Question: When you talk about sleep waves what are you actually talking about?

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 When you talk about sleep waves what are you actually talking about?

It's just the frequency that an EEG shows when measuring the currents in your brain. Our brain works by sending electrochemical impulses through a network of neurons. These impulses can be measured and we found that they usually come in waves back and forth (it's basically a chainreaction that runs through your brain) So they are produced everywhere in the brain, but we can only measure their total sum (since we only place electrodes on the outside of the head we can only roughly measure where some activity is from) Depending on what your brain does it's activity happens at different speeds and we just named different frequencies Alpha/Beta/Theta waves because we know they happen in different situations


Question: What is the difference between allergy meds Zyrtec, Claritin, and Benadryl?

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 What is the difference between allergy meds Zyrtec, Claritin, and Benadryl?

Pharmacist here. The two users before me explained it well; each of them have different active ingredients but all work in a similar manner as what we call an "antihistamine". However, I WOULD like to point out that while most people do become drowsy after taking Benadryl (as it does affect the brain), a small portion of people do not and that's really true for any of the other antihistamines which supposedly are "non-sedating". I've met plenty of patients who complain that Loratadine (Claritin) makes them sleepy (though not for me) and I myself get drowsy with Fexofenadine (Allegra) which is another allergy med that's supposed to be non-sedating.


Question: If temperature comfort is achieved via insulation from clothing, how is it that a wool crewneck can keep you comfortable in hot and cold weather, whereas a parka can only keep you comfortable in cold weather?

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 If temperature comfort is achieved via insulation from clothing, how is it that a wool crewneck can keep you comfortable in hot and cold weather, whereas a parka can only keep you comfortable in cold weather?

Because you are a heat source. Your body is (roughly) a 100w heater. Ever try to sleep (without AC, obv) when the temperature's 37C? That's the same as body temp; should be fine, right? But there you are, lying on top of your bed, naked, drenched in sweat...that's because you need to shed the heat your body's making, to maintain equilibrium. Insulation doesn't "regulate" anything. It just slows heat transfer. Your *body* tries to regulate. If you're cold (in other words: losing heat too quickly), it starts constricting veins & arteries near the surface & in your extremities, for example. If you're hot (in other words: need to shed heat faster), it increases circulation near the surface & in the extremeties, and it makes you sweat, so the evaporation will cool you down (evaporation of sweat is the only way you can shed heat to air warmer than you; it's kind of a neat trick, really). In summer, a down coat or wool sweater *would* prevent the outside heat from transferring inwards, to you, actually... problem is, the heat flow is actually going the opposite direction - you're trying to get rid of heat, and the coat's holding it in.


Question: Why can a coaxial cable carry hundreds of HD TV channels but a PC display cable can barely handle high resolutions?

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 Why can a coaxial cable carry hundreds of HD TV channels but a PC display cable can barely handle high resolutions?

Your DisplayPort cable actually has more total bandwidth, as much as 17 GHz. The difference is that this data is sent relatively *uncompressed,* that is, close to every pixel of every frame is transmitted. By contrast, cable TV is sent highly compressed, avoiding sending redundant data but requiring more compute power and high-speed memory on each end.


Question: Why does your nose run when you're sat in the cold?

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 Why does your nose run when you're sat in the cold?

Some of that is the same thing that makes a dog's nose wet - condensation. When it's cold, your nose gets cold but your lungs, and the air coming out of them, is still ~98f/37c and the air has picked up a lot of moisture from your lungs. When it contacts the cooler tissues of your nose, it condenses and eventually drips into your trail mix while you're talking to a hot hiker on the way up to Mt. Yale...or whatever.


Question: Why does the sound of thunder "roll" for several seconds when lightning happens in one flash?

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 Why does the sound of thunder "roll" for several seconds when lightning happens in one flash?

Lightning is long, multiple kilometers long in fact so the parts of it are at significantly different distance from you, and it makes the sound in the entire length of the flash. Meanwhile the sound only travels 343 m/s, so when thunder is rolling you hear thunder from different parts of the lightning reaching you. If you only heard the sound from one point of lightning it would be a single loud crack/boom.


Question: Why can’t we just down tools and pause the economy for four months and then pick up where we left off without a recession?

