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Understanding this distinction30 is much facilitated if we observe what it means to be indebted perfectly and imperfectly. The former is when someone has the right to force the other and take him to the judge; for instance when someone who owes me money cannot pay, Iam said to have perfect right to exact what he owes me against his will. One cannot extort anything from others by imperfect right. The poor man to whom I give alms may complain about my insensibility and lack of pity, but he has no right to exact alms from me, nor take me to court for that reason. 27. 2 Samuel, 11. 28. Aristotle: The Nicomachean Ethics, 1129 b. 29. The meaning of this comment is unclear. 30. I.e. between universal and particular justice. 108 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Quae debentur jure imperfecto referenda sunt ad justitiam universalem, ut reverentia filiorum adversus suos parentes, beneficium in bene meritum, etc, quia honor non est talis res, ut possit mensurari pretio nummario. Ergo ad universalem est referendus, quia is (honor) non debetur ex jure perfecto. Justitia distributiva declarari potest exemplo militum in bello egregie sese gerentium, ubi magna potiti sunt praeda. Et posito quod praefectus quadruplum effecerit, quam milesaliquis gregarius, ergo et ipsi cedere debent 4 partes, sed aliis una, et haec vocatur justitia distributiva. Justitia vero commutativa locum maxime habet in contractu, venditione et emtione etc. Irrogatio v. paenarum ad neutram harum ambarum spectat, sed ad peculiarem, videlicet justitiam punitivam s. poenalem. [p. 30] par. 15. Si Deus patiatur nos mori non possumusconqueri deinjuria nobis illata, quia vitam ab eo6 habemus precario. Secus est si alius velit nos occidere. adversus auferentem valente:) E.g. hostis meus suo jure suam tenet vitam,at in statu belli possum eum occideresinealiquainjuria, quia quasi tacitus contractus est initus utrique licere facere quod possit et suas experiri artes. Ita et res sese habet in duello. par. 16.


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15. Si Deus patiatur nos mori non possumusconqueri deinjuria nobis illata, quia vitam ab eo6 habemus precario. Secus est si alius velit nos occidere. adversus auferentem valente:) E.g. hostis meus suo jure suam tenet vitam,at in statu belli possum eum occideresinealiquainjuria, quia quasi tacitus contractus est initus utrique licere facere quod possit et suas experiri artes. Ita et res sese habet in duello. par. 16. Legis naturalis descriptio optime intelligi potest ex exemplis subjungendis. V.g. Lex naturalis est Non occides. Illud video exinde, quia si homini liceret alteri nocere prout libet, et impune hoc semper ferret, oriretur inter genus humanum maxima perturbatio, ita ut sic diu persistere nequiret. Siclex naturalisest non furtum facies. Nam quis posset pacificam degere vitam acsocietatem, si non, quae measunt, retineam mihi? Unde sane maximae oriturae forent rixae ac contentiones aeternae: qui sane status cum rationali ac sociali hominis natura non congruit. Legem naturalem et rationalem dici posse, quia ex lumine naturae potest investigari: sicut e contrario lex positiva non hauritur ex lumine naturae seu rationis et inde nec vocatur lex naturalis. [p. 31] Legem positivam illustrat ac explicat exemplum de Sabbatho praecise dieVIIo celebrando.Namquamvis homo ex rationetantumpossit perspicere, ut sciat omnino se oportere aliquid tempus constituere, 6. Manuscript: ea. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 109 What is owed by imperfect right is to be referred to universal justice, like the respect of sons for their parents, benefits to people of merit etc., because honour is a thing that cannot be measured in money. Therefore, honour is to be referred to universal justice, since it is not owed by perfect right. Distributive justice can be explained by the example of soldiers who have done well in a war where they have taken a rich booty.


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109 What is owed by imperfect right is to be referred to universal justice, like the respect of sons for their parents, benefits to people of merit etc., because honour is a thing that cannot be measured in money. Therefore, honour is to be referred to universal justice, since it is not owed by perfect right. Distributive justice can be explained by the example of soldiers who have done well in a war where they have taken a rich booty. Suppose the officer has done four times as much as a commoner, then 4 parts should go to him and oneto the others,and this iscalled distributivejustice. Commutative justiceisaboveallapplied in contracts, buying, selling etc. The imposition of punishment pertains to neither of these, but to the special penal justice. [p. 30] par. 15. If God lets us die, we cannot complain about an injury inflicted on us, since we have our life on loan from him. It is different if someone else wants to kill us. a right valid against the depriver:) My enemy has theright to his life, but in war I can kill him without injury because it is as if there is a tacit contract that both are allowed to do what they can and test their skills. The same applies in a duel. par. 16. What a law of nature is can best be understood by examples. For instance: Thou shall not kill is a law of nature. This I perceive because if a man was allowed to hurt another when he wishes and this always happened without fear of punishment, such confusion would arise in mankind that it would not exist any longer. Similarly, thou shall not steal isalaw of nature. For how can I lead a peacefuland sociable life if I cannot keep for myself what is mine? Big quarrels and eternal contentions would result from that. Indeed, that condition of things does not agree with man’s rational and sociable nature. The law can be said to be natural and rational since it can be perceived by the light of nature, whereas positive law is not drawn out of the light of nature or reason and therefore is not called law of nature. [p.


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Similarly, thou shall not steal isalaw of nature. For how can I lead a peacefuland sociable life if I cannot keep for myself what is mine? Big quarrels and eternal contentions would result from that. Indeed, that condition of things does not agree with man’s rational and sociable nature. The law can be said to be natural and rational since it can be perceived by the light of nature, whereas positive law is not drawn out of the light of nature or reason and therefore is not called law of nature. [p. 31] Positivelawiselucidated and explained by theexample ofthe Sabbath being celebrated on theseventh day. True, man can by merereason understand that he should reserve some time when he can put mundane duties aside and indulge 110 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s in quo seponat curas mundanas ac indulgeat meditationibus divinis depraedicando ejus beneficium etc. Tamen hoc in particulari ex sua ratione non potest extorquere ut praecise diem VII sancte colat, nisi ex peculiari divina revelatione. Potest enim aeque alium 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 vel 16,5 sed dependet hoc praeceptum ex arbitrio legislatoris Dei. lex divina alia positiva:) Ut constat de sabbatho. Nam ecclesia libertati suae tantum indulserat, ut jam non celebret eundem diem VII. ut Deus instituerat; sed eundem mutaverat in 1. septimanae in memoriam resurrectionis Christi. Ergo apparetet legem quandam divinam esse positivam, nam alias sic mutari ab homine utique non posset. Cap. III. d 14 Martii [De Lege Naturali] Multis eruditis quidem in ore est, hoc est legis naturalis, tamen inter illosconvenire non potest, in quo ejus fundamentum consistat. Quidam enimidem(1)referuntad ipsiusDeiessentiamettantillacreaturatantum arrogantiaesibicapit utconeturascenderead ipsiusDeithronumetsupra suum creatorem ut velit rimari quod ipsi non est revelatum, nam nec capere potest paucissima quae de ipso sunt nobis revelata: Ergo in ipso Deo fundamentum non possumus ponere. Conf. Puf. Specileg. Cont. c.1.par.18. item Specim. c. 4 par. 3 etc. [p.


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Quidam enimidem(1)referuntad ipsiusDeiessentiamettantillacreaturatantum arrogantiaesibicapit utconeturascenderead ipsiusDeithronumetsupra suum creatorem ut velit rimari quod ipsi non est revelatum, nam nec capere potest paucissima quae de ipso sunt nobis revelata: Ergo in ipso Deo fundamentum non possumus ponere. Conf. Puf. Specileg. Cont. c.1.par.18. item Specim. c. 4 par. 3 etc. [p. 32] Qvidam vero illud (2) referunt ad Paradisum. In qua sententia nec possumusacquiescere, quamvis quaedam generalia homo iam in hoc statu habeat cum eodem: tamen in multis particularibus longe quidem discrepat.Namlongealiafuiteiusstatusconditio,ac naturajamest.Nam sicut e.g. alium victitandi modum habet et observat aegrotus, alium sanus, ita aliter vivebat tum homo, quippe tum variis casibus expositus ut nunc. 7 Ergo (3) nos ponimus fundamentum juris naturalis in ipsa hominis natura prout nunc est, et legem praescribimus homini corrupto. Quemadmodum medicus quando aegroto medicamenta praescribit non respicit ad ejus nativitatem, ad stellas etc. sed ad illa quae ante oculum sunt. ingenium hominis perscrutatus:) Quemadmodum quis velit esse interpres v.g. legum Romanarum, omnino notitiam quandam habebit in antiquitate Romana etc. 7. Added in the margin.: Puf. specileg. c. 2. par. 5. etc. Specim. con. c.4 par. 9. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 111 in religious meditations and prayers to the benefit of God and so on. Still, in this particular thing, he cannot discover by reason that he must keep the seventh day holy, but from God’s special revelation. It could as well be the 8 th , 9 th , 10th, 11th 12th or 16½th day, but this precept depends on the decision of God the legislator. divine law is either natural or positive:) That is well known about the Sabbath. For the church granted itself so much freedom that it no longer celebrates the seventh day as God ordained, but changed it to the first day of the week in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ.


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It could as well be the 8 th , 9 th , 10th, 11th 12th or 16½th day, but this precept depends on the decision of God the legislator. divine law is either natural or positive:) That is well known about the Sabbath. For the church granted itself so much freedom that it no longer celebrates the seventh day as God ordained, but changed it to the first day of the week in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ. 31 Thus, it appears that a divine law is positive, for otherwise it could by no means be changed by human beings. Chapter III March 14 [On natural law] Many scholars enlarge upon that this is the natural law, but they cannot agree upon what its foundation is. Some (1) refer to the essence of God himself: which means that a little creature is so arrogant that he tries to ascend to God’s throne and above his creator in order to investigate what has not been revealed to him, when he can understand not even the least of what has been revealed to us about him. Thus, we cannot locate its foundation in God himself. See Pufendorf ’s Spicilegium Controversiarum chap. 1. par. 18, and Specimen controversiarum chap. 4 par. 3 etc. 32 [p. 32] Some(2)referitto Paradise.Icannotacceptthat opinion.Althoughman even in this state of corruption has some general characteristics in common with the state of innocence, he is still widely different in many particulars. The condition of that state was very different from what human nature is now. In the same way as thesick and the healthy haveand observe different diets, man in those days lived differently,since hewasexposed to othercircumstancesthan now.Therefore (3) we locate the foundation of natural law in man’s nature as it is now and prescribethelaw to thecorrupt human being. Just likea doctor prescribing medicine to thesick does notcareabout his horoscope orthestars, only aboutwhatis before his eyes. scrutiny of the nature and character of man:) As when someone wants to interpret Roman law, he should have some knowledge of ancient Rome etc. 31. Cf.


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Just likea doctor prescribing medicine to thesick does notcareabout his horoscope orthestars, only aboutwhatis before his eyes. scrutiny of the nature and character of man:) As when someone wants to interpret Roman law, he should have some knowledge of ancient Rome etc. 31. Cf. Thomas Aquinas: Summa theologiae, 1a 2.ae 103:4. 32. Pufendorf ’s two works Spicilegium controversiarum and Specimen controversiarum, published in 1680 and 1678 respectively. 112 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s par. 3. Longe deteriorem esse conditionem vitae humanae quam bruti inanimantis quilibet largietur, qui penitius velit considerare utriusque naturam. Nam pisciculi statim ac proveniunt in lucem, se possunt alere ac demum pervenire ad perfectionem in suo genere. Sic aves quamvis per unam velalteram hebdomadam egeant ope progenitorum, tamen statim plumis vestiuntur ut non amplius eorum opera opus habeant. At vero nullus hactenus hominum ad maturitatem pervenit sine aliorum hominum auxilio. QuamvisJustinus Lib. 44.c. 4 8 memoriae prodat Habidem sine humana9 ope educatum. Sed haecce sunt fabulosa et praeterea educatus est ope cervae. [p. 33]elingue:) Nam sermo estab auditu, non vero a natura, unde vidimus homines surdos etiam esse mutos. Ratio est, quia nunquam audiverant hominesalios locutos, undeediscereipsi potuerant similem sonum, ac vocem formare ad imitationem. par. 4. vestirigaudet:)Quidamdisputantesseex adsuetudine quod hominesjam gestent vestimenta, non autem ex necessitate; praecipuaillorum ratio est, quod hominisfaciesiamapertaac nudaest,cujuscutisesttenerrima, utex anatomia constat. Ergo inquiunt esse ex consuetudine habere vestimenta, non autem ex necessitate. Nos communem amplectimur sententiam, ac negamus esse ex adsuetudine, praesertim in regionibus frigidioribus. Iisdem vestimentis utitur homo ad ostentationem quae habet propter egestatem ac suum defectum.


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4. vestirigaudet:)Quidamdisputantesseex adsuetudine quod hominesjam gestent vestimenta, non autem ex necessitate; praecipuaillorum ratio est, quod hominisfaciesiamapertaac nudaest,cujuscutisesttenerrima, utex anatomia constat. Ergo inquiunt esse ex consuetudine habere vestimenta, non autem ex necessitate. Nos communem amplectimur sententiam, ac negamus esse ex adsuetudine, praesertim in regionibus frigidioribus. Iisdem vestimentis utitur homo ad ostentationem quae habet propter egestatem ac suum defectum. Merito ergo homines superbi ridendi, ut si quis qui tantum unum habet pedem, voluerit alterum ligneum varie exornare ad superbiam, certe parum est prudens, quia pes alter ligneus signum est maximi ejusdem defectus. par. 6. Qui enim unius vulpis, unius porci naturam noverit, etiam perspectam habet omnium in eodem genere, sed non ita est in homine, cum ibi tam varia inveniantur ingenia, quam varii sunt vultus ac lineamenta, cum vix duo homines inveniantur, qui non in aliquo distinguantur. Praeterea sunt homines tam leves ac tantae inconstantiae, ut merito lunae comparari possint. 8. Manuscript: 48. 9. Manuscript: sine humana (:sed cervae:) opeeducatum.(:cervae:),seemsredundant, since it is repeated in the following sentence. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 113 par. 3. Anyone who considers the nature of man and animals more deeply will admit that human life is far worse than that of an inanimate animal. Fishes, as soon as they come into light can nourish themselves and reach perfection of their kind at length. Although needing the help of their parents for one or two weeks, birds are immediately clothed with feathers so that they do not need their assistance.


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O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 113 par. 3. Anyone who considers the nature of man and animals more deeply will admit that human life is far worse than that of an inanimate animal. Fishes, as soon as they come into light can nourish themselves and reach perfection of their kind at length. Although needing the help of their parents for one or two weeks, birds are immediately clothed with feathers so that they do not need their assistance. However, no human being has ever reached maturity without the help of others, although Justinus33 in book 44 chap. 4 tells the story of Habides who grew up without human help (but was raised by a deer). [p. 33] without speech:) For languagecomes from hearing, not from nature; that is why we find that deaf peopleare muteas well.Thereason is that they have never heard other men speaking, from which they could learn similar soundsand form their voice in imitation. par. 4. delights in beingclothed:) Somearguethat men wearclothes by custom and not of necessity;their firstargumentisthatman’sfaceis open and nude,although itsskin is thin,as isclear from anatomy. Hencethey believethat we wearclothes through custom, not of necessity. I embrace the common opinion, denying that it is customary, especially in colder regions. Man wears the same clothes for ostentation as for his wantand weakness. Therefore haughty people deserve to be laughed at. If somebody with only one leg wants to decorate his wooden leg in various ways for thesake of pride, heis not very prudent, since his wooden leg is thesign of his extreme defect. par. 6. He who knows the nature of onesinglefox or swine knows the nature ofall individuals of that kind. It is not likethat with man, sincethere we find as many varying characters as faces and lineaments. There are hardly two individuals who do not differ in some matter. In addition, human beingsareso fickleand inconstant that they may very well be compared to the moon. 33.


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6. He who knows the nature of onesinglefox or swine knows the nature ofall individuals of that kind. It is not likethat with man, sincethere we find as many varying characters as faces and lineaments. There are hardly two individuals who do not differ in some matter. In addition, human beingsareso fickleand inconstant that they may very well be compared to the moon. 33. Justinus, Ex Trogi Pompeii historiis externis libri XLIIII (3rd century A.D.). 114 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s par. 7. Quae hactenus fuse sunt dicta, jam stricte in hoc paragrapho perstringuntur. par. 9. quantum in se:) Dici enim solet nos pace frui, quam diu vicinus [p. 34] velit. Sic cum eo socialitatem servare non possem, qui me pugnis vexat. Hanc enim imitationem adhibet Divinus Apostolus Paulus dicens: pacem servate quantum in vobis sit. qui vult finem vult et media:) Idque demonstratur ab absurdo, vult enim contradictoria, qui eodem tempore vult finem et odit media. Ita aegrotus qui sanitatem recuperare vult respuere non debet media, quae praescribuntureiamedico.Itastudiosuseruditionemadsequi non potest sine mediis sc. studio summo, pecuniis ac libris10 etc. Particularia praeceptaex hoc uno generali deducuntur, ut v.g. quando pactain fide non servantur, oritur inde discordia non minima, quae perturbat valde socialitatem; ergo video pactorum servationem esse ex jure naturae. Et sensus communis hic locum obtinet, nam regula est notissima et Christo etiam approbata: quod tibi non vis fieri, alteri ne feceris etc. Ita quando libido subit debitum non solvendi, vel furandi, tum statim cogitare debeo, an ego tolerem si is hoc mihi facturus esset. par. 10. Quamvis autem summum commodum redundet in genus humanum ex servata lege naturali, si autem contingat vel ponamus talem casum venire quod homines illam legem non curent, quemadmodum aegrotus qui cernit sine dubio sanitatem secuturam ex observatione praescriptorum medicamentorum, tamen potest ea perfracte respuere, quaeritur ergo numhomo possitlicite negligerelegemNaturae?


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10. Quamvis autem summum commodum redundet in genus humanum ex servata lege naturali, si autem contingat vel ponamus talem casum venire quod homines illam legem non curent, quemadmodum aegrotus qui cernit sine dubio sanitatem secuturam ex observatione praescriptorum medicamentorum, tamen potest ea perfracte respuere, quaeritur ergo numhomo possitlicite negligerelegemNaturae?Negatur.Ratio est[p.35] quia lex naturalis non est profecta ex arbitrio ac conventione hominum utaliaeleges multae positivae, utcirca valorem pecuniae, qui licite potest immutari, quia is non est a Deo impositus, sed hominibus. Difficile est ex sola Scriptura Sacra probare legem naturalem esse a Deo, ceu Hobbesio fuit visum, qui ideo addit suis praeceptis exempli loco dictascripturae. Cumenimvideri non potest, quomodo gentes quae 10. Manuscript: liberis. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 115 par. 7. What hitherto has been treated at length is drawn tightly together in this paragraph. par. 9. as much as he can:) It is usually said that we have peace as long as our neighbour [p. 34] wants it. Icannot remain sociabletowards him who attacks me. The divine apostle Paul uses the same admonition saying: keep peace, as far as it depends on you. 34 he who wills the end wills also the means:)35 This is demonstrated by the argument ofabsurdity: hewho atthesametimewillstheend and hatesthemeanswills contradictory things.Asick man who wants to regain his health should notreject the means prescribed to him by the doctor. A student cannot acquire erudition without means, i.e. great industry, money and books. From this general principle particular preceptsare deduced, forinstance: when agreements in faith are not honoured, great discord arises that disturbs sociality; hence it is clear that keeping agreements is in accordance with the law of nature. Common senseis to beapplied here, for thereisa well-known rulethat Christ established: do not do to others what you do not want done to you.


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A student cannot acquire erudition without means, i.e. great industry, money and books. From this general principle particular preceptsare deduced, forinstance: when agreements in faith are not honoured, great discord arises that disturbs sociality; hence it is clear that keeping agreements is in accordance with the law of nature. Common senseis to beapplied here, for thereisa well-known rulethat Christ established: do not do to others what you do not want done to you. Thus, when the desire comes not to pay a debt or to steal, I should immediately think: would I tolerate it being done to me? par. 10. A great good befalls mankind from observing the law of nature. Still, if it happens or we suppose it would happen that men did not care about that law, like a sick man who is aware that health will undoubtedly follow from complying with the medical precepts but nevertheless rejects them stubbornly, then the question arises if man can rightfully neglect the law of nature? The answer is no. Because [p. 35] the law of nature does not originate from human decision and convention like many positive laws, for instance the value of money that can lawfully be changed since it is stipulated by men, not by God. It is difficult to prove from the Holy Writ only that the law of nature comes from God. Hobbes believed that and added to his precepts quotations from the Writ as examples. 36 Since, however, it is difficult to see how the gentiles, who did 34. Romans 12:18. 35. Scholastic rule of thought. 36. See footnote 7. 116 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s ignorabant Scripturam Sacram argui possent peccati contra jus naturae, quod tamen est factum ex Rom. 1. et 2. epist. Pauli. Nos ergo ex ratione id demonstrabimus. Conf. Seld. de I.N.1,8. par. 11. in nullo animante sensus religionis:) Quamvis quidam de avium cantu multum sed sineratione dicant, quod proprieaves Deum celebrent, puto hoc omnino intelligendum esse metaphorice, ut homo occasionem capiat laudandi Deum ex ipsarum cantu.


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36. See footnote 7. 116 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s ignorabant Scripturam Sacram argui possent peccati contra jus naturae, quod tamen est factum ex Rom. 1. et 2. epist. Pauli. Nos ergo ex ratione id demonstrabimus. Conf. Seld. de I.N.1,8. par. 11. in nullo animante sensus religionis:) Quamvis quidam de avium cantu multum sed sineratione dicant, quod proprieaves Deum celebrent, puto hoc omnino intelligendum esse metaphorice, ut homo occasionem capiat laudandi Deum ex ipsarum cantu. Falsum est etiam quod Plinius in historia naturali narrat de cervo salutante solem orientem. par. 12. natura notum:) Duplici modo potissimum sumitur (1) quod peracumen ingenii potest investigari absque illuminatione quadam ex Scriptura Sacra. Et hocsensu omnes disciplinaecensendaesunt natura notae,adeoque et jus Naturale. (2) quando homo in hunc mundum nascitur, statim habeat notiones ex quibus jus Naturae constituitur. Et hoc sensu acceptum negamus, nam infans vel duo annorum videre non potest: parentes esse honorandos, non furandum etc. Huc adduci solet dictum Aristotelis quo comparat intellectum [p. 36] hominis Tabulae rasae. Sed haec res per similitudinem speculi optime potest exprimi, quod sine aliquo adveniente nullas recipit imagines, secus ac postea fit cum homo vel tale quid accedit, tum repraesentat. Ita anima non habet actuales propositiones, sed potest recipere. Jam non est sermo de infantibus baptizatis ac fidelibus, quem ex revelatione habemus. Infans enim non novit quod minusest, quomodo jus Naturae quod majus?Jonasenim diciteos nescire distinguere inter dextram et sinistram. Et si quis periculum faciat ac de infante instituat quaerere de regula juris naturalis, non respondebit magis quam brutum. Ignorat enim nomen et verbum, ex quibus omnis propositio constat.


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Ita anima non habet actuales propositiones, sed potest recipere. Jam non est sermo de infantibus baptizatis ac fidelibus, quem ex revelatione habemus. Infans enim non novit quod minusest, quomodo jus Naturae quod majus?Jonasenim diciteos nescire distinguere inter dextram et sinistram. Et si quis periculum faciat ac de infante instituat quaerere de regula juris naturalis, non respondebit magis quam brutum. Ignorat enim nomen et verbum, ex quibus omnis propositio constat. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 117 not know the Holy Writ,could beaccused of sinning against thelaw of nature,as actually happens in the epistle of the Apostle Paul to the Romans, chap. 1 and 2, wewill demonstrateitfrom reason. Compare Selden, Dejure naturaliet gentium, 1. 8.37 par. 11. thesense ofreligion in no otherlivingcreature:) Some peopletalkmuch butwithout reason aboutthesinging of birds, holding thatthe birdsstrictly speaking celebrate God. I think this should be understood metaphorically, man seizing from their singing an opportunity to praise God. What Pliny in his Natural history tells about a deer saluting the sun is false.38 par. 12. known by nature:) is understood in a double sense: first, that something can be investigated by the intellect without illumination from the Holy Writ. In this senseall disciplinesareconsidered known by nature, natural law as well. Second, meaning that man when born into this world is at once in possession of the notions thatconstitute natural law.If the phraseisaccepted in this sense, we deny it. For a child of two years cannot understand that parents shall be honoured, that one shall not steal etc. Here the dictum of Aristotle is usually adduced, where he compares the intellect [p. 36] of man with an unwritten tablet. 39 But this problem can very well be described by the simile of a mirror, which does not receive any ideas unless something comes before it, as happens when a man or something similar appears before it: then it represents.


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For a child of two years cannot understand that parents shall be honoured, that one shall not steal etc. Here the dictum of Aristotle is usually adduced, where he compares the intellect [p. 36] of man with an unwritten tablet. 39 But this problem can very well be described by the simile of a mirror, which does not receive any ideas unless something comes before it, as happens when a man or something similar appears before it: then it represents. Thus, the soul does not have actual concepts, but itcan receivethem. This does notconcern baptized and faithful infants, of which therevelation speaks. 40 Ifan infant does not know what is trivial, how could it know natural law, which is of great importance?Jonah says that they do not knowthe difference between rightand left.41 Ifsomeonemakestheattempt to question the infant about the rules of natural law, the infant will not answer morethan an animal. For he does not know what noun and verb are, of which all propositions consist. 37. John Selden, in De jure naturali et gentium iuxta disciplinam hebraeorum libri septem, 1640, related natural law to the Old Testament. 38. Reference not found. 39. In the Latin translation of De anima, 430 a. 40. Possibly referring to Mark 10:14–16 and other passageslike Acts16:15 and 1 Corinthians 1:16 that indicate that children were baptized, which would mean that they acquired moral knowledge. 41. Jonah 4:11. 118 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Qui contrariam tuentur sententiam, arcem quasi collocant in verbis hisce: inscriptum in corde. Quod putant notare notitiam innatam. Sed fallunt et falluntur. Nam haec phrasis nihil aliud notat quam liquidam altaque mente repositam cognitionem, ut de qua quis in conscientia sua convictus fit undecunque11 eadem sit. Vid. authorem I. N. et G. 2, 3, 13 p. 178. Idque suetum est et auctoribus prophanis et sacris. Illis quidem, ut apud Aeschinum poetam Graecum haec phrasis habetur, quae latine ita sonat: Tu inscribis tabulis mentis tuae, i.e. ita infigas, ut ejus oblivio nunquamsubeat.


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Quod putant notare notitiam innatam. Sed fallunt et falluntur. Nam haec phrasis nihil aliud notat quam liquidam altaque mente repositam cognitionem, ut de qua quis in conscientia sua convictus fit undecunque11 eadem sit. Vid. authorem I. N. et G. 2, 3, 13 p. 178. Idque suetum est et auctoribus prophanis et sacris. Illis quidem, ut apud Aeschinum poetam Graecum haec phrasis habetur, quae latine ita sonat: Tu inscribis tabulis mentis tuae, i.e. ita infigas, ut ejus oblivio nunquamsubeat. SicVirgilius:manetaltamenterepositum.Itain lingua Teutonica: figere postaurem, i.e. ita menti infigere, ut memoria non excidat. Ita et scriptores sacri, ut apud Jeremiam c. 31, 33 [p. 37] quod repetit Apost. ad Hebr. 10, 16 ubi sermo est de evangelii doctrina, quae sane natura non est nota, sed eis verbis significat se perspicue propositurum evangelium, uta quovis possit recipi. Itaet prophetaidem c. 17. dicit peccata esse inscripta cordibus stilo ferreo, sc. non fuere (:peccata actualia:) connata, sed tam manifesta.Idem colligiturex epist. Pauliad Corinthios 2. cap. 3, 2, 3, quam dicit esse scriptum in eorum cordibus. Corinthii statim post nativitatem non magis noscebant Paulum quam ego, quando nascebar. Eadem phrasi usa est Maria Luc. 2. 51. Non aliter ergo denotat haec phrasis apostoli Pauli 12 in epist. ad Rom. 1. 2. capp. quam notitiam legis tam illis esse manifestam ut manibus quasi palpare possint, idque facile depraehenditurex Apostoli scopo. Retunditeorum tacitam objectionem, qua uti possint, scil. quod notitia legis ac Dei possit evanescere ut fit in reac nominealiquo obscuro e.g. Polonico, sed Paulus reponitac antevertit hoc, sc. illos non posse expellere eam quam habent notitiam legis saltem generalium praeceptorum. Et hoc modo ibi illa phrasis est intelligenda. Etsi impius callum vellet conscientiae obducere, ut rejiciat ipsum actum, honesti tamen notitiam non possit expellere. Dispositus tamen est animus ad recipiendam talem notitiam, quamvis actu non insit.


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Polonico, sed Paulus reponitac antevertit hoc, sc. illos non posse expellere eam quam habent notitiam legis saltem generalium praeceptorum. Et hoc modo ibi illa phrasis est intelligenda. Etsi impius callum vellet conscientiae obducere, ut rejiciat ipsum actum, honesti tamen notitiam non possit expellere. Dispositus tamen est animus ad recipiendam talem notitiam, quamvis actu non insit. Quidam parum docte respondent ad notum illud Aristotelis [p. 38] de tabula rasa, distinguentes inter habitum perfectum et imperfectum, dicendo in infantibus esse hunc habitum.13 Sed dum hoc dicunt nihil dicunt. Habitus imperfectus est terminus insignificans, et involvens contradictionem, habere aliquam notitiam sine 11. Manuscript: undequacunque. 12. Manuscript: ap. Paul., which could be read “apud Paulum” as well. 13. In the margin: NB. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 119 Those who defend the opposite opinion, take shelter in the words: written in the heart. 42 They think they mean innate ideas. But they deceive and are deceived. Forthis phrase means nothing elsethan that pure knowledge deep in the mind, of which everyoneisconvinced in hisconscience, regardless of whereitcomes from, videtheauthor’s Dejure naturaeet gentium 2:3:13 p.178.This is usual in profane authors as well as in the sacred. In the former, this phrase occurs in the Greek poet Aeschines; 43 in Latin it runs: you inscribe in the tablets of your mind, i.e. you impress it so that it will never be forgotten. Likewise Virgil: it remains deep in the mind. 44 Similarly in German: fix behind theear, i.e. impress in the mind so that it does not fall out of one’s memory. Also the holy writers, such as Jeremiah chap. 31:33 [p. 37], repeated by the Apostle, Hebrews 10:16, where he talks about the doctrine of the Gospel which is certainly not known by nature; instead he signifies by those words that he will set forth the Gospel so that itcan bereceived by anyone.


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Likewise Virgil: it remains deep in the mind. 44 Similarly in German: fix behind theear, i.e. impress in the mind so that it does not fall out of one’s memory. Also the holy writers, such as Jeremiah chap. 31:33 [p. 37], repeated by the Apostle, Hebrews 10:16, where he talks about the doctrine of the Gospel which is certainly not known by nature; instead he signifies by those words that he will set forth the Gospel so that itcan bereceived by anyone. Thesame prophet sayschap.17 that thesinsareinscribed in the hearts with an iron stick, i.e. the actual sins were not innate but so apparent. The same is deduced from the letter of Paul to the Corinthians 2 chap. 3: 2–3, which he says is written in their hearts. But at birth, the Corinthians did not know more about Paul than I did when I was born. Maria, in Luke 1:51, uses the same phrase. It does not mean anything different in theletter of the Apostle Paul to the Romans 1. 2 chap. 45 than that the notion of thelaw is so manifest that they can touch it with their hands. And this is easily understood with regard to the aim of the Apostle. Herefutes their tacit objection that the notion of thelaw,and of God, can vanish, as happens in obscure things and names like Polonicus. But Paulrejectsand anticipatesthis objection, meaning thatthey cannot drive outthe notion they have at least of the general precepts. This is how the phrase is to be understood. Even if an impious man would want to make his conscience callous in order to reject the act itself, he cannot expel the notion of what is honest. The soul is disposed to receive such a notion, although it is not there from the beginning. Some respond not very skilfully to [p. 38] Aristotle’s clean tablet by making a distinction between a complete and incomplete acquired condition, saying that the latter is in infants. But saying this, they say nothing. Incomplete condition isa meaninglessterm, involving thecontradiction that one hasa notion 42. Romans 2:15. 43.


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The soul is disposed to receive such a notion, although it is not there from the beginning. Some respond not very skilfully to [p. 38] Aristotle’s clean tablet by making a distinction between a complete and incomplete acquired condition, saying that the latter is in infants. But saying this, they say nothing. Incomplete condition isa meaninglessterm, involving thecontradiction that one hasa notion 42. Romans 2:15. 43. The text has Aeschinus, possibly referring to Aeschines, an orator (rather than poet), in the 4 th century B.C; reference not found. If we read Aeschylus instead, there is a line in Supplices 946 that might be a candidate. 44. Virgil: Aeneis, 1:26. 45. Seems to refer to Romans 2:14sq., where nothing is said, however, about touching the law with their hands. 120 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s propositionibus. Omnis nostra cognitio intrat animum per 5 januas hoc est5sensus. Undescitum: Nihil est in intellectu, quod non fuit in sensu. 14 Igitur nemo est, quiconceptum facere potest desuaipsiusanima, quiain sensus non incurrit; ita nullus conceptus datur de Spiritibus ob eandem rationem,sed ex apparitionibusconcipimuseos ut homines, quod absque dubio est erroneum. Confer Pufendorfii Specileg. c. II par. 19 Specim. c. 4. par. 2. par. 13. ex rectae rationis dictamine:) Hoc bene est observandum, nam ita excludimus ab nostra hac disciplina Theologiam moralem. Hanc divisionem officiorum insinuat et Apostolus Paulus alicubi ad suos, quosjubetjuste(:erga proximum:), caste(:ergaseipsum:)ac pie(erga Deum:) vivere. Tit. 2,12. non pro absoluto suo lubitu:) Quemadmodum Rex non patitur suos servos laceris incedere calceis ac vestimentis, quae alias haberent, si sibi ipsi viverent, ea itaque habent in gratiam Regis; ita cum nobis respectu Dei res se habet, nam si viveremus nobismetipsis, pro nostro lubitu impie vitam ducere possemus. Cap. IV d. 8 Apr ilis [De officio hominis erga Deum, seu de Religione naturali] [p. 39] par. 1.


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Tit. 2,12. non pro absoluto suo lubitu:) Quemadmodum Rex non patitur suos servos laceris incedere calceis ac vestimentis, quae alias haberent, si sibi ipsi viverent, ea itaque habent in gratiam Regis; ita cum nobis respectu Dei res se habet, nam si viveremus nobismetipsis, pro nostro lubitu impie vitam ducere possemus. Cap. IV d. 8 Apr ilis [De officio hominis erga Deum, seu de Religione naturali] [p. 39] par. 1. Finis hujus doctrinae (1) ut quasi articulus sit fidei ex Scriptura Sacra petitus. (2) quousque homo ex ratiocinio potest progredi. (3) quam segnes et impii aliqui gentiles fuere, quorumque stultitiam et Apostolus reprehendit in epist. ad Rom c. 1 et 2. Theologietiam proponunt(1)credenda de Deo.(2.)facienda, itaet nos in hac doctrina facimus. par. 2. Eodem argumento Deus ipse deseest usus ostensurus suam existentiam, dum dicebat Exod. III Mosi: εγo qui εγo 15 i.e. ut Theologiexplicant, sum qui in me ipso essentiam habeo, a me ipso et non aliunde, et a me omnia 14. In the margin: NB. 15. Exodus 3:14. The manuscript mixes Latin and Greek letters. The standard Latin rendering is Ego sum qui sum. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 121 without propositions.All our knowledgeenters oursoulthrough 5 doors, i.e.the5 senses. Hencethe well-known thesis: Nothingis in the intellect that was not in the senses. Thus nobody can form a concept from his own soul only, because it does not go through thesenses. For thesamereason, thereare no concepts of the Spirits; instead we conceive of them from appearances as being human beings, which no doubt is false. Compare Pufendorf, Spicilegium chap. 2 par. 19 and Specimen chap. 4 par. 2. par. 13. the dictate of right reason:) Note this carefully, for in this way we exclude moral theology from our discipline. This division of duties is indicated somewhere by the Apostle Paul to his followers, whom headmonishes to livein justice(towards others), in chastity (towards oneself) and piously (towards God).


