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1728
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Amram
|
{{Short description|Human biblical character}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Amram
| native_name = עַמְרָם
| native_name_lang = he
| birth_date = 14th–13th century BCE
| other_names = {{lang|ar|عمران}}<br />(Arabic: Islam)<br />{{lang|ar|عمرام}}<br />(Arabic: Christianity)
| known_for = Father of Aaron, Moses, and Miriam in the Book of Exodus
| spouse = Jochebed
| children = {{Plainlist|
* Aaron
* Moses
* Miriam
}}
| parents = {{Plainlist|
* Father: Kehath (according to the Masoretic Text)
}}
| relatives = {{Plainlist|
* Cousin and/or aunt (according to various interpretations): Jochebed
* Brothers: Izhar, Hebron, Uzziel
}}
}}
In the Book of Exodus, Amram ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|m|r|æ|m}}; {{Hebrew Name|עַמְרָם|‘Amram|ʻAmrām|"Exalted people"{{\}}"The people are exalted"}}) is the husband of Jochebed and father of Aaron, Moses and Miriam.<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|6:20|}}</ref>
In the Holy Scriptures
The matter is straightforward.
But in translations, particularly in early Christian Bibles, which adopted a redacted and edited version of Judaic Holy Scriptures as “The Old Testament”, In addition to being married to Jochebed, Amram is also described as having been related to Jochebed prior to the marriage, although the exact relationship is uncertain; some Greek and Latin manuscripts of the Five Books of the Judaic Torah, called by Christians the Septuagint , state that Jochebed was Amram's father's cousin, and others state that Amram was Jochebed's cousin, but the Masoretic Text states that she was his father's sister.<ref>New American Bible, footnote to Exodus 6:20</ref> He is praised for his faith in the Epistle to the Hebrews.<ref>{{Bibleref||Hebrews|11:23}}</ref>
Textual scholars attribute the biblical genealogy to the Book of Generations, a hypothetically reconstructed document theorized to originate from a similar religiopolitical group and date to the priestly source.<ref>Richard Elliott Friedman, Who Wrote The Bible?</ref> According to critical scholars, the Torah's genealogy for Levi's descendants, is actually an aetiological myth reflecting the fact that there were four different groups among the Levites – the Gershonites, Kohathites, Merarites, and Aaronids;<ref name "wnsmyy">''Peake's Commentary on the Bible</ref> Aaron – the eponymous ancestor of the Aaronids – could not be portrayed as a brother to Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, as the narrative about the birth of Moses (brother of Aaron), which textual scholars attribute to the earlier Elohist source, mentions only that both'' his parents were Levites (without identifying their names).<ref>{{Bibleverse||Exodus|2:1–2|}}</ref> Critical scholars suspect that the Elohist account offers both matrilineal and patrilineal descent from Levites in order to magnify the religious credentials of Moses.<ref name "wnsmyy"/>
Family tree
According to the Masoretic Text, Amram's family tree would be:
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | LEV |~|y|~| WIF | | LEVLevi|WIF(unnamed)}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | |,|-|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | |!| | | | GER | | KOH | | MER | GERGershon|KOHKehath|MERMerari|JOCJochebed}}
{{tree chart| | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|v|^|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | JOC |y| AMR | | IZH | | HEB | | UZZ |JOCJochebed| AMRAmram|IZHIzhar|HEBHebron|UZZ=Uzziel}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | |,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | }}
{{tree chart| | | MIR | | AAR | | MOS | | | MIRMiriam|AARAaron|MOS=Moses}}
{{tree chart| }}
{{tree chart/end}}
According to the Septuagint, Amram's family tree would be as follows:
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | LEV |~|y|~| WIF | LEVLevi|WIFAdina}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | GER | | KOH | | MER | GERGershon|KOHKohath|MER=Merari}}
{{tree chart|border0| | |S| rel |T| | | | | |!| | | | | |rel<small>related</small>}}
{{tree chart| | |Q| | | |Q|,|-|-|-|v|^|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | JOC |y| AMR | | IZH | | HEB | | UZZ |JOCJochebed| AMRAmram|IZHIzhar|HEBHebron|UZZ=Uzziel}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | |,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | }}
{{tree chart| | | MIR | | AAR | | MOS | | | MIRMiriam|AARAaron|MOS=Moses}}
{{tree chart| }}
{{tree chart/end}}
According to The Book of Jasher (Midrash), Amram's family tree would be:
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |jb|jb=Eber}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |jb|jb=Yoktan}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |jb|jb=Jobab}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | LEV |~|y|~| WIF | | LEVLevi|WIF Adinah<ref>The Book of Jasher, Chapter 45, Verse 5-6</ref>}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | |,|-|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | |!| | | | GER | | KOH | | MER | GERGershon|KOHKehath|MERMerari|JOCJochebed}}
{{tree chart| | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|v|^|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | JOC |y| AMR | | IZH | | HEB | | UZZ |JOCJochebed| AMRAmram|IZHIzhar|HEBHebron|UZZ=Uzziel}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | |,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | }}
{{tree chart| | | MIR | | AAR | | MOS | | | MIRMiriam|AARAaron|MOS=Moses}}
{{tree chart| }}
{{tree chart/end}} Amram married his aunt, Jochebed, the sister of his father Kehath.<ref>The Book of Jasher 67:2; see also Exodus 6:20</ref>
In rabbinical and apocryphal literature
In the Apocryphal Testament of Levi, it is stated that Amram was born as a grandson of Levi when Levi was 64 years old.<ref>Testament of the Patriarchs, Levi:12</ref> The Exodus Rabbah argues that when the Pharaoh instructed midwives to throw male children into the Nile, Amram divorced Jochebed, who was three months pregnant with Moses at the time, arguing that there was no justification for the Israelite men to father children if they were just to be killed;<ref name "ssdjlv">Exodus Rabbah 1:17</ref> however, the text goes on to state that Miriam, his daughter, chided him for his lack of care for his wife's feelings, persuading him to recant and marry Jochebed again.<ref name "ssdjlv"/> According to the Talmud, Amram promulgated the laws of marriage and divorce amongst the Jews in Egypt;{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} the Talmud also argues that Amram had extreme longevity, which he used to ensure that doctrines were preserved through several generations.<ref>Jewish Encyclopedia</ref>
Despite the legend of his divorce and remarriage, Amram was also held to have been entirely sinless throughout his life and was rewarded for this by his corpse remaining without any signs of decay.<ref>Baba Batra 17a</ref> The other three ancient Israelites who died without sin, being Benjamin, Jesse and Chileab.
According to the Book of Jubilees, Amram was among the Israelites who took the bones of Jacob's sons (excluding those of Joseph) to Canaan for burial in the cave of Machpelah.<ref name="Jubilees 46:11">Jubilees 46:11</ref> Most of the Israelites then returned to Egypt but some remained in Canaan. Those who remained included Amram, who only returned somewhere up to forty years later.
One of the Dead Sea Scrolls (4Q544, Manuscript B) is written from Amram's point of view, and hence has been dubbed the Visions of Amram. The document is dated to the 2nd century BC and, in the form of a vision, briefly discusses dualism and the Watchers:
{{Blockquote|I saw Watchers in my vision, the dream-vision. Two men were fighting over me...holding a great contest over me. I asked them, 'Who are you, that you are thus empowered over me?' They answered, 'We have been empowered and rule over all mankind.' They said to me, 'Which of us do you choose to rule you?' I raised my eyes and looked. One of them was terrifying in his appearance, like a serpent, his cloak, many-colored yet very dark....And I looked again, and in his appearance, his visage like a viper....I replied to him, 'This Watcher, who is he?' He answered, 'This Watcher...his three names are Belial and Prince of Darkness and King of Evil.' I said (to the other Watcher), 'My lord, what dominion (have you?)' He answered, 'You saw (the viper), and he is empowered over all Darkness, while I (am empowered over all Light.)...My three names are Michael, Prince of Light and King of Righteousness.<ref>translation by Prof. Robert Eisenman</ref>}}
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Qur'anic people}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Ancient Egyptian Jews
Category:Levites
Category:Book of Exodus people
Category:People of the Quran
Category:Family of Aaron and Moses
Category:Tribe of Levi
Category:Book of Jubilees
Category:Epistle to the Hebrews
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amram
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.292219
|
1729
|
Amyntas I of Macedon
|
{{Short description|King of Macedon, c. 512 – 498/497 BC}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Amyntas I
| image = MACEDON, Aegae. Circa 510-480 BC.jpg
| caption Silver trihemiobol struck {{circa|510-480 BC}}, possibly a civic issue from Aegae.{{efn|The earliest Macedonian coins were urban issues struck at Aegae {{circa|490 BC}}.{{sfn|Borza|1990|p127}} Recent scholarship, however, attributes these early issues to the tribes of Bisaltia or the city of Galepsus.<ref>{{Cite book |titleA Companion to Ancient Macedonia |lastDahmen |firstKarsten |publisherWiley-Blackwell |year2010 |isbn9781405179362 |pages48 |editor-lastRoisman |editor-firstJoseph |chapterThe Numismatic Evidence |editor-last2Worthington |editor-first2Ian}}</ref> Alexander I was the first Macedonian king to mint his own coins.{{sfn|Errington|1990|p=12}}}} {{abbr|Obv.|Obverse}}: goat kneeling right, head reverted; {{abbr|rev.|reverse}}: incuse square with four sections.
| succession = King of Macedonia
| reign = {{circa|512}}–498/497 BC
| full name | predecessor Alcetas
| successor = Alexander I
| spouse = unknown
| issue = Alexander I<br>Gygaea
| dynasty = Argead
| father = Alcetas
| mother = unknown
| birth_date = ?
| birth_place | death_date 498/497 BC
| death_place | religion Ancient Greek religion
}}
Amyntas I ({{langx|grc|Ἀμύντας}}) was king{{efn|While Greeks such as Demosthenes and Aristotle referred to them as such, there is no evidence that any Macedonian ruler prior to {{Nowrap|Alexander III}} used an official royal title (basileus).<ref>{{Cite journal |lastErrington |firstR.M. |date1974 |titleMacedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance |journalThe Journal of Hellenic Studies |volume94 |pages20–37 |doi10.2307/630417 |jstor630417 |s2cid162629292 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |titleA Companion to Ancient Macedonia |lastKing |firstCarol |publisherWiley-Blackwell |year2010 |isbn9781405179362 |pages375 |editor-lastRoisman |editor-firstJoseph |chapterMacedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions |editor-last2Worthington |editor-first2Ian}}</ref>}} of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia from at least 512/511 until his death in 498/497 BC.{{sfn|Errington|1990|p9}} Although there were a number of rulers before him, Amyntas is the first king of Macedonia for which we have any reliable historical information.{{sfn|Sprawski|2010|pp130–131}} During Amyntas' reign, Macedonia became a vassal state of the Achaemenid Empire in 510 BC.<ref>Mari, M. (2011). "Archaic and Early Classical Macedonia". In Fox, Robin Lane (ed.). Brill’s Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC–300 AD. Boston: Brill. pp. 85.</ref>
Background
{{See also|Argead dynasty}}
Amyntas was a member of the Argead dynasty and the son of King Alcetas.{{snf|Herodotus|loc[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0126:book8:chapter139:section1 8.139.1]}} According to Herodotus, Amyntas was the sixth king of Macedonia. He had two children with an unnamed spouse:{{snf|Carney|2000|p250}}{{sfn|Roisman|2010|p158}}{{sfn|Errington|1990|p255}} Alexander I and Gygaea.{{snf|Carney|2000|p16}} Reign Relationship with the Persian Empire
{{See also|Achaemenid Macedonia}}
In 513 BC, Persian forces led by Darius I crossed the Bosporus in a successful expedition against the Scythians, securing a frontier on the Danube in the process. Darius then returned to Sardis in Asia Minor and ordered his cousin Megabazus to conquer the rest of Thrace. Megabazus marched westward into the Strymon Basin in 512 or 511 BC, subjugating a number of tribes along the way, including the Paeonions, whom he had deported to Asia.{{sfn|Borza|1990|pp100–102}} Amyntas may have taken advantage of this power vacuum by crossing the Axios River and seizing their former territory around Amphaxitis.{{sfn|Hammond|Griffith|1979|p58}}
In keeping with Persian practice, Megabazus dispatched seven envoys around 510 BC to meet Amyntas, most likely at the palace in Aegae, to demand "earth and water."{{sfn|Borza|1990|pp100–102}} Although the exact meaning of this request remains unclear, it appears that Amyntas met Megabazus' demands and invited the envoys to a feast.{{sfn|Sprawski|2010|pp135–137}} The Persians, according to Herodotus, requested the company of women after dinner, which Amyntas agreed to despite Macedonian customs. The women, identified as "concubines and wedded wives," sat across the table at first, but moved next to the envoys at their insistence. Flushed with wine, they began to fondle the women, but Amyntas remained silent out of fear of Persian power.{{snf|Herodotus|loc[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D5%3Achapter%3D18%3Asection%3D1 5.18]}}
Alexander, enraged by their actions, asked his father to leave and let him handle the situation. Amyntas advised caution, but eventually left, and Alexander sent the women away as well, assuring his guests that they were only washing themselves. In their place, "beardless men" disguised as women and armed with daggers returned to the party and murdered all seven envoys. The Persians began looking for the missing embassy, but Alexander covered it up by marrying his sister Gygaea to the general Bubares and paying him a large bribe.{{snf|Herodotus|loc[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D5%3Achapter%3D20%3Asection%3D1 5.20]}}
Modern historians are generally skeptical of the veracity of this story. It could have been fabricated by Herodotus to illustrate Alexander's cunning personality, or he could have simply repeated what he heard while visiting Macedonia.{{sfn|Sprawski|2010|pp135–137}} Furthermore, Amyntas, no matter how weak or foolish, is unlikely to have entrusted such a delicate diplomatic situation to his young son.{{sfn|Borza|1990|pp100–102}} Gygaea's marriage to Bubares is recognized as historical; Amyntas most likely arranged it himself or Alexander handled it after his father's death.{{snf|Carney|2000|p=16}}
Historian Eugene Borza argued that by rejecting the murder of the Persian ambassadors, there is no longer any evidence that Macedonia was a vassal-state during Amyntas' reign.{{sfn|Borza|1990|pp100–102}} In accordance with this argument, Mardonius, not Megabazus, would actually subjugate the Macedonians in 492 BC.{{sfn|Sprawski|2010|pp135–137}} Nicholas Hammond, on the other hand, asserted that Macedonia remained a loyal subject as part of the satrapy of Skudra until the Persian defeat at Platea in 479 BC.{{sfn|Hammond|Griffith|1979|p60}} Amyntas and Athens Amyntas was the first Macedonian ruler to have diplomatic relations with other states. In particular, he entered into an alliance with Hippias of Athens, and when Hippias was driven out of Athens he offered him the territory of Anthemus on the Thermaic Gulf with the object of taking advantage of the feuds between the Greeks. Hippias refused the offer and also rejected the offer of Iolcus, as Amyntas probably did not control Anthemus at that time, but was merely suggesting a plan of joint occupation to Hippias.<ref>Miltiades V. Chatzopoulos Macedonian Institutions Under the Kings: A historical and epigraphic study, p. 174, {{ISBN|960-7094-89-1}}.</ref> Family tree Modern historians disagree on a number of details concerning the genealogy of the Argead dynasty. Robin Lane Fox, for example, refutes Nicholas Hammond's claim that Ptolemy of Aloros was Amyntas II's son, arguing that Ptolemy was neither his son nor an Argead.<ref>Fox, Robin Lane (2011). "399–369 BC". In Fox, Robin Lane (ed.). ''Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD. Boston: Brill. pp. 231–232.</ref> Consequently, the chart below does not account for every chronological, genealogical, and dynastic complexity. Instead, it represents one common reconstruction of the early Argeads advanced by historians such as Hammond, Elizabeth D. Carney, and Joseph Roisman.{{sfn|Hammond|Griffith|1979|p176}}{{sfn|Roisman|2010|p158}}<ref>{{Cite journal |lastPsoma |firstSelene |date2012 |titleArepyros or A(u)re(lius) Pyros? |journalZeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik |volume180 |pages202–204}}</ref>{{snf|Carney|2000|p=250}}
{{hidden begin|border1px #aaa solid|titleFamily and descendants of Amyntas I|ta1center|expandedon}}
{{Tree list}}
{{Center|Individuals with disputed parentage or Argead ancestry are italicized.}}
* (1) Amyntas I ({{nowrap|{{reign|{{circa|513}}|497 BC}}}})
** (2) Alexander I ({{nowrap|{{reign|497|454 BC}}}})
*** (3) Perdiccas II ({{nowrap|{{reign|454|413/2 BC}}}})
**** (4) Archelaus ({{nowrap|{{reign|413/2|400/399 BC}}}})
***** (5) Orestes ({{nowrap|{{reign|400/399|398/7 BC}}}})
***** Argaeus II ({{nowrap|{{reign|388/7|387/6 BC}}}})
*****Pausanias
*****unnamed daughter Derdas of Elimea
*****unnamed daughter Amyntas II
**** (6) Aeropus II ({{nowrap|{{reign|398/7|394/3 BC}}}})
***** (8) Pausanias ({{nowrap|{{reign|394/3|393/2 BC}}}})
****unnamed son
***Menelaus
**** (7) Amyntas II ({{nowrap|{{reign|single=394/3 BC}}}})
***** (11) Ptolemy of Aloros ({{nowrap|{{reign|368|365 BC}}}})
***Amyntas
****Arrhidaeus
***** (9) Amyntas III ({{nowrap|{{reign|393/2|370 BC}}}})
******{{Tree list/final branch}}From whom Philip II and Alexander III is descended.''
***Philip
****Amyntas
****Agerrus
***Alcetas
****Alexander
****Agelaus
****Arepyros
***Stratonice Seuthes I
**Gygaea Bubares
***Amyntas
{{Tree list/end}}
{{hidden end}}
See also
*Ancient Macedonians
*List of ancient Macedonians
References
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{reflist|30em}}
Bibliography
Primary sources
{{refbegin|36em}}
* {{Cite book |urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D0 |titleThe Histories |lastHerodotus |publisherHarvard University Press |seriesLoeb Classical Library |publication-date1920–1925 |locationCambridge, Massachusetts |translator-lastGodley |translator-firstA. D. |ref{{sfnref|Herodotus}} |access-date26 January 2024 |translator-link=A. D. Godley}}
{{Refend}}
Secondary sources
{{refbegin|36em}}
*{{Cite book |titleIn the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon |lastBorza |firstEugene |publisherPrinceton University Press |year1990 |locationPrinceton, New Jersey}}
*{{Cite book |titleWomen and Monarchy in Macedonia |lastCarney |firstElizabeth D. |publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press |year2000 |isbn9780806132129 |author-link=Elizabeth D. Carney}}
*{{Cite book |titleA History of Macedonia |lastErrington |firstRobert |publisherUniversity of California Press |year1990 |isbn0-520-06319-8 |locationBerkeley |urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC/mode/2up}}
*{{Cite book |titleA History of Macedonia Volume II: 550-336 B.C. |last1Hammond |first1N.G.L. |last2Griffith |first2G.T.|publisher Clarendon Press |year1979 |isbn9780198148142 |location=Oxford}}
* {{cite book|lastRoisman|firstJoseph|chapterClassical Macedonia to Perdiccas III|titleA Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages145–165 |locationOxford|publisherWiley-Blackwell|year2010|isbn978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/AncientMacedonia/page/n171/mode/2up?viewtheater| editor-given1 Joseph | editor-surname1 Roisman| editor-given2 Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
* {{cite book|lastSprawski|firstSlawomir|chapterThe Early Temenid Kings to Alexander I|titleA Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages127–144 |locationOxford|publisherWiley-Blackwell|year2010|isbn978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/AncientMacedonia/page/n153/mode/2up?viewtheater| editor-given1 Joseph | editor-surname1 Roisman| editor-given2 Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
{{Refend}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|Argead dynasty||?||498/497 BC}}
{{s-reg}}
{{S-bef|before=Alcetas}}
{{S-ttl|titleKing of Macedon|years{{circa|512}}-498/497 BC}}
{{S-aft|rows4|afterAlexander I}}
{{S-end}}
{{MacedonKings}}
{{Achaemenid rulers}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:6th-century BC births
Category:498 BC deaths
Category:6th-century BC Macedonian monarchs
Category:5th-century BC Macedonian monarchs
Category:Argead kings of Macedonia
Category:Achaemenid Macedon
Category:Vassals of the Achaemenid Empire
Category:Iolcus
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyntas_I_of_Macedon
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.306988
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1730
|
Amyntas III of Macedon
|
{{Short description|King of Macedonia from 393/2 to 370 BC}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Amyntas III
| image = Coin of Amyntas III-161113.jpg
| caption = silver stater of Amyntas III
| father = Arrhidaeus, son of Amyntas
| mother = unknown
| religion = Ancient Greek religion
| birth_date = ?
| death_date = 370 BC
| spouse | spouse 1 Eurydice I
| spouse 2 = Gygaea
| issue = Alexander II<br/>Perdiccas III<br/>Philip II<br>{{nowrap|Eurynoe (wife of Ptolemy of Aloros)}}<br>Archelaus<br>Arrhidaeus<br>Menelaus<br>Iphicrates (adopted)
| succession = King of Macedonia
| reign1 = 393/2 – 388/7<ref>March, Duane (1995). "The Kings of Makedon: 399-369 B.C". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte: 280.</ref>
| reign-type1 = First reign
| predecessor1 = Pausanias
| successor1 = Argaeus II
| reign-type2 = Second reign
| reign2 = 387/6 – 370
| predecessor2 = Argaeus II
| successor2 = Alexander II
}}
Amyntas III ({{langx|grc|Ἀμύντας}}) was king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia from 393/2 to 388/7 BC and again from 387/6 to 370 BC. He was a member of the Argead dynasty through his father Arrhidaeus, a son of Amyntas, one of the sons of Alexander I. His most famous son is Philip II, father of Alexander the Great.
Family
Polygamy was used by Macedonian kings both before and after Amyntas to secure marriage alliances and produce enough heirs to offset losses from intra-dynastic conflict.<ref name":1">Carney, Elizabeth (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press, p.19. {{isbn|0-8061-3212-4}}.</ref> Consequently, Amyntas took two wives: Eurydice and Gygaea. He first married Eurydice, daughter of Sirras and maternal granddaughter of the Lynkestian king Arrhabaeus, probably in a Macedonian effort to strengthen the alliance with both the Illyrians and Lynkestians or to detach the Lynkestians from their historical alliance with the Illyrians, after the Macedonian defeat by Illyrians or an Illyrian-Lynkestian invasion in 393 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Carney|2019|pp27–28}}; {{harvnb|Heckel|Heinrichs|Müller|2020|pp87, 273}}; {{harvnb|King|2017|pp57, 64}}; {{harvnb|Carney|Müller|2020|p391}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2021|p36}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Roisman |first1Joseph |last2Worthington |first2Ian |titleA Companion to Ancient Macedonia |date7 July 2011 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn978-1-4443-5163-7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQsJ183uUDkMC |pages74, 152}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastWorthington |firstIan |titlePhilip II of Macedonia|publisherYale University Press|year2008|isbn978-0-300-12079-0|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCZsTAQAAIAAJ |page15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|lastPsoma|firstS.|chapterThe Kingdom of Macedonia and the Chalcidic League|titleBrill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD |locationLeiden |publisherBrill |year2011 |isbn978-90-04-20650-2|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkjLPBsB2dIkC|editor-last1Lane Fox|editor-firstR.|page=117}}</ref> Through Eurydice, Amyntas had three sons, all of whom became kings of Macedonia one after the other, and a daughter: Alexander II, Perdiccas III, Philip II, and Eurynoe.
The Roman historian Justin relates several, possibly apocryphal, stories about Eurydice and Eurynoe. He claims that Eurynoe prevented her mother and her lover (unnamed, but likely Ptolemy of Aloros) from assassinating Amyntas late in his reign by revealing the plan to her father.<ref>Justin. "[http://www.attalus.org/info/justinus.html Epitome of Pompeius Trogus' Philippic Histories]". Translated by Watson, John Selby (1853), [http://www.attalus.org/translate/justin10.html#7.1 7.4.7].</ref> However, Eurynoe is not referred to by name in any other source and, moreover, is unlikely to have known the details of this supposedly secret plot.<ref name":1" /><ref>Hammond, N.G.L. (1979). A History of Macedonia Volume II: 550-336 B.C. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 183.</ref> According to Justin, Amyntas spared Eurydice because they shared children, but that she would later help murder Alexander and Perdiccas in order to place Ptolemy on the throne.<ref>Justin [https://www.attalus.org/translate/justin10.html#7.5 7.5.4-6]</ref> Alexander was in fact killed by friends of Ptolemy at a festival in 368 BC, but the extent to which Eurydice knew of or participated in this plot is opaque.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGreenwalt |firstWilliam |titleAncient Historiography on War and Empire |publisherOxbow Books |year2016 |editor-lastHowe |editor-firstTimothy |pages87–89 |chapterAlexander II of Macedon |editor-last2Müller |editor-first2Sabine |editor-last3Stoneman |editor-first3Richard}}</ref> Perdiccas, on the other hand, assassinated Ptolemy in 365 BC only to be killed in battle by the Illyrians in 359 BC.<ref>Hammond 1979, p. 185-188.</ref>
Amyntas most likely married Gygaea soon after marrying Eurydice, because Gygaea's children made no attempt to claim the throne before the 350s BC, implying that they were younger than Eurydice's children.<ref>Carney 2000, p. 47.</ref> Additionally, both Diodorus and Justin call Alexander II the eldest son of Amyntas.<ref>Diodorus Siculus. "[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Library]". Diodorus of Sicily in Twelve Volumes. Vol. 4–8. Translated by Oldfather, C.H. Harvard University Press, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D16%3Achapter%3D2%3Asection%3D4 16.2.4].</ref><ref>Justin [https://www.attalus.org/translate/justin10.html#7.4 7.4.9]</ref> Through Gygaea, Amyntas had three more sons: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and Menelaus. Unlike Eurydice's children, none of Gygaea's sons ascended to the throne and were all killed by their half-brother Philip II.<ref name=":2">Carney 2000, p. 39-42.</ref>
Amyntas also adopted the Athenian general Iphicrates around 386 BC in recognition of his military services and marital ties with the Thracian king, Cotys I.<ref>Borza 1990, p. 183.</ref>
Lineage and accession
Amyntas became king at a troubled time for Macedonia and the Argead dynasty. The unexpected death of his great-grandfather King Alexander I in 454 BC triggered a dynastic crisis between his five sons: Perdiccas II, Menelaus, Philip, Alcetas, and Amyntas' grandfather, Amyntas.<ref>Hammond 1979, p. 115.</ref><ref name":3">Roisman 2010, p. 157-158.</ref> Perdiccas would eventually emerge victorious, extinguishing the line of Philip. The elder Amyntas evidently retired to his lands at some point in the conflict and no part in the exercise of power.<ref>Errington, R. Malcolm (1990). A History of Macedonia. University of California Press. p. 15.</ref> Archelaus, Perdiccas' son, ascended to the throne around 413 BC and allegedly murdered Alcetas and his son, thus eliminating that family branch as well.<ref>Roisman, Joseph (2010). "Classical Macedonia to Perdiccas III". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Blackwell. p. 154.</ref> However, Archelaus would himself be killed, possibly murdered, in 400 or 399 BC by his lover Craterus.<ref name":3" /> His death prompted another succession crisis, resulting in five kings ruling in less than seven years, with nearly all ending violently.<ref>Borza, Eugene (1990). In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 177-178. {{isbn|0-691-05549-1}}</ref> As Diodorus tells us, the younger Amyntas seized the throne at this point in 393/2 BC after assassinating the previous king Pausanias.<ref>Diodorus, "[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Library]", [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D14%3Achapter%3D89%3Asection%3D2 14.89.2].</ref> Following his accession, Macedonia experienced no major internal political problems for the entirety of Amyntas' reign.<ref>Errington 1990, p. 29.</ref>
King of Macedon
Shortly after he became king in 393 or 392, he was driven out by the Illyrians, but in the following year, with the aid of the Thessalians, he recovered his kingdom. Medius, head of the house of the Aleuadae of Larissa, is believed to have provided aid to Amyntas in recovering his throne. The mutual relationship between the Argeadae and the Aleuadae dates to the time of Archelaus.
To shore up his country against the threat of the Illyrians, Amyntas established an alliance with the Chalcidian League led by Olynthus. In exchange for this support, Amyntas granted them rights to Macedonian timber, which was sent back to Athens to help fortify their fleet.<ref name":0">{{Cite book|titleAntigonus the One-Eyed|lastChampion, Jeff|isbn978-1-4738-4036-2|locationBarnsley|pagesChapter I|oclc=894227661}}</ref> With money flowing into Olynthus from these exports, their power grew. In response, Amyntas sought additional allies. He established connections with Kotys, chief of the Odrysians. Kotys had already married his daughter to the Athenian general Iphicrates. Prevented from marrying into Kotys' family, Amyntas soon adopted Iphicrates as his son.
After the King's Peace of 387 BC, Sparta was anxious to re-establish its presence in northern Greece. In 385 BC, Bardylis and his Illyrians attacked Epirus instigated and aided by Dionysius I of Syracuse,<ref>A History of Greece to 322 B.C. by N. G. L. Hammond. {{ISBN|0-19-873095-0}}, 1986, page 479, "Molossi, Alcetas, who was a refugee at his court, Dionysius sent a supply of arms and 2,000 troops to the Illyrians, who burst into Epirus and slaughtered 15,000 Molossians. Sparta intervened as soon as they had learned of the events and expelled the Illyrians, but Alcetas had regained his..."</ref> in an attempt to restore the Molossian king Alcetas I of Epirus to the throne. When Amyntas sought Spartan aid against the growing threat of Olynthus, the Spartans eagerly responded. That Olynthus was backed by Athens and Thebes, rivals to Sparta for the control of Greece, provided them with an additional incentive to break up this growing power in the north. Amyntas thus concluded a treaty with the Spartans, who assisted him in a war against Olynthus. First Spartan-Macedonian forces suffered two defeats but in 379 BC they managed to destroy Olynthus.<ref name":0" /> He also entered into a league with Jason of Pherae, and assiduously cultivated the friendship of Athens.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|wstitleAmyntas II|inliney|volume1|pages900-901}}</ref> In 371 BC at a Panhellenic congress of the Lacedaemonian allies, he voted in support of the Athenians' claim and joined other Greeks in voting to help Athens to recover possession of Amphipolis.<ref>Aeschines - On the Embassy [http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/aeschines-embassy.html 2.32]</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/historygreeceil03grotgoog/page/n568 <!-- pg336 quote371 BC Amyntas Amphipolis. --> A history of Greece] by George Grote</ref>
With Olynthus defeated, Amyntas was now able to conclude a treaty with Athens and keep the timber revenues for himself. Amyntas shipped the timber to the house of the Athenian Timotheus, in Piraeus.
Amyntas died aged 50, leaving his throne to his eldest son, Alexander II.
See also
* Treaties between Amyntas III and the Chalcidians
* Amyntaio
Citations
{{reflist}}
Bibliography
*{{cite book|lastCarney|firstElizabeth D.|titleEurydice and the Birth of Macedonian Power|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPiCWDwAAQBAJ|year2019|publisherOxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-028054-3}}
*{{Cite book|last1Carney|first1Elizabeth D.|last2Müller|first2Sabine|titleThe Routledge Companion to Women and Monarchy in the Ancient Mediterranean World|publisherRoutledge|year2020|isbn9780429783982|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZJb-DwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |editor1-lastHeckel |editor1-firstWaldemar |editor2-lastHeinrichs |editor2-firstJohannes |editor3-lastMüller |editor3-firstSabine |titleLexicon of Argead Makedonia |date2020 |publisherFrank & Timme GmbH |isbn978-3732904051 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCDnpDwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|lastKing|firstCarol J.|date2017|titleAncient Macedonia|publisherRoutledge|isbn9780415827287|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlJ0uDwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|lastMüller|firstSabine|titleMarriage Discourses: Historical and Literary Perspectives on Gender Inequality and Patriarchic Exploitation|chapterPolitical Marriage in Antiquity|editor-first1Jowan A.|editor-last1Mohammed|editor-first2Frank|editor-last2Jacob|publisherWalter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|year2021|isbn9783110751451|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtldYEAAAQBAJ|pages25–50}}
External links
* [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/macedonia/kings/amyntas_III/i.html Coins of Amyntas III]
* [http://www.csad.ox.ac.uk/CSAD/Images/200/Image266.html Atheno-Macedonian Alliance]-[https://web.archive.org/web/20071014232706/http://www.lysimachos.com/index.php/Archaeology/Athenian-alliance-with-Amyntas-III-of-Macedon-375/3-BC.html Translation of Epigraphy]
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|Argead dynasty||?||370 BC}}
{{s-bef|before=Pausanias}}
{{s-ttl|titleKing of Macedon|years393/2–388/7 BC}}
{{s-aft|after=Argaeus II}}
{{s-bef|before=Argaeus II}}
{{s-ttl|titleKing of Macedon|years387/6–370 BC}}
{{s-aft|after=Alexander II}}
{{s-end}}
{{MacedonKings}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:370 BC deaths
Category:4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs
Category:Argead kings of Macedonia
Category:Old Macedonian kingdom
Category:Year of birth missing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.316922
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1732
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Anacharsis
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Anacharsis (; ) was a Scythian prince and philosopher of uncertain historicity who lived in the 6th century BC.
Life
Anacharsis was the brother of the Scythian king Saulius, and both of them were the sons of the previous Scythian king, Gnurus.
Few concrete details are known about the life of the historical Anacharsis. He is known to have travelled to Greece, where he possibly became influenced by Greek culture.
Anacharsis was later killed by his brother Saulius for having sacrificed to the Scythian ancestral Snake-Legged Goddess at her shrine in the country of Hylaea by performing an orgiastic and shamanistic ritual at night during which he wore images on his dress and played drums.
The ancient Greek author, Herodotus of Halicarnassus, claimed that Anacharsis had been killed because he had renounced Scythian customs and adopted Greek ones, although this claim was likely invented by Herodotus himself. The religious rituals practised by Anacharsis instead corresponded more closely to those of the transvestite Anarya priesthood of the Scythians.
Legacy
An amphora found in the western at Pontic Olbia where was located the temple of Apollo Iētros () recorded the dedication of "paternal honey" to this god by a Scythian named Anaperrēs (), who may have been the son of Anacharsis.
The nephew of Anacharsis, Idanthyrsus, who was the son and successor of Saulius, would later become famous among the Greeks in his own right for having resisted the Persian invasion of Scythia in 513 BC.
In Graeco-Roman philosophy
Later Graeco-Roman tradition transformed Anacharsis into a legendary figure as a kind of "noble savage" who represented "Barbarian wisdom," due to which the ancient Greeks included him as one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Consequently, Anacharsis became a popular figure in Greek literature, and many legends arose about him, including claims that he had been a friend of Solon.
The ancient Greek historian Ephorus of Cyme later used this image of Anacharsis to create an idealised image of the Scythians.
Eventually, Anacharsis completely became an ideal "man of nature" or "noble savage" figure in Greek literature, as well as favourite figure of the Cynics, who ascribed to him a 3rd-century BC work titled the . Lucian wrote two works on him, Anacharsis or Athletics (Ἀνάχαρσις ἢ Περὶ Γυμνασίων) and The Scythian (Σκύθης).
Due to the transformation of Anacharsis into a favourite character of Greek philosophers, nearly all of the ancient writings concerning him are about Greek literature, which makes the information regarding the historical Anacharsis himself difficult to assess.
References
Sources
Schubert, Charlotte (2010). Anacharsis der Weise. Nomade, Skythe, Grieche [Anacharsis the Wise. Nomad, Scythian, Greek]. Leipziger Studien zur Klassischen Philologie, volume 7. Tübingen: Narr, .
External links
Jean Jacques Barthelemy's The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece (French)
Category:6th-century BC Greek philosophers
Category:Ancient Greek murder victims
Category:Immigrants to Archaic Athens
Category:Presocratic philosophers
Category:Scythian people
Category:Seven Sages of Greece
Category:6th-century BC Iranian people
Category:Ancient Iranian philosophers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacharsis
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.325995
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1734
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Anah
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{{about|the Iraqi town of Anah|the district|Anah District|the figure from Genesis|Anah (biblical figure)}}
{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Anah
|native_name = {{lang|ar|عانة}}
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|image_skyline = عانة.jpg
|image_caption = Anah landscape
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|pushpin_mapsize |pushpin_map_caption Location within Iraq
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|Iraq}}
|subdivision_type1 = Province
|subdivision_name1 = Al-Anbar
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|leader_name = Saad Awwad
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|population_as_of = 2018
|population_note |population_footnotes
|population_total = 21,000
|population_metro |population_density
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|coordinates {{coord|34|22|20|N|41|59|15|E|region:IQ|displayinline,title}}
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}}
Anah or Ana ({{langx|ar|عانة|ʿĀna}}, {{langx|syr|ܐܢܐ}}), formerly also known as Anna,{{sfnp|Baynes|1878}} is an Iraqi town on the Euphrates approximately midway between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Persian Gulf. Anah lies from west to east on the right bank along a bend of the river just before it turns south towards Hīt.
{{anchor|Etymology}}
Name
The town was called <sup>(d)</sup>Ha-na-at{{sup|KI}} in cuneiform texts from the Old Babylonian period,<ref name":0">{{Cite book|titleExcavations at ʻĀna, Qalʻa island|lastNorthedge, Alastair.|date1988|publisherPublished for the British School of Archaeology in Iraq and the Directorate of Antiquities by Aris & Phillips Ltd|othersNorthedge, Alastair., Bamber, Andrina., Roaf, Michael.|isbn978-0856684258|locationWarminster, England|oclc24430256}}</ref> A-na-at of the land Suhum by the scribes of Tukulti-Ninurta {{c.|lkno|885}}&nbsp;BC,<ref>{{cite book |authorAlbert Kirk Grayson |urlhttps://archive.org/details/assyrian-rulers-of-the-early-first-millennium-bc-i-1114-859-bc |titleAssyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC I (1114–859 BC) |publisherUniversity of Toronto Press |year1991 |pages38, 43, 174}}</ref> and An-at by the scribes of Assur-nasir-pal II in 879&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite book |authorAlbert Kirk Grayson |urlhttps://archive.org/details/assyrian-rulers-of-the-early-first-millennium-bc-i-1114-859-bc |titleAssyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC I (1114–859 BC) |publisherUniversity of Toronto Press |year1991 |pages213}}</ref>{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}} The name has been connected with the widely worshipped war goddess Anat.{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}} It was known as Anathō ({{langx|grc|Άναθω}}){{what?|dateFebruary 2024}}<!--where's the accent?--> to Isidore Charax and Anatha to Ammianus Marcellinus; early Arabic writers described it variously as ʾĀna or (as if plural) ʾĀnāt.{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}}{{what?|dateFebruary 2024}}<!--Arabic script-->
History
Antiquity
The earliest references to Anah are probably found in letters of the period of Zimri-Lim of Mari.
Under Hammurapi of Babylon the town was under Babylonian control, being included in the governorate of Sūḫu. Later, the town was under Assyrian rule.
