumber of aged trees is valuable as well, but it won't be valuable if it's in poor condition. Harvests are timed to consider all of these factors and end up with the highest quality product.


Question: Why does 'quick sand' make you sink and where does the sand go?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does 'quick sand' make you sink and where does the sand go?

Quick sand is sand/soil that is saturated with lots of water, making it impossible to support your weight. If you step in it, you will sink into it slowly, and because of its combination of low density and viscosity it can be hard to get back out because you will have a tendency to push against that same unreliable soil to try and pull yourself up, just causing you to get more body parts tangled up in the mess. You won't end up in hell, but you might end up sinking far enough to get your mouth and nose underneath it, and then you're in a mess of trouble.


Question: What is protein folding and how does it work? I have tried to understand and can get the concept.

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
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Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What is protein folding and how does it work? I have tried to understand and can get the concept.

Proteins are made of smaller molecules called amino acids that your cells bolt together in a long chain. The proteins don’t stay in a long noodle-like chain though. Each amino acid has a different structure and this gives it a unique electromagnetic effect on the other amino acids around it. Under the combined effects of hundreds or thousands of individual amino acids, the long chain twists and rotates and folds into a complex three-dimensional shape. This shape is very important, as it determines whether or not the protein actually functions, and how effective it is. This shape is also *enormously* complicated to figure out. You have to sequence out how your body is building the protein and in what order, and then calculate how the thousands of competing electron clouds around each atom twist and pull the molecule into shape. It’s a problem that requires vast computational power to solve, these are the most complex molecules in the universe.


Question: why are we so certain that water and oxygen are required for alien life?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 why are we so certain that water and oxygen are required for alien life?

> We're assuming that alien life requires the same things we do We aren't. There might well be alien life that doesn't require any of that. It might be strange and completely unrecognizable. And there is the problem; if the alien life is unrecognizable then what do we look for? We only have the one example of life to work from, the life on our planet, so it makes sense to look for the kind of life that we know the signs of rather than something we don't know anything about.


Question: I remember gifs being horribly low quality just a few years ago, but now we have super high quality ones. Image quality didn't really get better, so what happened?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 I remember gifs being horribly low quality just a few years ago, but now we have super high quality ones. Image quality didn't really get better, so what happened?

Most sites started switching to HTML5 video elements instead of using conventional GIFs. GIF is an ancient standard in computing. It was first introduced in 1987 and the most recent update to the standard was in 1989 (28 years ago). A key advantage of the GIF standard is that it is widely compatible and supported across almost all mobile and desktop computing platforms. It's a standard that has been supported and virtually unchanged since the early days of personal computing before people even had internet access in their homes. The other advantage of the GIF standard is that it supports all sorts of useful features: 1. It supports animation, including the ability to control the timing between individual frames 2. It supports transparency (you can select a certain pixel color to be transparent so it allows content behind the GIF to show through the GIF). 3. Compared to some other image formats, GIF is often pretty decent at compressing the file size to reduce bandwidth and storage requirements. 3. It provides lossless quality (but not necessarily lossless color). * The GIF standard is limited to a 256 color palette (although you can create your own custom palette where you choose exactly what colors to include). That means that if your image requires 256 or fewer colors, it can be reproduced perfectly in GIF form with absolutely no loss in detail, resolution, or color. This makes it perfectly suitable for images containing text or simple graphics (but not as useful for photos or complex images with shading or gradients). So the reason why many GIFs appear to have poor quality is often they are being used to try and reproduce images/videos that originally contained more than 256 colors. Since the color palette in the GIF standard is limited to 256 colors, GIFs may appear to have relatively poor quality with respect to color reproduction. It is worth mentioning that it is possible to specify a different color palette for individual frames in a GIF animation. So while a given frame will always be limited to 256 colors, you can theoretically have custom palettes of a unique set of 256 colors for each individual frame. This can enhance the appearance / quality of the GIF by allowing for more accurate color reproduction, especially in animations that feature significant changes in lighting or color between frames. Nowadays, however, the HTML5 video standard offers a better way to embed GIF-like loops/animations into webpages. That's because not only are modern video codecs (like H.264) very efficient at conserving bandwidth/storage, they also support the full spectrum of color (or at least millions of colors). The HTML5 video standard and associated video codecs are also optimized to allow the web browser to download/stream the video data in chunks rather than having to wait for the whole file to download first (as is often the case with traditional GIF files).