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Compare Pufendorf, Spicilegium chap. 2 par. 19 and Specimen chap. 4 par. 2. par. 13. the dictate of right reason:) Note this carefully, for in this way we exclude moral theology from our discipline. This division of duties is indicated somewhere by the Apostle Paul to his followers, whom headmonishes to livein justice(towards others), in chastity (towards oneself) and piously (towards God). Titus 2:12. not dispose of himself at his own absolute discretion:) The King does not let his servants appear in torn shoes and clothes, which they would have if they lived by themselves; they havetheirclothesasasign of their gratitudetowards the king. It is thesame with us with respect to God: if welived by ourselves, we would beable to live an impious life at our own discretion. Chapter IV Apr il 8 [On man’s duty to God, or on natural religion] [p. 39] par. 1. The aim of this doctrine of natural religion is to show (1) that it is like an article of faith drawn from the Holy Writ; (2) how far man can reach with the help of reason;(3) how slow and impious some of the gentiles were, whosefoolishness the ApostlereprehendsinRomans1and 2.Thetheologianstoo expose(1)whatisto be believed about God and (2) howweshould act.Thisiswhatwe do in this doctrine. par. 2. God himself used the same argument to show his existence when he said to Moses Exodus III I am that I am, that is, as the theologians explain, I have my essence within me, of myself and not from somewhere else, and everything 122 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s dependent. Itaest, nam si quis homo urbem bene dispositam intravit, vidensegregias ibiesse plateas, domus,cives vivere optimeinterseinvicem, statim cogitet esse quandam potestatem, qua haecce omnia diriguntur; sic ex hujus mundi harmonia ac diversitate, non potest homo non colligereessealiquem a quo haec omniasunt profecta. Neceo adduci possum, ut putem dari quendam Atheum, nam si quis ita sit, hoc exinde eveniet, quod poena Dei propter peccata antegressa sit in corde suo occaecatus, ut de Deo nihilcogitet.


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Itaest, nam si quis homo urbem bene dispositam intravit, vidensegregias ibiesse plateas, domus,cives vivere optimeinterseinvicem, statim cogitet esse quandam potestatem, qua haecce omnia diriguntur; sic ex hujus mundi harmonia ac diversitate, non potest homo non colligereessealiquem a quo haec omniasunt profecta. Neceo adduci possum, ut putem dari quendam Atheum, nam si quis ita sit, hoc exinde eveniet, quod poena Dei propter peccata antegressa sit in corde suo occaecatus, ut de Deo nihilcogitet. Quantum ad antiquiores qui hocstatuebant, illi vocabulum Atheus in eo sumserunt sensu,aceos itaappellabant, qui non negabant esse quoddam summum ens, sed qui eo modo Deastros non colebant ut gentiles , eosque negabant esse Deum. [p.40]Quantumvero ad Psal.14,ex quo contrariaesententiaefautores suum praecipuum sumuntargumentum, ita utet denturathei theoretici. Nos respondemus (1) hominem ita posse obrutescere, ut Deus eidem occaecationemimmittatin poenamscelerum.(2) quidamdicunt hocmodo intelligendum: non est Deus vindex, seu quem cura tanget rerum humanarumtanquamminutarum; negantergo illi divinamprovidentiam, non Dei existentiam. Vid. Grot. de verit. rel.


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Nos respondemus (1) hominem ita posse obrutescere, ut Deus eidem occaecationemimmittatin poenamscelerum.(2) quidamdicunt hocmodo intelligendum: non est Deus vindex, seu quem cura tanget rerum humanarumtanquamminutarum; negantergo illi divinamprovidentiam, non Dei existentiam. Vid. Grot. de verit. rel. 1.2. ex subordinatione causarum:) Ut si quis domum aspiciat, videt in ea ligna, quae orta ex arbore, quae ex semine, quod ex pomo quod ex alia arbore, usque dum perveniatur ad primam arborem, quae se ipsam non creavit sed ex alio superiori principio: idem de parentibus hominum usque ad primum nempe Adam. ex motu:) Ut cernimus astra vastissmima corpora solem etc. moveri, necesse est fuisse quod eundem motum iisdem impresserat. ex contemplatione:) Fingamus hominem totum stare in consideratione hujus machinae, videt hoc moveri, florescere etc. necessario colliget esse Deum, quia talia ex se non proveniuntur, quemadmodum rusticus qui nunquam organaaudierat, si in templum veniens,astiteritauditurus eorundem dulcem sonum, adfirmabit organa ex se non crepare, sed esse hoc ex sapiente, videlicet homine. neget abs se capi posse:) Quemadmodum barbari in India fecere ut quando Europaei nunciavere eis de religione veri Dei, praedicabant nos esse felices, sed se non posse capere nec credere Dei existentiam, quia eundem non possunt videre. Sed si non oculis tamen in operationibus cognoscitur Deus, ut anima. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 123 depends on me. Indeed, so it is, for if a human being enters a well-ordered town, seeing excellent streets and houses and citizens living very well together, then at once he believes thereis some power by which all this isarranged. Similarly, from the harmony and diversity of this world, man cannot but conclude that there is someone who bringsall thisabout.


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Sed si non oculis tamen in operationibus cognoscitur Deus, ut anima. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 123 depends on me. Indeed, so it is, for if a human being enters a well-ordered town, seeing excellent streets and houses and citizens living very well together, then at once he believes thereis some power by which all this isarranged. Similarly, from the harmony and diversity of this world, man cannot but conclude that there is someone who bringsall thisabout. Icannot beinduced to think that thereexists an atheist, for if any such there be, it is because he has been blinded in his heart dueto punishment by God forearliersinsso that hethinks nothing of God.Asfor the ancients who claimed there is atheism, they took the word atheist in a broad sense and applied it to those who did not deny that there is some supreme entity, but they did not worship deities as the heathens did and denied them to be God. [p.40] As for the passage in Psalms 14, from which those who support the opposite position take their main argument, holding that there are also theoretical atheists, 46 weanswer, (1) that man can becomeso brutish that God blinds him as punishment for his sins; (2) some say that the passage should be understood like this: there is no avenging God who is concerned about the most minute of human things; hence, they deny divine providence, not the existence of God. Vide Grotius, De veritate religionis christianae 1. 2. from the subordination of causes:) If someone looks at a house, he sees in it the timber that comes from a tree that comes from a seed that comes from a fruit from another tree until one ends up in the first tree that did not create itself but comes from a superior principle.


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Vide Grotius, De veritate religionis christianae 1. 2. from the subordination of causes:) If someone looks at a house, he sees in it the timber that comes from a tree that comes from a seed that comes from a fruit from another tree until one ends up in the first tree that did not create itself but comes from a superior principle. Similarly, there is subordination of causes from the parents of men right back to Adam, the first parent. from the motion:) When we see stars, the sun and other enormous heavenly bodies moving, it is necessary that there is something that impelled the motion into them. from reflection:) Imaginea man wholly focused on contemplating this fabric of the universe: he sees movement, blossoming and so on, and he cannot but conclude that there is a God, since such things do not come about by themselves. Similarly,a peasant,who has never heard an organ beforeand stopsshort on entering thechurch to listen to its delightful sound, willassert that the organ does not resound by itself but that it comes from some wise agent, i.e. a human being. claiming not to understand these arguments:) Likethe barbarians of India, who when the Europeans informed them about thereligion of thetrue God, declared us to be happy,although they themselvescould neither understand nor believein theexistence of God sincethey could not see him. But if God is not known by the eyes, he is known, like the soul, by his effects. 46. That is, “the fool has said in his heart, There is no God”, as the text runs in Psalms 14:1. 124 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s [p.41] par. 3. qui eum mundi animam dicunt:) Stoicorum et Platonis haecerat sententia, ut Deus se haberet ad mundum tanquam anima ad corpus, adeoque omnem motum mundo brutali immobili ac mortuo impertiretur. Exinde dicebant omnium animalium animam velspiritum esse particulam ex illa universorum anima, videlicet Deo: ut quemadmodum variae fistulae in organo quodam sonant varie, sed ex uno tantum spiritu, ita erit, dicunt, cum hujus universi anima seu Deo.


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3. qui eum mundi animam dicunt:) Stoicorum et Platonis haecerat sententia, ut Deus se haberet ad mundum tanquam anima ad corpus, adeoque omnem motum mundo brutali immobili ac mortuo impertiretur. Exinde dicebant omnium animalium animam velspiritum esse particulam ex illa universorum anima, videlicet Deo: ut quemadmodum variae fistulae in organo quodam sonant varie, sed ex uno tantum spiritu, ita erit, dicunt, cum hujus universi anima seu Deo. Sed haec sententia perabsurda est, quia sic Deus esset omnium scelerum motor et author, omnes enim actiones humanae animae adscribuntur, adeoque Deo, quod blasphemum. par. 4. Inter alia contra providentiam Divinam objicitur et id, quod implicari tam variis negotiis sit res miserrima. Respondemus nos argumentamur imperite et arroganter ex nostra imperfectione ad Dei potentiam. Sine enimcuracurat nos, quod secus nobiscumest, namnos ob laboremquendam impatientessumus. Nec non etillud, quod in hoc mundo bonis male, et malis bene fiat, ut etiam pii in desperationem de divina providentia ex hoc adducantur, quod apparet ex Psalm. 73. Sed respondemus ibi sibi respondere Psalmistam, et finis maxime est respiciendus. Nam res adversa nihil est aliud juxta Senecam quam honor quidam maximus. Nam quemadmodumin bello usu venit, utimperator virumfortissimumpraeficiatstationi periculosissimae, quod etipse promaximo honoreacceptet, sicfacit Deus quum videt infirmum, hunccalamitatibus non onerat, sed eum quem videt posse sustinere [p.42] easdem. Et videndum est quid bene est uti 16 bona conscientia, et non ex vulgi sententia affluere divitiis, honore 17 magno affici. Ut si servus videat quosdam compotare ac usque ad extremum spiritum cerevisiae cantaras exhaurire et quam copiosissime fumigare, ille praedicabit eos esse felicissimos omnium. Sed sapiens dicit eos esse porcos ac deterius. Ergo bene non est omne quod vulgus judicat esse. par. 5. aut concipi nostra imaginatione:) Quia quo diutius nitimur concipere Deum in essentia,eo nobis obscuriorevadet, quemadmodum quo magis 16.


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Ut si servus videat quosdam compotare ac usque ad extremum spiritum cerevisiae cantaras exhaurire et quam copiosissime fumigare, ille praedicabit eos esse felicissimos omnium. Sed sapiens dicit eos esse porcos ac deterius. Ergo bene non est omne quod vulgus judicat esse. par. 5. aut concipi nostra imaginatione:) Quia quo diutius nitimur concipere Deum in essentia,eo nobis obscuriorevadet, quemadmodum quo magis 16. Manuscript: bene est, ut bona. 17. Uncertain reading of honore. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 125 [p.41] par. 3. who say that he is the soul of the world:) It was the belief of the Stoics and of Plato that God was to the world as the soul to the body; hence every motion was communicated to a brutish, immobileand deadworld. Furthermorethey said thatthe soul or spirit of all that is animate was a particle of that universal soul, i.e. God. The different pipes of an organ sound differently, they say, although they stem from onesinglespirit – that’s how it is with thesoul of the world or God. But this opinion is most absurd since it would entail that God would be the mover and author of all sins, because all human actions are ascribed to that soul, i.e. God, which is blasphemy. par. 4. Among the objections to divine providence there is also the argument that it is miserable to be involved in so different affairs. I answer that we argue ignorantly and presumptuously in comparing our imperfection with the power of God. He cares for us without trouble, which is different from us, who become impatient when facing a troublesome task. There is also the argument that good people are unfortunatein this world, whiletheevil thriveso thateven the piousareinduced to despair about divine providence, as appears from Psalms 73. But we respond that the Psalmist here answers himself, and it is very important to observe the aim. For according to Seneca misfortune is nothing else than a great honour.


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He cares for us without trouble, which is different from us, who become impatient when facing a troublesome task. There is also the argument that good people are unfortunatein this world, whiletheevil thriveso thateven the piousareinduced to despair about divine providence, as appears from Psalms 73. But we respond that the Psalmist here answers himself, and it is very important to observe the aim. For according to Seneca misfortune is nothing else than a great honour. 47 In war it is usual for thecommander to placethe bravest man in command of the most dangerous posting,which isalso accepted asa great honour by him. God acts similarly when he does not burden those he can see are weak with calamities but those that can bear [p.42] them. And one should consider how good it is to have a sound conscience rather than being honoured because one is rich, as the vulgar opinion would have it. A servant seeing some people drinking together, draining pints of beer to the last breath and smoking copiously, will call them the most fortunate ofall. Butthewise man says they areswine orworse. Hence, notallthat the multitude regards as good is really good. par. 5. or conceived by our imagination:) Since the longer we endeavour to grasp God in his essence, the more obscure he will be. The more we want to look at the clear 47. Seneca: De providentia, IV:4–5. 126 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s intueri velimus clarum solem, eo magis tenebrae nostris oculis oboriuntur idque propter objecti nimiam claritatem et nostrorum oculorum imbecillitatem, ita in divinis. Quando dicimus Deum infinitum etc., illud a parte Dei nullam ponit imperfectionem, sed quam maximam imbecillitatem a parte nostra.


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The more we want to look at the clear 47. Seneca: De providentia, IV:4–5. 126 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s intueri velimus clarum solem, eo magis tenebrae nostris oculis oboriuntur idque propter objecti nimiam claritatem et nostrorum oculorum imbecillitatem, ita in divinis. Quando dicimus Deum infinitum etc., illud a parte Dei nullam ponit imperfectionem, sed quam maximam imbecillitatem a parte nostra. Nam exprimere non valemus quid Deus in essentia sit, sed tantum aliquatenus quid non sit. neque in loco etc:) Nam locus esset majus quid contento seu ipso Deo. ἀνθρωπoπάθως :) Solemus enim nos loqui de rebus prout easdem cognoscimus, utcumde perfectissimaloquimur, occurrit nostraipsiusimago, quam putamus esse perfectissimam, et sic quando de operibus Dei loquimur metiri conamur eadem ad nostra opera. appetitus est circa id quod est absens, nam cum quid ore habeo non soleo id appetere,et spesestcircaabsens, nam non possum [p.43] sperare id quod teneo. Sed apud Deum omnia sunt praesentissima, cui et nihil deesse potest. potentiae ab alio dependentis:) Nam cum non video non possum decolore,cumnon audio, non desono judiciumferre,ratio est quia dependent ab alio, videlicet sensibus. admiranda mundi harmonia etc:) Nam si plures essent, qui sua peculiaria haberent quibus imperarent, sine dubio discordia oriretur in hoc mundo ex tam diversis Dominis. Etiam finitus foret, nam necesse esset alterum finire, ubi alter inciperet etc. vid. Grot. verit. rel. L. 4. par. 2. ab ipso non dependentes:) Hoc additur propter trinitatem. par.


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Etiam finitus foret, nam necesse esset alterum finire, ubi alter inciperet etc. vid. Grot. verit. rel. L. 4. par. 2. ab ipso non dependentes:) Hoc additur propter trinitatem. par. 6. internus Deicultus vocatur qui in animo haeretintus,et opponiturcultui externo, qui vocatur, cum reverentia aliqua prodit se foras. honorest opinio alienaeetc:) Honorinvolvitrelationem; nam honorem propriealicui non adhibemus, quieundem non est promeritus,ergo dum animo considero Deum esse optimum Maximum utique non possum non ei honorem deferre. animus hominis:) Honor omnino debetex animo promanare,sicontra fiat, et demisissime pileum in terram mittam, ac profundissime genua flectam ac procidam in faciem,etanimus non est qui reverentiam ac honorem adhibeat, certe est illusio ac honorati irrisio. Externa ergo signa O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 127 sun, the more darkness springs up in oureyes,and that is becausethe object is too clear and our eyes too weak. It is similar with the divine. When we say that God is infinite, it does not imply any imperfection on the part of God, but the greatest weakness on our part. For we cannot express what God’s essence is, only somehow what he is not. nor … in a certain place:) For a place is something bigger than that which it contains, i.e. God himself. in terms of human feeling:) We usually talk about things as we know them; whenwetalk aboutsomethingmost perfect,the picturearises ofwhatweconsider most perfect. Similarly, when wetalk of the works of God wetry to measurethem against ours. desire is directed towards what is absent, for when I have something in my mouth, I usually do not desire it. Hope is about something absent, for I cannot [p.43] hopefor what I have.


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God himself. in terms of human feeling:) We usually talk about things as we know them; whenwetalk aboutsomethingmost perfect,the picturearises ofwhatweconsider most perfect. Similarly, when wetalk of the works of God wetry to measurethem against ours. desire is directed towards what is absent, for when I have something in my mouth, I usually do not desire it. Hope is about something absent, for I cannot [p.43] hopefor what I have. But for God,everything is most present,and nothing can be absent from him. power dependent on something else:) For when I do not see I cannot pass judgement on the colour, nor on the sound when I do not hear, the reason being that they depend on something else, i.e. the senses. the wonderful harmony of the world:) For if there were more than one God, each of them with their particular things to govern, no doubt discord would arise in this world between such different Lords. Such a god would also be finite, for necessarily the one would end where the other began. Vide Grotius, De veritate religionis book 4 par. 2.48 not dependent on Him:) Added because of the Trinity. par. 6. the internal worship of God:) is fixed within the soul as opposed to the external worship, which is when reverence is somehow shown in public. honour is a conviction that power and goodness are united in someone:) Honour includesarepayment, for we do not really honour someone who has not deserved it. Hence, when in my mind Iconsider God to bethe bestand the greatest, Icannot but honour him. the human soul:) Honour should comecompletely from thesoul. If it does not, if I humbly throw my hat on the ground, bow my knees deeply and fall down on my face, my soul not behaving like onewho paysrespectand honour, itiscertainly mockery and an insult to the one honoured. Thus,externaland nudesigns do not 48. Hugo Grotius: De veritate religionis christianae, 1627. 128 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s nuda non faciunt ad honorem.


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If it does not, if I humbly throw my hat on the ground, bow my knees deeply and fall down on my face, my soul not behaving like onewho paysrespectand honour, itiscertainly mockery and an insult to the one honoured. Thus,externaland nudesigns do not 48. Hugo Grotius: De veritate religionis christianae, 1627. 128 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s nuda non faciunt ad honorem. Nota est historia passionis Christi, ubi nebulonesmilitescaedebant Christum, deindecoronabanteumac genua eidemflectebant;salutabanteundem,sed animo perverso, unde nihilerat nisi summa derisio. [p.44] par. 7. Magnitudinem admiretur:) Quemadmodum Socrates solitus erat solem contemplari ac ejus magnitudinem admirari in haecce erumpens verba: Oportet sane eum esse magnum qui opifex fuerat talis et tanti operis: ita et nos debemus a contemplatione hujus universi reflexionem facere ad ipsum conditorem, nec esse ac bruta et porci, de quibus dicitur, quod glandinem quidem comedunt sed nunquam oculos ad ipsum quercum tollunt. Ita nos animum attollamus post beneficia accepta. preces sunt signa spei:) Nam preces non fundimusad lapides, quia novimusex iis nihil boni in nos proficisci posse ob negatamibidempotentiam etc. non esse utendum Dei nomine temere:) Unde inter jocos non usurpandum Dei nomen. Nec deiis solemus jocari quibus honores deferimus. Et Cicero solet quando viros honoratos nominat hocadjicere: quem nomino honorisgratia.Aliascenseturiscontumeliaaffici, quo tamtemere utimur in sermone. Etcaputaperiturcirca potentis velregis nomen,cur ni magis circa Dei nomen. Et dolendum maxime quod in Christianos hic pravus mos irrepserit, ut Dei nomen obtineat rationem interjectionis et pro formula elegantiae inter tertium vel quartum vocabulum nominare Deum. Non esse curiose et petulanter disputandum:) Theologi scholastici hac in parte impegere, 18 ob suam curiositatem. [p.45] Ubi admiramur Dei optimi tolerantiam cum in civilibus res ita est ut non sit disputandum de legibus sed ex legibus.


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Etcaputaperiturcirca potentis velregis nomen,cur ni magis circa Dei nomen. Et dolendum maxime quod in Christianos hic pravus mos irrepserit, ut Dei nomen obtineat rationem interjectionis et pro formula elegantiae inter tertium vel quartum vocabulum nominare Deum. Non esse curiose et petulanter disputandum:) Theologi scholastici hac in parte impegere, 18 ob suam curiositatem. [p.45] Ubi admiramur Dei optimi tolerantiam cum in civilibus res ita est ut non sit disputandum de legibus sed ex legibus. Quanto quaeso crimine homuncio sese induat, tam petulanter sentiendo de Deo, ostendendove os suum adversus ipsum, quod potius esset recondendum in pulvere; derideturne rusticus praescribens ac judicans de pharmacopolii rebus? Stultissime facimus nos homunciones qui velimus includere nostri cerebelli cancellis Deum maximum. in suo genere sit eximium:) Jus naturale praecise non praescribit quaenam sacrificiasacrificemus, sed illud tamen facit, si quid Deo sit offerendumid siteximiumacegregium, non vero rejectitium, quod praeterlegem 18. Manuscript: impigere. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 129 contribute to honour. The history of the passion of Christ is well known, when the wretched soldiers lashed him and then kneeled to him and saluted him, but with a perverse soul from which there came nothing but great scorn. [p.44] par. 7. Admire his greatness:) Like Socrates used to contemplate the sun, admiring its greatness and exclaiming: Indeed he must be great who is the fabricator of such a great work, 49 so ought we in contemplating the universe reflect over its founder and not be like animals and swine, of which it is said that they eat the acorn but never raise their eyes to the oak. Therefore, let us elevate our soul when we have received favours. prayers are signs of hope:) For we do not pray to stones because we know that through them can nothing good befall us since there is no power in them. not use the name of God in vain: Therefore God’s name should not be used in jest.


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Therefore, let us elevate our soul when we have received favours. prayers are signs of hope:) For we do not pray to stones because we know that through them can nothing good befall us since there is no power in them. not use the name of God in vain: Therefore God’s name should not be used in jest. Nor do we usually make fun of those whom we honour. Cicero, when referring to honoured men, usually adds: and him I mention for the sake of honour. 50 Otherwise someone that we use so rashly in our language is considered insulted. If the head is uncovered for the name of the mighty or the king, why not all so muchmoreforthe name of God?Itis very deplorablethatthe bad habit hasspread among Christians that the name of God hasassumed the function of an interjection; God is mentioned as an elegant phrase between every third or fourth word. not engage in curious and insolent disputes:) Scholastic theologians have laboured unduly on this issue because of their curiosity.51 [p.45] I admire God’s patience here, for in the world of politics one should not dispute about the laws, but take them for granted when discussing. What major crime does not mere man commit by discussing God so arrogantly and turning his faceagainst him instead of burying it in dust? Would nota peasant belaughed at who made prescriptions and passed judgement in matters of pharmacy? We humble human beings are foolish if we want to enclose God in all his immensity within the borders of our little brains. what is excellent of its kind:) The law of nature does not prescribe which oblations we should sacrifice. It does, however, require that anything to be offered God has to be excellentand distinguished and not only something to throw away. 49. Reference not found. 50. For instance Pro C. Quinctio § 28. 51. Conjectural translation due to uncertainty of the word ‘impigere’ in the manuscript.


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It does, however, require that anything to be offered God has to be excellentand distinguished and not only something to throw away. 49. Reference not found. 50. For instance Pro C. Quinctio § 28. 51. Conjectural translation due to uncertainty of the word ‘impigere’ in the manuscript. The comment on the scholastics is apparently rooted in Pufendorf ’s voluntarism that abhors speculation on God’s essence and qualities. 130 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s divinam etiam ex Ethnicis colligi potest. Unde et nomen eximii notat illam rem quae eximitur ac eligitur. Sic et egregium dicitur id quod est ex grege desumptum ac electum. Et si convivae honorifico non appono cibum corruptum sed praestantissimum et si munere aliquem mactare volo, non quod est vile do. Si in civili re ita est, quanto magis hoc observandum in cultu divino. Et cum homo nihil seipso habet praestantius, ergo se ipsum Deo offerat et ut a Deo sit acceptus, purum. palam et publice colat:) Unde Apostolus monet suos ne congregationem deserant. Unde adparet verum Dei cultum non esse, quem quidam habent in propriis ac privatis hypocaustis, ipsis forsan cumbentibus in [p.46] lecto cum uxore. Hoc metuendum quod vitio nobis vertatur, si nimis devote nos geramus. Sanesi in nihilumnosredigamus, nos possumus satis nos humiliare. par. 8. praecise:) Ut non conjungamus haecce19 cum Christianorum praeceptis, sic fieret systema quoddam theologicum salvificum. Primum divortium facita nobis in articulo de peccato originis. Ratio enim humana non potestconsequi nos ipsos in causafuisse nostraecorruptionis, quamvis Phi. Mornaeus de Relig. Christiana putet illam corruptionem demonstrari posse a natura, cujus rationes sunt plausibiles, et pro ratione 20 possunt haberi: sed fatendum est, id essearticulum fidei, nam nequeeosarticulos quiab eo de peccato originis dependent, possumuscomprehendereratione, neque gratuita Dei promissa. par.


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Primum divortium facita nobis in articulo de peccato originis. Ratio enim humana non potestconsequi nos ipsos in causafuisse nostraecorruptionis, quamvis Phi. Mornaeus de Relig. Christiana putet illam corruptionem demonstrari posse a natura, cujus rationes sunt plausibiles, et pro ratione 20 possunt haberi: sed fatendum est, id essearticulum fidei, nam nequeeosarticulos quiab eo de peccato originis dependent, possumuscomprehendereratione, neque gratuita Dei promissa. par. 9. religionem esse firmissimum societatis vinculum:) Quamquam Grotius in Proleg. de I.B. ac P. dicat jus naturale esse sufficiens vinculum ad continendum homines in obsequio, tamen in hoc ipsi subscribere non possumus.21 Nam jus naturae tantum quod utile est in hac vita praescribit: jam vero quantum fugiat nos spernere utilissima, ut cupiditati nostrae obediamussicutmanifestumestcirca diaetam.Nammedicorumestconstantissima praeceptio, ut modum servemus circa cibum et potum, si salutefrui diuturna velimus. Ast quam proni sumuscontemnereejusmodi praecepta, tantum ut gulae ac gutturi ventrisque satisfiat. Ceu traditur 19. haecce refers to religio naturalis. 20. Manuscript: oratione. 21. In margin: NB. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 131 Apart from the divine law, this can be colligated from the heathens. Therefore, the word excellent /eximii/ signifies what is taken out and selected, as the word distinguished /egregium/ denotes what is picked out from the flock /grex/ and elected. If I want to honoura guest I do not offer him rotten but the finest quality food,and ifI want to present someone with a gift,I don’t giveatrifle.If this is our behaviour in civil life, how much more should it not be observed in the worship of God.


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131 Apart from the divine law, this can be colligated from the heathens. Therefore, the word excellent /eximii/ signifies what is taken out and selected, as the word distinguished /egregium/ denotes what is picked out from the flock /grex/ and elected. If I want to honoura guest I do not offer him rotten but the finest quality food,and ifI want to present someone with a gift,I don’t giveatrifle.If this is our behaviour in civil life, how much more should it not be observed in the worship of God. And since man has nothing more valuable than himself, he should offer himself to God, and be pure, in order to be accepted. worship openly and publicly:) Therefore the Apostle admonishes his followers not to fail to appearat service.52 Genuine worship of God is not what some people performin privatewashrooms or perhapslying in [p.46] bedwith theirwives.Nor is it to be feared that it will be held against us if we behave too devoutly. Indeed, if we reduce ourselves to nothing, we can make ourselves humble enough. par. 8. in a precise sense:) So that we do not put natural religion on a par with the Christian precepts, for then a kind of theological saving system would ensue. I differ from Christian theology first in the article about original sin. For human reason cannot reach the conclusion that we ourselves are the cause of our corruption, although Philippe Mornay in De religione Christiana53 thinks that corruption can be demonstrated from nature; his reasons are plausible and can be considered reasonable. But one ought to confess that it is an article of faith, for we can understand neither the articles that depend on original sin, nor God’s gratuitous promises. par. 9. religion the ultimate and strongest bond of human society:) Although Grotius in the Prolegomena of Dejure belliac pacis says that natural law isasufficient bond to keep men in obedience, wecannot subscribeto that. For thelaw of nature prescribes only what is useful in this life.


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But one ought to confess that it is an article of faith, for we can understand neither the articles that depend on original sin, nor God’s gratuitous promises. par. 9. religion the ultimate and strongest bond of human society:) Although Grotius in the Prolegomena of Dejure belliac pacis says that natural law isasufficient bond to keep men in obedience, wecannot subscribeto that. For thelaw of nature prescribes only what is useful in this life. But it isclear from theexample of diet how much weavoid what is useful in order to obey our desires. The doctorsconstantly prescribe moderation in eating and drinking, if we want lasting health. But how inclined are we not to neglect such precepts only to satisfy our gluttony and the 52. Uncertain reference. 53. Philippe Mornay (1549–1623), Huguenot leader who wrote De veritate religionis Christianae, adversus atheos, epicuraeos, ethnicos, judaeos, muhamedistas et caeteros infideles, 1597. The argument referred to is in chap. XVI, where Mornay argues that all men, heathens as well as Christians, are aware of their sinfulness and pray for forgiveness. 132 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s de lusco vino addictissimo, [p.47] cui praeceperunt medici, si reciperet usum plenum videndi, ut abstineret vino: sed is poposcit poculum optimo genere vini repletum ac ori admovebat dicens: Non curo quomodo videam, tantum satiem me meoque gutturi litem. honestatem:) Quid quaeso esset quod diceretur 22 esse honestum, fidei conveniens si religio removeretur, et quisquis grassari poterit pro suis viribus ac suo lubitu, neque ullum foedus, ulla pax servaretur, nisi esset religio? Et juramenta maxime in naturali statu constitutos continent.23 Jam juramentum est invocatio numinis. Si removeamus numinis vindictam, quis staret promissis pactaque servaret? civitatum firmitas:) Nam Rex robustiora brachia non habet ac aliquis privatus, nullumque validum sat vinculum, quo animos in obsequio tot myriadum contineret. Et quid unus adversus tantum numerum?


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Et juramenta maxime in naturali statu constitutos continent.23 Jam juramentum est invocatio numinis. Si removeamus numinis vindictam, quis staret promissis pactaque servaret? civitatum firmitas:) Nam Rex robustiora brachia non habet ac aliquis privatus, nullumque validum sat vinculum, quo animos in obsequio tot myriadum contineret. Et quid unus adversus tantum numerum? Qui nonnisi paenam temporalem metuit tentare omnino potest et excutiat onus miseriae impositum suo dorso a principe, quia potius optat mori, quam ita in servitutem duram ducere vitam, ut obtineat quod Sueci dicunt in proverbio: anten bröd eller död. quis custodes ipsos custodiet:) Nam ita Rex vivere non potest, quin aliquando nudum latus alicui offendat, et si nunquam securus esse possit, miserrimus certo erit quotidiano metu vitae amittendae. Et quamvis satellitum copia circumseptus sit, tamen et ipsi possunt corrumpi: [p.48] illienim ideo fidem praestant quiasat pecuniam accipiant. Sed facili negotio alius quispiam poteriteis polliceri majorem pecuniam quam Rex dat, et sic brevi evadent Regi infidissimi. opera misericordiae:) Quando mendicus petit eleemosynam, dicit Deum remuneraturum quae dedero. Si jam mihi persuasum habeam, mendicum mentiri, num ipsi quid bonicontribuam? Nam magisemolumento mihi ero, si retineam illud ipsum. sed et tam imperantesetc:) Nam imperatores solent facere quantum in se est, caetera in Dei manu ponunt, cujus potentiae saepe confisi heroica quamplurima patrant,sine quibus nutaretursalusReipublicae utin bello usu venit. interse diffisuri:)Nametiisconstituitur praemium, quamvise numero conjurantium sint, qui deferunt conjurationem seu indicant Regi, ut ex Sueth. Ju. C. c. 17. constat. 22. Manuscript: diceret. 23. Manuscript: continet. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 133 gullet! There is a story about the one-eyed wine addict, [p.47] whom the doctors enjoined to abstain from wineif hewanted to regain full vision.


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Ju. C. c. 17. constat. 22. Manuscript: diceret. 23. Manuscript: continet. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 133 gullet! There is a story about the one-eyed wine addict, [p.47] whom the doctors enjoined to abstain from wineif hewanted to regain full vision. But he demanded a bowl of firstclass wine, moved it to his mouth and said: I don’tcare how I see,as long as I souse myself and satisfy my throat. honesty:) What would it imply to be honest and true to one’s word if religion were removed? Anyone would rage according to his pleasure and strength, and no compact would be honoured, no peace kept, if there was no religion. Oaths greatly restrain those who are in the state of nature, and an oath is an invocation of God. If weremove divine vengeance, who would stick to his promisesand keep an agreement? the cohesion of states:) For the king’s arm is not stronger than that of a private person,and thereis no bond strong enough throughwhich hecould keep so many thousands in obedience. What can one man do against so many? He who fears temporal punishment only may try to shake off the burden of misery laid upon his back by the prince, because hewould rather diethan lead his lifein such severe servitude that he gets, as the Swedes say in their proverb, anten bröd eller död (either bread or death). who will guard the guardians themselves:)54 The king cannot live without occasionally exposing himselfand if hecan never besecure, hewill indeed bemiserable from daily fear of losing his life. And although he is surrounded by lifeguards, thesecan be bribed: [p.48] for they areloyal becausethey are paid enough. Someone else can quite easily promise them more money than the king,and soon they become utterly disloyal. works of mercy:) When a beggar asks for charity, he says God will recompense what I give him. But if Iam convinced that helies, will I then give him anything?


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And although he is surrounded by lifeguards, thesecan be bribed: [p.48] for they areloyal becausethey are paid enough. Someone else can quite easily promise them more money than the king,and soon they become utterly disloyal. works of mercy:) When a beggar asks for charity, he says God will recompense what I give him. But if Iam convinced that helies, will I then give him anything? It will be more profitable for me if I keep it. rulers as well:) For rulers too usually do as much as they can, putting the rest in the hands of God. Trusting in him they often accomplish many heroic deeds, without which the welfare of the state would totter, as often happens in war. distrust each other:) There is a reward for them too, especially those who are participants in aconspiracy and talk about it or reveal it to the king,as decreed in Swedish civil law chap. 17. 55 54. Cf. Juvenal: Satires, VI:347. 55. Swedish civil law, the law (allmänna landslag) of King Magnus Eriksson (14 th century). 134 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Cap. V d. 17 Apr ilis [De Officio Hominis erga seipsum] par. 1. supervacuum:) Quemadmodum si quis leges ferre velit, ut homo omnino edat, bibat, dormiat etc. sed quidam homines tam stulti dantur, ut nihil minus quam dona sibi a Numine concessa excolant, quos ideo poenae mansurae sunt. par. 4.24 Omnesconfiteantur necesseest nostram vitam esse praecariam; jam vero precaria possessione uti quis pro lubitu non potest, sine Domini arbitrio, quemadmodum qui praecario domum habet,eam [p.49] non potest destruere prout sibi videtur absque Domini voluntate, ita cum nostro corpore seu vita res sese habere censendum est. certum genus laborum:) Etsi nimio ex labore est mors, prout de concionatoribus dicit Salomon, quos vires adeoque vita deficiunt maturius: tamen saepecontingit(1) quosdam laboreinduratos,adeoque nihil plane sentire passionis. (2) Nec censendus est beatissime vivere qui longissime, sed is quiegregiasactionesegerat, non qui multas noctes somno egerunt.


