Question: Why is it unsatisfying to chew delicious food and then spit it out again? The part I enjoy should be the tasting, not the swallowing, which feels exactly the same for all food.

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 Why is it unsatisfying to chew delicious food and then spit it out again? The part I enjoy should be the tasting, not the swallowing, which feels exactly the same for all food.

Probably because you enjoy food, partially at least, because it helps you to survive. When food is not ingested there is “something missing” so you don’t enjoy it as much as if you ate it. I have no scientific basis for this, nor am I qualified in any way to make this assessment. Just some dude on Reddit making assumptions.


Question: Why are warm showers very sedative and cold showers very stimulating?

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 Why are warm showers very sedative and cold showers very stimulating?

The heat from a hot shower helps tightened or inflamed muscles (from stress or injury) relax and also promotes better blood flow and circulation. This, naturally, has a relaxing affect on the body. Cold water can stimulate oxygen intake via the physical shock from the temperature and can also increase heart rate, circulating blood flow. Cold water might also help relieve some muscle soreness.


Question: Why did colonization of NA lead to hugely successful nations but decimated SA and other nations?

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 Why did colonization of NA lead to hugely successful nations but decimated SA and other nations?

Broadly speaking, the colonies settled by the English are more prosperous than the others, due to the radically better approach to colonial government taken by the English. This can also be seen globally in other places settled by the English, such as Hong Kong and Australia. They showed no respect for the local indigenous populations at all, but the new (imported European) populations were well governed and became very prosperous, and in some cases eventually started treating the locals better too.


Question: Why can't .exe files be opened on a Mac?

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 Why can't .exe files be opened on a Mac?

Programs are like pilots and a computer is like an aircraft. A Mac has a cockpit that has different levers and buttons than a Windows cockpit. An exe is a program that only knows how to do stuff in a Windows cockpit. Stick that pilot in a Mac and it has no idea what it's doing. More technical - The exe will share some things in common with the Mac equivalent since they are both x86_64 based machnes. This means some basic stuff like math is the same between them. However, the program will often have to tell the OS to do something for the program. This will usually include things like displaying stuff on the screen or loading data from a file or accessing the internet. The Windows machine and the Mac machine are different in how these tools work and the exe will not know how to do those operations on a Mac. There are tools like Wine that will basically translate those for the exe, allowing the exe to work in a Mac.


Question: Why does world wide oil production never overwhelm current storage facilities?

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 Why does world wide oil production never overwhelm current storage facilities?

The price. If there is an oversupply of oil, the price of oil drops. Let's say that the price drops from $65/barrel to $60/barrel. Let's say that for some producers, oil costs $63/barrel to extract. When the price drops, those producers will stop pumping. That will cause the surplus to be reduced. The same thing happens when there's a shortage: prices rise and new producers are brought into the market.


Question: How does hyperinflation in countries like Zimbabwe occur so dramatically and how can it be “reversed” without making everyone billionaires compared to USD?

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 How does hyperinflation in countries like Zimbabwe occur so dramatically and how can it be “reversed” without making everyone billionaires compared to USD?

It happens when the government starts printing money hand over fist. In most every instance, it eventually ends with the government launching a new currency and giving everyone a window to exchange their old money for new money at a set exchange rate before the old money is no longer recognized as legal tender. Once I've done that instead of having $100 trillion of old money, I find myself with $10,000 of new money that's actually spendable.


Question: Why does cleaning my ears make me cough?

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 Why does cleaning my ears make me cough?

This is known as the cough-ear reflex I believe. Something called Arnold's Nerve, which is part of the vagus nerve, supplies the head and neck. As well as this, it also supplies the external auditory canal. When this nerve is provoked, it can induce a coughing reflex. This is experienced by just 2.3% of the population.


Question: Snails: where do they get their shells?

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 Snails: where do they get their shells?

They form them from calcium. Snails cannot transfer shells, they are physically attached to their shells, and being removed from it means they die. A slug is not a "shelless snail" but an entirely different species. & #x200B; Edit: Now my top comment is about snails. Neat. Thanks for the silver.


Question: Does sound have a ‘frames per second’ like video? If not, how is it slowed down and sped up?

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 Does sound have a ‘frames per second’ like video? If not, how is it slowed down and sped up?

