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The International Information & Library Review (2004) 36, 185–197

The International Information & Library Review
www.elsevier.com/locate/iilr

Digital library development: identifying sources of content for developing countries with special reference to India
V.K.J. Jeevan
Central Library, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, PIN 721 302, India

KEYWORDS
India; digital libraries

Summary Digital libraries aim at unhindered access to content over computer and communication networks, and digitization may be taken as a visible proposition to enhance the shelf life of non-digital content by preservation apart from the virtue of increased and easy access, thereby furthering usage. As a fresh, lively and dynamic area with a lot of enthusiasm and activity by researchers from different disciplines, institutions and countries, digital libraries are viewed in different perspectives and the single most development that has brought about sweeping changes in the library and information discipline currently in the developed world is that of digital libraries. Advancements in computer and information technology with breakthroughs in memory technology has not only reduced the cost of infrastructure required for hosting digital libraries, but the demonstrated success of a wide variety of projects in USA and Europe also endorsed the chances of their survival even in a developing country. Though the professionals and libraries in developing countries are also experiencing the virtues of Internet, and electronic information highways, many of these libraries have not gone much farther than the computerization of in-house operations, availing databases in electronic media such as CD-ROMs, and web access of subscribed journals and various free resources. Digital library development should be taken up as an additional task to populate the web sites with valuable in-house content like the research reports, publications of in-house researchers, and so on. Digital library projects and developments in the country are so many, though a large number of them are only at an aggressively enthusiastic preliminary stage. In a country such as India so rich in content of indigenous research and development in disciplines varied from science and technology to social science, humanities and spirituality, there is tremendous need for hosting full ﬂedged digital libraries by appropriately tagging the content with affordable information technology. However, what is lacking, especially in developing countries, is a coordinated collaborative approach to bring in institutions and identifying content valuable for digitization with sufﬁcient monetary and infrastructure support. The digital library development in the country needs a two-pronged strategy (i) to digitize local content, and (ii) to devise options for accessing external resources. Channels for internal content include journals and serials for research, conference proceedings, theses and dissertations and preprints, research and status reports, textbooks and learning materials, government publications, spiritual/heritage sources, tourism information, traditional knowledge, etc. As far as external resources are concerned, there are electronic options from publishers and information provides such as, online access through Web of subscribed journals, CDs and ﬂoppies containing supplementary material of printed books, bibliographic/full-text databases, which can be hosted on library servers or intranet along with local content. The problems for

E-mail address: vkjj@rediffmail.com (V.K.J. Jeevan). 1057-2317/$ - see front matter & 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.iilr.2003.10.005

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digital library development are manifold in India such as lack of interest, nonavailability of computer and IT infrastructure for library activities, copyright problems, ensuring secure access, properly selecting content from the mass available, internet bandwidth, absence of sufﬁcient ﬁnancial support, over concentration of professional time on administrative routines, acute shortage over concentration of professional time on administrative routines, acute shortage of competent manpower, etc. The software boom engulﬁng the country, as a result of the big leap in computer penetration, sudden rise in proﬁcient manpower, and sizable improvement in communication infrastructure should also be treated as an asset and taken advantage of by authorities and information professionals to create and maintain digital information facilities to usher in the new information age. & 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction
A library is a place where information is disseminated professionally to needy clients in a userfriendly environment. The application of computers to the various tasks by which information is collected, processed, organized and showcased was a signiﬁcant development in the latter part of the last century. Computerized processes gave rise to dynamic as well as interactive products such as the inventory/database of the collection that can be searched and accessed electronically, e.g., the online public access catalogue (OPAC), in contrast to the comparatively static card catalogue. The single most important development that has brought about sweeping changes in the library and information discipline in the developed world is that of digital libraries. Though the professionals and libraries in developing countries are also experiencing the virtues of the Internet and electronic information highways, many of these libraries have not gone much farther than the computerization of in-house operations, making use of databases available in electronic media such as CD-ROMs, and Web access to subscribed journals and various free resources. Some of these libraries created websites basically to project the services and strengths of the library and to serve more as advertising or public relations media rather than digital information gateways. Digital library development should be taken up as an additional task to populate the websites with valuable in-house content like research reports, publications of inhouse researchers, and so on. In a country such as India, so rich in indigenous research and development in disciplines varying from science and technology to social science, humanities and spirituality, there is a tremendous need for hosting full-ﬂedged digital libraries by appropriately tagging this content with affordable information technology. The recent years witnessed the boom of the Internet the world over, leading to the

acceptance of the Web as an alternative delivery mode of information products. You never see a renowned publisher without a website now, and most of the international journals offer some provisions to access the abstracts/full text of papers through the Web along with the print subscription. The information centre is undergoing a transition from the paper-dominated manual environment to the shared access-oriented electronic environment.