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(2) Nec censendus est beatissime vivere qui longissime, sed is quiegregiasactionesegerat, non qui multas noctes somno egerunt. Laboresergo non fugiendi iis, qui possuntac debentaliis sua operainservire; labore vero non necessario se evacuare est stultum. Sed quid sentiendum est deeis, qui vivunt in fodinisargenti vivi, quibusfermeimpossibileest ultraannum 40mum vitam ducere, quiaattrectatio illiusmateriaesolet pulmonesinfestare, unde necessariatussis. Et de iis qui navigantad insulamS.Thomae, ubicolligunt Saccarum, quietiam diutius non vivunt ob aeris illius loci vehementiam etc. Numne impie faciunt qui tale vitae genuseligunt? Respondemus distinguendum (1) vel hoceligi potest ob avaritiam, quialio loco commode vel utcunque vivere possunt, ut si Lusitanni hoc facerent. (2) ob necessitatem ac vocationem quae provocant natos in ea regione. Hi non illi excusationem merentur. [p.50] par. 5.25 Saepe contingit, ut nos omnibus simul praeceptis non possimus facere satis, quando collisio fit, quid homini in eo casu sit faciendum? Quamvis nunquam inter sese opponuntur salus nostra et cultus divinus, tamen 24. In margin: § 9. The ensuing paragraphs of the chapter have parallel numbers in the margin. Why this is so is not clear. 25. In margin: § 10. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 135 Chapter V Apr il 17 [On duty to oneself] par. 1. superfluous:)Ifsomebodywantsto makealawthat man shalleat, drink,sleep etc., butsome peopleareso stupid thatthey do notatallcareto improvewhatthey have been given by God, then punishment awaits them. par. 4. Everybody will acknowledge that our life is uncertain. But one cannot use this precarious possession as one wants, without God’sauthority. A man who has borrowed a house cannot [p.49] tear it down whenever he likes without the consent of the Master.


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135 Chapter V Apr il 17 [On duty to oneself] par. 1. superfluous:)Ifsomebodywantsto makealawthat man shalleat, drink,sleep etc., butsome peopleareso stupid thatthey do notatallcareto improvewhatthey have been given by God, then punishment awaits them. par. 4. Everybody will acknowledge that our life is uncertain. But one cannot use this precarious possession as one wants, without God’sauthority. A man who has borrowed a house cannot [p.49] tear it down whenever he likes without the consent of the Master. This is how we should regard our body and life. certain kind of labour:) Although death comes of too much work, as Solomon says of priests,56whose powerto liveismore quickly extinguished, it often happens that some men are hardened by labour so that they feel no pain. Furthermore, he who lives long is not to be regarded the happiest, but he who has performed distinguished actions and not those who have spent many nights asleep. Therefore, those who can and ought to serve others with their work should notavoid labour; but to exhaust oneself in unnecessary work is foolish. But what shall wesay about those who livein quicksilver mines, for whom it is impossible to live more than 40 years, since handling that substance usually infectsthelungs,which necessarily resultsin coughing?And aboutthosewho sailto theisland of StThomas 57 to collectsugarandwho do notlivelonger because ofthe harsh climate? Do they actimpiouslywho choosethat kind of life?Werespond (1) that peoplecan do it out ofgreed, if they can live well or tolerably well somewhere else, as the Portuguese would do, or (2) people can do it because necessity or an invitation make them leave their native region. The latter are excused, not the former. [p.50] par. 5. It often happens that we cannot comply with all precepts. What shall a man do in cases of such a clash? Although our salvation and the worship of God are never opposed to each other, there are still often oppositions between precepts in 56. Manuscript: concionatoribus – unclear reference. 57.


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The latter are excused, not the former. [p.50] par. 5. It often happens that we cannot comply with all precepts. What shall a man do in cases of such a clash? Although our salvation and the worship of God are never opposed to each other, there are still often oppositions between precepts in 56. Manuscript: concionatoribus – unclear reference. 57. St Thomas islands in the Caribbean, Danish colony in 1666, now Virgin Islands (USA). 136 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s oppositio interalia praecepta depraehenditur saepissimein vitacommuni. Nam lex quaedam est de alteri non laedendo; et lex est de se conservando. Quaestio ergo est difficilima; quousque se extendat moderamen inculpatae tutelae ut Scholis appellatur. sine ejus laesione:) Qualis defensio est, si Princeps oppido fossam circumdet, qua irruptio hostis praescinditur. Vel si paterfamilias non satis tutamputet domumafuribus,certe nullusei vitio vertat,sitalibusmodis licitis ac legitimis sese suaque eat defensum. par. 6.26 mei similis:) Nullus dubitat unquam num peccem si bestiam occiderim, quia ea mea non est similis, neque ulla societas intercedit inter hominem et bestiam. Sed si mei similem et quicum societatem debeam gerere, occidam, dubium esse potest. Nam omnem debemus fugere discordiam tumultumque. Ergo si jugulum praebuero inimico praescindendum, omnis discordiaalias oritura una praescinditur. Cuitamen doctrinae omnes sani homines cum fastidio27 aversantur. Notus est brevis Ciceronis in Orat. pro Milone, dicentis: non docti, sed facti, non instituti, sed imbuti, ne vitam praebeamus latroni etc. [p.51] par. 7.28 levis injuriae patientia:) Omnes homines debent quasi ex obligatione varias molestias devorare ac sustinere, etiam ii qui extra ullius constituti suntimperium.QuodmonetetiamSalvatorMatth.Vdicens quando pallium abs te abripere quis vult, da et ei tunicam, quod est locutio parabolica29 ne propterrem superfluam demittamus nosin processum molestum. par.


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Notus est brevis Ciceronis in Orat. pro Milone, dicentis: non docti, sed facti, non instituti, sed imbuti, ne vitam praebeamus latroni etc. [p.51] par. 7.28 levis injuriae patientia:) Omnes homines debent quasi ex obligatione varias molestias devorare ac sustinere, etiam ii qui extra ullius constituti suntimperium.QuodmonetetiamSalvatorMatth.Vdicens quando pallium abs te abripere quis vult, da et ei tunicam, quod est locutio parabolica29 ne propterrem superfluam demittamus nosin processum molestum. par. 8.30 naturali libertate:) Ut reges inter se sunt, qui nulli sunt subjecti, talis formafuittempore Patriarcharum.Unusquisqueenimpaterfamiliaserat instar regis. Nullibi enim habetur Abrahamum fuisse ulli subjectum. 26. In margin: § 11. 27. Manuscript: fastigio. 28. In margin: § 12. 29. Manuscript has hyper written above para. 30. In margin: § 13. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 137 common life. One law says you shall not hurt another; another law is about preserving oneself.Thus thereis the very difficult question: how faram Ito moderate my justified self defense, as it is called in the law schools? without injury:) Such defense is when a prince surrounds a town with a ditch so that enemy attacks are cut off. Nobody will blame a father who considers his house not safe enough from burglars, if he takes licit and legitimate measures to protect himself and his property. par. 6. a fellow man:) No one ever would say that I sin if I kill an animal, for the animal is not my equal, and there is no social intercourse between human beings and animals. Buttherecan be doubt, ifI killsomeonewho is my equalandwithwhom I ought to be social. We should not avoid all discord and conflict. Clearly, if I present my throat to my enemy, every other discord would be cut off at the same time. But all sane men reject that doctrine with disgust.


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6. a fellow man:) No one ever would say that I sin if I kill an animal, for the animal is not my equal, and there is no social intercourse between human beings and animals. Buttherecan be doubt, ifI killsomeonewho is my equalandwithwhom I ought to be social. We should not avoid all discord and conflict. Clearly, if I present my throat to my enemy, every other discord would be cut off at the same time. But all sane men reject that doctrine with disgust. There is a well-known short dictum by Cicero in the speech Pro Milone, saying: we are not taught and brought up not to expose our life to the robber; we are made and imbued by nature, not to do so. 58 [p.51] par. 7. patience at a slight injury:) All men ought to feel obliged to swallow and endure vexations, even those who live outside any political realm. Our Saviour enjoins that too in Matthew V saying: if somebody wants to deprive you of your coat, give him your cloak as well. 59 This is a parable meaning that we should not engage in a dangerous case because of a trifling matter. par. 8. in natural liberty:) In the age of the Patriarchs the order was the same as that between kings, who aresubject to nobody. Foreach paterfamilias was likea king; nowhere in the Bible is Abraham regarded as subject to anyone. 58. Cicero: Pro Milone, 4, referring to the natural sense of justice. 59. Matthew 5:40. 138 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s par. 11. 31 sub obtentu defensionis:)V.g. quamquamserviacancillae fidemsuammihi dederant,tamen non obstabit quominusresmeas pretiosasincludam.De ea re non conqueri possunt sibi injuriam factam. Si vero eosdem tantum ob suspicionem in carcerem compingam, vel alio duro modo tractavero, ut Plautinus senex avarissimus facit, qui vult exsculpere servis oculos, ne videant ollam argenteam, summa esset injuria. Ita nec licebit mihi hostem invadere ob solam ejus potentiam hoc praetextu: canis mortuus non mordet. A posse namque ad velle non semper valet consequentia. par.


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Si vero eosdem tantum ob suspicionem in carcerem compingam, vel alio duro modo tractavero, ut Plautinus senex avarissimus facit, qui vult exsculpere servis oculos, ne videant ollam argenteam, summa esset injuria. Ita nec licebit mihi hostem invadere ob solam ejus potentiam hoc praetextu: canis mortuus non mordet. A posse namque ad velle non semper valet consequentia. par. 12. 32 jam invaditur:) Hoc est etiam ante acceptum aliquod vulnus, contra quosdamjurisconsultos, quirequirunt ut quis priuslaedaturab invasore, quam cum caede repelli possit. par. 14. 33 regulariter:) Nisi quis fortiter velit talia pati ob Dei gloriam ac fidei orthodoxae confessionem. [p.52] par. 18. 34 commoditatem hominum:) Hinc videmus quam iniquum illud sit pronuntiatum: Fiat justitia et pereat mundus. Hoc est 35 si vel maxime totus evertatur orbisterrarum,tamen tamrigida36 debetesse observatio legum. Sed illud ita est corrigendum: Fiat justitia ne pereat mundus: nam leges sunt introductae ad conservationem hominum, non homines prognati ob istas, ergo si tantus rigor istarum contingat, sunt temperandae ad naturam mortalium. Nam neque leges positivae divinae etiam casum necessitatis involverunt, ceu ipse Christus eximit casum necessitatis circa Sabbathum, quo opus peragi potest, praeceptum illud non est inter ultima divina praecepta; quod si Deusindulserittalia,cur non homo?Ita Davidis factum circa esum panum propositionis non improbatur quin potius commendatur: nam lex illa de panibus propositionum arcebat omnes eos, qui abundarent alio cibo, ne illi ex petulantia ac cupiditate 31. In margin: § 15. 32. In margin § 16. 33. In margin § 19. 34. In margin: § 23. 35. Manuscript: ):. 36. Manuscript: rigidus. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 139 par. 11. undercover of self-defence:) Forinstance,although my servantand maid have given me their word, it does not prevent me from locking up my valuables. They cannot complain to have been injured by that.


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In margin: § 15. 32. In margin § 16. 33. In margin § 19. 34. In margin: § 23. 35. Manuscript: ):. 36. Manuscript: rigidus. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 139 par. 11. undercover of self-defence:) Forinstance,although my servantand maid have given me their word, it does not prevent me from locking up my valuables. They cannot complain to have been injured by that. If however I put them in jail on mere suspicion or treat them harshly in some other way, it would be an utmost injury, like the greedy old man in Plautus who wants to cut out the eyes of his slaves so thatthey cannotseethesilverjar.60 Likewise,Iamnotallowed to attack theenemy just because heis powerful with thejustification that a dead dog does not bite. The capacity to do something does not always lead to action. 61 par. 12. already being attacked by another:) That is even before one is wounded in some way, as opposed to certain lawyers who require that one must first have been wounded by the aggressor before one can respond with lethal violence. par. 14. generally:) Unless someone bravely endures such aggression for the glory of God or to acknowledge his orthodox faith. [p.52] par. 18. man’s convenience:) From this we understand how unfair is the saying Let justice be done, though the world perish, 62 i.e. even if the whole world is turned upside down, the observation of the laws must be that rigid. But it should be corrected like this: let justice be done, so that the world may not perish. For the laws have been made in order to preserve men, and men are not born for their sake; hence, if it happens that they are that rigid, they should be tempered according to the nature of human beings. For the positive laws of God do not rule out necessity, nor does Christ himself banish necessity in relation to the Sabbath. 63 From that can be concluded that the commandment of the Sabbath is not among the ultimate divine precepts, and if God connived at such thing, why not man?


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For the laws have been made in order to preserve men, and men are not born for their sake; hence, if it happens that they are that rigid, they should be tempered according to the nature of human beings. For the positive laws of God do not rule out necessity, nor does Christ himself banish necessity in relation to the Sabbath. 63 From that can be concluded that the commandment of the Sabbath is not among the ultimate divine precepts, and if God connived at such thing, why not man? Therefore, the act of David concerning the eating of the showbread is not blamed but rather commended.64 For the law about showbread kept those who had plenty of other food from eating it out of wantonness and cupidity. 65 60. Plautus: Pot of Gold, act I:54. 61. Scholastic rule of thought. 62. A dictum ascribed to the Austrian Emperor Ferdinand I. 63. Mark 2:24–27. 64. 1 Samuel 21:6. 65. Leviticus, chap. 2 on unholy animals. 140 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s comederentex iis. Taciteigiturexcipiebanturii, qui necessitateadacti,ac fame perituriessent, nisi vescerenturiisdem panibus.Itaestcum lege Divina praescriptum Judaeis de non comedenda carnesuilla. SanesiJudaeus eo necessitatis compulsus ut sibi sit pereundum ne quid suppetat, quo famem utcunquetolerare possit, praeter pernam, sane Deus non obligare videtur ut [p.53] potius mortem oppetat, quamquam legis particulum in eo casu necessitatis transgrediatur. Nisi clausula a Legislatore sit addita. par. 23. 37 devolvendus:) Huic rei illustrandae inservire potest exemplum quod in evangelio habetur de10 virginibus.5sapientes negabant5stolidis petentibus oleum, ne forsan et illae sint casurae in similem necessitatem. par. 24. 38 citra nostram culpam:) Sialiquis duas habetaedesin eademplatea, quibus tamen interjectaest unaaliusalicujusaedes,si ignem ipseinjiciatin suam alteram aedem, ac deinceps conetur alterius insontis aedes disjicere ne flammae vis perveniat ad alteram aedem, certe hoc ipsi non permittitur facile, cum ipse in causa fuerit illius exorti incendii.


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24. 38 citra nostram culpam:) Sialiquis duas habetaedesin eademplatea, quibus tamen interjectaest unaaliusalicujusaedes,si ignem ipseinjiciatin suam alteram aedem, ac deinceps conetur alterius insontis aedes disjicere ne flammae vis perveniat ad alteram aedem, certe hoc ipsi non permittitur facile, cum ipse in causa fuerit illius exorti incendii. Alias, si penes eum non stet, potestevitandimajorisincommodi gratiainterjectasaedes disjicere, ut factum superioribusannis Londini in Anglia, ubicum aqua non sufficeret, pulver pyreo collabi fecerunt aliquot aedes ut ignis sisteretur: quod vocatur ruina incendium sistere. Cap. V I d 1 Maji 1673 39 [De officio quorumlibet erga quoslibet, et primo, de non laedendis aliis] par. 1. Absoluta et hypothetica:) E.g. praeceptum datur, quod conjuges ament se invicem, illud non obligat pueros veleos qui non sunt in eo statu, sed eos qui vivuntin conjugio.Ita Paulus praecipit quod simusDomino obedientes, illud non stringit nisi eos qui herum habent. 37. In margin: § 28. 38. In margin: § 29. 39. Manuscript: 1683. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 141 Thus,tacitly thosewhowere driven by necessitywereexemptandwould have died of hungerifthey had noteaten this bread. Similarly, divinelawprescribesthatthe Jews shall noteat swine meat.Indeed, ifaJew were driven to such an extremethat hewould perish and could find nothing to stave off hungerexceptswine ham,then God does not seem to oblige him to encounter death [p.53] instead of infringing that small detail in thelaw in acase ofemergency. Provided that thelegislator did not add that clause. par. 23. likely to fall:) This can be illuminated by the example in the Gospel of the ten virgins. The five wise virgins denied the five foolish virgins their oil in order not to get in to the same trouble.66 par. 24. not our fault:) A man has two houses in the same street, with a house of another in between them.


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Provided that thelegislator did not add that clause. par. 23. likely to fall:) This can be illuminated by the example in the Gospel of the ten virgins. The five wise virgins denied the five foolish virgins their oil in order not to get in to the same trouble.66 par. 24. not our fault:) A man has two houses in the same street, with a house of another in between them. If he himself sets one house on fire and tries to tear down the house of his guiltless neighbour in order to prevent the flames from reaching his other house, hecertainly cannoteasily beallowed to do this, since he himself had caused the fire. It isanother thing if heis not to blame: to avoid major damage he may tear down the buildingsin between,aswas donesome yearsago in London in England,wheretherewas notenoughwaterand they blewsome buildings upwith gunpowderin orderto stop the fire.This iscalled stopping the fire by destruction. Chapter V I May 1 1673 [On the duty of every man to every man, and first of not harming others] par. 1. Absolute and hypothetical:) For instance, there is the precept that husband and wife shall love each other: that does not oblige boys or others who are not in the samestate, but only thoseliving inmarriage. Similarly, Paulsaysthatweshall obey our master, 67 but that pertains only to those who have a master. 66. Matthew 25:1–13. 67. Paul’s instruction in Titus 2:9 concerns slaves who should obey their masters. Pufendorf’s allusion has of course a different application. 142 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s [p.54] par. 2. quam isthoc desideramus:) Non postulo ut sutor gratis calceos mihi sarciat, nec sartor gratis conficiat vestes, nec volo nec possum postulare hujusmodi farinae hominum officia. Sed a quovis hoc postulare possum ut me non laedat. Alias cum perpaucis amicitias singulares colimus, tamen omnes hoc jure tenentur. par. 5. Damnum solet vocari quod pertinet ad rei familiaris amissionem, opum etc, non vero quando quis vulnusetcacceperat. Sed hiclatissimesumitur. par. 6.


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2. quam isthoc desideramus:) Non postulo ut sutor gratis calceos mihi sarciat, nec sartor gratis conficiat vestes, nec volo nec possum postulare hujusmodi farinae hominum officia. Sed a quovis hoc postulare possum ut me non laedat. Alias cum perpaucis amicitias singulares colimus, tamen omnes hoc jure tenentur. par. 5. Damnum solet vocari quod pertinet ad rei familiaris amissionem, opum etc, non vero quando quis vulnusetcacceperat. Sed hiclatissimesumitur. par. 6. Fructus:) Fructus est vel (1) naturalis, qui provenit sine humano aliquo cultu, et tantum ab homine colligendus. (2) industrialis, quis sit nomen satis demonstrat, qualis est v.g. seges. (3) civilis, qui est per artificium hominis productus, v.g. pensatio pro domus locatione, pro equo etc. prout propius aut longius:) Ut de uvis constat, quarum longa alia conditio hyemis ac tempore autumnali. naturali necessitate:) Si quis velit conflagratum vicini hordeum tantum, vel unam aedis partem,sed incendium serpseratin alterasaedis partes, omnino non excusatur, sed obligatur ad totius damni reparationem. Cap IIX d 13 Maji [De promiscuis officiis humanitatis] par. 1. benevolentia alatur:) Alias nostri amici essent animalia [p. 55] bruta ut piscesetc. quia nunquam nos laeserunt, sed requiritur ut quid bonicommunicemus cum aliquo. Sic illum tanquam meum patronum non possum praedicare qui mihi alapam etc non infligerit, sed eum,40 qui boni quid in me contulit. definite vel indefinite etc:) Prodesse possumus alteri (1) indefinite, sic qui docet vel scribit publice, itafecit Salvator quando dicebat: qui capere potest,capiat. Sic quiegregieadinvenitartes quibus vita humana non ita facile potest carere. (2) definite ut docere privatim etc. (3) ut nihil nobis decedat v.g. alterius fortunam promovere recommendatione, verbo uno vel altero, laude etc. (4) cum aliquid nobis decedat, e.g. opera quae labore 40. Manuscript: ei. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 143 [p.54] par.


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Sic quiegregieadinvenitartes quibus vita humana non ita facile potest carere. (2) definite ut docere privatim etc. (3) ut nihil nobis decedat v.g. alterius fortunam promovere recommendatione, verbo uno vel altero, laude etc. (4) cum aliquid nobis decedat, e.g. opera quae labore 40. Manuscript: ei. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 143 [p.54] par. 2. not morethen this:) I do not demand thecobbler to mend my shoes or thetailor to makemy clothesfor nothing.Neither do Iwantto ask peopleformealfavours, nor can I. But I can demand from everybody that he does not injure me. That obligation binds all of us; special friendship we cultivate only with few. par. 5. Usually what iscalled damageis when someoneloses fortune or property and not when someone is wounded. But the meaning of the word is very wide. par. 6. The fruits:) Fruit is either (1) natural, i.e. produced without cultivation to be collected by men, or (2) produced by industry; as indicated by the word, for instance crop, or (3) civil which is produced by human artifice, for instance compensation for hiring a house, for a horse etc. as they are nearer or farther:) As with grapes, the condition of which is very different in winter and in autumn. by natural necessity:) If someone wants to burn his neighbour’s barley only, or part of his house, but the fire spreads to the rest of the house, he is certainly not excused but bound to repair the whole damage. Chapter v iii May 13 [On the common duties of humanity] par. 1. encourage mutualgoodwill:) Otherwise, theirrationalanimals, [p.55] like fish etc. would be ourfriends,sincethey neverinjured us.Butitisa necessary condition for goodwill that wesharesomething in common with the other. Thus, Icannotcall someone my master just because he does not box my ears, but only if he bestows something good upon me. in an indefinite way or in a definite way:) Wecan be useful to others, first, in an indefinite way by teaching or writing publicly.


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1. encourage mutualgoodwill:) Otherwise, theirrationalanimals, [p.55] like fish etc. would be ourfriends,sincethey neverinjured us.Butitisa necessary condition for goodwill that wesharesomething in common with the other. Thus, Icannotcall someone my master just because he does not box my ears, but only if he bestows something good upon me. in an indefinite way or in a definite way:) Wecan be useful to others, first, in an indefinite way by teaching or writing publicly. This is what our Saviour did when hesaid: he, who can understand, may understand. 68 Examplesarethose who have skilfully invented arts which human life cannot easily do without. And, second, in a definite way, like in private teaching etc. We are useful to others (3) without any cost for ourselves if we promotethefortune of the other by recommendations or words of praise, and (4) with cost for ourselves for instance by service that 68. Matthew 19:12. 144 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s constat, vel si tempus consumatur quod alii rei impendi poterit, vel si donamus quid pecunia aestimabile. par. 2. porcorum instar:) Nam porcus non nisi mortuus prodest, cum caetera omniaferecicuriaanimalia dum vivunt prosunt, ut bosetequusaratrum trahunt, oves lanam praebent, vacca lac, canis adulatur, feras investigat, felis mures emolitur. Sed non porci qui ideo cum sentiunt se tangi, statim vocem eduntac quiritanturcum sciant quasi mortem imminere. Sic etiam avarus: de eo nihil quod hilarem quem reddat dum in vivis est proficiscitur, sed statim ac funus ducitur et campana tonant, gaudium apud haeredes excitatur. [p.56] par. 4. Ad res innoxiae utilitatis solet etiam vulgo referri commendatio, sed ita res se habere non videtur, nam quando alterum alteri commendo, tum (1) quasi amitto partem gratiae quam habui penes alterum, quae etiam in meos potuit impendi, ut ea meas proprias utilitates promotum irem, sed eum jam alius abstulit.


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Sic etiam avarus: de eo nihil quod hilarem quem reddat dum in vivis est proficiscitur, sed statim ac funus ducitur et campana tonant, gaudium apud haeredes excitatur. [p.56] par. 4. Ad res innoxiae utilitatis solet etiam vulgo referri commendatio, sed ita res se habere non videtur, nam quando alterum alteri commendo, tum (1) quasi amitto partem gratiae quam habui penes alterum, quae etiam in meos potuit impendi, ut ea meas proprias utilitates promotum irem, sed eum jam alius abstulit. (2) Si alter quem commendo, non respondeat meae commendationi, sed homo est nauci, sane haud parum decedit meae authoritati, et juxta Horatium aliena peccata mihi pudorem incutiunt, quaesane non sunt res innoxiae utilitatis, sed maximum momenti situm est in commendatione. Caput XV [De contractibus, qui pretia rerum praesupponunt, et fluentibus inde officiis] par. 1. quibusdampromiscue:) Sicut dicimusmatrimoniale pactumetcontractus matrimonialis, quamvis conjugium non praesuponat commercium. par. 3. etsi illas circumstantias etc:) Quaestio circa hunc casum vehementer torsit antiquos Philosophos ut Ciceronem. in Off. lib. 3. casus proponitur talis: caritas insignisannonae erat Rhodi, jam advexit mercator multum O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 145 consists of work, or in time that could have been devoted to something else or giving something that can be valued in money. par. 2. like pigs:)Apig is useful only when dead, whereasalmostall tameanimalsare useful when living: the ox and the horse pull the plough; the sheep give their wool, thecow its milk, the dog wags its tailand tracks wild animals, thecat stirs up the mice. But not pigs; therefore at a touch they shriek at once and grunt as if they know that death is threatening. Similarly with the greedy: while in life, nothing comes from him that may make someone happy, but as soon as the funeral bells sound, delight excites his heirs. [p.56] par. 4.


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But not pigs; therefore at a touch they shriek at once and grunt as if they know that death is threatening. Similarly with the greedy: while in life, nothing comes from him that may make someone happy, but as soon as the funeral bells sound, delight excites his heirs. [p.56] par. 4. The recommendation is usually included among things which are helpful to the recipient without burdening the giver. But it seems not to be so, for when I recommend someone to somebody, I (1) so to speak lose a part of the reputation I enjoyed that I could have used towards my clients in order to promote my own utility; now someoneelsesteals it. (2) If he whom I recommended does not fulfill the recommendation, being good for nothing, my authority is reduced quite a lot; the failures of others inspire shame in me, as Horace says. 69 Indeed, these consequences are not harmless utilities; on the contrary, there is a great deal of importance in a recommendation. Chapter XV [On contracts which presuppose value in things and on the duties they involve] par. 1. to some of them the terms ‘agreement’ and ‘contract’ are applied indifferently:) As whenwecallmatrimony agreementandmatrimonialcontract,althoughmarriage does not presuppose commerce. par. 3. although one does not need to point out those circumstances which in themselves do not affect the thing:) This question tormented the philosophers of Antiquity; in Cicero, De officiis book 3 70 such a case is described: When grain was exceedingly expensive in Rhodes, a merchant was about to import a great deal of corn, from 69. Horace: Epistulae, I:18:27 70. De officiis, III:12. 146 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s frumenti, quo vendito magnum nactus lucrum; sed dum in viaerat, viderat illuc tendere etiam classem ab Alexandria onustam [p.57] frumento. Jam quaeritur: num hic tenebatur indicare Rhodiis classis adventum? Cicero sane anxius in hoc casu inclinat in affirmantem sententiam.


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Horace: Epistulae, I:18:27 70. De officiis, III:12. 146 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s frumenti, quo vendito magnum nactus lucrum; sed dum in viaerat, viderat illuc tendere etiam classem ab Alexandria onustam [p.57] frumento. Jam quaeritur: num hic tenebatur indicare Rhodiis classis adventum? Cicero sane anxius in hoc casu inclinat in affirmantem sententiam. Sed nos dicimus illum reticendo classis adventum non peccare, est enim extra contractum classem aliquam adventuram post exiguum tempus. Ponamus jam mercatorem Hollandum pretio modico emisse merces ex Ostingia, si cognoverit magnam partem mercium periisse, potest carius vendere reliquas merces, reticendo quam passus est jacturam etc. par. 5. nec non a damnis etc:) Si quis aliquem miserit in Turcas ad redimendum e.g. captivum etc ubi in carcerem conjicitur, vel alias cogitur pati jacturam suarum rerum, certe qui ipsum misit, tenetur praestare ipsum indemnem. Sed accurate distinguendum est inter caussam et occasionem, cui distinctioni lucem faenerari potest hoc exemplum: Si quem rogaverim aliquo ire mei causa, et is prolapsus est in via crus frangit. Quisnam mercedem chirurgo persolvat? Non ego, quia non fui causa, sed tantum occasio cruris fracti: nam tale opus quisexpedire potest si non frangatur crus. Regeri potest: nisi mandatus esset, habuisset crus integrum. Respondemus non sequi exinde debere damnum praestare; sed hoc potius habere debet tanquam fatalem calamitatem. Si ex liberalitate damnum penset, laudabiliter hac in re egerit. [p.58] par. 6. casu fortuito:)Romanaeleges generaliter hocin casu sine ulla distinctione pronuntiant, rem sc. perire domino. Ut si librum commodavialii,etejus conclave igni41 conflagrat. Sed distinctione opus est hoc in casu, si nempe et meum conclave eodem tempore conflagrat non tenetur damnum resarcire: alias omnino debet, nam officia debent esse sine sumptibus, detrimento et jactura. par. 7. diligenter custodiatur:) Diligentia est duplex, quaedam vulgaris et communis, alia exactissima.


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6. casu fortuito:)Romanaeleges generaliter hocin casu sine ulla distinctione pronuntiant, rem sc. perire domino. Ut si librum commodavialii,etejus conclave igni41 conflagrat. Sed distinctione opus est hoc in casu, si nempe et meum conclave eodem tempore conflagrat non tenetur damnum resarcire: alias omnino debet, nam officia debent esse sine sumptibus, detrimento et jactura. par. 7. diligenter custodiatur:) Diligentia est duplex, quaedam vulgaris et communis, alia exactissima. Illam sufficere statuunt jurisconsulti. Ut si quis commississet meae fidei cistam repletam rebus vulgaribus, feci meum 41. Manuscript: igne, but there is an i above e. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 147 which he would profit greatly when it was sold. But on his journey he saw that a fleetfrom Alexandriawas on itsway loaded [p.57]with corn. Nowthe question is: was he obliged to inform the Rhodians about the advent of the fleet? Cicero, who is really troubled by thiscase, is inclined to answer in theaffirmative. But I say that the merchant does not offend when concealing the advent of the fleet, for it was not in the contract that a fleet would arrive shortly. Imagine a Dutch merchant who has bought goods in East India at a moderate price: if he learns that some of his wares have been lost, he can sell the rest at a higher price, concealing the loss he has sustained. par. 5. Indemnified … as well for the losses occasioned by the mandate:) If someone is sent to the Turks for instance to ransom a prisoner and is thrown in jail or forced to sustain theloss of hisfortune,then certainly hewho sent him is obliged to indemnify him. But one should distinguish carefully between cause and occasion. This example can shed light on that distinction: If I ask someone to walk somewhere for my sakeand hefallsand breaks his leg, who shall pay thesurgeon? Not me, for I did not cause the broken leg but only provided the occasion for it. The service I asked foris onethatcan be undertaken without breaking aleg.


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But one should distinguish carefully between cause and occasion. This example can shed light on that distinction: If I ask someone to walk somewhere for my sakeand hefallsand breaks his leg, who shall pay thesurgeon? Not me, for I did not cause the broken leg but only provided the occasion for it. The service I asked foris onethatcan be undertaken without breaking aleg. It may be objected that his leg would have been whole, had he not been commanded. I answer that it does not follow that the damage should be recompensed; the damage is rather to beregarded afatalcalamity. If out of generosity theemployer recompenses the damage, he acts commendably. [p.58] par. 6. If the object of the loan should perish by some accidental event:) Roman law in this case pronouncesin generaltermsandwithoutany distinction atallthatthe owner loses what he has lent, as for instance when I lend a book to someone and his library is destroyed by fire. However, a distinction is needed in this case: if my library too burns up at the same time, he is not bound to restore the damage. Otherwise, heshould indeed do so,forthefavourswe do each othershould involve no cost, damage or loss. par. 7. that the thing entrusted must be diligently kept:) Diligence is twofold; one is ordinaryand common, the other is qualified. Thejurists say theformer is sufficient. If someoneentrusts to meachest full of ordinary things, I do my duty if I keep it in 148 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s officium, si eam habeam in camera conclusa, non omne tempus omni in loco adjicere possum cistae illi. Si fur in conclave irruperit et abstulerit una cum meis rebus cistam depositam, in me culpa non erit. Non majorem potest requirere diligentiam a me circa rem suam quam circa meas. Sed distinguendum inter depositi naturam, si sordidi sit pretii sufficit vulgaris cura, si vero res sit maximi momenti, ut gemmae, obligationes etc exactissima cura adhibenda est, ut talem cistam includam vel in cubiculum. Quid si incendium oriatur?


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Si fur in conclave irruperit et abstulerit una cum meis rebus cistam depositam, in me culpa non erit. Non majorem potest requirere diligentiam a me circa rem suam quam circa meas. Sed distinguendum inter depositi naturam, si sordidi sit pretii sufficit vulgaris cura, si vero res sit maximi momenti, ut gemmae, obligationes etc exactissima cura adhibenda est, ut talem cistam includam vel in cubiculum. Quid si incendium oriatur? An quis prius eripit suas res quam depositas? Hic non potest in universum [p. 59] pronunciari, sed adhibenda est modo explicata distinctio inter res diversae naturae. Si res meae sunt praestantiores velaequalesalterius, valet regula: Sum proximus mihimet ipsi. Si sunt aeque pretiosae res meae et proximi sive deponentis, par est eas salvam una cum meis. Par quoque est ut deponens solvat pretium rerum mearum viliorum, quas neglexi in conservandis ejus rebus. par. 9. emptorstatimpretiumetc:)Quod vocaturGraeca fidemercari, namGraeca natio est valdefallax. Polybius l. 6 Hist. Si solum illis talentum concreditur, etiamsi decem antigrapha ac totidem sigilla, denique duplo totidem testes habeant, fidem tamen servare non possunt. retractus:) Ut Nobilis egestate pressus cogitur vendere praedium avitum, tali cum conditione, ut venditori restituatur intrasex annos oblato justo pretio. recipiat venditor:) UtapudRomanosantiquus mosfuitsepeliendisuos non in consecrato certo loco, ut Christianorum est, sed in suo privato agro vel in viis publicis. Propter illam causam frequentissime accidebat, ut vendito agro sumeret quis particulam ad suam sepulturam. Unde explicandum illud Virgilii Eclog. 3 Dic quibus in terris et eris mihi magnus Apollo, Tres pateat Caeli spatium non amplius ulnas. Nam Caeli non est nomen appellativum sed proprium. Videlicet Caelius fuit vir opulentissimus, sed postmodum decoxit, quam ut non haberet amplius, quam ut sepeliri posset. [p.60] per aversionem:) Quo dicitur 42 nolo videre quales e.g. sint libri, dic verbo, quid tibi dabo pro omnibus in universum boni sint sive mali.