Sound recordings does have samples per second. It is possible to play back the sound at different samples per second in order to speed it up or slow it down. However unlike pictures our perception of sound is based around frequency which is based on time. While video framerates are usually in the tens of frames a second sound is usually sampled at 48 thousand samples per second. This is because the frequency information that you perceive is encoded in the samples. In order to capture a sound you need twice the sample rate of its frequency. So while it is easy to speed up or slow down video playback without altering the pictures you perceive if you do the same with the sound playback you will change the pitch of the sound. It is possible to change the playback speed of sound without changing the pitch but this requires fairly complex math to do.


Question: How does the elevation in Denver impact kicking/throwing the football so much opposed to "normal" elevation stadiums in the NFL?

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 How does the elevation in Denver impact kicking/throwing the football so much opposed to "normal" elevation stadiums in the NFL?

Denver is roughly a mile above sea level, so the atmosphere is a little thinner there than at most other sports venues. Less air means less air resistance, so the same amount of force applied results in a faster throw or kick, since there's less in the way of the ball.


Question: How are developers able to program computers to be better at the game of chess than most humans?

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 How are developers able to program computers to be better at the game of chess than most humans?

Chess is very well understood. Early chess computers worked by assigning a value to pieces and then having the computer simulate possible moves and see which ones an average lead to having a "material advantage". They would search through branches of possible moves and countermoves, thousands of possibilities. If a branch showed too much loss the computer would ignore it to save time. This made the play style of chess computers very distinctive and frustrating. Basically they were extremely conservative. They won simply by gradually building an advantage. Highly skilled human players generally didnt lose to some impressive trick or gambit or even incredible positioning. It just that pver time they made more small miscalculations than the machine. The endgame of chess is quite different. This material advantage strategy isnt the most efficient. Instead computers were programmed with the ability to play certain known endgames. Again the advantage of the computer is that it never makes any mistake executing the endgame. Newer chess systems like AlphaZero are harder to explain. Very roughly they start off playing almost randomly. Then when the match is finished they judge how well they did and adjust. This is repeated many thousands of times until the computer learns to play very well. The results of this had been much more interesting to human chess players than traditional chess computers. They play the game in a way that feels clever and aggressive. Even better we can track the learning of the system. AlphaZero reinvented a variety of known chess strategies on its way to playing at a superhuman level. (This is pretty validating to human players, it suggests that the traditional method really did just rely on outlasting the other player) Unfortunately systems like AlphaZero dont do a good job at explaining why they make the moves they do. So to an extent we don't know why they work so well even though it is known how to design them.


Question: When a game developer makes a best-selling game and keeps it exclusive to one console, what are they being offered by the console company which makes up for all the lost revenue they didn't get by selling it multi-platform?

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 When a game developer makes a best-selling game and keeps it exclusive to one console, what are they being offered by the console company which makes up for all the lost revenue they didn't get by selling it multi-platform?

A lot of console exclusives are made by a studio owned by whoever makes the console. When they're not, its usually a smaller independent studio that has been offered preferential financing for the game. Making games is really expensive and you have to spend a few years developing the game before you see any money. Only large publishers like EA or Activision really have the money to fund game development like that. Medium and small sized studios need to find a publisher that is willing to fund development of the game. But most publishers don't just want to give out loans, they want to own the game that ends up being produced and just pay the development studio a "salary" so to speak. So lets say you're a medium sized studio that finds a publisher who takes ownership of your game in exchange for funding it. That's great because you get to make your game, and if the game doesn't do so well you don't go bankrupt. The flipside to this agreement is that if the game is a blow out success then you don't see any of the money from that. The stereotypical example of this is Fallout New Vegas. New Vegas sold *way* better than they had anticipated and made Bethesda (the publisher) hundreds of millions of dollars in *profit*. But the developer of the game (Obsidian) saw none of that money because despite the game's amazing sales, they were only entitled to a small performance bonus if the game hit certain milestones in terms of the reviews that it got - which it didn't. Studios that have been offered console exclusive deals are being financed by the company that makes the console. But the finance agreement typically lets the developers retain at least some ownership of the game so that if the game ends up being a huge success they still see some of the money from that.


Question: How can pirating sites and programs still remain readily available online all the time? (e.g ThePirateBay, uTorrent etc.)

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 How can pirating sites and programs still remain readily available online all the time? (e.g ThePirateBay, uTorrent etc.)

Utorrent is legal. They could host that in the United States, or anywhere they wanted. Its just an app, which is often used for illegal purposes. As for thepiratebay, they just locate the site in a country which does not care. I'm sure the FBI would shut it down if they could but if the servers are in another country, there is nothing anybody can do. The FBI can send letters requesting they shut down the website, the that country just throws the letters away.