Digital library
As a fresh, lively and dynamic area with a lot of enthusiasm and activity by researchers from different disciplines, institutions and countries, digital libraries are viewed from different perspectives (Special Issue on Copyright and Digital Libraries, 1995; Special Issue on Hypermedia, 1995; Special Issue on Digital Libraries, 1998, 1996). The Information Infrastructure Technology and Applications (IITA) Working Group considers ‘digital libraries as systems providing users with coherent access to a very large, organized repository of information and knowledge’ (Lynch & GarciaMolina, 2000). The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) (1996) regarded them as ‘‘not a single entity, requires technology to link the resources of many, linkages transparent to the user, permits universal access, not limited to document surrogates but extended to digital artifacts’’. Noerr (2000) suggested two possibilities for a digital library, either a ‘library that contains material in digitized form,’ or a ‘library that contains digital material’. There were other deﬁnitions such as ‘library without walls’ or ‘library without books’ and synonyms or related terms such as ‘electronic library’ or ‘virtual library’. Digital libraries may be treated as repositories of massive amounts of high-quality information content in digital form in multiple servers on

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diverse formats permitting access over different electronic networks in a distributed environment. Some of the purposes of the digital library identiﬁed by the different ongoing projects were (The Association of Research Libraries, 1996):
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Need and purpose
Digital libraries aim at unhindered access to content over computer and communication networks, which justify the need for resorting to such a setup for useful information resources. Digitization may also be taken as a visible proposition to enhance their life by preservation apart from the virtue of increased and easy access, thereby furthering usage. In the digital form, since users can make any number of copies and only these copies of the material are being used at one point of time, fair chances exist for at least one electronic copy to be available on the network for use by posterity. Many printed materials do not have any index, and indeed when available they are visibly archaic. These materials in digital form laced with functional and exhaustive search engines will go a long way in effective access and efﬁcient bibliographic control of the country’s output. The aspects of everlasting preservation and enhanced access must be ensured vigorously now by the applications of new technology for digitizing and electronic access of invaluable content. Advancements in computer and information technology with breakthroughs in memory technology have not only reduced the cost of infrastructure required for hosting digital libraries, but the demonstrated success of a wide variety of projects in the USA and Europe also endorsed the chances of their survival even in a developing country. Since digitization and digital library development are stupendous tasks involving computer and communications infrastructure, and considerable specialized human skill, a digital storage and selective search and access facility can be set up by formulating a collaboration of few institutions active in computerized information handling.

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To collect, store and organize information and knowledge in digital form. To promote economic and efﬁcient delivery of information. To leverage the considerable investments in computing/communications infrastructure. To strengthen communication and collaboration between research, business, government and educational communities. To contribute to lifelong learning opportunities.

The basic functions involved in setting up a digital library are:
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Identiﬁcation and collection of content to be digitized. Classiﬁcation and digitization of these contents. Editing, formatting and storage of the contents. Designing search engines to selectively search and access the contents. Publishing contents digitally for end-user access.

Each of these functions involves certain subtasks like:
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Transforming printed information into digital form. Storage, retrieval and handling of ‘‘easy-to-use’’ electronic information. Converting data from diverse media or formats into digital format. Classiﬁcation techniques for improving retrieval efﬁciency. Managing devices for large massive storage, with multilevel hierarchical storage structures, supporting differing speed storage devices and varied capacity processors. Editing and formatting of contents in formats such as HTML, VRML, PDF, JPEG, MPEG, etc. Browsing and querying facilities for content based retrieval. Options to promptly distribute and safely access information via standard communication and computing infrastructure. Security of delivered contents by different cryptographic/encryption methods and appropriate ﬁrewall mechanisms.

Why digitize?
Arguments for digitizing resources include: (i) It is not only the availability of digital technology that is important but the point to be stressed is its affordability with each signiﬁcant improvement in the technology driven by market forces. (ii) Digitized materials that can be easily searched and retrieved will deﬁnitely augment their use. (iii) Resources digitized could be easily shared among members of the library network or consortia. If each library does its bit to digitize even a part of the collection, the ultimate

What is lacking, especially in developing countries, is a coordinated collaborative approach to bring in institutions and identify content valuable for digitization with sufﬁcient monetary and infrastructure support.

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result will be considerable for sharing among different members. (iv) Even if full text is not available outside the intranet or to members of the consortium, the search and inventory facilities over the Internet themselves will signiﬁcantly enhance the image of the library and improve visibility among other similar facilities. (v) Less likely to be damaged than print counterparts, as they have no physical form to yellow and decay with age, and loaning out a copy does not relinquish the original (Weisser & Walker, 1997). (vi) Require less space for storage and hence reduction in the building space required.

What to digitize?
Chapman and Kenney (1996) suggested the source documents themselves as the focal point for conversion decisions and not current users’ needs, current service objectives, current technical capabilities, or current visions of what the future may hold. The US Task Force on Archiving of Digital Information, established by The Commission on Preservation and Access and the Research Library Group (1996), found that many of the criteria librarians have used to archive print content apply equally well to digital information:
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appraisal of the subject and discipline in relationship to the institution’s collection goals; the quality and uniqueness of the content; its value now and for the future.

sively for authorized users can be easily broken by others with superior technological abilities. Moreover, the publishers did not give their rights to others as they themselves were engaged in a digitization plan of new publications and in some cases even selective retrospective materials. Thus our libraries are left with a choice of digitizing only a few materials. But an ingenious action plan will enable us to ﬁnd three types of materials: those that are copyright free, copyright owned, and copyright transferred or bought. Copyright free materials are those in the public domain, such as government documents or old books for which the copyright is either expired or not enforced. Since these materials are old or easily available, care should be taken to ﬁrst identify the usage rate of them from statistics generated by library automation package. Digitize only the most heavily used ones and a less used one only when it is demonstrated that difﬁculty in handling in the present form is hindering its use. Since our publishing industry is not as streamlined as in developed countries one can see a lot of publishers go into oblivion after publishing a handful of titles. As they may be willing to transfer the rights for local digitization, this is one way of copyright buying by individual libraries or consortia without spending much. Other means of buying the rights will be a very difﬁcult proposition at least for our libraries as funds are always on the decline whereas sources, users’ demands and prices are always on the uphill. A detailed discussion on speciﬁc contents for digital library development is included below.