Question: bouyancy, and how far does something sink?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 bouyancy, and how far does something sink?

> When you see a floating object, is the bouyant force counteracting the entire weight of the ship? **In that the weight of the water displaced by the part under water, is equal to the entire weight of the ship - so that the buoyant force is able to keep it afloat?** Therefore, that dictates how much needs to be submerged in order for a ship to float (as long as its less dense than the water obviously). So, a heavier, more dense ship will need to have more of its body submerged, than a less heavy and dense ship of equal volume? Exactly this. A floating ship will displace exactly its weight in water, and will rise and fall in the water according to how much weight is carried with the major variations being cargo, fuel and ballast. This is most clearly seen with cargo ships like tankers or bulk carriers, which often sail full in one direction and empty in the other. They'll carry some ballast water for stability purposes, but will still be much lighter when not carrying cargo, and thus much higher in the water. An important point is that the point at which a ship floats also involves the density of water. Sea water is more dense than fresh water, so a ship will float higher in sea water than in fresh water despite no changes in its weight.


Question: Why does water-resistance change with time?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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 Why does water-resistance change with time?

Because the waterproof ability you are speaking of is dependent on the RATE of water entering the device. If it were a matter of testing which one got water in it first, you would be right because technically a hole is a hole. Two devices, one with a big leak and one with a tiny leak would both immediately have some water in them when submerged. However, for example, if the device requires 500ml to leak in before the water reaches sensitive spots, the one with the larger hole is going to allow water to enter at a much faster rate. example: Device A has a large leak while Device B has a tiny one. Lets say water enters device A ten times faster than it enters device B based on the size of the hole. In order to properly compare the two you have to keep all the variables constant aside from the one you are trying to determine. If you put device B at a different depth than A, you would be violating that requirement. In order for a proper comparison, the strength of the water pressure has to remain the same for both. If you lowered B to make pressure higher so the water would enter faster, all you are doing is making the rate of device A the constant and would be determining the pressure required to make B leak like it had A's hole. heh....


Question: why are most people natively scared of tiny rodents and insects like cockroaches, rats, mice etc, even though they are order of magnitudes smaller than ourselves?

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 why are most people natively scared of tiny rodents and insects like cockroaches, rats, mice etc, even though they are order of magnitudes smaller than ourselves?

We are afraid of these creatures because they can kill us. It’s really as simple as that. Rats eat human babies. They also eat human adults if you’re too insensate to wake up when they bite you. If you look through hospital records, “rat bite” is one of the most common cause of lost fingers and toes among the homeless and alcoholic population in areas that also have huge rat populations - like New York. We are programmed to fear these creatures so that we get up and chase them away from our infants, our elderly, our defenceless, and ourselves. Rats are a lovely example because they’re so extreme, but all small creatures that invoke that fear response are similarly dangerous. Cockroaches spread disease. Spiders are venomous. Mice decimate food supplies and spread disease, and also don’t mind chewing on you if you stay still long enough.


Question: what is group theory and why is it useful?

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 what is group theory and why is it useful?

Everyone knows a bowl of soup when they see it. It can be clam chowder or borscht or French onion soup. All of these soups have their own unique traits, but at the heart, they share common features that let us recognize it as a bowl of soup. Everyone know a mathematical operation when they see it. I can be addition or subtraction or division. All of these operations have their own unique traits, but at the heart, they share common features that let us recognize them as mathematical operations. Group theory provides a way to explain what the similar features are. It is possible to doubt if something is really a bowl of soup: is Chunky a soup or a stew? But group theory gives concrete requirements for something to be a mathematical operation. If it satisfies these requirements, we call it a group. The requirements are called the group axioms. When we stop looking at specific mathematical operations and begin to look at the abstract idea of an operation many beautiful ideas can be discovered. As one delves deeper, they begin to see symmetry at every turn. Everything begins to look the same and concepts once believed to be unconnected become intertwined and identical. Yes, this is a very simplified explanation with lots of parts missing but it should give a decent idea of what the purpose of group theory is. There is a wonderful book called Fearful Symmetry: Is God a Geometer, which I would recommend reading if you are truly interested in learning a bit more. Happy mathing, I'm off to find an inverse to clam chowder to complete my Soup Theory.