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Unde explicandum illud Virgilii Eclog. 3 Dic quibus in terris et eris mihi magnus Apollo, Tres pateat Caeli spatium non amplius ulnas. Nam Caeli non est nomen appellativum sed proprium. Videlicet Caelius fuit vir opulentissimus, sed postmodum decoxit, quam ut non haberet amplius, quam ut sepeliri posset. [p.60] per aversionem:) Quo dicitur 42 nolo videre quales e.g. sint libri, dic verbo, quid tibi dabo pro omnibus in universum boni sint sive mali. Conf. ipse auctor in opere de I.N. et G. l. 5.5.4. 42. Manuscript: q. d. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 149 a closed room; I cannot keep an eye on the chest all the time and everywhere. If a thief breaks into the room and steals the chest in my keeping together with my belongings, I am not liable. I cannot be required to be more attentive about the belongings of others than about mine. But the nature of what is entrusted can differ: if it ischeap,common attentiveness is sufficient, but if it is very important, like jewellery, bonds and the like, qualified care is needed, so that I lock up the chest in my bed-chamber. What if thereis fire?If I pull out my own things before what was entrusted? No general [p.59] principle is possible here; one has to apply the distinction between things of different nature I just explained. If my things are more valuable or the same as his, the rule ‘every man for himself’ applies. If my thingsareequally valuable with those of my neighbour, it isappropriatethat I savethemtogetherwithmine.Itisalso fairforthe depositorto pay forthecheaper belongings I neglected when saving his things. par. 9. the buyerimmediately offers and delivers a price:)This iscalled trading with Greek trust, sincethe Greek nation is most deceitful.


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If my things are more valuable or the same as his, the rule ‘every man for himself’ applies. If my thingsareequally valuable with those of my neighbour, it isappropriatethat I savethemtogetherwithmine.Itisalso fairforthe depositorto pay forthecheaper belongings I neglected when saving his things. par. 9. the buyerimmediately offers and delivers a price:)This iscalled trading with Greek trust, sincethe Greek nation is most deceitful. Polybius says in book six of Historiae: You mayconsign onesingletalent to them, but theycannot honourthe promise, even if there are ten copies and as many seals and twice as many witnesses.71 agreement about repurchase:) As when a nobleman for want of money is forced to sell his old estate on such acondition that it berestored to theseller within six years for a fair price. it is common for the seller to reserve:) The ancient Romans used to bury their dead not in a sacred place, as the Christians do, but in their private ground or in public roads. Because of this, it often happened that he who sold his ground excluded a small part for his interment. That explains the quotation from the third Eclogue of Virgil: Tell me on whatground and you shall be my Apollo. The space for Caelius is not more than three ells. 72 For Caelius /the heavenly/ is not a common noun but a proper name, i.e. Caelius was very rich but when he had melted away, he only had enough for his burial. [p.60] buying a job lot:) When what is said is“I do not want to seethe books for instance; tell me what you want for all of them together, good or bad.” Compare the author in De jure naturae et gentium book 5:5:4. 71. Polybius: Historiae, VI:56:13–14. 72. Virgil: Eclogae, II:104sq. 150 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s probabilis tantum spes emitur:) Praemium dare pro speest stultum, ut ovo dejicere passerem de tecto, illud erat certum, hic vero incertus. Sed interdum fieri solet quod adstantes piscatoribus dent pro iis quicapiendi sunt reti exposito. Unde orta est lis inter piscatores Milesios.


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Compare the author in De jure naturae et gentium book 5:5:4. 71. Polybius: Historiae, VI:56:13–14. 72. Virgil: Eclogae, II:104sq. 150 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s probabilis tantum spes emitur:) Praemium dare pro speest stultum, ut ovo dejicere passerem de tecto, illud erat certum, hic vero incertus. Sed interdum fieri solet quod adstantes piscatoribus dent pro iis quicapiendi sunt reti exposito. Unde orta est lis inter piscatores Milesios. Nam adolescentes quidam expatiati sunt ad mare, ubi piscatores rete jactaverunt, conveniunt ergo adolescentes cum piscatoribus de captura (:piscium:). Forte fortuna extraxere una cum piscibus mensam auream. Contendebaturacerrime utrinque piscatoribussibietadolescentibussibi fortunam vendicantibus.Res deferturadmagistratum, hujuscasus nodumillis non solventibus, devolvitur ad oraculum, quod responsum dedit hocce dandum sapientissimo. Tunc temporis florebant 7 sapientes, illis modeste recusantibus singulis demum Apollini cedit. Quaenam fuit ratio hujus oraculi (:notandum pleraque oracula maxime Graecorum fuisse nequea Deo, neque a Diabolo inspirata, sed sacerdotes callide constituisse circa ea:) sciebat sacerdos [p.61] nullum mortalium principis sapientiae titulum velle agnoscere, et sic infallibiliter praedam casuram in casses sacerdotis. Vide Val. Max. 4.1.4. Auctoris I.N. l.5.c.5. par. 6. par. 10. sires locata plane perierit:) Ut si locaveram aedes measalicuius per totum annum, jam praeterlapso tantum dimidio anni aedes conflagrant, non tenetur alter ad pensionem pro toto anno seu residua anni parte, quia locaverat eas stantes. alterius ubertate:) Sic rustici in hac provincia, sua certa landgillen pensare coguntur, non ratione habita ad anni vel ubertatem vel sterilitatem.


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Vide Val. Max. 4.1.4. Auctoris I.N. l.5.c.5. par. 6. par. 10. sires locata plane perierit:) Ut si locaveram aedes measalicuius per totum annum, jam praeterlapso tantum dimidio anni aedes conflagrant, non tenetur alter ad pensionem pro toto anno seu residua anni parte, quia locaverat eas stantes. alterius ubertate:) Sic rustici in hac provincia, sua certa landgillen pensare coguntur, non ratione habita ad anni vel ubertatem vel sterilitatem. Unde paterfamilias non in unum annum sed in plures agrum conducit. et quae ipsius culpa perdita fuerunt etc:) Si auri faber gemmam pretiosiorem sumserit, quem annulo infigat, eam vero per negligentiam fregerit; et si sartor pannum pretiosam ex quo fecerat mihi vestes, faedaverit, restituere omnino debent damnum profectum ex ipsorum negligentia. et qui opus faciendum conduxit etc:) Si conduxero aliquem, qui mihi operam praestabit certo tempore, qui et praesto est; dico vero ipsi: abi quoad vocavero te. Sed totailla dies inutiliter labitur. Quare potest suam mercedem neglectam petere. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 151 only a likelyexpectation:)To pay formere hopeisfoolish: you can certainly drive off the sparrow sitting on eggs from the roof, but the quality of the egg is most uncertain. However, it sometimes happens that people by the waterside make a bid for the fish that will be caught when the nets are laid out. This caused a controversy among the fishermen of Miletus. There weresome youngstersaround on the beach,wherethe fisherman laid their nets.They madean agreementabout the haul with the fishermen. By chancethe fishermen drew up a golden tabletogether with the fish. The fishermen and the youngsters quarrelled vehemently claiming the fortune for themselves. The case was submitted to the authorities, and when they could not loosen the knot, it was left to an oracle. These were the days of the seven wise men /in Greece/, but they modestly declined,and thecase finally came to Apollo.


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By chancethe fishermen drew up a golden tabletogether with the fish. The fishermen and the youngsters quarrelled vehemently claiming the fortune for themselves. The case was submitted to the authorities, and when they could not loosen the knot, it was left to an oracle. These were the days of the seven wise men /in Greece/, but they modestly declined,and thecase finally came to Apollo. A priest knew [p.61] that the meaning of the oracle was that no mortal would claim thetitle of being the wisest; thereforethe prey should infallibly go to the nets ofthe priest.(Notethatmost ofthe oracles ofthe Greekswereinspired by neither God nor the devil but cunningly constituted by the priests.) See Valerius Maximus 4:1:4.73 and the author’s Ius Naturae book 5 chap. 5 par. 6. par. 10 if a rented object is completely destroyed:)IfIlease my houseto someoneforawhole yearand the house burns up after halfthe year, heis not bound to pay forthewhole year or for the rest of the year because the house was intact when he rented it. since a poor crop in one year is normally followed by abundance in the next:) The peasants of this province must pay their so-called landgillen74 regardless of the abundance or unfruitfulness of the year. Therefore, thelandowner leases theland for several years, not one only. makes good anything that perished by his fault:) If through negligence a goldsmith destroys a ring into which he mounted a more precious stone, or if a tailor sullies a valuable fabric from which he was to make clothes for me, they should indeed pay for the damage caused by their carelessness. and he who has contracted to perform a piece of work:) SupposeI hiresomeoneto do ajob for me within acertain time,and heis present. I say to him, go away until I call for you, but for the whole day no use is made of him. Because of this he can demand his salary. 73. Valerius Maximus: Factorum et dictorum memorabilium libri, book IV:1:4. 74.


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I say to him, go away until I call for you, but for the whole day no use is made of him. Because of this he can demand his salary. 73. Valerius Maximus: Factorum et dictorum memorabilium libri, book IV:1:4. 74. Meaning land rents. 152 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s momentaneam suam operam:) Momentana opera[p.62] vocatur, sialiquis vadat in vicinam urbem ut reportet literas, continua opera dicitur v.g. conducere servum in integrum annum. par. 11. Res fungibilis:) Si quis mihi mutuo dederit imperialem ut dicunt in specie, sialterius generis imperialem ejusdem tamen valoris dedero, censeor ipsi restituisse suum imperialem, nam hic aeque bonus habetur ac alter, et unus imperialis fungitur vice alterius cujuscunque imperialis, sic de frumento proceditur, non vero de aedibus, equis etc. Vide auctoris de I.N. et G. 5, 7, 1. par. 12. sors salva est, ac perit ei qui contulit:) Est aliquis mercator merces habens 4. mill. thal. quae non possunt cum insigni lucro distrahi nisi in certo loco remoto. Ponamusillum4 suismill.thal. quotannis usuraritrecentos imperiales, et alterius operam qui proficiscitur ad mercatum, aestimari trecent. imperial. Simerces pereunt, ille qui operamcontulit, non tenetur damnum sarcire, sed ille suam operam frustra consumsit quantum ad sortem. Quod vero lucrum attinet, in aequales dividendum est partes. impenditur ad meliorandam rem:) Est qui habet milleimperiales, quibus lucrari vult,etestaliquiscoriarius qui petit hoscesibi dari,ad emendumcoriacruda, quaeet praeparatacidoneafacitad calceos. Postmodum proficiscitur ad mercatum, ac pro illis accipit ter mille imperiales. Ergo summa ex illa venditione collecta dividata43 inter illos aequaliter. [p.63] omnium bonorum societas:) Inter Christianos primitivae ecclesiae talem societatem institutam esse constat ex Actorum cap. 5. Hodie etiam inter Anabaptistas instituta est. par.


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Postmodum proficiscitur ad mercatum, ac pro illis accipit ter mille imperiales. Ergo summa ex illa venditione collecta dividata43 inter illos aequaliter. [p.63] omnium bonorum societas:) Inter Christianos primitivae ecclesiae talem societatem institutam esse constat ex Actorum cap. 5. Hodie etiam inter Anabaptistas instituta est. par. 13. qui aleam continenti:) Nam in superioribus omnibus contractibus quasi praevisio est, ut quando ad opera facienda mihi conduco ancillam, praevideo illam esse capacem operis praestandi etc. Sed hic in antecessum non constat. Sponsio est v.g.siego contendo Hollandos victuros,alterAnglos,cujus assertioni responderit eventus, ille adit pignus. 43. Manuscript: dividlata. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 153 temporary work:)It iscalled temporary [p.62]when someone goes to the neighbouring village with aletter,and continuous work when someoneis hired to serve for a whole year. par. 11. a fungiblething:)if someonelends me oneimperial specieand I give him an imperial ofanother kind but of thesame valueIam generally believed to havereturned his imperial, for the oneisconsidered as good as the other,and oneimperial functions instead of any other imperial. The same applies to corn, not to houses or horses, however. See the author’s De jure naturae et gentium 5:7:1. par. 12. the risk of loss of the capital lies completely with the contributor:) A merchant has wares for 4000 thaler, which can only be sold with asubstantial gain in aremote place. Suppose he pays 300 imperials interest annually on his 4000 thaler and that the work of another who brings the wares to the marketplace is estimated at 300 imperials.


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The same applies to corn, not to houses or horses, however. See the author’s De jure naturae et gentium 5:7:1. par. 12. the risk of loss of the capital lies completely with the contributor:) A merchant has wares for 4000 thaler, which can only be sold with asubstantial gain in aremote place. Suppose he pays 300 imperials interest annually on his 4000 thaler and that the work of another who brings the wares to the marketplace is estimated at 300 imperials. In case of loss, the one who provided his labour is not bound to repair the damage, but the other’s effort has been in vain as far as the interest is concerned.75 In case of profit, it is to be divided in equal shares. devoted to improving the property:) A man has 1000 imperials from which he wants to make a profit and there is a tanner who asks for the amount in order to curry raw leatherand makeit suitablefor shoes. Subsequently he goes to the marketplace and gets 3000 imperials. Accordingly, the sum obtained from the sale is divided equally between them. [p.63] partnership of the whole property of all the partners:) It is clear from the Acts Chap.5that there was such a partnership among the Christians in the original church. Today, it is established among the Anabaptists too. par. 13. contracts which involve chance:) In all contracts above there is, as it were, an assumption that when I hire a maid for a job, I presuppose that she is capable of doing the job. But in contracts of this kind this not clear in advance. bet:)is when I hold that the Dutch will win,and anotherthe English; he whose assertion is confirmed by the event wins the bet. 75. Uncertain translation. 154 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s nondum utrinque notorii:) Nam absurdum est spondere, num Leopoldus sit Caesar, cum constat eum fuisse ante annos 12. par. 14. quam hunc arctius teneri:) Mirum alicui potest videri, quod ille qui re non est usus tam arcte debeat stringi.


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But in contracts of this kind this not clear in advance. bet:)is when I hold that the Dutch will win,and anotherthe English; he whose assertion is confirmed by the event wins the bet. 75. Uncertain translation. 154 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s nondum utrinque notorii:) Nam absurdum est spondere, num Leopoldus sit Caesar, cum constat eum fuisse ante annos 12. par. 14. quam hunc arctius teneri:) Mirum alicui potest videri, quod ille qui re non est usus tam arcte debeat stringi. Sed ratio est in promtu, nam creditor dicit se ne obolum quidem mutuo dedisse alteri, nisi is intercesserat pro eo, nam eo modo alienum in se derivavit debitum. expromissor vocari solet:) Fidejussio est vel simplex quae jam jam descripta fuit; vel expromissoria qua quis alterius obligationem plane in se recipit ac vult tractari ac ipse sumsisset; ut si peregrinus sumserit mutuo ab aliquo, pro quo expromittebat indigena. Illo domum profecto, creditor qui non potest convenire principalem debitorem quippe qui iam est in Germania vel Hollandia, compellere potest jure expromissorem prius quam principalem debitorem. par. 15. et si debitoris ullo modo intersit:) Nam multi dantur [p.64] qui habent magnam opinionem divitiarum, quorum tamen res familiaris valde aegrotat. Si aliquis horum torquem suum aureum pignori exponat et creditor eundem collo suspenderit suo, ac ita in publicum progreditur, ut exponatur omnium aspectui. Multum sane eo modo decedit alterius opinioni. Ergo pignoribus non utendum, nisi pactum antecesserit. par. 16. Ex sacris scripturis notum est duo non deberi exponi pignoris (1) vestis (2) lapis molaris, ne tam securi exstant homines, ut sese coniiciant in extremam paupertatem. Si lignarius velit mutuo a me sumto, pignoris loco tradere mesecurim,erit signum, illum non futurum solvendo. Itasi rustico equus, et hujusmodi genus instrumenti agriculturae adimantur, certe non habebit, quibus in posterum vitam poterit sustentare suam, nam equi etc sunt ipsi necessarii ad comparanda sibi alimenta.


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16. Ex sacris scripturis notum est duo non deberi exponi pignoris (1) vestis (2) lapis molaris, ne tam securi exstant homines, ut sese coniiciant in extremam paupertatem. Si lignarius velit mutuo a me sumto, pignoris loco tradere mesecurim,erit signum, illum non futurum solvendo. Itasi rustico equus, et hujusmodi genus instrumenti agriculturae adimantur, certe non habebit, quibus in posterum vitam poterit sustentare suam, nam equi etc sunt ipsi necessarii ad comparanda sibi alimenta. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 155 notyet known to both parts:) For it isabsurd to betabout whether Leopold will become emperor when he was born only 12 years ago.76 par. 14. a surety may be more strictly obliged:) It may seem odd that he who does not use the thing is so strictly obliged. But the reason is clear for the creditor says he will not lend even a penny unless the surety goes between with his credit, for in that way he diverts the debt of another to him. called a “new debtor” /expromissor/:) Suretyship iseither simple,as hasalready been described, or is based on a promise by which someone completely shoulders theresponsibility ofanotherand is willing to betreated as if he himself had been the borrower. Forinstanceifastranger borrows from someoneand a native promises to assumethe debt; if thestrangerreturns home, thecreditor, who cannot sue him since heisalready in Germany or Holland,can lawfully forcethe new debtor before the principle debtor. par. 15. if thereis anyeffect at all on the debtor’s interest:)[p.64] Forthereare manywho are believed to be very rich butwhosefortuneis veryweak.If one ofthesemen pledges his golden necklaceand thecreditor hangs itaround his own neck and appears in public with it to expose it in full view of all, it is very detrimental to the debtor’s reputation. Pledges should therefore not be used without a preceding contract. par. 16.


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15. if thereis anyeffect at all on the debtor’s interest:)[p.64] Forthereare manywho are believed to be very rich butwhosefortuneis veryweak.If one ofthesemen pledges his golden necklaceand thecreditor hangs itaround his own neck and appears in public with it to expose it in full view of all, it is very detrimental to the debtor’s reputation. Pledges should therefore not be used without a preceding contract. par. 16. It is known from the Holy Writ that therearetwo things thatcannot be pledged, namely one’s clothes and a millstone, in order to prevent people from being so careless that they plunge into extreme poverty. If a carpenter who borrows from me wants to leave his axe as a pledge, it indicates that he will not pay me back. Similarly, if the horse and other tools of agriculture are taken from a peasant, he willcertainly not havethe means to sustain his lifeforthefuture, since horsesetc. are necessary for him to provide nourishment. 76. The emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was elected; hence the uncertainty. 156 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Cap XVI d. 16 octobris [Quibus modis solvantur obligationes, quae ex pactis oriuntur] par. 3. data acceptilatione:) Hincadparetterminumacceptilationis inperiteadhiberi a quibusdam theologis in negotio Salutis nostrae, uti dicunt Deum acceptilatione meriti Christi fateri se accepisse quod revera non acceperat, cum vero pater non nihil, sed revera maximum acceperit, videlicet mortem sui filii. Maluseorum non estsensussed imperiteadhibent hunc terminum juris. Observandum quod apoca dicatur si pecunia est soluta. par. 4. nisi leges positivae id prohibent:) Sicut in matrimonio contingit ut aegre renunciatio fiat post sponsalia. Nam in Rebuspublicis [p.65] ubi boni mores vigeant,circatalescasusexamen solet institui penes magistratum, an videlicet graves intercesserint causae in isto gravi negotio. par.


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Maluseorum non estsensussed imperiteadhibent hunc terminum juris. Observandum quod apoca dicatur si pecunia est soluta. par. 4. nisi leges positivae id prohibent:) Sicut in matrimonio contingit ut aegre renunciatio fiat post sponsalia. Nam in Rebuspublicis [p.65] ubi boni mores vigeant,circatalescasusexamen solet institui penes magistratum, an videlicet graves intercesserint causae in isto gravi negotio. par. 5. alterius partis perfidia:) Juxta versum barbarum: frangenti fidem fides frangatur et eidem.44 capita praestandorum:) Ut hoc in exemplo sunt duo capita, cum conduxissem operarium aliquem ut foderet mihi in horto, est prius caput: pro quo tibi pecuniam dabo, et posterius caput: si operarius non prius praestiterit, nec adigi possum ad praestandum posterius. par. 6. Ut expirat obligatio servi quando tempus servitii expirat. Sic antequam rex regno renuntiavisset, tenetur defenderesubditos,aceosdem ad obsequium adigere, post renuntiationem vero nec astrictus est eorum defensioni, nec ad ipsi obtemperandum obligantur subditi. par. 7. Sic omni tempore novimus foedera dari non perpetua, sed ad certum tempus.Itasialicui locaverimaedesmeasad certumtempus, quo praeterlapso si ego inquilinum non admonuissem, nec ille me allocutus fuisset, sed pergit permanere in iisdem, censetur fieri quasi prorogata fuerit ipsi 44. Manuscript: idem. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 157 Chap. XVI October 16 [On methods of dissolv ing obligations arising from agreements] par. 3. by giving a formal discharge from the debt:) Obviously, certain theologians ignorantly apply theterm discharging to the question of our salvation. They hold that God acknowledges that through the merit of Christ he has accepted something that he has in fact not accepted. For it was not a trifle that the father accepted, but something really large, i.e. the death of his son. There is nothing bad in their opinion, but it is ignorant to apply the legal term.


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3. by giving a formal discharge from the debt:) Obviously, certain theologians ignorantly apply theterm discharging to the question of our salvation. They hold that God acknowledges that through the merit of Christ he has accepted something that he has in fact not accepted. For it was not a trifle that the father accepted, but something really large, i.e. the death of his son. There is nothing bad in their opinion, but it is ignorant to apply the legal term. Note that it is called apoca /receipt of the creditor/ when the money is paid. par. 4. unlessthelaws oftheland forbid it:)It happensinmarriagethattheannouncement is made unwillingly after the betrothal. In countries where good manners prevail, [p.65] an investigation is usually carried out by the authorities in such cases in order find out if serious matters have intervened in that serious affair. par. 5. breach of faith of either party:) According to the barbaric verse: He who breaks faith, loses credibility and suffers the same. 77 thelatterterms of a contract:)In thisexample whereI hirea workerto dig in my garden therearetwo terms, first,thework forwhich Iwill pay money,and second, that I cannot be urged to pay him until he has done the job. par. 6. The obligation of a servant expires when the period of service comes to an end. Similarly, until the king announces his abdication, he is obliged to defend his subjects and extract their obedience, but afterwards he is not bound to defend them, nor are they bound to obey him. par. 7. We have always known that there are agreements, which are not perpetual but temporary. If I let my house for a certain time and, when that time has passed, I have not said anything to the tenant and he has not spoken to me but remains in the house, his stay is regarded as having been prolonged by a tacit convention. 77. Refersto the German saying:“Treu‘ gegen Treu steht Jedem zu. Wer die sich bricht dem Gleiches zu.” 158 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s habitatio tacitaconventione.


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7. We have always known that there are agreements, which are not perpetual but temporary. If I let my house for a certain time and, when that time has passed, I have not said anything to the tenant and he has not spoken to me but remains in the house, his stay is regarded as having been prolonged by a tacit convention. 77. Refersto the German saying:“Treu‘ gegen Treu steht Jedem zu. Wer die sich bricht dem Gleiches zu.” 158 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s habitatio tacitaconventione. Sicancillae,sisupratempusmanserintapud matrem familias,et si non exprimaturab alterutra parteconventio nova, tacita subest, si renunciatio, fieri debet illa ante praefinitum tempus, ut utraque pars sibi possit proficere, quod jubetur in legibus hujus regni. [p.66] par. 8. in persona alicujus radicatae:) Duum generum dantur obligationes: (1) Quaedamtantumad nostrampersonamspectans utest officiumparentis erga liberos, mariti erga uxorem, regis erga subditos et vice versa, quae officiacuivisincumbunt praestanda, quamdiu in vivissumus, postea vero non item, sicut Apostolus Paulus dicit: estote maritis subjectae ac alius concubitum non appetite donec maritus in vivis est,45 illo vero vita defuncto licet ad secunda vota transire, quod alias esset capitale. Sic filio mortuo officium paternum expirat. (2) Quaedam obligationes dantur etiam in rebus, sicut v.g. mutuum non sufficit obligatio ipsius curae personae,sed illa mortua obligatio transitetiam in bona,sic quiaesalienum, dum vixit, contraxerat atque pignus dederat in securitatem, moriatur persona, pignus non restituitur antequam solutio fit. ex officio pietatis:) Pater dum vita fruitur, tenetur prospicere suis liberis, ut iis bene sit etiam post ejus mortem (sicut et Rex). Et solent in agone mortis parentes filiis quid in mandatis dare, quibus post obitum morem debent gerere, 46 eorumdemque memoriae cum veneratione consulere, observantesesseeorummandatorum.


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Et solent in agone mortis parentes filiis quid in mandatis dare, quibus post obitum morem debent gerere, 46 eorumdemque memoriae cum veneratione consulere, observantesesseeorummandatorum. Sicregisest officiumcivium salutem quaerere quoad ipse vigerit, sed et insuper debet curam gerere, quantum in seest, ut beneillis sit postejus obitum. Ejus regis dispositiones, si fuerint sapientes et non repugnaverint saluti publicae, par est ut observentur post ejus mortem. [p.67] par. 9. delegationem:) Quam assignationem vocant, et est translatio alterius debiti in illum cui tantumdem debeo, ac ille mihi. consentienti:) Dantur enim etiam mala nomina seu debitores, qui vel non sunt solvendo, vel non nisi aegerrime post multas admonitiones extricatur solutio. 45. In margin: NB. 46. In margin: NB. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 159 Similarly, if a maid stays beyond time with her mistress, and no agreement is demanded by either part, there is a tacit convention. If there is notice, it should be given beforethe prescribed time,so that both partiescanmaketheirarrangements in advance, as is decreed in the laws of this kingdom. [p.66] par. 8. obligations rooted in a man’s person:) Therearetwo kinds of obligation. Some pertain to our person, as does the duty of parents towards their children, the duty of a husband towards his wife, and the duty of the king towards his subjects and vice versa. These duties are incumbent as long as we live, but not afterwards, as the Apostle Paul says: be obedient to your husbands and do not try to sleep with anotheras long as your husband isalive;after his death it isallowed to engagein a newmarriage,which otherwisewould be punishable by death.78 Some obligations refer to thingsas well,as is thecase with loans wherethe obligation of the person is not enough; when the person dies the obligation passes to his property.


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These duties are incumbent as long as we live, but not afterwards, as the Apostle Paul says: be obedient to your husbands and do not try to sleep with anotheras long as your husband isalive;after his death it isallowed to engagein a newmarriage,which otherwisewould be punishable by death.78 Some obligations refer to thingsas well,as is thecase with loans wherethe obligation of the person is not enough; when the person dies the obligation passes to his property. Thus, if a person, who has borrowed money during his lifetime and given a pledge as security, passesaway,then the pledgemust berestored beforethe debtisredeemed. a duty of family piety:) A father, as long as he lives, is obliged to provide for his children so that they fare well after his death (like the King). During their death struggle, fathers usually instruct their sonsabout how to behaveafter their death and to have regard for their memory and respect their injunctions. Likewise, it is the duty of the king to procure the welfare of his subjects as long as he lives, but also to take painsas faras possiblefortheirwelfareafter his death.Ifthe measures of the king have been wise and not repugnant to the welfare of the country, it is fair for them to be observed after his death. [p.67] par. 9. delegation:) which is called assignment and consists of the transfer of the debt of someone to whom I owe just as much as he owes me. the consent of the creditor:) There are also the bad names, or the debtors who either cannot pay or only do so unwillingly after many requests. 78. 1 Corinthians 7:39. 160 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Caput XVII d 18 octobris [De interpretatione] par. 2. vide Puf. I.N. et G. p. 710 seq. Sic Mahometes fecit, qui alicui caput incolume promisit et postea eum medium dissecuit (de quo Puf. Majori Opere p. 711). Cum tamen alicui caput praestare incolume, usu vulgari denotat alterum quoad totum praestare illaesum.


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78. 1 Corinthians 7:39. 160 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Caput XVII d 18 octobris [De interpretatione] par. 2. vide Puf. I.N. et G. p. 710 seq. Sic Mahometes fecit, qui alicui caput incolume promisit et postea eum medium dissecuit (de quo Puf. Majori Opere p. 711). Cum tamen alicui caput praestare incolume, usu vulgari denotat alterum quoad totum praestare illaesum. Sic in Germania contingit, quod juvenis dissolutus polliceretur puellae credulae conjugium modo copiaei daretur rem cum illa habendi, illa prius quaerit de tempore copulationis; ille respondit: in illo templo quod nobis primo occurrit, hoc est ex famoso significatu, ad quod templum ex itinere primum pervenerimus. Juvenis fidem non praestat. Illa decepta eum accusat coram magistratum, cui interroganti etexaminanti inquit deceptor:Nullumtemplumvidimus occurrere, quia omnia sunt immobilia. Quo responso ille non solvebatur. par. 4. Vid. Puf in maj. ope. p. 713 par. 5. In regno Neapolitano nobilis quidam erat ditissimus, a quo ingens vis opumrelinqueretur unico filiolo. Sed hocipsumvidentesJesuitaeadeunt senem persuasuri, ut daret suum filium in ipsorum collegium, donec perveniretad annos;resipsissuccedit, ut patertestamentum conderet,Jesuitae fierent haeredes et darent filio quae vellent. Qui deinceps ipsi dabant exiguam [p.68] partem, sibi reliqua retenta. Filio vero displicuit eorum vitae genuset res deferturad proregem De Osina(:cuiuscelebria dictaac facta quam plurima sunt:), qui re perspecta, quod Jesuitae vellent rapere sibitotamhaereditatem, pronunciabateademambiguitate, date filio quae ipsi vellent, sc. habere; ita pro spe lucri maximum invenerunt ludibrium. Vid. Puf., loc. cit. posterius derogabit prioribus:) Si pactum iniverim cum vicino meo circa rem quampiam, quod et iterum inter nos sit, si aliqua ambiguitas deprehendatur; posterioriest standum, nam censetur is voluntatem mutasse dum altera vice pactum iniit. Sed hocintelligendum est deeo pacto, quod fit inter eosdem.


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Vid. Puf., loc. cit. posterius derogabit prioribus:) Si pactum iniverim cum vicino meo circa rem quampiam, quod et iterum inter nos sit, si aliqua ambiguitas deprehendatur; posterioriest standum, nam censetur is voluntatem mutasse dum altera vice pactum iniit. Sed hocintelligendum est deeo pacto, quod fit inter eosdem. Nam e contra est pronuntiandum, si fiat pactum circa diversos, inverso ordine res se habet. Nam si posterius priori derogaret, omnia tollerentur pacta. V.g. si servus a me conductus cum alio contractum iniverit, non erit validus, nam hic obtinet illud: qui prior tempore, prior jure. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 161 Chapter XVII October 18 [On interpretation] par. 2. See Pufendorf, De jure naturae et gentium p. 710 seq. This is what Mahomet did when, having promised some captive not to harm his head, he bisected him in the middle (about this Pufendorf, the major work p. 711). 79 Not to harm someone’s head means in ordinary use to leave the other uninjured altogether. It happened in Germany thatan insolent youngster promised to marry acredulous girl, if only she could give him the supplies to do so. The girl asked when the wedding would be and he answered: in the first church that turns up, that is, according to the usual meaning, in the church we first encounter on our way. The youngster did not keep his promise. Deceived, the girl accused him before the magistrate, and when questioned the swindler answered: We never see a church turn up, for all churches are immobile. That answer did not exonerate him. par. 4. See Pufendorf’s major work p. 713 § 5. In the kingdom of Naplestherewasa very rich noblemanwhoseimmensefortune was to be bequeathed to his only son. But seeing this, the Jesuits went to the old man to persuade him to entrust his son to their collegium until he grew up. The fortune went to them, as in his last will and testament the father ordained that the Jesuits would be his heirs and give the son what they themselves wanted.


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That answer did not exonerate him. par. 4. See Pufendorf’s major work p. 713 § 5. In the kingdom of Naplestherewasa very rich noblemanwhoseimmensefortune was to be bequeathed to his only son. But seeing this, the Jesuits went to the old man to persuade him to entrust his son to their collegium until he grew up. The fortune went to them, as in his last will and testament the father ordained that the Jesuits would be his heirs and give the son what they themselves wanted. The Jesuitsthen gave himasmall[p.68] partand kepttherestforthemselves. However, theson did not liketheir form of lifeand theissue was brought beforethe viceroy Osuna (who is renowned for many sayings and doings).80 He perceived that the Jesuits wanted to lay hands upon the whole heritage and decided with the same ambiguity that they should give to the son what they wanted themselves, that is to have.Thusinstead ofthe hope of maximum profitthey found themselvescheated. the later passage supersedes the earlier:) If I make a contract with my neighbour about something and that contract is renewed between us, then one should stick to thelateragreement, if thereisany ambiguity. For heisconsidered to have changed his intention, when heentered thecontractasecond time. This however applies to a contract between the same persons. The contrary applies if the contract is made with different persons; then it is the other way round. Forif thelater contract superseded the prior, all contracts would be cancelled. For instance, if a servant whom I hired enters into a contract with another, it will not be valid; for here the rule that applies is who is first in time is first in law. 79. De jure naturae et gentium, V:12:3. Mahomet refers to Mehmed II (1432–1481). 80. Pedro Téllez-Giron, Duke of Osuna (1575–1624), Spanish Viceroy of Naples. 162 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s dextra explicatione adhibita:) Vid. Puf. I.G et N l.5 c.12 par 6. p 714. de exemplo an mulieri sit statua collocanda?


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For instance, if a servant whom I hired enters into a contract with another, it will not be valid; for here the rule that applies is who is first in time is first in law. 79. De jure naturae et gentium, V:12:3. Mahomet refers to Mehmed II (1432–1481). 80. Pedro Téllez-Giron, Duke of Osuna (1575–1624), Spanish Viceroy of Naples. 162 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s dextra explicatione adhibita:) Vid. Puf. I.G et N l.5 c.12 par 6. p 714. de exemplo an mulieri sit statua collocanda? Vid. p. 715 de Zedechia etc. quod est exemplum apparentis contradictionis. par. 5. Sic qui de re aliqua thema conscribit praesumitur ea intendere quae ob oculos habet. Sic Mathematicus tractans de cancro, Medicus de cancro, Physicus decancro, non necessumhabentsemperaddere,sidus,morbum, piscem, quia hoc ex substrata materiafacile patet. Ita diversimodo utunturtermino justitiaejurisconsultusactheologus.[p.69]Venditoressolent addere praestabo te indemnem in omni casu. Si jam praedium quod quis emerat,ab incendiariis velab hoste spolietur, judicatur venditor non deberesarcire damnum. Nam illalocutio: indemnem te praestabo in omni casu, restringendaestad eoscasus, qui fluuntex venditioneetemptione. Cavillationis exempla vide apud Autorem O.M. pag 786 c.12. par. 4. lib. 5. par. 6. vel absurdum:) Si lex aliquasitita prolata: quisanginem alicuielicueritin platea,capite plectetur. Sicontingit Chirurgum venasalicui secuisse, fieret istius legis reus. Nisi judices sint planeasini, non vocarenteum in jus. par. 8. ubi plures fuerint rationes:) Lex diversarum rationum est v.g. sumptuaria in conviviis nuptialibus, utsitcertus, necampliorjusto numerusconvivarum, (1) ratio: in talibuscongressibus soletconjuratio institui praesertim ubivigetimperiumtyrannicum.(2)Ratio,neeomodorediganturhomines adpaupertatem.(3)nehominesassvefiantdebaccationibus,quistuderedebenttemperantiae. Si jam cessant prima velsecundaratio, non debet quis dicere; inmeo convivio necfactaconjuratio, necindereddebar pauperior.