At the beginning of the 8th century BC, Šamaš-rēša-uṣur and his son Ninurta-kudurrī-uṣur succeeded in creating an independent political entity, and called themselves "governors of Sūḫu and Mari".<ref name":0" /><ref>Cavigneaux, A., and B.K. Ismail, 'Die Statthalter von Suḫu und Mari im 8. Jh. v. Chr. anhand neuer Texte aus den irakischen Grabungen im Staugebiet des Qadissiya-Damms', Baghdader Mitteilungen 21 (1990), pp. 321–456 + pls. 35–38.</ref> The land of Sūḫu occupied a quite extensive region on the Middle Euphrates, approximately from the area near Falluja in the southeast to the area of Ḫindanu (modern Tell Jabiriyah, near Al-Qa'im) in the northwest.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/suhu/introduction/index.html|title'A Short Introduction on the Sūḫu Texts', Suhu: The Inscriptions of Suhu online Project, The Suhu Inscriptions Project|lastBartelmus|firstAlexa|date2016|access-date22 May 2019}}</ref> Important evidence for this period was recovered during English and Iraqi salvage excavation campaigns at Sur Jurʿeh and on the island of ʿAna (Anah) in the early 1980s.<ref name":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date1983|titleExcavations in Iraq, 1981–82|journalIRAQ|languageen|volume45|issue2|pages199–224|doi10.1017/S0021088900002424|s2cid249896016 |issn0021-0889}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date1987|titleExcavations in Iraq 1985-86|journalIraq|volume49|pages231–251|issn0021-0889|jstor4200274|doi10.1017/S0021088900006653|s2cid=249895688 }}</ref>
Xenophon recorded that the army of Cyrus the Younger resupplied during a campaign in 401&nbsp;BC at "Charmande" near the end of a 90-parasang march between Korsote and Pylae,<ref>Xenophon, Anabasis.</ref> which likely intends Anah.{{fact|date=February 2024}}
Anatha was the site where the Roman emperor Julian first met opposition in his AD&nbsp;363 expedition against the Sassanid Empire. He got possession of the place and relocated its inhabitants.{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}}
Middle Ages
, Abbasid era heritage site, before its destruction.]]
In 657, during the Muslim conquest of Iraq, Ali's lieutenants Ziyad and Shureih were refused passage across the Euphrates at Anah.<ref>Tabari I. 3261.</ref> Later, in 1058, Anah was the place of exile of the caliph Qaim when al-Basasiri was in power.{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}}<ref name"Longrigg461">Longrigg, p. 461.</ref> In the 14th century, Anah was the seat of the catholicos who served as primate over the Persian Christians.{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}} Throughout early Islamic rule, it was a prosperous trade town, well known for its date palms and gardens;<ref name"Longrigg461"/> in the 14th century, Mustafi wrote of the fame of its palm groves. Medieval Arab poets celebrated Anah's wine;<ref name"Longrigg461"/><ref>Yaqut, iii. 593f.</ref> Between the 14th and 17th centuries, Anah served as a headquarters for a host of regional Arab tribes.<ref name"Longrigg461"/>
Ottoman rule
Starting around 1535, the town served as the de facto capital of the Abu Rish bedouin emirs, whom the Ottomans appointed as governors of several {{lang|ar-Latn|sancak}}s (provinces) as well as çöl beyis or "desert emirs".<ref>{{cite book|firstStefan|lastWinter|editor1-firstStefan|editor1-lastWinter|editor2-firstMafalda|editor2-lastAde|titleAleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period / Alep et sa province à l'époque ottomane|chapterAlep et l'émirat du désert (çöl beyligi) au XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle|year2019|publisherBrill|isbn978-90-04-37902-2|urlhttps://brill.com/view/title/38977}}pp. 86-108</ref> In 1574, Leonhart Rauwolff found the town divided into two parts, the Turkish "so surrounded by the river that you cannot go into it but by boats" and the larger Arab section along one of the banks. In 1610, Texeira<!-- links to dab page, but this particular Texeira seems not to be described in WP --> said Anah lay on both banks of the river, with which Pietro Della Valle agreed.<ref>Della Valle, i. 671.</ref> In that year, Della Valle found the Scot George Strachan resident at Anah, working as the physician to the emir and studying Arabic;<ref>Della Valle, i. 671–681.</ref> he also found some "sun worshippers" (actually Alawites) still living there.<ref>{{cite book|firstStefan|lastWinter|titleA History of the 'Alawis: From Medieval Syria to the Turkish Republic|year2016|publisherPrinceton University Press|isbn9780691173894|url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691173894/a-history-of-the-alawis}}pp. 24-25</ref> Della Valle and Texeira called Anah the principal Arab town on the Euphrates, controlling a major route west from Baghdad and territory reaching Palmyra.{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}}
About 1750, the Ottomans installed a rudimentary administration to run Anah and its district.<ref name"Longrigg461"/> After roughly a century, a more organized local government was put in place, whereby Anah became the center of a kaza belonging to the Baghdad Vilayet.<ref name"Longrigg461"/>
At the beginning of the 19th century, G.A. Olivier found only 25 men in service of the local prince, with residents fleeing daily to escape from bedouin attacks against which he offered no protection.{{sfnp|Olivier|1807}} He described the city as a single long street of five or six miles along a narrow strip of land between the river and a ridge of rocky hills.{{sfnp|Olivier|1807|p=451}} W. F. Ainsworth, chronicling the British Euphrates expedition, reported that in 1835 the Arabs inhabited the northwest part of the town, the Christians the center, and the Jews the southeast.{{sfnp|Ainsworth|1888}} The same year, the steamer Tigris went down in a storm just above Anah, near where Julian's force had suffered from a similar storm.{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}}
By the mid-19th century, the houses were separated from one another by fruit gardens, which also filled the riverine islands near the town.{{sfnp|Baynes|1878}} The most easterly island contained a ruined castle, while the ruins of ancient Anatho extended a further two miles along the left bank.{{sfnp|Baynes|1878}} It marked the boundary between the olive (north) and date (south) growing regions in the area.{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}} With the positioning of Turkish troops in the town around 1890, the locals no longer had to pay blackmail ({{lang|ar-Latn|huwwa}}) to the bedouins.<ref>Von Oppenheim, 1893.</ref> Through the early 20th century, coarse cotton cloth was the only manufacture.{{sfnp|Baynes|1878}}{{sfnp|Hogg|1911}} In 1909 Anah had an estimated population of 15,000 and 2,000 houses.<ref name"MesoHandBook">{{cite book|titleA Handbook of Mesopotamia, Volume III: Central Mesopotamia with Southern Kurdistan and the Syrian Desert|dateJanuary 1917|publisherAdmiralty and War Office, Division of Intelligence|pages351–352}}</ref> Most of the inhabitants were Sunni Muslim Arabs, though a small Jewish community lived on the town's southern edge.<ref name"MesoHandBook"/>
Kingdom of Iraq
In 1918, the town was captured by British forces and by 1921, became incorporated into the Kingdom of Iraq.<ref name"Longrigg461"/> It remained an administrative center of a qadaa, part of the larger Ramadi-based liwa of Dulaym. Anah's qadaa also included the subdistricts of Hīt, al-Qa'im and Jubba.<ref name"Longrigg461"/> The townspeople's long feud with the inhabitants of Rawa was settled diplomatically by 1921.<ref name"Longrigg461"/> Its territory to the west was dominated by the subtribes of Anizzah, while to the east the Jarba branch of the Shammar held sway.<ref name"Longrigg461"/>
Most of Anah's building were located among a dense belt of date palms and was "reckoned as healthy and picturesque", according to historian S. H. Longrigg.<ref name"Longrigg461"/> The date palms were irrigated by water wheels.<ref name"Longrigg461"/> There were also more scattered dwelling in the mid-stream islands of the Euphrates near the town center.<ref name"Longrigg461"/> The women of the town were well known for their beauty and the weaving of cotton and wool textiles.<ref name"Longrigg461"/> The men, many of whom were compelled to emigrate to lack of living space, were largely engaged as boatmen and transporters of water to Baghdad. The town had relatively high educational standards, with eight schools built there by 1946.<ref name="Longrigg461"/>
F. R. Chesney reported about 1800 houses, two mosques, and 16 waterwheels. One minaret is particularly old. Northedge reported the locals commonly attributed it to the 11th century but opined that it was more likely from about a century after that. It rose from one of the islands and belonged to the local mosque. Dr. Muayad Said described it as an octagonal body "enhanced by alcoves, some of which are blind" and noted earlier conservation work undertaken in 1935, 1963 and 1964. When the valley was flooded by the Haditha Dam in 1984/85, the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities cut it into sections and removed it to the new Anah, where it was re-erected to a height of {{convert|28|m|sp=us}} at the end of the 1980s.
ISIS captured the town in 2014.<ref>Alissa J. Rubin (22 June 2014). [https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/23/world/middleeast/iraq.html Sunni Militants Capture Iraq's Last Major Border Post With Syria] The New York Times</ref> On September 19, 2017, an offensive to retake the town from ISIS control began.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-41319905|titleIraq 'attacks IS bastion on Syria border'|date2017-09-19|workBBC News|access-date2017-10-17|languageen-GB}}</ref> After two days of fighting the town was recaptured by the Iraqi army.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://isis.liveuamap.com/en/2017/21-september-iraq-the-town-of-anah-in-western-anbar-has-been|titleIraq: the town of Anah in western Anbar has been completely cleared by the ISF, next town is Rawa, after that al-Qaim and then the border - News from war on ISIS in English from Iraq, Syria - Deir ez-Zur operation, Raqqa operation - isis.liveuamap.com|websiteNews from war on ISIS in English from Iraq, Syria - Deir ez-Zur operation, Raqqa operation - isis.liveuamap.com|languageen|access-date2017-10-17}}</ref>ClimateAnah has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Anah is {{convert|20.7|°C|1}}. About {{convert|127|mm|2|abbron}} of precipitation falls annually.
{{Weather box|width=auto
|metric first=y
|single line=y
|location = Anah
|Jan high C = 12.8
|Feb high C = 16.2
|Mar high C = 21.8
|Apr high C = 27.1
|May high C = 34.2
|Jun high C = 38.5
|Jul high C = 41.2
|Aug high C = 41.0
|Sep high C = 38.0
|Oct high C = 31.8
|Nov high C = 22.0
|Dec high C = 14.1
| year high C |Jan mean C 7.6
|Feb mean C = 10.3
|Mar mean C = 15.8
|Apr mean C = 20.8
|May mean C = 27.7
|Jun mean C = 32.0
|Jul mean C = 34.0
|Aug mean C = 33.4
|Sep mean C = 29.7
|Oct mean C = 24.0
|Nov mean C = 14.8
|Dec mean C = 8.5
| year mean C |Jan low C 3.9
|Feb low C = 5.4
|Mar low C = 8.1
|Apr low C = 12.6
|May low C = 18.0
|Jun low C = 21.8
|Jul low C = 24.5
|Aug low C = 23.5
|Sep low C = 19.6
|Oct low C = 14.8
|Nov low C = 7.1
|Dec low C = 3.2
| year low C |precipitation colour green
|Jan precipitation mm = 19
|Feb precipitation mm = 17
|Mar precipitation mm = 20
|Apr precipitation mm = 22
|May precipitation mm = 6
|Jun precipitation mm = 0
|Jul precipitation mm = 0
|Aug precipitation mm = 0
|Sep precipitation mm = 0
|Oct precipitation mm = 5
|Nov precipitation mm = 10
|Dec precipitation mm = 23
|year precipitation mm | source 1 FAO<ref name=FAO>{{cite web
| url = https://www.fao.org/land-water/land/land-governance/land-resources-planning-toolbox/category/details/fr/c/1028000/
| title = World-wide Agroclimatic Data of FAO (FAOCLIM)
| publisher= Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
| access-date = 21 December 2024}}</ref>
}}
Notes
{{reflist|group=n}}
{{Reflist|20em}}
References
* {{cite EB9 |modecs2 |wstitleAnna |volume2 |page59 }}
* {{citation |lastAinsworth |firstW.H. |titleEuphrates Expedition |date1888 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |modecs2 |titleʿĀna|firstS. H.|lastLongrigg|encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of Islam |editionNew |volumeI: A–B|publisherBRILL|locationLeiden and New York|year1960|isbn978-90-04-08114-7|page461}}
* {{citation |lastOlivier |firstG.A. |titleVoyage dans l'empire ottoman |volumeIII |date1807 |languagefr}}
Attribution:
* {{EB1911 |modecs2 |wstitleAnah |volume1 |page911 |firstHope W. |lastHogg}}
External links
{{Commons category|Anah}}
{{Al Anbar cities}}
{{Districts of Iraq}}
Category:Populated places in Al Anbar Governorate
Category:Populated places on the Euphrates River
Category:District capitals of Iraq
Category:First Babylonian Empire
Category:Anat
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anah
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.341250
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1735
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Ānanda
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{{short description|Attendant of the Buddha and main figure in First Buddhist Council}}
{{redirect|Ananda}}
{{Infobox religious biography
|name = Ānanda
|other_names = Videhamuni; Dhamma-bhaṇḍāgārika ('Treasurer of the Dhamma')
|honorific-prefix = Venerable, the Elder (Thera)
|image= Head of the Disciple Ananda, Hebei province, Fengfeng, northern Xiangtangshan Cave Temples, South Cave, Northern Qi dynasty, 550-577 AD, limestone with traces of pigment - Freer Gallery of Art - DSC05697.JPG
|alt= Sculpture of head of smiling monk with East Asian traits, part of limestone sculpture
|caption = Head of Ānanda, once part of a limestone sculpture from the northern Xiangtangshan Caves. Northern Qi dynasty, 550{{en dash}}577 CE.
|birth_place = Kapilavatthu
|birth_date=5th{{en dash}}4th century BCE
|death_place = On the river Rohīni near Vesālī, or the Ganges
|death_date = 20 years after the Buddha's death
|religion = Buddhism
|known_for Being an attendant of the Buddha (aggupaṭṭhāyaka);{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p529}} powers of memory; compassion to women
|teacher = The Buddha; Puṇṇa Mantānīputta
|initiator = Daśabāla Kāśyapa or Belaṭṭhasīsa
|initiation_date= 20th (Mūlasarvāstivāda) or 2nd (other traditions) year of the Buddha's ministry
|initiation_place = Nigrodhārāma or Anupiya, Malla
|students = Majjhantika; Sāṇavāsī, etc.
|parents= King Śuklodana or King Amitodana; Queen Mrgī (Sanskrit traditions)
|title = Patriarch of the Dharma (Sanskrit traditions)
|consecration = Mahākassapa
|predecessor = Mahākassapa
|successor = Majjhantika or Sāṇavāsī
}}
Ānanda (Pali and Sanskrit: आनंद; 5th{{en dash}}4th century BCE) was the primary attendant of the Buddha and one of his ten principal disciples. Among the Buddha's many disciples, Ānanda stood out for having the best memory. Most of the texts of the early Buddhist Sutta-Piṭaka ({{Langx|pi|सुत्त पिटक}}; {{langx|sa|सूत्र-पिटक}}, Sūtra-Piṭaka) are attributed to his recollection of the Buddha's teachings during the First Buddhist Council. For that reason, he is known as the Treasurer of the Dhamma, with Dhamma ({{langx|sa|धर्म}}, dharma) referring to the Buddha's teaching. In Early Buddhist Texts, Ānanda was the first cousin of the Buddha. Although the early texts do not agree on many parts of Ānanda's early life, they do agree that Ānanda was ordained as a monk and that Puṇṇa Mantānīputta ({{langx|sa|पूर्ण मैत्रायणीपुत्र}}, Pūrṇa Maitrāyaṇīputra) became his teacher. Twenty years in the Buddha's ministry, Ānanda became the attendant of the Buddha, when the Buddha selected him for this task. Ānanda performed his duties with great devotion and care, and acted as an intermediary between the Buddha and the laypeople, as well as the saṅgha ({{langx|sa|संघ|translitsaṃgha|litmonastic community}}). He accompanied the Buddha for the rest of his life, acting not only as an assistant, but also a secretary and a mouthpiece.
Scholars are skeptical about the historicity of many events in Ānanda's life, especially the First Council, and consensus about this has yet to be established. A traditional account can be drawn from early texts, commentaries, and post-canonical chronicles. Ānanda had an important role in establishing the order of bhikkhunīs ({{langx|sa|भिक्षुणी|translitbhikṣuṇī|linkno |lit=female mendicant}}), when he requested the Buddha on behalf of the latter's foster-mother Mahāpajāpati Gotamī ({{langx|sa|महाप्रजापती गौतमी}}, Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī) to allow her to be ordained. Ānanda also accompanied the Buddha in the last year of his life, and therefore was witness to many tenets and principles that the Buddha conveyed before his death, including the well-known principle that the Buddhist community should take his teaching and discipline as their refuge, and that he would not appoint a new leader. The final period of the Buddha's life also shows that Ānanda was very much attached to the Buddha's person, and he saw the Buddha's passing with great sorrow.
Shortly after the Buddha's death, the First Council was convened, and Ānanda managed to attain enlightenment just before the council started, which was a requirement. He had a historical role during the council as the living memory of the Buddha, reciting many of the Buddha's discourses and checking them for accuracy. During the same council, however, he was chastised by Mahākassapa ({{langx|sa|महाकाश्यप}}, Mahākāśyapa) and the rest of the saṅgha for allowing women to be ordained and failing to understand or respect the Buddha at several crucial moments. Ānanda continued to teach until the end of his life, passing on his spiritual heritage to his pupils Sāṇavāsī ({{langx|sa|शाणकवासी}}, Śāṇakavāsī) and Majjhantika ({{langx|sa|मध्यान्तिक}}, Madhyāntika), among others, who later assumed leading roles in the Second and Third Councils. Ānanda died 20 years after the Buddha, and stūpas (monuments) were erected at the river where he died.
Ānanda is one of the most loved figures in Buddhism. He was widely known for his memory, erudition and compassion, and was often praised by the Buddha for these matters. He functioned as a foil to the Buddha, however, in that he still had worldly attachments and was not yet enlightened, as opposed to the Buddha. In the Sanskrit textual traditions, Ānanda is considered the patriarch of the Dhamma who stood in a spiritual lineage, receiving the teaching from Mahākassapa and passing them on to his own pupils. Ānanda has been honored by bhikkhunīs since early medieval times for his merits in establishing the nun's order. In recent times, the composer Richard Wagner and Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore were inspired by stories about Ānanda in their work.
Name
The word ānanda (आनंद) means 'bliss, joy' in Pāli and in Sanskrit.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}}<ref name"Larson">{{cite encyclopedia |last1Larson |first1Paul |editor1-lastLeeming |editor1-firstDavid A. |editor2-lastMadden |editor2-firstKathryn |editor3-lastMarlan |editor3-firstStanton |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Psychology and Religion |titleAnanda |publisherSpringer-Verlag |isbn978-0-387-71802-6 |page35}}</ref> Pāli commentaries explain that when Ānanda was born, his relatives were joyous about this. Texts from the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition, however, state that since Ānanda was born on the day of the Buddha's enlightenment, there was great rejoicing in the city{{em dash}}hence the name.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p529}}
Accounts
Previous lives
According to the texts, in a previous life, Ānanda made an aspiration to become a Buddha's attendant. He made this aspiration in the time of a previous Buddha called Padumuttara, many eons ({{langx|pi|kappa|italicyes |linkno}}, Sanskrit: {{Transliteration|sa|kalpa}}) before the present age. He met the attendant of Padumuttara Buddha and aspired to be like him in a future life. After having done many good deeds, he made his resolution known to the Padumuttara Buddha, who confirmed that his wish will come true in a future life. After having been born and reborn throughout many lifetimes, and doing many good deeds, he was born as Ānanda in the time of the current Buddha Gotama.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p535}} Early life Ānanda was born in the same time period as the Buddha (formerly Prince Siddhattha), which scholars place at 5th{{en dash}}4th centuries BCE.<ref name"Sarao">{{cite encyclopedia |last1Sarao |first1K. T. S. |editor1-lastJestice |editor1-firstPhyllis G. |encyclopediaHoly People of the World: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia |date2004 |publisherABC-CLIO |titleAnanda |isbn1-85109-649-3 |page49 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaWXWtAEACAAJ}}</ref> Tradition says that Ānanda was the first cousin of the Buddha,<ref name"Powers">{{cite book |last1Powers |first1John |author-linkJohn Powers (academic) |titleA Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism |date2013 |publisherOneworld Publications |isbn978-1-78074-476-6 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkZycAwAAQBAJ |chapterĀnanda}}</ref> his father being the brother of Suddhodana ({{langx |sa|Śuddhodana|linkno}}), the Buddha's father.{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page12}} In the Pāli and Mūlasarvāstivāda textual traditions, his father was Amitodana ({{langx|sa|Amṛtodana|linkno}}), but the Mahāvastu states that his father was Śuklodana{{em dash}}both are brothers of Suddhodana.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p529}} The Mahāvastu also mentions that Ānanda's mother's name was Mṛgī (Sanskrit; lit. 'little deer'; Pāli is unknown).{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}}{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p529}} The Pāli tradition has it that Ānanda was born on the same day as Prince Siddhatta ({{langx|sa|Siddhārtha|linkno}}),{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} but texts from the Mūlasarvāstivāda and subsequent Mahāyāna traditions state Ānanda was born at the same time the Buddha attained enlightenment (when Prince Siddhattha was 35 years old), and was therefore much younger than the Buddha.<ref name"Mohr" />{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p529}} The latter tradition is corroborated by several instances in the Early Buddhist Texts, in which Ānanda appears younger than the Buddha, such as the passage in which the Buddha explained to Ānanda how old age was affecting him in body and mind.<ref name"Mohr" /> It is also corroborated by a verse in the Pāli text called Theragāthā, in which Ānanda stated he was a "learner" for 25 years, after which he attended to the Buddha for another 25 years.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p529}}{{sfn |Hirakawa |1993 |p85}}Following the Pāli, Mahīśasaka and Dharmaguptaka textual traditions, Ānanda became a monk in the second year of the Buddha's ministry, during the Buddha's visit to Kapilavatthu ({{langx|sa|Kapilavastu|linkno}}). He was ordained by the Buddha himself, together with many other princes of the Buddha's clan ({{langx|pi|Sākiya|linkno}}, {{langx|sa|Śākya|linkno}}),{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}}<ref name"Mohr" /> in the mango grove called Anupiya, part of Malla territory.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p529}} According to a text from the Mahāsaṅghika tradition, King Suddhodana wanted the Buddha to have more followers of the khattiya caste ({{langx|sa|kṣatriyaḥ|italicyes|linkno|litwarrior-noble, member of the ruling class}}), and less from the brahmin (priest) caste. He therefore ordered that any khattiya who had a brother to follow the Buddha as a monk, or have his brother do so. Ānanda used this opportunity, and asked his brother Devadatta to stay at home, so that he could leave for the monkhood.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Bareau |first1André |author-link1André Bareau |titleLes débuts de la prédication du Buddha selon l'Ekottara-Āgama |trans-titleThe Beginning of the Buddha's Ministry According to the Ekottara Āgama |journalBulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient |date1988 |volume77 |issue1 |page94 |doi10.3406/befeo.1988.1742 |languagefr}}</ref> The later timeline from the Mūlasarvāstivāda texts and the Pāli Theragāthā, however, have Ānanda ordain much later, about twenty-five years before the Buddha's death{{em dash}}in other words, twenty years in the Buddha's ministry.<ref name"Mohr" />{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p529}} Some Sanskrit sources have him ordain even later.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p530}} The Mūlasarvāstivāda texts on monastic discipline (Pāli and {{langx|sa|Vinaya|italicyes |linkno}}) relate that soothsayers predicted Ānanda would be the Buddha's attendant. In order to prevent Ānanda from leaving the palace to ordain, his father brought him to Vesālī ({{langx|sa|Vaiśālī|linkno}}) during the Buddha's visit to Kapilavatthu, but later the Buddha met and taught Ānanda nonetheless.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |pp529{{en dash}}30}} On a similar note, the Mahāvastu relates, however, that Mṛgī was initially opposed to Ānanda joining the holy life, because his brother Devadatta had already ordained and left the palace. Ānanda responded to his mother's resistance by moving to Videha ({{langx|sa|Vaideha|linkno}}) and lived there, taking a vow of silence. This led him to gain the epithet Videhamuni ({{langx|sa|Vaidehamuni|linkno}}), meaning 'the silent wise one from Videha'.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |pp529{{en dash}}30}} When Ānanda did become ordained, his father had him ordain in Kapilavatthu in the Nigrodhārāma monastery ({{langx|sa|Niyagrodhārāma|linkno}}) with much ceremony, Ānanda's preceptor ({{langx|pi|upajjhāya|italicyes |linkno}}; Sanskrit: {{Transliteration|sa|upādhyāya}}) being a certain Daśabāla Kāśyapa.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |pp=529{{en dash}}30}}
According to the Pāli tradition, Ānanda's first teachers were Belaṭṭhasīsa and Puṇṇa Mantānīputta. It was Puṇṇa's teaching that led Ānanda to attain the stage of sotāpanna ({{langx|sa|śrotāpanna|italicyes |linkno}}), an attainment preceding that of enlightenment. Ānanda later expressed his debt to Puṇṇa.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}}{{sfn |Shaw |2006 |p35}} Another important figure in the life of Ānanda was Sāriputta ({{langx|sa|Śāriputra|linkno}}), one of the Buddha's main disciples. Sāriputta often taught Ānanda about the finer points of Buddhist doctrine;{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pp371{{en dash}}2}} they were in the habit of sharing things with one another, and their relationship is described as a good friendship.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p533}} In some Mūlasarvāstivāda texts, an attendant of Ānanda is also mentioned who helped motivate Ānanda when he was banned from the First Buddhist Council. He was a "Vajjiputta" ({{langx|sa|Vṛjjiputra|linkno}}), i.e. someone who originated from the Vajji confederacy.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p532}} According to later texts, an enlightened monk also called Vajjiputta ({{langx|sa|Vajraputra|linkno}}) had an important role in Ānanda's life. He listened to a teaching of Ānanda and realized that Ānanda was not enlightened yet.<!--Buswell--> Vajjiputta encouraged Ānanda to talk less to laypeople<!--Findly--> and deepen his meditation practice by retreating in the forest, advice that very much affected Ānanda.<!--Buswell-->{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locVajraputra}}{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p372}}
Attending to the Buddha
In the first twenty years of the Buddha's ministry, the Buddha had several personal attendants.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} However, after these twenty years, when the Buddha was aged 55,<ref name"Higham" />{{refn |groupnote |According to Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition, the Buddha was 50.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p530}}}} the Buddha announced that he had need for a permanent attendant.{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page12}} The Buddha had been growing older, and his previous attendants had not done their job very well.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} Initially, several of the Buddha's foremost disciples responded to his request, but the Buddha did not accept them.<!--both--> All the while Ānanda remained quiet. When he was asked why, he said that the Buddha would know best whom to choose,<!--Malalasekera--> upon which the Buddha responded by choosing Ānanda.{{refn|groupnote |According to the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition, Ānanda was born at the same time the Buddha became enlightened, and was therefore younger than the other leading disciples. The reason that the other disciples were not chosen may be because they were too old for the task.<ref name"Mohr" />}} Ānanda agreed to take on the position, on the condition that he did not receive any material benefits from the Buddha.{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page12}}{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} Accepting such benefits would open him up to criticism that he chose the position because of ulterior motives.<!--Malalasekera--> He also requested that the Buddha allow him to accept invitations on his behalf, allow him to ask questions about his doctrine, and repeat any teaching that the Buddha had taught in Ānanda's absence.<!--both-->{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page12}}{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} These requests would help people trust Ānanda and show that the Buddha was sympathetic to his attendant.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} Furthermore, Ānanda considered these the real advantages of being an attendant, which is why he requested them.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}}
The Buddha agreed to Ānanda's conditions, and Ānanda became the Buddha's attendant, accompanying the Buddha on most of his wanderings. Ānanda took care of the Buddha's daily practical needs, by doing things such as bringing water and cleaning the Buddha's dwelling place. He is depicted as observant and devoted, even guarding the dwelling place at night.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}} Ānanda takes the part of interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues.<ref name"EB1911" /> He tended the Buddha for a total of 25 years,<ref name"Powers" />{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} a duty which entailed much work.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p376}} His relationship with the Buddha is depicted as warm and trusting:<ref name"Mcneill">{{cite book |last1Mcneill |first1William |titleBerkshire Encyclopedia of World History |edition2nd |date2011 |publisherBerkshire Publishing Group |isbn978-1-61472-904-4 |page270 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPpdgrgEACAAJ}}</ref>{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p375}} when the Buddha grew ill, Ānanda had a sympathetic illness;{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} when the Buddha grew older, Ānanda kept taking care of him with devotion.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}}
Ānanda sometimes literally risked his life for his teacher. At one time, the rebellious monk Devadatta tried to kill the Buddha by having a drunk and wild elephant released in the Buddha's presence. Ānanda stepped in front of the Buddha to protect him. When the Buddha told him to move, he refused, although normally he always obeyed the Buddha.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} Through a supernatural accomplishment ({{langx|pi|iddhi|linkno}}; {{langx|sa|ṛiddhi|linkno}}) the Buddha then moved Ānanda aside and subdued the elephant, by touching it and speaking to it with loving-kindness.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/n/naalaagiri.htm Nālāgiri]}}
Ānanda often acted as an intermediary and secretary, passing on messages from the Buddha, informing the Buddha of news, invitations, or the needs of lay people, and advising lay people who wanted to provide gifts to the saṅgha.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}}<ref name"Bodhi">{{cite encyclopedia |last1Bodhi |first1Bhikkhu |author-link1Bhikkhu Bodhi |editor1-lastJohnston |editor1-firstWilliam M. |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Monasticism |date2013 |publisherRoutledge |titleEarly Buddhist Disciples |isbn978-1-136-78716-4 |page389 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiepJAgAAQBAJ}}</ref> At one time, Mahāpajāpatī, the Buddha's foster-mother, requested to offer robes for personal use for the Buddha. She said that even though she had raised the Buddha in his youth, she never gave anything in person to the young prince; she now wished to do so. The Buddha initially insisted that she give the robe to the community as a whole rather than to be attached to his person. However, Ānanda interceded and mediated, suggesting that the Buddha had better accept the robe. Eventually the Buddha did, but not without pointing out to Ānanda that good deeds like giving should always be done for the sake of the action itself, not for the sake of the person.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p387}}
, Thailand |alt=Sculpture of a monk with East Asian traits, holding an alms bowl. |upright]]
The texts say that the Buddha sometimes asked Ānanda to substitute for him as teacher,{{sfn |Shaw |2006 |p18}}{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p368}} and was often praised by the Buddha for his teachings.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p377}} Ānanda was often given important teaching roles, such as regularly teaching Queen Mallikā, Queen Sāmāvatī, ({{langx|sa|Śyāmāvatī|linkno}}) and other people from the ruling class.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMallikā; Śyāmāvatī}}<ref>{{cite book |last1Bailey |first1Greg |last2Mabbett |first2Ian |titleThe Sociology of Early Buddhism |date2003 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-511-06296-4 |page28 |urlhttp://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/the_sociology_of_early_buddhism_baileymabbett.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170215105731/http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/the_sociology_of_early_buddhism_baileymabbett.pdf |archive-date15 February 2017 |url-statuslive |access-date12 September 2018 |dfdmy-all }}</ref> Once Ānanda taught a number of King Udena ({{langx|sa|Udayana|linkno}})'s concubines. They were so impressed by Ānanda's teaching, that they gave him five hundred robes, which Ānanda accepted. Having heard about this, King Udena criticized Ānanda for being greedy; Ānanda responded by explaining how every single robe was carefully used, reused and recycled by the monastic community, prompting the king to offer another five hundred robes.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pp389{{en dash}}90}} Ānanda also had a role in the Buddha's visit to Vesālī. In this story, the Buddha taught the well-known text Ratana Sutta to Ānanda, which Ānanda then recited in Vesālī, ridding the city from illness, drought and evil spirits in the process.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locRatanasutta}} Another well-known passage in which the Buddha taught Ānanda is the passage about spiritual friendship ({{langx|pi|kalyāṇamittata|italicyes |linkno}}). In this passage, Ānanda stated that spiritual friendship is half of the holy life; the Buddha corrected Ānanda, stating that such friendship is the entire holy life.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1Bodhi |first1Bhikkhu |author-link1Bhikkhu Bodhi |editor1-lastJohnston |editor1-firstWilliam M. |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Monasticism |date2013 |publisherRoutledge |titleDiscourses |isbn978-1-136-78716-4 |page394 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiepJAgAAQBAJ}}</ref>{{sfn |Shaw |2006 |page12}} In summary, Ānanda worked as an assistant, intermediary and a mouthpiece, helping the Buddha in many ways,<!--377--> and learning his teachings in the process.<!--375-->{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pp375, 377}}
Resisting temptations
Ānanda was attractive in appearance.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} A Pāli account related that a bhikkhunī (nun) became enamored with Ānanda, and pretended to be ill to have Ānanda visit her. When she realized the error of her ways, she confessed her mistakes to Ānanda.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Attwood |first1Jayarava |titleDid King Ajātasattu Confess to the Buddha, and did the Buddha Forgive Him? |journalJournal of Buddhist Ethics |date1 January 2008 |page286 |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/242321681 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180911044821/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242321681 |url-statuslive |archive-date11 September 2018 |issn1076-9005}}</ref> Other accounts relate that a low-caste woman called Prakṛti (also known in China as {{zh|t摩登伽女|pMódēngqiénǚ|labelsno}}) fell in love with Ānanda, and persuaded her mother Mātaṅgī to use a black magic spell to enchant him. This succeeded, and Ānanda was lured into her house, but came to his senses and called upon the help of the Buddha.<!--243; 107--> The Buddha then taught Prakṛti to reflect on the repulsive qualities of the human body, and eventually Prakṛti was ordained as a bhikkhunī, giving up her attachment for Ānanda.<!--243-4; 108-->{{sfn |Ambros |2016 |pages243{{en dash}}4}}<ref>{{cite book |last1Wilson |first1Liz |titleCharming Cadavers: Horrific Figurations of the Feminine in Indian Buddhist Hagiographic Literature |date1996 |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |isbn978-0-226-90054-4 |pages107{{en dash}}8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrTwdkBXBz7sC}}</ref> In an East Asian version of the story in the Śūraṃgamasūtra, the Buddha sent Mañjuśrī to help Ānanda, who used recitation to counter the magic charm. The Buddha then continued by teaching Ānanda and other listeners about the Buddha nature.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locŚūraṅgamasūtra}}
Establishing the nun's order
{{See also|Bhikkhuni#History}}
In the role of mediator between the Buddha and the lay communities, Ānanda sometimes made suggestions to the Buddha for amendments in the monastic discipline.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pp379{{en dash}}80}} Most importantly, the early texts attribute the inclusion of women in the early saṅgha (monastic order) to Ānanda.<ref>{{cite web |last1Violatti |first1Cristian |titleSiddhartha Gautama |urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/Siddhartha_Gautama/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140825002210/http://www.ancient.eu/Siddhartha_Gautama |archive-date25 August 2014 |url-statuslive |websiteWorld History Encyclopedia |access-date29 August 2018 |date9 December 2013 |dfdmy-all }}</ref> Fifteen years after the Buddha's enlightenment, his foster mother Mahāpajāpatī came to see him to ask him to be ordained as the first Buddhist bhikkhunī. Initially, the Buddha refused this. Five years later, Mahāpajāpatī came to request the Buddha again, this time with a following of other Sākiya women, including the Buddha's former wife Yasodharā ({{langx|sa|Yaśodarā|linkno}}). They had walked {{convert |500 |km |mile}}, looked dirty, tired and depressed, and Ānanda felt pity for them. Ānanda therefore confirmed with the Buddha whether women could become enlightened as well. Although the Buddha conceded this, he did not allow the Sākiya women to be ordained yet. Ānanda then discussed with the Buddha how Mahāpajāpatī took care of him during his childhood, after the death of his real mother.{{sfn |Ambros |2016 |page241}}{{sfn |Ohnuma |2006 |page862}} Ānanda also mentioned that previous Buddhas had also ordained bhikkhunīs.<ref name"Powers 2015" />{{sfn |Ohnuma |2006 |pp872{{en dash}}3}} In the end, the Buddha allowed the Sākiya women to be ordained, being the start of the bhikkhunī order.{{sfn |Ambros |2016 |page241}} Ānanda had Mahāpajāpati ordained by her acceptance of a set of rules, set by the Buddha. These came to be known as the garudhamma, and they describe the subordinate relation of the bhikkhunī community to that of the bhikkhus or monks.{{sfn |Hinüber |2007 |pages230{{en dash}}1}}{{sfn |Ohnuma |2006 |page862}} Scholar of Asian religions Reiko Ohnuma argues that the debt the Buddha had toward his foster-mother Mahāpajāpati may have been the main reason for his concessions with regard to the establishment of a bhikkhunī order.{{sfn |Ohnuma |2006 |p=871}}
Many scholars interpret this account to mean that the Buddha was reluctant in allowing women to be ordained, and that Ānanda successfully persuaded the Buddha to change his mind. For example, Indologist and translator I.B. Horner wrote that "this is the only instance of his [the Buddha] being over-persuaded in argument".{{sfn |Ohnuma |2006 |p865}} However, some scholars interpret the Buddha's initial refusal rather as a test of resolve, following a widespread pattern in the Pāli Canon and in monastic procedure of repeating a request three times before final acceptance.<ref name"Krey" />{{sfn |Ohnuma |2006 |page865 n.9}} Some also argue that the Buddha was believed by Buddhists to be omniscient, and therefore is unlikely to have been depicted as changing his mind. Other scholars argue that other passages in the texts indicate the Buddha intended all along to establish a bhikkhunī order.{{sfn |Ohnuma |2006 |page865}} Regardless, during the acceptance of women into the monastic order, the Buddha told Ānanda that the Buddha's Dispensation would last shorter because of this.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1Jerryson |first1Michael |editor1-lastJuergensmeier |editor1-firstMark |editor2-lastKitts |editor2-firstMargo |editor3-lastJerryson |editor3-firstMichael |encyclopediaThe Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence |publisherOxford University Press |titleBuddhist Traditions and Violence |isbn978-0-19-975999-6|year2013 }}</ref>{{sfn |Hinüber |2007 |pages230{{en dash}}1}} At the time, the Buddhist monastic order consisted of wandering celibate males, without many monastic institutions. Allowing women to join the Buddhist celibate life might have led to dissension, as well as temptation between the sexes.{{sfn |Powers |2007 |page53}} The garudhamma, however, were meant to fix these problems, and prevent the dispensation from being curtailed.<ref>{{cite journal |journalJournal of Buddhist Studies, Chulalongkorn University |volume16 |issue3 |year2009 |script-titleth:ปัญหาการตีความพระพุทธตำรัสต่อพระอานนท์หลังการบวชของพระนางมหาปชาบดีโคตมี |languageth |trans-titleProblems in Interpreting the Buddha's Words to Ven. Ānanda after Ven. Mahāpajāpati Gotamī's Ordination |firstKrisana |lastRaksachom |urlhttp://www.cubs.chula.ac.th/images/journal_Thai/v16_3.pdf#page88 |archive-urlhttps://www.webcitation.org/72quttCbc?urlhttp://www.cubs.chula.ac.th/images/journal_Thai/v16_3.pdf#page88 |archive-date1 October 2018 |page88 |access-date22 September 2018 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
There are some chronological discrepancies in the traditional account of the setting up of the bhikkhunī order. According to the Pāli and Mahīśasaka textual traditions, the bhikkhunī order was set up five years after the Buddha's enlightenment, but, according to most textual traditions, Ānanda only became attendant twenty years after the Buddha's enlightenment.<ref name"Krey" /> Furthermore, Mahāpajāpati was the Buddha's foster mother, and must therefore have been considerably older than him. However, after the bhikkhunī order was established, Mahāpajāpati still had many audiences with the Buddha, as reported in Pāli and Chinese Early Buddhist Texts. Because of this and other reasons, it could be inferred that establishment of the bhikkhunī order actually took place early in the Buddha's ministry. If this is the case, Ānanda's role in establishing the order becomes less likely.<ref name"Mohr" /> Some scholars therefore interpret the names in the account, such as Ānanda and Mahāpajāpati, as symbols, representing groups rather than specific individuals.<ref name"Krey">{{cite encyclopedia|last1Krey |first1Gisela |editor1-lastMohr |editor1-firstThea |editor2-lastTsedroen |editor2-firstJampa |encyclopediaDignity and Discipline: Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns |date2014 |publisherSimon and Schuster |titleSome Remarks on the Status of Nuns and Laywomen in Early Buddhism |isbn978-0-86171-830-6 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQy8qAwAAQBAJ}}</ref>
According to the texts, Ānanda's role in founding the bhikkhunī order made him popular with the bhikkhunī community. Ānanda often taught bhikkhunīs,{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}}{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p384}} often encouraged women to ordain, and when he was criticized by the monk Mahākassapa, several bhikkhunīs tried to defend him.{{sfn |Ambros |2016 |page209}}{{sfn |Hinüber |2007 |pages233{{en dash}}4}} According to Indologist Oskar von Hinüber, Ānanda's pro-bhikkhunī attitude may well be the reason why there was frequent discussion between Ānanda and Mahākassapa, eventually leading Mahākasapa to charge Ānanda with several offenses during the First Buddhist Council. Von Hinüber further argues that the establishment of the bhikkhunī order may have well been initiated by Ānanda {{em|after}} the Buddha's death, and the introduction of Mahāpajāpati as the person requesting to do so is merely a literary device to connect the ordination of women with the person of the Buddha, through his foster mother. Von Hinüber concludes this based on several patterns in the early texts, including the apparent distance between the Buddha and the bhikkhunī order, and the frequent discussions and differences of opinion that take place between Ānanda and Mahākassapa.{{sfn |Hinüber |2007 |pages235{{en dash}}7}} Some scholars have seen merits in von Hinüber's argument with regard to the pro- and anti-factions,<ref>{{cite journal |lastOhnuma |firstReiko |year 2013 |titleBad Nun: Thullanandā in Pāli Canonical and Commentarial Sources |journalJournal of Buddhist Ethics |volume20 |urlhttp://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2013/03/Ohnuma-Bad-Nun-Jan2013.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181001213154/http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2013/03/Ohnuma-Bad-Nun-Jan2013.pdf |archive-date1 October 2018 |url-statuslive |page51}}</ref>{{sfn |Findly |1992 |pages253{{en dash}}4}} but as of 2017, no definitive evidence has been found for the theory of establishment of the bhikkhuni order after the Buddha's death.<ref>{{cite book |last1Muldoon-Hules |first1Karen |titleBrides of the Buddha: Nuns' Stories from the Avadanasataka |date2017 |publisherLexington Books |isbn978-1-4985-1146-9 |page4 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSwglDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> Buddhist studies scholar Bhikkhu Anālayo has responded to most of von Hinuber's arguments, writing: "Besides requiring too many assumptions, this hypothesis conflicts with nearly 'all the evidence preserved in the texts together'",{{refn |groupnote |Anālayo cites von Hinüber with this phrase.}} arguing that it was monastic discipline that created a distance between the Buddha and the bhikkhunīs, and even so, there were many places in the early texts where the Buddha did address bhikkhunīs directly.<ref>{{cite journal |lastAnālayo |firstBhikkhu |author-linkBhikkhu Analayo |year2008 |titleTheories on the Foundation of the Nuns' Order: A Critical Evaluation |journalJournal of the Centre for Buddhist Studies |volume6 |urlhttps://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/theories-foundation.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180911044941/https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/theories-foundation.pdf |archive-date11 September 2018 |url-statuslive |page125}}</ref> The Buddha's death
{{See also|Mahāparinibbāna Sutta}}
, Rajgir, India, depicting the Buddha consoling Ānanda |altSculpture of the Buddha holding hand on head monk at the right side of the Buddha, the latter monk smiling ]]Despite his long association with and close proximity to the Buddha, the texts describe that Ānanda had not become enlightened yet. Because of that, a fellow monk Udāyī ({{langx|sa|Udāyin|linkno}}) ridiculed Ānanda. However, the Buddha reprimanded Udāyī in response, saying that Ānanda would certainly be enlightened in this life.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locUdāyin}}{{refn |groupnote |AN 3.80}}