Question: Why are polar bears and grizzly bears considered different species if they can interbreed and produce fertile offspring?

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 Why are polar bears and grizzly bears considered different species if they can interbreed and produce fertile offspring?

It's very difficult to group living, evolving organisms into discrete categories. Polar bears diverged from the rest of the *Ursus* genus very recently, therefore they are still genetically similar enough to other bears to produce fertile offspring. Taxonomy is also based on physical appearance. Since polar bears are quite distinct from other species of bears in terms of their physical appearance and geographical habitat, the decision was made to consider them a separate species. Doves and pigeons are another example. There are 310 species of birds within the *Columbiformes* order (which encompasses all pigeon and dove families), many of which are capable of breeding with other species and producing fertile offspring. Their classification as separate species lies mainly in their physical differences. The long and the short of it is that taxonomy is a human construct, and not everything fits nice and neatly between the lines all of the time. **Tl;dr:** while this typically isn't the case, there is no hard, taxonomic rule stating that members of different species cannot produce fertile offspring. A better way of thinking about it would be: "if two populations are unable to interbreed, they cannot be considered the same species". This doesn't necessarily preclude two species from being able to interbreed.


Question: Why do you need several film/TV streaming services to get full coverage, when music streaming has several competing platforms that basically offer everything?

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 Why do you need several film/TV streaming services to get full coverage, when music streaming has several competing platforms that basically offer everything?

A few reasons. For music, the toothpaste is already metaphorically out of the tube. Services like Kazaa, Napster and LimeWire popularized file sharing, and most files shared were music files. Sharing films or even TV shows was more difficult because the file sizes are much bigger, and internet speeds in the early 2000s (when this all began) were much slower. To put it simply: the supply of music is greater than the demand; for movies, the demand is greater than the supply.


Question: Why are the Nordic Countries so well off?

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 Why are the Nordic Countries so well off?

> They aren't big in tourism, agriculture or have many exports at all really. Huh? Denmark has exports worth $14511 per capita, Sweden has $14429 per capita, and Norway has $19980 per capita. The US meanwhile has exports worth $3853 per capita, the UK is at $5968 per capita, Germany at $16197 per capita, and France at $7941 per capita. Agriculture wise, Denmark uses 61% of its surface for farming and Denmark produces food for more than three times its population. The other countries have less agriculture primarily because they're very mountainous whereas Denmark is very flat. > Despite that they are still top in things like education, corruption, crime and healthcare. What do you mean *despite that*? You don't need a huge agriculture industry to have low levels of crime, nor do you even really need to export products to not have corruption. What they're doing is taxing people who can afford it, and then use those taxes on programs which will help the people who need it.


Question: Unpopped popcorn is listed as 590 mg sodium, popped has 450 mg. How does it reduce? Where does it go? Carbohydrates and fat goes down too, but not as much.

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 Unpopped popcorn is listed as 590 mg sodium, popped has 450 mg. How does it reduce? Where does it go? Carbohydrates and fat goes down too, but not as much.

Is that on a bag of microwave popcorn with some kind of flavor? I'd guess the expected result is that some of the flavoring is expected to remain in the bag after popping or stuck to the hull that doesn't wind up getting eaten. Or perhaps that is accounting for the kernels that don't pop this not getting eaten and not counting towards the full container value


Question: how are cancer and tumors related? Does one cause another?

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 how are cancer and tumors related? Does one cause another?