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 Why can’t we just down tools and pause the economy for four months and then pick up where we left off without a recession?

Because we cant just pause human activity. We still need food power etc. Animals, plants, buildings need to take care of so there will be a lot of activity and use of stuff all the time. So the food industry, healthcare, and public safety and the part that is needed to support that need to operate all the time. The will need to be paid. So if you completely stop every other part of the economy will still operate so you have cost with no income. We can't just stop everything and hope that in 4 months that their will be no virus out there. Until you get a vaccine and can give if to enough people or herd immunity from infection the virus will be out there. When it all startup it will not be a direct return to what was before, people will travel, visit entertainment less because of legal requirements, and by their own choice so the part of the economy based on tourism and entertainment can't return to its previous state directly. If it did the virus would just spread again. You will likely see the quite long-lasting effect in the way people spend


Question: why is water the only liquid the expands when it freezes?

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 why is water the only liquid the expands when it freezes?

Water Molecules form little hexagons when they make ice crystals, this is due to the hydrogen bonds that are created on a more long term basis when it freezes. This hexagonal crystal structure is takes up more space than the free-moving liquid, and that's why water expands when it freezes. Other materials that exhibit this property of expanding when frozen are silicon, gallium, germanium, antimony, bismuth, plutonium and silicon dioxide. In general however, the structure formed when the material shifts from a solid to a liquid takes up less space than the liquid, because the molecules are moving more slowly and less forcefully bounce off of other molecules.


Question: How do companies that make free products like web browsers and linux version stay afloat?

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 How do companies that make free products like web browsers and linux version stay afloat?

Some of them are open source projects meaning the contributors write them as research projects in their free time. They can use them in their CVs later. Surprisingly, these apps are very useable and stable. Ex.: Linux distributions. There are products with the companies would like to chain users to the other products of the company. Developing a browser like Chrome worth it if millions will use it to access Google products filled with ads (Gmail, Google Search etc.) In this case, these companies heavily calculate wether the product worth the trouble -- this is how Google shut down Google Plus this year. Finally some free products suggest you should pay for premium service, like Spotify.


Question: Why do fast moving laser pointers appear as if they are leaving a trail, and flashlights don't?

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 Why do fast moving laser pointers appear as if they are leaving a trail, and flashlights don't?

When looking at a projection of a laser light, the sensing parts of your eyes will have a couple of overloaded sensors (which take a while to stop being overloaded), that is why it looks like they are leaving a trail. The visible light of a laser is a high-intensity point on a surface. Compared with that, the visible light of a flashlight is way too scattered and not intense at all.


Question: How do hotels decide what rooms to put guests in?

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 How do hotels decide what rooms to put guests in?

Kinda random kinda not. Depends on the software, if the software exists, and the mood of the person handing out assignments. Generally speaking, they'll honor requests if you bother to ask. Some hate being so far from the elevators, others don't like the noise a central location like that has and will complain. If they can make you happy they will, so don't hesitate to share your preference. Hell, if you ask really nicely you can get the special suite at your previous rate if nobody else has called it. So they take all the special requests like "Corner room", "Grouped Together","No Windows", "Smoking", "Near/Far [Whatever]" and make those fit as best they can given the dates with nobody changing rooms mid-stay. The rest are just sprinkled in near randomly among that month's business philosophy like "Maximize Floor capacity to save housekeeping" or "Minimize floor density for sound complaints". This all assumes there is some greater logic assigning rooms too, but in most discount hotels there's a serious chance that it's literally the first available room the attendant sees while you're filling out the forms.


Question: How do allergy shots (which contain allergens) stop the allergies, but you would still be allergic to those allergens, despite being exposed to them for years naturally?

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 How do allergy shots (which contain allergens) stop the allergies, but you would still be allergic to those allergens, despite being exposed to them for years naturally?

It’s less about immunity and more about desensitization. Immunity from my understanding is creating something in your body to protect you, like creating antibodies. Immunotherapy doesn’t create anything. It’s not creating antibodies. It’s just desensitizing you. Allergens in nature are large enough to easily trigger you. But immunotherapy uses a little bit of allergen at the time, and your body doesn’t see that small amount as much of a threat, so as you keep doing it, your body recognizes it as something commonly seen and normalized. Similar idea to if you saw an elf walk into your bar it’d be weird the first time but if they kept showing up you’d be chill with them fast, but if a horde of elves showed up to your bar you’d panic fast


Question: Each car has its own key. Why can't that same car key unlock other cars of the same brand and model?