The Pāli Mahā-parinibbāna Sutta related the last year-long trip the Buddha took with Ānanda from Rājagaha ({{langx|sa|linkno |Rājagṛha}}) to the small town of Kusinārā ({{langx|sa|Kuśinagara|linkno}}) before the Buddha died there. Before reaching Kusinārā, the Buddha spent the retreat during the monsoon ({{langx|pi|vassa|italicyes |linkno}}, {{langx |sa|varṣā|italicyes |linkno}}) in Veḷugāma ({{langx|sa|linkno |Veṇugrāmaka}}), getting out of the Vesālī area which suffered from famine.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMahāparinibbānasuttanta; Veṇugrāmaka}} Here, the eighty-year old Buddha<!--Veṇugrāmaka--> expressed his wish to speak to the saṅgha once more.<!--Mahāparinibbānasuttanta-->{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMahāparinibbānasuttanta; Veṇugrāmaka}} The Buddha had grown seriously ill in Vesālī, much to the concern of some of his disciples.{{sfn |Powers |2007 |p54}} Ānanda understood that the Buddha wished to leave final instructions before his death. The Buddha stated, however, that he had already taught everything needed, without withholding anything secret as a teacher with a "closed fist" would. He also impressed upon Ānanda that he did not think the saṅgha should be reliant too much on a leader, not even himself.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMahāparinibbānasuttanta}}{{sfn |Harvey |2013 |page26}} He then continued with the well-known statement to take his teaching as a refuge, and oneself as a refuge, without relying on any other refuge, also after he would be gone.<ref name"Obeyesekere">{{cite book |last1Obeyesekere |first1Gananath |author-link1Gananath Obeyesekere |titleThe Buddha in Sri Lanka: Histories and Stories |date2017 |publisherTaylor & Francis |isbn978-1-351-59225-3 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZRIwDwAAQBAJ |chapterThe Death of the Buddha: A Restorative Interpretation}}</ref>{{sfn |Lopez |2017 |p88}} Bareau argued that this is one of the most ancient parts of the text, found in slight variation in five early textual traditions:
{{blockquote |"Moreover, this very beautiful episode, touching with nobility and psychological verisimilitude with regard to both Ānanda and the Buddha, seems to go back very far, at the time when the authors, like the other disciples, still considered the Blessed One [the Buddha] a man, an eminently respectable and undefiled master, to whom behavior and utterly human words were lent, so that one is even tempted to see there the memory of a real scene which Ānanda reportedly told to the Community in the months following the Parinirvāṇa [death of the Buddha]."{{sfn |Bareau |1979 |p80 |ps:"En outre, cet épisode très beau, touchant de noblesse et de vraisemblance psychologique tant en ce qui regarde Ânanda qu'en ce qui concerne le Buddha, paraît bien remonter très loin, à l'époque où les auteurs, comme les autres disciples, considéraient encore le Bienheureux comme un homme, un maître éminemment respectable mais nullement divinisé, auquel on prêtait un comportement et des paroles tout à fait humaines, de telle sorte qu'on est même tenté de voir là le souvenir d'une scène réelle qu'Ânanda aurait racontée à la Communauté dans les mois qui suivirent le Parinirvâna."}}}}
The same text contains an account in which the Buddha, at numerous occasions, gave a hint that he could prolong his life to a full eon through a supernatural accomplishment, but this was a power that he would have to be {{em|asked}} to exercise.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMāra}}{{refn |groupnote |There was some debate between the early Buddhist schools as to what eon means in this context, some schools arguing it meant a full human lifespan, others that an enlightened being was capable of producing a "new life-span by the sole power of his meditation".<ref>{{cite journal |lastJaini |firstP. S. |year1958 |titleBuddha's Prolongation of Life |journalBulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume21 |issue3 |doi10.1017/S0041977X0006016X |pages547{{en dash}}8, 550|s2cid170582903 }}</ref>}} Ānanda was distracted, however, and did not take the hint. Later, Ānanda did make the request, but the Buddha replied that it was already too late,<!--Lopez--> as he would die soon.<!--Powers-->{{sfn |Lopez |2017 |p88}}{{sfn |Powers |2007 |p55}} Māra, the Buddhist personification of evil, had visited the Buddha, and the Buddha had decided to die in three months.{{sfn |Olson |2005 |page33}} When Ānanda heard this, he wept. The Buddha consoled him, however, pointing out that Ānanda had been a great attendant, being sensitive to the needs of different people.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}}<ref name"Mohr" /> If he was earnest in his efforts, he would attain enlightenment soon.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} He then pointed out to Ānanda that all conditioned things are impermanent: all people must die.{{sfn |Hansen |2008 |pages45, 51}}<ref name"Warder" />{{refn |groupnote |According to John Powers, the Buddha only left Vesālī at this point, and not earlier.{{sfn |Powers |2007 |p55}}}}
In the final days of the Buddha's life, the Buddha traveled to Kusinārā.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locKuśingarī}} The Buddha had Ānanda prepare a place for lying down between two sal trees, the same type of tree under which the mother of the Buddha gave birth.{{sfn |Olson |2005 |page34}} The Buddha then had Ānanda invite the Malla clan from Kusinārā to pay their final respects.<ref name"Warder">{{cite book |last1Warder |first1A. K. |author-link1A. K. Warder |titleIndian Buddhism |date2000 |publisherMotilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn81-208-0818-5 |edition3rd |urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Indian%20Buddhism_Warder_1970-2004.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150911080535/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Indian%20Buddhism_Warder_1970-2004.pdf |archive-date11 September 2015 }}</ref>{{sfn |Ray |1994 |p361}} Having returned, Ānanda asked the Buddha what should be done with his body after his death, and he replied that it should be cremated, giving detailed instructions on how this should be done.{{sfn |Lopez |2017 |p88}} Since the Buddha prohibited Ānanda from being involved himself, but rather had him instruct the Mallas to perform the rituals, these instructions have by many scholars been interpreted as a prohibition that monastics should not be involved in funerals or worship of stūpas (structures with relics). Buddhist studies scholar Gregory Schopen has pointed out, however, that this prohibition only held for Ānanda, and only with regard to the Buddha's funeral ceremony.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |lastSilk |firstJonathan A.|author-linkJonathan Silk|editor1-lastWilliams |editor1-firstPaul |encyclopediaBuddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 3: The Origins and Nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism |date2005 |orig-date2002 |publisherRoutledge |titleWhat, If Anything, Is Mahāyāna Buddhism?|isbn0-415-33229-X |page398 |urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_3.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151020042443/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_3.pdf |archive-date20 October 2015 }}</ref>{{sfn |Ray |1994 |pages339, 359}} It has also been shown that the instructions on the funeral are quite late in origin, in both composition and insertion into the text,<!--67, 73--> and are not found in parallel texts, apart from the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta.{{sfn |Bareau | 1979|pages67, 71, 73}} Ānanda then continued by asking how devotees should honor the Buddha after his death. The Buddha responded by listing four important places in his life that people could pay their respects to, which later became the four main places of Buddhist pilgrimage.{{sfn |Lopez |2017 |pp3, 88{{en dash}}9}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMahāparinibbānasuttanta}} Before the Buddha died, Ānanda recommended the Buddha to move to a more meaningful city instead, but the Buddha pointed out that the town was once a great capital.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locKuśingarī}} Ānanda then asked who will be next teacher after the Buddha would be gone, but the Buddha replied that his teaching and discipline would be the teacher instead.{{sfn |Lopez |2017 |p88}} This meant that decisions should be made by reaching consensus within the saṅgha,<ref name"Powers 2015">{{cite encyclopedia |last1Powers |first1John |editor1-lastPowers |editor1-firstJohn |editor1-linkJohn Powers (academic) |encyclopediaThe Buddhist World |date2015 |publisherRoutledge |titleBuddhas and Buddhisms |isbn978-1-317-42016-3 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXeuoCgAAQBAJ}}</ref> and more generally, that now the time had come for the Buddhist monastics and devotees to take the Buddhist texts as authority, now that the Buddha was dying.{{sfn |Ray |1994 |pp=363{{en dash}}4}}
The Buddha gave several instructions before his death, including a directive that his former charioteer Channa ({{langx|sa|Chandaka|linkno}}) be shunned by his fellow monks, to humble his pride.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMahāparinibbānasuttanta}} In his final moments, the Buddha asked if anyone had any questions they wished to pose to him, as a final chance to allay any doubts. When no-one responded, Ānanda expressed joy that all of the Buddha's disciples present had attained a level beyond doubts about the Buddha's teaching. However, the Buddha pointed out that Ānanda spoke out of faith and not out of meditative insight{{em dash}}a final reproach.{{sfn |Findly |1992 |page256}} The Buddha added that, of all the five hundred monks that are surrounding him now, even the "latest" or "most backward" ({{langx|pi|pacchimaka|italicyes |linkno}}) had attained the initial stage of sotapanna. Meant as an encouragement, the Buddha was referring to Ānanda.{{sfn |Freedman |1977 |pages26{{en dash}}7}} During the Buddha's final Nirvana, Anuruddha was able to use his meditative powers to understand which stages the Buddha underwent before attaining final Nirvana. However, Ānanda was unable to do so, indicating his lesser spiritual maturity.{{sfn |Ray |1994 |pp369, 392 n.80}} After the Buddha's death, Ānanda recited several verses, expressing a sense of urgency ({{langx|pi|saṃvega|italicyes |linkno}}), deeply moved by the events and their bearing: "Terrible was the quaking, men's hair stood on end, / When the all-accomplished Buddha passed away."{{sfn |Hansen |2008 |p53}}
Shortly after the council, Ānanda brought the message with regard to the Buddha's directive to Channa personally. Channa was humbled and changed his ways, attained enlightenment, and the penalty was withdrawn by the saṅgha.{{sfn |Prebish |2005 |page226}}{{sfn |Mukherjee |1994 |p466}} Ānanda traveled to Sāvatthī ({{langx|sa|Śrāvastī|linkno}}), where he was met with a sad populace, who he consoled with teachings on impermanence. After that, Ānanda went to the quarters of the Buddha and went through the motions of the routine he formerly performed when the Buddha was still alive, such as preparing water and cleaning the quarters. He then saluted and talked to the quarters as though the Buddha was still there. The Pāli commentaries state that Ānanda did this out of devotion, but also because he was "not yet free from the passions".<ref>{{cite journal|last1Strong|first1John S.|author-link1John S. Strong|title"Gandhakuṭī": The Perfumed Chamber of the Buddha|journalHistory of Religions|date1977|volume16|issue4|jstor1062638|pages398{{en dash}}9|doi10.1086/462775|s2cid161597822}}</ref> The First Council .<ref name"Thorp" /> |alt=Stupa, located at present-day Rajgir, at that time called Rajagaha]]
{{Main|First Buddhist Council}}
Ban
According to the texts, the First Buddhist Council was held in Rājagaha.<ref name"Thorp" /> In the first vassa after the Buddha had died, the presiding monk Mahākassapa ({{langx |sa|Mahākāśyapa|linkno}}) called upon Ānanda to recite the discourses he had heard, as a representative on this council.{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page12}}<ref name"Thorp">{{cite web |last1Thorp |first1Charley Linden |titleThe Evolution of Buddhist Schools |urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/article/1043/the-evolution-of-buddhist-schools/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180829212020/https://www.ancient.eu/article/1043/the-evolution-of-buddhist-schools/ |archive-date29 August 2018 |url-statuslive |websiteWorld History Encyclopedia |access-date29 August 2018 |date3 April 2017}}</ref>{{refn |groupnote |This is the most well-known version of the account. However, the texts of the Sarvāstivāda, Mūlasarvāstivāda, and Mahīśāsaka traditions relate that this was Añña Koṇḍañña ({{langx |sa|Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya|linkno}}) instead, as Koṇḍañña was the most senior disciple.{{sfn |Prebish |2005 |p230}}}} There was a rule issued that only enlightened disciples (arahants) were allowed to attend the council, to prevent mental afflictions from clouding the disciples' memories. Ānanda had, however, not attained enlightenment yet, in contrast with the rest of the council, consisting of 499 arahants.{{sfn |Powers |2007 |p56}}{{sfn |Prebish |2005 |pages225{{en dash}}6}} Mahākassapa therefore did not allow Ānanda to attend yet. Although he knew that Ānanda's presence in the council was required, he did not want to be biased by allowing an exception to the rule.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p532}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMahākāśyapa}} The Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition adds that Mahākassapa initially allowed Ānanda to join as a sort of servant assisting during the council, but then was forced to remove him when the disciple Anuruddha saw that Ānanda was not yet enlightened.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p532}}
Ānanda felt humiliated,<!--Filigenzi--> but was prompted to focus his efforts to reach enlightenment before the council started.<!--īryāpatha-->{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĪryāpatha; Mahākāśyapa}}{{sfn |Filigenzi |2006 |page271}} The Mūlasarvāstivāda texts add that he felt motivated when he remembered the Buddha's words that he should be his own refuge, and when he was consoled and advised by Anuruddha and Vajjiputta, the latter being his attendant.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p532}} On the night before the event, he tried hard to attain enlightenment. After a while, Ānanda took a break<!--īryāpatha--> and decided to lie down for a rest. He then attained enlightenment right there, right then, halfway between standing and lying down. Thus, Ānanda was known as the disciple who attained awakening "in none of the four traditional poses" (walking, standing, sitting, or lying down).<!--Ānanda-->{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda; Īryāpatha}}{{sfn |Shaw |2006 |pp17{{en dash}}8}} The next morning, to prove his enlightenment, Ānanda performed a supernatural accomplishment by diving into the earth and appearing on his seat at the council (or, according to some sources, by flying through the air).{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p532}} Scholars such as Buddhologist André Bareau and scholar of religion Ellison Banks Findly have been skeptical about many details in this account, including the number of participants on the council, and the account of Ānanda's enlightenment just before the council.{{sfn |Prebish |2005 |p231}} Regardless, today, the story of Ānanda's struggle on the evening before the council is still told among Buddhists as a piece of advice in the practice of meditation: neither to give up, nor to interpret the practice too rigidly.{{sfn |Shaw |2006 |pp17{{en dash}}8}}
, India. Wall painting depicting the First Buddhist Council, during which Ānanda is said to have pronounced the formula:"evaṃ me sutaṃ" (Thus have I heard.) as an introduction to each of the Buddha's discourses that he recited from memory.]]
Recitations
The First Council began when Ānanda was consulted to recite the discourses and to determine which were authentic and which were not.{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page164}}{{sfn |MacQueen |2005 |page314}} Mahākassapa asked of each discourse that Ānanda listed where, when, and to whom it was given,{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1Zurcher |first1Erik |editor1-lastWilliams |editor1-firstPaul |encyclopediaBuddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 8: Buddhism in China, East Asia, and Japan |date2005 |publisherRoutledge |titleBuddhist Influence on Early Taoism |isbn0-415-33234-6 |page378 |urlhttps://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/buddhism_critical-concepts-in-religious-studies_paul-williams_vol8.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180911192204/https://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/buddhism_critical-concepts-in-religious-studies_paul-williams_vol8.pdf |archive-date11 September 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref> and at the end of this, the assembly agreed that Ānanda's memories and recitations were correct,{{sfn |Powers |2007 |pp57{{en dash}}8}} after which the discourse collection ({{langx|pi|Sutta Piṭaka|italicyes |linkno}}, {{langx|sa|Sūtra Piṭaka|italicyes |linkno}}) was considered finalized and closed.{{sfn |MacQueen |2005 |page314}} Ānanda therefore played a crucial role in this council,<ref name"Powers" /> and texts claim he remembered 84,000 teaching topics, among which 82,000 taught by the Buddha and another 2,000 taught by disciples.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locCouncil, 1st}}{{sfn |Lamotte |1988 |p148}}{{refn |groupnote |Other sources say he remembered 60,000 words and 15,000 stanzas,{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locCouncil, 1st}} or 10,000 words.<ref name"Gwynne">{{cite book |last1Gwynne |first1Paul |titleWorld Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |date2017 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn978-1-118-97227-4 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ido08nDwAAQBAJ |chapterBooks}}</ref>}} Many early Buddhist discourses started with the words "Thus have I heard" ({{langx|pi|Evaṃ me sutaṃ|italicyes |linkno}}, {{langx|sa|Evaṃ mayā śrutam|italicyes |linkno}}), which according to most Buddhist traditions, were Ānanda's words,<ref name"Gwynne" />{{refn |groupnote |Some Mahāyāna commentators held that in some cases these were the words of a bodhisattva (someone striving to become a Buddha) like Mañjuśrī.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locEvaṃ mayā śrutam}}}} indicating that he, as the person reporting the text ({{langx|sa|saṃgītikāra|italicyes |linkno}}), had first-hand experience and did not add anything to it.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locSaṃgītikāra}}{{sfn |Lamotte |2005a |p190}} Thus, the discourses Ānanda remembered later became the collection of discourses of the Canon,{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page12}} and according to the Haimavāta, Dharmaguptaka and Sarvāstivāda textual traditions (and implicitly, post-canonical Pāli chronicles), the collection of Abhidhamma (Abhidhamma Piṭaka) as well.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locCouncil, 1st}}{{sfn |Prebish |2005 |p230}}{{sfn |Norman |1983 |page8}} Scholar of religion Ronald Davidson notes, however, that this is not preceded by any account of Ānanda learning Abhidhamma.{{sfn |Davidson |1990 |page305}} According to some later Mahāyāna accounts, Ānanda also assisted in reciting Mahāyāna texts, held in a different place in Rājagaha, but in the same time period.{{sfn|Lamotte|2005b|page256}}{{sfn |Davidson |1990 |page308}} The Pāli commentaries state that after the council, when the tasks for recitation and memorizing the texts were divided, Ānanda and his pupils were given the task to remember the Dīgha Nikāya.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p532}}{{sfn |Norman |1983 |page8}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction | width 160
| header = Two companion statues, 8th century, China
| image1 = Kashyapa and Ananda, Southeast Asia Gallery, Royal Ontario Museum, Ananda front.JPG
| caption1 = Mahākassapa
| image2 = Kashyapa and Ananda, Southeast Asia Gallery, Royal Ontario Museum, Kashyapa front.JPG
| caption2 = Ānanda
| footer= The First Buddhist Council began when Mahākassapa asked Ānanda to recite the discourses.
}}
Charges
During the same council, Ānanda was charged for an offense by members of the saṅgha for having enabled women to join the monastic order.<ref name"The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism">{{cite book |firstUma |lastChakravarti |author-linkUma Chakravarti |titleThe Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism |publisherMunshiram Manoharlal Publishers}}</ref>{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page164}} Besides this, he was charged for having forgotten to request the Buddha to specify which offenses of monastic discipline could be disregarded;{{refn |groupnote |The Buddha mentioned to Ānanda that "minor rules" could be abolished.{{sfn |Powers |2007 |p55}}}} for having stepped on the Buddha's robe; for having allowed women to honor the Buddha's body after his death, which was not properly dressed, and during which his body was sullied by their tears;<!--Ananda, Council, 1st--> and for having failed to ask the Buddha to continue to live on.<!--three entries--> Ānanda did not acknowledge these as offenses, but he conceded to do a formal confession anyway,<!--Ananda--> "... in faith of the opinion of the venerable elder monks"{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda; Cāpālacaitya; Council, 1st}}{{sfn |Hinüber |2007 |pp235{{en dash}}6}}{{em dash}}Ānanda wanted to prevent disruption in the saṅgha.{{sfn |Freedman |1977 |page470}} With regard to having women ordained, Ānanda answered that he had done this with great effort, because Mahāpajāpati was the Buddha's foster-mother who had long provided for him.{{sfn |Ohnuma |2006 |p867}} With regard to not requesting the Buddha to continue to live, many textual traditions have Ānanda respond by saying he was distracted by Māra,{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locCāpālacaitya}} though one early Chinese text has Ānanda reply he did not request the Buddha to prolong his life, for fear that this would interfere with the next Buddha Maitreya's ministry.<ref name="Ch'en" />
According to the Pāli tradition, the charges were laid after Ānanda had become enlightened and done all the recitations; but the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition has it that the charges were laid before Ānanda became enlightened and started the recitations. In this version, when Ānanda heard that he was banned from the council, he objected that he had not done anything that went against the teaching and discipline of the Buddha. Mahākassapa then listed seven charges to counter Ānanda's objection. The charges were similar to the five given in Pāli.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p532}} Other textual traditions list slightly different charges, amounting to a combined total of eleven charges, some of which are only mentioned in one or two textual traditions.{{sfn |Tsukamoto |1963 |p820}} Considering that an enlightened disciple was seen to have overcome all faults, it seems more likely that the charges were laid before Ānanda's attainment than after.<ref name"Ch'en">{{cite journal |last1Ch'en |first1Kenneth |titleThe Mahāparinirvānasūtra and The First Council |journalHarvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |date1958 |volume21 |page132 |doi10.2307/2718621 |jstor2718621}}</ref>
Indologists von Hinüber and Jean Przyluski argue that the account of Ānanda being charged with offenses during the council indicate tensions between competing early Buddhist schools, i.e. schools that emphasized the discourses ({{langx|pi|sutta|italicyes |linkno}}, {{langx|sa|sūtra|italicyes |linkno}}) and schools that emphasized monastic discipline. These differences have affected the scriptures of each tradition:<!--253--> e.g. the Pāli and Mahīśāsaka textual traditions portray a Mahākassapa that is more critical of Ānanda than that the Sarvāstivāda tradition depicts him,<!--254-->{{sfn |Findly |1992 |pages253{{en dash}}4}}{{sfn |Tsukamoto |1963 |p821}} reflecting a preference for discipline above discourse on the part of the former traditions, and a preference for discourse for the latter.{{sfn |Findly |1992 |page254}} Another example is the recitations during the First Council. The Pāli texts state that Upāli, the person who was responsible for the recitation of the monastic discipline, recited {{em|before}} Ānanda does: again, monastic discipline above discourse.{{sfn |Freedman |1977 |p487}} Analyzing six recensions of different textual traditions of the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta extensively, Bareau distinguished two layers in the text, an older and a newer one, the former belonging to the compilers that emphasized discourse, the latter to the ones that emphasized discipline; the former emphasizing the figure of Ānanda, the latter Mahākassapa.<!--70--> He further argued that the passage on Māra obstructing the Buddha was inserted in the fourth century BCE, and that Ānanda was blamed for Māra's doing by inserting the passage of Ānanda's forgetfulness in the third century BCE.<!--79--> The passage in which the Buddha was ill and reminded Ānanda to be his own refuge, on the other hand, Bareau regarded as very ancient, pre-dating the passages blaming Māra and Ānanda.{{sfn |Bareau |1979 |pages70, 79{{en dash}}80}} In conclusion, Bareau, Przyluski and Horner argued that the offenses Ānanda were charged with were a later interpolation. Findly disagrees, however, because the account in the texts of monastic discipline fits in with the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta and with Ānanda's character as generally depicted in the texts.{{sfn |Findly |1992 |p268}}
Historicity
Tradition states that the First Council lasted for seven months.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locCouncil, 1st}} Scholars doubt, however, whether the entire canon was really recited during the First Council,{{sfn |Harvey |2013 |page88}} because the early texts contain different accounts on important subjects such as meditation.<ref>{{cite book |last1Gombrich |first1Richard |author-link1Richard Gombrich |titleHow Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings |date2006 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-415-37123-0 |pages96{{en dash}}7 |edition2nd}}</ref> It may be, though, that early versions were recited of what is now known as the Vinaya-piṭaka and Sutta-piṭaka.{{sfn |Hirakawa |1993 |p69}} Nevertheless, many scholars, from the late 19th century onward, have considered the historicity of the First Council improbable. Some scholars, such as orientalists Louis de La Vallée-Poussin and D.P. Minayeff, thought there must have been assemblies after the Buddha's death, but considered only the main characters and some events before or after the First Council historical.{{sfn |Prebish |2005 |page226}}{{sfn |Mukherjee |1994 |pp453}} Other scholars, such as Bareau and Indologist Hermann Oldenberg, considered it likely that the account of the First Council was written after the Second Council, and based on that of the Second, since there were not any major problems to solve after the Buddha's death, or any other need to organize the First Council.{{sfn |Prebish |2005 |page231}}{{sfn |Mukherjee |1994 |pp454{{en dash}}6}} Much material in the accounts, and even more so in the more developed later accounts, deal with Ānanda as the unsullied intermediary who passes on the legitimate teaching of the Buddha.{{sfn |MacQueen |2005|pp314{{en dash}}5}} On the other hand, archaeologist Louis Finot, Indologist E. E. Obermiller and to some extent Indologist Nalinaksha Dutt thought the account of the First Council was authentic, because of the correspondences between the Pāli texts and the Sanskrit traditions.{{sfn |Mukherjee |1994 |p457}} Indologist Richard Gombrich, following Bhikkhu Sujato and Bhikkhu Brahmali's arguments, states that "it makes good sense to believe ... that large parts of the Pali Canon do preserve for us the Buddha-vacana, 'the Buddha's words', transmitted to us via his disciple Ānanda and the First Council".{{sfn |Gombrich |2018 |p73}} Role and character
{{Quote box
| title = The attendant
| quote="He served the Buddha following him everywhere like a shadow, bringing him tooth wood and water, washing his feet, rubbing his body, cleaning his cell and fulfilling all his duties with the greatest care. By day he was at hand forestalling the slightest wish of the Buddha. At night, staff and torch in hand, he went nine times round the Buddha's cell and never put them down lest he would fall asleep and fail to answer a call to the Buddha."
| source Manorathapūranī{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pp376{{en dash}}7}}
| align = right
| width = 50%
| salign = right
| author = transl. by Ellison Banks Findly
}}
Ānanda was recognized as one of the most important disciples of the Buddha.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1Kinnard |first1Jacob |editor1-lastRiggs |editor1-firstThomas |encyclopediaWorldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices |date2006 |publisherThomson Gale |titleBuddhism |isbn0-7876-6612-2 |page62 |urlhttp://1.droppdf.com/files/UTrS6/encyclopedia-of-religious-practices-vol1.pdf |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180911191613/http://1.droppdf.com/files/UTrS6/encyclopedia-of-religious-practices-vol1.pdf |archive-date11 September 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In the lists of the disciples given in the Aṅguttara Nikāya{{refn |groupnote |Page i. xiv.}} and Saṃyutta Nikāya, each of the disciples is declared to be foremost in some quality. Ānanda is mentioned more often than any other disciple: he is named foremost in conduct, in attention to others, in power of memory, in erudition and in resoluteness.<ref name"Sarao" /><ref name"EB1911" /><ref>{{cite book |last1Mun-keat |first1Choong |titleThe Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: A Comparative Study Based on the Sūtrāṅga Portion of the Pāli Saṃyutta-Nikāya and the Chinese Saṃyuktāgama |date2000 |publisherHarrassowitz |isbn3-447-04232-X |page142 |urlhttps://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/the-fundamental-teachings-of-early-buddhism_choong-mun-keat.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121023055800/http://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/the-fundamental-teachings-of-early-buddhism_choong-mun-keat.pdf |archive-date23 October 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Ānanda was the subject of a sermon of praise delivered by the Buddha just before the Buddha's death, as described in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta:{{refn |groupnote |DN 16.}} it is a sermon about a man who is kindly, unselfish, popular, and thoughtful toward others.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inliney|wstitleĀnanda|volume1|page913|firstThomas William|lastRhys Davids|author-linkThomas Rhys Davids}}</ref> In the texts he is depicted as compassionate in his relations with lay people, a compassion he learnt from the Buddha.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p395}} The Buddha relays that both monastics and lay people were pleased to see Ānanda, and were pleased to hear him recite and teach the Buddha's teaching.{{sfn |Hansen |2008 |page51}}{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p378}} Moreover, Ānanda was known for his organizational skills, assisting the Buddha with secretary-like duties.<ref name"Pasadika">{{cite encyclopedia |firstBhikkhu |lastPāsādika |editor1-lastBuswell|editor1-firstRobert E.|titleĀnanda|encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Buddhism|date2004|publisherMacmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale |isbn0-02-865719-5|urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150912051354/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf |archive-date12 September 2015 |volume1 |page17}}</ref> In many ways, Ānanda did not only serve the personal needs of the Buddha, but also the needs of the still young, growing institute of the saṅgha.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p370}}
Moreover, because of his ability to remember the many teachings of the Buddha, he is described as foremost in "having heard much" ({{langx|pi|bahussuta|italicyes |linkno}}, Sanskrit: {{Transliteration|sa|bahuśruta}}, {{Lang-zh|pDuowen Diyi}}).{{sfn |Findly |2003 |page375}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013}} Ānanda was known for his exceptional memory,<ref name"Mohr" /> which is essential in helping him to remember the Buddha's teachings. He also taught other disciples to memorize Buddhist doctrine. For these reasons, Ānanda became known as the "Treasurer of the Dhamma" ({{langx |pi|Dhamma-bhaṇḍāgārika|italicyes |linkno}}, Sanskrit: {{Transliteration|sa|Dharma-bhaṇḍāgārika}}),<ref name"Sarao" />{{sfn |Filigenzi |2006 |p271}} Dhamma (Sanskrit: {{Transliteration|sa|Dharma}}) referring to the doctrine of the Buddha.<ref name"Bodhi" /> Being the person who had accompanied the Buddha throughout a great part of his life, Ānanda was in many ways the living memory of the Buddha, without which the saṅgha would be much worse off.{{sfn |Filigenzi |2006 |page271}} Besides his memory skills, Ānanda also stood out in that, as the Buddha's cousin, he dared to ask the Buddha direct questions. For example, after the death of Mahāvira and the depicted subsequent conflicts among the Jain community, Ānanda asked the Buddha how such problems could be prevented after the Buddha's death.{{sfn |Clasquin |2013 |page7}}{{sfn |Gethin |2001 |page232}}{{refn |groupnote |The Buddha responded with a discussion of the role of a teacher, a student and the teaching, and concluded that he himself had proclaimed his teaching well.<!--232-3--> He continued that disputes about monastic discipline were not so much a problem, but disputes about "the path and the way" were.<!--234-->{{sfn |Gethin |2001 |pages232{{en dash}}4}}}} However, Findly argues that Ānanda's duty to memorize the Buddha's teachings accurately and without distortion, was "both a gift and a burden". Ānanda was able to remember many discourses verbatim, but this also went hand-in-hand with a habit of not reflecting on those teachings, being afraid that reflection might distort the teachings as he heard them.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pages375{{en dash}}6}} At multiple occasions, Ānanda was warned by other disciples that he should spend less time on conversing to lay people, and more time on his own practice.<!--372, 390--> Even though Ānanda regularly practiced meditation for long hours, he was less experienced in meditative concentration than other leading disciples.<!--391-->{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pp372, 390{{en dash}}1}} Thus, judgment of Ānanda's character depends on whether one judges his accomplishments as a monk or his accomplishments as an attendant, and person memorizing the discourses.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pages375{{en dash}}6}}
From a literary and didactic point of view, Ānanda often functioned as a kind of foil in the texts, being an unenlightened disciple attending to an enlightened Buddha.{{sfn |Shaw |2006 |p115}}<ref>{{cite book |last1Swearer |first1Donald K. |titleThe Buddhist World of Southeast Asia |date1995 |publisherSUNY Press |isbn978-0-7914-2459-9 |page209 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkFBR2cMDD8sC}}</ref> Because the run-of the-mill person could identify with Ānanda, the Buddha could through Ānanda convey his teachings to the mass easily.{{sfn |Shaw |2006 |p115}}{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p379}} Ānanda's character was in many ways a contradiction to that of the Buddha: being unenlightened and someone who made mistakes. At the same time, however, he was completely devoted to service to the Buddha.{{sfn |Filigenzi |2006 |pages270{{en dash}}1}} The Buddha is depicted in the early texts as both a father and a teacher to Ānanda, stern but compassionate. Ānanda was very fond of and attached to the Buddha, willing to give his life for him.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |page375}} He mourned the deaths of both the Buddha and Sāriputta, with whom he enjoyed a close friendship: in both cases Ānanda was very shocked.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p533}} Ānanda's faith in the Buddha, however, constituted more of a faith in a person, especially the Buddha's person, as opposed to faith in the Buddha's teaching. This is a pattern which comes back in the accounts which lead to the offenses Ānanda was charged with during the First Council.{{sfn |Findly |1992 |pp261{{en dash}}3}} Moreover, Ānanda's weaknesses described in the texts were that he was sometimes slow-witted and lacked mindfulness, which became noticeable because of his role as attendant to the Buddha: this involved minor matters like deportment, but also more important matters, such as ordaining a man with no future as a pupil, or disturbing the Buddha at the wrong time.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |pp378{{en dash}}9}} For example, one time Mahākassapa chastised Ānanda in strong words, criticizing the fact that Ānanda was travelling with a large following of young monks who appeared untrained and who had built up a bad reputation.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} In another episode described in a Sarvāstivāda text, Ānanda is the only disciple who was willing to teach psychic powers to Devadatta, who later would use these in an attempt to destroy the Buddha. According to a Mahīśāsaka text, however, when Devadatta had turned against the Buddha, Ānanda was not persuaded by him, and voted against him in a formal meeting.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Bareau |first1André |author-link1André Bareau |titleLes agissements de Devadatta selon les chapitres relatifs au schisme dans les divers Vinayapitaka |languagefr |trans-titleThe Actions of Devadatta According to Chapters Related to Schism in the Various Vinayapitakas |journalBulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient |date1991 |volume78 |issue1 |pages92, 94{{en dash}}5, 107, 109{{en dash}}10 |doi10.3406/befeo.1991.1769 }}</ref> Ānanda's late spiritual growth is much discussed in Buddhist texts, and the general conclusion is that Ānanda was slower than other disciples due to his worldly attachments and his attachment to the person of the Buddha, both of which were rooted in his mediating work between the Buddha and the lay communities.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p373}} Passing on the teaching After the Buddha's death, some sources say Ānanda stayed mostly in the West of India, in the area of Kosambī ({{langx|sa|Kausambī |linkno}}), where he taught most of his pupils.{{sfn |Baruah |2000 |p10}}{{sfn |Hirakawa |1993 |p85}} Other sources say he stayed in the monastery at Veḷuvana ({{langx|sa|Veṇuvana|linkno}}).{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locVeṇuvanavihāra}} Several pupils of Ānanda became well-known in their own right. According to post-canonical Sanskrit sources such as the Divyavadāna and the Aśokavadāna, before the Buddha's death, the Buddha confided to Ānanda that the latter's student Majjhantika ({{langx|sa|Madhyāntika|linkno}}) would travel to Udyāna, Kashmir, to bring the teaching of the Buddha there.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMadhyāntika}}{{sfn |Baruah |2000 |page8}} Mahākassapa made a prediction that later would come true that another of Ānanda's future pupils, Sāṇavāsī ({{langx|sa|Śāṇakavāsī, Śāṇakavāsin or Śāṇāvasika|linkno}}), would make many gifts to the saṅgha at Mathurā, during a feast held from profits of successful business. After this event, Ānanda would successfully persuade Sāṇavāsī to become ordained and be his pupil.{{sfn |Strong |1994 |p65}}{{sfn |Baruah |2000 |pages8, 453}} Ānanda later persuaded Sāṇavāsī by pointing out that the latter had now made many material gifts, but had not given "the gift of the Dhamma". When asked for explanation, Ānanda replied that Sāṇavāsī would give the gift of Dhamma by becoming ordained as a monk, which was reason enough for Sāṇavāsī to make the decision to get ordained.{{sfn |Strong |1994 |p65}} Death and relics <!--disabled-- visited both stūpas (monuments) dedicated to Ānanda at the Rohīni River. |altChinese monk with rucksack |upright=.4]]-->
in mid-air above the river Rohīni, leaving relics for followers on both sides of the river.|altRelief with monk meditating at the right, and on the left, half of a skeleton, a kneeling crowned figure and a second figure holding a parasol above the crowned figure |upright1.5]]
Though no Early Buddhist Text provides a date for Ānanda's death, according to the Chinese pilgrim monk Faxian (337{{en dash}}422 CE), Ānanda went on to live 120 years.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}} Following the later timeline, however, Ānanda may have lived to 75{{en dash}}85 years.{{sfn |Baruah |2000 |p10}} Buddhist studies scholar L. S. Cousins dated Ānanda's death twenty years after the Buddha's.<ref name"Cousins">{{cite encyclopedia |author-link1L. S. Cousins |lastCousins |firstL. S. |editor1-lastSkorupski |editor1-firstT. |encyclopediaThe Buddhist Forum Volume II: Seminar Papers 1988{{en dash}}90 |date2005 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-135-75237-8 |page30 |titleThe 'Five Points' and the Origins of the Buddhist Schools |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/288181045 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180917215430/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tadeusz_Skorupski/publication/288181045_The_Buddhist_Forum_Volume_II/links/567eba1308aebccc4e05d9f3/The-Buddhist-Forum-Volume-II.pdf |archive-date17 September 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Ānanda was teaching till the end of his life.{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page12}} According to Mūlasarvāstivāda sources, Ānanda heard a young monk recite a verse incorrectly, and advised him. When the monk reported this to his teacher, the latter objected that "Ānanda has grown old and his memory is impaired ..." This prompted Ānanda to attain final Nirvana. He passed on the "custody of the [Buddha's] doctrine" to his pupil Sāṇavāsī<!--Witanachchi--> and left for the river Ganges.<!--both-->{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |pp534{{en dash}}5}}<ref>{{cite book|titleRelics of the Buddha|authorJohn S. Strong|year2007|pages45–46|publisherPrinceton University Press |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_KLAxmR8PZAC|isbn978-0-691-11764-5}}</ref> However, according to Pāli sources, when Ānanda was about to die, he decided to spend his final moments in Vesālī instead, and traveled to the river Rohīni.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}} The Mūlasarvāstivāda version expands and says that before reaching the river, he met with a seer called Majjhantika (following the prediction earlier) and five hundred of his followers, who converted to Buddhism.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p535}} Some sources add that Ānanda passed the Buddha's message on to him.{{sfn |Strong |1994 |p65}} When Ānanda was crossing the river, he was followed by King Ajātasattu ({{langx|sa|linkno |Ajātaśatrū}}), who wanted to witness his death and was interested in his remains as relics.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p535}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}} Ānanda had once promised Ajāsattu that he would let him know when he would die, and accordingly, Ānanda had informed him.{{sfn |Ray |1994 |page109}} On the other side of the river, however, a group of Licchavis from Vesālī awaited him for the same reason. In the Pāli, there were also two parties interested, but the two parties were the Sākiyan and the Koliyan clans instead.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p535}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}} Ānanda realized that his death on either side of the river could anger one of the parties involved.<ref name"Vogel">{{cite journal |last1Vogel |first1Jean-Philippe |author-linkJ. Ph. Vogel |titleLe Parinirvàna d'Ânanda, d'après un bas-relief gréco-bouddhique |languagefr |trans-titleĀnanda's Parinirvāna, According to a Greco-Buddhist Bas-relief |journalBulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient |date1905 |volume5 |issue1 |page418 |doi10.3406/befeo.1905.2660 }}</ref> Through a supernatural accomplishment, he therefore surged into the air to levitate and meditate in mid-air, making his body go up in fire, with his relics landing on both banks of the river,{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p535}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}} or in some versions of the account, splitting in four parts.{{sfn |Strong |1994 |p66}} In this way, Ānanda had pleased all the parties involved.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p535}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locĀnanda}} In some other versions of the account, including the Mūlasarvāstivāda version, his death took place on a barge in the middle of the river, however, instead of in mid-air. The remains were divided in two, following the wishes of Ānanda.<ref name"Higham">{{cite book |last1Higham |first1Charles F. W. |titleEncyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations |date2004 |publisherFacts On File |isbn0-8160-4640-9 |page10 |urlhttps://archive.org/download/Encyclopedia-of-ancient-asian-civilzations/encyclopedia-of-ancient-asian-civilizations1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://archive.org/download/Encyclopedia-of-ancient-asian-civilzations/encyclopedia-of-ancient-asian-civilizations1.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref>{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p535}}
Majjhantika later successfully carried out the mission following the Buddha's prediction.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locMadhyāntika}} The latter's pupil Upagupta was described to be the teacher of King Aśoka (3rd century BCE).<!--9--> Together with four or five other pupils of Ānanda, Sāṇavāsī and Majjhantika formed the majority of the Second Council,<!--8, 10-->{{sfn |Baruah |2000 |pages8{{en dash}}10}}{{sfn |Hirakawa |1993 |p85}} with Majjhantika being Ānanda's last pupil.<!--11-->{{sfn |Baruah |2000 |page11}} Post-canonical Pāli sources add that Sāṇavāsī had a leading role in the Third Buddhist Council as well.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |lastBechert |firstHeinz |author-linkHeinz Bechert |editor-lastWilliams |editor-firstPaul |encyclopediaBuddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies |volume1: Early History in South and Southeast Asia |date2005 |orig-date1982 |publisherRoutledge |titleThe Date of the Buddha Reconsidered |isbn0-415-33227-3 |page69 |urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151020042656/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_1.pdf |archive-date20 October 2015 }}</ref> Although little is historically certain, Cousins thought it likely at least one of the leading figures on the Second Council was a pupil of Ānanda, as nearly all the textual traditions mention a connection with Ānanda.<ref name="Cousins" />
Ajāsattu is said to have built a stūpa on top of the Ānanda's relics, at the river Rohīni,<!--210--> or according to some sources, the Ganges;<!--93--> the Licchavis had also built a stūpa at their side of the river.<!--210-->{{sfn |Lamotte |1988 |pp93, 210}} The Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (602{{en dash}}64 CE) later visited stūpas on both sides of the river Rohīni.<ref name"Sarao" /><ref name"Higham" /> Faxian also reported having visited stūpas dedicated to Ānanda at the river Rohīni,{{sfn |Lamotte |1988 |p210}} but also in Mathurā.{{sfn |Jaini |2001 |page361}}<ref name"Vogel" /> Moreover, according to the Mūlasarvāstivāda version of the Saṃyukta Āgama, King Aśoka visited and made the most lavish offerings he ever made to a stūpa:{{Quote box
| quote=
"Who in the Norm is widely versed,
:And bears its doctrines in his heart{{em dash}}
:Of the great Master's treasure Ward{{em dash}}
:An eye was he for all the world,
:Ānanda, who is passed away."