Tumors are cells that are ignoring only some of the rules the body sets for them. Cancer cells have gone completely renegade. Specifically, the body sets clear rules for which cells are allowed to divide (and thus grow their tissue) and when. That's how you grow and maintain your organs and other bodily tissues. If cells were allowed to divide whenever they wanted to, you'd end up with strange bulbous growths that would leech blood and nutrients while making a mess of things and getting in everyone's way. Sound familiar? Yes, that's a tumor. Tumors aren't necessarily that harmful as long as they aren't messing things up too much. If they are small, self-contained, and in a place where they can't do much harm, you can live with a tumor for a very long time without serious complaints. If they are larger or if they are interfering with vital functions, a tumor may become a problem in and of itself and have to be removed for that reason. A more important issue, though, is that cells who've already broken some of the body's rules may start breaking others. Specifically: the very important rule that, with some exceptions (e.g. blood), cells need to stay in their designated place within the body. When cells break this rule as well, we call them *malignant* or *cancerous.* These cells are now traveling throughout the body and settling in different places, where they start dividing again and growing new tumors. This is very bad. As I said, you can live with a contained tumor quite happily if it isn't interfering with anything important. But if tumors start to grow everywhere, that's a different ball game. Some of these tumors are bound to be in dangerous places, and even if they aren't, their numbers alone can start to pose a problem. Moreover, once you're at this stage, it becomes much harder to remove the bad cells. A single, large-ish tumor can be easily detected, surgically removed, irradiated, or otherwise targeted specifically. But once you have many small tumors growing all over the place, you're fighting a guerrilla war. The enemy is now spread over many places, and hard to track. We're getting better and better at fighting these sorts of wars, and we can subdue cancers for longer and longer, to the point where more and more people are dying *with* cancer, not *of* it. But it all depends on how far the cancer has spread, as well as the type of cancer and how aggressive it is. In any case, the earlier you detect it, the better, and often a *benign* (i.e. not (yet) cancerous) tumor will be removed for that reason.


Question: How can computer security people determine whether election software has been tampered with or not?

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 How can computer security people determine whether election software has been tampered with or not?

At its most simple, you can compare what are called Hashes. A Hash is essentially a giant number or hexcode that is the result of running a block of information, in this case computer code, through a specialized mathematical equation. Based on whats there, it spits out the hash. If you then take that block of information, change 1 Bit (a Bit being a technical term for the smallest unit of information in Binary), run it through the hashing equation again and it will put out an entirely different hash. So if you know the hash for the legitimate software and you suspect code has been injected into or altered on the suspect system, you can take its code, run it through the hashing equation and compare the results. It wont tell you if its been hacked or anything, that would require proper investigation. just that these two things are different.


Question: Why do judges sentence criminals to more than life terms? - Ex: 2 life terms plus 65 years.

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 Why do judges sentence criminals to more than life terms? - Ex: 2 life terms plus 65 years.

A couple of reasons. It's important that you be punished for each crime in certain situations. Such as you killed 300 people, to honor the dead we need to give you 20 years per person. Second, sentences can get reduced due to various factors. So if we knock your sentence down from 20 years per victim to only 5 years per victim, the person still has a 0% chance of getting out alive.


Question: Why does price of agricultural (like fruits) changes all the time?

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 Why does price of agricultural (like fruits) changes all the time?

Let's say you have twenty apples, and ten people want one apple each. You can only sell ten apples. So you make it cheaper, so people might be tempted to buy two apples each. Lets say there was a lot of cold and rain this year, and your apple trees only produced 5 apples. You only have five apples to sell, so you can put the price up until five people decide not to buy apples. Stuff like like bad weather, pests, fertiliser etc, changes each season, affecting how much grows. When you have extra food, costs go down, when you grow too little, costs go up. If there is an increase in say, fertiliser cost, then costs go up as it costs you more to grow.


Question: How do your bones know when to stop growing?

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 How do your bones know when to stop growing?

ELI5: it's programmed into your DNA A little more in depth: Your DNA tells your bones what basic shape they should be in, as well as the rough size they should be. Human growth hormone(HGH) is a hormone released by your brain from the pituitary gland, and is basically the "switch" that turns growth on/off. HGH is produced more or less continuously throughout your youth, and especially during puberty, then switches off once you reach adulthood. No more HGH being produced = no more bone growth. Some individuals have pituitary gland disorders that cause HGH to be produced continuously throughout their life, meaning they never really stop growing. An example would be Robert Wadlow, the tallest person to ever live, who I believe had a tumor on his pituitary gland, causing him to reach the incredible height of 8' 11"(2.72 meters). Unfortunately, the human body is not designed for such size, leaving him bedridden for the latter part of his life, until the strain on his body eventually killed him at age 22.


