Question: How do we improve the tech of batteries? What is the difference between battery produced decades ago vs present vs future?

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 How do we improve the tech of batteries? What is the difference between battery produced decades ago vs present vs future?

The main improvement of modern batteries is power density. The more power we can get from less mass the better. One of the new major limitations on batteries we have is cooling large batteries. We can make huge or super dense battery packs but we won’t be able to cool them efficiently. Electric car batteries are as complicated as combustion motors, they have huge cooling requirements, they’re heavy and they have a couple computers working together to tell them what to do. A lot of the improvements in the past were based on cooling and weight reduction of supportive electronics such as thermocouples(to measure temperature of battery cells) and electronic control modules. Reducing the mass of the battery pack without a loss of power is of course an improvement in power density.


Question: Why does ground coffee not coagulate like other powders?

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 Why does ground coffee not coagulate like other powders?

So coagulation only applies to fluids, solid powders cannot coagulate by definition. I believe what you're referring to is clumping, which is almost always due to moisture. The powder will stick to wet surfaces/itself trying to absorb water. This is only present in soluble powders, or essentially dehydrated mixes which usually contain a lot of sugar. Sugar causes the behavior you're describing of cocoa powder, but since coffee grounds do not contain sugar nor are they water soluble they don't have the same behavior to moisture.


Question: If you drop some coffee on the ground, once the puddle dries you'll see the edges are much darker than any other part, indicating that the sediment tends to gravitate towards the edges of the puddle. Why?

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 If you drop some coffee on the ground, once the puddle dries you'll see the edges are much darker than any other part, indicating that the sediment tends to gravitate towards the edges of the puddle. Why?

It's the coffee ring effect. The water at the edges evaporates quicker (as the drop is fattest in the middle, so a surface area thing). Water, carrying the coffee suspension with it, then travels to the edges where the volume decreased. Now you have even more coffee suspension on the edges (because that doesn't evaporate with the water). When the drop fully evaporates, edges look darker because more coffee suspension is in the periphery.


Question: When pavement is really hot and seems to be emitting heat waves over the top of it, what exactly are we seeing?

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 When pavement is really hot and seems to be emitting heat waves over the top of it, what exactly are we seeing?

Specifically what you're seeing is light bending at the boundaries between different densities of air. Hot air rising off the basement is less dense than the cooler air above it (which is why the hot air rises). As the two temperatures and densities of air mix, light refracts at the boundaries between them. Since they don't mix evenly all at once, it's not a smooth transition and you get ripples.


Question: how does hawking radiation work?

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 how does hawking radiation work?

So in Quantum Field Theory, there is a concept of things called "virtual particles". These virtual particles form in matter and antimatter pairs, on such short time scales that they are definitionally unobservable, otherwise they wouldn't be virtual. At the edge of a black hole, some weird physics happens, and these virtual pairs can be split apart, where one falls into the black hole, and the other flies away in the form of a real particle. Except, we have to conserve energy when we have real particles, so it has to have drawn energy from somewhere, which ends up being the mass of the black hole. Of course this is horrifically oversimplified, and I only have a marginally better understanding, but this is a decent start.


Question: 161 life sentences plus 9,300 years without parole. Terry Nichols was sentenced this in 1995. Please help me understand what that really means?

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 161 life sentences plus 9,300 years without parole. Terry Nichols was sentenced this in 1995. Please help me understand what that really means?

If, somehow, his conviction for one charge were overturned, there would be 160’other charges to allege error with before he could be released. It’s also a way of acknowledging each individual death and reminding any parole board or pardoning president or governor of the magnitude of his crimes. When he dies, his body will be promptly released, not kept to start life sentence #2.


Question: If hot air rises, why does only the top of the lake freeze, and not the bottom?

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 If hot air rises, why does only the top of the lake freeze, and not the bottom?

Water is weird in that its solid crystalline form takes up more volume than the liquid, meaning ice floats in water. As cold air cools the top layer of water it does circulate in convection, but once the top freezes it no longer sinks and instead acts as insulation for the rest of the water mass.


Question: How do rocks and minerals form?

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 How do rocks and minerals form?