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8. ubi plures fuerint rationes:) Lex diversarum rationum est v.g. sumptuaria in conviviis nuptialibus, utsitcertus, necampliorjusto numerusconvivarum, (1) ratio: in talibuscongressibus soletconjuratio institui praesertim ubivigetimperiumtyrannicum.(2)Ratio,neeomodorediganturhomines adpaupertatem.(3)nehominesassvefiantdebaccationibus,quistuderedebenttemperantiae. Si jam cessant prima velsecundaratio, non debet quis dicere; inmeo convivio necfactaconjuratio, necindereddebar pauperior. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 163 by skilful exegesis:) See Pufendorf De jure naturae et gentium book 5 chap. 12. par. 6, p. 714 on the question on whetherastatue ofa woman can beerected? See p. 715 on Zedechia, which is an example of a seeming contradiction. 81 par. 5. Someone who writes about something is considered to aim at what is before his eyes. An astronomer, doctor or naturalist writing about the crab need not always add the star, the disease or the fish, because this is obvious from the matter itself. Similarly, the jurist and the theologian use the word justice differently. [p.69] Sellers usually add: I will indemnifyyou in all cases. If someone buysan estateand it is destroyed by fire or by the enemy, the seller is not considered obliged to compensate. For the saying “I will indemnify you in all cases” is restricted to selling and buying. For examples of jeering, see the author’s major work page 786 chap. 12, par. 4. book 5.82 par. 6. or absurd:) Suppose there is a law saying that he who sheds someone’s blood in the street will have to pay with his life. If a surgeon happens to open the veins of somebody, he will be guilty according to that law. Unless they arecompleteasses, the judges will not bring him before the law. par. 8. But when there is more than one reason for the law:) A law with different reasons is for instance the decree about superabundance at wedding banquets in order to restrict the number of guests.


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4. book 5.82 par. 6. or absurd:) Suppose there is a law saying that he who sheds someone’s blood in the street will have to pay with his life. If a surgeon happens to open the veins of somebody, he will be guilty according to that law. Unless they arecompleteasses, the judges will not bring him before the law. par. 8. But when there is more than one reason for the law:) A law with different reasons is for instance the decree about superabundance at wedding banquets in order to restrict the number of guests. The first reason is that conspiracies are often formed during such gatherings, especially under tyrannical rule. The second reason is that people should not in that way be reduced to poverty. The third reason is that people must not get accustomed to carousing, when they should rather strive for temperance. If the first or second reason does not apply, one should not say: in my banquet there was no conspiracy, nor did I become poor. 81. Discussing in De jure V:12:6 ambiguity in juridical speech acts, Pufendorf gives the example of statues of heroic tyrannicides being erected in Greek gymnasia in order to inspire the men; but what if the tyrannicide was a woman? – Zedechia was the last Jewish king who fatally misunderstood two seemingly contradicting prophecies, the one saying he would be brought to Babylon as a prisoner, the other he would never see Babylon; however, he came to Babylon, but blind, having had his eyes poked out. 82. The example is about the Spartan king Cleomenes, who interpreted a ‘three days truce’ with the enemy as not including the nights, thus justifying a successful nocturnal attack. 164 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Sed veltertiaratio satis potuitesse prohibendo acmodumpraescribendo. Si et illa defuerit, certe voluntas regis sufficit. Vid auct. O.M. p. 720 de Aegroto navim petente. [p.70] par. 11. ex defectu materiae:) Sicut lex erat Lusitannis, ut omnes suas barbas formarent utcaudam curvam, jam vero haeclex eos non potuit obligare, qui nulla gaudebant barba. par.


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Si et illa defuerit, certe voluntas regis sufficit. Vid auct. O.M. p. 720 de Aegroto navim petente. [p.70] par. 11. ex defectu materiae:) Sicut lex erat Lusitannis, ut omnes suas barbas formarent utcaudam curvam, jam vero haeclex eos non potuit obligare, qui nulla gaudebant barba. par. 12. violatum iri legem naturae:) Si lex in hoc regno est capitationis, kopp skatt, quae omnes aeque stringit, aequitas vero excipit mendicos. id nimis videaturgrave et intolerabile:) Generalis lex est de observatione Sabbathi. Sicontingat hostes nobisimpendere,et perventurisumusin potestatem hostium si non sumtis armis resistamus. Intelligenda itaque estexceptio quaedam. Quod fecit Mathatiasin lib. Maccab. Sic quaedam opera caritatis et misercordiae die sabbathi obibat ipse noster Salvator JesusChristus. Lex sit praecipiensjejuniumtota die,aequitassuadet hanc legem non stringereaegrotos vel infantes, qui opus habentrefocillatione. par. 13. quod faciendum certo tempore etc:) Ut si periculum in mora est, e.g. si incendiumoriatur,etancillalanamducens non surgatad restingvendum, peccat. Nam ibi periculum est in mora. Ad lanam ducendum quidvis tempus opportunum. Nec lanae rubiginem contrahunt eo tempore. peculiaris praefertur generali:) Ut si cui injunctum ut solam regionem inspiciat. Si postmodum praecipiatur ut hoc praedium inspiciat, huic prae priori mandato mos gerendus. obligationi perfectaeceditimperfecta:)47Memorat historiaGraeca[p.71] de Phocione, cum in concione consisteret, petebant ab illo ut contribueret ad ludos. Qui tum fertur respondisse: creditor qui a tergo stat, non patitur. Primo enim est solvendum, deinde videndum num e.g. mutuo cui dare poterit. Etc. 47. Manuscript: obligat. perf. cedit perfecta:). O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 165 But thethird reason can besufficient reason fora prohibition and for prescribing moderation. Ifeven that reason is lacking, the will of the king will beenough.


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Qui tum fertur respondisse: creditor qui a tergo stat, non patitur. Primo enim est solvendum, deinde videndum num e.g. mutuo cui dare poterit. Etc. 47. Manuscript: obligat. perf. cedit perfecta:). O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 165 But thethird reason can besufficient reason fora prohibition and for prescribing moderation. Ifeven that reason is lacking, the will of the king will beenough. See the author’s major work p. 720 on the sick man who claimed the ship. 83 [p.70] par. 11. from the absence of the subject:) The Portuguese had a law that everybody should cut their beards like a bent tail, but this law could not constrain those who did not rejoice in a beard. par. 12. that natural law would be violated:) In this kingdom there is a poll-tax, kopp skatt 84 which applies to everybody, but equity makes an exception for beggars. itwould seem too oppressive and intolerable:)Thereisa general lawabout observing the Sabbath. If it happens that the enemy is near and we will be at his mercy unless we take up arms and resist, then that is to be understood as an exception. This is what Mathatias did in Maccabees.85 Our Saviour Jesus Christ himself performed some acts of charity and pity during the Sabbath. The law may prescribe fasting all day butequity recommends that this law does notapply to thesick and the infants who need to be warmed into life. par. 13. What must be done at a certain time:) As when there is peril in delay. If there is a fire and the maid does not leave off spinning wool to check the fire, she commits afault.This isan example of peril in delay. Any timeis suitablefor spinning wool, and the wool does not contract rust in so short a time. prefer the particular to the general:) If someone is enjoined to inspect an area, and is afterwards instructed to inspect the estate, the latter mandate is to be followed before the prior.


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13. What must be done at a certain time:) As when there is peril in delay. If there is a fire and the maid does not leave off spinning wool to check the fire, she commits afault.This isan example of peril in delay. Any timeis suitablefor spinning wool, and the wool does not contract rust in so short a time. prefer the particular to the general:) If someone is enjoined to inspect an area, and is afterwards instructed to inspect the estate, the latter mandate is to be followed before the prior. An imperfect obligation giveswayto a perfect obligation:)Greek history [p.71]tells about Phocion, who, when hetook his placein theassembly, wasasked to contributeto the games. Heis said to haveanswered: oneshall notallow acreditor who is in debt. Let him first discharge himself; then onecan seeif hecan lend anything.86 83. The example, taken from Ad Herennium, is about Roman law saying that a crew abandoning ship lost both ship and cargo. But what if a member of the crew out of illness had to stay aboard and then the ship unexpectedly reached a port safely: would he be the owner of both ship and cargo? 84. Swedish: ‘koppskatt’, a tax imposed on each hide 85. Mathatiaswho decided to fight the enemy even if he broke the Sabbath.1 Maccabees 2.41. 86. Plutarch: Lives, Phocion, chap. 9. Pages 70 and 71 of the notes on De officio hominis et civis, with the beginning of Book II. National Library of Sweden, Stockholm. 168 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Observationes in librum Secundum S. Pufendorfii Ao. 1673 d 10 Novembr is C. 1. [De statu hominis naturali] Hactenus tradidimus officia hominis in genere, non hunc vel illum, sed omnes omnino in quo sint statu concernentia, v.g. Praeceptum de non laedendo, de non contemnendo altero, de beneficentiaexercenda, de fide servanda, de nonmentiendo, dejustitiaadhibendain contractibus omnes omnino in universum obligant nullo excepto. Verum honorare parentes non potesteos obligare qui nullos habent parentes, ita obtemperare hero non stringit dominum, et sic deinceps.


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1. [De statu hominis naturali] Hactenus tradidimus officia hominis in genere, non hunc vel illum, sed omnes omnino in quo sint statu concernentia, v.g. Praeceptum de non laedendo, de non contemnendo altero, de beneficentiaexercenda, de fide servanda, de nonmentiendo, dejustitiaadhibendain contractibus omnes omnino in universum obligant nullo excepto. Verum honorare parentes non potesteos obligare qui nullos habent parentes, ita obtemperare hero non stringit dominum, et sic deinceps. De statu hominum naturali:) In omnibus libris Politicorum, si unum vel alterum excipias, nihil vel parum habetur de nobilissimo hoc capite. Quod est fundamentum non tantum Politices Architectonicae, sed et Practicae.Itaquecapitecarentem et mancam doctrinam politicam [p.72] hactenus tradidere Politici. Quod tam jejune hac derescripserintadscribendum est Aristoteli qui non est in causa, sed occasionem praebuit, ita utejus sequaces putentabseo omnem exhaustam essesapientiam. Itaque male passim audiant in scholis qui proponunt vel contra Aristotelem quid, vel quod ille non habet. Quia vero Aristoteles dixerat hominem naturaesseanimal πολιτικόν, idem statim dicebantcivitatesa naturaesse sicut sol et equus. Hobbesius distincte de eo statu primo tradebat, sed valde cavillatur multis in locis, qui etiam a multis vel imperitissimis maledicentia ac convitiis proscinditur. par. 1. diverso statu:) Sicutcorporaconsiderantur vel per se, vel ut sunt in aliquo loco, velante velretro, vel in sublimi vel in humili, velad sinistrum velad dextrum, sic et personae morales considerantur esse in statu. Vid. Auth. de I.N. et G., 1.1.6.p.5. peculiaria fere jura:) Ut Rex administret justitiam, maritus alat uxorem liberosque pater. par. 2. triplici modo considerari:) Consideratur status naturalis (1) in oppositione brutorum (2) in oppositione eorum qui exculti sunt opera et arte O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ...


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Vid. Auth. de I.N. et G., 1.1.6.p.5. peculiaria fere jura:) Ut Rex administret justitiam, maritus alat uxorem liberosque pater. par. 2. triplici modo considerari:) Consideratur status naturalis (1) in oppositione brutorum (2) in oppositione eorum qui exculti sunt opera et arte O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 169 Observations in Samuel Pufendorf’s second book November 10 1673 Chapter I [On the natural state of man] Hitherto, we have talked about the duties of man in general, which concern not one or another but all together, regardless of what state they are in. For instance the precepts of not harming or being contemptuous ofanother, ofexercising kindness, of keeping one’s word, of not lying, of being fair in contractsare binding for everybody in general without exception. But the precept to honour one’s parents cannot apply to those who have no parents, nor is a proprietor bound to obey a master and so forth. On the natural state of men:) In all books on politics, with one or two exceptions, thereis nothing or only littleabout this importantchapter.It is thefoundation not only of political theory butalso of practical politics.Therefore, until now the doctors of politics have supplied an imperfect doctrine [p.72] if that chapter is missing. That they have written so sparsely on this topic must be ascribed to Aristotle, who however is not thecause of it but has provided the opportunity, so that hisfollowersconsiderallwisdomto have been exhausted by him. Everywhere those who propose something against Aristotle or that he lacks something are held in bad repute. SinceAristotle had said thatman isa politicalanimal,they immediately said that statesareas naturalas thesun ora horse. Hobbes was the first to teach distinctly about the state of nature, but he quibbles very much in many passages; hence many ignorant people cut him down with malicious objections. par.


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Everywhere those who propose something against Aristotle or that he lacks something are held in bad repute. SinceAristotle had said thatman isa politicalanimal,they immediately said that statesareas naturalas thesun ora horse. Hobbes was the first to teach distinctly about the state of nature, but he quibbles very much in many passages; hence many ignorant people cut him down with malicious objections. par. 1. the different states:) As physical bodies are considered either in themselves or in their position,either forward or backward, high or low, to theleft or to theright, so moral persons too are considered to be in a situation, see the author’s De jure naturae et gentium 1:1:6 p. 5. its own distinctive laws:) As the king administers justice, the husband feeds his wife and the father his sons. par. 2. in three ways:) The state of nature is considered as opposed to (1) the animals (2) as opposed to those who are improved by human work and art (3) as 170 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s humana(3) in oppositionead statum civilem quiextrasocietatem consideratur. Vid. Auct. de I.N.et G. p 139, par. 1. solo praelucente rationis lumine:) Hoc addidi ad praescindendas calumniatorum cavillationes et indicandum me non loqui [p.73] de statu Adami. par. 3. dum eximium praecaeteris:)Quod etiam Ethniciagnoverunt, utOvidius libro Metamorph. Fab. 11 vers. 53 seqq. Pronaque cum spectant animalia caetera terram, os homini sublime dedit, caelumque tueri jussit, et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus. Sic et Sallustius, alia animalia, inquit, ad pabulum abjecit. Structura itaque hominis monere nos debet nostri officii, ut non cogitemus nos vivere ut edamus, sed edere ut vivamus etc. par. 4. In hocstatu suntinfantes projecti in locum desertum.An primi parentes primum expulsi paradiso fuerint in eo? Respondemus 48 par. 7. paulatim exolevit:) Postquam vero exoleverunt quasi generationeset nullus sensus cognationis superfuit, tum coepit vinculum commune humanitatisatquestatus naturalis.


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Sic et Sallustius, alia animalia, inquit, ad pabulum abjecit. Structura itaque hominis monere nos debet nostri officii, ut non cogitemus nos vivere ut edamus, sed edere ut vivamus etc. par. 4. In hocstatu suntinfantes projecti in locum desertum.An primi parentes primum expulsi paradiso fuerint in eo? Respondemus 48 par. 7. paulatim exolevit:) Postquam vero exoleverunt quasi generationeset nullus sensus cognationis superfuit, tum coepit vinculum commune humanitatisatquestatus naturalis. Patriarchaerem quaerebantex re pecuaria, pecudes vero amplum requirebant spacium, unde separatio et hominum digregatio. Hi populi Europaeia plerisquecensentur originem suam duxisseex Japheto; si jam Asiatico cuidam dixero: Tu es meus Patruelisetc, irrideret mihi quocum non nisi communem habeo humanitatem. par. 8. aequaliscensetur:) Notandum aequalitatem velesse(1) virium, quo modo homines semper non sunt aequales, nam rusticus potest esse robustior 48. No answer is given. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 171 outside society and opposed to the civil state. See the author’s De jure naturae et gentium p. 139, par. 1. in the light ofreason alone:)This Iadd in order to check thecriticism of my critics and show that I do not talk of [p.73] the state of Adam. par. 3. excelling other animals:) Even the pagans acknowledged this, as does Ovid in the book of Metamorphoses Fable 11 verse 53sqq.: 87 And, though all other animals are prone and fix their gaze upon the earth, he /a god/ gave to man an uplifted face and bade him stand erect and turn his eyes to heaven. Sallusttoo saysthatGod degraded the otheranimalsto fodder. 88Thusman’sstructurereminds us of our duty, not to think that weliveto eat but that weeat to live. par. 4. In thisstate89 areinfantscast outin a desertarea.Werethe first parentsin paradise in this state? We answer …90 par.


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Sallusttoo saysthatGod degraded the otheranimalsto fodder. 88Thusman’sstructurereminds us of our duty, not to think that weliveto eat but that weeat to live. par. 4. In thisstate89 areinfantscast outin a desertarea.Werethe first parentsin paradise in this state? We answer …90 par. 7. gradually withered away:) After the descendants had, so to speak, faded away and there was no sense of kinship left, the bond of humanity and the state of nature commenced. The patriarchs procured their property through breeding cattleand cattle needed a great deal of space, which entailed the separation and dispersion of men. These European peoples are usually believed to have originated from Japheth. If today I say to an Asian: You are descended from my father’s brother, he would mock me, since we have only our humanity in common. par. 8. considered equal:)91 Note that there is equality first with regard to physical strength, where men are not always equal, for a peasant can be stronger than a 87. In modern editions Metamorphoses, 1 v. 84–86. 88. The quotation not found in Sallust; therefore God is the unverified but likely subject. 89. I.e. the state of nature as opposed to life improved by human work and art (number 2 in par. 2). 90. No answer is given. 91. The words are not found in § 8. 172 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Rege. Sed sciendum inaequalitatem virium non esse tantam, quin interdum validioriab imbecillioreimminere possit periculum. Nam maxima [p.74]est 49 inter vermiculoset homines,ab iis tamen iugulamur. Confer fabulam de aquila et vulpe nec non historia de ingenti et robusto Goliatho et pusillo homuncione Davide. (2) est aequalitas solertiae et ingenii. Verum sicut vix reperiri potest facierum aequalitas, ita nec ingeniorum. Quidam enim sunt animo forti, quidam timido, quidam ingenio acuto, quidam hebeti etc. (3) ut hoc loco50 est aequalitas juris seu libertatis, ut quis dicere alteri possit, ego aeque liber sum atque tu, ego aeque rem meam geram juxta meum arbitrium atquetu.


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Confer fabulam de aquila et vulpe nec non historia de ingenti et robusto Goliatho et pusillo homuncione Davide. (2) est aequalitas solertiae et ingenii. Verum sicut vix reperiri potest facierum aequalitas, ita nec ingeniorum. Quidam enim sunt animo forti, quidam timido, quidam ingenio acuto, quidam hebeti etc. (3) ut hoc loco50 est aequalitas juris seu libertatis, ut quis dicere alteri possit, ego aeque liber sum atque tu, ego aeque rem meam geram juxta meum arbitrium atquetu. Eo modo omniaregnasunt aequalia, quamvis unum regnum alteri praestat potentia virium, atque ingenio. Gallia est validius et ingeniosius, ut apparet ex manufacturis, sed non ideo potest sese efferre super alia regna imbecilliora, quae non necessum habent ideo Galliae majestatem adorare. Sicut hodie unus Rex alteri superiorem locum non concedit. Contendit enim quivis se cuivis alii regi esse aequalem, quod provenit ex libertate naturali. par. 11. Dubitatio non minimi momentiest, An sc. in statu naturali altersit meus amicus, an vero meus hostis? Duae extremae hic sunt sententiae, (1) in excessu peccans est eorum qui stolidi moti quod legerint apud Aristotelem hominem natura esse ζωoν πoλιτικòν, statuerunt omnes homines ita esse amabiles ac jucundos, ut ab se invicem nihil [p.75] mali possint timere, quod dum statuunt stolide probant suam generis humani ejusque actionum ignorantiam. (2) Altera in defectu peccat, cujus auctor est Hobbesius qui hanc in politicis suis conatur defendere propositionem: omnes videlicet homines in statu naturali interseseesse hostes. Hinc quando pax est inter integras Respublicasasseritur non esseamicitiam vel pacem aliquam, sed tantum inducias, desumpta similitudine ex iis qui pugnis decertant, qui sicut tum quiescunt cum mutuo defatigati sunt, sed recuperato habitu et decedente calore, irruunt invicem in capillos: ita dicit fieri in statu naturali,et inducias tantum essead vires recolligendas,cum tamen nos dicimus pacem esse.


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Hinc quando pax est inter integras Respublicasasseritur non esseamicitiam vel pacem aliquam, sed tantum inducias, desumpta similitudine ex iis qui pugnis decertant, qui sicut tum quiescunt cum mutuo defatigati sunt, sed recuperato habitu et decedente calore, irruunt invicem in capillos: ita dicit fieri in statu naturali,et inducias tantum essead vires recolligendas,cum tamen nos dicimus pacem esse. Aliam certe pessimam format regulam: Prudentem non debere ullam occasionem negligere alterum opprimendi. Nammeus hostis nullumtempus negligitadme opprimendum. Sicut duo depugnatores, quibus haeclex ut non desistant priusquamalterutercadat. 49. Sc. inaequalitas. 50. Manuscript: h.l. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 173 king. But one should know that the difference in strength is not that great; the stronger can sometimes be threatened by the weaker. There is a very great [p.74] inequality between snakesand men, yet we get killed by them. Comparethefable of theeagleand thefox and thestory of Goliath, thestrong giant,and David, the insignificantlittle man. Second,thereisinequalitywith regard to shrewdnessand abilities. As rarely as you can find identical faces, can you find identical abilities. Some are brave, others timid, some are intelligent others dull and so on. Third, there is, as in this passage, equality in right and liberty, whereby one can say to the other: I am as free as you; I run my own business at my own will as much as you.In thisway all kingdomsareequal,although one kingdom may besuperiorin powerand talent. Franceis strongerand moretalented,asappears from their manufactures, but shecannotelevate herself over other weaker kingdoms,and these do not need to adore the majesty of France. Today, no king concedes a superior placing to another. Everyoneclaims to betheequal ofall the others, which comes from the natural liberty. par. 11. Amostimportant question iswhether, in thestateif nature,the otherismy friend or my foe?


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Franceis strongerand moretalented,asappears from their manufactures, but shecannotelevate herself over other weaker kingdoms,and these do not need to adore the majesty of France. Today, no king concedes a superior placing to another. Everyoneclaims to betheequal ofall the others, which comes from the natural liberty. par. 11. Amostimportant question iswhether, in thestateif nature,the otherismy friend or my foe? Therearetwo extreme positions here: onethat is wrong by excess is taken by those who, foolishly affected by having read in Aristotlethat man isa political animal, believe that all men are so amiable and agreeable that they cannot fear anything [p.75]evilfromeach other; by saying thisthey foolishly provetheirignorance of the human raceand itsactions. The other position is wrong by deficit. Its origin is Hobbes who in his political doctrinetries to defend the proposition that all men in the state of nature are enemies. Therefore, when there is peace between independent states it is not friendship or peace but only an armistice; there is an analogy of two fighters who take a rest when both are exhausted but fly at each otheragain when they are restored and cooled down. This is how it is in the state of nature, Hobbessays;thetruceis only to recoup power,althoughwecall it peace. He states another very bad rule: A prudent man should not miss any opportunity to oppress the other. For my foe loses no time to oppress me. It is like two fighters who follow the law that they do not cease until either falls. 174 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Certe stultum facio si praebeam ipsius cuspidi meum nudum pectus, quin potius occasione allubescente ipsum transfoderim. Sed neutra sententia nobis probatur et (1) prior quidem statuens hominem animal esse humanissimum et blandissimum ignorat generis humani ingenia.


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For my foe loses no time to oppress me. It is like two fighters who follow the law that they do not cease until either falls. 174 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Certe stultum facio si praebeam ipsius cuspidi meum nudum pectus, quin potius occasione allubescente ipsum transfoderim. Sed neutra sententia nobis probatur et (1) prior quidem statuens hominem animal esse humanissimum et blandissimum ignorat generis humani ingenia. Nunc enim nobis non est sermo de statu innocentiae ante lapsum. [p.76] (2) Posteriorem omnes saniores politici detestantur et graviter pronuntiat Cicero in libro aureo de Officiis: Non ita comparata est vita humana, ut sit status gladiatorius, ubi nisialterutrum opprimamusab alio nos opprimi necessum est. Quapropter inter haecce duo sequenda est media via, quaeconvenitcum sanaratione,et hujus mundi praxi: Homines videlicet in statu naturali esse amicos, sed non fidos, pacem inter eos esse lubricam et infidam. Quod vero jam amicitiam firmiorem colamus cum civibus, id facitmetusex judice, namsi injuriamalicui intulero, velmihi illatafuerit, judex statim paratus est ad vindicandum quod in statu naturali non fit, ubi nullus judex. Ad hunc paragr. vide Auct. O.M. l. 2 c.2. studium aliorum vires subruendi:) Qui vident in statu naturali alium nimis augeri potentia, omnes vires intendunt ut aequa sit lanx, singulae inquam51respublicaecurant utin aequilibrio omnes degant.Quod ipsum provenitex infidaillaamicitia.Non vero itaestin statu civili.Ibi non opus habemus expiscari si qui forte in nos quid struant, habemus dominum superiorem, Regem videlicet. Deinde per me quivis fiat Crassus,52 nam Rex potest me defendere contra ejus potentiam si opus sit. Sed contra in statu naturali. Ergo pactis non satis fiditur, licet nomen fidei sit sanctum. Nam si quis pactis non steterit, non habeo dominum communem qui me defendat injuriarumque ulciscatur. [p.77] Caput II d 28 Nov. [De officiis con jugalibus] par.


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Deinde per me quivis fiat Crassus,52 nam Rex potest me defendere contra ejus potentiam si opus sit. Sed contra in statu naturali. Ergo pactis non satis fiditur, licet nomen fidei sit sanctum. Nam si quis pactis non steterit, non habeo dominum communem qui me defendat injuriarumque ulciscatur. [p.77] Caput II d 28 Nov. [De officiis con jugalibus] par. 3. sentiatque se plus utilitatis posse etc.:) Et exinde est quod Paulus Apostolus et Patres antiquiores commendent tantopere caelibatum, eumque praeferant matrimonii statui, qui hoc non dignior in se, nam longe melius consulitur in genus humanum cum manet species post nos quam cum non. Sed Paulus et Patres sunt intelligendi de talibus hominibus, 51. Uncertain reading. 52. Uncertain reading. The manuscript has Craesus. If read as a distortion of Croesus, it could refer to the Lydian king, but the Roman Crassus, known for his ruthless greed, is a more plausible candidate. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 175 Certainly,Iamstupid ifIexposemy naked chestto hisspear,ratherthan stab him through when an opportunity presents itself. But we approve of neither of these positions.


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Uncertain reading. 52. Uncertain reading. The manuscript has Craesus. If read as a distortion of Croesus, it could refer to the Lydian king, but the Roman Crassus, known for his ruthless greed, is a more plausible candidate. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 175 Certainly,Iamstupid ifIexposemy naked chestto hisspear,ratherthan stab him through when an opportunity presents itself. But we approve of neither of these positions. The first, in stating that man is a most human and agreeable animal, is ignorant of the character of humankind; we are not now talking about the state of innocence. [p.76] The other position is denounced by all sane doctors of politics; Cicero in his golden De officiis declares impressively: Human life is not ordained to be a state of gladiators, where we are crushed by another unless we crush him.92 Therefore a middle way is to be followed between these two positions that is in accordance with sound reason and the praxis of this world: Human beings in the state of nature are friends but not trustworthy, and peace between themis uncertain and unreliable.Thatweentertain a firmer friendship with our fellow countrymen comes from the judge, for if I injure someone, or vice versa, the judge is at once there to take vengeance, which does not happen in thestate of nature, wherethereis no judge. To this paragraph, see the author’s major work, book 2 chap. 2. eagerness to subvert the strength of others:) Those who, in thestate of nature, see that someone is becoming too powerful direct all their powers to bring an equal weight. Indeed, theindividual statesaresolicitous that thereisa balance between them. This is because of the unreliable friendship. It is not like that in the civil state,wherewe do not haveto find out if someone perhaps is preparing something against us, since we have the king as superior master. Hereafter anyone may be a Crassus,as faras Iam concerned, for the king can defend meagainst his power if necessary.


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Indeed, theindividual statesaresolicitous that thereisa balance between them. This is because of the unreliable friendship. It is not like that in the civil state,wherewe do not haveto find out if someone perhaps is preparing something against us, since we have the king as superior master. Hereafter anyone may be a Crassus,as faras Iam concerned, for the king can defend meagainst his power if necessary. In the state of nature it is the other way round. Thus, contracts are not reliable enough, even if they are confirmed by the name of trust. For if someone does not keep contracts, thereis no common masterto defend meand revenge my injuries. [p.77] Chapter II November 28 [On the duties of marriage] par. 3. and feels that hecan achieve moregood forthe human race…by not marrying:)This iswhy theApostle Pauland theelderchurch fatherssomuch recommend celibacy, preferring itto thestate ofmatrimony.Celibacy is not betterin itself,foritismuch better for the human race if there is progeny after us. But Paul and the fathers 92. Cicero: De officiis, possibly III: 5, but the phrase status gladiatorius is not found there. 176 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s qui plus commodi generi humano afferunt caelibes quam uxorati. Sicut e.g. tempore Pauli in ecclesiainstituenda Paulo etaliis discipuliseratambulandumin universumorbem, variaquesubeunda pericula pro doctrina Christiana propaganda. Quod caelibi facilius erat quam uxorato. Ergo propter praesentem necessitatem Paulus suadet caelibatum. Praepostere ergo dicta illa allegunt Pontificii, nam alia facies est ecclesiae constituendae ac constitutae, quamvis imperitis hanc rationem dicant, quod conjugium sit inpurum, tamen alia est ratio politica apud eos, nam ratio status non fert sacerdotes uxoratos, sienim cardinales videant sacerdotes inferioris dignitatis uxoribus gaudere, etiam illi volunt esse uxorati. par. 5. unum una esse contentum:) Distinguendum inter matrimonium perfectum et imperfectum. Illud est quod Deus animo instituit jussitque nos contentos esse una.


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5. unum una esse contentum:) Distinguendum inter matrimonium perfectum et imperfectum. Illud est quod Deus animo instituit jussitque nos contentos esse una. Nam (1) quaelibet mater corripitad se suamque prolemin alteriusfraudem.(2) Polygamia[p.78]admendicitatemvia praebetur, cum iam orbis terrarum sit repletus hominibus, secus ac erat primis temporibus, quando hominibus vacuuserat. Verum hisceseculis tantum abest hominum defectus ut multitudo sit morbus, et tantum abest ut tolerandasit polygamia, ut potius maximecavenda ne pessum det respublica.Namsi hocin regno usitataesset polygamia, per50 annos unusalterumpenitus devoraret, nisicautumesset percolonias ducendas.Unde(3) infinitae rixae oriturae. Hae sunt rationes politicae contra Polygamiam. Sed ad hoc ultimumregerunt quidam:Astinter Mulieres Muhamedanas non deprehenduntur rixae. Respondemus in causa est quod polygamia illis sit pars praecipuae religionis. Illis enim est persuasum Dei voluntatem esse multas habere simul conjuges. Nam cui persuasum est Deum hoc vel illud velle eique placere, homo non recusat adire quantacunque fiat cum incommoditate; quod quoque patet ex Pontificiis. Quidam addunt hancrationem, ut Populusreddaturservilis. Nam qui habet multos liberos, ejus substantia evacuatur, et inde redduntur proniores ad jugum subeundum. gentiumChristianarum:) Primis Christianistemporibus viguisseinter Christianos πολυγαμίαν affirmaverim facile, cum Apostolus dicat quod Episcopus debeatesse unius uxoris vir. Ergo praesupponitaliquos plures habere uxores. Sed quantum invaluit religio Christiana tantum quoque monogamia. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 177 thought of such men who contribute more to mankind by being celibates than married.In thetime of Paul, forinstance, Pauland other disciples had to travelall over the world to organize the church and to undergo various perils to propagate the Christian doctrine. This was easier foracelibate than a married man.


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Ergo praesupponitaliquos plures habere uxores. Sed quantum invaluit religio Christiana tantum quoque monogamia. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 177 thought of such men who contribute more to mankind by being celibates than married.In thetime of Paul, forinstance, Pauland other disciples had to travelall over the world to organize the church and to undergo various perils to propagate the Christian doctrine. This was easier foracelibate than a married man. Thus it is because of present necessity that Pauladvocatescelibacy. 93Therefore,the papists adduce these words preposterously, for the church is different when established from when she is being established. And although some ignorant people say that marriageis impure, they haveanother political reason: thereason of statecannot accept married priests, forifcardinalsseethat priests of lower dignity enjoywives, they too will want to be married. par. 5. that oneman becontentwith onewoman:)Oneshould distinguish between perfect and imperfect matrimony. The first is what God planted into our soulcommending us to becontentwith onewoman. First,every mother grabs for herselfand her baby to the detriment of others. Second, polygamy [p.78] opens the way to mendacity, sincethe world is now fully populated which it was not in the firstage. But nowadaysweareso faraway froma population deficitthat overpopulation isa disease; far from tolerating polygamy weshould rather bewarethat it does not harm the state. If polygamy was practised in this kingdom, people would devour each other if one did not care to found colonies. Third, infinite quarrels would arise. Theseare political reasonsagainst polygamy. However,against this lastargument some peopleretort that thereare no quarrelsamong the Mohammedans. Theanswer is that for them polygamy is part of their particular religion. They believe it is God’s will that they shall haveseveral wivesatatime.


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If polygamy was practised in this kingdom, people would devour each other if one did not care to found colonies. Third, infinite quarrels would arise. Theseare political reasonsagainst polygamy. However,against this lastargument some peopleretort that thereare no quarrelsamong the Mohammedans. Theanswer is that for them polygamy is part of their particular religion. They believe it is God’s will that they shall haveseveral wivesatatime. And he who isconvinced that God wants oris pleased by this orthat does not object to submit to anything, howeverinconvenient; this is obviouswith the papistsaswell. Certain peopleadd theargumentthat polygamymakesthe people obsequious. Havingmany children drains their fortunes, which makes the fathers more inclined to submit. Christian nations:) I can confirm that polygamy existed among the Christians during the first centuries, since the Apostle admonishes that a bishop ought to have one woman only. 94 Hence, he presupposes that some haveseveral wives. But as Christianity prevailed, so did monogamy. 93. 1 Corinthians 7:7 is often interpreted as a recommendation of celibacy. 94. 1 Timothy 3:2. Pufendorf does not mention polygamy among Christians in De jure (VI: 1:15–19), but he did not clearly declare it to be contrary to natural law, for which he was attacked by his critics. 178 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s [p.79] par. 6. nisi principalis etc:) Pacta enim stant mutua fide, si unus desciscit, alter non teneturad fidem. Ergo siab alterutro violanturcapitacontractusmatrimonialis, necessum estetiam ipsum contractum matrimonii rescindi. par. 8. Male faciunt Pontificii qui 7 gradus requirunt inter quos matrimonia non iniri possunt, quietassignantaffinitatem spiritualem, quaeest,cum puer et puella in eodem baptismate una baptisati sunt. Sed exhinc, ut ex aliis suis statutis lucrum habent. Nam quo plures gradus sunt prohibiti, eo saepius dispensandicopia datur, quod non faciunt nisiacceptislargiter pecuniis. par.