| source Theragāthā{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p536}}
| align = left
| width = 30%
| salign = center
| author = transl. by C. A. F. Rhys Davids
}} He explained to his ministers that he did this because "[t]he body of the Tathāgata is the body of dharma(s), pure in nature. He [Ānanda] was able to retain it/them all; for this reason the offerings [to him] surpass [all others]"{{em dash}}body of dharma here referred to the Buddha's teachings as a whole.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1Harrison |first1Paul |editor1-lastWilliams |editor1-firstPaul |encyclopediaBuddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 3: The Origins and Nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism |date2005 |orig-date1992 |publisherRoutledge |titleIs the Dharma-Kaya the Real "Phantom Body"? |isbn0-415-33229-X |page133 |urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_3.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151020042443/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_3.pdf|archive-dateOctober 20, 2015}}</ref>
In Early Buddhist Texts, Ānanda had reached final Nirvana and would no longer be reborn. But, in contrast with the early texts, according to the Mahāyāna Lotus Sūtra, Ānanda would be born as a Buddha in the future. He would accomplish this slower than the present Buddha, Gotama Buddha, had accomplished this, because Ānanda aspired to becoming a Buddha by applying "great learning". Because of this long trajectory and great efforts, however, his enlightenment would be extraordinary and with great splendor.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p535}} Legacy Ānanda is depicted as an eloquent speaker,<ref name"Bodhi" /> who often taught about the self and about meditation.{{sfn |Findly |2003 |p381}} There are numerous Buddhist texts attributed to Ānanda, including the Atthakanāgara Sutta, about meditation methods to attain Nirvana; a version of the Bhaddekaratta Sutta ({{langx |sa|Bhadrakārātrī|italicyes |linkno}}, {{zh |pshanye}}), about living in the present moment;{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locAtthakanāgarasutta; Bhaddekarattasutta}}{{sfn |Norman |1983 |page48}} the Sekha Sutta, about the higher training of a disciple of the Buddha; the Subha Suttanta, about the practices the Buddha inspired others to follow.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locSekhasutta; Subhasuttanta}} In the Gopaka-Mogallānasutta, a conversation took place between Ānanda, the brahmin Gopaka-Mogallāna and the minister Vassakara, the latter being the highest official of the Magadha region.{{sfn |Clasquin |2013 |page10}}{{sfn |Wijayaratna |1990 |p153}} During this conversation, which occurred shortly after the Buddha's death,<!--10--> Vassakara asked whether it was decided yet who would succeed the Buddha. Ānanda replied that no such successor had been appointed, but that the Buddhist community took the Buddha's teaching and discipline as a refuge instead.<!--11-->{{sfn |Clasquin |2013 |pages10{{en dash}}11}}{{sfn |Wijayaratna |1990 |p153}} Furthermore, the saṅgha did not have the Buddha as a master anymore, but they would honor those monks who were virtuous and trustworthy.{{sfn |Wijayaratna |1990 |p153}} Besides these suttas, a section of the Theragāthā is attributed to Ānanda.<ref name"Sarao" /><ref>{{cite book |last1Reynolds |first1Frank |last2Shirkey |first2Jeff |editor1-lastSafra |editor1-firstJacob E. |editor2-lastAguilar-Cauz |editor2-firstJorge |titleBritannica Encyclopedia of World Religions |date2006 |publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica |isbn978-1-59339-491-2 |page47 |urlhttps://www.scribd.com/document/271551819/Britannica-Encyclopedia-of-World-Religions-pdf}}</ref> Even in the texts attributed to the Buddha himself, Ānanda is sometimes depicted giving a name to a particular text, or suggesting a simile to the Buddha to use in his teachings.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}}
In East Asian Buddhism, Ānanda is considered one of the ten principal disciples.<ref>{{cite book |last1Nishijima |first1Gudo Wafu |last2Cross |first2Shodo |titleShōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-Eye Treasury |date2008 |publisherNumata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research |isbn978-1-886439-38-2 |page32 n.119 |urlhttp://www.bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_T2582_Shobogenzo4_2008_0.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170802212016/http://www.bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_T2582_Shobogenzo4_2008_0.pdf |archive-date2 August 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In many Indian Sanskrit and East Asian texts, Ānanda is considered the second patriarch of the lineage which transmitted the teaching of the Buddha, with Mahākassapa being the first and Majjhantika{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locDamoduoluo chan jing; Madhyāntika}} or Saṇavāsī<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |firstAlbert |lastWelter |editor1-lastBuswell|editor1-firstRobert E.|titleLineage |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Buddhism|date2004|publisherMacmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale |isbn0-02-865720-9|urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150912051354/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf |archive-dateSeptember 12, 2015 |volume2 |pages462{{en dash}}3}}</ref> being the third. There is an account dating back from the Sarvāstivāda<!--453--> and Mūlasarvāstivāda<!--Hirakawa--> textual traditions which states that before Mahākassapa died,<!--Strong--> he bestowed the Buddha's teaching on Ānanda as a formal passing on of authority, telling Ānanda to pass the teaching on to Ānanda's pupil Saṇavāsī.<!--9-->{{sfn |Baruah |2000 |pp9, 453}}{{sfn |Strong |1994 |page62}} Later, just before Ānanda died, he did as Mahākassapa had told him to.{{sfn |Witanachchi |1965 |p532}} Buddhist studies scholars Akira Hirakawa and Bibhuti Baruah have expressed skepticism about the teacher{{en dash}}student relationship between Mahākassapa and Ānanda, arguing that there was discord between the two, as indicated in the early texts.{{sfn |Baruah |2000 |p10}}{{sfn |Hirakawa |1993 |page85}} Regardless, it is clear from the texts that a relationship of transmission of teachings is meant, as opposed to an upajjhāya{{en dash}}student relationship in a lineage of ordination: no source indicates Mahākassapa was Ānanda's upajjhāya.{{sfn |Hirakawa |1993 |page86}} In Mahāyāna iconography, Ānanda is often depicted flanking the Buddha at the right side, together with Mahākassapa at the left.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locEr xieshi}} In Theravāda iconography, however, Ānanda is usually not depicted in this manner,<ref>{{cite book |last1Edkins |first1Joseph |titleChinese Buddhism: A Volume of Sketches, Historical, Descriptive and Critical |date2013 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-136-37881-2 |pages42{{en dash}}3 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRVH_AQAAQBAJ}}</ref> and the motif of transmission of the Dhamma through a list of patriarchs is not found in Pāli sources.{{sfn |Lamotte |1988 |p=210}}
made of pieces. Pāli tradition has it that Ānanda designed the Buddhist monk's robe, based on the structure of rice fields.|alt=Painting with two monks, one with Central Asian traits, holding his index finger against his thumb; one with East Asian traits, holding his hands folded in front.]]
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Because Ānanda was instrumental in founding the bhikkhunī community, he has been honored by bhikkhunīs for this throughout Buddhist history. The earliest traces of this can be found in the writings of Faxian and Xuan Zang,{{sfn |Ambros |2016 |page209}}<ref name"Mohr">{{cite book |firstJanet |lastGyatso |editor1-lastMohr |editor1-firstThea |editor2-lastTsedroen |editor2-firstJampa |titleDignity and Discipline: Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns |date2014 |publisherSimon and Schuster |isbn978-0-86171-830-6 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQy8qAwAAQBAJ |chapterFemale Ordination in Buddhism: Looking into a Crystal Ball, Making a Future}}</ref> who reported that bhikkhunīs made offerings to a stūpa in Ānanda's honor during celebrations and observance days.<!--210--> On a similar note, in 5th{{en dash}}6th-century China<!--211--> and 10th-century Japan, Buddhist texts were composed recommending women to uphold the semi-monastic eight precepts in honor and gratitude of Ānanda.<!--212--> In Japan, this was done through the format of a penance ritual called keka ({{lang-zh|悔過}}).<!--214--> By the 13th century, in Japan a cult-like interest for Ānanda had developed in a number of convents,<!--217-8--> in which images<!--216--> and stūpas were used<!--216-7--> and ceremonies were held in his honor.<!--217-8--> Presently, opinion among scholars is divided as to whether Ānanda's cult among bhikkhunīs was an expression of their dependence on male monastic tradition, or the opposite, an expression of their legitimacy and independence.<!--245-6-->{{sfn |Ambros |2016 |pages210{{en dash}}12, 214, 216{{en dash}}8, 245{{en dash}}6}}
Pāli Vinaya texts attribute the design of the Buddhist monk's robe to Ānanda. As Buddhism prospered, more laypeople started to donate expensive cloth for robes, which put the monks at risk for theft. To decrease its commercial value, monks therefore cut up the cloth offered, before they sew a robe from it. The Buddha asked Ānanda to think of a model for a Buddhist robe, made from small pieces of cloth. Ānanda designed a standard robe model, based on the rice fields of Magadha, which were divided in sections by banks of earth.{{sfn |Wijayaratna |1990 |p36}}{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} Another tradition that is connected to Ānanda is paritta recitation. Theravāda Buddhists explain that the custom of sprinkling water during paritta chanting originates in Ānanda's visit to Vesālī, when he recited the Ratana Sutta and sprinkled water from his alms bowl.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |locRatanasutta}}<ref>{{cite book |last1Gombrich |first1Richard |author-link1Richard Gombrich |titleBuddhist Precept and Practice: Traditional Buddhism in the Rural Highlands of Ceylon |date1995 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-7103-0444-5 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idV3Z-dHpBsBsC |page240}}</ref> A third tradition sometimes attributed to Ānanda is the use of Bodhi trees in Buddhism. It is described in the text Kāliṅgabodhi Jātaka that Ānanda planted a Bodhi tree as a symbol of the Buddha's enlightenment, to give people the chance to pay their respects to the Buddha.{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}}<ref name"Gutman">{{cite journal |last1Gutman |first1Pamela |last2Hudson |first2Bob |titleA First-Century Stele from Sriksetra |journalBulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient |date2012 |volume99 |issue1 |page29 |doi10.3406/befeo.2012.6151 }}</ref> This tree and shrine came to be known as the Ānanda Bodhi Tree,{{sfn |Malalasekera |1960 |loc[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/aa/aananda.htm Ānanda]}} said to have grown from a seed from the original Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha is depicted to have attained enlightenment.<ref name"Svasti" /> Many of this type of Bodhi Tree shrines in Southeast Asia were erected following this example.<ref name"Gutman" /> Presently, the Ānanda Bodhi Tree is sometimes identified with a tree at the ruins of Jetavana, Sāvatthi, based on the records of Faxian.<ref name"Svasti">{{cite news |last1Svasti |first1Pichaya |titleThe Path to Nirvana |urlhttps://www.bangkokpost.com/travel/tourists-and-expats/1243338/the-path-to-nirvana |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20181001223111/https://www.bangkokpost.com/travel/tourists-and-expats/1243338/the-path-to-nirvana |archive-date1 October 2018 |url-statuslive |access-date24 September 2018 |workBangkok Post |date4 May 2017 |dfdmy-all }}</ref> In art Between 1856 and 1858 Richard Wagner wrote a draft for an opera libretto based on the legend about Ānanda and the low-caste girl Prakṛti. He left only a fragmentary prose sketch of a work to be called Die Sieger, but the topic inspired his later opera Parsifal.<ref name"Wagner" /> Furthermore, the draft was used by composer Jonathan Harvey in his 2007 opera Wagner Dream.<ref>{{cite web |titleJonathan Harvey's Wagner Dream, Opera on 3{{nowrap| - }}BBC Radio 3 |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01hdjz9 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151107035632/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01hdjz9 |archive-date7 November 2015 |url-statuslive |websiteBBC |dateMay 2012}}</ref>{{sfn |App |2011 |pp42{{en dash}}3}} In Wagner's version of the legend, which he based on orientalist Eugène Burnouf's translations,<!--43--> the magical spell of Prakṛti's mother does not work on Ānanda, and Prakṛti turns to the Buddha to explain her desires for Ānanda. The Buddha replies that a union between Prakṛti and Ānanda is possible, but Prakṛti must agree to the Buddha's conditions. Prakṛti agrees, and it is revealed that the Buddha means something else than she does: he asks Prakṛti to ordain as a bhikkhunī, and live the celibate life as a kind of sister to Ānanda. At first, Prakṛti weeps in dismay, but after the Buddha explains that her current situation is a result of karma from her previous life, she understands and rejoices in the life of a bhikkhunī.{{sfn |App |2011 |pages33{{en dash}}4, 43}} Apart from the spiritual themes, Wagner also addresses the faults of the caste system by having the Buddha criticize it.<ref name"Wagner">{{cite journal |date10 August 1889 |orig-date1856 |journalThe Musical World |volume69 |issue32 |page531 |titleSketch of Wagner's 'Die Sieger' |firstR. |lastWagner |author-linkRichard Wagner |urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/7726227 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181001222537/https://search.proquest.com/openview/3cbd37e266b00c7d |archive-date1 October 2018|id{{ProQuest|7726227}} }}</ref>
Drawing from Schopenhauer's philosophy, Wagner contrasts desire-driven salvation and true spiritual salvation: by seeking deliverance through the person she loves, Prakṛti only affirms her will to live ({{langx|de|Wille zum Leben|italicyes}}), which is blocking her from attaining deliverance. By being ordained as a bhikkhunī she strives for her spiritual salvation instead. Thus, the early Buddhist account of Mahāpajāpati's ordination is replaced by that of Prakṛti. According to Wagner, by allowing Prakṛti to become ordained, the Buddha also completes his own aim in life: "[H]e regards his existence in the world, whose aim was to benefit all beings, as completed, since he had become able to offer deliverance{{em dash}}without mediation{{em dash}}also to woman."{{sfn |App |2011 |pages34{{en dash}}5 |ps=:"... und somit seine erlösenden, allen Wesen zugewendeten Weltlauf als volendet ansieht, da er auch dem Weibe{{em dash}}unmittelbar{{em dash}}die Erlösung zusprechen konnte."}}
The same legend of Ānanda and Prakṛti was made into a short prose play by the Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore, called Chandalika. Chandalika deals with the themes of spiritual conflict, caste and social equality,<!--Jain--> and contains a strong critique of Indian society.<!--Chowdurie--> Just like in the traditional account, Prakṛti falls in love with Ānanda, after he gives her self-esteem by accepting a gift of water from her. Prakṛti's mother casts a spell to enchant Ānanda. In Tagore's play, however, Prakṛti later regrets what she has done and has the spell revoked.<!--Jain--><ref>{{cite journal |lastJain |firstR. |year2016 |titleTagore's Drama Synthesis of Myths, Legends and Folklores: A Medium of Social Reformation |journalDialogue{{nowrap| –}} A Journal Devoted to Literary Appreciation |volume12 |issn0974-5556 |issue1 |urlhttp://dialoguethejournal.mripub.com/index.php/dailogue/article/view/39/39 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181002065014/http://dialoguethejournal.mripub.com/index.php/dailogue/article/view/39/39 |archive-date2 October 2018 |page71 |access-date1 October 2018 |dfdmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1Chowdurie |first1Tapati |titleQuenching Prakriti's Thirst... |urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/dance/quenching-prakritis-thirst/article18261076.ece |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181001222603/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/dance/quenching-prakritis-thirst/article18261076.ece |archive-date1 October 2018 |url-statuslive |access-date24 September 2018 |workThe Hindu |date27 April 2017}}</ref>
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Notes
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* {{Citation |last1Prebish |first1Charles S. |editor1-lastWilliams |editor1-firstPaul |encyclopediaBuddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 1: Early History in South and Southeast Asia |date2005 |orig-date1974 |publisherRoutledge |titleReview of Scholarship on Buddhist Councils |isbn0-415-33227-3 |urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151020042656/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_1.pdf |archive-dateOctober 20, 2015 |pages224{{en dash}}43 }}
* {{Citation |last1Ray |first1R.A. |author-linkReginald Ray |titleBuddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations |date1994 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn0-19-507202-2 |urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhist%20Saints%20in%20India_A%20Study%20in%20Buddhist%20Values%20and%20Orientations_Reginald.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180917035213/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhist%20Saints%20in%20India_A%20Study%20in%20Buddhist%20Values%20and%20Orientations_Reginald.pdf |archive-date17 September 2018 }}
* {{Citation |last1Shaw |first1Sarah |titleBuddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pāli Canon |date2006 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-415-35918-4 |urlhttp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhist%20Meditation%20An%20anthology%20from%20the%20Pali%20canon_Sarah%20Shaw.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180911050559/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhist%20Meditation%20An%20anthology%20from%20the%20Pali%20canon_Sarah%20Shaw.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2018 }}
* {{Citation |last1Strong |first1John S. |titleThe Legend and Cult of Upagupta: Sanskrit Buddhism in North India and Southeast Asia |date1994 |publisherMotilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn978-81-208-1154-6 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbKq7k2DegjcC }}
* {{Citation |lastTsukamoto |firstK. |year1963 |titleMahākaśyapa's Precedence to Ānanda in the Rājagṛha Council |journalIndogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyu [Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies] |volume11 |issue2 |urlhttps://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ibk1952/11/2/11_2_824/_pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180921034502/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ibk1952/11/2/11_2_824/_pdf |pages824{{en dash}}817[sic] |archive-date21 September 2018 |url-statuslive |doi10.4259/ibk.11.824 |doi-accessfree }}
* {{Citation |last1Wijayaratna |first1Mohan |titleBuddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts of the Theravāda Tradition |date1990 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn0-521-36428-0 |urlhttp://elibrary.ibc.ac.th/files/private/Buddhist%20%20Monastic%20Life.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180920123047/http://elibrary.ibc.ac.th/files/private/Buddhist%20%20Monastic%20Life.pdf |archive-date20 September 2018 |access-date17 September 2018 }}
* {{Citation |last1Witanachchi |first1C. |editor1-lastMalalasekera |editor1-firstG. P. |editor2-lastWeeraratne |editor2-firstW. G. |editor1-linkG. P. Malalasekera |titleĀnanda |encyclopediaEncyclopaedia of Buddhism |date1965 |publisherGovernment of Sri Lanka |urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/231090852/Enceylopaedia-of-Buddhism-Vol-i |volume1 |oclc2863845613 }}{{Dead link|dateAugust 2024 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
{{refend}}
External links
* [https://archive.org/details/TheGreatDisciplesOfTheBuddhaAnandaMsSylviaBay2008Apr6 Talk about Ānanda given by Singaporean Buddhist teacher Sylvia Bay, in 2008]
* [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/hecker/wheel273.pdf Ānanda: Guardian of the Dhamma by Hellmuth Hecker, accounts from the Pāli Canon], [https://web.archive.org/web/20180926014540/https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/hecker/wheel273.pdf archived] from the original on 26 September 2018
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Category:Foremost disciples of Gautama Buddha
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Anaxagoras
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{{Short description|5th-century BC Greek philosopher}}
{{other uses}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = Western philosophy
| era = Ancient philosophy
| image = Anaxagoras Lebiedzki Rahl.jpg
| caption = Anaxagoras; part of a fresco in the portico of the National University of Athens.
| name = Anaxagoras
| birth_date = {{circa}}&nbsp;500 BC
| birth_place = Clazomenae, Ionia, Persian Empire
| death_date = {{circa}}&nbsp;428 BC
| death_place = Lampsacus
| school_tradition = Ionian school
| main_interests = Natural philosophy
| notable_ideas = Nous, or Mind ordering all things
}}
Anaxagoras ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|æ|k|ˈ|s|æ|g|ə|r|ə|s}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀναξαγόρας}}, Anaxagóras, "lord of the assembly"; {{circa}}&nbsp;500 – {{circa}}&nbsp;428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae at a time when Asia Minor was under the control of the Persian Empire, Anaxagoras came to Athens. In later life he was charged with impiety and went into exile in Lampsacus.
Responding to the claims of Parmenides on the impossibility of change, Anaxagoras introduced the concept of Nous (Cosmic Mind) as an ordering force. He also gave several novel scientific accounts of natural phenomena, including the notion of panspermia, that life exists throughout the universe and could be distributed everywhere. He deduced a correct explanation for eclipses and described the Sun as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese, and also attempted to explain rainbows and meteors. He also speculated that the sun might be just another star.<ref>[https://solar-center.stanford.edu/FAQ/Qsunasstar.html]</ref>
{{toclimit|3}}
Biography
Anaxagoras was born in the town of Clazomenae in the early 5th century BCE,{{sfn|Curd|2019|loc1}} where he may have been born into an aristocratic family.{{sfn|DK 59A1}}{{sfn|Curd|2019|loc1}} He arrived at Athens, either shortly after the Persian war (in which he may have fought on the Persian side),{{sfn|Copleston|2003|page66}} or at some point when he was a bit older, around 456 BCE.{{sfn|Curd|2019|loc1}} While at Athens, he became close with the Athenian statesman Pericles.{{sfn|Curd|2019|loc1}} According to Diogenes Laërtius and Plutarch, in later life he was charged with impiety and went into exile in Lampsacus; the charges may have been political, owing to his association with Pericles, if they were not fabricated by later ancient biographers.{{sfn|Filonik|2013|pages26–33}} According to Laërtius, Pericles spoke in defense of Anaxagoras at his trial{{efn|Laertius 2.15}}, {{circa|450|lk=no}}. Even so, Anaxagoras was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in Troad ({{circa|434}}{{snd}}433). He died there around the year 428. Citizens of Lampsacus erected an altar to Mind and Truth in his memory and observed the anniversary of his death for many years. They placed over his grave the following inscription:<blockquote> Here Anaxagoras, who in his quest of truth scaled heaven itself, is laid to rest.{{efn|{{langx|grc|ἐνθάδε, πλεῖστον ἀληθείας ἐπὶ τέρμα περήσας οὐρανίου κόσμου, κεῖται Ἀναξαγόρας.}}}}{{efn|Laertius 2.15}}</blockquote>
Additionally, in his honor, the annual celebration known as the Anaxagoreia was established.{{efn|Laertius 2.3}}
Philosophy
Responding to the claims of Parmenides on the impossibility of change, Anaxagoras described the world as a mixture of primary imperishable ingredients, where material variation was never caused by an absolute presence of a particular ingredient, but rather by its relative preponderance over the other ingredients; in his words, "each one is... most manifestly those things of which there are the most in it".{{sfn|Curd|2011|loc=B12}} He introduced the concept of nous (cosmic mind) as an ordering force, which moved and separated the original mixture, which was homogeneous or nearly so.
Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry from Ionia to Athens. According to Anaxagoras, all things have existed in some way from the beginning, but originally they existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined throughout the universe. All things existed in this mass but in a confused and indistinguishable form.{{sfn|Wallace|Mitchell|1911|p943}} There was an infinite number of homogeneous parts ({{lang|el|ὁμοιομερῆ}}) as well as heterogeneous ones.{{sfn|Wallace|Mitchell|1911|p943}}{{sfn|Schmitz|1870}}
The work of arrangement, the segregation of like from unlike, and the summation of the whole into totals of the same name, was the work of Mind or Reason ({{lang|el|νοῦς}}). Mind is no less unlimited than the chaotic mass, but it stood pure and independent, a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling all life forms.{{efn|B12}} Its first appearance, and the only manifestation of it which Anaxagoras describes, is Motion. It gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts.{{sfn|Wallace|Mitchell|1911|p=943}}
Decrease and growth represent a new aggregation ({{lang|el|σὐγκρισις}}) and disruption ({{lang|el|διάκρισις}}). However, the original intermixture of things is never wholly overcome.{{sfn|Wallace|Mitchell|1911|p943}} Each thing contains parts of other things or heterogeneous elements, and is what it is only on account of the preponderance of certain homogeneous parts which constitute its character.{{sfn|Smith|1952}} Out of this process arise the things we see in this world.{{sfn|Smith|1952}} Astronomy
Plutarch{{efn|Life of Lysander 12.1}} says "Anaxagoras is said to have predicted that if the heavenly bodies should be loosened by some slip or shake, one of them might be torn away, and might plunge and fall to earth."
His observations of the celestial bodies and the fall of meteorites led him to form new theories of the universal order, and to the prediction of the impact of meteorites. According to Pliny{{efn|Natural History 2.149}}, he was credited with predicting the fall of the meteorite in 467.{{sfn|Couprie|2004}} He was the first to give a correct explanation of eclipses, and was both famous and notorious for his scientific theories, including the claims that the Sun is a mass of red-hot metal, that the Moon is earthy, and that the stars are fiery stones.{{efn|Curd|2007}} He thought that the Earth was flat and floated supported by 'strong' air under it, and that disturbances in this air sometimes caused earthquakes.{{efn|Burnet|1892}} He introduced the notion of panspermia, that life exists throughout the universe and could be distributed everywhere.{{sfn|Hollinger|2016}}{{sfn|Kolb|Clark|2020|p=47}}
He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the Sun, which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnese; he also said that the Moon had mountains, and he believed that it was inhabited. The heavenly bodies, he asserted, were masses of stone torn from the Earth and ignited by rapid rotation.{{sfn|Wallace|Mitchell|1911|p943}} His theories about eclipses, the Sun, and Moon may well have been based on observations of the eclipse of 463 BCE{{efn|{{Cite web | urlhttps://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsearch/SEsearchmap.php?Ecl-04620430 |title NASA - Total Solar Eclipse of -462 April 30}}}}, which was visible in Greece.
Anaxagoras was one of the first to assert that the Moon reflected sunlight and did not produce light by itself; a statement translated as “the sun induces the moon with brightness” was found in his writings.<ref>{{Cite book |lastBurgess |firstMark Robert |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvUF_6_BYYuUC&pgPP1 |titleTranscendent Apriorism: Pure Reason's Quest for the Noumenal |year2011 |pages90 |publisherUniversal-Publishers |isbn9781599423814 |languageen}}</ref>MathematicsAccording to Plutarch in his work On exile, Anaxagoras is the first Greek to attempt the problem of squaring the circle, a problem he worked on while in prison.{{efn|Plutarch, On exile}}Legacy
]]
Anaxagoras wrote a book of philosophy, but only fragments of the first part of this have survived, through preservation in the work of Simplicius of Cilicia in the 6th century AD.{{efn|Simplicius}}
Anaxagoras's book was reportedly available for a drachma in the Athenian marketplace.{{sfn|Curd|2019|loc1}} It was certainly known to Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes, based on the contents of their surviving plays,{{sfn|Curd|2019|loc1}} and possibly to Aeschylus as well, based on the testimony of Seneca.{{sfn|Curd|2019|loc=1}} However, although Anaxagoras almost certainly lived in Athens during the lifetime of Socrates (born 470 BCE), there is no evidence that they ever met. In the Phaedo, Plato portrays Socrates saying of Anaxagoras as a young man: 'I eagerly acquired his books and read them as quickly as I could'. However, Socrates goes on to describe his later disillusionment with his philosophy.{{efn|Plato, Phaedo, 85b}} Anaxagoras is also mentioned by Socrates during his trial in Plato's Apology.
He is also mentioned in Seneca's Natural Questions (Book 4B, originally Book 3: On Clouds, Hail, Snow). It reads: "Why should I too allow myself the same liberty as Anaxagoras allowed himself?"
The Roman author Valerius Maximus preserves a different tradition; Anaxagoras, coming home from a long voyage, found his property in ruin, and said: "If this had not perished, I would have"—a sentence described by Valerius as being "possessed of sought-after wisdom".{{sfn|Curd|2007}}{{efn|Val. Max., VIII, 7, ext., 5: Qui, cum e diutina peregrinatione patriam repetisset possessionesque desertas vidisset, "non essem – inquit "ego salvus, nisi istae perissent." Vocem petitae sapientiae compotem!}}
Dante Alighieri places Anaxagoras in the First Circle of Hell (Limbo) in his Divine Comedy (Inferno, Canto IV, line 137).
Chapter 5 in Book II of De Docta Ignorantia (1440) by Nicholas of Cusa is dedicated to the truth of the sentence "Each thing is in each thing" which he attributes to Anaxagoras.
Anaxagoras appears as a character in the second Act of Faust, Part II by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
Friedrich Nietzsche also frequently mentions Anaxagoras in the later chapters of his book entitled Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. He speaks fondly of Anaxagoras's nous, and defends the idea by claiming philosophers had "failed to recognize the meaning of Anaxagoras's [nous]&nbsp;..." and believed that it was "perfectly sufficient for his insight to have found a motion which is capable of
creating visible order in a thoroughly mixed chaos, by means of a simple continuous action."<ref>{{cite book |lastNietzsche |titlePhilosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks |pages115–116 |year1873}}</ref> Nietzsche believes it is essential to understand Anaxagoras's nous as a sort of act of free will, not determined by any previous action before.
See also
* Anaxagoras (crater) on the Moon
Notes
Footnotes
{{notelist}}
Citations
{{Reflist}}
References
Ancient testimony
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Αναξαγόρας|Ἀναξαγόρας}}
{{Wikisource|Fragments of Anaxagoras}}
{{refbegin}}
In the Diels-Kranz numbering for testimony and fragments of Pre-Socratic philosophy, Anaxagoras is catalogued as number 59.
The most recent edition of this catalogue is {{cite book |last1Diels |first1Hermann |last2Kranz |first2Walther |editor-last1Plamböck |editor-first1Gert |titleDie Fragmente der Vorsokratiker |date1957 |publisherRowohlt |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKEYWQwAACAAJ |access-date11 April 2022 |isbn5-87560-741-6 |language grc,de}}
{{refend}}
Biography
*A1. {{cite LotEP | chapterAnaxagoras|ref{{sfnref|DK 59A1}}}}
*A3. {{cite encyclopedia | titleHeraclitus|encyclopediaSuda|ref={{sfnref|DK 59A3}}}}
*A5. {{cite LotEP | chapterDemocritus|§41|ref={{sfnref|DK 59A5}}}}
*A12. {{cite book | authorPlutarch | titleLife of Lysander | at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Lysander*.html#ref25 §12] | ref{{sfnref|DK 59A12}}}}
*A13.{{cite book | authorPlutarch | titleLife of Pericles | at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pericles*.html#ref:inventory_management §16] |ref{{sfnref|DK 59A13}}}}
*A15. {{cite book | authorPlato | titlePhaedrus | at[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0174%3Atext%3DPhaedrus%3Asection%3D270a 270a] | ref={{sfnref|DK 59A15}}}}
*A16. {{cite book | authorPlutarch | titleLife of Pericles | at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pericles*.html#ref10 §6] | ref{{sfnref|DK 59A16}}}}
*A17. {{cite book | authorPlutarch | titleLife of Pericles | at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pericles*.html#ref57 §32] |ref{{sfnref|DK 59A17}}}}
*A18. {{cite book | authorPlutarch | titleLife of Nicias | at[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Nicias*.html#ref:eclipse_dates_the_siege_of_Syracuse §23]| ref{{sfnref|DK 59A18}}}}
Writings
Doctrines
Fragments
{{refbegin|30em}}
*B1. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at155.23 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B1}}}}
*B2. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at155.30 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B2}}}}
*B3. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at164.16 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B3}}}}
*B4. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at34.28 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B4}}}}
*B5. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at156.9 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B5}}}}
*B6. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at164.25 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B6}}}}
*B7. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's On the Heavens |at155.23 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B7}}}}
*B8. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at175.11 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B8}}}}
*B9. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at35.13 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B9}}}}
*B10. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at460.16 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B10}}}}
*B11. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at164.22 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B11}}}}
*B12. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at164.24 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B12}}}}
*B13. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at300.27 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B13}}}}
*B14. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at157.5 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B14}}}}
*B15. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at179.3 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B15}}}}
*B16. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at179.6 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B16}}}}
*B17. {{cite book |author Simplicius of Cilicia | title Commentary on Aristotle's Physics |at163.18 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B17}}}}
*B18. {{cite book |author Plutarch | title On the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon |atStephanus p.[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/The_Face_in_the_Moon*/C.html#ref125 929b] | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B17}}}}
*B21. {{cite book |author Sextus Empiricus | title Against the Logicians | atBook I.90 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 21B21}}}}
*B21a. {{cite book |author Sextus Empiricus | title Against the Logicians | atBook I.140 | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 21B21a}}}}
*B21b. {{cite book |author Plutarch | title On Fortune |atStephanus p.[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/De_fortuna*.html#ref22 98f] | languageen |ref={{sfnref|DK 59B21b}}}}
{{refend}}
Translations of the fragments
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |editor1-lastCurd |editor1-firstPatricia |titleA Presocratics reader: selected fragments and testimonia |date2011 |locationIndianapolis |publisherHackett Publishing |isbn978-1-60384-305-8 |editionSecond}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastCurd |editor-firstPatricia |titleAnaxagoras of Clazomenae. Fragments and Testimonia: A Text and Translation with Notes and Essays |locationToronto |publisherUniversity of Toronto Press |year2007}}
* {{cite book |last1Graham |first1Daniel W. |titleThe Texts of Early Greek Philosophy: The Complete Fragments and Selected Testimonies of the Major Presocratics, Part 1 |date2010 |publisherCambridge University Press |locationNew York |isbn=978-0-521-73763-0}}
* {{cite book |titleSimplicius: On Aristotle Physics 1.1–2 |date7 April 2022 |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |isbn978-1-350-28570-5 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUTJeEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book |titleSimplicius: On Aristotle Physics 1.3-4 |date22 April 2014 |publisherA&C Black |isbn978-1-4725-1531-5 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUAgsAwAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book |titleSimplicius: On Aristotle On the Heavens 1.3-4 |date22 April 2014 |publisherA&C Black |isbn978-1-4725-0170-7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2wUsAwAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* Sider, David (ed.), The Fragments of Anaxagoras, with introduction, text, and commentary, Sankt Augustin: Academia Verlag, 2005.