How to digitize
Digitization is a task that involves considerable expenditure both in terms of computer systems and proﬁcient human resources, which are difﬁcult to ﬁnd and nurture in many libraries. As a country with signiﬁcant developments in the ﬁeld of digital libraries, even in the USA, the notable features that guided some of the successful projects were (Srinivasan, 1997): (a) no single model or method to follow; (b) each project has taken a unique approach determined by its goals, resources and extent to which creativity and novelty are encouraged; (c) importance of strong organizational commitment, a critical mass of information, and a well-deﬁned collaborative approach. The Colorado Digitization Project (CDP at http:// coloradodigital.coalliance.org/) cautions the following (Bishoff, 2000):

Any library must identify two types of sources for digitization as per their use characteristics. Sources always in high demand in less number of copies may be the obvious choice. Some sources may be used less because they are difﬁcult to handle in their present form, which could be digitized if that will lead to more use of them. The acute problem while pondering over library digitization is the crucial question of copyright and intellectual property protection involved for most of the library materials. Libraries subscribing to a journal or buying a book are entitled to certain rights to put these materials to ‘‘fair’’ use of its clientele. Publishers and other copyright owners may turn a blind eye to photocopying a few pages from them for classroom use or for research work. The so-called virtues that we attach to digital technology like ease of use, modiﬁcation and distribution were treated as threats to their rights by the copyright owner. Any security and safeguards to protect the use exclu-

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Scanning at the highest resolution at an appropriate level of quality to avoid rescanning and re-handling of the originals. Creating and storing a master image ﬁle. Using system components that are non-proprietary. Using image ﬁle formats and compression techniques that conform to industry standards. Creating backup copies of all ﬁles on a stable medium. Creating meaningful metadata for image ﬁles or collections. Storing media in an appropriate environment. Monitoring and recopying data as necessary. Outlining a migration strategy for transferring data across generations of technology. Anticipating and planning for future technological developments.

acquires enhanced monetary support by procuring equipments such as high-resolution scanners, VCP, multimedia machines (workstations as well as servers) and compatible capture cards to handle audio, video and images. Content indexing and metadata Indexing is required for the digitized contents to search and access contents in a selective way, like an OPAC for printed content. Decisions should be made regarding what is to be indexed (author, subject, keywords, phrases, etc.), usage of stop words, vocabulary control, proximity searches, language and period limiting, etc. Indexing strategy includes not only what types of ﬁelds are to be indexed, but also how they are to be treated (exhaustive or sparse) how the content and index ﬁles are to be linked and what sort of access points is provided. If the library is going for a modular fashion, it can prepare hypertext links to provide access to the digitized contents. Once the contents acquired sufﬁcient volume, the library can look for a database management system to link the index and contents. Using the Dublin Core framework as the basis, the CDP identiﬁed eight optional elements and seven mandatory elements of creator, title, subject, description, identiﬁer, date, and format (Bishoff, 2000). Formats The easiest option for electronic access is through the Web by converting the electronic full text available in the pre-production stage into html format. Added materials like ﬁgures/tables may be converted to formats like gif/jpg, whichever is convenient for the individual institution. Also electronic provision of full text can be handled more appropriately in portable document format (PDF) using Adobe Acrobat software. The electronic ﬁle in PDF handles text and other forms of ﬁgures and tables equally well and looks just like a journal page on screen and in print. The only disadvantage is that ﬁle sizes are comparatively big, occupy more space on the server (not a serious problem as the improvements in technology have substantially reduced hard disk costs) and take more time in downloading. The software to read PDF ﬁles, Acrobat Reader, is freely downloadable from many sites (like http://www.adobe.com) thus requiring no investment at the client side. Over 95% of the 600 international journals out of the 800 subscribed to at a premier library of India provide the table of contents with abstract as html ﬁles and the full text in PDF. Those remaining use different formats such as html, PS, etc. When different formats are available, how to prefer and stick to one requires

Since the different steps in digitization listed below must be identiﬁed and a workﬂow carefully designed and executed by each library, it is only possible to highlight the major challenges under each of the steps here. Deciding on appropriate formats for incorporating the contents into CD or on the Web will be dependent on the presence of different software required, and the means to support any extra systems needed as well as the size and features of materials to be digitized. Content identiﬁcation and selection Since a wide variety of content is available at the disposal of digitization effort, the ﬁrst step is to identify and select what to digitize and what not to. Policies and programmes of the library, and on top of that the users’ expressed and expected needs, should inﬂuence this decision. The motivations would be on various counts such as costly and rare materials to prevent their mutilation and damage, frequently used materials to increase their access, difﬁcult to retrieve materials to improve their search and dissemination, under used materials to extend their use, etc. Content capturing Let us identify only textual sources in the beginning, and focus on internal content ﬁrst. Retrospective data could be digitized either by keying or by scanning, so some data entry terminals (PCs) and scanners are essential. Both of these can be procured from the market for as low as Rs. 30,000. Sophisticated content such as images, video and sound (not so important if we consider an academic library where the majority of the collection is largely textual) may be converted at a later stage when the digital library development