Question: I know a tiny bit of inflation is considered healthy because it encourages investment. What kind of investment is specifically referenced here, and what are the consequences if people don’t invest?

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 I know a tiny bit of inflation is considered healthy because it encourages investment. What kind of investment is specifically referenced here, and what are the consequences if people don’t invest?

Any kind of investment, but mostly investment in better equipment, new production facilities, etc. Let's say you're a business owner and you have a million dollars in the bank. You don't need to use it right away... but you know that if you just keep it in the bank, inflation will make the money worth less in five years than it is worth now. Let's say, a million dollars today would let you replace ten of the machines in your factory with new and more efficient ones, but in five years, it will only buy you nine new machines. You know the machines will need to be replaced sooner or later anyway, so why not spend money now, when you can get more stuff for it? Inflation means you can also raise your prices a bit, in addition to cutting the costs from the machines' higher efficiency. So spending the money now is a better idea than just letting it sit in a bank and spending it later.


Question: what is the proper protocol if an ambulance fatally hits a pedestrian while rushing a dying person to the hospital?

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 what is the proper protocol if an ambulance fatally hits a pedestrian while rushing a dying person to the hospital?

Paramedic here. In the unfortunate event this happens, we are trained to handle it. Firstly, remember what most people call "an ambulance driver" is actually a trained medical professional, and in some districts, as trained as the Paramedic in the back of the ambulance. Secondly, we are trained for the care of more than one critical patient at a time (Mass Casualties, First on scene, etc...). So we can prioritize, multi-task, while waiting on additional resources. Thirdly, "Protocol" is what tells us how to handle situations. Some services, its strict as hell and says "If < this > , then you have to < do this > " and some services it will say along the lines of "If < This > , consider < this, this, this, or this 'within your scope of practice > " Now, if I was transporting a critical patient, and we hit a pedestrian while transporting "hot", we would immediately notify dispatch and local 911 dispatch. If neither my partner, patient, or me were injured... then my partner would initiate care to the wounded pedestrian while I made sure the original patient remained stable, we would have also requested mores units to turn care over to.


Question: How do data collectors account for people who put random answers in surveys?

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[Your final detailed answer goes here]
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 How do data collectors account for people who put random answers in surveys?

Hi, I am a mod at /r/surveyresearch and a full time survey researcher. There is inherent noise in all data we collect. However, generally when people answer surveys they mostly tell the truth, this is backed up with empirical research where we have administrative data on the people surveyed and we compare what the participant says and what the records say. Most of the time their responses align with the responses of the "truth". Error is mostly associated with trouble with recall or understanding the question rather than purposeful inattention. We also call this phenomenon of answering randomly or answering with malicious intent, "Satisficing." It is an area of intense research from academics in the field of survey research. We can't catch it all, but we can setup various tricks to catch and remove answers that are intentionally wrong. * Randomization: If you randomize your question order and response order, a person who would pick randomly or pick the first response for each question would just appear as noise in the data, rather than a particular bias. * Logic checks: We can ask the same questions twice in different ways or we can ask a chain of questions that logically go together (i.e.,Are you a frequent smoker? Yes, How often do you smoke? Never). This would flag data for removal. * Meta/Paradata- If you complete a 20 minute survey in 5 minutes, we can kick your data out. If you straight line your answers, we can kick your data out. etc. * Attentional Checks: "How often do you smoke?(Select the 3rd answer to continue)". "Do you use [Brand that does not exist]?" We run the risk of deleting real honest responses, so these checks do not always occur. But it is available if there is concern with data quality. That being said, recent research shows that data cleaning really doesn't change the results that much for most questions. On average, it evens out as long as you have a large enough sample size. I would strongly encourage to answer surveys and answer them honestly. You have the ability to represent your interests and sway the opinion of companies and even governments by the answers you provide. Data collection isn't cheap, decision makers put a lot of value in these surveys and they will design products and even political positions around the data they get from these surveys. For a nationally representative US survey, your single response roughly represents ~606,177 adults. Your response has the power to represent, statistically speaking, an INFINITE amount of people. It is an incredible opportunity, don't waste it.


Question: What's the marketing strategy of skipping a number in a numbered line of products?

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</answer>
 What's the marketing strategy of skipping a number in a numbered line of products?

assuming you are talking about the iphone 10 (rather than windows 10): this was most probably about the 10th anniversary of the iphone. the first one came out 2007. but i'm not sure what the the official reason is, if they even announced one. for windows: i believe they said that they skipped 9 to avoid apps confusing windows 9 with windows 95 or 98. because apps check the OS version on 2 digits or something (like they check for the "9" and then for the "5" to determine what system its running on), which they wouldnt be able to to on windows 9, because there is only that 1 digit.