First, to start off with, a rock is simply a collection of minerals that has been aggregated into a single unit. The definition of a mineral is more involved, but still simple. A substance is a mineral if: 1. It is solid. 2. It is inorganic. 3. It is natural (not man-made). 4. It has a specific chemical formula*. 5. Its atoms are arranged in a defined spatial relationship to one another. Take table salt (a mineral called 'halite'). It is solid, it is not the product of carbon-based chemistry, its formula is NaCl, and those atoms are arranged to form a perfect cube, even on the smallest scale. If it's not made by humans, it's a mineral! Here's where it gets deep, and very cool: minerals exist because those specific combinations of atoms, in those shapes, are chemically and physically stable. The atoms get into those positions and don't really want to go anywhere else because they're -- in a manner of speaking -- comfy. They don't want to go anywhere else. In this way, minerals are a reflection of the fundamental laws of physics in the universe! I had an asterisk (*) after point 4. That is because sometimes, a mineral can exist in a range of compositions. This is often true for the larger, more complex minerals. An example is something like (the super beautiful mineral) [tourmaline]( URL_1 ). It has a regular chemical composition, but it is written out as: XY_3_Z_6_(T_6_O_18_)(BO_3)_V_W where everything but the O's are variable! Since reddit doesn't support subscripts,[ a more readable version is in this portion of the wikipedia entry]( URL_0 ). This is all reasonable because ions can swap in and out for one another, provided their charges are the same and their shapes are close enough. That's why geologists often talk of mineral "families". The really deep thing that minerals convey, though, is the concept of equilibrium -- minimizing energy given local physical and chemical conditions. Again, think of it as laziness. Natural (non-human made) ice is a mineral. But did you know that there are many, many different kinds of ice? Most people don't! (Unless they've read a Vonnegut book or two.) Depending on the pressure and temperature, there are (last I checked) 11 different solid phases of H2O. These are called "polymorphs" -- same chemical formula, different arrangement of the atoms. But once again, the reason they re-arrange is to find the comfiest spot they can. So that's why minerals exist: it's simply easier and lazier to be in a mineral than to float around on your own. And rocks occur when those minerals get smacked together through a variety of processes


Question: why, in the UK, student loans are seen as a bad thing?

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 why, in the UK, student loans are seen as a bad thing?

I think the reason is that we seem to have regressed. In other words we've gone from free tuition 20 or so years ago to £9000 a year. Couple this with the possibility that more than 50% of students may never pay back their loans, thereby leading to a loss to the taxpayer (when the measure was meant to save money), and the fact that many more students are being sent to uni to do degrees which will not boost their earning potential in any major way, and it doesn't seem to me that you have a decent system.


Question: If I drink something poisonous, would it help to drink lots of water to dilute it?

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 If I drink something poisonous, would it help to drink lots of water to dilute it?

It depends on a lot of factors such as the specific poison, how much you have taken and how it effects the body. If the poison is something your liver can filter out then yes drinking water may help as it will help reduce the rate at which the poison is absorbed into your blood and therefore even the load on your liver . If the poison is highly potent this might not matter too much though. I imagine the doses that people use when poisoning someone will accommodate the contents of the stomach so that it doesn't matter.


Question: How does mortgage amortization work ?

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 How does mortgage amortization work ?

So let's say you borrow $100,000 for 30 years at 6% (those numbers are to make the math easier to follow rather than being realistic). The loan payment is calculated to be a fixed amount that pays both the interest and principle back over the loans life. To do that each payment slightly changes how much interest and principle are paid. So in the first month your mortgage will need $500 to pay the interest on one month (the $100,000 balance times 0.005% or 1/12th of 6%). Your payment (we'll ignore escrow for now) will be a bit higher: $599.55, that amount includes $99.55 in principle payments. That amount is special because it's the amount that in 360 equal payments will exactly pay off the full interest and principle of the loan. That means next month your loan balance will be $99,900.45 and as a result next month you'll pay slightly less than $500 in interest and thus slightly more than $99.55 in principle. You can calculate the full table with a spreadsheet fairly easily, or your mortgage company will often provide an up to date amortization table based on any extra principle paid.


Question: Why does coffee smell so much different than it tastes?

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 Why does coffee smell so much different than it tastes?

It’s because our sense of smell and our sense of taste are both a part of our sense of flavour but they are seperate senses. Our noses can detect over 50,000 different chemicals. Hot coffee releases loads of delicious smelling chemicals that our nose detects as “sweet” and “rich”. Things like vanilla and flowers and chocolates are all common aromas given off by brewed coffee. Unlike our noses, our tongues only detect, sweet, sour, bitter, salty and Umami. The chemicals that produce the tastes of bitter and sour are not released into the air. They are trapped in the liquid. So when we drink coffee, suddenly we are hit with bitterness and sourness where once all we could detect was sweet. This is a part of how humans taste food because of how our noses and mouths are shaped. Next time you drink coffee, after you swallow, close your mouth and breath out through your nose. You’ll find a pleasantly familiar aroma.