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 Each car has its own key. Why can't that same car key unlock other cars of the same brand and model?

Because the keyless entry device sends a code that the car is configured to accept. Typically a second code (double click) is also configured to unlock every door, and not just the driver's. Obviously, designing them so that they all sent the same code and could unlock any car would generally be unpopular.


Question: In the USA, how are presidential travel and security budgeted? Where does the money come from, and where does it go?

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 In the USA, how are presidential travel and security budgeted? Where does the money come from, and where does it go?

Other details that aren't wages involve logistics for support personnel, I.e rental cars, hotels, per diems, etc. Naturally they need to go out ahead of time to secure the area as well as during. Judicial Watch have posted specific details of travel line items (obtained thru FOIA lawsuits) but many line items are redacted by the source for security reasons. They have a category on their web site specially for presidential travel. With departments like DOD and DHS having budgets in the tens of billions, a presidential travel budget is a rounding error.


Question: What's the process that makes food or any type of consumable spoil, and how does this differ from aging/fermenting stuff like cheese or liquor?

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 What's the process that makes food or any type of consumable spoil, and how does this differ from aging/fermenting stuff like cheese or liquor?

There's two major reasons why food spoils: 1. Biological processes - Bacteria, fungi, mold, insects and other living things find the food, and start eating it and reproducing. Many of these things produce waste that is poisonous to people. 2. Chemical processes - Chemicals within the food react with each other and create reaction products that are harmful or have bad flavors. Aging processes depend on exactly what you're aging but they are generally done under controlled conditions where you can control what organisms have access to the product and limit it to only the ones you want. Fermentation produces alcohol, and alcohol is poisonous to most microbes. Once a liquid has a high enough alcohol content basically nothing can grow in it.


Question: If I'm transferring data from one folder to another in the same SSD, how come the data transfer speed is still so much lower than advertised or tested?

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 If I'm transferring data from one folder to another in the same SSD, how come the data transfer speed is still so much lower than advertised or tested?

First of all, are you *moving* the data or *copying* the data? **Moving** the data on the same drive does not actually *move* the information on the physical drive. The OS merely changes the pointer to that data to make it appear in a different location within your filesystem. In other words, the data will still be stored at index XYZ on the drive, but it's folder (the pointer) is now "D:/Folder 2" instead of "D:/Folder 1" **Copying** data is a much more intensive process. When you do this between 2 different drives, each drive only needs to perform a single operation (i.e. a read operation on the origin drive, and a write operation on the destination drive.) This means that each drive can devote all its available resources to that single operation. However, when you copy data on *the same drive*, that drive now needs to perform *two* operations - reading *and* writing. On a single SSD, the data must be read, written to a buffer, erased and rewritten in steps, all using the same controller and resources on that SSD. This can be *much* slower than if copying between two different drives.


Question: If you have good credit, and pay your bills off every month, how do credit card companies make money off you? Wouldn't they prefer customers with bad credit?

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 If you have good credit, and pay your bills off every month, how do credit card companies make money off you? Wouldn't they prefer customers with bad credit?

They prefer low risk, which is what a good credit score indicates, and they still make money even if you pay all your bills in full. Every time you use your card, the merchant has to pay a fee. A portion goes to the network (Visa, etc.), though the biggest share goes to the issuing bank. As long as you keep using your card, the bank keeps making money off of you.


Question: When a country falls to a rival power, is there a currency transfer? How does it work and how long does it take?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 When a country falls to a rival power, is there a currency transfer? How does it work and how long does it take?

This is actually an exceptionally difficult question to answer. In the event of an armed takeover, the winner can set whatever terms they want, and the loser can suck it. In the event of a peaceful transition of power, what happens to the money (or at least *should*) be set forth in the agreement that led to the transition. Of course, in practice economies do what they want and sometimes the money that people actually use isn't the money the government wants them to and sometimes isn't even actually money. I'm pretty sure that RuneScape gold is still more valuable than the sovereign Bolivar.


Question: how do "big" numbers work?

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 how do "big" numbers work?