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Ergo siab alterutro violanturcapitacontractusmatrimonialis, necessum estetiam ipsum contractum matrimonii rescindi. par. 8. Male faciunt Pontificii qui 7 gradus requirunt inter quos matrimonia non iniri possunt, quietassignantaffinitatem spiritualem, quaeest,cum puer et puella in eodem baptismate una baptisati sunt. Sed exhinc, ut ex aliis suis statutis lucrum habent. Nam quo plures gradus sunt prohibiti, eo saepius dispensandicopia datur, quod non faciunt nisiacceptislargiter pecuniis. par. 9. solemnia:) Sacerdotalem benedictionem seu copulationem non putamus fuisse ab initio inter Christianos sed hunc morem invaluisse inter alios pios. Nuptias enim Antiqui etiam celebrabant convivio, ad quod etiam sacerdotes invitati, qui preces fundebant pro conjugibus. Qui mos laudandusestet pius, qui primo fuit honestatis, factusest deinde necessitatis, utsacerdotesinteressent omnibusconviviis,et pecuniasacciperent.Unde in jure pontificio necessarius est. Quaeritur an et inter nos necessarius? Respondemus quod sit, quia lex civilis potest injungere tales ceremonias ut observemus tanquam necessarias, et nisi istae observantur conjugia sint irrita. Civis enim non tantum tenetur ad observationem legis naturalis, sed et civilis. [p.80] Caput III d 3 December 1673 [De officiis parentum et liberorum] par. 1. antiquissimum:) Etamsiconjugiumsitantiquiorsocietate paterna,tamen radii imperii non elucent ex conjugio. Sunt enim conjuges pares. Nam Eva non erat desumtaex Adami planta pedis sed ex costasive medio viri, ut illam agnosceret sibi comparem et non procuraret suis sub pedibus, unde dicitur antiquissimum, sine quo imperium civile non est. Est et sanctissimum ut Ethnici dicunt pietatem sive venerationem laedi vel ex vultu moroso liberorum erga parentes. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 179 [p.79] par. 6. unless the original terms of the agreement have been violated:) For agreements rest on mutual trust; if one part falls off, the other is not obliged to be faithful.


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Est et sanctissimum ut Ethnici dicunt pietatem sive venerationem laedi vel ex vultu moroso liberorum erga parentes. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 179 [p.79] par. 6. unless the original terms of the agreement have been violated:) For agreements rest on mutual trust; if one part falls off, the other is not obliged to be faithful. That is, if someone violates the terms of the matrimonial contract, the contract itself is annulled. par. 8. The papists do ill when they require seven degrees between which matrimony is not possible, including spiritualaffinity, which is when a boy and a girl have been baptized together. Butfrom thisthey make profit,asfrom their otherregulations, for the more degrees that are forbidden the more frequent are the exemptions, which are not granted without large compensation. par. 9. solemnities:) I do not think that the benediction and consecration of the priest was in useamong Christians from the beginning; thiscustom became dominant among other pious people. For the ancients celebrated their weddings in a social feast to which priests wereinvited who prayed forthespouses.This wasalaudable and pious custom that was first practiced out of probity but later of necessity, so that the priests were present at all wedding feasts and were paid for it. Therefore, the custom is necessary among the papists. Is it so among us as well? The answer is yes, since civil law can enjoin such ceremonies to be observed as necessary and that marriages become invalid otherwise. For the subject is obliged to follow not only natural law but civil law as well. [p.80] Chapter III December 3 1673 [On the duties of parents and children] par. 1. oldest … form of authority:) Although marriage is older than paternal society, the rays of power do not shine out from it. For spouses are equal. Eve was not taken from thesole of Adam’s foot but from his rib, from thecentre of the man, so that hewould acknowledge heras hisequaland not place her beneath his feet.


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For the subject is obliged to follow not only natural law but civil law as well. [p.80] Chapter III December 3 1673 [On the duties of parents and children] par. 1. oldest … form of authority:) Although marriage is older than paternal society, the rays of power do not shine out from it. For spouses are equal. Eve was not taken from thesole of Adam’s foot but from his rib, from thecentre of the man, so that hewould acknowledge heras hisequaland not place her beneath his feet. Because of that marriage is the oldest society and without it there is no civil authority. It isalso the most sacred,as indicated by the pagan saying that the peevish air of the children towards their parents offends piety and veneration. 180 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s par. 2. Duxi disserendum aliquid esse in antecessum in genere de origine iuris parentum in liberos. Ubi notandus error Hornii, qui statuit omne imperium immediate esse a Deo, quem errorem etiam passim inculcant qui sacra tractant. Fateor libens omnem ordinem bonum esse a Deo, nec nego imperium esse ordinem bonum; sed illi quiescunt in generali causa, videlicet Deo. Sed accuratius est philosophandum, ac descendendum etiam ad caussas particulares. Non suffcit dicereliberis, quod Deus constituerit quod liberi parentibus obedientiam praestent, sed et causae secundaesunt inquirendae. Sicconcedimus Magistratum essea Deo, sed illud non sufficit,sed in causassecundaset proximasestinquirendum.Ut stultitia eorum magis appareat, addam quaedam exempla. Syrach dicit ne contemne medicum, Deus enim illum creavit. Ibi dicitur medicus Dei [p.81]creatura,certestultuserit non experientissimusmedicussi negligat librosevolvere,contemnat bonos praeceptoresconsulere, nolitin praxise exercere. Prov. 30 dicitur prudens uxor esta Deo, seu bona Dei creatura; certe hoc ipso caussae secundae non excluduntur. Si procum non egero, cum parentibus beneloquar, si non circumspexero deejus fama, profecto nullam consequar uxorem, vel certe admodum malam.


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Syrach dicit ne contemne medicum, Deus enim illum creavit. Ibi dicitur medicus Dei [p.81]creatura,certestultuserit non experientissimusmedicussi negligat librosevolvere,contemnat bonos praeceptoresconsulere, nolitin praxise exercere. Prov. 30 dicitur prudens uxor esta Deo, seu bona Dei creatura; certe hoc ipso caussae secundae non excluduntur. Si procum non egero, cum parentibus beneloquar, si non circumspexero deejus fama, profecto nullam consequar uxorem, vel certe admodum malam. Psal. 105 dicitur quod panis sit Dei creatura, de quo et petimus in oratione quod Deus det nobis panem quotidianum. Et quanquam non crescit sine Dei benedictione, tamen addendasuntetiam caussaesecundaeac particulares, ut agrum colere, semen spargere etc. ad ipsorum salutem:) Quae est causa primaria. Secundaria quidem est gaudium parentum,alias pater posset dicere, quid curo istum pusionem, habeo quantum sufficit ad meam sustentationem; tum censetur contra rationem agere, quia aberratur a scopo, qui est salus liberorum. par. 8. observantiae debitum maneat:) Hoc loco incidit quaerere, an filius possit habere praecedentiam prae patre? Ubi distinguitur inter actus publicos et privatos. Sicut de Quinto Fabio maximo cunctatore refertur, nam filius erat consul, pater vero proconsul, et mos erat desilire equo, usque dum transgressus esset consul. Misit itaque lictorem nunciatum ut equo descenderet, quod ipsum pater adeo O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 181 par. 2. I think something should be said beforehand and in general about the origin of theright of parents over theirchildren. Note herethe mistake of Horn, who held thatallauthority comesimmediately fromGod,amistakeinculcated farandwide by theologians.95 I gladly admit thatall good ordercomes from God,and I do not deny thatauthority isa good order. But they seek it in the generalcause, i.e. God. But one must philosophize moreaccurately and go down to thesecondary causes as well.


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2. I think something should be said beforehand and in general about the origin of theright of parents over theirchildren. Note herethe mistake of Horn, who held thatallauthority comesimmediately fromGod,amistakeinculcated farandwide by theologians.95 I gladly admit thatall good ordercomes from God,and I do not deny thatauthority isa good order. But they seek it in the generalcause, i.e. God. But one must philosophize moreaccurately and go down to thesecondary causes as well. It is not enough to tell children that God has decided that they should obey their parents. Likewise, we admit that the political authority comes from God, butthatis notsufficient;again, one mustseek thesecond and nearestcauses. To show their foolishness more clearly, I will add a few examples. Sirach says: do not condemn the doctor, for God created him.96 Here, the doctor is said to be the creation of God, [p.81] but he will certainly be a stupid and the least experienced doctor if he neglects to read books, disdainsconsulting good teachersand refuses to practice. In Proverbs 30, it says that a prudent wife is God given,97 or a good creation of God, but that certainly does not exclude secondary causes. If I do not plead the wooer, if I do not talk well to the parents, if I do not carefully inquire into her reputation, I will certainly not get a wife, or only a bad one. In Psalms 105 it is said that bread is a creation of God, for which we ask in the prayer that God give us our daily bread. Although it does not grow without divine blessing, nevertheless somesecondary and particularcauses must beadded, liketilling the soil, scattering the seed and so on. fortheir own security:)Thatisthe firstcause.Asecondary cause, however, isthe delight ofthe parents; otherwisethefathercould say:why shallIcareforthatlittle boy, I haveenough for my sustenance. Then heactscontrary to reason, because he deviates from the aim, which is the security of his children. par.


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Although it does not grow without divine blessing, nevertheless somesecondary and particularcauses must beadded, liketilling the soil, scattering the seed and so on. fortheir own security:)Thatisthe firstcause.Asecondary cause, however, isthe delight ofthe parents; otherwisethefathercould say:why shallIcareforthatlittle boy, I haveenough for my sustenance. Then heactscontrary to reason, because he deviates from the aim, which is the security of his children. par. 8. the debt of respect remains:) At this passage, one can ask if a son can have precedence over his father? Here is a distinction between public and private acts. As is told about Quintus Fabius the great Procrastinator, his son wasconsul, thefather proconsul. It was customary to dismount from one’s horse until a consul had passed. 98Thus, theson sentalictorto tell him to dismount,which thefathertruly 95. Johann Friedrich Horn: Politicorum pars architectonica de civitate, 1664. Compare De jure naturae et gentium VII: 3–4. 96. Sirach 38:1. 97. In modern editions, Proverbs 31. 98. Livy: Book XXIV:45. 182 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s laudabat. [p.82] Contra vero fit in domo, ibi praecedit pater, etsi filius adveneritadmaioremdignitatem. Si quis pastor habeat patremrusticum, pastor esset valde rusticus, si rusticum in mensa poneret ultimo loco. Caput V [De causa impulsiva constituendae civ itatis] Puto omnino ante diluvium non exstitisse civitates sed tantum fuisse societatem singulorum patrumfamilias segregum, quod inde potest probari, quiatam corruptaerat hominum vitatum temporis, 53 ut Deusconsiliumsumserit perdendi generis humani. 54Namsicivitatesfuissent, non est probabile tantam fuisse barbariem ut Deus illos tam graviter puniret universali diluvio. Nec statim post diluvium, sed plura forsan secula effluxere, antequam civitates inciperent. par.


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54Namsicivitatesfuissent, non est probabile tantam fuisse barbariem ut Deus illos tam graviter puniret universali diluvio. Nec statim post diluvium, sed plura forsan secula effluxere, antequam civitates inciperent. par. 1. vix sit jucunditatis etc:) Nam domus propria admodum jucunda et suas habet cujusvis generis commoditates, sicut Abraham erat dives ac felix ac quivis nostrum, qui in civitatibus vivimus, cum is nulli civitati esset subjectus. ex hisceenim fundamentis:) Non possumus facilejudicare de potestate imperantium, vel de obligatione civium, si non intellexerimus causam, quae impulit homines ad constitutendam civitatem. Multi imo omnes paene hactenus quasi caeco obsequio secuti [p.83] suntAristotelem, quod civitatumcausafuerit naturaseu homines natura esse cives, ita ut non possint non in civitate degere, sicut non possumus non sine esu et potu vivere. par. 2. aliquam utilitatem inde sibi:) Homo est animal quaerens utilitatem suam, non autem per somnum elapsi sumus in civitates. Ergo alterius videndum quid commodi respexit homo cum subjecerit sese civitati; nam nullus sapiens quid quaerit sine utilitate. Verum respondere tantum per naturam, ac in ea acquiescere est frivolum, nec ulla est consequentia in eo argumento. Idem est sane, ac ita colligerem: Nuditas homini non est commoda, ergo gestandum est vestimentum holosericum, nulla est consequentia. Dantur enim alia species vestium, datur pannus etc. Ita et hic 53. In margin: NB. 54. In margin: NB. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 183 praised. [p.82]Itis differentat home:therethefathertakes precedence,even ifthe son has acquired greater dignity. If a vicar has a father who is peasant, the vicar would be very rustic if he placed the peasant lowest at his table.


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Dantur enim alia species vestium, datur pannus etc. Ita et hic 53. In margin: NB. 54. In margin: NB. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 183 praised. [p.82]Itis differentat home:therethefathertakes precedence,even ifthe son has acquired greater dignity. If a vicar has a father who is peasant, the vicar would be very rustic if he placed the peasant lowest at his table. Chapter V [On the impulsive cause of constituting the state] I do not believe that there were states before the Flood, only a consociation of separate masters.Thiscan be proved by thefact that thelife of peopleat that time was so corrupt, that God decided to destroy mankind. Forif there had been states it is not likely that thesavagerywould have been so great that God punished them with a universal flood. Nor were there any states immediately after the Flood; several centuries probably passed before they began. par. 1. hardly any amenity:) For a house of one’s own is a very pleasant thing with all kinds ofadvantages.Abraham wasasrich and lucky asany of uswho livein states, although he was not the subject of any state. from this basis:)Wecannoteasily discussthe power oftherulersand the obligation of the subjects if we do not understand the cause that made men constitute thestate. Many, not to say almostall, have until now in blind obediencefollowed [p.83] Aristotle’s opinion that the cause of states is nature or that human beings are by naturecitizens, so that they needs must livein states in thesame way as we cannot live without food and drink. par. 2. some advantage coming to him from it:) Man is an animal that seeks his utility. We have not slipped into the state sleeping. There is another advantage that man considered when he made himself subject underthestate. No prudent man seeks to get anything unless he expects some utility. It is trifling to answer by nature and besatisfied with that.


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2. some advantage coming to him from it:) Man is an animal that seeks his utility. We have not slipped into the state sleeping. There is another advantage that man considered when he made himself subject underthestate. No prudent man seeks to get anything unless he expects some utility. It is trifling to answer by nature and besatisfied with that. It isas if Iargued likethis: Nakedness is not advantageous to man; therefore he must wear a silk shirt; the latter does not follow from the first. There are other kinds of garments, of cloth for instance. Likewise considering 184 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s homo a natura est animal politicum, ergo deget vitam politicam, potest enimsatisfaceresuo desiderio in primissocietatibus.Ita homo non potest esse absque cibo, ergo vescatur perdicibus. Non statim ex socialitate:) Sicut haec femina est conjugabilis, ergo erit bona uxor. Nam longe plura requiruntur in bona uxore. Ita aptitudo serviendi non statim facit bonum servum. Ita si quis homo est, ergo est bonus civis. Adeoque ipsa natura non est causa civitatum. par. 3. animal politicum:) Sic de nauta dici potest est animal aquatile. Ita qui statim vomitacin mari versatur, non estanimalaquatile. Itaanimal politicum est qui vere ac bene potest esse in civitate, non vero qui naturam humanam habet. [p.84] par. 4. ut praesidia sibi circumponerentetc:) Remotis spuriiscausis iam ad genuinam pervenimus, quam etiam Sanctus Apostolus Paulus non ut novum quoddam dogma rejicit sed veram comprobat, quando discipulos suos monet ut pro omnibus orent, et pro magistratu, ut quietam et tranquillam vitam degamus sub eorum defensione. Tranquillitas namque in eo constat, ut quis tutus sit ab aliorum hominum injuriis. Cap. V I [De interna civ itatum structura] par. 1. in longe distantia:) Syrach dicit: Meliusest habereamicum in propinquo, quam fratrem in longinquo. par. 5. Scrupulus hic oboriri potest, num etiam subditi censeantur consentire malas regis actiones, v.g. scortari, innocentem opprimere. Respondemus quod non.


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Tranquillitas namque in eo constat, ut quis tutus sit ab aliorum hominum injuriis. Cap. V I [De interna civ itatum structura] par. 1. in longe distantia:) Syrach dicit: Meliusest habereamicum in propinquo, quam fratrem in longinquo. par. 5. Scrupulus hic oboriri potest, num etiam subditi censeantur consentire malas regis actiones, v.g. scortari, innocentem opprimere. Respondemus quod non. Nam in fine hujus paragraphi dicitur quicquid de rebus ad securitatem communem etc. Ergo privataeregisactiones v.g.edere, dormire O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 185 thestate: man isa politicalanimal, theargument goes; heleadsa political life, for hecannot satisfy his longing in the firstcommunities.99 In analogy you could say: man cannot exist without food; therefore he must eat partridges. not infer directly from man’s sociality:) As if one argued: this woman can be married; ergo she is a good wife. A lot more is needed to make a good wife. The aptitude to serve does not immediately make a good servant. Similarly if you say: if someone is a human being, he is therefore a good citizen. So this is why nature itself is not the cause of states. par. 3. political animal:) You can say of a sailor that he is an aquatic animal. Hence, he who vomitsas soon he gets into water is notan aquaticanimal. Similarly,a political animal is someone who truly and successfully can exist in a state, but not one who has the nature of a human being.100 [p.84] par. 4. to build protection around themselves:) Having set aside the spurious causes we now cometo therealcause, which Saint Paul did not rejectasa new doctrine but approved of as being true, when he admonished his pupils to pray for everybody and for theauthorities in order that we maylive in peace and calm. 101 Forcalmness consists in being safe from the wrongs of others. Chapter V I [On the internal structure of states] par. 1. of limited extent:) Sirach says: It is better to have a friend in the neighbourhood than a brother far away. 102 par. 5.


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101 Forcalmness consists in being safe from the wrongs of others. Chapter V I [On the internal structure of states] par. 1. of limited extent:) Sirach says: It is better to have a friend in the neighbourhood than a brother far away. 102 par. 5. A problem may arise here about whether his subjects are considered to approve of bad actions by the king, like employing harlots or oppressing the innocent. Our answer is no, for in the end of this paragraph it says in what concerns the common security. The private actions of the king, like eating and sleeping are 99. I.e. the marriage, the household and the village. 100. The arguments against Aristotle are similar in De jure VII: 1:3, but the critique is given relatively more space in ObsO. 101. 1 Timothy 2:2. 102. Reference not found in Sirach. Should be Proverbs 27:10. 186 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s etc non imputantur subditis, ut illi dicuntur vigilare quando rex vigilat, ac esurire quando rex. par. 10. unius personaeconcipitur:) Personaest vel physica sinealiquomunereconsiderata, vel moralis, eaque vel simplex quando homo cum sua sanctione concipitur, ut dominus, servus etc, ubi tantum unus est homo: vel composita, quae constituitur ex multis individuis ut collegium, sicut vulgo dicitur: Tres faciunt collegium. Sic Academia est persona moralis una [p.85] sed composita ex conjunctione professorum et studiosorum etc, undecorpus vocatur.Ita decorona Sueciae, Galliae, Hispaniaeloquimur tanquam de una persona. Habet enim persona moralis omnes affectiones, quae in persona simplici concurrunt, ut simplex nomen, simplicem voluntatem, suajuraetres. Non ego etconcivis meus sumusregnum Sueciae, sed omnes in universum. Sicregisest leges ferre, non mei velalterius privati tributa imponere.


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Sic Academia est persona moralis una [p.85] sed composita ex conjunctione professorum et studiosorum etc, undecorpus vocatur.Ita decorona Sueciae, Galliae, Hispaniaeloquimur tanquam de una persona. Habet enim persona moralis omnes affectiones, quae in persona simplici concurrunt, ut simplex nomen, simplicem voluntatem, suajuraetres. Non ego etconcivis meus sumusregnum Sueciae, sed omnes in universum. Sicregisest leges ferre, non mei velalterius privati tributa imponere. Ita Scania est regni seu coronae Sueciae, non Petri vel Pauli. civitas definitur:) Si haec definitio est obscura, aliis verbis definiri potest in hunc modum: Civitas est societas, in qua multorum hominum voluntates et vires convenerunt ad defensionem et securitatem communem. par. 11. actionum publicarum:) Excluduntur hoc modo actiones privatae, ut sunt edere etc. Publicae vero sunt judicium exercere, poenas sumere etc, quae spectant ad totam coronam, adeoque totum regnum hoc velle intelligitur. Sed dicit quis:Rusticimultisunt quiaversantur bellum,cumid arege alicui indicitur. Sed respondemus cum communi regula: Quod ab initio fuit voluntatis, postmodum fit necessitatis. par. 12. sententias discrepantes:) Ut si tres fuerint sententiae, (1) absolvit reum (2) ad pecuniam damnat (3) damnat ad caput. Quaenam praevalebit? Si fuerint 12 judices, 5 absolverunt, 4. damnarunt ad pecuniam 3. capitis damnarunt. Tum prima sententia praevalet. [p.86] par. 13. civitas coaluit:) In Hollandia non vocantur indigenaeseu cives originarii nisi ipsorum avus ac atavus cives fuerint. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 187 not attributed to his subjects; they are said to be awake when the king is awake and hunger when he is hungry. par. 10. conceived as one person:) A person is either physical without regard to any activity, or moral.


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Tum prima sententia praevalet. [p.86] par. 13. civitas coaluit:) In Hollandia non vocantur indigenaeseu cives originarii nisi ipsorum avus ac atavus cives fuerint. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 187 not attributed to his subjects; they are said to be awake when the king is awake and hunger when he is hungry. par. 10. conceived as one person:) A person is either physical without regard to any activity, or moral. The moral person is either simple, as when we talk of man with regard to his position, like master or servant, or composite, where there is only oneindividual who iscomposed of several individuals, likeacollegium. Thereisa saying: Three makeacollegium. Thus, the University isa moral person [p.85], but composite through the association of professors and students and hence called a corporation. Likewise,wetalk ofthecrown of Sweden, France,and Spain asa person. Fora moral person hasall the qualities ofan unmixed person, like one name, one will, rights and property. My fellow countryman and I are not the kingdom of Sweden, butall theinhabitants in general.It is forthe king to makelaw, not for me or some other private person to impose taxes. The province of Scania belongs to the crown of Sweden, not to Peter or Paul. a state is defined:) If this definition is unclear, it can be defined differently in this way: The state is a community where the wills and powers of many have come together for the sake of defence and common security. par. 11. public actions:) Thus, private actions are excluded, like eating and so on. Public actionsarejudging, punishing etc. which concern the wholecrown; thereforethe whole kingdom is supposed to wantthat. But someonesays: Thereare many peasantswho rejectwarwhen itis declared by the king.ButIanswerwith thecommon rule: What was willed in the beginning becomes necessary afterwards. par. 12. conflicting opinions:) If there are three opinions: 1) acquit, 2) fine 3) death, what will be settled?


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11. public actions:) Thus, private actions are excluded, like eating and so on. Public actionsarejudging, punishing etc. which concern the wholecrown; thereforethe whole kingdom is supposed to wantthat. But someonesays: Thereare many peasantswho rejectwarwhen itis declared by the king.ButIanswerwith thecommon rule: What was willed in the beginning becomes necessary afterwards. par. 12. conflicting opinions:) If there are three opinions: 1) acquit, 2) fine 3) death, what will be settled? If there are twelve judges, and there are five votes for acquittal, four for a fine, and three for capital punishment, then the first opinion prevails. [p.86] par. 13. the state was originally formed:) In Holland they are notcalled natives or original citizens unless their forefathers were citizens. 188 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s par. 14. a Deo esse recte dicatur:) Imperiti sunt, qui putant nos negare civile imperium a Deo esse dum assignamus eidem causas secundas, quae causae primaeseu universali non sunt opponendae. Sicutsi dicammedicumesse a Deo, quo ipso tamen non negare possumus illum hausisse suam scientiam a libris, doctoribus, herbis etc. antecedenter praecepisse:) Aliqui inter quos Grotius, putant homines absque praecepto divino institutisse societates civiles ac demum Deum approbasse institutas ac pro suis seu a se praeceptas venditasse. Fateor quidem multa esse humana inventa quae deinceps Deus approbat et jubet. Sicut non puto Deum jussisse vel instituisse servitutem. Postquam vero homines eandem introduxissent, approbavit eandem ordinationem sicut apparet tum ex veteri, tum Novo testamento Deum eandem non displicere cum Paulus varia praecepta instillat quibus inseruit tum servos tum Dominos. Verum imperium civile a Deo est institutum primo antecedenter. Sicut e.g. conjugium a Deo est institutum, jam vero Deus non conjungitconjuges ut principio fecit. Tamen qui legitimo modo matrimonium contrahit censetur juxta divinam ordinationem vivere.


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Postquam vero homines eandem introduxissent, approbavit eandem ordinationem sicut apparet tum ex veteri, tum Novo testamento Deum eandem non displicere cum Paulus varia praecepta instillat quibus inseruit tum servos tum Dominos. Verum imperium civile a Deo est institutum primo antecedenter. Sicut e.g. conjugium a Deo est institutum, jam vero Deus non conjungitconjuges ut principio fecit. Tamen qui legitimo modo matrimonium contrahit censetur juxta divinam ordinationem vivere. Ita semel quidem Christus ministros sui verbi instituit, jam vero non item. Qui tamen si constituuntur nunc juxta leges civiles, censentur a Deo ordinati. Ita se res habet cum imperio civili. Illud quidem Deus hodie non praecipit v.g. ut hic vel illeeligaturin regem, sed illud penes populum est, quia Deus illud semel jussit. [p.87] Caput V II [De partibus summi imper ii] par. 2. quicquid illi voluerint:) Quemadmodum Israelitae constituentes Mosen interpretem inter se et Deum, pollicebantur illi quicquid jusserit in nomine Jehovae se facturos etc. quid cuique suum:) Ut in haereditate, quid matri quid liberis cedat, quo evitantur rixae. quid pro licito:) Ea nempe quaelex naturalisinmedio reliquit, undetot jam sunt leges positivae. quid ex libertate naturali supersit:)In libertate naturali parentes habent potestatemeducandisuumfiliumad illud studiumvel vitae genus, quod illis maximearriserit. Interim in societatecivili ut in hocregno rusticorum filii nolentes volentes in militiam adscribuntur quando regi visum fuerit. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 189 par. 14. rightlysaid to be ofGod:)They areignorantwho believethatI deny thatstate power comes from God because I ascribe secondary causes to it, which are not opposed to the first or universalcause.


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Interim in societatecivili ut in hocregno rusticorum filii nolentes volentes in militiam adscribuntur quando regi visum fuerit. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 189 par. 14. rightlysaid to be ofGod:)They areignorantwho believethatI deny thatstate power comes from God because I ascribe secondary causes to it, which are not opposed to the first or universalcause. If I say a doctor to befrom God, wecannot thereby deny that he learnt his art from books, teachers and herbs. to have given prior command:) Some, among them Grotius, believe that men founded states without divine precept and that God only afterwards approved of them and recommended them as ordered by him. I admit that there are many human inventions that God approves ofand ratifiesafterwards; for instance, I do not think God ordered or instituted slavery. However, after men had introduced it, heregarded theregulation as good. Itappears from both the New and the Old Testament that God did not disapprove of it, since Paul gives various precepts to be implanted in both slaves and masters. However, God established state power beforehand, in the same way as he established matrimony, although he does not marry thespousesas he did in the beginning. Still, hewho legitimately entersinto matrimony is regarded as living according to God’s ordinance. Similarly, Christ consecrated the ministers of his words once for all and not any longer. But if the priests nowadaysareinvested according to civil law, they areregarded as ordained by God. That is how matters stand with state power. God does not prescribe it nowadays in the sense that he selects the king; that rests with the people, since God once ordained it. [p.87] Chapter V II [On the function of sovereign power] par.


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Similarly, Christ consecrated the ministers of his words once for all and not any longer. But if the priests nowadaysareinvested according to civil law, they areregarded as ordained by God. That is how matters stand with state power. God does not prescribe it nowadays in the sense that he selects the king; that rests with the people, since God once ordained it. [p.87] Chapter V II [On the function of sovereign power] par. 2. whatever the rulers wish:) Like the Israelites, who made Moses the interpreter between themselves and God, promised to do whatever he bid in the name of Jehovah. whateach mustregard as his own:)As in the distribution ofan estate,where one must know what shall go to the motherand to thechildren, whereby quarrelsare avoided. what is to be taken as lawful in the state:) Concerns what natural law leaves undecided, which is why there are so many positive laws. whatremains ofeach man’s natural liberty:)In natural liberty parentscan bring up their son to the studies or the career they like best. However, in civil society, as in this kingdom, the sons of the peasantsare enrolled in thearmy at the king’s will. 190 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s quid denique et quo modo quisque:) In libertate naturali quis ab altero suum debitum ipse quando vult extorquere potest, non item in imperio civili, ubi res deferri debet ad judicem. par. 3. Dicitur in vulgari proverbio: leges sine executione sunt campanae sine pistillo. Cap. V III [De Formis Rerumpubl.] par. 1. De formis:) Vulgares Politici et Scholastici formam appellant, per quod res est, cum existat, atque sic cuivis regimini assignant formam, verum eo modo una tantum forma esset omnibus rebuspublicis nempe defensio publica. [p.88] Verum nos aliam constituimus formam ex eo qui summam habet potestatem sumtam. Nam sicut anima quidem regit universum corpus, quando vero de sede animae propria quaeritur quae non est brachium, pes vel podex, sed caput vel cerebrum.


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Cap. V III [De Formis Rerumpubl.] par. 1. De formis:) Vulgares Politici et Scholastici formam appellant, per quod res est, cum existat, atque sic cuivis regimini assignant formam, verum eo modo una tantum forma esset omnibus rebuspublicis nempe defensio publica. [p.88] Verum nos aliam constituimus formam ex eo qui summam habet potestatem sumtam. Nam sicut anima quidem regit universum corpus, quando vero de sede animae propria quaeritur quae non est brachium, pes vel podex, sed caput vel cerebrum. Ita anima sive forma civitatisest quidem in civitate; si vero quaestio instituatur de particulari ac propria sede, tum in universum non potest responderi uniformiter. Diversa enim sunt subjecta ubi formae haerent, alicubi, videlicet in uno homine, alicubi in pluribus selectis, alicubi per conventum hominum. Ergo divisionis fons fluit ex diversitate subjecti ubi potestas illa haeret. par. 3. dicitur monarchia:) A Theologis vox monarchiae alia accipitur significatione quama Politicis,sicutapparetex explicationeeorumsuper visionem Danielis de IV bestiis denotantibus quatuor summa in mundo imperia seu monarchias. Hic obiterest monendum, multosex eruditis putare per visionem Danielis non describi omnes monarchias ad consumationem seculi,sed tantumillas quaefueretempore populiJudaici.Judaeorumautem regimen desiit tempore Messiae;ac potissimum Danieli propositum fuisse describere statum Judaeorum, adeoque ultimum animal denotare romanum imperium sed quod fuit tempore Reipublicae Judaicae. Sed haec suo relinquo loco. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 191 what each man may require and in what manner:) In natural liberty someone can wrest a debt from another whenever he wants; in civil society, where the case should be brought before the judge, it is not so. par. 3. It is said in a popular proverb: laws without sanction are like bells without a tongue. Chapter V III [On the forms of government] par. 1.


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Sed haec suo relinquo loco. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 191 what each man may require and in what manner:) In natural liberty someone can wrest a debt from another whenever he wants; in civil society, where the case should be brought before the judge, it is not so. par. 3. It is said in a popular proverb: laws without sanction are like bells without a tongue. Chapter V III [On the forms of government] par. 1. On forms ofgovernment:) Ordinary political writersand the Scholasticscall form the way something is when it exists and so ascribe form to every kind of government.Butin thatway allstateswould have oneformonly, viz. public defence.[p.88] I, however, determinetheform with regard to him who has the highestauthority. For thesoul governs the whole body,and when oneasks wherethesoul is located, it is not in thearm or in the fundament, but in the head or the brain. Thus, there is a form or a soul in the state. But the question of its particular location cannot be answered uniformly. For the objects to which forms adhere are different; sometimes to onesingle man, sometimes to a number of selected men, sometimes to an assembly. 103 Therefore, the principle of the classification is derived from the diversity of the objects to which the power adheres. par. 3. is called monarchy:) Theologians give the word monarchy another meaning than political writers, as is clear from their explanation of Daniel’s vision of the four beasts who represent the four greatest empires or monarchies of the world.104 By the way, it should be pointed out that many scholars believe that the vision of Daniel does not describeallmonarchies untiltheconsummation oftime, but only those existing in era of the Jewish people. The Jewish state ceased in the time of Messiah, and the intention of Daniel was to describe the condition of the Jews; hence, the last beast represents only the Roman Empire at the time of the Jewish state, not the Roman Empirewe havetoday. ButIleavethis to its proper occasion.


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The Jewish state ceased in the time of Messiah, and the intention of Daniel was to describe the condition of the Jews; hence, the last beast represents only the Roman Empire at the time of the Jewish state, not the Roman Empirewe havetoday. ButIleavethis to its proper occasion. 103. Pufendorf ’s argument here sounds Aristotelian, but what he criticizes is the opinion of those who make the form of the state dependent on accidental varieties within the three forms, i.e. monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Cf. De jure VII:1:1. 104. Daniel 7. 192 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s ex universis patribus familias:) Quo excluduntur servi, liberi et foeminae, quia haec potestas non constat ex universis civibus, nam et illi veniunt nomine civium. [p.89] par. 5. alii in hominibus, alii in ipso statu etc:) Deprehendimusenim civitatibus bona et egregia esse instituta, tamen vitia sunt penes homines, quae ut cessent,ab officio suntremovendi. Sed perpetua vitia manent licet personae mutentur in statu morbido. par. 10. ad justa vicinorum odia:) Sicut Sparta olim solebat rapacitatem exercere. Unde in vicinorum odia facile talis civitas incurrere potest et opprimi facili negotio, multisillis vicinisadunitis. SicJudaeireddebantse odiosos vicinis, qui fugiebant omnem cum Ethnicis conversationem. Hoc quidem Deus jusserat illis, sed Dei intentionem latius extendebant quam par erat, cum omnes haberent pro hostibus, prout Tacitus de ista gente dicit: Charitatem quidem intra se exercent Judaei, verum erga omnes alios hostile odium. non tarde aut difficulter expediri:) Sicut in Germania hoc vitium est, ubi tam multae sunt relationes et correlationes, ut omnia negotia multoties circumgyrentur antequam aliquem sortiri possint exitum, prout constat variis ex exemplis. par. 12. Respublica irregularis:) Nam civitas est pactum et dispositio quaedam, et facile fieri potest quod rectores civitatum vitium quoddam reliquerint. Sicutet in aedificiis, quorum multa dantur non extructaad regulas architectonicaset irregulariaaudiunt.


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12. Respublica irregularis:) Nam civitas est pactum et dispositio quaedam, et facile fieri potest quod rectores civitatum vitium quoddam reliquerint. Sicutet in aedificiis, quorum multa dantur non extructaad regulas architectonicaset irregulariaaudiunt. Sic munitiones [p.90] multaeirregulares et alibi. Ut plane necessarium nobis fuerit introducere illam distinctionemin doctrinampoliticam, quae optimeexplicari potest perantiquam illam Romanam ante Caesares, ubi senatuset populusregnabant et hodiernam rempublicam Germanorum sub monarcha Romano. Nam Politici discrucient se quam maxime velint; nunquam extricabunt se vel sibi vel aliis prudentibus satisfacient, ni receperint hanc distinctionem. Sed unde deprehendi potest esse rempublicam irregularem, duo attendenda sunt, (1) in quibus a sana alia republica regulari differt, (2) in quibus differt abs alia republica morbida. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 193 consisting of all heads of households:) From this /i.e. democracy/ slaves, women and children are excluded, since this power does not consist of all citizens, although they are called citizens. [p.89] par. 5. some illnesses in the rulers, others in the state itself:) In some states with good and excellent institutions, there are defects due to human beings; to end them those men must beremoved from office.In sick states, however, the defectsremain even if the men are replaced. par. 10. the justified hatred of their neighbours:) Like the Spartans in antiquity, who used to practicerapacity. Such astateeasily attracts the hatred of its neighboursand is easily overpowered ifthey uniteagainstit.TheJews madethemselves disagreeable to their neighbours by avoiding all intercourse with the pagans.