Question: What is a DDos attack and why would anyon want to do it?

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 What is a DDos attack and why would anyon want to do it?

The what and the why are in the name: Denial of Service. It's an attack which, through various means, makes it difficult or impossible to use a service (usually a network connection) and "shut down" a target. The how varies, but the basic concept is that you flood the target with so much "noise" that it overwhelms their capacity to communicate. By way of metaphor, lets say that you and I are in a nice two-story house, and you're trying to teach me how to cook biscuits. Every so often a clown rings the doorbell and screams nonsense at us. We can manage this, although it's a bother, but what if... there were hundreds of clowns? Thousands. Millions? How about a hundred thousand clowns, *every second* coming in through the doors, the windows, the chimney, breaking down the wall, sneaking in through the sewerage, etc... Could you communicate with me? Could you stop the clowns? In this case the house is usually a network connection, and the clowns are data packets which for various reasons, take a little time/energy to deal with.


Question: Why is Mitochondrial DNA only passed from the mother?

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 Why is Mitochondrial DNA only passed from the mother?

At conception, you have the sperm penetrating the egg. The sperm is extremely tiny compared to the egg. It basically is just a vessel for DNA. So DNA is the only thing the sperm (from the father) provides to the newly created life form upon fertilization. All the organelles, mitochondria, cytoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, etc belong to the egg. As the egg grows and divides, the daughter cells inherit all those organelles from the parent cells, which originated with the female egg, including mitochondria and the DNA it contains.


Question: apart from affecting the density of matter, does gravity affect sound?

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 apart from affecting the density of matter, does gravity affect sound?

Gravity affects anything with energy, including matter with mass (mass is a form of energy) but also light/electromagnetic waves/photons, which don't have rest mass but do have energy and momentum. This is why light from distant galaxies can be bent and distorted during its travel from there to here -- it is being affected by the warped spacetime aka gravity. I don't believe gravity directly affects sound waves. Like you said, it does affect the medium in which they travel, though, so for example a change in gravity can cause a change in the density of air and alter the properties of sound waves. It won't make them fall down towards the source of gravity, though. EDIT: According to the article shared by another commenter, this might be wrong, and sound waves may actually possess *negative* mass. Interesting!


Question: How is it possible for traffic on the highway to come to a complete standstill despite there being no obstruction, closed lane, exit etc?

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 How is it possible for traffic on the highway to come to a complete standstill despite there being no obstruction, closed lane, exit etc?

When there is an obstruction then traffic slows. The obstruction can then be cleared but the echoes remain with a spot of slow traffic. The amazing thing is that there doesn't even have to be a real obstruction. Just dense traffic Here is a video showing one spontaneously occurring in controlled conditions - URL_0 They're also known as traffic waves or phantom traffic jams


Question: how did Afghanistan become a warzone for the last decades?

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 how did Afghanistan become a warzone for the last decades?

The Soviet Union did not want a westernized republic on its border so it invaded. The US backed insurgents to kick the Soviets out. The insurgents became radicalized after they kicked the Soviets out and the US didn't follow through to help rebuild the infrastructure that the fighting destroyed. The USSR trashed the nation's economy and culture. The rest of the world didn't help rebuild it. Afghanistan became a failed state and a safe haven for lots of bad people who used it as a base to attack other countries. The coalition is there now because Osama bin Laden launched the 2001 terror attacks from there.


Question: How do TV shows, TV companies, and TV providers generate revenue?

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 How do TV shows, TV companies, and TV providers generate revenue?

Advertisement dollars and revenue from products. Advertisers pay a lot of money to networks to air their ads during times when there are a lot of viewers. The more popular a show, the more a network can charge (this is why super bowl ads cost millions for 30 seconds). Additionally, merchandising can generate revenue.


Question: How are fall allergies/allergens different from spring allergies/allergens?

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 How are fall allergies/allergens different from spring allergies/allergens?

Allergies are simply due to your immune system responding to something entering your body that it doesn't really need to respond to, or having a much stronger reaction than is necessary. Seasonal allergies are usually caused by some plant product (for example, pollen), so it's just your body responding to a different substance that's only around in spring or fall.


Question: how do banks make money???(moreover how do islamic banks make money as they dont have interest?)

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 how do banks make money???(moreover how do islamic banks make money as they dont have interest?)