Question: if multiplying by Zero returns Zero, why does division by Zero return 'undefined'?

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 if multiplying by Zero returns Zero, why does division by Zero return 'undefined'?

Let's use a 1-pound chocolate bar. Multiplication: if you have a 4 count of 1-pound chocolate bars, you have 4 pounds of chocolate. If you have no 1-pound chocolate bars, you have 0 pounds of chocolate. Makes perfect sense. Division: If you cut the chocolate bar into 4 equal parts, each part is 4 ounces (1/4 of a pound). But try cutting a chocolate bar into zero equal parts... conceptually that makes no sense. If you say that this means removing or destroying the chocolate bar, that would actually be subtraction. In effect, you want to collapse the chocolate bar into fewer than one piece but still expect all 16 ounces of chocolate to still be present in this space where there is no chocolate bar.


Question: Is there anything that says you can't cheat in a US election? If cheating was proven true, would it have any effect on the results?

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 Is there anything that says you can't cheat in a US election? If cheating was proven true, would it have any effect on the results?

It is illegal to vote multiple times. Illegal to vote under someone else's name. Illegal to vote in a jurisdiction you do not live in. Illegal to stuff the ballot with false votes. Illegal to take away votes from a competitor. And many other laws regarding voting. So yes there are lots of laws that say you cannot cheat in a US election. Doing so will result in you being arrested and fined, and there may be grounds for there to be a recount. If the person running is the one guilty of such a crime (such as stuffing ballot boxes) then they are removed from office and often arrested.


Question: How do professionals know when it's the right time to release a patient from a mental institution?

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 How do professionals know when it's the right time to release a patient from a mental institution?

They don't. Generally, for most people, they decide they are sane when their insurance money runs out. When a court commits someone for insanity they are generally never let out, or let out after many decades when they are no longer any possible threat. These days, for the most part, mental 'institutions' are money making operations that take in people committed by the court or by family members only for as long as the money lasts.


Question: from earth, we can see stars. From the ISS live stream, we cannot see the stars. How come?

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 from earth, we can see stars. From the ISS live stream, we cannot see the stars. How come?

Most of the time it is daytime on ISS. Even though the sky is not bright blue like on Earth but rather black the ISS itself and the Earth in the background is still lit up making it even brighter then even the brightest day on the surface. This means that all the cameras and indeed the crews vision is adjusted to daytime. This makes it impossible to see any stars in the footage. It is actually the same reason why we can not see stars from the surface of the Earth during daytime as well. The stars is still there in the sky and shines just as bright during the day as they do during the night. However the light from the Sun and all the secondary reflections from the sky and the ground lights up everything so that it is impossible to see the stars without specialized equipment.


Question: what does it mean for something to be unironically good?

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 what does it mean for something to be unironically good?

That it is legitimately good and not just good because of a meme or something like that. Like people saying all star is a great song or despacito. While some people do think they are good songs most people just say oh yeah i love \_\_\_\_ song because of the meme value, to be unironically good you would actually like it just cause you think its actually good.


Question: why do you feel hungry the morning after eating a big meal?

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 why do you feel hungry the morning after eating a big meal?

First reason is you just went 8 or so hours without eating. Second reason is hunger is determined by a few things, one of which being how stretched your stomach feels. If you eat a big meal the night before your stomach expands to fit it all. Once the food leaves your stomach your stomach is still a bit stretched out and takes time to shrink back to normal size. That big empty stomach makes you feel hungrier than normal. Once it shrinks it doesnt feel as empty by comparison.


Question: why is it so difficult to balance on a bike/motorcycle when stationary compared to while in motion?

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 why is it so difficult to balance on a bike/motorcycle when stationary compared to while in motion?