Question: Why does the head on a soft drink collapse faster if you touch it?

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 Why does the head on a soft drink collapse faster if you touch it?

The natural salt and oil on your finger breaks the surface tension of the bubbles and makes them easier to pop, that salt and oil then mixes with the liquid that made that bubble and now touches more bubbles, which does the same to them, causing a chain reaction of collapse.


Question: What's the difference between a "startup" and just a new company?

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 What's the difference between a "startup" and just a new company?

It’s mostly branding these days but a start up is typically a tech company that is funded by investors and intends to lose money for a few years while doing something innovative, risky, and new. Often a start-up isn’t designed to be profitable ever but instead get purchased by a larger company. So, if you just open a store (online or not) selling t-shirts or candles or whatever, it’d be a small business. It’s not a new concept and you want to make a profit from day one. If you invent some cool new tech but the business model isn’t clear, you’d be more of a start up. An example of that might be if you came up with a new way to detect SPAM. Is it a business? Not really. But investors see it could have value if Google, Microsoft, etc. see the potential. So, it’s a start up. You (and your investors) eventually want to make money but maybe the end-game is being bought by a bigger company interested in your technology or patents rather than just selling a product to consumers. That being said, “start-up” became a trendy term and every company looking for investment said they were one. So, the distinction is blurry nowadays.


Question: If Google homepage had one banner ad how much revenue would it generate in a day?

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 If Google homepage had one banner ad how much revenue would it generate in a day?

For google or the company advertising? Paid by click? Google has 3.3 billion daily searches, 3,300,000,000 views, with 10% of searches resulting in clicking online ads Thats 330,000,000. With 1.6% of those meeting the paid per click requirements, So we have 5,280,000. With Google charging $1-$2 dollars for advertisers per click on search page ads, lets just say they would charge the same for simplicity sake. We could take a slightly less than wild guess and say between $5 million and 10 million a day. Currently Google earns about $100 million a day from advertising, reporting $10.6 billion just from ads in a single quarter


Question: What is camera obscura? How and When it happens?

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 What is camera obscura? How and When it happens?

Imagine you have a large TV screen facing a wall 2m away. The light from the TV is hitting the wall, but you can see a picture on the wall. It's just all fuzzy. This is because the light from the TV shines out in all directions. The top of the wall is getting hit by light from the whole TV. Now suppose you put some kind of screen up in the middle, 1m from each side. You poke a tiny hole in the centre, which lets a little light through. Now, the top of the wall can see through the hole to the bottom of the TV. Similarly, the bottom of the wall can see the top of the TV. This means light from the TV shines through the pinhole onto the wall, and projects an image of the TV which is upsidedown and back to front. The smaller the pinhole, the dimmer the image is because less light can get through. But *also* the sharper the image is, because the light is more directional. This is how a camera obscura works. But instead of a TV, it can just be the outside world. If you put a film inside, you have a pinhole camera that you can take pictures with.


Question: Could anyone explain to me Limits at infinity? I'm having a hard time grasping topics related to calculus:(

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 Could anyone explain to me Limits at infinity? I'm having a hard time grasping topics related to calculus:(

Basically you want to know what happens to a function when you plug in really really big numbers. For example, let’s say you wanted to know the limit as x approaches infinity of 1/x. Well, what’s 1 over a million? Pretty small right? What about 1 over 100 million? Even smaller! You can keep doing that over and over, and it just keeps getting closer to 0. So, we’d say that the limit of 1/x as x approaches infinity is 0.


Question: Why do a lot of out of tune people singing together sound not out of tune? Or at least not as out of tune as compared to if they all sang as individuals.

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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why do a lot of out of tune people singing together sound not out of tune? Or at least not as out of tune as compared to if they all sang as individuals.

Your brain is good at understanding patterns, and what things are "supposed to be." If one person does something wrong, your brain says "that's wrong!" but if multiple people are doing different things wrong then your brain can pick out the "right" parts of the singing and focus on that. If everyone sang something completely wrong then it would be equally difficult to listen to.