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both technical and administrative feasibility studies. Sometimes, the volume of content to be handled is more, often warranting handling of scanned images and CD archiving. Storage PCs are marketed now with 20–40 GB HDDs 128– 256 MB RAMs for as low as Rs. 35,000. So with limited investment, the library may be able to order better PCs and servers. If money is a problem in getting the Unix operating system, they can do with shareware like Linux. During the initial stages, it is also appropriate to work with NT servers. Conﬁgure at least one machine with good conﬁguration as a server to hold and service the digital content. Noerr (2000, p. 58) assumed text, in general, is stored at one byte per character and assumed 2 bytes per character for multi-lingual, with 100% indexing overhead. The storage required for a small collection of 100,000 articles averaging 5 pages (2000 characters per page), all in English stored in full text, and indexed for proximity and structural searching is 3 GB [Noerr, 2000, 58]. Search engines/retrieval The library needs software for database management, Web servers, content authoring/editing, etc., and developmental software (Visual studio, C þ þ , Java & Internet tools etc.). As most of these tools are in the public domain, the library does not ﬁnd it difﬁcult to use at least a few of them for its in-house digitization routines. Dissemination If the campus is well networked, then without much investment from the library side, the contents may be made accessible on the intranet. It is easier to host the borrowed external contents also in this mode. However, access restrictions are to be put on these contents either with login/ password or IP ﬁltering when access is provided over the Internet. The library is always free to host its internal content on the Internet. The Internet infrastructure required for hosting the digital library depends on different parameters such as the quantum of contents to be hosted, number of simultaneous users expected, over and above the bandwidth constraints on the national level. 1 Mbps bandwidth will play videos in real time and internal LAN technology has already crossed the 1 GB barrier. Thus institutions with a functional intranet and leased line connection from VSNL or other internet service providers (ISPs) will not face many hindrances for content delivery.

Indian scenario
Digital library projects and developments in the country are so many, and a large number of them are at an aggressively enthusiastic preliminary stage. The Indian Institute of Science (IISc.), Bangalore, collaborated with IBM and SUN Microsystems to host, respectively, the IBM Digital Library and SUN SITE in their campus. The Indian Academy of Science, Bangalore, has demonstrated successfully free on-web delivery of their journals through their website. The Council of Scientiﬁc and Industrial Research (CSIR) of India is proceeding with a major project to map the traditional knowledge of the country with the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL). The Central University of Hyderabad is also collaborating with SUN to digitize some of its collection. The National Institute of Technology (NIT), Calicut, is involved in a project called Nalanda to create a digital library of books. The Central Library of IIT, Kharagpur, has been awarded a project by ARDB for developing a hypermedia digital library on aerospace science and technology. There is also a strong component of digital library in the Virtual Centre for Technology Enhanced Learning (VCTEL) that focuses on the role of technology in knowledge accumulation, storing and dissemination and education in the three sectors of university, industry and government. VCTEL is proposed to be set up by the Indian Institute of Technologies (IITs), Indian Institute of Managements (IIMs) and Carnegie Mellon University, aimed at providing distance education, developing resources for core courses, conducting joint Ph.D. programmes and setting up a digital library. Training on Greenstone digital library software has been conducted by NCSI of IISc, Bangalore. Inspired by the success of NDLTD, University of Mysore is pursuing a project, Vidyavahini, on digitizing theses and dissertations with support from NISSAT. One event that has created a major surge in digital library and digitization initiatives in the country was the holding of the International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries (ICADL) in Bangalore in December 2001. A record number of over 700 participants attended, when the average attendance level for professional conferences in the country varies from 150 to 200. But a large number of the participants were from the library and information science discipline and though the event was held in a place regarded as the ‘‘Silicon Valley’’ of the country, very few participants from computer and IT related ﬁelds showed interest in it. If not full blown digital library initiatives, a lot of institutions and libraries are displaying a considerable amount of content on their websites.

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The digital library development in the country needs a two-pronged strategy (i) to digitize local content, and (ii) to devise options for accessing external resources. Computer and information technology tools are being increasingly applied towards improving information organization and services in the country like the industrially advanced countries. Digital library development in the country involves not only cost-effective implementation of computer and information technology tools, but also content covering signiﬁcant areas of knowledge. Most of the traditional information sources such as books or journals are either copyrighted by commercial publishers or are not available in the present access terms for digitization by libraries and information centres. Considering the availability of IT gadgets in the library workplace, one can conﬁrm it is not the technology and infrastructure that is hampering the development of fruitful alternatives in digital full text information provision, but to a large extent the lack of priorities and absence of formal content. The present day research and development is not solely dependent on formal sources of information only. Thus digital library initiatives in the country have to explore informal content or content owned by our institutions to arrive at viable alternatives.

enhancing the use of content is a matter under the jurisdiction of individual libraries to explore and elaborate. And most of the copyright restrictions have two important exceptions; duplicating or transmitting contents for academic purpose, as well as copying without any proﬁt motive, were not treated as infringements, at least on the institution’s intranet. The publishers are also offering electronic options like online access through the Web to subscribed journals, CDs and ﬂoppies containing supplementary material for printed books. Most of this electronic content can be provided through library servers or intranet along with local content. Content procured from publishers or vendors includes full-text databases, online access to subscribed primary journals. There are also ofﬂine electronic media like CDs, ﬂoppies etc. Some of the areas the individual libraries should concentrate on include: (a) Networking with jukebox/CD tower or high capacity hard disk mirroring of optical media disks to serve bibliographic or full text databases, electronic supplements with printed books, CDs of publications/reports of internal activity. (b) Web access of journals: Currently subscribed to journals could be made accessible from the publishers’ websites either through login and passwords or by speciﬁc IP addresses of the institution, with/out paying an extra fee on subscriptions. There are also options to join consortia based electronic access to primary resources through MHRD’s INDEST consortium, UGC-INFLIBNET’s Infonet, etc. (c) Virtual libraries: Links to free Web resources on the focus areas of the institution. (d) ebooks: Free/fee books in electronic form. Prioritization is indeed needed in digitizing content (especially in terms of type and time) as the quantity of content often falls in large numbers. Most of the external content has a 10-year retrospective availability.