Banks make money from charging fees for services, and charging interest on loans. You put money in a bank account, the bank loans that money to your neighbor to buy a boat. Your neighbor makes payments plus interest and the bank is now earning money. They also invest in other things but the large drivers in consumer banking revenue are service fees and interest payments. Islamic banks charge fees still.


Question: Why are serif fonts "easier to read in long paragraphs of text?"

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 Why are serif fonts "easier to read in long paragraphs of text?"

There's actually no conclusive study on this that shows that serif fonts are genuinely easier to read than san serif fonts. The idea is that the extra markings make a letter more immediately distinguishable from another letter. By having more angles on a letter, there is sharper contrast to one another and to the white background that offers a more visually interesting stimulus than the rounded letters. [Studies show that people overwhelmingly prefer them subjectively, and that comprehension increases in serif fonts]( URL_0 ). But there's no data to support they're actually "easier on the eyes" in any form. If they are, it's a slight variation that you can think of in terms of something being easier to read for the eyes when it's in sharp forcus than when it's slightly blurry. The extra angular stimulus may produce a similar effect to additional "focus."


Question: Why does a core only have two threads in a processor?

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 Why does a core only have two threads in a processor?

It doesn’t. At any given time in a modern OS there are hundreds to thousands of threads running on just a few cores. The difference is whether the nuance of threading is handled at the software or hardware level. Running multiple threads on the same core in hardware is done through a design called Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT, also branded as “hyper threading” by Intel). SMT is a higher level exploitation of something called “pipelining” where multiple instructions run at the same time on the hardware. Pipelining is a lot like doing laundry. If you have multiple loads of laundry you don’t wait for one load to be washed then dried, you start the next load in the washer while the dryer is running the previous one. In the same fashion, a processor has a lot of hardware in each core and not all of it is used for a single instruction. It has additional logic to allow different instructions doing different things to utilize the hardware in a way to maximize the instructions per clock cycle (IPC). SMT exploits pipelining to allow multiple threads to execute on the same core at the same time, as opposed to the switching between threads to be handled by the operating system’s software. There are trade offs though. The logic for SMT takes up physical space on the chip. The reason it’s limited to two threads per core is mostly because the additional logic for more than two would take up more space and power than you’d benefit in speed up. That’s about it.


Question: Why do cars make that weird choppy noise when you roll down the windows?

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 Why do cars make that weird choppy noise when you roll down the windows?

Have you ever blown in a bottle to get a tone? What's happening is that as you blow across the top of the bottle, it excites the air in the bottle and causes it to resonate. Now, when you open a car window, you're effectively turning the car into a giant bottle, but because it is so big, we hear the resonance as a chop rather than a tone, since the tone would be lower than we can hear. This is called Helmholtz resonance.


Question: Can you "freeze off" calories? How does it work and is it effective at all?

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 Can you "freeze off" calories? How does it work and is it effective at all?

Yes, being in a cold environment does burn additional calories. This is the best figure how much I can find: "To answer that question, Fear pointed to a study done by Dutch researchers back in 2002. They found that lowering a room's temperature from 71.6ºF to 60.8ºF increased the participants' 24-hour energy expenditure — the number of calories they burned in a day — by 4 to 6%. (Scientists who did similar studies in 2010 and 2013 got very similar results.)" URL_0 Simply put, yes, it will work. But we're talking about 100 kcal or so for the average adult.


Question: Why do old cartoons and shows have those little white and black dots pop up randomly?

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 Why do old cartoons and shows have those little white and black dots pop up randomly?

If you’re not talking about regular old dust and scratches on old film, you might be referring to those big black dots that sometimes flash at the upper right of the screen. These are called cue marks, and they’re a signal to the projectionist at the theatre that the film reel is about to end and they need to switch to another reel soon. An entire movie can’t fit on one reel of physical film; in a theatre, there’s actually two projectors in the booth and the projectionist’s job is to switch between the two seamlessly at the exact right moment. The reason we see them on video sometimes is usually because the video copy is sourced from a film reel meant for use in a theatre, which are sometimes the only available copy (a lot of older films just weren’t archived properly, and *really* old films were often printed onto a kind of film that loved to catch on fire in storage).


Question: Fell in the Demon Core hole. Why would the two beryllium sphere make the core safe when an inch apart? Wouldn't plutonium constantly be emitting radiation regardless?

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 Fell in the Demon Core hole. Why would the two beryllium sphere make the core safe when an inch apart? Wouldn't plutonium constantly be emitting radiation regardless?