Question: What exactly is the financial repo market?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
- Always start your response with <answer> tag and end with </answer>.
- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What exactly is the financial repo market?

Simply put, time is money - having cash sitting in your bank account, even for one night, is a lost opportunity. So when the bank accounts of commercial banks exceed or are under their legally mandated reserves, they loan/borrow it out with a repurchase agreement - this is where the term repo comes from. Basically, Bank A has $50m extra at the end of Thursday, Bank B has a need to get $50m on its books to comply with regulations - Bank A will loan out their extra $50m for an agreed interest rate, and will repurchase the loan on Friday morning. The agreed interest rate that banks charge each other for 1 day loans is just about the most fundamental metric in the entire financial system. Everything from government bonds, to commercial loans, to your mortgage is influenced by how much banks have to pay to square their books at the end of the day.


Question: How do tl;dr bots work?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How do tl;dr bots work?

There are [a bunch of ways this can work]( URL_0 ), but I'm going to explain one of the simpler ones. You know how Google originally got their great search results? They had a clever algorithm called PageRank that looked at which web pages link to each other. Web sites that got linked to a lot by sites that had high PageRank scores were given higher PageRank scores, and vice versa. Like, if everybody was linking to Wikipedia pages, Google figured that Wikipedia was probably a big deal. They could figure this out just by looking at what links to what. Imagine that each distinct word or short phrase in a news article got its own "web page", and it links to every word that appears close to it. If you ran PageRank on this imaginary collection of web pages, it would notice some words and phrases that seemed to be really central and important. If there's a news article talking about a dog who ate Brexit, or whatever, then "dog" and "ate" and "Brexit" would stand out as really key parts of the article. Once you've figured out which bits of the article matter the most, you can try picking out the top 10 most important sentences and, boom, suddenly you've got a ten-sentence excerpt. It works better than you'd expect! (And maybe add on a boost for sentences early in the article, or words in the title of the article, or phrases that are really uncommon. There are a bunch of tricks you can use to make this work a little better.)


Question: Why does the answer in a series of operations change when you don't follow the PEMDAS rule?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why does the answer in a series of operations change when you don't follow the PEMDAS rule?

PEMDAS is just grammar we decided to use for writing math. All that matters is that it is consistent. You could easily mix up that order to make it read differently. You just would need to make sure other people understand you. Like if we all agreed to speak like yoda then that would be okay, but it would be confusing if just you did it.


Question: Are physics laws the same wherever you are in the universe?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Are physics laws the same wherever you are in the universe?

There is a general assumption that ultimately there is some fundamental rule or rules driving everything. If we were to discover that a physical law was different in different part of the universe, then we would not consider that a fundamental law anymore. Whatever meta-rule describes the change of our old law, would become the new fundamental law. The idea of the multiverse is exactly this: Out universe might just be one universe in the multiverse, and our set of physical laws are just one set among the various universes in the multiverse. But then we can write down laws for the entire multiverse, and take that as fundamental.


Question: Why are user names not case sensitive?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why are user names not case sensitive?

In situations where the username is used as a displayed name, case sensitive usernames would enable someone to attempt to impersonate someone else just by registering a new account with a different permutation of capital/lowercase letters. The same applies for web domains. For emails, case sensitive addresses would result in a lot of undelivered emails from someone forgetting which letters were capitalized or not. Etc. Also worth noting that some companies, like Wells Fargo, do not use case sensitive passwords as an added convenience to the user. For passwords, passwords are supposed to be arbitrary, are not stored in plain text or ever displayed, and allowing case sensitive passwords enables a massively wider range of possible passwords to discourage guessing.


Question: Why is it that when you multiply 2 negative numbers, the negative sign cancels each other out?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is it that when you multiply 2 negative numbers, the negative sign cancels each other out?

Imagine the number line as a walking path and you always start at 0. The first sign is the direction you face and the second sign is whether you take your steps forward or backwards. So 3x5 is the same as +3 X +5 so you face the positive direction (+ sign in front of 3) and take 5 steps forward (+ sign in front of 5 indicates forward) 3 times. Meaning you walked 15 steps in the positive direction. Now if you have -3 X -5 then you face the negative direction and take 5 steps backwards 3 times still landing in the positive 15.


Question: what is Axis of Evil in astronomy and why is it troubling astronomers?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 what is Axis of Evil in astronomy and why is it troubling astronomers?