* Kirk G. S.; Raven, J. E. and Schofield, M. (1983) The Presocratic Philosophers: a critical history with a selection of texts (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, {{ISBN|0-521-25444-2}}; originally authored by Kirk and Raven and published in 1957 {{OCLC|870519}}
{{refend}}
Sources
{{refbegin}}
* Burnet J. (1892). Early Greek Philosophy A. & C. Black, London, {{OCLC|4365382}}, and subsequent editions, 2003 edition published by Kessinger, Whitefish, Montana, {{ISBN|0-7661-2826-1}}
* {{cite book |last1Copleston |first1Frederick Charles |author-link1Frederick Copleston |titleA History of Philosophy: Volume 1 Greece and Rome (reprint) |chapterIX: The Advance of Anaxagoras |date2003 |publisherContinuum |isbn978-0-8264-6895-6}}
* {{cite journal|last1Couprie |first1Dirk |titleHow Thales Was Able to "Predict" a Solar Eclipse Without the Help of Alleged Mesopotamian Wisdom|journalEarly Science and Medicine|volume9|issue4|year2004|pages321–337 |issn1383-7427|doi10.1163/1573382043004631}}
* {{cite SEP |url-idanaxagoras |titleAnaxagoras |lastCurd |firstPatricia | date=2019}}
* {{Cite journal |lastFilonik |firstJakub |date2013 |titleAthenian impiety trials: a reappraisal |journalDike |volume16 |issue16 |doi10.13130/1128-8221/4290}}
* {{cite journal |lastHollinger |firstMaik |titleLife from Elsewhere – Early History of the Maverick Theory of Panspermia |journalSudhoffs Archiv |volume100 |issue2 |year2016 |pages188–205 |doi10.25162/sudhoff-2016-0009 |jstor24913787 |pmid29668166 |s2cid4942706 }}
* {{cite book |last1Kolb |first1Vera M. |last2Clark |first2Benton C. III |titleAstrobiology for a General Reader: A Question and Answers - Panspermia hypothesis |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHFLwDwAAQBAJ&dqAnaxagoras+Panspermia&pgPA49 |date13 July 2020 |chapter10 |page47 |publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn978-1-5275-5502-0 }}
* {{Cite DGRBM|lastSchmitz|firstLeonhard|titleAnaxagoras|volume1|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D21%3Aentry%3Danaxagoras-bio-1}}
* {{cite book |lastSmith |firstHomer W. |author-linkHomer W. Smith |titleMan and His Gods |date1952 |publisherGrosset & Dunlap |locationNew York |page[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/145 145] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|url-accessregistration}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitleAnaxagoras|volume1|page943|firstWilliam|lastWallace|author-linkWilliam Wallace (philosopher)|first2John Malcolm|last2Mitchell}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{refbegin|2}}
* Bakalis Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, Victoria, BC., {{ISBN|1-4120-4843-5}}
* Barnes J. (1979). The Presocratic Philosophers, Routledge, London, {{ISBN|0-7100-8860-4}}, and editions of 1982, 1996 and 2006
* {{cite journal |lastDavison |firstJ. A. |titleProtagoras, Democritus, and Anaxagoras |journalClassical Quarterly |volume3 (n.s) |issue1–2 |year1953 |pages33–45 |doi10.1017/s0009838800002585 |s2cid170730707}}
* Gershenson, Daniel E. and Greenberg, Daniel A. (1964) Anaxagoras and the birth of physics, Blaisdell Publishing Co., New York, {{OCLC|899834}}
* Graham, Daniel W. (1999). "Empedocles and Anaxagoras: Responses to Parmenides" Chapter 8 of Long, A. A. (1999) The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.&nbsp;159–180, {{ISBN|0-521-44667-8}}
* {{cite book |author-linkW. K. C. Guthrie |lastGuthrie |firstW. K. C. |titleA History of Greek Philosophy |volume2 |locationCambridge |publisherCambridge University Press |year1962}}
* {{cite book |lastLuchte |firstJames |titleEarly Greek Thought: Before the Dawn |year2011 |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |locationLondon |isbn=978-0-567-35331-3}}
* {{cite journal |author1-linkJaap Mansfeld |last1Mansfeld |first1J. |titleThe Chronology of Anaxagoras' Athenian Period and the Date of His Trial |journalMnemosyne |date1979 |volume32 |issue1/2 |pages39–69 |doi10.1163/156852579X00219 |jstor4430850 |issn0026-7074}}
* {{cite journal |lastMansfield |firstJ. |titleThe Chronology of Anaxagoras' Athenian Period and the Date of His Trial |journalMnemosyne |volume33 |issue1–2 |year1980 |pages17–95 |doi=10.1163/156852580X00271}}
* {{cite book |lastSandywell |firstBarry |titlePresocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse, c. 600–450 BC |volume3 |locationLondon |publisherRoutledge |year=1996}}
* {{cite book |lastSchofield |firstMalcolm |titleAn Essay on Anaxagoras |urlhttps://archive.org/details/essayonanaxagora0000scho |url-accessregistration |locationCambridge |publisherCambridge University Press |year1980 |isbn=978-0-521-22722-3 }}
* {{cite journal |lastTaylor |firstA.E. |titleOn the Date of the Trial of Anaxagoras |journalClassical Quarterly |volume11 |year1917 |pages81–87 |doi10.1017/S0009838800013094 |issue2 |s2cid170595550 |id{{zenodo|1428584}} |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1428584 }}
* Taylor, C. C. W. (ed.) (1997). Routledge History of Philosophy: From the Beginning to Plato, Vol. I, pp.&nbsp;192–225, {{ISBN|0-415-06272-1}}
* Teodorsson, Sven-Tage (1982). ''Anaxagoras' Theory of Matter. Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, Göteborg, Sweden, {{ISBN|91-7346-111-3}}
* Torrijos-Castrillejo, David (2014) [https://books.google.com/books?idw37CAwAAQBAJ Anaxágoras y su recepción en Aristóteles]{{Dead link|dateJune 2024 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}. Romae: EDUSC, {{ISBN|978-88-8333-325-5}} {{in lang|es}}
* {{cite book |last1Warren |first1James |titlePresocratics |chapterAnaxagoras |date2007 |publisherAcumen |locationStocksfield |isbn978-1-84465-391-1 |pages=119–134}}
* {{cite book |lastWright |firstM.R. |titleCosmology in Antiquity |locationLondon |publisherRoutledge |year1995}}
* Zeller, A. (1881). A History of Greek Philosophy: From the Earliest Period to the Time of Socrates'', Vol. II, translated by S. F. Alleyne, pp.&nbsp;321–394
{{refend}}
External links
{{Commons category|Anaxagoras}}
{{Wikiquote|Anaxagoras}}
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/anaxagor Anaxagoras] entry by Michael Patzia in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{MacTutor Biography | id=Anaxagoras}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101212042713/http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/burnet/egp.htm?chapter=6#124 Translation and Commentary] from John Burnet's Early Greek Philosophy.
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Anaxagoras}}
* {{Librivox author |id=8590}}
{{Ancient Greek mathematics}}
{{Greek schools of philosophy}}
{{Ancient Greece topics |state=autocollapse}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:500s BC births
Category:420s BC deaths
Category:5th-century BC Greek philosophers
Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians
Category:Ancient Greek physicists
Category:Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire
Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of mind
Category:Ancient Greek metaphysicians
Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy
Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens
Category:Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire
Category:Natural philosophers
Category:People from Clazomenae
Category:Philosophers of ancient Ionia
Category:Pluralist philosophers
Category:5th-century BC mathematicians
Category:Greek exiles
Category:Ancient Greeks accused of sacrilege
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.455382
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1738
|
Anaxarchus
|
Anaxarchus (; ; c. 380 – c. 320 BC) was a Greek philosopher of the school of Democritus. Together with Pyrrho, he accompanied Alexander the Great into Asia. The reports of his philosophical views suggest that he was a forerunner of the Greek skeptics.
Life
Anaxarchus was born at Abdera in Thrace. He was the companion and friend of Alexander the Great in his Asiatic campaigns. His relationship with Alexander, however, was ambiguous, owing to contradictory sources. Some paint Anarxchus as a flatterer, among them Plutarch, who tells a story that at Bactra, in 327 BC in a debate with Callisthenes, Anaxarchus advised all to worship Alexander as a god even during his lifetime. In contrast, others paint Anaxarchus as scathingly ironic towards the monarch.
When Alexander was trying to show that he was divine so that the Greeks would perform proskynesis to him, Anaxarchus said that Alexander could "more justly be considered a god than Dionysus or Heracles" (Arrian, 104)
Diogenes Laertius says that Anaxarchus earned the enmity of Nicocreon, the tyrant of Cyprus, with an inappropriate joke against tyrants in a banquet in Tyre in 331 BC.
Philosophy
Very little is known about his philosophical views. It is thought that he represents a link between the atomism of Democritus, and the skepticism of his own apprentice Pyrrho. He also shares ethical traits with the Cynic and Cyrenaic schools.
Anaxarchus is said to have studied under Diogenes of Smyrna, who in turn studied under Metrodorus of Chios, who used to declare that he knew nothing, not even the fact that he knew nothing. It was under the influence of Anaxarchus that Pyrrho is said to have adopted "a most noble philosophy, . . . taking the form of agnosticism and suspension of judgement." Anaxarchus is said to have praised Pyrrho's "indifference and sang-froid." He is said to have possessed "fortitude and contentment in life," which earned him the epithet eudaimonikos ("fortunate").
References
External links
Category:4th-century BC Greek philosophers
Category:Abderites
Category:Ancient Greek atomist philosophers
Category:Ancient Thracian Greeks
Category:Hellenistic-era philosophers
Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great
Category:Ancient Skeptic philosophers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxarchus
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.461096
|
1740
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Ancyra (planthopper)
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{{Short description|Genus of true bugs}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|image=Ancyra Cambodia 2010.jpg
|image_caption=Head facing left; long filaments on wing tips, giving the appearance of a head facing right with antennae (in Cambodia)
|parent_authority=Schmidt, 1908
|taxon=Ancyra
|authority=White, 1845
|type_species=Ancyra appendiculata
|type_species_authority=White, 1845
}}
Ancyra is a small genus of planthoppers of the family Eurybrachidae and the only genus in the tribe Ancyrini. Species in this genus occur in southeast Asia.{{r|flow}}
Description
Members of the genus are well known for having a pair of prolonged filaments at the tips of the forewings that arise near a pair of small glossy spots; this creates the impression of a pair of antennae, with corresponding "eyes" (a remarkable case of automimicry).{{r|wickler1968}} The "false head" effect is further reinforced by the bugs' habit of walking backwards when it detects movement nearby, so as to misdirect predators to strike at its rear, rather than at its actual head.
Taxonomy
The genus Ancyra was first named in 1845 by Scottish zoologist Adam White.{{r|white1845|flow}} It is the only genus of the tribe Ancyrini (subfamily Platybrachinae, family Eurybrachidae).{{r|flowtribe}} The type species is Ancyra appendiculata, the species name meaning bearing appendages.{{r|flow|harris}}
Species
{{As of|2020}}, lists the following seven species in the genus Ancyra:{{r|flow}}
*Ancyra annamensis {{small|Schmidt, 1908}} – Vietnam
*Ancyra appendiculata {{small|White, 1845}} – Myanmar
*Ancyra histrionica {{small|Stål, 1863}} – Cambodia, Myanmar
*Ancyra luangana {{small|Lallemand, 1928}}
*Ancyra nigrifrons {{small|Schmidt, 1908}} – Malaysia
*Ancyra vicina {{small|Lallemand, 1928}} – Vietnam
*Ancyra xiengana {{small|Lallemand, 1928}}
References
{{Reflist|refs<ref nameflow>Bourgoin Th. 2019. [https://www.hemiptera-databases.org/flow/?pageexplorer&dbflow&langen&cardtaxon&rankgenus&id5233 Ancyra White, 1845]. FLOW (Fulgoromorpha Lists on The Web): a world knowledge base dedicated to Fulgoromorpha. Version 8. Accessed 30 August 2020.</ref>
<ref nameflowtribe>Bourgoin Th. 2019. [https://www.hemiptera-databases.org/flow/?pageexplorer&dbflow&langen&cardtaxon&ranktribe&id=19736 Ancyrini Schmidt, 1908]. FLOW (Fulgoromorpha Lists on The Web): a world knowledge base dedicated to Fulgoromorpha. Version 8. Accessed 30 August 2020.</ref>
<ref nameharris>{{cite book |last1Harris |first1James G. |last2Harris |first2Melinda Woolf |titlePlant identification terminology: an illustrated glossary |date2001 |publisherSpring Lake Pub |locationSpring Lake, Utah |isbn9780964022164 |edition=Second}}</ref>
<ref name=white1845>White A. 1845. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2248355#page/58/mode/1up Descriptions of a new genus and some new species of Homopterous Insects from the East in the collection of the British Museum]. Annals and Magazine of Natural History. London 15: 34-37 [34].</ref>
<ref name=wickler1968>Wickler, W. 1968. Mimicry in plants and animals. McGraw-Hill, New York</ref>
}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q4753273}}
Category:Fauna of Southeast Asia
Category:Eurybrachidae
Category:Auchenorrhyncha genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancyra_(planthopper)
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.466290
|
1743
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Anastasius II
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Anastasius II or Anastasios II may refer to:
Pope Anastasius II (died 498), pope
Anastasius II of Antioch (550–609), patriarch of Antioch
Anastasius II of Jerusalem, patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem in 705–706
Anastasios II (died 719), Byzantine emperor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastasius_II
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.471935
|
1746
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Anaximenes of Lampsacus
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Anaximenes of Lampsacus (; ; 320 BC) was a Greek rhetorician and historian. He was one of the teachers of Alexander the Great and accompanied him on his campaigns.
Rhetorical works
Anaximenes was a pupil of Diogenes the Cynic and Zoilus and, like his teacher, wrote a work on Homer. As a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of Isocrates and his school. He is generally regarded as the author of the Rhetoric to Alexander, an Art of Rhetoric included in the traditional corpus of Aristotle's works. Quintilian seems to refer to this work under Anaximenes' name in Institutio Oratoria 3.4.9, as the Italian Renaissance philologist Piero Vettori first recognized. This attribution has, however, been disputed by some scholars.
The hypothesis to Isocrates' Helen mentions that Anaximenes, too, had written a Helen, "though it is more a defense speech (apologia) than an encomium," and concludes that he was "the man who has written about Helen" to whom Isocrates refers (Isoc. Helen 14). Jebb entertained the possibility that this work survives in the form of the Encomium of Helen ascribed to Gorgias: "It appears not improbable that Anaximenes may have been the real author of the work ascribed to Gorgias."
According to Pausanias (6.18.6), Anaximenes was "the first who practised the art of speaking extemporaneously." He also worked as a logographer, having written the speech prosecuting Phryne according to Diodorus Periegetes (quoted by Athenaeus XIII.591e). The "ethical" fragments preserved in Stobaeus' Florilegium may represent "some philosophical book." The Letter of Philip (speech 12) to which speech 11 seems to respond may also be by Anaximenes, or it may be an authentic letter by Philip, perhaps written with the aid of his advisers.
Anaximenes was hostile to Theopompus, whom he sought to discredit with a libelous parody, Trikaranos, published in Theopompus' style and under his name, attacking Athens, Sparta, and Thebes.
Pausanias wrote: "He imitated the style of Theopompus with perfect accuracy, inscribed his name upon the book and sent it round to the cities. Though Anaximenes was the author of the treatise, hatred of Theopompus grew throughout the length of Greece."
Plutarch criticizes Anaximenes, together with Theopompus and Ephorus, for the "rhetorical effects and grand periods" these historians implausibly gave to men in the midst of urgent battlefield circumstances (Praecepta gerendae reipublicae 803b).
Saving Lampsacus
The people of Lampsacus were pro-Persian, or were suspected of doing so and Alexander was furiously angry, and threatened to do them massive harm. They sent Anaximenes to intercede for them. Alexander knew why he had come, and swore by the gods that he would do the opposite of what he would ask, so Anaximenes said, 'Please do this for me, your majesty: enslave the women and children of Lampsacus, burn their temples, and raze the city to the ground.' Alexander had no way round this clever trick, and since he was bound by his oath he reluctantly pardoned the people of Lampsacus.
Statue at Olympia
The people of Lampsacus dedicated a statue of him at Olympia, Greece.
Editions and translations
Art of Rhetoric
edited by Immanuel Bekker, Oxford 1837 (online)
Anaximenis ars rhetorica, L. Spengel (ed.), Leipzig, Vergsbureau, 1847.
Rhetores Graeci, L. Spengel (ed.), Lipsiae, sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1853, vol. 1 pp. 169-242.
edited by Manfred Fuhrmann, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, 1966, 2nd ed. 2000,
edited by Pierre Chiron, Collection Budé, with French translation, Paris, 2002,
anonymous translation, London, 1686 (online)
translated by E.S. Forster, Oxford, 1924 (online, beginning on p. 231)
Fragments
Karl Müller, appendix to 1846 Didot edition of Arrian, Anabasis et Indica (online)
Felix Jacoby, Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, no. 72, with commentary in German
Ludwig Radermacher, Artium Scriptores, Vienna, 1951, pp. 200–202 (rhetorical fragments only, adding Philodemus' Rhetorica, which accounts for three of the nine fragments printed)
Notes
References
Category:Ancient Greek rhetoricians
Category:People from Lampsacus
Category:380s BC births
Category:320 BC deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:Year of death uncertain
Category:4th-century BC historians
Category:4th-century BC writers
Category:4th-century BC poets
Category:Historians who accompanied Alexander the Great
Category:Historians from Hellenistic Anatolia
Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great
Category:4th-century BC Greek philosophers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Lampsacus
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.486892
|
1747
|
Anastasius
|
Anastasius (Latinized) or Anastasios () is a masculine given name of Greek origin derived from the Greek word (anastasis) meaning "resurrection". Its female form is Anastasia (). A diminutive form of Anastasios is Tassos () or Tasos ().
People
Byzantine emperors
Anastasius I Dicorus, reign 491–518
Anastasios II (died 719), reign 713–715
Popes of Rome
Pope Anastasius I, papacy 399–401
Pope Anastasius II, papacy 496–498
Pope Anastasius III, papacy 911–913
Pope Anastasius IV, papacy 1153–1154
Other Christian saints and clergy
Saint Anastasius, martyr under Nero
Saint Anastasius the Fuller (died 304), martyr and patron saint of fullers and weavers
( 263–11 May 305)
Anastasius of Jerusalem, patriarch of the Church of Jerusalem from 458 to 478
Anastasius of Suppentonia (died 570), abbot
Pope Anastasius of Alexandria, Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria 605–616
Anastasius of Antioch (disambiguation), multiple people
Saint Anastasius of Persia (died 628), Persian martyr
Saint Anastasius of Pavia (died 680), bishop of Pavia
Anastasius of Armenia, successor of Nerses III the Builder as Catholicos of Armenia from 661 to 667
Saint Anastasius Sinaita (fl. 7th century), theologian, Father of the Eastern Orthodox Church, monk, priest, and abbot of the monastery at Mt. Sinai
Anastasius (abbot of Euthymius) (fl. 8th century)
Patriarch Anastasius of Constantinople, Patriarch of Constantinople 730–754
Anastasius Bibliothecarius ( 810–878), librarian of the Church of Rome, scholar and statesman, sometimes identified as an Antipope
Astrik or Saint Anastasius of Pannonhalma, ambassador of Stephen I of Hungary
Anastasius, Cardinal-priest of the title of San Clemente, 1102–c.1125
Anastasius Germonius (1551–1627), Archbishop of Tarantaise and canon lawyer
Anastasius Crimca ( 1550–1629), Moldavian Eastern Orthodox clergyman, calligrapher, illuminator and writer
Anastasius the Melodist (Hymnographer), believed to be a name of three or more melodists, one of whom is believed to have been a contemporary of Rhomanos
Joseph Wenzel Franz Anastasius (1767–1842), Prince of the House of Liechtenstein, priest and general in the Austrian army
Anastasius Hartmann (1803–1886), Capuchin, missionary in India and Titular Bishop and Vicar Apostolic of Patna and Bombay
Anastasius Gribanovsky (1873–1965), hierarch of the Russian Orthodox Church and First Hierarch of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia
Anastasios (1929–2025), Greek Orthodox Archbishop of Tirana, Durrës and All Albania
Politicians and military
Anastasios Balkos (1916–1995), Greek politician
Anastasios Charalambis (1862–1949), Greek officer and interim Prime Minister of Greece
Anastasios Dalipis (1896–1949), Greek Army officer and politician
Anastasios Karatasos (1764–1830), Greek military commander during the Greek War of Independence
Anastasios Londos (1791–1856), Greek politician and senator
Anastasios Nerantzis (1944–2021), Greek politician
Anastasios Papaligouras (born 1948), Greek politician
Anastasios Papoulas (1857–1935), Greek general during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922
Anastasios Peponis (1924–2011), Greek politician
Anastasios Polyzoidis (1802–1873), Greek politician and judicial official
Anastasios Tsamados (1774–1825), Greek admiral of the Greek War of Independence
Anastasios Pichion (1836–1913), Greek educator and revolutionary of the Macedonian Struggle
Anastasios Andreou (1877–1947), Cypriot athlete and volunteer in the Greek army for the Greco-Turkish war of 1897
Anastasios Voulgaris (died 1839), Bulgarian-born Greek revolutionary during the Greek War of independance
Anastasios Manakis ( 1790–1864), Greek revolutionary of the Greek War of Independence
Anastasios Christopoulos (1805-1854), Greek lawyer and revolutionary of the Greek War of Independence
Anastasios Mavromichalis (1798–1870), Greek revolutionary of the Greek War of Independence and polititian
Anastasios Kourakis (1948–2021), Greek politician, pediatrician and geneticist
Anastasios Mitropoulos (born 1957), Greek footballer and politician
Anastasios Chatzivasileiou (born 1981), Greek politician
Anastasios Giannitsis (born 1944), Greek politician, academic and business executive
Joseph Wenzel Franz Anastasius (1767–1842), Prince of the House of Liechtenstein, priest and general in the Austrian army
Anastasius Fétul (1816-1886), Moldavian and Romanian physician, naturalist, philanthropist and political figure
Sports
Anastasios Bountouris (born 1955), Greek Olympic medalist in sailing
Anastasios Dimitriadis (born 1997), Greek footballer
Anastasios Lagos (born 1992) Greek footballer
Anastasios Metaxas (1862–1937), Greek sport shooter and architect
Anastasios Rousakis (born 1985), Greek footballer
Anastasios Schizas (born 1977), Greek water polo player
Anastasios Triantafyllou (born 1987), Greek weightlifter
Anastasios Vatistas (born 1945), Greek sailor
Anastasios Chatzigiovanis (born 1997), Greek footballer
Anastasios Gousis (born 1979), Greek sprinter
Anastasios Kritikos (born 1995), Greek footballer
Anastasios Sidiropoulos (born 1979), Greek football referee
Anastasios Bavelas (born 1968), Greek tennis player
Anastasios Anastasopoulos (1915–1981), Greek chess player
Anastasios Theodorakis (1902-unknown), Greek water polo player
Anastasios Gavrilis (born 1952), Greek sailor
Anastasios Kakos (born 1970), Greek football referee
Anastasios Papanastasiou (born 1964), Greek water polo player
Anastasios Vogiatzis (born 1936), Greek sailor
Anastasios Christofileas (born 1988), Greek footballer
Anastasios Karagiozis (born 1997), Greek footballer
Anastasios Andreou (1877-1947), Greek Cypriot athlete and soldier in the Greco-Turkish war of 1897
Anastasios Papachristos (born 1993), Greek footballer
Anastasios Tsiou, Greek Paralympian athlete
Anastasios Tsikaris (born 1966), Greek water polo player
Anastasios Kissas (born 1988), Cypriot footballer
Anastasios Salonidis (born 1979), Greek footballer
Anastasios Pastos (born 1978), Greek footballer
Anastasios Katsabis (born 1973), Greek footballer
Anastasios Papakonstantinou (born 1963), Greek bobsledder
Anastasios Mousidis (1934–2010), Greek wrestler
Anastasios Tselios (born 2002), Greek footballer
Anastasios Bakasetas (born 1993), Greek footballer
Anastasios Sapountzis (born 2002), Greek footballer
Anastasios Dentsas (born 1982), Greek footballer and coach
Anastasios Douvikas (born 1999), Greek footballer
Anastasios Lordos (born 1949), Cypriot sport shooter
Anastasios Donis (born 1996), Greek footballer
Anastasios Triantafyllou (born 1979), Greek footballer
Anastasios Vasiliadis (born 1974), Greek tennis player
Anastasios Kantoutsis (born 1994), Greek footballer
Anastasios Papazoglou (born 1988), Greek footballer
Anastasios Meletidis (born 1999), Greek footballer
Anastasios Karakoutsis (born 1983), Greek footballer
Anastasios Tsoumagas (born 1991), Greek footballer
Anastasios Avlonitis (born 1990), Greek footballer
Anastasios Venetis (born 1980), Greek footballer
Anastasios Antonakis (born 1992), Greek basketball player
Anastasios Karamanos (born 1990), Greek footballer
Anastasios Kyriakos (born 1978), Greek footballer
Anastasios Zarkadas (born 1994), Greek footballer
Anastasios Kritikos (born 1914), Greek footballer
Anastasios Pantos (born 1976), Greek footballer
Anastasios Spyropoulos (born 1995), Greek basketball player
Anastasios Tsokanis (born 1991), Greek footballer
Anastasios Markopoulos (born 1949), Greek basketball player and coach
Anastasios Dimas (born 1988), Greek basketball player
Anastasios Mitropoulos (born 1957), Greek footballer and politician
Other people named Anastasius
Anastasius the jurist (fl. 5th or 6th century), Roman jurist
Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Moschianus Probus Magnus (fl. 6th century), Byzantine statesman
Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Sabinianus Pompeius (fl. 6th century), Byzantine statesman
Anastasius of Samaria (fl. 6th century), Byzantine official
Johann Anastasius Freylinghausen (1670–1739), German theologian and scholar
Anastasius Fétul (1816-1886), Moldavian and Romanian physician, naturalist, philanthropist and political figure
Anastasius Nordenholz (1862-1953), German-Argentine author
Other people named Anastasios
Anastasios Michail ( 1675-1722), Greek scholar
Anastasios Koulouriotis (1822–1887), Arvanite Greek writer
Anastasios Tagis (1839-1900), Greek scholar and philological teacher
Anastasios Christomanos (1841-1906), Greek chemist
Anastasios Metaxas (1862-1937), Greek architect and sport shooter
Anastasios Orlandos (1887–1979), Greek archeologist and architect
Anastasios George Leventis (1902-1975), Greek Cypriot businessman
Anastasios Christodoulou (1932-2002), Greek Cypriot university administrator
Anastasios Venetsanopoulos (1941-2014), Greek-Canadian engineer
Anastasios Kyriakides (born 1946), Greek-American businessman
Anastasios Bakirtzis (born 1956), Greek electrical and computer engineer
George Anastasios Magalios (born 1967), Greek-Canadian artist
Anastasios "Sakis" Rouvas (born 1972), Greek singer, actor and businessman
Anastasios Isaac (1972-1996), Greek Cypriot refugee murdered during a demonstration
Anastasios Tsonis, Greek-American atmospheric scientist
Anastasios Soulis (born 1987), Swedish actor
Anastasios Nyfadopoulos (born 1992), Greek artist
Anastasios Melis, Greek-American biologist
Anastasios John Kanellopoulos, Greek-American eye surgeon
Pseudonym
Anton Alexander Graf von Auersperg (1806–1876), Austrian poet who wrote under the pseudonym of Anastasius Grün
Other
Anastasius, a 19th-century novel by Thomas Hope
See also
Anastasia
Anastasio
Anastacio (name)
Category:Given names of Greek language origin
Category:Greek masculine given names
Category:Masculine given names
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastasius
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.497684
|
1748
|
Anaximenes of Miletus
|
{{good article}}
{{Short description|Ancient Greek philosopher (c. 586 – c. 526 BC)}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| image = Anaximenes Milesius - Illustrium philosophorum et sapientum effigies ab eorum numistatibus extractae.png
|caption=Anaximenes of Miletus as imaginatively depicted, wearing a tainia, in a 16th-century engraving from Girolamo Olgiati
|image_size=160px
| region = Western philosophy
| era = Pre-Socratic philosophy
| name = Anaximenes of Miletus
| birth_date = {{circa|586/585 BC}}
| birth_place = Miletus, Ionian League
| death_date = {{circa|526/525 BC}} (aged {{circa}} 60)
| death_place=Miletus
| school_tradition = Ionian/Milesian school
| main_interests = Metaphysics<br>Natural philosophy
| notable_ideas = Air is the arche<br />Matter changes through rarefaction and condensation
}}
Anaximenes of Miletus ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|æ|k|ˈ|s|ɪ|m|ə|ˌ|n|iː|z}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος|translit=Anaximenēs ho Milēsios}}; {{circa|586/585|526/525 BC}}) was an Ancient Greek, Pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). He was the last of the three philosophers of the Milesian School, after Thales and Anaximander. These three are regarded by historians as the first philosophers of the Western world. Anaximenes is known for his belief that air is the arche, or the basic element of the universe from which all things are created. Little is known of Anaximenes's life and work, as all of his original texts are lost. Historians and philosophers have reconstructed information about Anaximenes by interpreting texts about him by later writers. All three Milesian philosophers were monists who believed in a single foundational source of everything: Anaximenes believed it to be air, while Thales and Anaximander believed it to be water and an undefined infinity, respectively. It is generally accepted that Anaximenes was instructed by Anaximander, and many of their philosophical ideas are similar. While Anaximenes was the preeminent Milesian philosopher in Ancient Greece, he is often given lower importance than the others in the modern day.
Anaximenes held that air could change into other forms through either rarefaction or condensation. Condensation would make the air denser, turning it into wind, clouds, water, earth, and finally stone. Rarefaction would make the air less dense as it eventually becomes fire. Anaximenes also developed a model of the Earth, describing it as a flat disc floating atop the air while the Sun and stars are also flat and float alongside it. He described the Sun as revolving around the Earth, causing it to be obscured by higher lands during the night. As one of the Milesian philosophers, Anaximenes was one of the earliest figures to develop science. He influenced many of the Pre-Socratic philosophers that succeeded him, such as Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, and Xenophanes. He also provided early examples of concepts such as natural science, physical change, and scientific writing.
Biography
Anaximenes was born {{Circa|586/585 BC}}.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p45}}{{Sfn|Dye|2014|pp74–75}} Surviving information about the life of Anaximenes is limited, and it comes primarily from what was preserved by Ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle and Theophrastus.{{Sfn|Algra|1999|p57}}{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p75}} According to Theophrastus, Anaximenes was the son of Eurystratus, an associate of the philosopher Anaximander, and lived in Miletus.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p174}} Anaximenes is recorded as becoming a student of Anaximander.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p45}} Anaximenes was likely also taught Homeric epics, Greek mythology, and Orphism, which may have influenced his philosophy through their portrayal of the classical elements.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p185}} It is considered likely that he and the other Milesian philosophers were wealthy, allowing them to dedicate time to philosophy.{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p75}}
Anaximenes's apparent instructor, Anaximander, was a Milesian philosopher who proposed that apeiron, an undefined and boundless infinity, is the origin of all things.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p45}} Anaximenes and Anaximander were two of the three Milesian philosophers, along with Thales. These were all philosophers from Miletus who were the first of the Ionian School.{{Sfn|Lindberg|2007|p28}} As the earliest known figures to have developed theories regarding the material origin of the world without a divine explanation, they are regarded as the first philosophers in the Western world.{{Sfn|Lindberg|2007|p29}} According to Diogenes Laertius, Anaximenes lived approximately from 585 to 524 BC.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p172}} Anaximenes is only known to have written one full text, which may have been a response to Anaximander's text On Nature.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p174}} It was described by Theophrastus as having a "simple and economical Ionic style".{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p75}} Anaximenes died {{Circa|526/525 BC}}.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p45}}{{Sfn|Dye|2014|pp74–75}}
Philosophy
{{See also|Classical element#Hellenistic philosophy}}
Air as the arche
What is known about Anaximenes's philosophy is what was preserved by later philosophers, particularly Aristotle and Theophrastus.{{Sfn|Lindberg|2007|p28}} According to their writings, each philosopher of the Milesian School was a material monist who sought to discover the arche ({{Langx|grc|wikt:ἀρχή|litbeginning, origin|linksno}}), or the one, underlying basis of all things.{{sfn|Lindberg|2007|p29}} This is generally understood in the context of a substance, though scholars have argued that this may be anachronistic by imposing the Aristotelian notion of substance theory on earlier philosophy.{{Sfn|Algra|1999|p57}} Anaximenes argued that the arche is air.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|pp175–176}} He described several basic elements that he considered to be manifestations of air, sorting them from least dense to most dense: fire, air, wind, clouds, water, earth, and stones. Philosophers have concluded that Anaximenes seems to have based his conclusions on naturally observable phenomena in the water cycle: the processes of rarefaction and condensation. He proposed that each substance is created by condensation to increase the density of air or by rarefaction to decrease it.{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p76}}{{Sfn|Graham|2006|p46}}{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p176}} The rarefaction process described by Anaximenes is often compared to felting.{{Sfn|Kočandrle|2019|p112}}
Temperature was of particular importance to Anaximenes's philosophy, and he developed an early concept of the connection between temperature and density. He believed that expanded air was thinner and therefore hotter while compressed air was thicker and therefore colder—although modern science has found the opposite to be true. He derived this belief from the fact that one's breath is warm when the mouth is wide while it is cold when the air is compressed through the lips.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p46}}{{Sfn|Algra|1999|p59}}
(1493)|220px]]
Anaximenes further applied his concept of air as the arche to other questions.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p180}} He believed in the physis, or natural world, rather than the theo'', or divine world.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p173}} Anaximenes considered air to be divine in a sense, but he did not associate it with deities or personification.{{Sfn|Algra|1999|p53}}{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p47}} He presented air as the first cause that propelled living systems, giving no indication that air itself was caused by anything.{{Sfn|Algra|1999|p53}}{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p176}} Anaximenes also likened the soul to air, describing it as something that is driven by breath and wills humans to act as they do.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|p47}} These beliefs draw a connection between the soul and the physical world, as they suggest that they are made of the same material, air.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p184}} From this, Anaximenes suggested that everything, whether it be an individual soul or the entire world, operates under the same principles in which things are held together and guided by the air.{{Sfn|Algra|1999|p59}} In Ancient Greek, the words for wind and for soul shared a common origin.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p47}}{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p=183}}
Anaximenes's philosophy was centered on a theory of change through ongoing cycles, defined by the movement of air.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|p45}}{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p180}} These cycles consisted of opposite forces interacting with and superseding one another. This is most prominently indicated in the weather and the seasons, which alternate between hot and cold, dry and wet, or light and dark.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|p45}} Anaximenes did not believe that any substance could be created or destroyed, only that it could be changed from one form to another.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|p49}} From this belief, he proposed a model in which the qualitative traits of a substance are determined by quantitative factors.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p46}}{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p180}}
Cosmology and weather
'' by the 16th-century Dutch engraver Cornelis Cort has a book labeled "Anaximenes" (bottom left).]]