Content
The spread of higher education, research and the increased acceptance of science and technology development for solving the ills faced by society in the post-World War II period give rise to a lot of publications in all areas of human endeavour. Technology growth and perfection as a result of massive applied mission oriented research in emerging areas needed suitable outlets to disseminate the new knowledge generated quickly, and this led to a further rise in the number of publications. Contents fall into two groups, external and internal.

Internal (local) content External content
Generally, there is a feeling that most of the information sources available in our libraries are copyrighted by international publishers, and we are not in a position to provide online access to those contents. There are provisions within the fair use principle to host digital/online information from the local collection, as we have photocopied a part of the collection earlier for clients. Improving or Internal content includes research or annual reports and other publications issued by the parent institution of the library. In addition, there are also p/reprints of research publications and proceedings of conferences hosted by the institution. Content generated in-house by not-for-proﬁt institutions may be collected and hosted in a distributed fashion by different institutions to achieve this objective. Providing updates of reports and other

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publications in electronic form is a valid step in digital library development. A detailed discussion of a countywide digital library development initiative using internal content will be presented later in this paper. There is no dearth of internal content as knowledge activity is very strong in the country and is growing.

costs is an arduous task. In a study of 200 Asian library and information science journals in general, and 70 south Asian ones in particular (of which 57 are from India), Sharma (1999) rightly pointed out the problems, which may be extended to journals in other subjects and to some extent content in other forms like reports, edited books, etc.: 1. Frequency varied from quarterly, semi-annually, yearly, to irregularly, and many journals do not appear on time. Sometimes a few issues, or even a few volumes, are combined. 2. The paper used for printing a majority of journals is of very poor quality. It becomes yellow within a few years and may not be acidfree. 3. It seems that the editors are desperate to get articles and publish them bereft of peer reviewing or proper editing or good proofreading without looking at their quality. Perhaps these laxities, coupled with the absence of any marketing, are the cause of their small circulation. 4. Many editors have started journals without proper planning, ﬁnances, and marketing, resulting in the premature death of many journals. A majority of the editors are part-time, without any proper help, which makes it very difﬁcult to run a quality and proﬁtable business. 5. Few publishers replace lost and damaged copies of their journals for free. Often even authors do not receive free copies of journals and/or offprints of their articles. It is up to the professionals to work on arresting these pitfalls to the maximum possible extent and to frame an action plan to further the access to the intellectual content published in these journals. The action plan should formulate the essential needs, purpose, and objectives of digitization and options to overcome the constraints that keep coming in the way. The absence of a peer reviewing mechanism, or even reviewers becoming vindictive sometimes, further erodes the quality of papers. It seems that habitually authors reserve their good papers for international journals for better visibility of their ideas, availability of highly specialized publications, and prestige, thus deteriorating the quality of the papers published in national ones. We have seen that, in the present state of affairs, journals in printed form are published in very few copies and are exclusively distributed to subscribers. Most of the time, the institutions never encourage professionals to take personal subscriptions to such journals, and they are out of reach of a large number of professionals. Also few of these journals are covered in authorized abstracting and

Channels for internal content
Journals and serials for research
Research publications are vital for any professional discipline and preserving and providing access to them are crucial, and a considerable number of such articles are published in journals. Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory (1999) (37th edition) lists around 157,173 serials in 973 subject headings. The utility of journals is aptly conﬁrmed by Katz (1969), who says that 10–20% of the users read a book in a month while 60–80% look at a journal during the same period. Hence, it would be imperative for all concerned to take effective steps to tackle this form of literature on a par with what is happening in the international scenario. Whatever is subscribed to in one’s library can be used but cannot be digitized due to the copyright restrictions. One has to understand the features of the individual journals identiﬁed for digitization and determine means to address the problems of transfer of copyright and access control for electronic access through the Web. Since a backlog of over 40–50 years must be handled in certain cases, CD archiving of back volumes by keying in only the contents and abstracts and scanning the full text may be adopted as an alternative. Another issue worth considering is the constraints of weak infrastructure, especially in terms of network bandwidth. Due to wide use by publishers, PDF has been emerging as the de facto standard for hosting full-text journals on the Web. This option is suggested as a uniform format, as other formats available like html or gif will not handle both text and ﬁgures comfortably. The pitfalls of journals published in India are many, and they have to be approached from different perspectives: those of the reader, the author, and the editor/publisher. The reader will stress value and quality for cost, whereas the author expects a sympathetic approach to his/her ideas from the editor and publishing it faster with maximum visibility. For the editor/publisher, balancing the diverse attitudes of the two groups with further pressures from production and distribution