You don't "discover" any random big number. Numbers are infinite, you can always add 1 and get a bigger number. You haven't "discovered" anything, mathematicians figured all that stuff out a long time ago. What makes Graham's Number odd, and other numbers, like it, is that they have particular meanings. They're the answer to a question, not a random number. One definition is "a specific positive integer used in a proof". Graham's Number is an upper bound (at the time) of the possible solutions to a particular problem he was working on. It's trivially easy to compute numbers larger than Graham's Number, but it's pretty unusual to have them mean anything.


Question: Why are some body parts such as the nose made out of cartilage, and not bones?

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 Why are some body parts such as the nose made out of cartilage, and not bones?

Cartilage and bone both provide structure, but where bone provides load bearing strength and body cavity protection (thorax and cranium) necessitating hardness, cartilage is better suited to provide support to moving parts (ie connections between the ribs and the sternum) and is easier to repair than bone so is better suited for non-load bearing portions of the body that require only moderate levels of support (ie nose, ears, trachea, etc). That said, cartilage is also the precursor to bone so, especially in older age, some cartilage will begin to "ossify," - that is to become bone. Source: My wife recently broke my nose.


Question: Why do new cars show up so early? 2019 models are being shown and it's not 2019 yet.

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 Why do new cars show up so early? 2019 models are being shown and it's not 2019 yet.

Marketing technique. It's so you can sell a car that was actually build and produced in 2018 to people in late 2019 for it to seem still brand new. Even though that 2019 car was already finished and being sold in October (for example), it will seem nice that you're getting a 2019 in 2019. Essentially all 2019 cars are actually 2018 cars, and 2018 cars are actually 2017 cars, and so on.


Question: What makes Poker more than a game of luck?

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 What makes Poker more than a game of luck?

This reminds me of a[ scene from Star Trek: TNG where Data, an android plays poker for the first time]( URL_0 ). Essentially, he believes he should be able to win at poker by breaking it down simply into its mathematical components. Basically, playing statistics. What he didn't account for is the act of bluffing, and he loses when he folds his relatively strong hand to someone else's extremely weak hand. So... 1. Statistics are very important in poker - knowing how likely your hand is likely to win based off of the cards you have and depending on the variety of poker, what cards your opponents have. 2. There's also a very strong emphasis on the social aspects - Simply raising when you have a good hand and folding everytime you have a bad hand will likely mean a loss. You need to be able to bluff and read other people.


Question: How do noise cancelling headphones work ?

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 How do noise cancelling headphones work ?

A sound wave is the compression and decompression of the air around you at certain frequencies. Noise cancellation works by detecting this and decompressing the compressed air or compressing the decompressed air so that your ear drums aren't feeling the effect of outside noise and the pressure changes around your ear and are only hearing what the headphone wants you to hear. When you think about it as a sine wave then it is just producing the mirror image wave of the sound it wants to cancel out. When you add both waves together they null each other out. Edit: Added a word.


Question: Why does Iron Man’s armor in movies look faker than it did a decade ago?

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 Why does Iron Man’s armor in movies look faker than it did a decade ago?

Because it’s supposed to be hyper-futuristic these days. When the iron man series started in the mcu, it was meant to look more current and semi-possible. For example, in the first movie he slows down with air breaks, large broad surfaces that are meant to create drag. But now he does it with micro thrusters.


Question: How would an interplanetary civilization measure time?

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 How would an interplanetary civilization measure time?

If they have FTL travel without timey-wimey effects, they'd probably use the standard time on the home planet. If multi-racial, they would probably decide which species' system is used through war or diplomacy. If their FTL travel DOES come with time dilation, then they would probably not be traveling to and from frequently enough for them to use a standard system. Any communication would take years just to send a message and get a reply. Any dealings between colonies would probably work on an "It'll get there when it gets there" system.


Question: Why do we tend to "like" negative news/information more than positive one?

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 Why do we tend to "like" negative news/information more than positive one?

Positive things happening are far more common, so people think they're boring. Once you've seen an airplane land, then you feel like you've seen a million. So a headline that says "100000 AIRPLANES LAND SAFELY TODAY: Skilled pilots brave varied weather conditions and irritated passengers!" doesn't sound very interesting compared to "PASSENGER AIRLINER FLIES INTO THE SIDE OF MOUNT EREBUS: Many feared dead!" It's something innate in the human experience to desire to put things into a narrative context. We like stories. When something scary or negative happens, we instinctively hook onto it like it's the start to a grim novel, despite the fact that it's actually our waking reality. (That sounds horribly depressing (and it is) but this is why there needs to be a great drive in yourself to find how to help, and find people who want to help.)