Anaximenes believed that the universe was initially made entirely of air and that liquids and solids were then produced from it through condensation.{{Sfn|Martins|2020|p37}} He also used air to explain the nature of the Earth and the surrounding celestial bodies. He believed in a flat Earth that emerged as one of the first things to be condensed from air. This Earth is supported by the pressure of air underneath it to keep it afloat.{{Sfn|Dye|2014|pp74–75}}
Anaximenes considered celestial objects to be those which had separated from the Earth.{{Sfn|Kočandrle|2019|p102}} The philosophers who recorded Anaximenes's ideas disagree as to how he theorized this happened. He may have described them as evaporating or rarifying into fire.{{Sfn|Kočandrle|2019|pp103–104}} He is said to have compared the movement of the Earth, Sun, and stars to leaves floating in the wind, though he is also described as likening the stars to nails embedded in the sky. Some scholars have suggested that Anaximenes may have believed both models by distinguishing between planets and stars, which would make him the first person to do so.{{Sfn|Dye|2014|pp74–75}}{{Sfn|Kočandrle|2019|p102}} While the Sun is described as being a flame, Anaximenes thought it was not composed of rarefied air like the stars, but rather of Earth. According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Anaximenes thought that its burning comes not from its composition, but rather from its rapid motion.{{Sfn|Kočandrle|2019|p=102}}
Anaximenes rejected the commonplace idea that the Sun went underneath the Earth, instead saying that it rotated around the Earth. Hippolytus likened it to a hat spinning around a person's head.{{Sfn|Couprie|2018|p99}} It's unknown whether this analogy was of Hippolytus's own creation or if it was part of Anaximenes's explanation.{{Sfn|Kočandrle|2019|p104}} This model of the sun's movement has been interpreted in various ways by subsequent philosophers.{{Sfn|Couprie|2018|pp99–130}}{{Sfn|Kočandrle|2019|pp105–106}}
Anaximenes also described the causes of other natural phenomena. Like Anaximander, he believed that thunder and lightning occurred when wind emerged after being trapped in a cloud.{{Sfn|Martins|2020|p37}} Earthquakes, he asserted, were the result of alternating drying and wetting of the earth, causing it to undergo a cycle of splitting and swelling.{{Sfn|Alexander|2020|locChapter 7}} He was the first philosopher to attempt a scientific explanation of rainbows, and the only one to do so until Aristotle. He described them as a reflection of sunlight off of clouds, and he theorized that the various colors were caused by an interaction of light and darkness.{{Sfn|Naylor|2023|p47}} Milesian context
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = Map of Asia minor. Millawanda is Miletus
| image2 =Western Asia Minor Greek Colonization.svg
| width2 = 215
| caption2 = Greek settlements in Ionia
}}
Anaximenes's views have been interpreted as reconciling those of his two predecessors, Thales and Anaximander. Air as the arche is a limitless concept, which resembled Anaximander's theory that the arche was the abstract infinite that he called apeiron ({{Langx|grc|ἄπειρον|linksno}}, lit. 'unlimited, 'boundless'). At the same time, air as the arche was a defined substance, which resembled the theory of Thales that the arche was water.<ref name":0">{{Harvnb|Algra|1999|p57}}</ref> Anaximenes adopted a similar design of a flat Earth as Thales. Both proposed that the Earth was flat and that it rested on the substance they believed made up all things; Thales described a disc on water, while Anaximenes described a disc on air.{{Sfn|Algra|1999|p55}}{{Sfn|Dye|2014|pp74–75}} His cosmology also did not diverge significantly from the ideas of Anaximander, only changing it so that it reflected his variety of monism.{{Sfn|Dye|2014|pp74–75}}{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p=76}}
Anaximenes's philosophy was founded upon that of Anaximander,{{Sfn|Dye|2014|pp74–75}} but tradition holds that he was also critical of his instructor in some areas.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p172}} Anaximenes also maintained that there must be an empirical explanation for why substances change from one form to another.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p=45}}
Anaximenes and Anaximander were similar in that they are not known to have justified why or how changes in physical things take place the way that they do.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|pp45–46}}{{Sfn|Algra|1999|p58}} Anaximander instead invoked metaphors of justice and retribution to describe change, and he made direct appeals to deities and the divine in support of his beliefs. Anaximenes deviated from Anaximander in both of these ideas.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|pp172–174, 179}}Legacy and study Influence on science and philosophy Anaximenes was the last of the Milesian philosophers, as Miletus was destroyed by attacking Persian forces in 494 BC.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p49}} Little of his life is known relative to the other Milesian philosophers, Thales and Anaximander.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p172}} These three philosophers together began what eventually became science in the Western world.{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p76}} In ancient Greece, the ideas of Anaximenes were well regarded in philosophy, popularized by various philosophers such as Diogenes of Apollonia, and had a greater presence than the ideas of his predecessors.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p181}} The other Milesian philosophers have since overshadowed him in the study of philosophy.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|p45}} Anaximenes was the first philosopher to give an explanation for substances changing from one state to another through a physical process.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p45}}{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p76}} He may also have been the first philosopher to write in descriptive prose rather than verse, developing a prototype of scientific writing.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p173}} Only fragments of Anaximenes's writings have been preserved directly, and it is unknown how much these fragments have diverged from the original texts as they were recorded by subsequent authors.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p177}} Further details of Anaximenes's life and philosophical views are obscure, as none of his work has been preserved, and he is only known through fragments and interpretations of him made by later writers and polemicists.{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p76}} The Anaximenes crater on the Moon is named in his honor.{{Sfn|Cocks|Cocks|1995|p13}}
Early medical practice developed ideas similar to Anaximenes, proposing that air was the basis of health in that it both provides life and carries disease.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p49}} Anaximenes's conception of air has been likened to the atoms and subatomic particles that make up all substances through their quantitative organization.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p46}} It has also been compared to the breath of life produced by God in the Old Testament.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p47}} His understanding of physical properties as quantitative differences that applied at individual and universal scales became foundational ideas in the development of natural science.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p46, 48}}{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p180}} He was the first philosopher to analogize his philosophy in practical terms, comparing the functions of the world to behaviors that can be observed in common activities.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p48}} In this manner, he was also the first to liken the function of the individual to that of the world. In this case, likening the breath that defines humans to the air that defines the world.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p47}} His belief that the same properties governed the world at a human scale and a universal scale was eventually proven by Isaac Newton.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p48}}
Subsequent interpretation
Some of Anaximenes's writings are referenced during the Hellenistic period, but no record of those documents currently exists.{{Sfn|Eisman|2007|p76}} Philosophers such as Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, and Diogenes of Apollonia were all directly influenced by the work of Anaximenes.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p181}} Diogenes of Apollonia adapted Anaximenes's ideas to the philosophy of Stoicism.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p49}} The ideas ridiculed in the Aristophanes play The Clouds originated from the ideas of Anaximander and Anaximenes.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p181}}{{Sfn|Martins|2020|p37}} Philosophers such as Xenophanes later adopted Anaximenes's model of cosmology.{{Sfn|Kočandrle|2019|p109}} Xenophanes's theory that the arche is earth and water has also been interpreted as a response to Anaximenes.{{Sfn|McKirahan|1994|pp=65–66}}
Plato referenced the concept of air as the cause of thought in the Phaedo, rejecting it with the argument that one's physical state does not determine their fate.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|pp47–48}} In the Timaeus, Plato favorably mentions Anaximenes's theory of matter and its seven states from stone to fire.{{Sfn|Graham|2015}} Aristotle was critical of the ideas of Anaximenes.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p174}} In his Metaphysics, Aristotle characterized Anaximenes and his predecessors as monists, those who believe that all things are composed of a single substance. This description came to be widely accepted in philosophy.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|pp49–50}} Practitioners of Aristotelian philosophy further considered Anaximenes to be a founder of naturalism.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p173}} After Aristotle, Theophrastus continued the doxography of the Milesian philosophers and other Ionians.{{Sfn|Graham|2006|pp49–50}} He described Anaximenes as a natural philosopher.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p174}} Other ancient philosophers who analyzed the work of Anaximenes include Simplicius, Aetius, Hippolytus, and Plutarch.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p=180}}
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said that Anaximenes was the first philosopher to transfer the ideas of natural philosophy into the philosophy of consciousness.{{Sfn|Sandywell|1995|p186}} Werner Heisenberg said that the philosophy of Anaximenes caused a setback in scientific understanding, as it moved analysis away from physical properties themselves.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|p49}} Karl Popper suggested that Anaximenes and Anaximander developed a philosophy of rationalist critique, allowing criticism of one's teacher, that was not revived until the Renaissance.{{Sfn|Vamvacas|2009|pp49–50}}References Citations {{reflist}} Sources * {{Cite book |lastAlexander |firstDavid |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idM7fjDwAAQBAJ |titleThe History of Geomorphology |publisherTaylor & Francis |year2020 |isbn9781000045789 |editor-lastTinkler |editor-firstK. J. |chapter'Extraordinary and terrifying metamorphosis' – on the seismic causes of slope instability}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|year1999|titleThe Beginning of Cosmology|encyclopediaThe Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy|publisherCambridge University Press|locationCambridge|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idl4m2GP9eJmIC|lastAlgra|firstK.|editor-lastLong|editor-firstA. A.|isbn0521446678}}
* {{cite book |last1Cocks |first1Elijah E. |urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780936389271 |titleWho's Who on the Moon: A Biographical Dictionary of Lunar Nomenclature |last2Cocks |first2Josiah C. |date1995 |publisherTudor Publishers |isbn=978-0-936389-27-1}}
* {{Cite book |lastCouprie |firstDirk L. |titleWhen the Earth Was Flat |publisherSpringer |year2018 |isbn978-3-319-97052-3}}
* {{Cite book |last1Diels |first1Hermann |titleDie Fragmente der Vorsokratiker |last2Kranz |first2Walther |publisherWeidmann |year=1985}}
* {{Citation |lastDye |firstJames |titleBiographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |date2014 |pages74–75 |chapterAnaximenes of Miletus |publisherSpringer New York |languageen |doi10.1007/978-1-4419-9917-7_49 |isbn9781441999160}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|year2007|titleAnaximenes of Miletus|encyclopediaAncient Greece: Volume 1|publisherSalem Press|locationPasadena|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ancientgreece0001unse/page/74/mode/2up|lastEisman|firstM. M.|editor-lastSienkewicz|editor-firstT. J.|pages75–77|isbn978-1-58765-282-0|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |lastGraham |firstDaniel W. |titleExplaining the Cosmos: The Ionian Tradition of Scientific Philosophy |publisherPrinceton University Press |year2006 |isbn9781400827459}}
* {{Cite journal |lastGraham |firstDaniel W. |date2015-12-30 |titlePlato and Anaximenes |urlhttp://journals.openedition.org/etudesplatoniciennes/706 |journalÉtudes Platoniciennes |languageen |issue12 |doi10.4000/etudesplatoniciennes.706 |issn2275-1785 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |jstor48563639 |titleThe Cosmology of Anaximenes |last1Kočandrle |first1Radim |journalHistory of Philosophy Quarterly |year2019 |volume36 |issue2 |pages101–120 |doi10.2307/48563639 |s2cid246623749|doi-accessfree }}
* {{cite book |lastLindberg |firstDavid C. |chapterThe Greeks and the Cosmos. |titleThe Beginnings of Western Science |locationChicago |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |year=2007}}
* {{Cite book |lastMartins |firstCarlos |titleThe Universe Today |publisherSpringer |year2020 |isbn978-3-030-49632-6}} <!-- isbn=9780226482057 for 2008 edition; can't find a 2007 edition online -->
* {{cite book |last1McKirahan |first1Richard D. |chapterXenophanes of Colophon|titlePhilosophy Before Socrates: An Introduction with Texts and Commentary |date1994 |publisherHackett Publishing Company |isbn978-0-87220-175-0 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5UvjwAEACAAJ |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEmtFGKmWa60C&pgPA58}}
* {{Cite book |lastNaylor |firstJohn |titleThe Riddle of the Rainbow |publisherSpringer |year2023 |isbn978-3-031-23908-3}}
* {{Cite book |lastSandywell |firstBarry |titlePresocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse c. 600-450 BC |publisherRoutledge |year1995 |isbn9780203424803}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2009 |titleAnaximenes of Miletus (ca. 585-525 B.C.) |encyclopediaThe Founders of Western Thought – The Presocratics |publisherSpringer |locationNew York |lastVamvacas |firstC. J. |pages45–51 |isbn9781402097911}}Further reading* {{Cite journal|lastBicknell|firstP. J.|titleAnaximenes' Astronomy |date1969|journalActa Classica|volume12|pages53–85|jstor=24591168}}
* {{Cite journal|lastClassen|firstC. J.|date1977|titleAnaximander and Anaximenes: The Earliest Greek Theories of Change?|journalPhronesis|volume22|issue2|pages89–102|doi10.1163/156852877X00010 |jstor4182008}}
* {{cite book|lastFreeman|firstKathleen|titleAncilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers|publisherHarvard University Press|year1978|isbn978-0-674-03500-3}}
* {{cite book|lastHurwit|firstJeffrey M.|titleThe Art and Culture of Early Greece, 1100–480 BC|locationIthaca, NY|publisherCornell University Press|year1985}}
* {{cite book|lastLuchte|firstJames|titleEarly Greek Thought: Before the Dawn|year2011|publisherBloomsbury Publishing|locationLondon|isbn=978-0567353313}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|year2004|titleThe Milesian School|encyclopediaA History of Western Philosophy|publisherRoutledge|locationAbingdon|lastRussell|firstB.|author-linkBertrand Russell|pages33–37|isbn9780415325059}}
* {{cite book|lastSandywell|firstBarry|titlePresocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse, c. 600-450 BC|volume3|locationLondon|publisherRoutledge|year1996|isbn0415101700}}
* {{cite book|lastStokes|firstM. C. |titleThe One and Many in Presocratic Philosophy|locationWashington, DC|publisherCenter for Hellenic Studies with Harvard University Press|year1971}}
* {{cite book|lastSweeney|firstLeo |titleInfinity in the Presocratics: A Bibliographical and Philosophical Study|locationThe Hague|publisherMartinus Nijhoff|year1972}}
* {{cite book|lastWright|firstM. R.|titleCosmology in Antiquity|locationLondon|publisherRoutledge|year1995|isbn9780415121835}}External links
{{Commons category|Anaximenes}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*{{Wikiquote inline}}
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/anaximen/ Anaximenes] at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://philosophy.gr/presocratics/anaximenes.htm Anaximenes of Miletus] Life and Work – Fragments and Testimonies by Giannis Stamatellos
{{Greek schools of philosophy}}
{{Ancient Greece topics|state=autocollapse}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Anaximenes Of Miletus}}
Category:6th-century BC Greek philosophers
Category:Ancient Milesians
Category:Philosophers of ancient Ionia
Category:Presocratic philosophers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.516539
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1749
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Ancus Marcius
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{{short description|King of Rome from c. 640 to 616 BC}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ancus Marcius
| image = Ancusmarciuscng10300642obverse.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| alt | caption Ancus Marcius depicted on a 57 BC denarius
| succession = King of Rome
| reign = {{circa}} 640–616 BC
| predecessor = Tullus Hostilius
| successor = Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
| birth_date | death_date
| issue | father Numa Marcius
| mother = Pompilia
}}
Ancus Marcius ({{IPA|la-x-classic|ˈaŋkʊs ˈmaːrkiʊs|lang|linkyes}}) was the legendary fourth king of Rome,<ref>{{Cite book|last1Kleijn|first1G. de|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYUrMAQAAQBAJ&qAncus+Marcius&pgPA59|titleIntegration in Rome and in the Roman World: Proceedings of the Tenth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Lille, June 23-25, 2011)|last2Benoist|first2Stéphane|date2013-10-17|publisherBRILL|isbn978-90-04-25667-5|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastDyer|firstThomas Henry|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idV91rG-B4HCsC&qAncus+Marcius&pgPA222|titleThe History of the Kings of Rome: With a Prefatory Dissertation on Its Sources and Evidence|date1868|publisherBell and Daldy|isbn978-0-8046-1199-2|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastDuncan|firstMike|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3ZSzDQAAQBAJ&qAncus+Marcius|titleThe History of Rome: The Republic (Volume 1)|date2016-12-04|publisherLulu Press, Inc|isbn978-1-365-33131-2|languageen}}</ref> who traditionally reigned 24 years.<ref name":0" /> Upon the death of the previous king, Tullus Hostilius, the Roman Senate appointed an interrex, who in turn called a session of the assembly of the people who elected the new king.<ref name"Livy1:32"/> Ancus is said to have ruled by waging war as Romulus did, while also promoting peace and religion as Numa Pompilius did.<ref>{{Cite journal|titleVires/Robur/Opes and Ferocia in Livy's Account of Romulus and Tullus Hostilius|lastPenella|firstRobert J.|journal The Classical Quarterly|year 1990|volume 40|issue 1|pages 207–213|doi 10.1017/S0009838800026902|jstor 639321|s2cid170735500}}</ref>
Ancus Marcius was believed by many Romans to have been the namesake of the Marcii, a plebeian family.<ref>Niebuhr, [https://books.google.com/books?idPaEUAAAAYAAJ&pgPA301 The History of Rome, Volume 1], p. 301</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastEvans|firstJane DeRose|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2AsRrF3ej38C&qAncus+Marcius&pgPA139|titleThe Art of Persuasion: Political Propaganda from Aeneas to Brutus|date1992|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press|isbn978-0-472-10282-2|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastSmith|firstWilliam|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idok4pAAAAYAAJ&qAncus+Marcius&pgPA665|titleAbaeus-Dysponteus|date1890|publisherJ. Murray|language=en}}</ref>
{{Coin image box 1 double
| header | image Image:L. Marcius Philippus.jpg
| caption_left = O: diademed head of Ancus Marcius, lituus behind
ANCVS
| caption_right = R: equestrian statue on 5 arches of aqueduct (Aqua Marcia)
PHILIPPVS
A-Q-V-A-(MAR)
| width = 300
| footer = Silver denarius struck by Lucius Marcius Philippus in Rome 56 BC.
| position = right
| margin = 4
}}
Background
Ancus was the son of Marcius (himself the son of Rome's first pontifex maximus Numa Marcius<ref>E. Peruzzi Le origini di Roma I. La famiglia Firenze 1970 p. 142 ff.</ref>) and Pompilia (daughter of Numa Pompilius).<ref name"Livy1:32">Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 1:32</ref> Ancus Marcius was thus the grandson of Numa and therefore a Sabine.<ref>{{Cite book|lastBollacasa|firstDario|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqqHohTRJOUsC&qAncus+Marcius&pgPA25|titleThere Was a Time When Rome Was Ruled by Kings|date2009|publisherAuthorHouse|isbn978-1-4490-3674-4|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastLivy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id96mSDwAAQBAJ&qAncus+Marcius|titleTHE HISTORY OF ROME (Complete Edition in 4 Volumes)|date2018-11-02|publishere-artnow|isbn978-80-272-4456-0|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastLivy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfLdcGQyqcrcC&qAncus+Marcius|titleThe Early History of Rome|date2005-05-26|publisherPenguin UK|isbn978-0-14-196307-5|languageen}}</ref> According to Festus, Marcius was surnamed Ancus because of his crooked arm (ancus signifying "bent" in Latin).
First acts as King
According to Livy, Ancus's first act as king was to order the Pontifex Maximus to copy the text concerning the performance of public ceremonies of religion from the commentaries of Numa Pompilius to be displayed to the public on wooden tablets, so that the rites of religion should no longer be neglected or improperly performed.<ref name"Livy1:32"/><ref>{{Cite book|lastIhne|firstWilhelm|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3d3QAAAAMAAJ&qAncus+Marcius&pgPA43|titleThe History of Rome|date1871|publisherLongmans, Green, and Company|languageen}}</ref> When Tullus was king, he repealed the Numa-created religious edicts that had been in place before.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1Otis |first1Lise |titleThe Numan tradition and its uses in the literature Rome's 'Golden Age' |date2001 |id{{ProQuest|304770134}} |urlhttps://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/6682x566h }}</ref>War
]]
According to Livy, the accession of Ancus emboldened the Latin League, who assumed that the new king would follow the pious pursuit of peace adopted by his grandfather, Numa Pompilius. The Latins accordingly made an incursion on Roman lands, and gave a contemptuous reply to a Roman embassy seeking restitution for the damage. Ancus responded by declaring war on the Latins. Livy says that this event was notable as the first time that the Romans declared war by means of the rites of the fetials.<ref name="Livy1:32"/>
Ancus Marcius marched from Rome with a newly levied army and took the Latin town of Politorium (situated near the town of Lanuvium) by storm. Its residents were removed to settle on the Aventine Hill in Rome as new citizens, following the Roman traditions from wars with the Sabines and Albans. When the other Latins subsequently occupied the empty town of Politorium, Ancus took the town again and demolished it.<ref name="Livy1:33">Livy, Ab Urbe Condita'', 1:33</ref> The Latin villages of Tellenae and Ficana were also sacked and demolished.
The war then focused on the Latin town of Medullia. The town had a strong garrison and was well fortified. Several engagements took place outside the town and the Romans were eventually victorious. Ancus returned to Rome with a large amount of loot. More Latins were brought to Rome as citizens and were settled at the foot of the Aventine near the Palatine Hill, by the temple of Murcia.
Ancus Marcius incorporated the Janiculum into the city, fortifying it with a wall and connecting it with the city by a wooden bridge across the Tiber,<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inliney|wstitleAncus Marcius|volume1|page953}}</ref> the Pons Sublicius. To protect the bridge from enemy attacks, Ancus had the end that was facing the Janiculum fortified.<ref>{{Cite book|lastOgilvie|firstR.M.|titleA Commentary On Livy: Books 1-5|publisherOxford University Press|year1965|locationOxford: Clarendon; Toronto|pages137}}</ref> Ancus also took over Fidenea to expand Rome's influence across the Tiber.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Griffith |first1Alison B. |titleThe Pons Sublicius in Context: Revisiting Rome's First Public Work |journalPhoenix |date2009 |volume63 |issue3/4 |pages296–321 |doi10.1353/phx.2009.0025 |id{{ProQuest|747236391}} |jstor25747981 |s2cid163484984 }}</ref>
On the land side of the city he constructed the Fossa Quiritium, a ditch fortification. He also built Rome's first prison, the Mamertine prison.<ref name="Livy1:33"/>
He then extended the Roman territory, founding the port of Ostia,<ref>{{Cite book|lastBeard|firstMary|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyKL4CQAAQBAJ&qAncus+Marcius|titleSPQR: A History of Ancient Rome|date2015-11-09|publisherW. W. Norton & Company|isbn978-1-63149-125-2|languageen}}</ref> establishing salt-works around the port,<ref name"EB1911"/><ref>{{Cite book|lastBedoyere|firstGuy de la|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_rZ52tEMgg0C&qAncus+Marcius&pgPT204|titleThe Romans For Dummies|date2011-02-18|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|isbn978-1-119-99788-7|languageen}}</ref> and taking the Silva Maesia, an area of coastal forest north of the Tiber, from the Veientes.
He expanded the temple of Jupiter Feretrius to reflect these territorial successes.<ref name="Livy1:33"/>
According to a reconstruction of the Fasti Triumphales, Ancus Marcius celebrated at least one triumph, over the Sabines and Veientes.
Death and successor
Ancus Marcius is reported to have died of natural causes after a rule of 24 years.<ref name":0">Livy, ab urbe condita libri, I</ref> He had two sons, one of which would likely take the throne. A member of Ancus' court, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, ensured that Ancus' sons would be out of Rome so he could put together an election where he would gain the support of the Roman people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Penella |first1Robert J. |titleThe Ambitio of Livy's Tarquinius Priscus |journalThe Classical Quarterly |dateDecember 2004 |volume54 |issue2 |pages630–635 |id{{ProQuest|1035754534}} |doi=10.1093/clquaj/bmh068 }}</ref>
Ancus Marcius was succeeded by his friend Lucius Tarquinius Priscus,<ref>{{Cite book|lastBedoyere|firstGuy de la|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_rZ52tEMgg0C&qAncus+Marcius&pgPT204|titleThe Romans For Dummies|date2011-02-18|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|isbn978-1-119-99788-7|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|lastSchmitz|firstLeonhard|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3X0PAAAAYAAJ&qAncus+Marcius&pgPA36|titleA History of Rome: From the Earliest Times to the Death of Commodus, A.D. 192|date1847|publisherAllen, Morrill and Wardwell|languageen}}</ref> who was ultimately assassinated by the sons of Ancus Marcius.<ref>Livy, Ab Urbe Condita</ref> Later, during the Republic and the Empire, the prominent gens Marcia claimed descent from Ancus Marcius.References
{{reflist}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-reg | leg }}
{{s-bef | before= Tullus Hostilius }}
{{s-ttl | title King of Rome | years 642–617 BC }}
{{s-aft | after = Lucius Tarquinius Priscus }}
{{s-end}}
{{Kings of Rome}}
{{Roman religion}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Marcius, Ancus}}
Category:670s BC births
Category:610s BC deaths
Category:7th-century BC Romans
Category:7th-century BC monarchs
Category:Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid
Category:Kings of Rome
Ancus
Category:Year of birth unknown
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancus_Marcius
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.526905
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1750
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Andaman Islands
|
{{short description|Archipelago in the Bay of Bengal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Verification|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox islands
| name = Andaman Islands
| native_name = <!-- or local name to remove the "native name:" prefix -->
| sobriquet = <!-- or nickname -->
| image_name | image_size
| image_caption | image_alt
| image_map = Andaman Islands.PNG
| image_map_caption = Location in the Indian Ocean
| location = Bay of Bengal
| coordinates {{Coord|12|30|N|92|45|E|region:IN_type:isle|displayinline,title}}
| archipelago = Andaman and Nicobar Islands
| total_islands = 572
| major_islands = North Andaman Island, Little Andaman, Middle Andaman Island, South Andaman Island
| area_km2 = 6,408
| area_footnotes | rank
| length_km = <!-- or length m -->
| length_footnotes | width_km <!-- or width m -->
| width_footnotes | coastline_km <!-- or coastline m -->
| coastline_footnotes | elevation_m 732
| elevation_footnotes | highest_mount Saddle Peak
| country = {{IND}}
| country_admin_divisions_title = Union territory
| country_admin_divisions = Andaman and Nicobar Islands
| country_admin_divisions_title_1 | country_admin_divisions_1
| country_admin_divisions_title_2 | country_admin_divisions_2
| country_capital = Port Blair
| country_largest_city | country_largest_city_population
| country_leader_title | country_leader_name
| country1 = {{MMR}}
| country1_admin_divisions_title = Administrative region
| country1_admin_divisions = Yangon Region
| country1_admin_divisions_title_1 | country1_admin_divisions_1
| country1_capital_type | country1_capital Yangon
| demonym | population [http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_ani.html 343,125]
| population_as_of = 2011
| density_km2 = 48
| density_footnotes | ethnic_groups Bamar<br /> Indic<br>Dravidian<br />Jarawa<br />Onge<br />Sentinelese<br />Great Andamanese
| timezone1 = IST
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| timezone1_DST = {{nowrap|not observed}}
| utc_offset1_DST = +5:30
| website = {{URL|http://www.andaman.nic.in}}
| additional_info =
}}
The Andaman Islands ({{IPAc-en|'|æ|n|d|@|m|@|n}}) are an archipelago, made up of 200 islands, in the northeastern Indian Ocean about {{cvt|130|km}} southwest off the coasts of Myanmar's Ayeyarwady Region. Together with the Nicobar Islands to their south, the Andamans serve as a maritime boundary between the Bay of Bengal to the west and the Andaman Sea to the east. Most of the islands are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a Union Territory of India, while the Coco Islands and Preparis Island are part of the Yangon Region of Myanmar.
The Andaman Islands are home to the Andamanese, a group of indigenous people made up of a number of tribes, including the Jarawa and Sentinelese.<ref name"trained_news.au">{{cite news |titlePolice face-off with Sentinelese tribe as they struggle to recover slain missionary's body |urlhttps://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-updates/incidents/police-faceoff-with-sentinelese-tribe-as-they-struggle-to-recover-slain-missionarys-body/news-story/a88d3780059939a5e11ebcfb556327ac |access-date26 November 2018 |workNews.com.au |date26 November 2018 |archive-date26 November 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181126034539/https://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-updates/incidents/police-faceoff-with-sentinelese-tribe-as-they-struggle-to-recover-slain-missionarys-body/news-story/a88d3780059939a5e11ebcfb556327ac |url-statuslive }}</ref> While some of the islands can be visited with permits, entry to others, including North Sentinel Island, is banned by law. The Sentinelese are generally hostile to visitors and have had little contact with any other people. The Indian government and coast guard protect their right to privacy.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.andaman.gov.in/web/guest/indigenous-tribes|titleAndaman & Nicobar|websiteThe Internet Archive|publisherA&N Administration|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160611075752/http://www.and.nic.in/archives/andaman/tribes.php|archive-date11 June 2016|url-statusdead|access-date13 February 2017}}</ref>HistoryEtymologyIn the 13th century, the name of Andaman appears in Late Middle Chinese as ʔˠan<sup>H</sup> dɑ mˠan ({{lang|zh|晏陀蠻}}, pronounced yàntuómán in modern Mandarin Chinese) in the book Zhu Fan Zhi by Zhao Rukuo.<ref name"ZhuFanZhi">{{cite book |titleChau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese And Arab Trade in the Twelfth And Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chï |translator Friedrich Hirth |translator2William Woodville Rockhill |urlhttps://archive.org/details/cu31924023289345 |page[https://archive.org/details/cu31924023289345/page/n162 147] | year1911 | publisherSt. Petersburg, Printing office of the Imperial academy of sciences | quoteWhen sailing from lan-wu-li to si-lan, if the wind is not fair, ships maybe driven to a place called Yen-to-man. This is a group of two islands in the middle of the sea, one of them being large, the other small; the latter is quite uninhabited. ... The natives on it are of a colour resembling black lacquer; they eat men alive, so that sailors dare not anchor on this coast. }}</ref> In Chapter 38 of the book, Countries in the Sea, Zhao Rukuo specifies that going from Lambri (Sumatra) to Ceylan, an unfavourable wind makes ships drift towards the Andaman Islands.<ref name="ZhuFanZhi" /><ref>{{cite book
| title=Ser Marco Polo : notes and addenda to Sir Henry Yule's edition, containing the results of recent research and discovery
| author1=Cordier, Henri
| author2=Yule, Henry
| year=1920
| publisher=London: John Murray
| language=en
| url=https://archive.org/details/sermarcopolonote00cord
| page = [https://archive.org/details/sermarcopolonote00cord/page/109 109]
}}</ref>{{Better source needed|dateApril 2019}} In the 15th century, Andaman was recorded as "Andeman Mountain" (安得蠻山, pronounced āndémán shān in modern Mandarin Chinese) during the voyages of Zheng He in the Mao Kun map of the Wu Bei Zhi.<ref>{{cite web |titleWu Bei Zhi Map 17 |urlhttps://www.loc.gov/resource/g7821rm.gct00058/?sp17 |websiteLibrary of Congress |access-date1 August 2019 |archive-date21 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191221105843/https://www.loc.gov/resource/g7821rm.gct00058/?sp17 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Early inhabitants
The oldest archaeological evidence for the habitation of the islands dates to the 1st millennium BC. Genetic evidence suggests that the indigenous Andamanese peoples share a common origin, and that the islands were settled sometime after 26,000 years ago, possibly at the end of the Last Glacial Period, when sea levels were much lower reducing the distance between the Andaman Islands and the Asian mainland,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Chaubey |first1Gyaneshwer |last2Endicott |first2Phillip |dateJune 2013 |titleThe Andaman Islanders in a Regional Genetic Context: Reexamining the Evidence for an Early Peopling of the Archipelago from South Asia |urlhttps://bioone.org/journals/human-biology/volume-85/issue-1_2f_3/027.085.0307/The-Andaman-Islanders-in-a-Regional-Genetic-Context--Reexamining/10.3378/027.085.0307.full |journalHuman Biology |volume85 |issue1/3 |pages153–172 |doi10.3378/027.085.0307 |pmid24297224 |issn0018-7143}}</ref> with genetic estimates suggesting that the two main linguistic groups diverged around 16,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Sitalaximi |first1T. |last2Varghese |first2N. |last3Kashyap |first3V.K. |dateFebruary 2023 |titleGenetic differentiation of Andaman Islanders and their relatedness to Nicobar Islanders |urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2773044123000074 |journalHuman Gene |languageen |volume35 |pages201148 |doi10.1016/j.humgen.2023.201148}}</ref> Andamanese peoples are a genetically distinct group highly divergent from other Asians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Mondal |first1Mayukh |last2Casals |first2Ferran |last3Xu |first3Tina |last4Dall'Olio |first4Giovanni M |last5Pybus |first5Marc |last6Netea |first6Mihai G |last7Comas |first7David |last8Laayouni |first8Hafid |last9Li |first9Qibin |last10Majumder |first10Partha P |last11Bertranpetit |first11Jaume |dateSeptember 2016 |titleGenomic analysis of Andamanese provides insights into ancient human migration into Asia and adaptation |urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/ng.3621 |journalNature Genetics |languageen |volume48 |issue9 |pages1066–1070 |doi10.1038/ng.3621 |pmid27455350 |hdl10230/34401 |issn1061-4036|hdl-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Jinam |first1Timothy A. |last2Phipps |first2Maude E. |last3Aghakhanian |first3Farhang |last4Majumder |first4Partha P. |last5Datar |first5Francisco |last6Stoneking |first6Mark |last7Sawai |first7Hiromi |last8Nishida |first8Nao |last9Tokunaga |first9Katsushi |last10Kawamura |first10Shoji |last11Omoto |first11Keiichi |last12Saitou |first12Naruya |dateAugust 2017 |titleDiscerning the Origins of the Negritos, First Sundaland People: Deep Divergence and Archaic Admixture |urlhttp://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/9/8/2013/3952725/Discerning-the-Origins-of-the-Negritos-First |journalGenome Biology and Evolution |languageen |volume9 |issue8 |pages2013–2022 |doi10.1093/gbe/evx118 |issn1759-6653 |pmc5597900 |pmid28854687}}</ref>, who were depicted in a "book of wonders" produced in Paris in the early 15th century.]]Chola empireRajendra I took over the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/children/happy-in-havelock/article18376630.ece|titleHappy in Havelock|lastKrishnan|firstMadhuvanti S.|date4 May 2017|workThe Hindu|access-date4 November 2019|languageen-IN|issn0971-751X|archive-date22 December 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222085712/https://www.thehindu.com/children/happy-in-havelock/article18376630.ece|url-statuslive}}</ref> He used the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as a strategic naval base to launch an expedition against the Sriwijaya Empire. The Cholas called the island Ma-Nakkavaram ("great open/naked land"), found in the Thanjavur inscription of 1050 CE. European traveller Marco Polo (12th–13th century) also referred to this island as 'Necuverann' and a corrupted form of the Tamil name Nakkavaram would have led to the modern name Nicobar during the British colonial period.<ref name"goi1908">{{Cite journal|authorGovernment of India|year1908|titleThe Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Local Gazetteer|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrrwBAAAAYAAJ|publisherSuperintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta|quote... In the great Tanjore inscription of 1050 CE, the Andamans are mentioned under a translated name along with the Nicobars, as Nakkavaram or land of the naked people.}}</ref>British colonial eraIn 1789, the Bengal Presidency established a naval base and penal colony on Chatham Island in the southeast bay of Great Andaman. The settlement is now known as Port Blair (after the Bombay Marine lieutenant Archibald Blair who founded it). After two years, the colony was moved to the northeast part of Great Andaman and was named Port Cornwallis after Admiral William Cornwallis. However, there was much disease and death in the penal colony and the government ceased operating it in May 1796.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|pp957–958}}<ref name"olivierblaise">{{Cite journal | titleAndaman Islands, India | authorBlaise, Olivier | publisherPictureTank | urlhttp://www.picturetank.com/___/series/ff5d5b4d962b08bc130471b877292c58/en/Andaman_Isl.,_India_(1).html | access-date16 November 2008 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110715083143/http://www.picturetank.com/___/series/ff5d5b4d962b08bc130471b877292c58/en/Andaman_Isl.,_India_(1).html | archive-date15 July 2011 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
In 1824, Port Cornwallis was the rendezvous of the fleet carrying the army to the First Burmese War.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p958}} In the 1830s and 1840s, shipwrecked crews who landed on the Andamans were often attacked and killed by the natives and the islands had a reputation for cannibalism. The loss of the Runnymede and the Briton in 1844 during the same storm, while transporting goods and passengers between India and Australia, and the continuous attacks launched by the natives, which the survivors fought off, alarmed the British government.<ref>Kingston, W.H.G. (1873) Shipwrecks and Disasters at Sea. George Routledge and Sons, London.</ref> In 1855, the government proposed another settlement on the islands, including a convict establishment, but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a delay in its construction. However, because the rebellion led to the British holding a large number of prisoners, it made the new Andaman settlement and prison urgently necessary. Construction began in November 1857 at Port Blair using inmates' labour, avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp that seemed to have been the source of many of the earlier problems at Port Cornwallis.{{Citation needed|dateOctober 2023}}
The Battle of Aberdeen was fought on 17 May 1859 between the Great Andamanese tribe and the British. Today, a memorial stands in Andaman water sports complex as a tribute to the people who died in the battle. Fearful of British intentions and with help from an escaped convict from Cellular Jail, the Great Andamanese attacked the British settlement, but they were outnumbered and soon suffered heavy casualties. Later, it was identified that an escaped convict named Dudhnath Tewari had changed sides and informed the British about the tribe's plans.<ref name"Rapidiq">{{cite web|urlhttps://rapidiq.wordpress.com/2012/04/08/the-rise-and-the-fall-of-the-great-andamanese/|titleThe Rise and Fall of the Great Andamanese|workConfessions of a Linguist!|date8 April 2012|access-date16 January 2015|archive-date17 December 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141217192515/http://rapidiq.wordpress.com/2012/04/08/the-rise-and-the-fall-of-the-great-andamanese/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"One India">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.oneindia.com/2007/05/17/who-are-heroes-of-battle-of-aberdeen-1179405748.html|titleWho are heroes of Battle of Aberdeen?|workoneindia.com|date17 May 2007|access-date16 January 2015|archive-date9 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150709165627/http://www.oneindia.com/2007/05/17/who-are-heroes-of-battle-of-aberdeen-1179405748.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Andaman Sheekha">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.andamansheekha.com/2012/05/16/tribute-at-the-memorial-of-battle-of-aberdeen-today/|titleTribute at the Memorial of "Battle of Aberdeen" Today|authorsanjib|workandamansheekha.com|date15 May 2012|access-date16 January 2015|archive-date10 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150710012822/http://www.andamansheekha.com/2012/05/16/tribute-at-the-memorial-of-battle-of-aberdeen-today/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 1867, the merchantman Nineveh was wrecked on the reef of North Sentinel Island. The 86 survivors reached the beach in the ship's boats. On the third day, they were attacked with iron-tipped spears by naked islanders. One person from the ship escaped in a boat and the others were later rescued by a British Royal Navy ship.<ref name"Goodheart">{{cite news | urlhttp://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-28578579_ITM | workAmerican Scholar | titleThe Last Island of the Savages | date22 September 2000 | access-date14 June 2009 | archive-date22 May 2015 | archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20150522060225/https://www.questia.com/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
For some time, sickness and mortality were high, but swamp reclamation and extensive forest clearance continued. The Andaman colony became notorious with the murder of the Viceroy Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo, on a visit to the settlement (8 February 1872), by a Pathan from Afghanistan, Sher Ali Afridi. In the same year, the two island groups Andaman and Nicobar, were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=958}}
From the time of its development in 1858 under the direction of James Pattison Walker, and in response to the mutiny and rebellion of the previous year, the settlement was first and foremost a repository for political prisoners. The Cellular Jail at Port Blair, when completed in 1910, included 698 cells designed for solitary confinement; each cell measured {{convert|4.5|by|2.7|m|ft|0|abbron}} with a single ventilation window {{convert|3|m|ft|0}} above the floor.<ref>{{Cite web |lastTyagi |firstDitriksha |date2024-09-20 |titleThe Cellular Jail, Andaman and Nicobar Islands |urlhttps://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/case-studies/a13032-the-cellular-jail-andaman-and-nicobar-islands-2/ |access-date2024-12-27 |websiteRTF {{!}} Rethinking The Future |language=en-US}}</ref>
The Indians imprisoned here referred to the island and its prison as Kala Pani ("black water"),<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm |titleHistory of Andaman Cellular Jail |publisherAndamancellularjail.org |access-date14 May 2010 |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100209031136/http://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm |archive-date9 February 2010 }}</ref> named for kala pani, the Hindu proscription against traveling across the open sea. Incarceration on the Andamans thus threatened prisoners with the loss of their caste, and resultant social exclusion;<ref>{{Cite book |last1Bashford |first1Alison |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz72MP1zc4KgC&pgPA37 |titleIsolation: Places and Practices of Exclusion |last2Strange |first2Carolyn |date2004-06-04 |publisherTaylor & Francis |isbn978-0-203-40522-2 |languageen}}</ref> a 1996 film set on the island took that term as its title, Kaalapani.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://imdb.com/title/tt0255289/ |titleKala Pani (1996) |date12 April 1996 |publisherImdb.com |access-date14 May 2010 |archive-date12 November 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101112003713/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0255289/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The number of prisoners who died in this camp is estimated to be in the thousands.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.andamancellularjail.org/ListOfRevolutionaries.htm |titleAndaman Islands Political Prisoners |publisherAndamancellularjail.org |access-date14 May 2010 |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100906201654/http://www.andamancellularjail.org/ListOfRevolutionaries.htm |archive-date 6 September 2010 }}</ref> Many more died of harsh treatment and the strenuous living and working conditions in this camp.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.hindu.com/2005/12/21/stories/2005122107881100.htm |titleOpinion / News Analysis: Hundred years of the Andamans Cellular Jail |date21 December 2005|access-date14 May 2010 |locationChennai, India| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100511175419/http://www.hindu.com/2005/12/21/stories/2005122107881100.htm| archive-date11 May 2010 |newspaperThe Hindu | url-status= dead}}</ref>
The Viper Chain Gang Jail on Viper Island was reserved for extraordinarily troublesome prisoners and was also the site of hangings. In the 20th century, it became a convenient place to house prominent members of India's independence movement.<ref>{{Cite web |last|date13 April 2023 |orig-date13 April 2023 is from HTTP Last-Modified header; webpage says "Feb 25" with no year specified anywhere |titleDiscover the dark history of Viper Island : Where punishment was harsh and retribution was swift |urlhttps://www.exploreandaman.co.in/islands/dark-history-of-viper-island-andaman |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231016195141/https://www.exploreandaman.co.in/islands/dark-history-of-viper-island-andaman |archive-date2023-10-16 |access-date2023-10-16 |websiteExploreAndaman |publisherExplore Andaman |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleJail at Viper Island |urlhttps://www.mountainedge.in/Jail-at-viper-island-andman.php |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231016195237/https://www.mountainedge.in/Jail-at-viper-island-andman.php |archive-date2023-10-16 |access-date2023-10-16 |websiteMountain Edge Tours and Holidays Pvt. Ltd.}}</ref>Japanese occupationThe Andaman and Nicobar Islands were occupied by Japan during World War II.<ref>{{cite web|firstKlemen|lastL|urlhttps://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/andaman.html|titleThe capture of the Andaman Islands, March 1942|date1999–2000|workForgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942|access-date30 March 2021|archive-date26 July 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210726181150/https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/andaman.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> The islands were nominally put under the authority of the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (Provisional Government of Free India) headed by Subhas Chandra Bose, who visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as Shaheed (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). On 30 December 1943, during the Japanese occupation, Bose, who was allied with the Japanese, first raised the flag of Indian independence. General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army, was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which had been annexed to the Provisional Government. According to Werner Gruhl: "Before leaving the islands, the Japanese rounded up and executed 750 innocents."<ref>Gruhl, Werner (2007) ''[https://books.google.com/books?idow5Wlmu9MPQC&pgPA102 Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931–1945] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151209011823/https://books.google.com/books?idow5Wlmu9MPQC&pgPA102 |date9 December 2015 }}'', Transaction Publishers. {{ISBN|978-0-7658-0352-8}}. p. 102.</ref>Post-World War II
At the close of World War II, the British government announced its intention to shut down the penal settlement. The government proposed to employ former inmates in an initiative to develop the island's fisheries, timber, and agricultural resources. In exchange, inmates would be granted return passage to the Indian mainland, or the right to settle on the islands. J H Williams, one of the Bombay Burma Company's senior officials, was dispatched to perform a timber survey of the islands using convict labor. He recorded his findings in 'The Spotted Deer' (published in 1957 by Rupert Hart-Davis).