> Wouldn't plutonium constantly be emitting radiation regardless? Yes, but most of that goes away from the plutonium core. Adding the beryllium reflects the neutrons back towards it, and that's what pushes the arrangement into supercriticality. The gap in the sphere is enough to let enough neutrons escape that the reaction isn't self-sustaining.


Question: How the hell do our eyes move? Like they sort of just look in different places seemingly on their own

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 How the hell do our eyes move? Like they sort of just look in different places seemingly on their own

Muscles attach them to the skull from various directions. To look right, you tense the muscle on the right side while relaxing the one on the left. Since we (obviously) can't see these muscles, we never really become aware of moving them, but if you stay up for a long time (I'm talking well over 24 hours) while focusing on something close to you, they will get noticeably tired.


Question: How are there graphic cards for specific purposes (e.g. mining)? What's their difference?

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 How are there graphic cards for specific purposes (e.g. mining)? What's their difference?

Because they optimize it for different tasks. A gaming graphics card is designed to produce an 'acceptable' result on schedule to push out the next frame. The designers know that the effect will only be on screen for a fraction of a second, and as a result they design the card to go 'good enough' if its falling behind and push out the result, even if it hasn't figured it all out perfectly yet. With an engineering card, you need to figure out the number PRECISELY, as rounding errors in, say, building a bridge could kill people if the bridge collapses. So the card is instead programmed to take as long as it needs to figure out the numbers involved,, but this is suboptimal for gaming as it won't produce speedy results.


Question: The Dow hit 20,000. What is the Dow and what does this mean?

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 The Dow hit 20,000. What is the Dow and what does this mean?

The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) is a weighted average of 30 large companies traded on the New York Stock Exchange. It is used as a rough indicator of how the stock market as a whole is doing, which in turn is a rough indicator for the economy on the whole.


Question: A small-case 4-letter password has 456,976 possible combinations. Why is there a need for even stronger passwords?

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</answer>
 A small-case 4-letter password has 456,976 possible combinations. Why is there a need for even stronger passwords?

While ~457,000 sounds like just an absolutely unfathomably large number to a human, that's actually child's play when it comes to computers. [Kasperky Labs]( URL_2 ) estimates that an average computer that's not even particularly specialized to password cracking can attempt roughly 7100 passwords every second. That means it could figure out a 4-letter single-case password in at most 65 seconds. I'm sure you can see why that's not very desirable. Even just stepping up to a six-character password where lower case, upper case, and numbers (but no symbols) are allowed slows down an average computer's brute force attack to 3.5 days. This can be sped up by using known tables of common passwords that people use over and over again, or even just using a dictionary attack since most people use a password that's a word or some variant thereof (e.g. they might use "acc1d3nt" instead of "accident," but a good dictionary attack can account for these variants too). And that's all to say nothing of the fact that people who make their living by cracking people's passwords are going to have specialized hardware that can crack passwords even faster. In 2012, [ArsTechnica]( URL_0 ) wrote an article about a then-new supercomputer that could guess up to 350 *billion* passwords every second (meaning the 6-character password from before could be cracked in a fraction of a second). And you can surely imagine that even more powerful hardware exists now, 8 years on. > Most websites also have a brute-force protection that disables password guessing after about 10 attempts. This is true, but again people who make their living cracking passwords have ways of circumventing this. Explaining the exact specifics would probably make this explanation not ELI-5 anymore, but the basic gist is that they don't actually crack your password by going to the website and entering each potential password one at a time. Else, as you mentioned, they'd get locked out and that would make the process take a long long time. Rather, what they usually do is they get their hands on a master password list directly from the source. This can sometimes come from a leaker who works for a particular company, but most often it comes from hackers breaking into to the company's database and getting the master list file that way. Now thankfully, any company worth their salt encrypts said password list, but that turns out not to really be a problem for hackers. Most of the time hackers know what encryption algorithm a particular website uses to secure their passwords (e.g. the ArsTechnica article mentions that LinkedIn uses the SHA-1 algorithm. Obviously, this may no longer be the case today, but it was true as of 2012). Given this information, they can use their brute force password generator and run each one through the encryption algorithm until they find one that outputs the same string as one of the passwords in the list - they then know that user's password. In addition to all of that, sometimes companies utterly fail at security and don't follow the industry best practices for securely storing passwords. In late 2013, a password list containing over 153 million Adobe Creative Cloud passwords was leaked. Subsequently, hackers discovered that Adobe did a very bad job securing this file. They used an encryption algorithm that is easily reversible and stored users' hints in the same file as their password. Properly secured password files also use a process known as salting, whereby if two (or more) users have the same passwords, they end up being stored as completely different encrypted strings... but Adobe didn't make use of this, so if the list showed, say, five instances of the same string, hackers just got a 5-for-1 deal on that password. As a final note, on rare occasions hackers will actually try logging in through the website and brute forcing it that way, if there's an exploit that circumvents the lock out routines. It's believed that such a vulnerability played a role in allowing the leaks of celebrities' nudes from their iCloud accounts back in 2014. [The Next Web]( URL_1 ) writes: > The vulnerability allegedly discovered in the Find My iPhone service appears to have let attackers use this method to guess passwords repeatedly without any sort of lockout or alert to the target.