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indexing journals, further diminishing the chances of proper retrieval of these articles by a prospective reader. The paper used for publishing these journals is of inferior quality, signiﬁcantly reducing their shelf life. Digitization may also be taken as a visible proposition to enhance their life by preservation apart from the virtue of increased and easy access. In the digital form, since users can make any number of copies and only these copies of the material are being used at one point of time, there is a fair chance of at least one electronic copy being available on the network for use for posterity. Many of these journals in printed form do not have any index, and indeed when available they are visibly archaic. These materials in digital form with functional and exhaustive search engines will go a long way toward effective access and efﬁcient bibliographic control of the country’s output. Over the years, journals published in India have accumulated a considerable chunk (‘‘critical mass’’) of papers on different areas of knowledge. Now what is needed is a proper framework for a collaborative approach inﬂuenced by strong organizational commitments. In the case of a majority of journals, publishers or owners of the contents are not so strong in Web and allied technologies, and hence identifying a technically sound partner is very much desired. Since some of the journals are over 4–5 decades old, it is very difﬁcult to provide Web delivery for the whole content. To start, let us concentrate on issues for the last 5–10 years. There is a strong potential for CD-ROM publishing in the country (Chakraborty, 1997), and this channel may be explored for the back issues. The investments required for a CD publishing venture are comparatively small nowadays due to advancements in memory technology and the availability of sophisticated CD-writers and scanners at affordable rates. If the particular journals’ back volumes are not available in electronic format, and only the print versions exist, the easy route for their conversion into a non-print form is by scanning these pages and incorporating them into CD-ROM. Though scanned images occupy 10 times more space than text keyed in ASCII, the cost of keying is about 10 times the cost of scanning (Rajashekar, 1997). The same search engine used for Web access of new issues can be used for retrieving these scanned pages by incorporating connections with the content pages. At this stage, it will be difﬁcult to provide search and access provision in the text portion, as they are scanned images. If the quantity of content in a particular journal is very small, we can alternately bypass this stage by converting the entire content into electronic format for Web access. In the CD

version, ceased journals of importance also may be included. All ceased journals when available, depending on priority based on the quality of contents, can be incorporated at a later stage on CD-ROM or the website.

Conference proceedings
As is the case with journals, there are many conferences held under the support of many government and non-governmental agencies covering various ﬁelds of specialization in institutions spread across the country. The proceedings of some of these conferences were disseminated in book form or as special issues of journals. Both of these outlets are bound by the problems of restricted dissemination, but they are comparatively better than many other conferences where no such publications came out. These conferences generate content and in many cases never get the visibility they deserve and often end up without reaching the target population. A decentralized approach involving multiple institutions to host this content in electronic form may lead to more focussed research and development activity in many of these areas.

Theses and dissertations and preprints, and research and status reports
Along with journals and conference proceedings, these sources also contribute to the proper dissemination of scholarly literature. Most of these sources in their present print format have very limited reach among those interested in using them. Since the authors and their corporate entities have full ownership of these sources, many of the problems that may come up with regard to rights can be easily alleviated for these sources, leading to their inclusion as primary sources for digitization.

Textbooks and learning materials
It is not only the generation and production delays but also the distribution factors that are causing problems with the required availability of textbooks and other learning materials. The linear text in many of these sources, with its difﬁculties of providing a hypertext approach, a multimedia feeling, and streaming of diverse media and formats, all suggest the beneﬁts of using technology intrinsic electronic media for learning and teaching. The static mode of content presentation in printed sources is less appealing than the features of broadcasting and IT intensive presentation tools. Also, exposure to these technologies at a

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young age will help the students acquire the requisite IT skills at a very young age.

Government publications
Publications from government and allied agencies are very valuable as they touch the daily lives of people, and many of them provide authentic data concerning various social and economic parameters of the population. Many such publications are distributed primarily in print form, often printed in limited numbers and distributed through archaic distribution networks. The attempts of the National Informatics Centre (NIC) to host websites of many government departments and agencies are worth emulating. We need many such attempts to cover the entire gamut of government and not-for-proﬁt publications.

Spiritual/heritage sources
The spiritual and philosophic knowledge base of India is very vast, and through efforts of national and foreign scholars, a very strong printed repository of such knowledge exists in important ‘Oriental’ libraries spread across the world. Identifying and converting these materials will no doubt improve their use among those concerned and may even attract new users for these sources traditionally considered ‘not so modern’.

Tourism information
As a country with different weather conditions, India is an all season tourist destination. Since the national and state governments pursue an aggressive agenda to improve the tourism infrastructure, steps toward easy availability of information concerning geographic aspects, the trafﬁc network, and must-see sites, as well as facilities available in each and every place and other information of interest to tourists, must be made available in electronic form in the cyber cafes and the wide network of STD/ISD booths. Such a value-added approach to map the tourism potential of India and tourism information in a tourist-friendly manner along with infrastructure improvement may attract more tourists than the enormous amount of money spend on advertisements often depicting India as a mythical destination.

Traditional knowledge
National development in an increasingly technology intensive social order requires efﬁcient mechanisms

for properly recording and fruitfully preserving the research and development of a country. As a nation with centuries of intellectual growth and demonstrated progress like ours, with less ordered forms of knowledge recording and distribution, this has raised signiﬁcant concern for national policy makers, social scientists and technocrats. We have seen not one but many encroachments on the traditional knowledge of the country through patenting by multinationals. Though the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) world order expressed increasing concern for preserving the intellectual property rights (IPRs) of the country in a properly documented and preserved format, the main reason for these infringements is largely due to the apathy towards constructive organization of such knowledge and making it available in an easily disseminated format. TKDL from CSIR is one such attempt. The problems with traditional knowledge are that they are not available in a properly written form or were passed through generations predominantly in oral form. Another area of concern is that they are not tested and validated scientiﬁcally in some cases. There is no dearth of traditional knowledge experts, scientists and technologists, patent attorneys and IPR experts, or information and computer professionals, but what is lacking is a targeted collaboration of these experts to achieve a common goal. Thus the creation of a digital library of traditional knowledge requires co-operation from experts, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and service arms of the government should ﬁrst identify peers and resources in diverse areas of traditional knowledge like Indian systems of medicine, engineering, agriculture, ﬁne arts, folklore, philosophy and spirituality. Academic practitioners in these ﬁelds also may be able to offer substantial assistance on this count. The services of information professionals working in specialized institutions must be utilized to trace proper resources and their authenticity must be tested by specialists. Then the services of laboratories must be attached to research/academic institutions must be sought to verify the correctness of this knowledge, when it is of scientiﬁc nature. Since the discussion pertains to a traditional knowledge repository that can be framed at the national level, it is the duty of libraries of various types within different institutions to devise techniques for properly recording this knowledge in a digital form and formulating access control. The services of computer professionals are required in this exercise, along with those of information professionals, to design and implement a distributed digital resource for access by different institutions spread across the country.