The penal colony was eventually closed on 15 August 1947 when India gained independence. It has since served as a museum to the independence movement.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/cellular-jail-india-integral-country-fight-freedom-independence-british-colony-andaman-and-nicobar-a7883691.html|titleHow India's Cellular Jail was integral in the country's fight for freedom|date11 August 2017|websiteThe Independent|languageen|access-date10 November 2019|archive-date10 November 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191110125549/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/cellular-jail-india-integral-country-fight-freedom-independence-british-colony-andaman-and-nicobar-a7883691.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Most of the Andaman Islands became part of the Republic of India in 1950 and was declared as a union territory of the nation in 1956, while the Preparis Island and Coco Islands became part of the Yangon Region of Myanmar in 1948.<ref>{{Cite book|lastPlanning Commission of India|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idujf2N5O4iKgC|titleAndaman and Nicobar Islands Development Report|publisherAcademic Foundation|year2008|isbn978-81-7188-652-4|editionillustrated|seriesState Development Report series|access-date12 March 2011|archive-date9 December 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151209011823/https://books.google.com/books?idujf2N5O4iKgC|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Late 20th Century – 21st century
Outside visits
In April 1998, American photographer John S. Callahan organised the first surfing project in the Andamans, starting from Phuket in Thailand with the assistance of Southeast Asia Liveaboards (SEAL), a UK owned dive charter company.{{Citation needed|dateMay 2014}} With a crew of international professional surfers, they crossed the Andaman Sea on the yacht Crescent and cleared formalities in Port Blair. The group proceeded to Little Andaman Island, where they spent ten days surfing several spots for the first time, including Jarawa Point near Hut Bay and the long right reef point at the southwest tip of the island, named Kumari Point. The resulting article in Surfer Magazine, "Quest for Fire" by journalist Sam George, put the Andaman Islands on the surfing map for the first time.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.surfermag.com/magazine/archivedissues/quest-for-fire |titleSurfer Explores The Andaman Islands |publisherSurfer Magazine |websiteSurfermag.com |date22 July 2010 |access-date28 December 2011 |archive-date19 August 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100819112026/http://www.surfermag.com/magazine/archivedissues/quest-for-fire/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Footage of the waves of the Andaman Islands also appeared in the film Thicker than Water, shot by documentary filmmaker Jack Johnson.{{Citation needed|dateMay 2014}} Callahan went on to make several more surfing projects in the Andamans, including a trip to the Nicobar Islands in 1999.{{Citation needed|dateMay 2014}}
In November 2018, John Allen Chau, an American missionary, traveled illegally with the help of local fishermen to the North Sentinel Island off the Andaman Islands chain group on several occasions, despite a travel ban to the island. He is reported to have been killed.<ref name"cnn.com">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2018/11/25/asia/missionary-john-chau-north-sentinel-island-sentinelese/index.html|titleIndian authorities struggle to retrieve US missionary feared killed on remote island|date25 November 2018|workCNN|access-date25 November 2018|languageen-US|archive-date25 November 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181125131356/https://www.cnn.com/2018/11/25/asia/missionary-john-chau-north-sentinel-island-sentinelese/index.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> Despite some relaxation introduced earlier in 2018 to the stringent visit permit system for the islands, North Sentinel Island was still highly protected from outside contact. Special permission to allow researchers and anthropologists to visit could be sought.<ref name"3tier 2018 toi">{{Cite news|last1Jain|first1Bharti |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/us-national-defied-3-tier-curbs-caution-to-reach-island/articleshow/66758172.cms|titleUS National Defied 3-tier Curbs & Caution to Reach Island |date23 November 2018 |workThe Times of India |access-date31 October 2021 |languageen |archive-date26 November 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181126001420/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/us-national-defied-3-tier-curbs-caution-to-reach-island/articleshow/66758172.cms |url-statuslive}}</ref> Chau had no special clearance and knew that his visit was illegal.<ref name"3tier 2018 toi"/><ref name"cnn.com"/>
Although a less restrictive system of approval to visit some of the islands now applies, with non-Indian nationals no longer required to obtain pre-approval with a Restricted Area Permit (RAP), foreign visitors must still show their passport at Immigration at Port Blair Airport and Seaport for verification. Citizens of Afghanistan, China and Pakistan, or other foreign nationals whose origin is any of these countries, {{em|are}} still required to obtain a RAP to visit Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Similarly, citizens of Myanmar who wish to visit Mayabunder or Diglipur must also apply for a RAP. In these cases, the permits must be pre-approved prior to arrival in Port Blair.<ref>{{cite web |last1Andaman and Nicobar Police |titleFor Foreign Tourists |urlhttps://police.andaman.gov.in/index.php/en/2013-10-13-13-21-25/foreigners/for-foreign-tourist.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181002164810/http://police.andaman.gov.in/index.php/en/2013-10-13-13-21-25/foreigners/for-foreign-tourist.html |url-statusdead |archive-date2 October 2018 |websitepolice.andaman.gov.in |access-date30 October 2021 |date29 June 2018 |quote... no RAP is required by foreigners to visit these islands, till 31.12.2022 }}</ref>
Natural disasters
On 26 December 2004, the coast of the Andaman Islands was devastated by a {{convert|10|m|ft|0|adjmid|-high}} tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which is the longest recorded earthquake, lasting for between 500 and 600 seconds.<ref>{{Cite book|titleGuinness Book of World Records 2014|lastGlenday|firstCraig|publisherThe Jim Pattison Group|year2013|isbn978-1-908843-15-9|pages[https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/015 015]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/015}}</ref> Strong oral tradition in the area warned of the importance of moving inland after a quake and is credited with saving many lives.<ref name"folklore">{{cite news |last1Bhaumik |first1Subir |titleTsunami folklore 'saved islanders' |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4181855.stm |access-date1 June 2024 |agencyBBC News |date20 January 2005}}</ref> In the aftermath, more than 2,000 people were confirmed dead and more than 4,000 children were orphaned or had lost one parent. At least 40,000 residents were rendered homeless and were moved to relief camps.<ref>{{cite book|titleSumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake and Tsunami of December 26, 2004|year2007|publisherASCE, Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering|locationReston, VA|isbn9780784409510|urlhttp://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id2147486137&productid5511|editor1Strand, Carl|editor2Masek, John|access-date12 July 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131024115815/http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id2147486137&productid5511|archive-date24 October 2013|url-statusdead}}</ref> On 11 August 2009, a magnitude 7 earthquake struck near the Andaman Islands, causing a tsunami warning to go into effect. On 30 March 2010, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake struck near the Andaman Islands.Geography and GeologyThe Andaman Archipelago is an oceanic continuation of the Burmese Arakan Yoma range in the north and of the Indonesian Archipelago in the south. It has 325 islands which cover an area of {{convert|6408|km2|0|abbron}},<ref name"Planning Commission Report"/> with the Andaman Sea to the east between the islands and the coast of Burma.<ref name"olivierblaise" /> North Andaman Island is {{convert|285|km}} south of Burma, although a few smaller Burmese islands are closer, including the three Coco Islands.
The Ten Degree Channel separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands to the south. The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle Peak at {{convert|732|m|abbron}}).<ref name"Planning Commission Report">{{cite book|titleAndaman and Nicobar Islands Development Report|seriesState Development Report series|authorPlanning Commission of India|editionillustrated|publisherAcademic Foundation|year2008|isbn978-81-7188-652-4|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idujf2N5O4iKgC|access-date15 November 2015|archive-date9 December 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151209011823/https://books.google.com/books?idujf2N5O4iKgC|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{rp|33}}
The geology of the Andaman islands consists essentially of Late Jurassic to Early Eocene ophiolites and sedimentary rocks (argillaceous and algal limestones), deformed by numerous deep faults and thrusts with ultramafic igneous intrusions.<ref name"tsu"/> There are at least 11 mud volcanoes on the islands.<ref name"tsu">Chakrabarti, P.; Nag, A.; Dutta, S. B.; Dasgupta, S. and Gupta, N. (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id5gEBfvCBclUC&pgPA42 S & T Input: Earthquake and Tsunami Effects...] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151209011823/https://books.google.com/books?id5gEBfvCBclUC&pgPA42 |date9 December 2015 }}, page 43. Chapter 5 in S. M. Ramasamy et al. (eds.), Geomatics in Tsunami, New India Publishing. {{ISBN|81-89422-31-6}}</ref> There are two volcanic islands, Narcondam Island and Barren Island, which have produced basalt and andesite. Barren Island is the only active volcano in the Indian sub-continent, with the latest eruption reported in December 2022, leading to the potential for geotourism.<ref>{{cite web| urlhttps://www.andamantourism.gov.in/capital.php| titleAndaman Tourism – Science Centre| access-date1 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| urlhttps://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn260010| titleGlobal Volcanism Program – Barren Island| access-date1 May 2023}}</ref>ClimateThe climate is typical of tropical islands of similar latitude. It is always warm, but with sea breezes. Rainfall is irregular, usually dry during the north-east monsoons, and very wet during the south-west monsoons.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p956}}
Flora
The Middle Andamans harbour mostly moist deciduous forests. North Andamans is characterised by the wet evergreen type, with plenty of woody climbers.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}
The natural vegetation of the Andamans is tropical forest, with mangroves on the coast. The rainforests are similar in composition to those of the west coast of Burma. Most of the forests are evergreen, but there are areas of deciduous forest on North Andaman, Middle Andaman, Baratang and parts of South Andaman Island. The South Andaman forests have a profuse growth of epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids.
The Andaman forests are largely unspoiled, despite logging and the demands of the fast-growing population driven by immigration from the Indian mainland. There are protected areas on Little Andaman, Narcondam, North Andaman and South Andaman, but these are mainly aimed at preserving the coast and the marine wildlife rather than the rainforests.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|idim0101 |nameAndaman Islands rain forests|access-date=28 December 2011}}</ref> Threats to wildlife come from introduced species including rats, dogs, cats and the elephants of Interview Island and North Andaman.
Scientists discovered a new species of green algae species in the Andaman archipelago, naming it Acetabularia jalakanyakae. "Jalakanyaka" is a Sanskrit word that means "mermaid".<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/mermaid-plant-india-andamans-archipelago-b1903845.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210817145707/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/mermaid-plant-india-andamans-archipelago-b1903845.html |archive-date2021-08-17 |url-accesslimited |url-statuslive|titleIndian scientists discover new 'mermaid' plant species in Andamans archipelago|date17 August 2021|websiteThe Independent}}</ref>
Timber
Andaman forests contain 200 or more timber producing species of trees, out of which about 30 varieties are considered to be commercial. Major commercial timber species are Gurjan (Dipterocarpus spp.) and Padauk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides). The following ornamental woods are noted for their pronounced grain formation:
* Marble wood (Diospyros marmorata)
* Padauk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides)
* Silver grey (a special formation of wood in white utkarsh)
* Chooi (Sageraea elliptica)
* Kokko (Albizzia lebbeck)
Padauk wood is sturdier than teak and is widely used for furniture making.
There are burr wood and buttress root formations in Andaman Padauk. The largest piece of buttress known from Andaman was a dining table of {{convert|13|x|7|ft|abbr=on}}. The largest piece of burr wood was made into a dining table for eight.
The Rudraksha (Elaeocarps sphaericus) and aromatic Dhoop-resin trees also are found here.
Fauna
The Andaman Islands are home to a number of animals, many of them endemic. Andaman & Nicobar islands are home to 10% of all Indian fauna species.<ref name"Singh">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/andaman-nicobar-islands-home-to-a-tenth-of-indias-fauna-species/article25592134.ece|titleAndaman & Nicobar Islands: home to a tenth of India's fauna species|lastSingh|firstShiv Sahay|date25 November 2018|workThe Hindu|access-date10 November 2019|languageen-IN|issn0971-751X|archive-date18 December 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191218190850/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/andaman-nicobar-islands-home-to-a-tenth-of-indias-fauna-species/article25592134.ece|url-statuslive}}</ref> The islands are only 0.25% of the country's geographical area, but has 11,009 species, according to a publication by the Zoological Survey of India.<ref name"Singh"/>
Mammals
The island's endemic mammals include
* Andaman spiny shrew (Crocidura hispida)
* Andaman shrew (Crocidura andamanensis)
* Jenkins's shrew (Crocidura jenkinsi)
* Andaman horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus cognatus)
* Andaman rat (Rattus stoicus)
The banded pig (Sus scrofa vittatus), also known as the Andaman wild boar and once thought to be an endemic subspecies,<ref name"SrinivasuluSrinivasulu2012">{{Cite book | title South Asian Mammals: Their Diversity, Distribution, and Status | last1 Srinivasulu | first1 C. | last2 Srinivasulu | first2 B. | publisher Springer | year 2012 | page 353 | isbn 9781461434498}}</ref> is protected by the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (Sch I). The spotted deer (Axis axis), the Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) and the sambar (Rusa unicolor) were all introduced to the Andaman islands, though the sambar did not survive.
Interview Island (the largest wildlife sanctuary in the territory) in Middle Andaman holds a population of feral elephants, which were brought in for forest work by a timber company and released when the company went bankrupt. This population has been subject to research studies.
Birds
Endemic or near endemic birds include
* Spilornis elgini, a serpent-eagle
* Rallina canningi, a crake (endemic; data-deficient per IUCN 2000)
* Columba palumboides, a wood-pigeon
* Macropygia rufipennis, a cuckoo dove
* Centropus andamanensis, a subspecies of brown coucal (endemic)
* Otus balli, a scops owl
* Ninox affinis, a hawk-owl
* Rhyticeros narcondami, the Narcondam hornbill
* Dryocopus hodgei, a woodpecker
* Dicrurus andamanensis, a drongo
* Dendrocitta bayleyii, a treepie
* Sturnus erythropygius, the white-headed starling
* Collocalia affinis, the plume-toed swiftlet
* Aerodramus fuciphagus, the edible-nest swiftlet
The islands' many caves, such as those at Chalis Ek are nesting grounds for the edible-nest swiftlet, whose nests are prized in China for bird's nest soup.<ref name"soup">Sankaran, R. (1998), [http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_birds8.pdf The impact of nest collection on the Edible-nest Swiftlet in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100704194845/http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_birds8.pdf |date4 July 2010 }}. Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore, India.</ref>Reptiles and amphibians
The islands also have a number of endemic reptiles, toads and frogs, such as the Andaman cobra (Naja sagittifera), South Andaman krait (Bungarus andamanensis) and Andaman water monitor (Varanus salvator andamanensis).
There is a sanctuary {{convert|45|mi|km|orderflip|abbron}} from Havelock Island for saltwater crocodiles. Over the past 25 years there have been 24 crocodile attacks with four fatalities, including the death of American tourist Lauren Failla. The government has been criticised for failing to inform tourists of the crocodile sanctuary and danger, while simultaneously promoting tourism.<ref>{{cite news|authorSacks, Ethan|urlhttp://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/nj-woman-killed-crocodile-attack-snorkeling-indian-coast-article-1.445025|titleNJ woman killed by crocodile attack while snorkeling off Indian coast|newspaperNY Daily News|date6 May 2010|access-date26 April 2017|archive-date26 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170426151615/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/nj-woman-killed-crocodile-attack-snorkeling-indian-coast-article-1.445025|url-statuslive}}</ref> Crocodiles are not only found within the sanctuary, but throughout the island chain in varying densities. They are habitat restricted, so the population is stable but not large. Populations occur throughout available mangrove habitat on all major islands, including a few creeks on Havelock. The species uses the ocean as a means of travel between different rivers and estuaries, thus they are not as commonly observed in open ocean. It is best to avoid swimming near mangrove areas or the mouths of creeks; swimming in the open ocean should be safe, but it is best to have a spotter around.Demographics
island in 2006]]
{{As of|2011}}, the population of the Andaman was 343,125,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://india.gov.in/knowindia/ut_andaman.php |access-date3 July 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100619045535/http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/ut_andaman.php|publisherindia.gov.in|titleAndaman & Nicobar Islands |archive-date19 June 2010 }}</ref> having grown from 50,000 in 1960. The bulk of the population originates from immigrants who came to the island since the colonial times, mainly of Bengali, Hindustani, Telugu,<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/telugu-culture-flourishing-in-andamans/article6136317.ece | title'Telugu culture flourishing in Andamans' | workThe Hindu | date21 June 2014 }}</ref> Tamil, Malayalam backgrounds.<ref name"distadmin">{{cite web|urlhttp://andamandt.nic.in/profile.htm |titleAndaman & Nicobar Islands at a glance |publisherAndamandt.nic.in |access-date14 May 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111213201339/http://andamandt.nic.in/profile.htm |archive-date=13 December 2011 }}</ref>
A small minority of the population are the Andamanese — the aboriginal inhabitants (adivasi) of the islands. When they first came into sustained contact with outside groups in the 1850s, there were an estimated 7,000 Andamanese, divided into the Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Jangil (or Rutland Jarawa), Onge, and the Sentinelese. The Great Andamanese formed 10 tribes of 5,000 people total. As the numbers of settlers from the mainland increased (at first mostly prisoners and involuntary indentured labourers, later purposely recruited farmers), the Andamanese suffered a population decline due to the introduction of outside infectious diseases, land encroachment from settlers and conflict.
The Andaman Islands are home to the Sentinelese people, an uncontacted tribe.<ref>{{cite news |titleEverything We Know About The Isolated Sentinelese People Of North Sentinel Island |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/kionasmith/2018/11/30/everything-we-know-about-the-isolated-sentinelese-people-of-north-sentinel-island/ |workForbes |date30 November 2018}}</ref>
Due to their isolated island location, the Andaman people have mostly avoided contact with the outside world. Their languages are a great reflection of this, with distinct linguistics that have strong morphological features – root words, prefix, suffixes – with very little relation to surrounding geographic regions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Endicott |first1Phillip |last2Gilbert |first2M. Thomas P. |last3Stringer |first3Chris |last4Lalueza-Fox |first4Carles |last5Willerslev |first5Eske |last6Hansen |first6Anders J. |last7Cooper |first7Alan |dateJanuary 2003 |titleThe Genetic Origins of the Andaman Islanders |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1086/345487 |journalThe American Journal of Human Genetics |volume72 |issue1 |pages178–184 |doi10.1086/345487 |pmid12478481 |issn0002-9297|pmc=378623 }}</ref>
Figures from the end of the 20th century estimate there remain only approximately 400–450 ethnic Andamanese still on the island, and as few as 50 speakers The Jangil are extinct. Most of the Great Andamanese tribes are extinct, and the survivors, now just 52, speak mostly Hindi.<ref>{{Cite news |lastMalekar |firstAnosh |dateApril 2010 |titleThe case for a linguistic survey |workInfoChange News & Features |publication-placeIndia |urlhttp://infochangeindia.org/Media/Languages-of-India/The-case-for-a-linguistic-survey.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110927215058/http://infochangeindia.org/Media/Languages-of-India/The-case-for-a-linguistic-survey.html |archive-date27 September 2011}}</ref> The Onge are reduced to less than 100 people. Only the Jarawa and Sentinelese still maintain a steadfast independence and refuse most attempts at contact; their numbers are uncertain but estimated to be in the low hundreds.
The indigenous languages are collectively referred to as the Andamanese languages, but they make up at least two independent families, and the dozen or so attested languages are either extinct or endangered.
Religion
Most of the tribal people in Andaman and Nicobar Islands believe in a religion that can be described as a form of monotheistic animism. The tribal people of these islands believe that Puluga is the only deity and is responsible for everything happening on Earth.<ref>{{cite book|authorRadcliffe-Brown, A. R.|titleThe Andaman Islanders|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiRJaAQAAQBAJ&pgPA161|date14 November 2013|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-1-107-62556-3|page161|access-date15 November 2015|archive-date26 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170426152135/https://books.google.com/books?idiRJaAQAAQBAJ&pgPA161|url-statuslive}}</ref> The faith of the Andamanese teaches that Puluga resides on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands' Saddle Peak. People try to avoid any action that might displease Puluga. People belonging to this religion believe in the presence of souls, ghosts, and spirits. They put a lot of emphasis on dreams. They let dreams decide different courses of action in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|title People of Andaman and Nicobar Islands|url http://www.webindia123.com/territories/andaman/people/intro.htm|website Webindia123.com|access-date 31 January 2016|archive-date 1 June 2016|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160601155012/http://www.webindia123.com/Territories/ANDAMAN/People/intro.htm|url-status live}}</ref>
Andamanese mythology held that human males emerged from split bamboo, whereas women were fashioned from clay.<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology. 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 [1906]. p. 192</ref> One version found by Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown held that the first man died and went to heaven, a pleasurable world, but this blissful period ended due to breaking a food taboo, specifically eating the forbidden vegetables in the Puluga's garden.<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology. 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 [1906]. p. 220</ref> Thus catastrophe ensued, and eventually the people grew overpopulated and didn't follow Puluga's laws. Hence, there was a Great Flood that left four survivors, who lost their fire.<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology. 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 [1906]. p. 216</ref><ref>Witzel, Michael E.J. (2012). The Origin of The World's Mythologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 309-312</ref>
Other religions practiced in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are, in order of size, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism and Baháʼí Faith.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|titlePopulation by religious communities|publishercensusindia.gov.in|access-date21 September 2016|archive-date6 January 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190106014425/http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.bahai.org/national-communities/andaman-and-nicobar-islands|titleBaháʼí Community of Andaman and Nicobar Islands|lastBaháʼí|websiteBaháʼí Community|access-date17 August 2017|archive-date17 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170817163632/http://www.bahai.org/national-communities/andaman-and-nicobar-islands|url-statuslive}}</ref>GovernmentPort Blair is the chief community on the islands, and the administrative centre of the Union Territory. The Andaman Islands form a single administrative district within the Union Territory, the Andaman district (the Nicobar Islands were separated and established as the new Nicobar district in 1974).TransportationThe only commercial airport is Veer Savarkar International Airport in Port Blair. The airport is under the control of the Indian Navy. Prior to 2016 only daylight operations were allowed; since 2016 night flights have also operated.<ref>{{cite news|editor1Roy, Sanjib Kumar|editor2Sheekha, Andaman|titleMaiden night flight arrives in Isles|urlhttp://www.andamansheekha.com/2016/01/21/maiden-night-flight-arrives-in-isles-goair-flight-with-155-tourists-lands-at-vsi-airport-to-operate-chartered-flight-between-bengaluru-port-blair/|access-date21 January 2016|workAndaman Sheekha|date21 January 2016|archive-date2 October 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161002092304/http://www.andamansheekha.com/2016/01/21/maiden-night-flight-arrives-in-isles-goair-flight-with-155-tourists-lands-at-vsi-airport-to-operate-chartered-flight-between-bengaluru-port-blair/|url-statuslive}}</ref> A small airstrip, about {{convert|1000|m|ft}} long, is located near the eastern shore of North Andaman near Diglipur.{{cn|dateFebruary 2025}}
There are also ships from Chennai, Visakhapatnam and Kolkata.{{cn|dateFebruary 2025}}Cultural references Literature The islands are prominently featured in Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes 1890 mystery The Sign of the Four.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLitCharts |urlhttps://www.litcharts.com/lit/the-sign-of-the-four/summary |access-date2024-04-29 |websiteLitCharts |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastChatterjee |firstArup K. |journalShima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures |titleThe Science of the Andamans and the Sign of the Four: The distorted racial hierarchy of British imperial anthropology |date11 February 2019|volume14 |issue2 |doi10.21463/SHIMA.14.2.14 |s2cid224924041 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> The magistrate in Lady Gregory's play Spreading the News had formerly served in the islands.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGregory |firstLady |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRkE2AQAAMAAJ |titleSpreading the News |date1909 |publisherPutnam |languageen}}</ref>
M. M. Kaye's 1985 novel Death in the Andamans<ref>{{Cite book |lastKaye |firstM. M. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIADkCgAAQBAJ |titleDeath in the Andamans |date2015-12-01 |publisherSt. Martin's Publishing Group |isbn978-1-250-08926-7 |languageen}}</ref> and Marianne Wiggins' 1989 novel John Dollar are set in the islands.<ref>{{Cite book |lastWiggins |firstMarianne |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLC7HfgbTFaQC |titleJohn Dollar |date1990 |publisherHarper & Row |isbn978-0-06-091655-8 |languageen}}</ref> The latter begins with an expedition from Burma to celebrate King George's birthday, but turns into a grim survival story after an earthquake and tsunami.
A principal character in the novel Six Suspects by Vikas Swarup is from the Andaman Islands.<ref>{{Cite news |lastSawhney |firstHirsh |date2008-10-17 |titleDelhi underbelly |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/oct/18/vikas-swarup |access-date2025-02-15 |workThe Guardian |languageen-GB |issn0261-3077 |quote"In the end, Vicky Rai's murder is pinned on an innocent tribesman from the Andaman Islands, and a stream of encores await. All fail to pack a punch. Swarup has attempted an ambitious, complex project that required more cooking time, fewer plot lines and liberation from the desire to write a "great Indian novel"."}}</ref> The main protagonist of William Boyd's 2018 novel Love is Blind, spends time in the Andaman Islands at the turn of the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite news |titleWilliam Boyd's new novel is a moreish romp |urlhttps://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2018/09/27/william-boyds-new-novel-is-a-moreish-romp |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181210005058/https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2018/09/27/william-boyds-new-novel-is-a-moreish-romp |archive-date2018-12-10 |access-date2025-02-15 |newspaperThe Economist |issn0013-0613}}</ref> The Andaman Islands in the period before, during and just after the Second World War are the setting for Uzma Aslan Khan's The Miraculous True History of Nomi Ali.<ref>{{Cite news |lastBecker |firstAlida |date2022-12-04 |titleThe Best Historical Fiction of 2022 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/04/books/review/the-best-historical-fiction-of-2022.html |access-date2025-02-15 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn0362-4331 |quote"Set in a British penal colony in the remote Andaman Islands just before and during World War II, Uzma Aslam Khan’s THE MIRACULOUS TRUE HISTORY OF NOMI ALI is a suspenseful, thought-provoking challenge to simple assumptions about enemies and friends, loyalty and betrayal. A young girl called Nomi Ali, the daughter of a prisoner whose entire family must share his incarceration, is only one of the many characters whose histories are entangled here."}}</ref>
Film and television
Priyadarshan's 1996 film Kaalapani (Malayalam; Sirai Chaalai in Tamil) depicts the Indian freedom struggle and the lives of prisoners in the Cellular Jail in Port Blair.<ref>{{Cite web |date1995-06-15 |titleKaala Paani, a Malayalam film banks on lavish budget, freedom movement and multilingual cast |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19950615-kaala-paani-a-malayalam-film-banks-on-lavish-budget-freedom-movement-and-multilingual-cast-806763-1995-06-14 |access-date2024-04-29 |websiteIndia Today |languageen}}</ref>
In 2023, Andaman islands were featured in a Netflix series named Kaala Paani based on a fictional disease outbreak in 2027.<ref>{{Cite news |lastMitra |firstShilajit |date2023-10-18 |title'Kaala Paani' series review: Ambitious survival drama reaches the shore |urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/kaala-paani-series-review-ambitious-survival-drama-reaches-the-shore/article67433338.ece |access-date2025-02-15 |workThe Hindu |languageen-IN |issn0971-751X}}</ref>See also
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO -->
* Andaman and Nicobar Islands
* List of endemic birds of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
* List of trees of the Andaman Islands
* Lists of islands
References
Notes
{{Reflist}}
Sources
* {{EB1911|wstitleAndaman Islands|volume1|pages=955–958}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034922/http://www.andamantravelagent.com/about-andaman History & Culture. The Andaman Islands with destination quide]
* {{cite web |firstKlemen |last L |date2000 |title Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |urlhttps://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html |access-date 30 March 2021 |archive-date26 July 2011 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110726053035/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html |url-status= dead }}
* {{cite book|authorIndia Home Dept|titleThe Andaman Islands: With Notes on Barren Island|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idE0xFAAAAYAAJ|year1859|publisherC.B. Lewis, Baptist Mission Press}}
* {{cite book|authorSuresh Vaidya|titleIslands of the Marigold Sun|year1960|publisherRobert Hale}}
* {{cite book|authorRaleigh Trevelyan|author-linkRaleigh Trevelyan|titleThe Golden Oriole: Childhood, Family and Friends in India|year1987|publisherSecker & Warburg}}External links
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181213232827/http://www.and.nic.in/ Official Andaman and Nicobar Tourism Website]
* {{citation|lastSorenson|firstE. Richard|titleSensuality and Consciousness:Psychosexual Transformation in the Eastern Andaman|journalAnthropology of Consciousness|volume4|issue4|year1993|doi10.1525/ac.1993.4.4.1|pages=1–9}}
* {{citation|lastSen|firstSatadru|titleSavage Bodies, Civilized Pleasures: M. V. Portman and the Andamanese|journalAmerican Ethnologist|volume36|issue2|year2009|doi10.1111/j.1548-1425.2009.01140.x |pages=364–379}}
{{Andaman and Nicobar Islands}}
{{ecoregions of India}}
{{Portal bar|Islands|India}}
{{authority control}}
Andaman
Category:Archipelagoes of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Category:Archipelagoes of India
Category:Archipelagoes of the Indian Ocean
Category:Archipelagoes of Southeast Asia
Category:Maritime Southeast Asia
Category:Volcanoes of India
Category:Pleistocene volcanoes
Category:Pleistocene Asia
Category:Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_Islands
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.558994
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1751
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Alexander Anderson (mathematician)
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thumb|Supplementum Apollonii redivivi, 1612
Alexander Anderson ( in Aberdeen – in Paris) was a Scottish mathematician.
Life
He was born in Aberdeen, possibly in 1582, according to a print which suggests he was aged 35 in 1617. It is unknown where he was educated, but it is likely that he initially studied writing and philosophy (the "belles lettres") in his home city of Aberdeen.
He then went to the continent, and was a professor of mathematics in Paris by the start of the seventeenth century.
Work
He was selected by the executors of François Viète to revise and edit Viète's manuscript works. Viète died in 1603, and it is unclear if Anderson knew him, but his eminence was sufficient to attract the attention of the dead man's executors. Anderson corrected and expanded upon Viète's manuscripts, which extended known geometry to the new algebra, which used general symbols to represent quantities. and copies of two other works, Ex. Math. and Stereometria Triangulorum Sphæricorum, were in the possession of Sir Alexander Hume until the after the middle of the seventeenth century.
1615: Ad Angularum Sectionem Analytica Theoremata F. Vieta
1615: Pro Zetetico Apolloniani
1615: Francisci Vietae Fontenaeensis
1616: Vindiciae Archimedis
1619: Alexandri Andersoni Exercitationum Mathematicarum Decas Prima
See also
Marin Getaldić
Denis Henrion
Frans van Schooten
References
Attribution:
Further reading
Category:1580s births
Category:1620 deaths
Category:People from Aberdeen
Category:Algebraists
Category:British geometers
Category:Scottish scholars and academics
Category:Academic staff of the University of Paris
Category:17th-century Scottish mathematicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Anderson_(mathematician)
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.566334
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1752
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Andocides
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{{Short description|Greek logographer and orator (c.440–c.390 BC)}}
{{About|the orator|the potter|Andokides (potter)|the painter|Andokides painter}}
Andocides ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɒ|s|ɪ|d|iː|z}};<ref>[https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/andocides "Andocides"]. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed., Columbia University Press, 2012.</ref> {{langx|grc|Ἀνδοκίδης}}, Andokides; {{cn span |text{{Circa|440|370&nbsp;BC}} |dateFebruary 2024}}) was a logographer (speech writer) in Ancient Greece. He was one of the ten Attic orators included in the "Alexandrian Canon" compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BC.
Life
Andocides was the son of Leogoras, and was born in Athens around 440 BC.<ref>''Brill's New Pauly v.Andocides</ref> He belonged to the ancient Eupatrid family of the Kerykes, who traced their lineage up to Odysseus and the god Hermes.<ref name"pseudo">Pseudo-Plutarch, Lives of the Ten Orators</ref><ref name"pa">Plutarch, Alcibiades 21</ref><ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis § 141</ref><ref>Andocides, De Reditu § 26</ref>
During his youth, Andocides seems to have been employed on various occasions as ambassador to Thessaly, Macedonia, Molossia, Thesprotia, Italy, and Sicily.<ref>Andocides, Contra Alcibiadem § 41</ref> Although he was frequently attacked for his political opinions,<ref>Andocides, Contra Alcibiadem § 8</ref> he maintained his ground until, in 415 BC, he became involved in the charge brought against Alcibiades for having profaned the mysteries and mutilated the Herms on the eve of the departure of the Athenian expedition against Sicily. It appeared particularly likely that Andocides was an accomplice in the latter of these crimes, which was believed to be a preliminary step towards overthrowing the democratic constitution, since the Herm standing close to his house in the phyle Aegeis was among the very few which had not been injured.<ref>Cornelius Nepos, Alcibiades 3</ref><ref>Jan Otto Sluiter, lectiones Andocideae c. 3.</ref>
Andocides was accordingly seized and thrown into prison, but after some time recovered his freedom by a promise that he would become an informer and reveal the names of the real perpetrators of the crime; and on the suggestion of one Charmides or Timaeus,<ref name="pa"/><ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis § 48</ref> he mentioned four, all of whom were put to death. He is also said to have denounced his own father on the charge of profaning the mysteries, but to have rescued him again in the hour of danger - a charge he strenuously denied.<ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis</ref> But as Andocides was unable to clear himself from the charge, he was deprived of his rights as a citizen, and left Athens.<ref>Andocides, De Reditu § 25</ref>{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Andocides traveled about in various parts of Greece, and was chiefly engaged in commercial enterprise and in forming connections with powerful people.<ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis § 137</ref> The means he employed to gain the friendship of powerful men were sometimes of the most disreputable kind; among which a service he rendered to a prince in Cyprus is mentioned in particular.<ref name="phot">Photios I of Constantinople, Bibliotheca</ref>
In 411 BC, Andocides returned to Athens on the establishment of the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred, hoping that a certain service he had rendered the Athenian ships at Samos would secure him a welcome reception.<ref>Andocides, De Reditu §§ 11,12</ref> But no sooner were the oligarchs informed of the return of Andocides, than their leader Peisander had him seized, and accused him of having supported the party opposed to them at Samos. During his trial, Andocides, who perceived the exasperation prevailing against him, leaped to the altar which stood in the court, and there assumed the attitude of a supplicant. This saved his life, but he was imprisoned. Soon afterwards, however, he was set free, or escaped from prison.<ref>Andocides, De Reditu § 15</ref><ref name="lysias29">Lysias, Against Andocides § 29</ref>
Andocides then went to Cyprus, where for a time he enjoyed the friendship of Evagoras; but, by some circumstance or other, he exasperated his friend, and was consigned to prison. Here again he escaped, and after the restoration of democracy in Athens and the abolition of the Four Hundred, he ventured once more to return to Athens; but as he was still suffering under a sentence of civil disenfranchisement, he endeavored by means of bribes to persuade the prytaneis to allow him to attend the assembly of the people. The latter, however, expelled him from the city.<ref name"lysias29"/> It was on this occasion, in 411 BC, that Andocides delivered the speech still extant "On his return", on which he petitioned for permission to reside at Athens, but in vain. In his third exile, Andocides went to reside in Elis,<ref name"phot"/> and during the time of his absence from his native city, his house there was occupied by Cleophon, the leading demagogue.<ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis § 146</ref>
Andocides remained in exile until after the overthrow of the tyranny of the Thirty by Thrasybulus, when the general amnesty then proclaimed made him hope that its benefit would be extended to him also. He himself says that he returned to Athens from Cyprus,<ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis § 132</ref> where he claimed to have great influence and considerable property.<ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis § 4</ref> Because of the general amnesty, he was allowed to remain at Athens, enjoyed peace for the next three years, and soon recovered an influential position. According to Lysias, it was scarcely ten days after his return that he brought an accusation against Archippus or Aristippus, which, however, he dropped on receiving a sum of money. During this period Andocides became a member of the boule, in which he appears to have possessed a great influence, as well as in the popular assembly. He was gymnasiarch at the Hephaestaea, was sent as architheorus to the Isthmian Games and Olympic Games, and was even entrusted with the office of keeper of the sacred treasury.
But in 400 BC, Callias II, supported by Cephisius, Agyrrhius, Meletus, and Epichares, urged the necessity of preventing Andocides from attending the assembly, as he had never been formally freed from the civil disenfranchisement. Callias II also charged him with violating the laws respecting the temple at Eleusis.<ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis'' § 110</ref> The orator pleaded his case in the oration still extant "on the Mysteries" (περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων), in which he argued that he had not been involved in the profanation of the mysteries or the mutilation of the herms, that he had not violated the laws of the temple at Eleusis, that anyway he had received his citizenship back as a result of the amnesty, and that Callias was really motivated by a private dispute with Andocides over inheritance. He was acquitted. After this, he again enjoyed peace until 394 BC, when he was sent as ambassador to Sparta regarding the peace to be concluded in consequence of Conon's victory off Cnidus. On his return, he was accused of illegal conduct during his embassy. The speech "On the peace with the Lacedaemonians" (περὶ τῆς πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους εἰρήνης), which is still extant, refers to this affair. It was delivered in 393 BC (though some scholars place it in 391 BC). Andocides was found guilty, and sent into exile for the fourth time. He never returned afterwards, and seems to have died soon after this blow.
Andocides appears to have fathered no children, since he is described at the age of 70 as being childless,<ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis §§ 146,148</ref> although the scholiast on Aristophanes mentions Antiphon as a son of Andocides. The large fortune which he had inherited from his father, or acquired in his commercial undertakings, was greatly diminished in the latter years of his life.<ref>Andocides, De Mysteriis § 144</ref><ref>Lysias, Against Andocides § 31</ref>
Oratory
As an orator, Andocides does not appear to have been held in very high esteem by the ancients, as he is seldom mentioned, though Valerius Theon is said to have written a commentary on his orations.<ref>Suda, s.v. Θέων</ref> We do not hear of his having been trained in any of the sophistical schools of the time, and he had probably developed his talents in the practical school of the popular assembly. Hence his orations have no mannerism in them, and are really, as Plutarch says, simple and free from all rhetorical pomp and ornament.<ref>Comp. Dionys. Hal. de Lys. 2, de Thucyd. Jud. 51</ref>
Sometimes, however, his style is diffuse, and becomes tedious and obscure. The best among his orations is that "on the Mysteries"; but, for the history of the time, all are of the highest importance.