The name's a little melodramatic; there's nothing "evil" about it. Current models of the early stages of the universe (colloquially the big bang theory) suggest that the universe should be roughly the same no matter where you look. A single massive explosion should throw off matter in all directions. There's something called the *cosmic microwave background*, sort of the afterglow of the Big Bang, and it's what we look at to judge this uniformity. Certain observations back in the early 2000s, however, suggested a special significance to the plane of our solar system; oddities and patterns unlikely to have arisen by chance. These observations were confirmed twice over in mid-2020. This is troubling, because it raises questions about the nature of the big bang and the early universe.


Question: Why is it that a "slice" motion is often more effective to penetrate than just a forceful "chop?"

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is it that a "slice" motion is often more effective to penetrate than just a forceful "chop?"

Blades are never perfectly sharp but instead always have different degrees of micro-serrations. And "stuff" like hair, skin, tomatoes, etc, is inherently more resistant to direct pressure, even from a "sharp" blade than we expect. But when you bring those serrations into play by slicing it's a different story all together! PS. Also why a hone is such a magnificent tool in the kitchen. It doesn't "sharpen" your knife but aligns all the micro-serrations so all of the sudden you knife is super "sharp" again!


Question: Why are there ‘name-brand’ pharmaceutical drugs if doctors and pharmacies prescribe and provide mostly,if not always, generics for those same drugs?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why are there ‘name-brand’ pharmaceutical drugs if doctors and pharmacies prescribe and provide mostly,if not always, generics for those same drugs?

The inventor of a drug has exclusive rights to it for 20 years from when the patent is filed. Much of that will be part of the FDA approval process, so effectively they get to sell the drug exclusively for 10-15 years. Only after that do we see generics. By then, the name brand is well known, so doctors and patients will continue to refer to it as Viagra rather than sildenafil. Also, some doctors and patients trust the brand name manufacturer more than the generics and stick with them.


Question: when will things get back to normal and we won’t have to worry about social distancing?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 when will things get back to normal and we won’t have to worry about social distancing?

When there is widespread access to a vaccine, or we find a magical treatment that can prevent this from developing into pneumonia. Widespread accurate antibody testing would also make a big difference, but may not quite get us back to normal. We are easily looking at another 1-2 years of this. Settle in.


Question: - why do things in the background appear wobbly when heat rises if it is transparent gas?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
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For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 - why do things in the background appear wobbly when heat rises if it is transparent gas?

Hot air rises because it have lower density then cold air. Different densities of air have different optical properties. So you end up with light refracting and bending as it moves between the different layers of air. Since the boundaries between the layers are wobbly and constantly moving light will change direction all the time giving you a wobbly picture.


Question: What do people mean when they describe something as a “banana republic”?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What do people mean when they describe something as a “banana republic”?

A banana republic is a country with an unstable or tenuous political system -- generally some form of oligarchy -- and an economy dependent on the export of cash crops or natural resources. The classic examples were Honduras and neighboring ~~South~~ Latin American countries that were exploited by American industries in the late-19th and early-20th century.


Question: On products like sodas or snacks it states something along the lines of “not for resale” or “not to be sold individually”. How do things like concession stands get away with this?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 On products like sodas or snacks it states something along the lines of “not for resale” or “not to be sold individually”. How do things like concession stands get away with this?

The manufacturer sells them in bulk to be used for things like concession stands, but they aren't barcoded and they don't have the appropriate nutritional information on them to be sold individually as there are packaging laws that have to be followed. Concession stands are exempt from these sorts of rules, as they aren't really a "retail" outlet. So it's legal for them but would be illegal for a 7-Eleven to do the same thing.


Question: What is the difference between the regular, ultra, and premium types of gasoline? Is the premium actually better for your car?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 What is the difference between the regular, ultra, and premium types of gasoline? Is the premium actually better for your car?

Octane rating, the higher grades withstand higher compression without detonating. Inside the engine, air is sucked in and mixed with fuel, and then compressed and then ignited with the spark plug. However is you compress it too much it ignites before the spark plug sparks, that's very bad for your engine. Cheaper cars thus compress it so regular is fine. Higher end cars may have a higher compression ratio (results in more power/efficiency) and may have a turbo and/or supercharger that compresses the air before the compression stroke (stuffs more air/fuel into the engine for more power). These two things get much more power out of a given size engine, but require premium fuel. If you have a cheap car, there isn't any high pressure for premium to do anything useful, so it's a waste of money. In modern higher end cars (especially cars with turbos) they detect low octane fuel and adjust the performance of the engine to the maximum that the fuel can handle (so both are fine, but they have better mpg and more performance with premium). Some very high end engines cannot adjust to low octane fuel and will be damaged if you use it.