The fork of a bike is angled outwards which causes the bike to catch itself as it falls when it moves forwards. As the bike falls to the right, the front wheel turns to the right, and the bike moves to the right which recenters the weight and causes it to come back upright. Additionally, the gyroscopic forces of the wheels in motion help keep the bike stable.


Question: how the video feeds are shared globally for events like the Olympics. Is everything mixed and edited in one place then shared or do local broadcasters receive all of the video feeds and edit themselves? Also is the data shared via satellite?

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 how the video feeds are shared globally for events like the Olympics. Is everything mixed and edited in one place then shared or do local broadcasters receive all of the video feeds and edit themselves? Also is the data shared via satellite?

They are cut and edited on site by dedicated broadcast teams and then broadcast out via one or more of the following: cable networks, data networks, and satellite tv broadcasts. Cable would mostly be used only for short distances, but data connections, such as fiber optic cables, are a really good (quality, speed and cost effectiveness) choice for global transmissions. Satellite TV is good, too, but less used nowadays. Data satellites don't really do anything that the internet backbone (ie. fiber optic) won't, so whether they use satellite or cable is mostly up to the available infrastructure and costs. Data satellite usage used to cost an arm and a leg, but the prices have gone down a lot in the last 10-15 years. The throughput is still often smaller and latencies aren't really a lot better than with fiber, so fiber is usually more cost effective if a connection is available at the broadcast site.


Question: Can you re-give yourself a virus? Ex; if you wipe your face with a towel while you have a cold sore, after its cleared up could the germs on your towel reapply to your lips and give you another?

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 Can you re-give yourself a virus? Ex; if you wipe your face with a towel while you have a cold sore, after its cleared up could the germs on your towel reapply to your lips and give you another?

Once you get a virus, your body starts work on producing an antibody which will kill that virus. Once you have critical mass of that antibody, you are essentially immune to that virus. Even if more of it is introduced to your body somehow, it won't last long enough to cause symptoms. Some viruses, like herpes which causes cold sores, can "hide" from antibodies inside your nervous system. Even though your body can produce antibodies to destroy the virus, the virus is safe inside a neuron. Occasionally the virus will "break out" and send its children out towards the skin, essentially in an attempt to spread the infection to others; this is when you have symptoms like a cold sore. The symptoms will last until your body once again produces antibodies and forces the virus back. In that case, since the virus is in your neurons already, there's no possibility of re-infection.


Question: Can we actually save our planet or are we too late to stop certain extinction of our species?

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 Can we actually save our planet or are we too late to stop certain extinction of our species?

From what empirical data I can gather there actually is no threat of extinction from climate change other than adapting to new living conditions. Humans lived through one of the ice ages and adapted to the cold conditions to procreate and populate the earth. The changes we have wrought on the earth will inevitably lead to different conditions in weather and pollution but none are insurmountable with todays technology. It all depends on our ability to adapt to these new conditions.


Question: What is the relationship between mental health and serotonin produced in the gut?

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 What is the relationship between mental health and serotonin produced in the gut?

This is an active area of research. The "gut-brain axis" is a relatively new concept that emerged in \~2011. First, researchers showed that antibiotic treatment changed the behavior of a breed of mice that are generally quite timid to become quite bold. Then followed up to show that they could then again make these mice timid by replacing their gut bacteria with that of a mouse that did not receive antibiotics. But how does this translate to humans? Well, that is complicated. There have been a few studies that point to an association between bipolar disorder and/or depression and the amount of certain types of bacteria in the gut. However, it isn't clear whether the bipolar disorder causes these changes or if the bacteria causes these changes. Typically, humans that live together share a similar gut microbiome. However, whether two people live together isn't predictive of psychiatric disorders. Another point of view (as you mention) is serotonin. A few studies have shown that patients with depression have more gut microbiota that are involved in the production or metabolism of serotonin. This, however, goes against the (kind of wrong) theory that depression is caused by an underproduction of serotonin. The primary side effect of patients who receive SSRIs (a common antidepressant that increases the amount of serotonin in the inter-neuronal gaps) is gastrointestinal difficulties. So pharmaceutical intervention of the serotonin pathway affects both the brain and gut. But which is causing the antidepressant benefit? Who knows :) So in conclusion. Science strongly supports some association between the gut and brain. However, the causative link between the two remains inconclusive. This will likely be resolved within the next one or two decades.