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A development that has to go side by side with this is the creation of an expert database of traditional knowledge practitioners so that persons interested in seeking their services can easily identify and contact them. Only when traditional knowledge is properly documented and made available for use with options for peer contact and assistance will NGOs or others in need of solving social problems be able to utilize them. There is no doubt that solutions based on this ‘rich but economical or affordable knowledge will go a long way in further augmenting the nation’s development.

Problems and prospects
The problems for digital library development are manifold in India. The attempts mentioned earlier present a feel of what is possible on digital library development with Indian contents. But there are many constraints that have to be overcome to mature services to international standards. The main hurdles in the digital library development in a developing country are: (1) The lack of interest on the part of parent institutions and the absence of action plans or priorities to that extent is the major hindrance. (2) Though computer and communication infrastructure is improving considerably in the country, their availability for information work is not appreciated in many organizations. There are also personnel problems as the librarians fail to command a leadership role in many institutions, thereby eclipsing their role in strategic planning. (3) How are copyrights transferred and handled in the digital environment? Institutions, individuals or private publishers have rights over content, and motivating these owners to ease their rights to other entities for electronic access provision (when the former are not inclined to do so) will be the main bottleneck. But these issues can be resolved by entering into collaborations between the owner of copyright and institution performing the digitization. (4) Another aspect to be considered simultaneously is how the access rights are implemented. What mechanisms are used to impose restrictions on access? When hosted as a paid facility, how are charges levied from users? How are login and password access strictly ensured? If provided as a free facility, how are

funds needed to set up the infrastructure and continue the operations generated? How far can the facility be subsidized with the help of advertisements and sponsorships? Levying charges for access is a distant proposition, due to the speciﬁc nature of usage and the fact that these contents, such as journals, are not attracting much personal subscription now. Instead, sponsorships from institutions, government bodies and library suppliers can be explored as viable means to bring in money for this task. (5) Even when content is hosted at a free facility, enough security mechanisms like ﬁrewalls, ﬁltering routers and encryption–decryption must be put on the server side to prevent any trespassing by hackers. Threat perceptions from the vulnerable areas of the Internet layer, routing infrastructure, domain name server and network management (Atkinson, 1997) have to be addressed from the technical, administrative and operational angles. (6) The advent of computers, the Internet and the IT boom engulﬁng the country has changed the way information is collected, organized and serviced in the country. As a result, sweeping changes are happening in different disciplines, and selecting useful content requires careful review and selection by subject experts. Digitization will only help to preserve the record, and careful selection of content is thus required for enhanced and continued access by users. (7) Internet bandwidth, which is the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted in a particular time, has to be sufﬁciently augmented in the country for faster access of Web content. Though a lot of institutions have designed content for hosting on the Web, most of the time users have to wait rather impatiently to access it. Agarwal (1999) mentions efforts of VSNL to create a bandwidth of 155 Mbps in four metros, Bangalore and Pune. Another eight cities will get two 8 Mbps links, a further 31 cities will get one 8 Mbps link and around 504 cities/towns will get 2 Mbps links. A good rule of thumb is that for every user, at least 8 Kbps, but preferably 12 Kbps, of guaranteed, sustained bandwidth must be available, end-to-end. (Ghosh, 2000) Internet connections in India have exceeded 1.2 million (from 20,450 on September 30, 2000, a 50% growth rate in three months (Dikshit, 2000)) and they are expected to cross 10 million in the next three years. The hope is that initiatives like VSNL’s six gateways, the

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(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

Dishnet DSL submarine cable between Singapore and Chennai, the landing point of FLAG (Fibre optic Loop Around the Globe) and other international undersea links like SEA-ME-WE (III) (South East Asia, Middle East and Western Europe) and SAFE (South Africa Far East) optic ﬁbre submarine cable will soon improve the Internet bandwidth in the country. Financial support for developing digital library prototypes is very desirable. Thus funding agencies, research councils and institutions should offer monetary support, especially for augmenting the existing infrastructure, for content leasing and for staff/volunteer honorarium. The success and experience gained in these projects is most important for further digitization projects. Proper documentation, retrieval and access of indigenous knowledge have gained more prominence in recent days, as has preserving the IPRs in the emerging philosophy of free trade and liberalization. The professional staff members working in many libraries in developing countries are engrossed in administrative and routine jobs related to library operation and administration. Many institutions need not demand that their professionals pursue such aggressive roles. There are also problems of lack of ability, lack of incentives, and lack of role model initiatives. Even in places where infrastructure is available, there is an acute shortage of competent personnel to take up the task of digitizing local content and evolving digital information repositories. The students, faculty, curriculum and training methodology at the disposal of our library schools have to be visibly improved to meet this challenge. Coupled with this, steps should be taken for continuing education programmes for retraining the existing staff.

journals. The digital resources thus accessed will contribute a lot to the research activities in the country by reducing some of the existing barriers of present information communication channels like time and space. The software boom engulﬁng the country, as a result of the big leap in computer penetration, sudden rise in proﬁcient manpower and sizable improvement in communication infrastructure should also be treated as an asset and taken advantage of by authorities and information professionals to create and maintain digital information facilities to usher in the new information age.