Question: Why does singing tend to neutralise people’s accents?

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 Why does singing tend to neutralise people’s accents?

A huge part of accents is vowel colors. But there is a limited set of vowel sounds that sound nice to us when sustained, or perhaps a better way to put it is singers are trained to utilize a subset of possible vowel colors that produce the most sonorous sustained tones. Vowels tend to get opened up from tight “eeeee” sounds to open “ahhh” sounds, a classic example is the weird way some singers sing the word “me” as “may”, because sustaining an “eeeee” vowel sounds pinched and nasal. So anyways, singers gravitate towards certain vowel sounds due to their timbral properties, which often results in a smoothed out accent among English speakers.


Question: What is the difference between horsepower and torque? Which one is better to have more of?

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 What is the difference between horsepower and torque? Which one is better to have more of?

Torque is a vectored rotational force measured in lb-ft. Horsepower is the rate at which work is performed at a given rpm, measured in (lb-ft)/sec. So, the two are intertwined. A good way to think about it is that torque is how hard the engine can spin the wheels and horsepower is a measurement of how well the engine can generate torque. So, which one is better? Torque. Torque is actually what makes the wheels spins and moves the vehicle forward. Torque is a direct measurement of an engine's output. Horsepower is not a great way to compare 2 engines. A Ferrari engine might make 500 hp, but only generate 330 lb-ft of torque. On the other hand, a Corvette engine might only make 450 hp, but it generates 380 lb-ft of torque. So even though the Ferrari makes more horsepower, it does not deliver as much thrust. The difference being that the displacement of the Ferrari engine is smaller than the Corvette and can accommodate less air and fuel in each cylinder.


Question: Why does our vision improve when we squint?

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 Why does our vision improve when we squint?

Nearsighted and farsighted people have opposites sides of the same shit-vision coin. Their lenses refract light either before or behind their retinas, respectively. But in both cases, which light is refracted the least? The light in the centre of our vision! By squinting, what you're effectively doing is removing the light that would be refracted the most from hitting your retina and leaving the light that just goes straight so the focal point becomes more like a line, which intersects your retina nicely, so you see more clearly but darker. Same thing happens if you make a really tight ok sign with your thumb and forefinger and look through that


Question: When it comes to classical music, when do copyright laws come into play when a current composer wants to play a classical song at his next concert or his whatever show he is composing for?

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 When it comes to classical music, when do copyright laws come into play when a current composer wants to play a classical song at his next concert or his whatever show he is composing for?

Music in the public domain, out of copyright, can be played without permission or paying. But the performers can copyright their performance and they do. There are organizations, ASCAP, BMI and others which enforce the laws in regard to their members. Any public performance in an area which produces a profit for someone has to obey the laws. Those organizations make sure this happens. It is not a significant burden. They want the music played. The process is well established. There are web sites where public domain music is available for practice. You can get sheet music for practice here. URL_0 and elsewhere.


Question: What does the saying "physics breaks down" when talking about something really confusing?

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 What does the saying "physics breaks down" when talking about something really confusing?

Modern physics is just our best guess at how the universe works. Our equations, our understanding, all of it is *mostly* right, but not all of it is 100% correct - especially when talking about exotic situations or things at the cutting edge of physics research. When trying to predict what happens under certain conditions, we start getting infinities or divide-by-zero errors out of the math when it previously gave us ordinary numbers, and scientists have come to associate that with "we've done something wrong" rather than "the universe actually does this." Basically, the phrase "physics breaks down" is shorthand for "our math is glitching up because we don't understand this 100% yet, but that's really neat because it means there's more to learn here."


Question: - How do people/computers calculate further digits of pi?

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 - How do people/computers calculate further digits of pi?