Question: why do things that are hot (like lava or fire, or... lights) generate light?

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 why do things that are hot (like lava or fire, or... lights) generate light?

When a thing is at a temperature over absolute zero, the atoms composing it are moving. When those atoms collide with each other, they lose a little bit of energy. That energy loss become electromagnetic radiation, in other words, light. The energy of light is related to its wavelength, so matter with different temperature will emit light with different wavelength. In the end, everything emit light, but things that are hot emit visible light. (While colder thing emit light that the human eyes can't see. For example, you're emitting infrared light) Of course, this come from an idealized physics object called black body, and not all light is made this way.


Question: Why does mac-n-cheese not taste cheesy after you reheat it?

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 Why does mac-n-cheese not taste cheesy after you reheat it?

So macaroni and cheese changes when it gets cold in a few different ways. The oils in the cheese sauce get cold and harden up and separate, while the macaroni continue to absorb more water. Some water is also lost if it isnt in an air tight container. This turns what is left into a starchy and oily mess. You can reheat it better by adding in a bit of milk, this replaces the water that was lost and helps the oil get mixed back in better! But it still loses a bit of flavor, that I don't know exactly why. I just add a bit more cheese and some salt! Almost good as fresh.


Question: Humans are mammals and are not able to use salt water for nutritional value yet how do marine mammals such as whales and dolphins process salt water for its nutritional value?

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 Humans are mammals and are not able to use salt water for nutritional value yet how do marine mammals such as whales and dolphins process salt water for its nutritional value?

A few ways. Two big ones: 1) They don't. Marine mammals generally don't need to drink water to maintain their salt balance. Instead the they don't waste a lot of water, and use the water in the stuff they eat, either directly or by using metabolic mechanisms to regulate water (e.g. 'burning' fat and sugar for energy creates water). 2) Marine mammals can concentrate urine to have more salt in it than sea water would. This fits into the "don't waste water" bit from above, but also means that if they drink sea water that they can get useable water from it. This isn't that common unless they're stressed (e.g. bottle nosed dolphins will do it when they can't eat). There is a ELI-25 type paper at URL_0 for a more in depth review of what goes on.


Question: Why are Americans able to vote on the privatization of the World Wide Web? How will this affect the rest of the world?

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 Why are Americans able to vote on the privatization of the World Wide Web? How will this affect the rest of the world?

The internet is not a public institution - ever since the US government stopped being a Tier 1 network in 1995, all Tier 1 networks have been privately owned, and the entirety of the internet backbone is privatized. Privatization has little to do with the net neutrality discussion at hand, and the only 'vote' happening is between two people and three morons at the FCC. As for why the US has a dominant role on the internet, that's because all major internet governance institutions were US founded and US based (ICANN, IETF, etc), and all standards and specifications were built in the United States.


Question: Why is fresh air good for mental health?

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 Why is fresh air good for mental health?

Scientific studies have proven that regular exposure to Sunlight makes humans 20% better in every way. Productivity, mood, recovery rate, sick days, and even mental illness resistance. No artificial lighting system has been proven to have the same effect as a window within sight of your workstation. We're not 100% why this effect occurs, but you do get a boost of Vitamin D and have a sense of freedom whenever you need to escape. Being able to walk out and get some fresh air proves to your body and mind that you are free.


Question: Why is internal rotation of the shoulder bad? Is it bad in all cases?

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 Why is internal rotation of the shoulder bad? Is it bad in all cases?

Your shoulder needs to rotate in both directions. Internal rotation is healthy. What is a problem is when your habitual rest posture is internal rotation. When your hands are on a keyboard, phone, or steering wheel, your shoulder is in mild internal rotation. If you don't regularly stretch and exercise, or do physical work, it won't externally rotate as much, and you will become habitually internally rotated, and the muscles which make external rotation possible become so weak that you can't even stand up straight for long without fatigue. That leads to slumped shoulders, forward head, eventually you turn into Quasimodo and die alone, rejected by the opposite sex. r/posture is a good resource.