Question: - What’s with Sharps and Flats representing the same keys, likes G-sharp and A-flat?

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 - What’s with Sharps and Flats representing the same keys, likes G-sharp and A-flat?

Each key includes each letter of the alphabet from A-G, in order. For example, a C-major scale is C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. In order to keep each key sounding right you sometimes need to raise or lower a note. For example, a G-major scale is G, A, B, C, D, E, F♯, G. An F-major scale is F, G, A, B♭, C, D, E, F. If we wanted to then we could write the F-major scale as F, G, A, A♯, C, D, E, F, but this skips B entirely and doubles up on A. When we write music it's standard to indicate at the start of the line what the "default" state of each lettered note will be. For a piece written in F major you'd see a key signature that indicates that all B's will be flat (pun not intended, but wholly embraced). That becomes impossible to notate if you double up A's in the scale, so you'd instead have to notate every single B♭ as an A♯. Such inline notations are known as "accidentals" and ideally would just be used to indicate when a note is outside of the key that the rest of the line is written in. By forcing every B♭ to be written as A♯ you can no longer quickly see which notes are in the key and which ones are modified to be out of the key. Naturally you'd have the same issue with G♭ and F♯ if you used G major, so you can't just use all flats instead. Note that this all assumes a modern tuning approach where B♭ and A♯ are actually equivalent in pitch. Intervals in music work off of ratios (e.g. an octave is a doubling of frequency). To sound harmonious these ratios should be simple, like 3:2, not 15801:31600. Older tuning strategies work to maximize the harmoniousness of certain keys, at the expense of others, and result in some intervals being different in different keys--this is why composers would choose certain keys in the first place. In such a tuning system B♭ and A♯ aren't even necessarily the same pitch! It's common today, especially on pianos, to use what's known as "equal temperament" which throws all the nice ratios out the window and instead sets every half step to be a ratio of 2^(1/12) : 1 (this is an irrational ratio). In this tuning B♭ and A♯ are the same pitch at the cost of making all keys equally dull.


Question: Why doesn’t the water in lakes and rivers get absorbed into the ground?

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 Why doesn’t the water in lakes and rivers get absorbed into the ground?

Some do lose water due to seepage. They lose more or less depending on what kind of rock and sediment lies beneath the lake. A rocky bottom holds water better than a sandy bottom. Lakes are also subject to evaporation from their surfaces – especially in a dry places – for example, the American West. So why don’t lakes just dry up? Some do. For a lake to keep its water over time, it has to be replenished. There are both natural and man-made lakes. The main way that water gets into reservoirs and man-made lakes is from the rivers and streams that were dammed to create them. Like man-made reservoirs and lakes, natural lakes may also be replenished by rivers and streams. Natural lakes have another advantage, when it come to holding their water. They tend to form in the lowest elevations in a given area. So these sorts of lakes may also get underground water that flows in from underneath the lake – the lake floor may be an area of water input, rather than a drain for the lake.


Question: How much does fitness potential decrease with age?

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 How much does fitness potential decrease with age?

Medically I read somewhere it declines by 10% each decade. Most people are never actually fit, or if they ever were they stop putting in the same work the older they get. Also, they don't eat a proper diet to sustain. Proper diet is a huge part of the body being healthy.


Question: how does phone's fingerprint scanner work?

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 how does phone's fingerprint scanner work?