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10. the justified hatred of their neighbours:) Like the Spartans in antiquity, who used to practicerapacity. Such astateeasily attracts the hatred of its neighboursand is easily overpowered ifthey uniteagainstit.TheJews madethemselves disagreeable to their neighbours by avoiding all intercourse with the pagans. This was what God had commanded, but they extended God’s intention further than was right, when they regarded everybody as enemies, as Tacitus says about that nation: The Jews practice benevolence between themselves but hostile hatred towards all others. 105 cannot be done without delay and difficulty:)In Germany thereis so much toing and froing that all issues are circulated many times before they can come to any conclusion, as is clear from many examples. par. 12. irregular form of government:) A state is an agreement and a disposition, and it often happens that the rulers leave some defect. As in buildings, of which many are notconstructed according to therules ofarchitectureand thereforearecalled irregular. Likewise,thereare[p.90]many irregularfortifications.Itwas quite necessary for meto introducethis distinction /between regularand irregularform of government/ into the doctrine of politics. It is best explained by the form of government in ancient Rome beforetheera of theemperors, when thesenateand the people ruled, and by the form of government of the Germans under the Roman emperor. Political theorists may trouble themselves to the utmost, but they will never disentangle themselves or satisfy others unless they accept this distinction. To identify an irregular form of government, two things should be taken into account; first, in what respect it differs from another healthy form, and, second, in what it differs from a diseased. 105. Tacitus: Historiae, V:5. 194 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Supra c. 6 et 7 dictum est civitatis naturam consistere in unione voluntatum et virium, et in eo robur consistit, quia una ibi est quasi anima.


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To identify an irregular form of government, two things should be taken into account; first, in what respect it differs from another healthy form, and, second, in what it differs from a diseased. 105. Tacitus: Historiae, V:5. 194 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Supra c. 6 et 7 dictum est civitatis naturam consistere in unione voluntatum et virium, et in eo robur consistit, quia una ibi est quasi anima. Sed in republica irregulari duo quasi sunt capita ac principia et animae, quae actiones publicas obibunt, sicut senatus Romanus, cujus caput duo consules fuerunt, et populus. Ibi enim talis unio non deprehendebatur ut in Republica regulari. Sicut nec unio est in Republica hodierna Germanorum, prout Severinus Monzambanus late ostendit. non per modum morbi:) Nam potest facile quis objicere pertinere Respublicas irregulares ad morbos civitatis. Sed quo minus hoc procedat obstat quod morbi isti in Republica aliqua non fiant jure sed illicite, nec ullo approbante ut ex parag. 9 etc patet, [p.91] sicut contra in Republica irregulari quae fiant irregulariter, haud injurio fieri censentur. Sicut in imperio Romano principes parere nisi velint non tenentur, nec adigi ad id possunt. Habentenim privilegium quod extat in Cap. V. Instrumenti Pacis Vestphalicae neque dici possunt contumaces, inobedientes vel rebelles. infiniti esse modi queant:) Sicut in veritate contingit quae unica est, verum infiniti modi mendaciorum. Irregularis erat olim Respublica Spartanorum et Cretensis. Item perfecta illa respublica Platonica quid irregularitatis habuit. quam inaequales foederati:) Sicut principes Germaniae dici possunt inaequales confoederati, Caesarem nempe reverentur. Sed si e re eorum non fuerit eos non potest adigere ad opem sibi ferendam v.g. iam contra Regem Galliae,cum experientiatestetur quosdam principesadjuvareregemGalliae, quosdamplane quiescerenecimperatori obedire quamquam sollicitanti. Et cum aliis faciunt foedera, qui imperatoris vel hostes sunt.


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Item perfecta illa respublica Platonica quid irregularitatis habuit. quam inaequales foederati:) Sicut principes Germaniae dici possunt inaequales confoederati, Caesarem nempe reverentur. Sed si e re eorum non fuerit eos non potest adigere ad opem sibi ferendam v.g. iam contra Regem Galliae,cum experientiatestetur quosdam principesadjuvareregemGalliae, quosdamplane quiescerenecimperatori obedire quamquam sollicitanti. Et cum aliis faciunt foedera, qui imperatoris vel hostes sunt. Et ideo non possunt insimulari inobedientiae vel rebellionis. par. 13. Systemata civitatum:) Nullus Politicorum hoc observavit, nisi Grotius uno vel altero verbo in lib. 1. de. J.B et P. c. 3. Talia autem systemata hodie sunt resp. Batavorum et Helvetiorum. Sic Anglia et Scotia non sunt unum regnum, sed duo. At unum tamen systema. Nam quodvis regnum suis gaudetlegibusfundamentalibus,et parlamentumAngliae quod concludit non obstringit parlamentum Scotiae. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 195 It was said in chapters 6 and 7 above that the nature of the state consists of the union of will and forces and that this constitutes its power, because there is so to speak a soul in it. In an irregular constitution, on the other hand, there are two heads, two principles and two souls, which conduct public affairs. As in Rome, wherethere was thesenate with thetwo consulsat its head,and the people. There is no such unity as in a regular form of government. Nor is there any unity in today’sconstitution of the German empire,as Severinus Monzambanus has showed extensively.106 not because of a disease:) One may easily object that irregular constitutions belong to the diseases of states. But against that can be said that diseases of government are not lawful but illicit, as shown by paragraph 9, [p.91] whereas the irregularities of an irregular constitution are not considered to be unjust. In the Roman Empirethe princesare not obliged to obey if they do not want to and cannot be forced to do so.


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But against that can be said that diseases of government are not lawful but illicit, as shown by paragraph 9, [p.91] whereas the irregularities of an irregular constitution are not considered to be unjust. In the Roman Empirethe princesare not obliged to obey if they do not want to and cannot be forced to do so. They have that privilege in chapter 5 of the peace treaty of Westphalia and cannot be called obstinate, disobedient or rebels. infinite ways of deviating from correctness:) As when truth is perfect, then the number of untruths is infinite.In antiquity, theconstitutions of Spartaand Crete were irregular. Even the perfect constitution of Plato had some irregularity in it. not more than unequal allies:) The princes of Germany can be called unequal allies, since they do homage to the Emperor. However, if it is not to their advantage, he cannot force them to help him, for instance recently against the King of France. Experienceshows that some of them helped the King of Franceand some remained completely inactive without obeying theemperor, no matter how much he urged them to. They also enter into treaties with the emperor’s enemies. And because of this irregularity, they cannot be charged with disobedience or rebellion. par. 13. Systems of states:) None of the political theorists has observed thisexcept Grotius with afew words in the book De jure belli ac pacischap. 3. Such systemsaretoday those of the Dutch and the Swiss. Similarly, England and Scotland is not one kingdom but two, but one system nevertheless, for each kingdom has its own fundamental lawsand what the parliament of England decides does not bind the parliament of the Scots. 106. I.e. Pufendorf ’s critique of the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire,Destatu imperii Germanici, published in 1661 under the pseudonym Severinus de Monzambano. 196 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s [p.92] par. 14. Sicut in hocregno Arctoo erantet regnum Sueciae, Norvegiaeet Daniae sub regina Margaretha, ut unum regnum abs altero non dependerit.


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106. I.e. Pufendorf ’s critique of the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire,Destatu imperii Germanici, published in 1661 under the pseudonym Severinus de Monzambano. 196 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s [p.92] par. 14. Sicut in hocregno Arctoo erantet regnum Sueciae, Norvegiaeet Daniae sub regina Margaretha, ut unum regnum abs altero non dependerit. Ita in Hispania per conjugium coaluere multa regna, Castiliae, Arragoniae etc. Regnum Angliae et Scotiae postquam obiisset mortem Elisabetha, nullo relicto herede. Siquis vero ulterius voluerit speculari de hisce systematibus et regnorum unione, deprehendet haud utilem esse. Sicut regnum Suetia bis fuit talis systematis pars, prima vicetemporibus Margarethae. Et semper majori amore ferebatur 55 in suum regnum Daniae. Ergo magna adhibenda estcautio in hujusmodi systematibus, vel potius sit nulla fieri, nam multa incommoda regurgitant ex perverso isto amore. Sicut uxor indignatur si maritus alias quam se majori amplectatur amore. Altera vice tempore Sigismundi qui electus fuit Rex Poloniae, et istud regnum Sueciae praetulit. Et fieri non potest ut omniase bene habeantcum Rex non est praesens. Nam gubernatores sunt tantum mercenarii pastores, nec oves tanta cura observant ac proprius pastor. par. 15. Sicutin Republica Belgica,si pax, bellum,tributum etcsit decernendum, sit illud ex communiconcione. [p.93] Sed illi qui Hagaeresidentcollegae seu generales status sunt deputatietcommissarii, nec unacivitasconcludit quod alteri praejudicet etc. Caput IX [De affectionibus Imper ii civ ilis] par. 3. legibus humanis sit superius:) Nam contradictorium est regem esse supra judicia et infra eadem. Verum in Senatu dispar est ratio, ubi singuli possuntab universo corporejudicari, sed non omnes simul sumti seu totum senatus corpus. Lex notat superiorem, ut rex vel senatus in aristocratia estsummus.


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Caput IX [De affectionibus Imper ii civ ilis] par. 3. legibus humanis sit superius:) Nam contradictorium est regem esse supra judicia et infra eadem. Verum in Senatu dispar est ratio, ubi singuli possuntab universo corporejudicari, sed non omnes simul sumti seu totum senatus corpus. Lex notat superiorem, ut rex vel senatus in aristocratia estsummus. Sicut paterfamilias potest mandaresuisservis vel domesticis ne ultra horam 8 extra domum sint, si vero ipse paterfamilias manserit, domestici non possunt eum scutica excipere. directe:) Indirecte rex stringitur suis legibus nam quod continet subditos in obedientia metus poenae, illud facit apud regem pudor. Nam 55. Manuscript: ferebantur. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 197 [p.92] par. 14. In the Nordicrealm the kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark,and Norway were under Queen Margaret in a way that the one kingdom should not depend on the other. Likewise in Spain where several kingdoms were united by way of marriage: Castile, Aragon etc. England and Scotland were united after Elizabeth had passed away, leaving no heir. He who wants to look deeper into these systems or unions of states will find them of little use. Sweden was twice part of such a system, first in the time of Margaret. 107 But she was always led by her greater love for her own kingdom Denmark. Therefore one should be very cautious about these systems, or rather avoid them, for many difficulties are thrown up by that perverted love, as when a wife is indignant when her husband loves another more than her. The other occasion was in thetime of Sigismund, who waselected king of Poland and preferred that kingdom to Sweden. 108 Further, things cannot possibly go well if the king is not present. For governorsare only hired shepherdsand do notattend to the sheep as carefully the true shepherd. par. 15.


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Therefore one should be very cautious about these systems, or rather avoid them, for many difficulties are thrown up by that perverted love, as when a wife is indignant when her husband loves another more than her. The other occasion was in thetime of Sigismund, who waselected king of Poland and preferred that kingdom to Sweden. 108 Further, things cannot possibly go well if the king is not present. For governorsare only hired shepherdsand do notattend to the sheep as carefully the true shepherd. par. 15. In the state of Holland, if they decide on peace, war, taxes etc., they do it in the common assembly.[p.93]Butthecolleagues ofthe generalestatesare deputiesand delegates,and onesinglestate does not decide whatcan be prejudicial to another. Chapter IX [On the character istics of civ il authority] par. 3. sovereign authority superior to human laws:) It is contradictory that the king is both aboveand beneath thecourts.In asenateit is different: theretheindividuals can bejudged by the wholecorporation, but notall of them together or thesenate corporation. The law indicates who has supreme power; and that is the king, or, in an aristocracy, thesenate.Ahead ofa household can order his slaves orservants not to stay out of the houseafter 8, but if the head of the household does that, the servants cannot receive him with the whip. directly:)Indirectly,the king’slawsrestrict him, forthefear of punishmentthat keeps the subjects in obedience has its counterpart in the shame of the king. For 107. Refers to the union between Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in 1397. 108. Sigismund Vasa, who ascended the Swedish throne in 1592 and was driven away in 1598. 198 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s qua quaeso fronte poterit Rex poenaexigereillius delicti,cujus se noverit maxime obnoxium? quorum materia in ipsum:) V.g. lex est ut quis non vindicet sibi ipsi injuriam,sed deferatad superioremaliquem.Atsiregifactafueritinjuria, nihil aliud est relictum quam ut ipse vindicet, nam est summus. par.


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For 107. Refers to the union between Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in 1397. 108. Sigismund Vasa, who ascended the Swedish throne in 1592 and was driven away in 1598. 198 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s qua quaeso fronte poterit Rex poenaexigereillius delicti,cujus se noverit maxime obnoxium? quorum materia in ipsum:) V.g. lex est ut quis non vindicet sibi ipsi injuriam,sed deferatad superioremaliquem.Atsiregifactafueritinjuria, nihil aliud est relictum quam ut ipse vindicet, nam est summus. par. 4. ubi atrocissimas injurias intentaverit:) In hoc casu expediemus nos distinctioneinter injurias quaea Rege fiunt privatis,eteas quae fiunt toti statui,easque non mediocres, [p.94]sed atroces, utsi universum velit perdere populum non ampliusest inviolabilisac pater patriae, sicutexemplo potest esse Christiernus IIdus tyrannus, qui non agebat regem Sueciae sed eius carnificem, volebatque omnem Sueciae populi sanguinem pedibus conculcare. Eo modo non regnum procurabat, et pater erat patriae, sed hostis patriae: utsi parensmeadhucsubmagistro et disciplina versantem baculo plectat, ni impius sim fero toleroque; si vero jugulo intentat strictum gladium maximo in furore, possum eripere gladium ex manu ejus eidemque resistere. Ita si rex jugulo populi admoveat gladium, possumuseum in malam rem eat jubere,cum maxime mutet suum officium in diaboli et carnificis, nam nulla est ratio quare propter unicum hominem tot ac tot millia pereant plane innocenter ut suo litet furori. Si vero (2) alicui privato inferat injuriam, tum non desinit esse Rex, nam tanta est imperfectio probitatis humanae, ut quivis facile impingat et cogitet qui vult resistere ac violenter repellere regis injuriam, quod non habeat aliquod jus vel potestatem, et quid sequetur et quam multa mala soleant inundare civitates ex principis etiam scelerosi violenta nece. Satis itaque mihifueritmori quamtotamcivitateminmaximascalamitatesconjicere, autsi fieri possitfugamcapere, ut deDavidein Sacra Scripturalegituretc. [p.95] par.


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Satis itaque mihifueritmori quamtotamcivitateminmaximascalamitatesconjicere, autsi fieri possitfugamcapere, ut deDavidein Sacra Scripturalegituretc. [p.95] par. 5. in monarchiis potissimum:) In democratia autem imperium est uniforme, nam iidem sunt et qui imperent et qui pareant certo respectu, ergo O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 199 what face will the king assume when he punishes an offence of which he knows himself to be very guilty? injunction that pertains to him as well:) Forinstance,when thelawsays that one must not oneself revenge an injury but submit it to a superior. But if the king is wronged,the only alternativeisfor he himselfto take vengeance,for heissupreme. par. 4. threatened them with the most atrocious injuries:)In thiscaseIarmmyselfwith the distinction between injuries inflicted by the king on private citizens and injuries on thewholestate. 109 Ifthelatterare notmoderate[p.94] butatrociousand the king wants to destroy the whole population, he is no longer inviolable and a father of thefatherland,ascan beexemplified by Christian II the Tyrant, who was not the king of Sweden but her butcher, wanting to trample upon the entire strength of the Swedish people. 110 He did not take care of his country and became its enemy, not its father. If my father beats me while I am under the tuition of my teacher, I endure and tolerate that in order not to be impious. But if in great anger he threatens my throat with a drawn sword, I may snatch the sword out of his hand and resist. Similarly, if the king holds thesword to thethroat of the people wecan tell him to go to hell since he has greatly turned his officeinto that of the devil or a hangman. There is no reason why so many thousands of quite innocent people should perish just because one single man should satisfy his insanity.


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But if in great anger he threatens my throat with a drawn sword, I may snatch the sword out of his hand and resist. Similarly, if the king holds thesword to thethroat of the people wecan tell him to go to hell since he has greatly turned his officeinto that of the devil or a hangman. There is no reason why so many thousands of quite innocent people should perish just because one single man should satisfy his insanity. If, however, the king inflicts an injury on a private person, then he does not cease to be king, for man’s moral imperfection is so great thatanyoneeasily may beincited to consider resisting and striking back violently against the king’s injury, just because of someright or opportunity that he does not have.And whataretheconsequences? Much evil usually engulfs states through the violent death of a prince, even if he was vicious. Therefore, it isa betteralternativeto diethan to throw thestateinto great disasters, orif possibleescape,ascan beread aboutDavid in the HolyWrit. 111 [p.95] par. 5. in monarchies particularly:) But in democracy authority is uniform, forthose who rule and those who obey are the same in a certain respect; thus there cannot be 109. Interestingly, the word for state here is status. Normally, Pufendorf has civitas or regnum. 110. Christian II, king of Denmark, who conquered Sweden in 1520 and lost it in 1523. The example from Swedish history gives some concretion to Pufendorf ’s opinion on resistance, but the argument is principally the same as in De jure VII:8:4. 111. 1 Samuel 19. 200 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s non potestesseibialiqua potestas limitata vel illimitata. Naturae humanae est a decretis desciscere suis quando nihil aliud obstat. Unde veteres omnesRespublicasDemocraticas qui volueritinspicere, deprehendetillis nihil fuissealiud medium ut decreta manerent perpetua, nisi religionem juris-jurandi.


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111. 1 Samuel 19. 200 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s non potestesseibialiqua potestas limitata vel illimitata. Naturae humanae est a decretis desciscere suis quando nihil aliud obstat. Unde veteres omnesRespublicasDemocraticas qui volueritinspicere, deprehendetillis nihil fuissealiud medium ut decreta manerent perpetua, nisi religionem juris-jurandi. Nam cum Reges Romaerantejectiet populus in Democraticum statum transierat, adegit illos Brutus ad iusjurandum, ne eorum mutabile ingenium introduceret, 56 sed religio ac metus divini supplicii eos contineret in semel instituta forma democratica. Absolutum:) Magni sunt hujus vocabuli abusus praesertim apud regum adulatores, qui dicant Regi absoluto quaecumque licita. Sicut adulabantur57 Neroni qui omnia pro suo arbitrio fecit, et judices persarum suo Regi, cui quaerenti num in lege licitum esset ut suam ducat sororem frater, respondent lege quidem non invenimus permissum, sed ex alio fundamento clarum est, sc. regem esse absolutae potestatis. Adeoque et illi isthoc factum erit licitum. Nec istud vocabulum innuit regem posse emungere suos cives pecunia usque ad ultimum teruncium, sicut Salmasius58 vir alias doctissimus in hoc impegit in defensione regia,59 ubi regia juraenumeratet ultimo eum posse pro suo arbitrio agere, quo modo non regis innocentiam declaravit, sed causam prostituit. [p.96] Caeterum is dicitur absolutus, qui solutusest a certa regula, non allegatus ad certumvinculum, sed liber. At vero reges (1) non sunt absoluti sive liberi abs legibus divinis et naturalibus sed iis aeque sunt adstricti ac vilissimus rusticus. Sed (2) in quo haec absolutio, ut ita loquar, consistit apparebit ex hacce similitudine. Do alicui in mandatis vel libero vel adstricto; hoc fit, cum praescribo quomodo hoc vel illud expeditum dabit, nec in expediendo isto negotio ultra meum mandatum ac praescriptum digredietur.


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At vero reges (1) non sunt absoluti sive liberi abs legibus divinis et naturalibus sed iis aeque sunt adstricti ac vilissimus rusticus. Sed (2) in quo haec absolutio, ut ita loquar, consistit apparebit ex hacce similitudine. Do alicui in mandatis vel libero vel adstricto; hoc fit, cum praescribo quomodo hoc vel illud expeditum dabit, nec in expediendo isto negotio ultra meum mandatum ac praescriptum digredietur. Illud si quando committo illi mihi quid expediendum, sed relinquo in ejus dexteritate, prudentia et libertate, ut suo arbitrio promoveat meam utilitatem. Et talis mandatorius dicitur habere potestatem seu mandatum absolutum et non limitatum. Sic quoque Rex, cui subditi relinquunt potestatem pro arbitrio faciendo quidquid ex usu publico fuerit, et talis rex dicitur habere imperium absolutum et illimitatum. Quod ipsum apparet ex libro Mosis Exod. cap. 24. v. 3: ibi Mosi dederunt absolutam potestatem prorsus certi de Mosis tenera conscientia, quod non adderet 56. An object to introducerent is missing. 57. Manuscript: audulabantur. 58. In margin: NB. 59. In margin: NB. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 201 any limited or unlimited power. It belongs to human natureto deviatefrom one’s decisions when nothing prevents it. He who wants to examineall theancient democracies will find that they had no other way to make their decrees remain perpetualthanthe obligationofanoath.Whenthe kingswereejected fromRomeand the people went over to democracy, Brutus made them swear oaths, so that their inconstant mind would not bring in changes; instead, religion and fear of divine punishment would hold them to the democratic form they had once instituted. absolute:) There is much abuse of this word, especially among the flatterers of kings who say that anything is permitted the absolute king.


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They flattered Nero who did all that he wanted.The Persian judges flattered their king; when heasked whether the law permitted that a brother marries his sister, they answered that in truth they could not find that it was permitted, but it was evident from another source, i.e. that the king had absolute power, and therefore this act too was permitted. Nor does that word mean that the king can cheat his subjects out of their money to the last penny. Salmasius, otherwise a very learned man, unduly stressed this in his royal defense, 112 where heenumerates theroyal rightsand eventually holds that a king can act as he desires. By this he did not demonstrate the innocence of the king but he sullied his cause. [p.96] But he is called absolute who is set free from a certain rule and not restricted by a certain bond but free. But, first, kings are not released or free from divine and natural laws; they are bound by them as much as the poorest peasant. And, second, what this setting free, so to speak, consists of is clear from this comparison: In a contract, I either give the other a free or a restricted hand. The latter is when I prescribe how he shall do this or that and not transgress the agreement and my instructions while doing the job. The former is, when I commission someone to do something for me, but I leave it to his skill, prudenceand liberty to promote my utility as he pleases. He who is commissioned in this way is said to have an absolute power or mandate, not a limited one. Similarly, a king to whom the subjects grant the power to do at will whatever is useful for the public is said to have absolute authority. This is madeclear in the book of Moses, Exoduschapter 24 verse3, wherethey gave Moses absolute power, being confident that Moses would be conscientious and add 112. Claudius Salmasius (1588–1653) in Defensio regia pro Carolo rege (1649), a defense of royal power against the Independents in England. 202 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Dei praeceptis quidquam.


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Similarly, a king to whom the subjects grant the power to do at will whatever is useful for the public is said to have absolute authority. This is madeclear in the book of Moses, Exoduschapter 24 verse3, wherethey gave Moses absolute power, being confident that Moses would be conscientious and add 112. Claudius Salmasius (1588–1653) in Defensio regia pro Carolo rege (1649), a defense of royal power against the Independents in England. 202 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Dei praeceptis quidquam. Si vero dixissent:adjungemustibi unum velalterum virum utcertius nobisconstet quid Deus dixerit,sic non absolutus fuisset Moses. Ex hocapparet, longe magis gravariejusconscientiam, qui absoluto gaudet imperio, si in commisso negotio quid secus administretur. Contra, si in expediundis negotiis non successerit illi [p.97] qui non gaudet absoluto imperio, praetendere potest se fecisse secundum praescriptas sibi leges; si illis non contineretur potuisset rem melius peragere. 60 Et quiabsoluto gaudetimperio,et omnia non itaexpediteexequitur, habetur pro stolido, qui non veritus est id arrogare sibi, quod non potest efficere, vel pro eo qui bona fide officium suum non praestitit. par. 6. imperii exercitium certis limitibus circumscribere:) Hic illa quaestio est evolvenda:an nempefas sit populo praescribereregi suo ejusmodi terminos et leges? In hoc regno nullus est qui dubitat. Verum alibi adulatores regum insusurrant esse maximum populi et Regis peccatum, Dei praecepto contrarium. Quod isti probant a simili ducto ex matrimonio, ubi Deus dixit maritum jus habere in corpus suae uxoris, si vero ad cornificios suos conniveat et admittat alios in torum, certe graviter sua lenitate peccat. Ita dicunt reges habere jus in populum suum, nec sine peccato tolerare praescriptiones populi,sicutis vir pro sordido habendus, qui non moechos accerrime avertit, ita Rex debet pro sua dignitate tuenda masculesese vel vi defendere.


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Quod isti probant a simili ducto ex matrimonio, ubi Deus dixit maritum jus habere in corpus suae uxoris, si vero ad cornificios suos conniveat et admittat alios in torum, certe graviter sua lenitate peccat. Ita dicunt reges habere jus in populum suum, nec sine peccato tolerare praescriptiones populi,sicutis vir pro sordido habendus, qui non moechos accerrime avertit, ita Rex debet pro sua dignitate tuenda masculesese vel vi defendere. Quidam confugiuntad autoritatem sacrarum literarum, et argumentum in forma est tale: Qualemcunque formam regiminis Deus praescripsit populo suo electo Israelitico, talem vult ubivis observari. At ibi absolutum praescripsit imperium. Ergo contra Dei voluntatem esse si Rex non habeat [p.98] potestatem absolutam. Sed hic syllogismus est valde debilis: utraque praemissarum est falsa. Et major quidem, nam unde probatur, quod omne regimen debet sese componere ad regum Israelitarum, cum illud non fuerit in orbe antiquissimum? Nam 1. Sam. 8. ubi regem petunt,eo utunturargumento, quia omnesalii habent suos reges. Si enim primum fuisset, et Deus voluisset illud esse exemplum omnium aliorum regnorum, manus dabimus. Deus quidem voluit ut existerent imperiain mundo, sed certam formam non determinavit. Populus ipse judaicus habebat ante statum democraticum. 61 Deus ergo non praecepit ut sit absolutus Rex, sed ut ita dicam, Deo perinde 60. Manuscript: peagere. 61. In margin: NB. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 203 nothing to the precepts of God. If however they had said: let uscall in one or two men so that we become morecertain about what God has said, then Moses would not have been absolute. From this it is evident that he who has absolute authority and manages something in a way that deviates from the commission is much more troubled in his conscience.


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Manuscript: peagere. 61. In margin: NB. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 203 nothing to the precepts of God. If however they had said: let uscall in one or two men so that we become morecertain about what God has said, then Moses would not have been absolute. From this it is evident that he who has absolute authority and manages something in a way that deviates from the commission is much more troubled in his conscience. On the other hand, if the king [p.97] who does not haveabsoluteauthority should fail in managing theaffairs, hecan allegethat he acted according to the laws prescribed and that the outcome would have been betterif he had not been restricted by thoselaws.And hewho hasabsoluteauthority but does not manageeverything so readily is regarded as foolish if he does not fear to claim credit for what hecannotachieve. Or heis regarded as someone who despite his sincerity could not manage to do his duty. par. 6. restrain the exercise of authority within fixed limits:) Here the question ought to be raised of whether it is right that the people prescribe their king such limits and laws? There is no one in this kingdom who doubts that. But elsewhere there are flatterers who whisper that this is a great fault of the people and the king and contrary to God’s precept. They prove it by a comparison with matrimony, where God has said that the husband has the right to the body of his wife. But if he winks at his cronies and admits others to the marriage bed, he indeed commitsaserious sin in his forbearance. Similarly, they say, kings haveauthority over their people and cannot tolerate orders from the people without sinning. Just as a husband who does not vehemently ward off adulterers is considered despicable, so the king ought to defend himself in a manly and forceful manner in order to guard his dignity.


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But if he winks at his cronies and admits others to the marriage bed, he indeed commitsaserious sin in his forbearance. Similarly, they say, kings haveauthority over their people and cannot tolerate orders from the people without sinning. Just as a husband who does not vehemently ward off adulterers is considered despicable, so the king ought to defend himself in a manly and forceful manner in order to guard his dignity. Some take refuge in the authority of the Holy Writ; their argument, put in logical form, is this: God wants the form of government he gave his chosen people Israel to be observed everywhere. There he prescribed absolute authority. Therefore it is contrary to the will of God if the king does not have [p.98] absolute power. But this syllogism is very weak, and both of the premises are wrong. The first, because it argues that all government should be modelled after the kings of Israel, although that form of government is not the oldest in the world. In 1. Samuel 8., wherethey demand a king, they usetheargument that all others have their kings. If the monarchy of Israel had been the first and God had wanted it to betheexampleforall other kingdoms, I would yield. He wanted state power in the world, but he did not decide a certain form for it; earlier the Jewish people themselves had democracy. Thus, God did not prescribe that there should be an absolute king. To him it is, so to speak, just the same, as long as the 204 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s est, modo respublica recte administretur, et reipublicae finis obtineatur. Nam si regi praescribatur, scelerosis impunitatem concedes etc, hoc modo rex instituatur contra legem naturalem, et eo modo finis civitatis non obtinetur. Ad minorem quae etiam indiget probatione, quod Reges Judaeiabsoluto gauderentimperio, nam etilliadstrictierantlegibus Mosaicis. Quantum ad locum 1. Sam. 8. v. 11 seqq. ratio legis erit haec Filios vestros accipietetc. Hunclocum aliquiexplicant deimperio tyrannorum, quos Deus dicitur dedisse in suo furore.


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Nam si regi praescribatur, scelerosis impunitatem concedes etc, hoc modo rex instituatur contra legem naturalem, et eo modo finis civitatis non obtinetur. Ad minorem quae etiam indiget probatione, quod Reges Judaeiabsoluto gauderentimperio, nam etilliadstrictierantlegibus Mosaicis. Quantum ad locum 1. Sam. 8. v. 11 seqq. ratio legis erit haec Filios vestros accipietetc. Hunclocum aliquiexplicant deimperio tyrannorum, quos Deus dicitur dedisse in suo furore. Sed Grotius medium insistit viam, vide ipsius auctoris de J N. et G. l. 7. c. 6. par 4. Sed clarum erit, si inspiciamus formam quae antea fuit in regimine judaico. Nam et ea habuit suacommoda[p.99]et incommoda. Nam judices tum jus dixerunt, et bella contra hostes gerebant, qui etiam tenui apparatu erant contenti, sicut de Esbon dicitur, quorum62 30 filii et 40 filiae equitabant in suis asinis. Populus praeterea ignorabat tributa, et quisque potuit retinere quod suis manibus acquisivit. Verum cum sic semper expositi essent hostium populationibus et animadverterent suum vitae genus esse vacare agriculturae, desiderabant regem qui militibus semper instructusarceret hostes exemplo aliarum rerumpublicarum. Et ea erat causa impulsiva, cura Samueleregem peteret. Verum Samuel bene novit populi ingenium mutabile postquam percepissent regis incommoda. Nam nullum commodum est sine incommodo. Quare repraesentare voluit incommodaex novo Rege secutura, ut praeponderaret eadem populus. par. 7. Carolus Magnus Francorum Rex divisit suum imperium inter tres suos filios. Ita in antiqua historia Romana imperatores deprehendimus testamento legasse suum regnum certo alicui. Verum hoc procedere potest non quando regnum facitregem, sed quando rex facitregnum, ut siAlexander Magnus plures habuisset liberos et voluisset regnum Persarum dividere illis, Persae non potuissent resistere ejus voluntati. 62. Uncertain reading. The manuscript has no comma before quorum. Inserting a comma makes it possible to make quorum refer to the judges in general.


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Ita in antiqua historia Romana imperatores deprehendimus testamento legasse suum regnum certo alicui. Verum hoc procedere potest non quando regnum facitregem, sed quando rex facitregnum, ut siAlexander Magnus plures habuisset liberos et voluisset regnum Persarum dividere illis, Persae non potuissent resistere ejus voluntati. 62. Uncertain reading. The manuscript has no comma before quorum. Inserting a comma makes it possible to make quorum refer to the judges in general. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 205 state is well governed and the object of the state is achieved. For if the king is instructed to leavethe vicious unpunished and so on, then the king isestablished against natural law,and the purpose of thestateis notattained. Nor does thesecond premise provethat the kings ofJudah had absoluteauthority, because Mosaic laws bound them. Concerning the passage 1. Samuel 8 verses 11sq. the principle of the law will be this: He shall take your sons etc. Some explain this passage as referring to therule of tyrants whom God is said to have given in his wrath.113 But Grotius takes a middle way; see the author’s De jure naturae et gentium book 7 chap. 6 par. 4. But it will beclear if weexaminetheform of government theJews had earlier. That too had its advantages [p.99] and disadvantages. The judges administered justiceandwagedwaragainsttheenemies;theywerealso contentwith moderatesplendour,and had their progeny riding donkeys,as is told about Esbon with his30 sonsand 40 daughters.114 In addition,the people knewof no taxes,and everybody could keepwhat he had acquiredwith his hands.


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4. But it will beclear if weexaminetheform of government theJews had earlier. That too had its advantages [p.99] and disadvantages. The judges administered justiceandwagedwaragainsttheenemies;theywerealso contentwith moderatesplendour,and had their progeny riding donkeys,as is told about Esbon with his30 sonsand 40 daughters.114 In addition,the people knewof no taxes,and everybody could keepwhat he had acquiredwith his hands. However,since dueto this they were always exposed to enemy plundering and they realized it was their way of lifeto devotethemselves to agriculture, they wanted a king on theexample of other states who could resist their enemies with the help of a permanent military force.Thiswastheimpulsethatcaused themto demand a king of Samuel.But Samuel knew well that the people would be fickle when they becameaware of the disadvantages of having a king. For there is nothing advantageous that does not have some disadvantage. Samuel wanted to demonstrate the disadvantages that would come with a new king, so that the people could evaluate them in advance. par. 7. Charles the Great, the king of the French, divided his realm between his three sons. Likewise we find in the history of ancient Rome emperors who in a testament haveleft therealm to someone. However, thiscannot occur when the kingdom makes the king, only when the king makes the kingdom. If Alexander the Great had had severalsonsandwanted to dividetherealmofthe Persians between them, the Persians would not have been able to resist his will. 113. The passage 1 Samuel 8 was much disputed in 17th century political theory. Samuel’s description of the habits of kings was in some quarters interpreted as a normative agenda for absolute monarchs. 114. The account in the manuscript is somewhat confused. Abdon (in modern reading), one of the judges of Israel, mentioned in Judges 12:13–14, had 40 sons and 30 grandsons riding on donkeys.