Historically, people used the following methods: 1) Measuring 2) Calculating the areas of many-sided polygons, using them as an approximation to a circle 3) Using a number of different formulas that expressed pi as an infinite sum or product, and just kept adding additional terms; for example, the [Leibniz formula]( URL_0 ) which is a very simple result that says 1 - 1/3 + 1/5 - 1/7 + 1/9 - ... = & pi;/4 We now have 4), an [explicit formula to compute whatever digit of pi you want without having to calculate the preceding digits]( URL_1 )


Question: Why is 3D filament cheaper than 2D ink?

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 Why is 3D filament cheaper than 2D ink?

You're not paying for the ink. You're paying for the cartridge. It's the electronics on the cartridge that stop the printer from using other brands. Filament has no cartridge, no electronics. More over, 3d printers are not sold at a loss to try to recoup in supply sales. They don't try to lock the consumer to their brand because there are other printers by other companies that use same supply.


Question: If I have absolute proof that a man commited a crime, but I aquired it illegally and it is inadmissable in court. Does the criminal go free?

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 If I have absolute proof that a man commited a crime, but I aquired it illegally and it is inadmissable in court. Does the criminal go free?

If the evidence cannot be presented in trial then the criminal would go free. That's why cops are taught to be meticulous in their evidence gathering. One slip up or mistake can cause a case to be thrown out. It's a good thing and bad thing because it does hold law enforcement to some accountability but it also means a good defense attorney can find the most minute detail to discredit evidence and get their client to walk.


Question: How does Cast Iron Make Chicken Skin So Crispy?

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 How does Cast Iron Make Chicken Skin So Crispy?

Assuming you are letting the pan come up to temperature, cast iron retains its heat better, and distributes the heat more evenly than other materials. This allows for more even cooking and subsequently, more of that heat to brown the chicken skin. This is in contrast to you putting raw meat on a pan and then the temperature dropping in that spot where you placed the food. Cast Iron would of course exhibit some of that, but not as much as other pans once it really gets going.


Question: Why are penises one of the most veiny parts of the human body?

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 Why are penises one of the most veiny parts of the human body?

Well, it's mostly flesh, tissue, muscle and tendon. The tissue is a special sponge type tissue which fills with blood to make it hard. The veins are on the surface basically to make sure that rest of the organ can have enough room for that tissue throughout to do it's purpose.


Question: What exactly is radiation, and how does it work? Can it cause mutation, and why?

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 What exactly is radiation, and how does it work? Can it cause mutation, and why?

Radiation can technically be any form of matter or energy that leaves an object travelling in a straight line. The most common form is electromagnetic radiation, also called light, which has different qualities based on its energy/wavelength. Radio waves, visible light, and x-rays are all the same "stuff", just at different wavelengths, with a shorter wavelength having a higher energy. When we talk about dangerous radiation, we usually mean one of three things: alpha radiation (which is a particle of two neutrons and two protons, or a helium nucleus), beta radiation (which is an electron), or gamma radiation (which is high-energy electromagnetic radiation). Radioactive material is generally atoms that are so massive, all the protons and neutrons are mashed in together too tight, and they would be more stable broken into two different atoms. The bonding energy that was holding it all together is released as gamma rays when not being used to bind anymore. And if the break is really assymetric (like when Uranium 238 decays into Thorium 234 and Helium 4), the lighter part is able to fly away as an alpha particle. Radioactive material can also be lighter atoms where a neutron is transformed into a proton and an electron; the proton stays and the electron flies off as beta radiation. Mutations are caused when radiation strikes a DNA molecule in one of your cells and energizes the molecule so much that it actually breaks a bond between two atoms. The next time that cell replicates, the damaged DNA is copied with the damage and then you have two cells with the problem. DNA is used to create proteins in your body, so having the wrong DNA makes the wrong protein or nothing at all, and that can cause huge problems like your new blood cells not having a protein that oxygen binds to, so that they can't distribute the oxygen you breathe. Usually a mutation just causes cancer, not a weird bodily deformation that you survive, like the Fallout mutants. Radioactivity is not visible light, but it can react with particles in the air to make a glow (like how a laser is more visible in fog), or it can hit a phosphorescent substance that absorbs light and re-emits it at a visible wavelength.


Question: If the sun is hot why is space cold ?

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 If the sun is hot why is space cold ?