Most phones use what is called a capacitive scanner. On the top is a highly scratch-resistant sapphire glass lens that protects the assembly and focuses the sensor. A steel ring surrounds this, waiting to detect your finger's pressure. When that is triggered, the capacite sensor activates and essentially takes a high resolution picture of your fingerprint. This print is compared against what you have on file, and if it matches, the phone unlocks. The "high resolution picture" is created by sending a very small electrical current through one's finger and back into the conductive plates on the surface of the scanner. Because of the ridges, curves, bumps in our fingerprint, this creates a unique signal, or set of data, received by the plates on the scanner. Once captured, this data can be saved for comparison at a later date. The clever thing about this technique is that it is very difficult to replicate the signal. The results can’t be replicated with an image and is incredibly tough to fool with some sort of prosthetic, as different materials will record slightly different changes in charge at the capacitor. The only real security risks come from either hardware or software hacking. TL;DR: The phone sends an electrical current through your finger which results in a picture of your fingerprint. This picture is then used to compare future unlocking requests. Sources: [ URL_1 ]( URL_1 ) [ URL_3 ]( URL_0 ) [ URL_2 ]( URL_2 )


Question: How do finger print readers work on your phone?

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 How do finger print readers work on your phone?

It's not a picture, not exactly. Most fingerprint readers nowadays are capacitive readers, kind of like the mechanism that drives touchscreens. But instead of merely detecting that the screen was pressed, there's an array of hundreds or thousands of capacitors which create a unique "map" of your fingerprint -- or more accurately, the changes in electrical capacitance caused by your fingerprint's ridges touching the scanner plate -- and the gaps between them *not* touching it. Once your phone stitches the maps of several samples together, it has something to compare against, and if the finger you touch to the scanner matches to a high enough degree of confidence, the phone figures it's your finger, and unlocks.


Question: What makes a scientific study a good one? what are the best practices?

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 What makes a scientific study a good one? what are the best practices?

It's almost impossible to tell if a study is flawed, unless you are an expert in the topic. Instead you could see if the results have been replicated by other people. By the time you see 3-5 papers published that confirm a result, that's pretty good evidence that the study is true. It's also **super important** to read the actual scientific study, even though it might be really hard to decode, because the "science news coverage" is likely to be wildly different than the actual paper that was published.


Question: How can a tiny $399 Go Pro with small battery shoot in 4K 60fps where as the large and bulky $2000 prosumer camcorders that also eat up power bricks of energy from companies like Sony only do 4K 30fps?

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 How can a tiny $399 Go Pro with small battery shoot in 4K 60fps where as the large and bulky $2000 prosumer camcorders that also eat up power bricks of energy from companies like Sony only do 4K 30fps?

4k describes the number of pixels the camera is capturing but there are other factors like color depth that describe how many shades of color the camera is capturing. The Hero 7 can record a bitrate of up to 78 Mb/s. Prosumer cameras can record up to 400 Mb/s. So the GoPro is sacrificing color and quality of the image to get a higher frame rate. I'll also add that Prosumer cameras can do 4k at 60fps these days, at a higher bitrate than the GoPro.


Question: Why does fire stick together? (Might be a physics question)

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 Why does fire stick together? (Might be a physics question)

Fire's shape comes from the upward air current that it forms. This pulls what would otherwise be a sphere of fire (see: fire in space) into that droplet shape, as the air at the center travels upward. What you consider "fire" is the region where fuel and air are mixing - inside of the flame is just fuel, and outside is just air. The glowy bit is where both fuel and air are present. Fire "sticks together" because the fuel rarely travels far enough from the source before being completely consumed to separate from the flame ball/droplet area. It does occasionally do so, however, which is why sometimes you see bits of fire float away from the source before exhausting all of their fuel and disappearing. These bits are small clouds of fuel that have drifted away from the rest and slowly burn.


Question: How does grease lubricate whatever it's used on but still manages to stick to the surface it's applied to?

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 How does grease lubricate whatever it's used on but still manages to stick to the surface it's applied to?

Basically whenever anything touches another thing, the molecules either try to bond or repel each other. It has to do with the polarity of the molecules. Think magnetism, but on the absolute smallest scale. When you have two things move against each other they also cause friction, which generates heat energy. Lubricants create a barrier between the objects, reducing friction, and reducing heat. Lubes also feel sticky because some of the molecules bond to the surface they are coating, but because they are a liquid, they can flow freely around the object.


Question: How can water evaporate normally in nature while having a 100°C boiling point?

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 How can water evaporate normally in nature while having a 100°C boiling point?

The amount of energy that each molecule of water has is not equal, some have more and some have less than average. If a molecule at the surface happens to have more energy than average it can fly off. This is evaporation. The hotter the liquid the more molecules will have enough energy to fly off, and so the greater the rate of evaporation. When the water reaches its boiling point, so many molecules have lots of energy that they start to form a gas (water vapour) inside the liquid. Up to this point not enough molecules become gas, and so any bubbles that try to form get squeezed back into liquid.