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113. The passage 1 Samuel 8 was much disputed in 17th century political theory. Samuel’s description of the habits of kings was in some quarters interpreted as a normative agenda for absolute monarchs. 114. The account in the manuscript is somewhat confused. Abdon (in modern reading), one of the judges of Israel, mentioned in Judges 12:13–14, had 40 sons and 30 grandsons riding on donkeys. In Judges 10:3–4 the judge Jair is mentioned who had 30 sons riding donkeys. 206 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s [p. 100] Caput X [De modis acquirendi Imper ium, inprimis monarchicum] par. 4. imperfectam formam:) Sicut in animalium generatione contingit, cum delineatio membrorum sitfacta, neque potest vocarianimal, nequerudis massa, sed aliquod medium ac tertium, sc. embryo. Ita et interregnum, non potest haberi pro statu dissoluto, quiarudimentaregni ibi suntrelicta, nec pro perfecto. Nam deest praecipuum pactum vid. supra l. 2. c. 6. par. 7.Quod plenamformamcivitatisoletadferre,sicutin dolio solet fieri si praecipuum vinculum rumpatur, vinum non solet contineri et quae caveant illud solent constitui vincula succenturiata. par. 7. ut regnum maneat indivisum:) Sed parentis est aequali amore complecti omnes filios,et videmusetiam tenerioriaffectu ferri plerumque parentes in ultimum natum. Ergo et omnibus regnum est dividendum? Sed respondetur, illud inter privatos procedere, verum in regniseo modo debet rex suos diligere ut non cedat in Reipublicae detrimentum. Nam non solum est rex sed et pater populi. Etc. primogenitus praeferatur deinceps genitis:) Paulo latius dicendum de fundamento primogeniturae, quod non est (1) simpliciter in ipsa aetate, namaetas parumconfert praesertimin adultis. Sicutaliterestin pueritia, nam ibi quidem potest plures annos natus ostendere adolescenti suam barbam. Verum sieires sitcum [p. 101]alio quiexcesseratex ephebis, non attenditur si plures habeat annos. Nam saepe fieri potest ut annis minor sit sapientia major. (2) Nequeejus fundamentum est prudentia pleniorin majori natu.


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Etc. primogenitus praeferatur deinceps genitis:) Paulo latius dicendum de fundamento primogeniturae, quod non est (1) simpliciter in ipsa aetate, namaetas parumconfert praesertimin adultis. Sicutaliterestin pueritia, nam ibi quidem potest plures annos natus ostendere adolescenti suam barbam. Verum sieires sitcum [p. 101]alio quiexcesseratex ephebis, non attenditur si plures habeat annos. Nam saepe fieri potest ut annis minor sit sapientia major. (2) Nequeejus fundamentum est prudentia pleniorin majori natu. Verum quidem est annos multum conferre ad prudentiam in ipsaaetatecrescente. Sed in adulta quiest 25annos natus majori potest esse praeditus prudentia,acille quiest30 annorum. Sed illud est primogenituraefundamentumnempe Sors nascendi, namnihilaliud possumus hicallegare, quamsortemhic valereacregnare, namaliud aptiusmedium non inveniri potest rixarum evitandarum inter fratres. Nam sialter mos esset receptus, quo prudentissimusacsapientissimus succedere debeat in regno, tum implicarentur infinitis bellis etc etc. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 207 [p. 100] Chapter X [On the ways of acquiring authority, particularly monarchical] par. 4. an imperfect form:)In the generation ofanimals,when thelineaments ofthelimbs exist, they can becalled neitheranimals noran unformed mass but something in between, i.e.an embryo. Similarly in an interregnum: itcannot beregarded a dissolved form,sincetherudiments ofa kingdom areleft, nora perfectform, because the particularcontract is missing, seeabove book 2 chap. 6 par. 7. Such acontract usually confers thefull form on thestate,as it occurs in ajar if one particular seal breaks and reserve seals are applied to prevent the wine from running out. par. 7. thatthe kingdom should stay undivided:)Itis properforafatherto entertain equally kindly feelings forall his sons; wealso seethat fathers mostly have moretender feelingsfortheirlatest born. Should thereforethe kingdombe divided between all of them?


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7. Such acontract usually confers thefull form on thestate,as it occurs in ajar if one particular seal breaks and reserve seals are applied to prevent the wine from running out. par. 7. thatthe kingdom should stay undivided:)Itis properforafatherto entertain equally kindly feelings forall his sons; wealso seethat fathers mostly have moretender feelingsfortheirlatest born. Should thereforethe kingdombe divided between all of them? The answer is that this is the procedure with regard to private property, but in kingdoms the king should love his sons in a way that is not detrimental to the state. For he is not only king but the father of the people, and so on. the first-born preferred to those born later:)One oughtto say a bitmoreaboutthe foundation of primogeniture, which is, first, not simply a matter of age, because age makes little difference, especially between adults. It is different in boyhood, where the elder can show the younger his beard. But if he has to do with [p. 101] someone who has come to the age of manhood, it is of no concern if he is a few years senior. It often happens that the younger is wiser than theelder. Second, the foundation of primogeniture is not the greater amount of prudence in the elder. It is true that years contribute much to prudence in the years of growth. In adult years, however, hewho is 25can beendowedwithmore prudencethan hewho is30 years ofage.No,therealfoundation of primogenitureisthetime of birth,which is dueto chance. That this principleshould prevailand reign is the only thing Ican adduce here, for thereis no better way ofavoiding conflicts between the brothers. With another practice, where the most prudent and wise succeeds to the throne, the brothers will be involved in endless wars etc. etc. 208 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s par.


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In adult years, however, hewho is 25can beendowedwithmore prudencethan hewho is30 years ofage.No,therealfoundation of primogenitureisthetime of birth,which is dueto chance. That this principleshould prevailand reign is the only thing Ican adduce here, for thereis no better way ofavoiding conflicts between the brothers. With another practice, where the most prudent and wise succeeds to the throne, the brothers will be involved in endless wars etc. etc. 208 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s par. 8. id jus populus sibireservasse:) Sicutsuprac.IV. dictum fuit deservis, quod qui ultro setradiderint in servitutem homini, non possintabalienari, ita se res habet cum populo, quod illis dominus seu Rex non possit imponi, nisi quem ipsi velint. par. 11. cognatica et agnatica:) Hujussuccessionis discrimen optime potest perspici ex exemplorum inductione. Cognatica enim est v.g. in Suecia, Anglia etc ubi post Henricum IIX, cui natae filiae duae Maria sc. et Elisabetha et filius Eduardus, qui Patri succedit exclusis majoribus natu sororibus, illo vero decedenti absque stirpe, regnum fuit delatum non ad Jacobum Scotiae Regem, sed ad suam [p. 102] sororem Mariam, postque etiam ad Elisabetham illustrissimam illam Reginam, quaecum in vivisesse desiit etam sine prole pervenit regnum Angliae ad Jacobum VI Scotiae regem. Sic in regno Daniae tali modo instituta est successio. Nam prima linea successioni proxima est illa quam tenet hodiernus rex Christiernus. In 2da linea est princeps Georgius, et regis prioris filiae quae nupserant ducibus quibusdam in Germania et quae adhuc caelebs est. Successio vero agnatica est in familia Austriaca, regnis Hispaniae etc. Caput X I [De officiis summorum Imperantium] par. 7. Quod non ad usum civitatis facit:) Unde apparet non facere ad usum Reipublicae si quis breves an prolixas an nullas gerat barbas. Ita nec in Republica detrimentum vergit si geram crines attonsos, ut stultum sit praecipere sub poena capitis habere capillos super aures attonsos.


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Successio vero agnatica est in familia Austriaca, regnis Hispaniae etc. Caput X I [De officiis summorum Imperantium] par. 7. Quod non ad usum civitatis facit:) Unde apparet non facere ad usum Reipublicae si quis breves an prolixas an nullas gerat barbas. Ita nec in Republica detrimentum vergit si geram crines attonsos, ut stultum sit praecipere sub poena capitis habere capillos super aures attonsos. Nihil quoque damni redundat in civitatem si quis gerat calceos rotundos, hebetes, braccas laxissimas vel constrictiores. Frustra et inconsiderate detonant quidam sacerdotes63 in publica de istiusmodi rebus. Nam sicuti puto meinutiliorem non reddi si geram istiusmodi vestes, ita neque Deo propterea minus placere. Qut 64 istae invectivae proficiscuntur magis ex ferocitate, quia ipsi calvum habent caput, ideo dolent si juvenes gaudeant prolixiori crine. Ita quia illi habent vetulas uxores dolore afficiuntur, si videant juvenes habere juvenculas uxores easque latius exornari. 63. This line and the subsequent seven have a NB in the margin. 64. Manuscript sic. Unintelligible. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 209 par. 8. the people is understood to have reserved the right /to appoint the successor/for themselves:) In chapter IV115 above it is stated about slaves that those who voluntarily offer themselves to serve under someone cannot be sold. The same applies to the people, becausethey cannot beinflicted with a master ora king they do not want. par. 11. cognate and agnate succession:) This distinction is best understood by examples. Cognatesuccession applies in Sweden, England etc. whereafter Henry VIII, who had the daughters Mary and Elizabeth and theson Edward,who succeeded hisfatherand hiselder sisters wereexcluded.


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The same applies to the people, becausethey cannot beinflicted with a master ora king they do not want. par. 11. cognate and agnate succession:) This distinction is best understood by examples. Cognatesuccession applies in Sweden, England etc. whereafter Henry VIII, who had the daughters Mary and Elizabeth and theson Edward,who succeeded hisfatherand hiselder sisters wereexcluded. However, when he died without progeny, the kingdom was not transferred to James, the king of Scotland, but to Edward’s [p. 102] sister Mary and after her to thefamous queen Elizabeth; when shetoo left life without offspring, the kingdom went to James VI, King of Scotland. In Denmark, succession is instituted similarly.The presentKing Christian holds the first line in succession. In the second line are Prince George, who is still unmarried, and the daughters of theformer king who have married some dukes in Germany. Agnate succession is in the house of Austria and the kingdoms of Spain etc. Chapter X I [On the duty of sovereigns] par. 7. what does not contribute to public utility:) Obviously, it is of no concern to public utility if someone has a short beard, long beard or none at all. Nor is it detrimental to the state if I cut my hair, as it would be stupid to decree under penalty that the hair must be clipped above the ears. No damage falls upon the state if someone wears round or ungainly shoes or loose or tight sleeves. In vain and with no consideration do some priests thunder about such things in public life. I do not think I become less useful if I wear such clothes, nor that I please God less. Those invectives depend more on anger, because they are bald-headed and suffer if young men have longer hair. Likewise, they grieve because they have old women when they see young men with young women fitted out more copiously. 115. In chapter IV par. 3, not commented on in the manuscript. 210 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Si [p.


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I do not think I become less useful if I wear such clothes, nor that I please God less. Those invectives depend more on anger, because they are bald-headed and suffer if young men have longer hair. Likewise, they grieve because they have old women when they see young men with young women fitted out more copiously. 115. In chapter IV par. 3, not commented on in the manuscript. 210 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Si [p. 103] Deus concesserit homini istum liberum agendi modum, cur non istalibertas quae nemini nocet, sit indulta hominibus, praesertim si ex ea delectationem quandam percipiant? Caput X II [De legibus civ ilibus in specie] par. 2. jus redditur:) Ut apud Judaeos qui blasphemarat nomen Divinum, non tantum in foro divino poenae obnoxius fuit, sed et talis certa poena in foro civili fuit plectendus, quanquam hoc praeceptum erat divinum vel juris naturae etc etc. par. 6. Exemplum lex naturalis est, Deus est colendus. Lex civilis definit quo tempore, quibus ritibus etc cultus Dei obeundus. Unde apparet ordinationesecclesiasticasesselegesciviles sed ecclesiasticae vocanturab objecto. par. 7. Itain contractibus qui sunt in cujusquam arbitrio, tamen circaillos leges civiles disponunt.Ita nonnisi in certo loco certaemerces venduntur.Inde stapulae civitates, nundinae etc quae ad bonum ordinem faciunt. naturalitercompetunt:) Libertas nobisrelictaalege naturali, neea perturbationem ciat,circumscriptio facta. Ita fieri sator, sartor, miles, sacerdoslege naturali praemissum est, verum certis decausiscertis hominibus civili lege prohibitum. Caput X III [De Jure v itae ac necis] par. 18. aetasrobustusetadultus, quicallumquasi obduxit,facilius plagasexcipit quam puer. Opes viginti thaleri pauperi sunt nimia poena, diviti nulla. par. 19. poena proprie dicta:) Saepe qui magnum accipit infortunium ex alterius peccato, ut patris confiscatio liberos innocentes exponit contemtui, qui tamen non habet rationem paenae proprie. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 211 If [p.


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Caput X III [De Jure v itae ac necis] par. 18. aetasrobustusetadultus, quicallumquasi obduxit,facilius plagasexcipit quam puer. Opes viginti thaleri pauperi sunt nimia poena, diviti nulla. par. 19. poena proprie dicta:) Saepe qui magnum accipit infortunium ex alterius peccato, ut patris confiscatio liberos innocentes exponit contemtui, qui tamen non habet rationem paenae proprie. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 211 If [p. 103] God has granted man a proper measure of freedom ofaction,whywould the kind of freedom that does not hurtanybody not beallowed,especially if they take some pleasure from it. Chapter X II [On civ il law in particular] par. 2. thegiving of justicein civilcourts:)Among theJews, hewho blasphemed the name of Godwas guilty not only in the divinecourt but had to be punished in human court as well, although this precept belonged to Divine law or natural law and so on. 116 par. 6. An exampleis thelaw of naturethat God is to be worshipped. Civil law regulates when and by which ceremonies the adoration of God is to be performed. This is why the ecclesiastical regulations are civil laws, but called ecclesiastical because of their object. par. 7. Therefore, civil laws also regulate such activities that anyone can conclude. Certain goodsaresold only in certain places; therearestapletowns, market-daysand other regulations that create order. rights admissible by nature:) The freedom left to us by nature is restricted, so that it may not cause confusion. Hence, it is allowed by nature to become a planter, a tailor, a soldier, or a priest, but for certain reasons it is forbidden for certain people by civil law. Chapter X III [On the r ight of life and death] par. 18. age:) A strong adult who has become hardened can takea blow moreeasily than a boy. Twenty thaler are too severe a fine for the poor but nothing to the rich. par.


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Hence, it is allowed by nature to become a planter, a tailor, a soldier, or a priest, but for certain reasons it is forbidden for certain people by civil law. Chapter X III [On the r ight of life and death] par. 18. age:) A strong adult who has become hardened can takea blow moreeasily than a boy. Twenty thaler are too severe a fine for the poor but nothing to the rich. par. 19. punishment in a proper sense:) It often happens that someone is struck by a great misfortune because of another’s fault, as when the fortune of a father is forfeited and the children exposed to contempt; this however is not real punishment. 116. The sentence seems incomplete. 212 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s [p. 104] Dissentienti:) Ut in senatu, si unus velalter dissenserit in mala conclusione.ItaJoseph quamvisassessorin synedrio ubisalvatorfuitcondemnatus, innocens declaratur. incommodum:) Ut si collegio immunitates concessae adimantur, ille etiam sentit qui non peccavit; est ex malis fatalibus, a quibus immunis non est conditio humana. Caput XV [De potestate summi Imper ii in bona civ itate contenta] par. 6. salvum esse queat:) Ut urbs in bello destituta annona ac auxilio, non prohibetur quominus transigat cum hoste nec adigi potest ut se jugulet sine ulla utilitate, redundatura ea de re in Rempublicam. Caput XVI [De bello et pace] par. 10. Repressaliae in eo consistunt: Si nos deberemus Hollandis summam pecuniae, nec volumus istis repetentibus reddere, tum possunt illi injicere manus in nostras merces etc. Vel si noster civis debet civi Hollandico summam pecuniae et quaerit 65 in nostro magistratu ut jus sibi fiat, sed non praestet nostra civitas justitiam, potest ille per repressalias suum repetere. /par. 11./66 probabilis ratio:) Sicut habemus de Mose Exod. 2. quid ad Te, dixit Mosi. Num et me velis interfectum? /par. 13./67 captae:) Sicut kryg germanica lingua denotat acquirere, krigen. tum demum:) Ut si equum ceperam non potest dici captus antequam veneram in loca tuta.


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Vel si noster civis debet civi Hollandico summam pecuniae et quaerit 65 in nostro magistratu ut jus sibi fiat, sed non praestet nostra civitas justitiam, potest ille per repressalias suum repetere. /par. 11./66 probabilis ratio:) Sicut habemus de Mose Exod. 2. quid ad Te, dixit Mosi. Num et me velis interfectum? /par. 13./67 captae:) Sicut kryg germanica lingua denotat acquirere, krigen. tum demum:) Ut si equum ceperam non potest dici captus antequam veneram in loca tuta. Ita in navali pugna, ubi dicitur in portum ducere praedam. NB. De jure postliminii lege Grotium l. 3.c. 9. de. J.B.et P. 65. Sc. Hollandus. 66. Paragraph number missing in ms. 67. Paragraph number missing in ms. O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 213 [p. 104] who did not consent:) As when someone in the council objected to a bad decision.Joseph is declared innocent,although hewasa member ofthesenate where the Saviour was condemned.117 suffer loss:) When acorporation is deprived of its immunities,even those who are guiltless suffer. That is one of thefatal illsagainst which the human condition is not immune. Chapter XV [On the power of sovereign authority over property w ithin the state] par. 6. cannot survive:) A town that lacks means of subsistence and help during a war is not forbidden to negotiate with the enemy and cannot be urged to kill itself if it does not bring about any advantage for the country. Chapter XVI [On war and peace] par. 10. reprisals:) If we owe the Dutch a sum of money and refuse to pay in spite of their demand, then they can lay hands on our revenues. Or if a countryman of ours owes someone in Holland a sum of money and claims his right in our court and our country fails to see that justice is done, then the Dutchman118 can claim his property with the help of reprisals. /par. 11./ a reasonable ground:) As with Moses in Exodus 2, to whom it was said: What do you want? Are you going to kill me too?119 /par.


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10. reprisals:) If we owe the Dutch a sum of money and refuse to pay in spite of their demand, then they can lay hands on our revenues. Or if a countryman of ours owes someone in Holland a sum of money and claims his right in our court and our country fails to see that justice is done, then the Dutchman118 can claim his property with the help of reprisals. /par. 11./ a reasonable ground:) As with Moses in Exodus 2, to whom it was said: What do you want? Are you going to kill me too?119 /par. 13./ captured:) Kryg in German means acquire, krigen. from the moment/that it is beyond enemy pursuit/:)If Icapturea horseitcannot be considered captured before I reach a secure place. Similarly, in naval battles, wherethey say that the prey is brought to port. N.B. on theright to reprisal, read Grotius book 3 chap. 9 De jure belli ac pacis. 117. Refers to Joseph of Arimathea, member of the Jewish synedria, who took care of the burial of Jesus. Mark 15:42–47. 118. It is uncertain who the subject is in the last clause. 119. Exodus 2:14. 214 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s [p. 105] Caput XVII [De Foederibus] par. 1. Ita Abraham cum Abimel. Gen. 14. inibat68 foedus de non laedendo invicem. Sed alia foedera sunt quae aliquid superaddunt, et antea non tenebanturex generali praescripto legis naturalis. Observandum est legem civilem determinarecerti quid cum naturalis indefinite praecipit. Ute.g. lex naturalis generaliter praecipit decommerciis, lex vero civilis, videlicet foederealiquo illi naturali quid addit, uteo vel isto fiant modo non alio. par. 7. Sicutante14.annosnosteretGalliaeRex foedus pepegerecumCromwell, quod post ejus mortem non attendebatur. Caput XVIII [De officiis civ ium] par. 15. figant:)Qui peregrinantur non desinuntessecivessuae patriae, ubisedem suarum fortunarum habent. Non enim potest quis esse civis duarum civitatum. Sicontingat duo illaregna bello committi, uni debetadhaerere. Non permittitur quiescere. Tantum. Londini d 15 Maji 1674. Soli Deo Gloria 68.


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7. Sicutante14.annosnosteretGalliaeRex foedus pepegerecumCromwell, quod post ejus mortem non attendebatur. Caput XVIII [De officiis civ ium] par. 15. figant:)Qui peregrinantur non desinuntessecivessuae patriae, ubisedem suarum fortunarum habent. Non enim potest quis esse civis duarum civitatum. Sicontingat duo illaregna bello committi, uni debetadhaerere. Non permittitur quiescere. Tantum. Londini d 15 Maji 1674. Soli Deo Gloria 68. Manuscript: iniebat O b s e r va t ion e s i n l i b e l lu m ... d e o f f ic io hom ini s ... 215 [p. 105] Chapter XVII [On treaties] par. 1. Abraham, in Genesis14,entered into an agreementwithAbimel that they should not hurteach other.120 Otheragreementsadd something andwere not kept before the agreement according to a general prescription from the law of nature. Note thatcivil lawsettlessomething specific,whilethelawof nature prescribesatlarge. For instance, the law of nature gives general prescriptions concerning commerce, but civil law adds something to some kinds of agreement about how something should be prosecuted in this way and not the other. par. 7. As14 yearsago our king and the king of France madeatreatywith Cromwell that was not prolonged after his death. Chapter XVIII [On the duties of citizens] par. 15. settle:)Thosewho go abroad do notceaseto becitizens oftheircountry,wherethey have their property. One cannot be citizen of two states. If the two kingdoms go to war, one ought to adhere to one of them. One is not permitted to stay neutral. That is all. Lund May 15 1674 Glory to God alone 120. Abimel is not mentioned in Genesis 14:13, only Mamre and his brothers Eshkol and Amre.


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A ppen dice s Appendix I: Distr ibution of the annotations on De jure September 1672 Book i Chapter I: On moral entities Introduction, plus annotations on § 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 14, 16, 23 Chapter II: On the certainty of moral sciences § 4, 6, 8, 10 Chapter III: On the understanding of man as it concurs in moral actions § 2, 10, 14, 15, 16 Chapter IV: On the will of man as it concurs in human action § 5, 10 Chapter V: On moral actions in general … § 4, 5 Chapter VI: On the rule of moral actions, or of the law in general § 3 Chapter VII: On the qualities of moral actions § 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16 Book ii Chapter III: On the law of nature in general § 5, 13, 16, 17 & 18 Chapter V: On self-defence § 19 Chapter VI: On the right and privilege of necessity § 1 218 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Appendix II: Distr ibution of the annotations on De officio Book i Date February 11 1673 [Chapter 1: On human action] Introduction, plus annotations on § 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27 March 6 1673 Chapter II: On the rule of human action or on law in general § 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 March 14 1673 Chapter III: On natural law Introduction, plusannotations on § 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 April 8 1673 Chapter IV: On man’s duty to God, or on natural religion § 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 April 17 1673 Chapter V: On duty to oneself § 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 18, 23, 24 May 1 1673 Chapter VI: On the duty of every man, and first of not harming others § 1, 2, 5, 6 May 13 1673 Chapter VIII: On the common duties of humanity § 1, 2, 4 No date ChapterXV:On contractswhich presuppose valueinthings and on the duties they involve § 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 October 16 1673 ChapterXVI:Onmethods of dissolving obligationsarising from agreements § 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 October 18 Chapter XVII: On interpretation § 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13 Book ii November 10 1673 Chapter I: On the natural state of man Introduction, plus annotations on § 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11 November 28


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1673 Chapter VIII: On the common duties of humanity § 1, 2, 4 No date ChapterXV:On contractswhich presuppose valueinthings and on the duties they involve § 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 October 16 1673 ChapterXVI:Onmethods of dissolving obligationsarising from agreements § 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 October 18 Chapter XVII: On interpretation § 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13 Book ii November 10 1673 Chapter I: On the natural state of man Introduction, plus annotations on § 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11 November 28 1673 Chapter II: On the duties of marriage § 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 a p p en di c e s 219 December 3 1673 Chapter III: On the duties of parents and children § 1, 2, 8 No date Chapter V: On theimpulsivecause ofconstituting thestate Introduction, plus annotations on § 1, 2, 3, 4 No date Chapter VI: On the internal structure of states § 1, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 No date Chapter VII: On the function of sovereign power § 2, 3 No date Chapter VIII: On the forms of government § 1, 3, 5, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15 No date Chapter IX: On the characteristics of civil authority § 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 No date ChapterX:On theways ofacquiring authority, particularly monarchical § 4, 7, 8, 11 No date Chapter XI: On the duty of sovereigns § 7 No date Chapter XII: On civil law in particular § 2, 6, 7 No date Chapter XIII: On the right of life and death § 18, 19 No date Chapter XV: On the power of sovereign authority over property within the state § 6 No date Chapter XVI: On war and peace § 10, 11, 13 No date Chapter XVII: On treaties § 1, 7 May 15 1674 Chapter XVIII: On the duties of citizens § 15 220 t h e p u f e n d o r f l e c t u r e s Appendix III: Indices nominum et rerum (Numbers indicate the pages of the original manuscripts.) A. observationes in De jure Adam 2, 3, 13 Aristotle 8, 11, 16 Boeclerus, Johann 4 Christ 10 David 13, 15 Dina 18 Eustratius 10 Grotius, Hugo 4, 7 Henry IV, King of France 6, 17 Hobbes, Thomas 14, 16 image of God 3, 5 imposition 2, 5sq.


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A. observationes in De jure Adam 2, 3, 13 Aristotle 8, 11, 16 Boeclerus, Johann 4 Christ 10 David 13, 15 Dina 18 Eustratius 10 Grotius, Hugo 4, 7 Henry IV, King of France 6, 17 Hobbes, Thomas 14, 16 image of God 3, 5 imposition 2, 5sq. Jacob 11 latitude of moral actions 9 Lea 11 moral entities 1 moral indifference 8 Rachel 12 Saulus 14 Salomon 10 Scotus, Johannes Duns 10 state (analogous to space) 3 Thomas ab Aquino 10 Uriah 15 will 12 B. observationes in De officio Abilmech 18 Abimel 105 Abraham 51, 82, 105 absolutism 95–99 Adam 12, 40, 73, 80 adultery 15 Aeschines 36 Alexander Magnus 99 Apollo 60 Aristotle 1–5, 29, 35, 37, 38, 39, 72, 74, 83 atheists 39sq. Brutus, Junius 95 Caelius 59 celibacy 77 Charles the Great 99 Charles XI, King of Sweden 24 Christ 31, 43, 52, 70 86, 88 Christian II, King of Denmark 94 Christian V, King of Denmark 102 Cicero 8, 44, 50, 56, 76 Crassus 76 Cromwell, Oliver 105 custom 1, 33, 35 Daniel 88 David 28, 52, 74, 94 the Decalogue 23, 26 democracy 2, 98 de Osuna, (Pedro Téllez-Giron) 68 the Devil 23 divine punishment 24, 47 duty 10, 71 Eli 16 Elias 17 a p p en di c e s 221 Elizabeth, Queen of England 92 equality 10, 50, 73sq. Esbon 99 Eve 80 Fabri, Nicolas-Claude, Sieur de Peresc 7 fundament of natural law 31sq. Georgius, prince of Denmark 102 Goliath 74 Grotius, Hugo 7, 8, 29, 46, 86, 91, 98 Henry VIII, King of England 101 Hobbes, Thomas 7, 8, 29, 35, 75 honour 29, 41, 43 Horace 56 Horn, Johann Friedrich 80 imputatio 15–21 indemnification 57–59, 68sq. infinity of God 42sq. irregular states 90sq. James VI, King of Scotland Japheth 73 Jews/the people of Israel/ 87, 88, 98sq., 103 Jonah 36 Joseph of Arimathea 104 Jude 21 Justinus 32 Leopold, Austrian prince 63 Mahomet (Mehmed II), Ottoman Sultan 67 Margareta, Queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden 92 Mary, Queen of England 102 Mathatias 70 Monzambano, Severinus 90 moral knowledge 11, 36sq. moral persons 84sq. moral theology 38 Mornay, Philippe 46 Moses 39, 87, 96, 104, 125 Nero 95 Osiander, J.A.


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James VI, King of Scotland Japheth 73 Jews/the people of Israel/ 87, 88, 98sq., 103 Jonah 36 Joseph of Arimathea 104 Jude 21 Justinus 32 Leopold, Austrian prince 63 Mahomet (Mehmed II), Ottoman Sultan 67 Margareta, Queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden 92 Mary, Queen of England 102 Mathatias 70 Monzambano, Severinus 90 moral knowledge 11, 36sq. moral persons 84sq. moral theology 38 Mornay, Philippe 46 Moses 39, 87, 96, 104, 125 Nero 95 Osiander, J.A. 7 Ovid 73 Quintus Fabius Cunctator 81 papists 5sq., 27sq., 68sq., 77 Paul 8, 17, 34, 37 45, 53, 66, 77, 78, 84 peasants 12, 61, 64 Petrarch 25 Pharao 25 Phocion 71 Plato 1, 2, 41 polygamy 77sq., 79 priests 5sq. right, perfect and imperfect 29 Sallust 73 Salmasius, Claudius 95 Samuel 99 Sarah 18 Scherzer, Adam 10 scholastics 5sq., 44sq. Selden, John 35 Seneca 41 Sigismund, King of Poland and Sweden 92 Sirach 15, 18, 80, 84 Socrates 44 Solomon 49 state 85 state of innocence 11 state of nature 71sq., 74sq. tacit contract/convention/ 30, 65 Tacitus 89 Valerius Maximus 61 Virgil 59 virtues 2sq. Zedechia, Jewish king, 68 A C k N O w L e D G e M e N t S Editing manuscr ipts is a laborious but fascinating art that may tempt the beginner to jump to conclusions. Fora whileI believed the manuscriptsedited in this volume were written by Pufendorf himself. Professor Detlef Döring, Leipzig, theeditor of Pufendorf’scorrespondence, delivered mefrom thatillusionwhileat the same time encouraging me to pursue the project. Basically, this is a philological study, and as that is not where my professional expertiseliesIconsulted theexperts. Hans Helander, professorinUppsala,solved a number ofcrucesand suggested conjectures.Anders Piltz, professorin Lund, has reviewed the edition, emending several passages. He did so at the behest of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities, which benevolently accepted the work for publication. David Jones improved my English translation.


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Basically, this is a philological study, and as that is not where my professional expertiseliesIconsulted theexperts. Hans Helander, professorinUppsala,solved a number ofcrucesand suggested conjectures.Anders Piltz, professorin Lund, has reviewed the edition, emending several passages. He did so at the behest of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities, which benevolently accepted the work for publication. David Jones improved my English translation. I have had the privilege to have Lena Albihn as editor and Lars Paulsrud as designer of the volume.Throughout the process of publishingAnna Forsling,editor at the Academy, has been of great assistance. I KVHAA Filologisk-filosofiska serien har följande arbeten utkommit: 1 Ström, F., Diser, nornor, valkyrjor. Fruktbarhetskult och sakralt kungadöme i Norden (Disen, Nornen, Walküren. Fruchtbarkeitskult und sakrales Königtum im Norden). 1954 2 Ekwall, E., Studies on the population of Medieval London. 1956 3 Kjellén, A., Diktaren och havet. Drift- och drömsymbolik i svenskspråkig lyrik 1880–1940 (The poet and the sea). 1957 4 Svenska skrock och signerier, samlade av Leonhard Fredrik Rääf (Popular superstitions and incantations in Sweden collected by Leonhard Fredrik Rääf. Ed. with an introduction and textual notes by K. R. V. Wikman). 1957 5 Wessén, E., Runstenen vid Röks kyrka (Der Runenstein von Rök, Östergötland). 1958 6 Wessén, E., Historiska runinskrifter. 1960 7 Ståhl, H., Ortnamnen i Kopparbergslagen. 1960 8 Rooth, E., Zu den Bezeichnungen für „Eiszapfen“ in den Germanischen Sprachen. Historisch-wortgeografische und etymologische Studien. 1961 9 Wessén, E., Svensk medeltid. En samling uppsatser om svenska medeltidshandskrifter och texter. I. Landskapslagar. (Zusammenfassung) 1968 10 Wessén, E., Svensk medeltid. En samling uppsatser om svenska medeltidshandskrifter och texter. II. Birgittatexter. (Zusammenfassung) 1968 11 Rooth, E., Niederdeutsche Breviertexte des 14. Jahrhunderts aus Westfalen.


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1960 8 Rooth, E., Zu den Bezeichnungen für „Eiszapfen“ in den Germanischen Sprachen. Historisch-wortgeografische und etymologische Studien. 1961 9 Wessén, E., Svensk medeltid. En samling uppsatser om svenska medeltidshandskrifter och texter. I. Landskapslagar. (Zusammenfassung) 1968 10 Wessén, E., Svensk medeltid. En samling uppsatser om svenska medeltidshandskrifter och texter. II. Birgittatexter. (Zusammenfassung) 1968 11 Rooth, E., Niederdeutsche Breviertexte des 14. Jahrhunderts aus Westfalen. 1969 12 Dixelius, O., Hans Järta och litteraturen. Hans Järta i litterär debatt och kulturpolitik under romantikens tidevarv 1809–1825 (Hans Järta and literature. Hans Järta in literary and cultural politics in the romantic era. 1809–1825). 1973. ISBN 91-7192-061-7 13 Beijer, A., Dramatiken i Bröllops Besvärs Ihugkommelse. En tidsbild och ett tolkningsförsök. 1974. ISBN 91-7192-173-7 14 Ridderstad, P., Konsten att sätta punkt. Anteckningar om stenstilens historia 1400–1765. 1975. ISBN 91-7192-242-3 15 Proceedings of the VIth congress of Arabic and Islamic studies. 1975. ISBN 91-7192-209-1 16 Wessén, E., Svensk medeltid. En samling uppsatser om svenska medeltidshandskrifter och texter. III. De fornsvenska handskrifterna av Heliga Birgittas Uppenbarelser. 1976. ISBN 91-7402-011-0 17 Proceedings of the international colloquium on gnosticism. Stockholm August 20–25 1973. 1977. ISBN 91-7402-025-0 18 Norberg, D., L’œuvre poétique de Paulin d’Aquilée. 1979. ISBN 91-7402-092-7 19 Sarajas, A., Studiet av folkdiktningen i Finland intill slutet av 1700-talet. 1982. ISBN 91- 7402-144-3 20 Johns Blackwell, M., C. J. L. Almqvist and Romantic Irony. 1983. ISBN 91-7402-119-2 21 Makaev, È. A., The language of the oldest runic inscriptions. A linguistic and historical analysis. Translated from the Russian by J. Meredig in cooperation with E. H. Antonsen. 1996. ISBN 91-7402-259-8 22 Landgren, B., Den hotade idyllen. Gunnar Mascoll Silfverstolpe, Finland och den lyriska intimismen. 2008.


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1982. ISBN 91- 7402-144-3 20 Johns Blackwell, M., C. J. L. Almqvist and Romantic Irony. 1983. ISBN 91-7402-119-2 21 Makaev, È. A., The language of the oldest runic inscriptions. A linguistic and historical analysis. Translated from the Russian by J. Meredig in cooperation with E. H. Antonsen. 1996. ISBN 91-7402-259-8 22 Landgren, B., Den hotade idyllen. Gunnar Mascoll Silfverstolpe, Finland och den lyriska intimismen. 2008. ISBN 978-91-7402-379-4 23 Lindberg, B. (ed.), The Pufendorf Lectures. Annotations from theteaching of Samuel Pufendorf 1672–1674. 2014. ISBN 978-91-7402-426-5 S amuel Pufendorf (1632–1694), the famous theorist on natural law in 17th century Europe, was a professor at the University of Lund in Sweden from 1668 to 1676. At Lund he is commemorated every year in the Pufendorf Lectures given by renowned international scholars. This book contains his original thinking in the form of notes taken at the lectures on natural law Pufendorf delivered 1672–1674. No other texts from his teaching are extant. In his lectures Pufendorf commented on his own books on natural law, De jure naturae etgentium and De officio hominis et civis. The manuscripts show how innovative ideas are disseminated and filtered through academic culture. In the history of ideas, Pufendorf is connected with secularization, a modernized concept of the state, a kind of constructivist ontology, and humanity. While this is not untrue, here his thoughts appear in their immediate pedagogic context, where theological and political considerations, academic machinations and the difficulty of taking lecture notes obscure the coherence and consistency of his theory. Its main ideasand their potentialare nevertheless discerniblein the midst of the conflicts and trivia of academic culture. BO LINDBERG is emeritus professor of the history of ideas at the University of Gothenburg. His research deals with the classical tradition and early modern conceptual history.  ----  - www.vitterhetsakad.se