There's basically nothing *in* space to be hot or cold. What's actually "cold" about space is the fact that the ambient temperature comes from what's called the "cosmic microwave background." It's the energy left over from the Big Bang. Since that happened so long ago, the temp is close to absolute zero. The reason that's the closest thing to the temperature of space is because the heat from stars flies straight through space. There are very few atoms in any given volume to heat up. That said, if you were in Earth orbit unprotected, sunlight can still heat up your body or spaceship just fine. You need radiators to get rid of that heat or you might actually be quite toasty up there.


Question: How is the amount of stars in a galaxy approximated?

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 How is the amount of stars in a galaxy approximated?

Same as anything else. You take a count of a sample area (say 100 cubic light years) and extrapolate an average across the entire galactic area, making adjustments for density changes (more stars near the center and fewer near the edges). If you have a gradient you can transpose the average onto that gradient (so for example, if you know there are 10 times more stars in the center than the edge you can use that as your gradient curve)


Question: What happens when bright lights are shone in our eyes?

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 What happens when bright lights are shone in our eyes?

Your eyes see using special cells in them, either cones or rods (the cone cells are sensitive to different wavelengths - *basically* different colors, but need more light to activate; rods will activate with *any* kind of light in the visible spectrum, which means they can't detect which color you see). Those cells work by using special molecules that change shape when light hits them, because the light changes how the electrons in the molecules orbit their atomic nuclei. Think of it like a switch, and the light is like your finger hitting the switch. When those molecules change their shape, it activates the nerves in your retina and sends the signal to your brain that you saw something. Your eyes have a lot of those cells, and those cells have a lot of those molecules. Not all of them will be activated at any given time, *normally*. If it's a bright light, that means more photons, which means more of your cells are activated. Once activated, it takes a little bit for the molecules to reset, which is normally fine since you have plenty to see with. With a bright light, though, all of them in that spot are activated, and all of them need that few minutes to reset, during which you can't detect any light because they all already went off. Your brain knows that can happen and doesn't act like the nerves are ON, it just says they WERE on and now who knows.


Question: Why is San Diego's $1.50 minimum wage increase causing fewer restaurant jobs to be created?

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 Why is San Diego's $1.50 minimum wage increase causing fewer restaurant jobs to be created?

I spent a decade working in and running a franchise restaurant. Hourly Labor costs for ONLY hourly employees averaged 25% of revenues, Food cost ran 20-25% depending on the menu make up. Thats 50% of revenue gone to easily tangible costs. Then start factoring in Franchise fees, building lease, management salaries, utilities and additional operating overhead - equipment repairs/replacement and the various other services that go in to keeping a restaurant running like taxes and insurance, and your Net margins start to get very, very slim. Increasing labor costs by 15% - because minimum wage employees get raises, the other employees above minimum wage want to maintain their wage of minimum or they feel like they are being underpaid - would take an additional 3.75% off the net profit the restaurant/owner makes. For the particular franchise i worked at, this would have cut the net profits in half at best, and in slower years wiped out any profit for the owner. This forces the owner to close up shop(like mine did), or somehow generate the same revenue but lower the number of employees to cut labor costs to offset the increase in wages.


Question: Why do small scale aircraft, such as hobbyist drones, change the rpm of a motor to change the thrust while large scal aircraft, such as chinook helicopters, adjust the pitch of their blades?

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 Why do small scale aircraft, such as hobbyist drones, change the rpm of a motor to change the thrust while large scal aircraft, such as chinook helicopters, adjust the pitch of their blades?

As /u/PhyterNL and /u/Hobadee point out, exactly right, is modern turbine engines are designed to work most efficiently at certain RPM ranges. The turbines in most modern helicopters, once they're up to "speed" will stay there... the blades are always spinning at the same speed, the engine is putting out the same torque, same fuel consumption..... By modifying the collective via the swash plate assemblies, the pitch of the blades is changed and that modifies your up/down speed. And swash plate assemblies are ludicrously complex and expensive and maintenance intensive. So on a real, maintenance intensive aircraft, sure, have a swash plate. On a model or a drone with a direct drive single electrical motor (electric motors can change their RPM on a dime) there's no need for a swash plate, the motor can adjust RPM much faster than adjusting pitch on the rotor blades.


Question: Why are some diseases less dangerous for children? (e.g.: Measles) Don’t adults have stronger immune systems?