Question: How does an international debit/credit transaction work?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How does an international debit/credit transaction work?

There are 5 parties in any card transaction: the purchaser, the issuing bank (the bank who issues the purchasers card), the payment network (Visa, MasterCard, etc.), the merchant's bank, and the merchant. The merchant and the purchaser approve the transaction. The point-of-sale system, using the payment network, sends a request for money to the issuing bank. The issuing bank then sends money to the acquiring bank. The banks take care of any currency conversion and the issuing bank decides on the exchange rate/fees


Question: How can be sound turned into digital?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 How can be sound turned into digital?

Through a process called "sampling". In this, the position of the microphone membrane (amplitude) is measured at a regular time interval and stored as a number. When reproducing the sound, these numbers are then converted into a voltage applied to the speaker - which then moves the same way the microphone membrane did. Of course, this process will inevitably lose some information. As a rule of thumb, all frequencies which are more than half of the "sampling rate", the amount of measurements per second, will be affected. That's why a sampling rate of 44 kHz is common in audio: Since it's higher than the maximum of 20 kHz we can hear, in theory it allows sounds to be reproduced without any loss.


Question: Mathematically, if you add an infinite sum of decreasing positive numbers, how in the world can you not reach infinity?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
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Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
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<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Mathematically, if you add an infinite sum of decreasing positive numbers, how in the world can you not reach infinity?

> But since you are adding up an infinite number of positive numbers... Yeah, and each one is smaller and smaller than the last. If you do it in steps, each number you get is larger than the last, so you'll always get a bigger number after you add the next step. However, since you're adding a smaller and smaller amount each time, you'll *never* be able to pass a particular threshold. How could you ever get to "2" in that sequence of 1's? If you "reach" infinity, you would have to necessarily eventually stop at some number greater than 2, and yet, that's impossible.


Question: Why is smiling not allowed on passport photos?

The user asks a question, and the Assistant answers it. The assistant provides the user with the answer that strictly follows the following guidelines. The answer should be enclosed within <answer> </answer> tags, respectively, i.e., <answer> ANSWER HERE </answer>.
Your answer should follow these rubric criterias:
Factual Accuracy: The answer must be factually correct and does not contradict the reference answer.
Relevance and Completeness: The answer should directly address the specific question, covering all essential aspects.
Clarity and Organization: The answer should be well-structured, coherent, and easy to follow.
Depth and Insight: The answer should provide thoughtful analysis or context, going beyond superficial details.
Conciseness: The answer should avoid unnecessary repetition and be as clear and succinct as possible.

Response Format rules:
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- Do not include any text or commentary before the opening <answer> tag and after the closing </answer> tag.
For example, your response follow this format:
<answer>
[Your final detailed answer goes here]
</answer>
 Why is smiling not allowed on passport photos?

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recommends that passport photos be taken with a "neutral expression" (you can't smile or frown) for use with facial recognition (FR) systems. FR technology requires certain standards. When a mouth is open on a passport photo, it makes it difficult for the FR to work properly. ICAO also recommends other photo standards (size, lighting, background, eyewear, head coverings, etc.)


Question: How do we know that photon has no mass?

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 How do we know that photon has no mass?

Preempting the comments like "Well a 5yo isn't going to understand *that*" by pointing out Rule4 and the fact that OP already used the technical terms "mass" and "photon". One of the things that happens when we look at things moving at relativistic speeds (say 10% of the speed of light and upwards) is that their effective mass (or momentum) begins to increase. The amount this goes up by is something called the gamma factor, which involves the ratio between the speed of the thing and the speed of light. As the speed gets closer to the speed of light, the gamma factor grows faster and faster. This is why we can ignore it for everyday speeds, the factor is basically 1. But near the speed of light, this number blows up. At the speed of light, this factor would be infinite. So because photons travel at the speed of light, if they had any mass then their effective mass (and so momentum) would be infinite. Given that you can't be blasted in to oblivion by a single photon, this can't be the case. This means their mass must be 0, since 0 times infinity is still 0, sort of... But, the do still have momentum, which is a bit more complicated.


Question: If the outer anatomy of your ear was removed leaving just a hole in the side of your head, how would your hearing be affected?