Conclusion
Like the enthusiasm received for in-house automation and for website creation, a third boost required in Indian libraries is that of evolving prototypes of digital libraries. This can be achieved at the individual level and by entering into collaborations with other libraries. It is not technology that is hampering our libraries from venturing into digitization but various factors of infrastructure, manpower, ﬁnance and lack of priorities. These problems have no quick remedies and can be overcome only through programmes and follow-up action to address them. Apart from identifying and evolving steps to digitize local contents that are the exclusive intellectual property of the institution concerned, libraries can also procure commercial products available in the market to host as digital libraries on their intranet for the use of their clientele. Some of these tasks can be started with very little investment in terms of a Web server and by devoting some time of staff members and volunteers. Though ‘‘knowledge is power,’’ there was a feeling earlier that seizing one’s knowledge was difﬁcult. This is not true now with daily improvements in wiring the world. In the emerging networked world, your knowledge is identiﬁed as yours and the rights will be attributed to you only when you have properly recorded it and taken enough security mechanisms to improve and maintain it. Resorting to what the developed world does is the right means to give more visibility to the intellectual property of developing nations. Digital libraries have much signiﬁcance in preservation and access of content. Perhaps it is time to propose an Indian digital library of theses and dissertations, along with similar initiatives for Indian journals as well as out-of-print books. There is an equal concern for a country so diverse and large as India to identify national, regional and local institutions to share the responsibility of

The increasing interest in library website development and migration of information sources and services to the Web should be treated as stepping stones in digital library development. The Internet facilities existing in the premier education and research institutions can be tapped for building digital kiosks as storage and service centres for all online information available at those sites. The publishers and other information brokers treat digital information as explosive due to easy means of manipulation and put a plethora of restrictions and barriers on access. It is imperative that libraries judiciously utilize enhanced information access options like Web access to subscribed

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digitizing and preserving the country’s intellectual output. The emerging information age also calls for proper documentation and conservation of local arts and culture, traditional systems of medicine and engineering, indigenous vocational systems, etc. Through pragmatic application of digital technology, we may be able to spread the conserved knowledge to a larger audience not only to improve the living standards of the local community but also to claim the country’s rightful place in the global village.

References
Agarwal, P. K. (1999). India’s national Internet backbone. Communications of the ACM, 42(6), 53–58. Association of Research Libraries. (1996). Deﬁnition and purposes of a digital library. Retrieved on December 6, 2000, from http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/ARL/deﬁnition.html. Atkinson, R. J. (1997). Towards a more secure Internet. IEEE Computer, 30(1), 57–61. Bishoff, L. (2000). Interoperability and standards in a museum/ library collaborative: The Colorado Digitization Project. First Monday 5(6). Retrieved from http://ﬁrstmonday.org/issues/ issue5 6/bishoff/. Chakraborty, A. K. (1997). Publishing on CD-ROM: Indian potential. DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology, 17(5), 23–31. Chapman, S., & Kenney, A. R. (1996). Digital conversion of research library materials: A case for full informational capture. D-Lib Magazine. Retrieved from http://www. dlib.org/dlib/october96/cornell/10chapman.html. Dikshit, S. (2000). Growth in Internet connections lopsided. The Hindu, Visakhapatnam. December 10, 2000. Ghosh, A. (2000). Internet bandwidth: India needs a backbone. Retrieved on December 10, 2000 from http://www.ieo.org/ backbone.html.

Katz, W. A. (1969). Introduction to reference work, vol. 1 (p. 68). New York: McGraw-Hill. Lynch, C., & Garcia-Molina, H. (2000). Interoperability, scaling, and the digital libraries research agenda: A report on the May 18–19, 1995, IITA digital libraries workshop, August 22, 1995. Retrieved on December 5, 2000, from http://www.itrd.gov/ pubs/iita-dlw/main.html. Noerr, P. (2000). The digital library toolkit (pp. 148–174). Retrieved on December 4, 2000 from http://www.sun.com/ products-n-solutions/edu/libraries/digitaltoolkit.html. Rajashekar, T. B. (1997). What’s new in computers? digital libraries. Resonance (April), 60–73. Sharma, R. N. (1999). Development of library and information science periodicals in Asia, with emphasis on South Asia: problems and solutions. Presented at the 65th IFLA council and general conference, Bangkok. Retrieved on December 2, 2000, from http://www.iﬂa.org/IV/iﬂa65/papers/006118e.htm. Special Issue on Copyright and Digital Libraries. (1995). Communications of the ACM, 38(4), 15–96. Special Issue on Hypermedia. (1995). Communications of the ACM, 38(8), 26–112. Special Issue on Digital Libraries. (1998). Communications of the ACM, 41(4), 13–18. Special Issue on Digital Libraries. (1996). IEEE Computer, 29(5), 22–76. Srinivasan, P. (1997). Digital library projects in the United States. DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology, 17(6), 15–21. The Commission on Preservation and Access and the Research Library Group, (1996). Preserving digital information, Report of the Task Force on Archiving of Digital Information, May 1, 1996, http://www.rlg.org/ArchTF/ tfadi.recommen.htm#practices. Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory. (1999). (37th ed.) (p. vii.). New York: R.R. Bowker. Weisser, C. R., & Walker, J. R. (1997). Electronic theses and dissertations: Digitizing scholarship for its own sake. The Journal of Electronic Publishing, 3(2). Retrieved from http://www.press.umich.edu/jep/03-02/etd.html.
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