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 Why are some diseases less dangerous for children? (e.g.: Measles) Don’t adults have stronger immune systems?

Biologist here! We aren't 100% sure! We have a solid theory it has to do with how adults immune systems work compared to kids. See, kids immune systems are still learning, so they have a higher number of phagocytes, big cells that eat invaders to learn how to fight them later. Adults have more antibodies, cells that attack infected tissue or invaders. Our body has already learned so many diseases, we now have a specialized army to fight them The problem is, antibodies will destroy infected tissue. If the infection is bad enough, the antibodies go into overload and start attacking our organs, start shutting down our critical systems, and cause far more damage than just the infection would. Children's bodies take more time and are slower to respond, giving them a better chance to kill the invader slower and safer!


Question: How do we have the equipment to picture and see cosmos and stars millions of light years away, but can’t just zoom-in to examine and view the surfaces of our interplanetary planets in the solar system?

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 How do we have the equipment to picture and see cosmos and stars millions of light years away, but can’t just zoom-in to examine and view the surfaces of our interplanetary planets in the solar system?

There's a limit to how far you can "zoom in" on something to picture it. The maximum resolution is restricted by the wavelength of light used to capture the image. You can compensate by using a larger lens, but even the largest telescopes in the world aren't anywhere near being large enough to have anything close to high-resolution photographs. This question comes up when people ask why we can't use a telescope to see the flag on the moon which is significantly closer than the planets but still very far away. Turns out just to identify that, you would need a telescope with a lens miles in diameter. If you want to look closely at planets, the lens would need to be larger than the diameter of Earth. Now there are some neat tricks astronomers can use. Not too long ago, astronomers managed to take a picture of a black hole. The resolution to make this picture indeed would require a lens about the size of Earth, making it seem impossible at first. But what they did is synchronize a bunch of telescopes from all over the world then stitch the resulting data back together in software. Thus they were able to create a picture with sufficient resolution to identify what they were looking at. A similar technique could be used for getting some better precision for imaging other things as well, but it takes a lot of coordination and resources, and while it improves resolution, it still wouldn't compare to sending over a probe with cameras to take pictures at a closer proximity.


Question: What happens when you "crack" your neck?

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 What happens when you "crack" your neck?

gas releasing from inbetween your joints. it takes a while for it to refill its area so you can't (shouldn't...) be able to click the same bone several times. i know it kinda sounds stupid but it really is just from a gas bubble popping. things inside of a 100-200lbs meatbag will tend to sound different.


Question: How do you go from a country that drives on the left side of the road to one that drives on the right?

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 How do you go from a country that drives on the left side of the road to one that drives on the right?

There are surprisingly few land borders on Earth where right-hand-drive countries meet left-hand-drive ones. Most of the remaining major drive-on-the-left countries (Britain, Japan, Australia) are islands, so the border problem doesn’t really come up. Other major exceptions (southeast Africa, the nations that were once British India) come in clusters that mostly border each other. There are a few nations that do have to worry about how to switch traffic at the border. Left-driving Thailand is one; all four of its neighbors drive on the right. Most of its high-traffic borders just use a traffic light to alternate the flow of vehicles. But there are more elegant arrangements, ones that allow for continuous traffic—such as the [bridges of Macau.]( URL_0 )


Question: How is there an average of 12:06 hours of sunlight at the equator?

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 How is there an average of 12:06 hours of sunlight at the equator?

Quito is at a very high altitude. As a result the angle from sea level to the East to sea level to the west is more than 180˚. You see this effect at sunset. On the ground, you've seen the Sun set, but if you look up at the bottoms of the clouds, they are still lit. It takes a few minutes for them to be out of direct sunlight.


Question: how do businesses on dragons den/ shark tank value themselves?

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 how do businesses on dragons den/ shark tank value themselves?

There are lots of different ways to value a business, which is why you so often hear the dragons say that someone's valuation is ridiculous; they've come to that valuation based on bad methods or bad data. Usually, the valuation rests on how much money the business is predicted to bring in over a given period of time. That period of time typically depends on the industry. Often, it also includes the assets the business already owns (eg if a coffee shop owns the place it operates out of, that would count towards the valuation), and sometimes the valuation is based on how much money the company expects to get bought for - this is often true for startups, where the explicit goal is to get good enough that a bigger company buys them out.