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 If the outer anatomy of your ear was removed leaving just a hole in the side of your head, how would your hearing be affected?

Your [pinna]( URL_1 ) does a lot of things for your hearing. Perhaps most importantly, it subtle shapes the pressure waves that make up sound as they pass into your ear canal in different ways depending on the location of the sound. Determining left/right orientation of the source of a sound in complicated, but it involves timing and volume. It's something like stereoscopic vision, using your two ears to triangulate the location. Up/down orientation, as well as front/back is more difficult. To do that, your pinna shapes the sound coming into your ears, affecting the volume and the timbre. Timbre (pronounced "TAM-bur") is the "quality" of a sound not defined by the pitch or volume. Say, the difference between how a clarinet sounds and a trumpet sounds even when they're playing the same note. Over millions of years of evolution, our brains have learned to use that information to help locate the source of a sound. Over your lifetime, your own brain learns how to specifically use the modulation of sound from your unique pinnas. [Relevant Smarter Every Day]( URL_0 ). As a result, it would be much more difficult for you to locate the direction of the source of a sound. Other animals solve the problem with different ways. For instance, dogs will cock their head to the side, changing the angle that their ears make with the sound to get a better read on it. Owls' ears are offset - one is higher than the other - and they have radar-dish like structures to funnel the sound into their ears. Your pinna has another purpose, though. It resonates roughly at the same pitch as normal human speech. Likewise, your ear canal and the bones in your ear also resonate at roughly human speech frequencies. We're *really good* at listening to other humans talking (which should come at no surprise, given the amount of brain space we dedicate to understanding language). With just an ear hole you would expect to have a little more difficulty understanding other people talking, especially with a lot of other noise.


Question: how the moon is formed?

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 how the moon is formed?

When the earth was still very young, another, smaller planet (about the size of Mars) called Theia collided with earth. The debris launched out into space first formed a ring system (similar to Saturn) and then the debris collected to form the moon. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the fact that the recurrence of certain substances (isotopes) are identical on the Earth and the moon. As well as this, the orientation of the moon is the same as that of the earth, evidence of such a collision.


Question: if water has to be 100° to become steam. How come you dont get heavily burned in saunas? Or the shower?

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 if water has to be 100° to become steam. How come you dont get heavily burned in saunas? Or the shower?

What we often call steam is just water vapor that has started to become visible (condense) due to different temperatures of the water vs air. Water vapor can exist at many temperatures. Just like "steam" from a pond on a cold fall morning won't burn you, neither will steam in a 40C sauna. But keep your hands away from the steam coming from a boiling pot... and no dessert til you finish your vegetables.


Question: Is there any connection between heat and likelihood / severity of sunburn? E.g. it is 25 degrees centrigrade in one country and 45 in another. Assuming their is no cloud cover in either and other variables are the same, would you be more likely to get burnt in the hotter country or as likely?

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 Is there any connection between heat and likelihood / severity of sunburn? E.g. it is 25 degrees centrigrade in one country and 45 in another. Assuming their is no cloud cover in either and other variables are the same, would you be more likely to get burnt in the hotter country or as likely?

It depends on the UV index, ultimately, which depends on a lot of factors, such as: * Air quality (dust can block UV light) * Altitude (Air itself blocks UV and the less air/higher altitude, the less protection) * Reflective index of the ground (lighter ground reflects more UV, giving it 2x the chances to burn you) * Lattitude of the location & how direct the sunlight is. Keeping all other things the same, the hotter country you'd be likely to burn faster for two reasons: one, you're more likely to have more skin showing in hotter weather, and two, hotter air will be thinner and therefore less protecting than colder air.


Question: Why do things always look farther away on a camera?

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 Why do things always look farther away on a camera?

It basically all depends on the lens you're using. Most cameras that we use, such as those on cell phones, have a relatively wide field of view. The wider your lens, the further away the subject will appear. The opposite is also true, where a much less wide angle lens, or a telephoto, will make the subject appear closer to the photographer. Source: am photographer


Question: What does it mean when they say nothing existed before the big bang?

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 What does it mean when they say nothing existed before the big bang?

We don't know that 'before the big bang' is even a sensible concept. Our knowledge of the universe, is necessarily constrained to within the universe, and is insufficient to fully understand how the universe 'came to be' (or indeed, if it even had a beginning). So we don't know what was "Before the big bang" or if there's even such a thing as "before the big bang."


Question: How do we know that the value for e and pi supercomputers compute are correct?

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 How do we know that the value for e and pi supercomputers compute are correct?

you don’t just ask a computer “what are the first million digits of pi?” we’ve known since long before modern computers how to compute digits of pi. these super powerful computers just let us do it faster. we know they are correct because we told the computers how to do it


Question: Why is Taiwan compelled to use "Chinese Taipei" as their national sporting team name?

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 Why is Taiwan compelled to use "Chinese Taipei" as their national sporting team name?

Taiwan is not officially recognised as independent by most countries. China claims Taiwan is part of China, and they will refuse to have diplomatic relations with any country which recognises Taiwan. Since China is the bigger and more powerful of the two, most countries choose them over Taiwan. It's further complicated by the fact that on paper, Taiwan's government claims to be the government of all of China. I don't think the actual people in government really think they should rule China, but making an official declaration that Taiwan is an independent country that isn't part of China would antagonise China. So they've avoided doing so. So when it comes to events like the World Cup or the Olympics, China would object to treating Taiwan as if it's a completely separate country to China. So as a compromise, their team is called Chinese Taipei, recognising the fact that Taiwan is Chinese, but differentiating it from China's team by adding "Taipei" (which is Taiwan's capital city).


Question: Many elements found in nature are radioactive. I understand that they are probably generally in low concentrations, but you'd think with billions of people spread out all over the world, random radiation poisoning would be much more common. Why isn't it?

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 Many elements found in nature are radioactive. I understand that they are probably generally in low concentrations, but you'd think with billions of people spread out all over the world, random radiation poisoning would be much more common. Why isn't it?

Uranium is not that radioactive that is why it still exists on earth. The common isotope U-238 has a half-life of 4.5 billion years. U-235 is more radioactive with 700 million years half-life but only 0.7% of natural uranium is y-235 Still, there is a risk with it because there can be a large amount in regular rock like granite and Radon is one element in it decay series. It is a noble gas and it can escape to the surface. It is also heavier than air so it can stay if for example houses. It is a problem and can lung cancer is the main risk. So the Radon level is measure in houses in risk areas and the fix is the ventilation system. Radiation poisoning does not happen because there is no place where you have high enough natural radiation levels for that to happen. If you extract radium from the then it will be radioactive at a dangerous level but that do not happen naturally The danger is DNA damage and cancer, not radiation poisoning.


Question: How did the voice in our mind work before we were able to speak or communicate through languages?

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 How did the voice in our mind work before we were able to speak or communicate through languages?

Probably a lot like it does in people with aphantasia, of which I am one. I do not have an inner monologue. I can "speak" in my head by deliberately planning words to say and then not saying them aloud, but unless I do that, my internal mindspace is completely silent. In my case, my thoughts are governed by pure emotion and concept. I do not think the phrase "I want to go to the store," I feel a need for resources and an understanding that those resources can be found at the store. It's a mixture of remembering and feeling, and the parts just work; I could put into words exactly what I'm thinking if I had to, but until I deliberately do, I don't. Without language, you'd be much the same way. You'd act on instinct, feelings, and learned logic, but would not narrate it. Some people would see a visual depiction of what they want to do, others might think of the sounds or tactile sensations involved. How one goes about it varies from person to person, but thoughts don't need to be voiced. An aside... There are some evolutionary anthropologists who debate that the concept of gods and voices from heaven were actually early humans who had developed language but not yet developed the ability to identify that their internal monologue was their own thoughts turned into words. They'd hear a voice proclaiming what they should do, and they'd do it, not realizing that it was their *own* voice.


Question: What exactly is a country's economy a measure of? And how accurately (if at all) does this reflect living standards?

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 What exactly is a country's economy a measure of? And how accurately (if at all) does this reflect living standards?

Usually people measure a country's standards using GDP per capita, it's the gross domestic product of each person in a country. It's basically the measure of the nominal GDP(this year's prices times this year's quantity) over real GDP(base year price x this year's quantity). Of course it's more in depth, but this is a brief explanation. You will be able to compare it to the previous year's inflation to see how much prices went up which is usually gonna tell you the current country's standards. It's not very accurate because usually when conducting the stats they take base year prices for the real GDP, so that could be 2014, and it doesn't account that us consumer can substitute goods when they go up, and it also doesn't account for the new goods that's being created because it's a base year measurement. But it's still pretty much used all the time.