Besides the three orations already mentioned, which are undoubtedly genuine, there is a fourth against Alcibiades (κατὰ Ἀλκιβιάδου), said to have been delivered by Andocides during the ostracism of 415 BC; but it is probably spurious, though it appears to contain genuine historical matter. Some scholars ascribed it to Phaeax, who took part in the ostracism, according to Plutarch. But it is more likely that it is a rhetorical exercise from the early fourth century BC, since formal speeches were not delivered during ostracisms and the accusation or defence of Alcibiades was a standing rhetorical theme.<ref>Gribble. 1999. Alcibiades and Athens ch.2 app.2</ref> Besides these four orations we possess only a few fragments and some very vague allusions to other orations.<ref>Jan Otto Sluiter, lectiones Andocideae p. 239, &c.</ref>
List of extant speeches
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookupAndoc.+1+1 On the Mysteries] ({{lang|grc|Περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων}} "De Mysteriis"). Andocides made the speech "On the Mysteries" as a defense against the accusations made against him by Athens for attending the Eleusinian Mysteries without permission, as he was prohibited under Isotimides' order. The case's prosecutors had insisted that Andocides be put to death. His attendance at the Eleusinian Mysteries in Eleusis around 400 BCE was the main accusation made against him. Additionally, he was charged with unlawfully placing an olive branch on the altar of the Eleusinium at Athens during the Mysteries.<ref name":1">Gagarin & MacDowell, Antiphon and Andocides, University of Texas Press, 1998. p.99</ref>
The speech can be split into two parts. In the first, Andocides asserted that the decree of Isotimides had no power to prevent him from attending the Eleusinian Mysteries because he was innocent of impiety and had not confessed to it. He would go on to declare that because of alterations made to the law in 403 BCE, the decree altogether was no longer legitimate.<ref name=":0" />
In the second part of the speech, he would move on to claim that his prosecutors , namely Cephisius, Meletus, Epichares and Agyrrhius, were not legitimate by making allegations against them.<ref name=":2">Gagarin & MacDowell, Antiphon and Andocides, University of Texas Press, 1998. p.100</ref> Andocides asserted that Cephisius, Meletus, and Epichares had also committed crimes prior to the legal revisions, exposing their hypocrisy in bringing charges against him since they would also be at risk of being prosecuted. Andocides asserts that Agyrrhius is ineligible to prosecute them for their private conflicts.<ref>Gagarin & MacDowell, Antiphon and Andocides, University of Texas Press, 1998. p.100</ref>
This speech was successful in persuading the jury, as Andocides was sentenced to be innocent. Gagarin and MacDowell commented on the oration, saying that while the speech itself is rather rough on its wording, it is a genuine speech of Andocides fighting for his life and was “sufficiently clear and logical”.<ref name":0">Gagarin & MacDowell, Antiphon and Andocides, University of Texas Press, 1998. p.101</ref> [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookupAndoc.+2+1 On His Return] ({{lang|grc|Περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ καθόδου}} "De Reditu").
“On His Return” was a speech made by Andocides in an attempt to be brought back to Athen after being exiled from the city-state in 415 BCE for impious acts.<ref name":1" /> Despite commonly being considered as the second work in Andocides’ orations, “On His Return” precedes "On the Mysteries” in date. Andocides tries to return to the city-state in 411 BCE. To ensure his return would be welcomed, he had obtained some Macedonian timber and sold them to the Athenian fleet stationed at Samos.<ref name":3">Gagarin & MacDowell, Antiphon and Andocides, University of Texas Press, 1998. p.141</ref> However, in an interesting turn of events, Andocides’ goodwill would turn against him. The Four Hundred,<ref>Kagan, Donald. The Fall of the Athenian Empire. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013., p.148</ref> an oligarchy, had just come into reign from a coup in 411 BCE, they were faced with objections from the sailors at Samos, who were mostly democratic.<ref name=":3" /> As a result, Andocides was imprisoned by Perisander, the leader of the Four Hundred.
“On His Return” was made after the downfall of the Four Hundred, with Andocides appealing to seek forgiveness and be reaccepted into Athenian society. Experts have distinctively noted that this oration has a tone different from “On The Mysteries”, in which Andocides was more prone to admit his faults and put himself at a lower light.<ref name":3" /> Saying that “I stood disgraced in the eyes of the gods”<ref>Andocides, “On His Return”, section 15</ref> and addressing his crime as “such a piece of madness”.<ref>Andocides, “On His Return”, section 7</ref> However, his efforts were to no avail,<ref name":4">Gagarin & MacDowell, Antiphon and Andocides, University of Texas Press, 1998. p.148</ref> as he only was readmitted into the Athenian society upon “On The Mysteries”.<ref name":2" /> [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookupAndoc.+3+1 On the Peace with Sparta] ({{lang|grc|Περὶ τῆς πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους εἰρήνης}} "De Pace").
“On the Peace with Sparta” was given for advocating the acceptance of the terms of peace offered by Sparta during the Corinthian War between Sparta and a coalition consisting of the city-states Athens, Boeotia, Corinth and Argos.<ref name":4" /> Andocides was selected as one of the four delegates that represented Athens in the negotiation of peace between them and Sparta. The delegation were given the authority to conclude the treaty in Sparta, Considering that Andocides was just reaccepted into Athens by “On The Mysteries” in 403 BCE.<ref name":0" /> The delegation shows that Andocides had gained considerable popularity among the Athenians within eight years upon his return.<ref name":4" /> Still, with the authority given, the team of delegates decided to bring the terms back to Athens for approval. The speech gives the historical context behind the offer of truce, and gives a list of arguments for the acceptance of Sparta’s terms for peace. The terms that were given were closely related to the Spartan victory in the Peloponnesian War, after which rather unfair terms had been imposed on the Athenians by Sparta for peace. They include:<ref name":4" />
#Athens would destroy Athenian town walls
#Athens would give up the Delian League
#Athens would shrink the Athenian navy except a mere twelve ships
#Athens would Install the Thirty, an oppressive oligarchic regime
The peace terms offered by Sparta were mostly responses to the terms listed above, they include:<ref name=":5">Gagarin & MacDowell, Antiphon and Andocides, University of Texas Press, 1998. p.149</ref>
#Athens would be allowed to rebuild their town walls
#Athens would be able to expand their navy and control three islands at the north of the Aegean sea
#Greeks cities would be independent, except those in Asia, which would be under Persian control.
In “On the Peace with Sparta”, Andocides argues that such terms were satisfactory for the Athenian side, claiming that “it is better to make peace on fair terms than to continue fighting”.<ref>Andocides, On the Peace, Section 1 </ref> However, the speech would fail to convince the Athenians, partly because of Andocides’ aristocratic origins and oligarchic political stance.<ref>Gagarin & MacDowell., p.95</ref> Andocides would flee from Athens and be exiled again for allegedly accepting bribes and making false reports.<ref name=":5" /> There is no information on his life after the exile.
Still, Gagarin and MacDowell commented that Andocides speaks like an professional orator in this speech, this seems to imply that he has received extensive training and gained considerable experience on public speaking.<ref name":4" /> [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookupAndoc.+4+1 Against Alcibiades] ({{lang|grc|Κατὰ Ἀλκιβιάδου}} "Contra Alcibiadem").
This oration criticises Alcibiades for an ostracism which he and the speaker were in danger of falling victim to.<ref>Gribble, David. “Rhetoric and History in [Andocides] 4, Against Alcibiades.” Classical Quarterly 47, no. 2 (1997): p. 367. </ref> An ostracism was a method of banishing a citizen for a decade.<ref name=":6">Gagarin & MacDowell., p.159</ref> The oration claims that Alcibiades bought a female slave from one of the captives after the fall of Melos.<ref>Andocides, Against Alcibiades, section 22</ref>
The speaker bashes Alcibiades for his questionable morals and acts, as shown in he recounting Alcibiades’ actions during the Olympic games in 416 BCE,<ref>Gribble, p.367</ref> “ Alcibiades will not endure it (defeat in Olympia) even at the hands of his fellow-citizens<ref>Andocides, Against Alcibiades, section 28</ref>” and that “he does not treat his own fellow Athenians as his equals, but robs them, strikes them, throws them into prison, and extorts money from them<ref>Andocides, Against Alcibiades, section 27</ref>”.
However, this speech fails to meet its goal of ostracizing Alcibiades, as followers of him and Nicas rallied support for the two and instead urged people to vote against Hyperbolus, a less politically significant figure.<ref name":6" /> This strategy is successful as Hyperbolus was banished instead of the two. This would mark the fall of the ostracism system, as it was controversial among the public that it could be manipulated in such a way, the system would be abandoned soon after this case.<ref name":6" />
Although attributed to Andocides, it has been widely agreed upon that Andocides was not the one who made this speech. For the reason that the author of the speech lacks the correct understanding of the procedures of an ostracism and Athenian politics in general,<ref>Gagarin & MacDowell., p.159-160</ref> the style of the speech was also significantly different than that of Andocides.<ref>Gagarin & MacDowell., p.160</ref> One popular theory of the authorship of the speech was that it was written by Phaeax, another orator in Athens at the time.<ref>Gribble, p.371</ref>
<br />
Notes
{{Reflist}}
;Attribution
*{{EB1911|wstitleAndocides|volume1|page=965}}
*{{DGRBM|authorLS|titleAndocides|volume1|page168|urlhttp://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/moa/acl3129.0001.001/183}}External links
*{{Wikisourcelang-inline|el|Ανδοκίδης|Andocides}}
*[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0018 Speeches] at the Perseus Project
{{Attic orators}}
{{Ancient Athenian statesmen}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Attic orators
Category:5th-century BC Athenians
Category:4th-century BC Athenians
Category:Ancient Greeks accused of sacrilege
Category:Athenians of the Peloponnesian War
Category:440s BC births
Category:370s BC deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andocides
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.575790
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1754
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Andrea Andreani
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{{Short description|Italian engraver}}
Andrea Andreani (1540–1623) was an Italian engraver on wood, who was among the first printmakers in Italy to use chiaroscuro, which required multiple colours.
Andreani was born and generally active in Mantua about 1540 (Brulliot says 1560) and died at Rome in 1623. His engravings are scarce and valuable, and are chiefly copies of Mantegna, Albrecht Dürer, Parmigianino and Titian. The most remarkable of his works are Mercury and Ignorance, the Deluge, ''Pharaoh's Host Drowned in the Red Sea (after Titian), the Triumph of Caesar (after Mantegna), and Christ retiring from the judgment-seat of Pilate'' after a relief by Giambologna.<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inliney|wstitleAndreani, Andrea|volume1|page=971}}</ref> He was active 1584–1610 in Florence.<ref>ULAN</ref>
Andreani's work is held in several museums worldwide, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art,<ref>{{Cite web| urlhttps://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/359885?searchFieldAll&amp;sortByRelevance&amp;ftAndrea+Andreani&amp;offset0&amp;rpp20&amp;pos1 | access-date2021-01-11 | titleRape of a Sabine Woman – 1584 – Andrea Andreani Italian | publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art | websitewww.metmuseum.org }}</ref> the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,<ref>{{Cite web|titleWoman Contemplating a Skull|urlhttps://collections.mfa.org/objects/173475/woman-contemplating-a-skull;jsessionidBCEE3C65107A9D6D6EAA56EFD1A71A58|access-date2021-01-11 | publisherMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston | websitecollections.mfa.org|languageen}}</ref> the Cleveland Museum of Art,<ref>{{Cite web| last|first|date| titleVirgin and Child with St. John, St. Catherine of Siena and St. Francis | urlhttps://www.clevelandart.org/art/1960.19|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190411003425/https://clevelandart.org/art/1960.19 |archive-date2019-04-11 |access-date| publisherCleveland Museum of Art | websitewww.clevelandart.org }}</ref> the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco,<ref>{{Cite web|date2018-09-21|titleAndrea Andreani|urlhttps://art.famsf.org/andrea-andreani | access-date2021-01-11 | websiteart.famsf.org | publisherFine Arts Museums of San Francisco | languageen}}</ref> the Ackland Art Museum,<ref>{{Cite web| titleThe Triumph of Julius Caesar: The Musicians (no. 8), after Andrea Mantegna – Works – eMuseum| urlhttps://ackland.emuseum.com/objects/12389/the-triumph-of-julius-caesar-the-musicians-no-8-after-a;jsessionidF0D7A3E444F249FE05F56C859F5F361D | access-date2021-01-11 | websiteackland.emuseum.com | publisherAckland Art Museum | languageen}}</ref> the Clark Art Institute,<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe Surprised Man|urlhttps://www.clarkart.edu/artpiece/detail/the-surprised-man|access-date2021-01-11|websitewww.clarkart.edu | publisherClark Art Institute }}</ref> the Harvard Art Museums,<ref>{{Cite web|lastHarvard|titleFrom the Harvard Art Museums' collections Triumph of Julius Caesar|urlhttps://harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/276855|access-date2021-01-11|websiteharvardartmuseums.org|languageen}}</ref> the Victoria and Albert Museum,<ref>{{Cite web| date2021-01-11| titleHercules Strangling the Nemean Lion {{!}} Andreani, Andrea {{!}} V&A Search the Collections|urlhttp://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1153970 | access-date2021-01-11| websitecollections.vam.ac.uk | publisherVictoria and Albert Museum |languageen}}</ref> the Albright–Knox Art Gallery,<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe Triumphs of Julius Caesar {{!}} Albright-Knox|urlhttps://www.albrightknox.org/artworks/1891471-10-triumphs-julius-caesar|access-date2021-01-11|websitewww.albrightknox.org | publisherAlbright–Knox Art Gallery }}</ref> the National Gallery of Canada,<ref>{{Cite web|titleAn Allegory of Death|urlhttps://www.gallery.ca/collection/artwork/an-allegory-of-death|access-date2021-01-11| websitewww.gallery.ca | publisherNational Gallery of Canada |languageen}}</ref> the Davis Museum at Wellesley College,<ref>{{Cite web|titleDavis Museum at Wellesley College|urlhttp://dms.wellesley.edu/detail.php?moduleobjects&typebrowse&id4&termItalian+(Mantuan)&page1&kv12978&record0&moduleobjects|access-date2021-01-11|websitedms.wellesley.edu | publisherDavis Museum at Wellesley College }}</ref> the Cooper Hewitt,<ref>{{Cite web|titlePrint, Virgin and Child and St. John|urlhttps://collection.cooperhewitt.org/objects/18404275/|access-date2021-01-11|websitecollection.cooperhewitt.org | publisherCooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum |languageen-us}}</ref> the University of Michigan Museum of Art,<ref>{{Cite web| titleExchange: Madonna and Child with a Bishop | urlhttps://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/31907/view|access-date2021-01-11|websiteexchange.umma.umich.edu | publisherUniversity of Michigan Museum of Art }}</ref> the Bowdoin College Museum of Art,<ref>{{Cite web|titleEmbARK Web Kiosk - Christ Bearing the Cross, after Alessandro Casolani|urlhttps://artmuseum.bowdoin.edu/objects-1/info/19105|access-date2021-01-11|websiteartmuseum.bowdoin.edu | publisherBowdoin College Museum of Art }}</ref> the Los Angeles County Museum of Art,<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe Presentation in the Temple {{!}} LACMA Collections|urlhttps://collections.lacma.org/node/170889|access-date2021-01-11|websitecollections.lacma.org | publisherLos Angeles County Museum of Art }}</ref> the Philadelphia Museum of Art,<ref>{{Cite web| titleCollections Object: Frontispiece with Bust|urlhttps://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/24749.html?mulR91|access-date2021-01-11|websitewww.philamuseum.org | publisherPhiladelphia Museum of Art }}</ref> the Princeton University Art Museum,<ref>{{Cite web|titlePresentation in the Temple (x1946-72)|urlhttps://artmuseum.princeton.edu/collections/objects/5878|access-date2021-01-11|websiteartmuseum.princeton.edu| publisherPrinceton University Art Museum | languageen}}</ref> and the British Museum.<ref>{{Cite web|titleprint {{!}} British Museum|urlhttps://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_1860-0414-85|access-date2021-01-11| websitewww.britishmuseum.org | publisherBritish Museum |languageen}}</ref>
References
{{reflist}}
Sources
*"Andrea Andreani" in the Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th Edition, Vol. II, p.&nbsp;20.
*[http://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?findAndreani&role&nation&prev_page1&subjectid500032629 Getty ULAN entry].Further reading
{{commons}}
*{{cite book | firstStefano| last Ticozzi| year1830| title ''Dizionario degli architetti, scultori, pittori, intagliatori in rame ed in pietra, coniatori di medaglie, musaicisti, niellatori, intarsiatori d'ogni etá e d'ogni nazione''' (Volume 1)| pages53 | publisherGaetano Schiepatti |locationMilan | url https://books.google.com/books?id0ownAAAAMAAJ&qStefano+Ticozzi+Dizionario&pg=PA5 }}
*[http://www.artnet.com/library/00/0027/T002780.asp artnet]
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Andreani, Andrea}}
Category:1540 births
Category:1623 deaths
Category:Artists from Mantua
Category:16th-century Italian artists
Category:17th-century Italian artists
Category:Italian engravers
Category:16th-century engravers
Category:17th-century engravers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Andreani
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.583838
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1755
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Andrew II of Hungary
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{{short description|King of Hungary and Croatia from 1205 to 1235}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Andrew II
| image = Andrew II seal 1224.jpg
| caption = Seal of Andrew II, 1224
| succession = King of Hungary and Croatia
| reign = 7 May 1205 – 21 September 1235
| coronation = 29 May 1205, Székesfehérvár
| cor-type = hungary
| predecessor = Ladislaus III
| successor = Béla IV
| regent | succession1 Prince of Halych
| reign1 = 1188–1189 or 1190<br/>1208 or 1209–1210
| predecessor1 = {{plainlist|
*Roman Mstislavich
*Roman II Igorevich}}
| successor1 = {{plainlist|
*Vladimir II Yaroslavich
*Vladimir III Igorevich}}
| spouses = {{plainlist|
*Gertrude of Merania
*Yolanda de Courtenay
*Beatrice d'Este}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
*Anna Maria, Empress of Bulgaria
*Béla IV of Hungary
*Saint Elizabeth
*Coloman, Prince of Halych
*Andrew II, Prince of Halych
*Yolanda, Queen of Aragon
*Stephen, Duke of Slavonia}}
| issue-link = #Family
| house = Árpád
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Béla III of Hungary
| mother = Agnes of Antioch
| birth_date = {{circa}} 1177
| birth_place | death_date 21 September {{Death year and age|1235|1177}}
| death_place | place of burial Egres Abbey
| religion = Roman Catholic|
}}
Andrew II ({{langx|hu|II. András}}, {{langx|hr|Andrija II.}}, {{langx|sk|Ondrej II.}}, {{langx|uk|Андрій II}}; {{circa}} 1177{{spaced ndash}}21 September 1235), also known as Andrew of Jerusalem, was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1205 and 1235. He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189/1190, and again between 1208/1209 and 1210. He was the younger son of Béla III of Hungary, who entrusted him with the administration of the newly conquered Principality of Halych in 1188. Andrew's rule was unpopular, and the boyars (or noblemen) expelled him. Béla III willed property and money to Andrew, obliging him to lead a crusade to the Holy Land. Instead, Andrew forced his elder brother, King Emeric of Hungary, to cede Croatia and Dalmatia as an appanage to him in 1197. The following year, Andrew occupied Hum.
Despite the fact that Andrew did not stop conspiring against Emeric, the dying king made Andrew guardian of his son, Ladislaus III, in 1204. After the premature death of Ladislaus, Andrew ascended the throne in 1205. According to historian László Kontler, "[i]t was amidst the socio-political turmoil during [Andrew's] reign that the relations, arrangements, institutional framework and social categories that arose under Stephen I, started to disintegrate in the higher echelons of society" in Hungary.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=75}} Andrew introduced a new grants policy, the so-called "new institutions", giving away money and royal estates to his partisans despite the loss of royal revenues. He was the first Hungarian monarch to adopt the title of "King of Halych and Lodomeria". He waged at least a dozen wars to seize the two Rus' principalities, but was repelled by the local boyars and neighboring princes. He participated in the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217–1218, but the crusade was a failure.
When the servientes regis, or "royal servants", rose up, Andrew was forced to issue the Golden Bull of 1222, confirming their privileges. This led to the rise of the nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary. His Diploma Andreanum of 1224 listed the liberties of the Transylvanian Saxon community. The employment of Jews and Muslims to administer the royal revenues led him into conflict with the Holy See and the Hungarian prelates. Andrew pledged to respect the privileges of the clergymen and to dismiss his non-Christian officials in 1233, but he never fulfilled the latter promise.
Andrew's first wife, Gertrude of Merania, was murdered in 1213 because her blatant favoritism towards her German kinsmen and courtiers stirred up discontent among the native lords. The veneration of their daughter, Elizabeth of Hungary, was confirmed by the Holy See during Andrew's lifetime. After Andrew's death, his sons, Béla and Coloman, accused his third wife, Beatrice d'Este, of adultery and never considered her son, Stephen, to be a legitimate son of Andrew.
Early life
Childhood and youth ({{circa}} 1177–1197)
Andrew was the second son of King Béla III and Béla's first wife, Agnes of Antioch.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p229, Appendix 4}} The year of Andrew's birth is not known, but modern historians agree that he was born around 1177,{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p229, Appendix 4}}{{sfn|Kristó|1994|p43}}{{sfn|Almási|2012|p86}} considering that Margaret, who was born in 1175 or 1176, was his elder sister, which, however, is far from certain.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|pp13–14}} Andrew was first mentioned in connection to his father's invasion of the Principality of Halych in 1188.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p229}} That year, Béla III invaded Halych upon the request of its former prince, Vladimir II Yaroslavich, who had been expelled by his subjects.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p229}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p191}} Béla forced the new prince, Roman Mstislavich, to flee. After conquering Halych, he granted it to Andrew.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p224}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|pp191, 193}} Béla also captured Vladimir Yaroslavich and imprisoned him in Hungary.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p=193}}
After Béla's withdrawal from Halych, Roman Mstislavich returned with the assistance of Rurik Rostislavich, Prince of Belgorod Kievsky.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p193}} They tried to expel Andrew and his Hungarian retinue, but the Hungarians routed the united forces of Mstislavich and Rostislavich.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p193}} A group of local boyars offered the throne to Rostislav Ivanovich, a distant cousin of the imprisoned Vladimir Yaroslavich.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p193}} Béla III sent reinforcements to Halych, enabling Andrew's troops to repel the attacks.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p127}} Andrew's nominal reign remained unpopular in Halych, because the Hungarian soldiers insulted local women and did not respect Orthodox churches.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p193}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p54}} Consequently, the local boyars allied themselves with their former prince, Vladimir Yaroslavich, who had escaped from captivity and returned to Halych.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|pp193–194}} Duke Casimir II of Poland also supported Vladimir, and they expelled Andrew and his retinue from the principality in August 1189 or 1190.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p122}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p249}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|pp193–194}} Andrew returned to Hungary after his defeat.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p=224}}
King Béla did not grant Andrew a separate duchy, but only gave his son some fortresses, estates and money.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p224}} According to historian Attila Zsoldos, these landholdings laid in Slavonia.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p19}} On his deathbed, Béla, who had pledged to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, ordered Andrew to fulfill his vow.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p234}} Andrew's father died on 23 April 1196, and Andrew's older brother, Emeric, succeeded him.{{sfn|Bartl|Čičaj|Kohútova|Letz|2002|p30}}
Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia (1197–1204)
{{main|Brothers' Quarrel (Hungary)}}
Andrew used the funds that he inherited from his father to recruit supporters among the Hungarian lords.{{sfn|Almási|2012|p86}} It is plausible he demanded from his brother to install him as Duke of Slavonia, which became increasingly the title of heir to the throne by the second half of the 12th century.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p19}} Andrew also formed an alliance with Duke Leopold VI of Austria, and they plotted against Emeric.{{sfn|Almási|2012|p86}} Their united troops routed the royal army at Mački, Slavonia, in December 1197.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p124}} Under duress, King Emeric gave Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew as an appanage, as most historians believe.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p347}}{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|pp20–21}} In contrast, historian György Szabados claims that Emeric never acknowledged Andrew's dominion in Croatia and Dalmatia and that Andrew used the title of duke without his brother's approval.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|pp20–21}} In practice, Andrew administered Croatia and Dalmatia as an independent monarch. He minted coins (Croatian frizatik), granted land and confirmed privileges.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p347}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p22}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p124}} In accordance with the agreement, Varaždin and Bodrog counties also belonged to his suzerainty.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p24}} He cooperated with the Frankopans, Babonići, and other local lords.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p347}} Some of the prominent barons also supported his aspirations, including their uncle comes Andrew and Macarius Monoszló.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|pp22–24}} The Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre settled in the province during his rule.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p370}} Taking advantage of Miroslav of Hum's death, Andrew invaded Hum and occupied at least the land between the Cetina and Neretva rivers sometime before May 1198.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p52}} He styled himself, "By the grace of God, Duke of Zadar and of all Dalmatia, Croatia and Hum" in his charters.{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p132}}
Pope Innocent III urged Andrew to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, but Andrew hatched a new conspiracy against Emeric with the help of John, Abbot of Pannonhalma, Boleslaus, Bishop of Vác, and many other prelates and lords.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p124}} For instance, incumbent Palatine Mog also betrayed Emeric and swore allegiance to the Duke.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p31}} The Pope threatened Andrew with excommunication if he failed to fulfill his father's vow, but Andrew did not yield.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|pp124–125}} The conspiracy was uncovered on 10 March 1199, when King Emeric seized letters written by Andrew's partisans to Bishop Boleslaus.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p125}} That summer, royal troops routed Andrew's army in the valley of Rád near Lake Balaton, and Andrew fled to Austria.{{sfn|Almási|2012|p86}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p125}} During Andrew's exile, Emeric appointed his own partisans to administer Slavonia, Croatia and Dalmatia.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p32}} A papal legate mediated a reconciliation between Andrew and Emeric, who allowed Andrew to return to Croatia and Dalmatia in 1200.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p125}} Andrew married Gertrude of Merania sometime between 1200 and 1203; her father, Berthold, Duke of Merania, owned extensive domains in the Holy Roman Empire along the borders of Andrew's duchy, in what is now Slovenia.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p347}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p125}}{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p=230}}
" (four Argent (silver) and four Gules (red) stripes) on Andrew's personal coat-of-arms]]
When Emeric's son, Ladislaus, was born around 1200, Andrew's hopes to succeed his brother as king were shattered.{{sfn|Almási|2012|p86}}{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p230}} Pope Innocent confirmed the child's position as heir to the crown, declaring that Andrew's future sons would only inherit Andrew's duchy.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p230}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p125}} Andrew planned a new rebellion against his brother, but King Emeric captured him without resistance near Varaždin in October 1203.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p126}} In contrast, historian Attila Zsoldos considers it was the king who turned against his brother's province with an army initially convened for a crusade.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|pp36–37}}
{{Blockquote|[All] the magnates of the kingdom and almost the whole of the Hungarian army deserted [King Emeric] and unlawfully sided with Duke Andrew. Very few men indeed remained with the king, and even they were terrified at the extent of the insurrection and did not dare to urge the king to hope for success, but rather advised him to flee. Then it happened that one day both sides had drawn close to each other and were beginning to prepare themselves in earnest for {{nobr|battle. ...}} [After] much wise thought, with inspiration from heaven [King Emeric] found a successful way by which he might recover his right to the kingdom and still remain guiltless of bloodshed. So he said to his men, "Stay here a while, and do not follow me." Then he laid down his weapons, and taking only a leafy bough in his hand he walked slowly into the enemy ranks. As he passed through the midst of the armed multitude, he cried out in a loud and strong voice, "Now I shall see who will dare to raise a hand to shed the blood of the royal lineage!" Seeing him, all fell back, and not daring even to mutter, they left a wide passage for him on either side. And then when [King Emeric] reached his brother, he took him, and leading him outside the body of troops, he sent him to a certain castle for custody.|Thomas the Archdeacon: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split<ref>Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (ch. 23.), pp. 141–143.</ref>}}
Andrew was first imprisoned in the fort of Gornji Kneginec, then in Esztergom.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p126}} Alexander of the Hont-Pázmány clan freed him in early 1204.{{sfn|Bartl|Čičaj|Kohútova|Letz|2002|p30}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p126}} It is uncertain whether Andrew was freed by his partisans or his release took place with Emeric's consent.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|pp36–37}} Having fallen ill, King Emeric had his son, Ladislaus, crowned king on 26 August.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p89}} As Pope Innocent already ordered Archbishop Ugrin Csák to perform the coronation in April, it is plausible that the king decided on Andrew's release, therefore, the coronation was not vitally urgent.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p38}} Andrew reconciled with his dying brother, who entrusted him with "the guardianship of his son and the administration of the entire kingdom until the ward should reach the age of majority",<ref>Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (ch. 23.), p. 143.</ref> according to the nearly contemporaneous Thomas the Archdeacon.{{sfn|Almási|2012|p86}}Nephew's guardian (1204–1205)King Emeric died on 30 November 1204.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p89}} Andrew governed the kingdom as Ladislaus's regent, but subsequently he counted his regnal years from the time of his brother's death, showing that he already regarded himself as the lawful monarch during Ladislaus III's reign.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p89}} Pope Innocent told Andrew that he should remain loyal to Ladislaus,{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|pp227, 231}} also instructing him to fulfill his vow to lead a crusade, to secure the incomes of Emeric's widow and Ladislaus III's mother, Constance of Aragon, and to keep royal property intact. The pope's letters suggest that serious tensions burdened the relationship between Andrew and Constance after Emeric's death.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p=39}}
Instead, Andrew seized the money that Emeric had deposited for Ladislaus in Pilis Abbey.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|pp227, 231}} He also confiscated a significant portion of private wealth from Constance, who deposited it in the Stephanites' convent in Esztergom prior to that, in addition to the denial of her dower.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p40}} Queen Constance fled from Hungary, taking her son and the Holy Crown to Austria.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p127}} According to the Annals of Admont, "some bishops and nobles" escorted them, breaking through the blockade that Andrew erected along the Austrian border.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|p41}} Andrew prepared for a war against Leopold VI of Austria, but Ladislaus suddenly died in Vienna on 7 May 1205.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|pp227–228}} Andrew sent Bishop Peter of Győr to Austria, who successfully recovered the Holy Crown.{{sfn|Zsoldos|2022|pp48–49}}
Reign
"New institutions" and campaigns in Halych (1205–1217)
{{Main article|War of the Galician Succession (1205–1245)}}
]]
]]
John, Archbishop of Kalocsa, crowned Andrew king in Székesfehérvár on 29 May 1205.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p127}}{{sfn|Bartl|Čičaj|Kohútova|Letz|2002|p31}} Andrew introduced a new policy for royal grants, which he called "new institutions" in one of his charters.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p91}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p427}} He distributed large portions of the royal domain{{mdash}}royal castles and all estates attached to them{{mdash}}as inheritable grants to his supporters, declaring that "the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable."{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p427}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp91–92}} His "new institutions" altered the relations between the monarchs and the Hungarian lords. During the previous two centuries, a lord's status primarily depended on the income he received for his services to the monarch; after the introduction of the "new institutions", their inheritable estates yielded sufficient revenues.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p75}} This policy also diminished the funds upon which the authority of the ispáns, or heads, of the counties{{mdash}}who were appointed by the monarchs{{mdash}}had been based.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p93}}
During his reign, Andrew was intensely interested in the internal affairs of his former principality of Halych.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p89}} He launched his first campaign to recapture Halych in 1205 or 1206.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p89}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p127}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|pp251–253}} Upon the boyars' request, he intervened against Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov, and his allies on behalf of Daniel Romanovich, the child-prince of Halych, and Lodomeria. Svyatoslavich and his allies were forced to withdraw.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|pp253–254}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p127}} Andrew adopted the title of "King of Galicia and Lodomeria", demonstrating his claim to suzerainty in the two principalities.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p441}}{{sfn|Curta|2006|p317}}
After Andrew returned to Hungary, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich's distant cousin, Vladimir Igorevich, seized both Halych and Lodomeria, expelling Daniel Romanovich and his mother.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|pp254–255, 258}} They fled to Leszek I of Poland, who suggested that they visit Andrew.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p127}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p263}} However, Vladimir Igorevich "sent many gifts" to both Andrew and Leszek, dissuading "them from attacking him"<ref>The Hypatian Codex II: The Galician-Volynian Chronicle (year 1207), p. 19.</ref> on behalf of Romanovich, according to the Galician–Volhynian Chronicle.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p127}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p263}} Vladimir Igorevich's rebellious brother, Roman Igorevich, soon came to Hungary, seeking Andrew's assistance.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p263}} Roman returned to Halych and expelled Vladimir Igorevich with the help of Hungarian auxiliary troops.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p=263}}
Andrew confirmed the liberties of two Dalmatian towns{{mdash}}Split and Omiš{{mdash}}and issued a new charter listing the privileges of the archbishops of Split in 1207.{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p136}} Taking advantage of a conflict between Roman Igorevich and his boyars, Andrew sent troops to Halych under the command of Benedict, son of Korlát.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p128}} Benedict captured Roman Igorevich and occupied the principality in 1208 or 1209.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|pp263–264}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p128}} Instead of appointing a new prince, Andrew made Benedict governor of Halych.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p264}} Benedict "tortured boyars and was addicted to lechery",<ref>The Hypatian Codex II: The Galician-Volynian Chronicle (year 1210), p. 20.</ref> according to the Galician–Volhynian Chronicle. The boyars offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich, Prince of Novgorod, if he could overthrow Benedict.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p128}} Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych, but he could not defeat Benedict.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p=128}}
and Andrew depicted in the 13th-century {{ill|Landgrafenpsalter|de}} from the Landgraviate of Thuringia]]
Queen Gertrude's two brothers, Ekbert of Bamberg, Bishop of Bamberg, and Henry II, Margrave of Istria, fled to Hungary in 1208 after they were accused of participating in the murder of Philip, King of the Germans.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p128}}{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p233}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp90–91}} Andrew granted large domains to Bishop Ekbert in the Szepesség region (now Spiš, Slovakia).{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p233}} Gertrude's youngest brother, Berthold, had been Archbishop of Kalocsa since 1206; he was made Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia in 1209.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|pp232–233}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p428}} Andrew's generosity towards his wife's German relatives and courtiers discontented the local lords.{{sfn|Almási|2012|p88}}{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|pp232–234}} According to historian Gyula Kristó, the anonymous author of The Deeds of the Hungarians referred to the Germans from the Holy Roman Empire when he sarcastically mentioned that "{{nobr|now ...}} the Romans graze on the goods of Hungary."<ref>Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (ch. 9), p. 27.</ref>{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p234}} In 1209, Zadar, which had been lost to the Venetians, was liberated by one of Andrew's Dalmatian vassals, Domald of Sidraga, but the Venetians recaptured the town a year later.{{sfn|Magaš|2007|p58}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=149}}
Roman Igorevich reconciled with his brother, Vladimir Igorevich, in early 1209 or 1210.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p129}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p266}} Their united forces vanquished Benedict's army, expelling the Hungarians from Halych.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p129}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p266}} Vladimir Igorevich sent one of his sons, Vsevolod Vladimirovich, "bearing gifts to the king in Hungary"<ref>The Hypatian Codex II: The Galician-Volynian Chronicle (year 1211), p. 20.</ref> to appease Andrew, according to the Galician–Volhynian Chronicle.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p266}} A group of discontented Hungarian lords offered the crown to Andrew's cousins, the sons of Andrew's uncle, Géza; they lived in "Greek land" (the Byzantine Empire). However, the cousins' envoys were captured in Split in 1210.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p129}}{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p236}} In the early 1210s, Andrew sent "an army of Saxons, Vlachs, Székelys and Pechenegs" commanded by Joachim, Count of Hermannstadt, (now Sibiu, Romania) to assist Boril of Bulgaria's fight against three rebellious Cuman chieftains.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p385}}{{sfn|Spinei|2009|p145}} Around the same time, Hungarian troops occupied Belgrade and Barancs (now Braničevo, Serbia), which had been lost to Bulgaria under Emeric.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p102}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p131}} Andrew's army defeated the Cumans at Vidin.{{sfn|Spinei|2009|pp145–146}} Andrew granted the Barcaság (now Țara Bârsei, Romania) to the Teutonic Knights.{{sfn|Kroonen|Langbroek|Quak|Roeleveld|2014|p243}} The Knights were to defend the easternmost regions of the Kingdom of Hungary against the Cumans and encourage their conversion to Catholicism.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p90}}{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=404}}
A group of boyars, who were alarmed by the despotic acts of Vladimir Igorevich, asked Andrew to restore Daniel Romanovich as ruler of Halych in 1210 or 1211.{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p266}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p130}} Andrew and his allies{{mdash}}Leszek I of Poland and at least five Rus' princes{{mdash}}sent their armies to Halych and restored Daniel Romanovich.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p130}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|p272}} Local boyars expelled Daniel Romanovich's mother in 1212.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p130}} She persuaded Andrew to personally lead his army to Halych.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p130}} He captured Volodislav Kormilchich, the most influential boyar, and took him to Hungary.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p130}} After Andrew withdrew from Halych, the boyars again offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich, who expelled Daniel Romanovich and his mother from the principality.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p130}} Andrew departed for a new campaign against Halych in summer 1213.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p130}} During his absence, Hungarian lords who were aggrieved at Queen Gertrude's favoritism towards her German entourage captured and murdered her and many of her courtiers in the Pilis Hills on 28 September.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p91}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p130}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p429}} When he heard of her murder, Andrew returned to Hungary and ordered the execution of the murderer, Peter, son of Töre.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p91}} However, Peter's accomplices, including Palatine Bánk Bár-Kalán, did not receive severe punishments.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p91}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p429}} A group of Hungarian lords, whom Andrew called "perverts" in one of his letters, was plotting to dethrone Andrew and crown his eldest son, the eight-year-old Béla, but they failed to dethrone him and could only force Andrew to consent to Béla's coronation in 1214.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p94}}{{sfn|Almási|2012|p=89}}
Andrew and Leszek of Poland signed a treaty of alliance, which obliged Andrew's second son, Coloman, to marry Leszek of Poland's daughter, Salomea.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p131}} Andrew and Leszek jointly invaded Halych in 1214, and Coloman was made prince. He agreed to cede Przemyśl to Leszek of Poland.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p131}}{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p236}} The following year, Andrew returned to Halych and captured Przemyśl.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p131}} Leszek of Poland soon reconciled with Mstislav Mstislavich; they jointly invaded Halych and forced Coloman to flee to Hungary.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p131}} A new officer of state, the treasurer, was responsible for the administration of the royal chamber from around 1214 onwards.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p131}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p92}} However, royal revenues had significantly diminished.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p427}} Upon the advice of the treasurer, Denis, son of Ampud, Andrew imposed new taxes and farmed out royal income from minting, salt trade and custom duties.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|pp427–428}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p131}} The yearly exchange of coins also produced more revenue for the royal chamber.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p428}} However, these measures provoked discontent in Hungary.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p428}}
Andrew signed a new treaty of alliance with Leszek of Poland in the summer of 1216.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p132}} Leszek and Andrew's son, Coloman, invaded Halych and expelled Mstislav Mstislavich and Daniel Romanovich, after which Coloman was restored.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p132}} That same year, Andrew met Stephen Nemanjić, Grand Prince of Serbia, in Ravno (now Ćuprija, Serbia).{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p143}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp105–106}} He persuaded Stephen Nemanjić to negotiate with Henry, Latin Emperor of Constantinople, who was the uncle of Andrew's second wife, Yolanda de Courtenay.{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p143}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp105–106}} Stephen Nemanjić was crowned king of Serbia in 1217.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p108}} Andrew planned to invade Serbia, but Stephen Nemanjić's brother, Sava, dissuaded him, according to both versions of the Life of Sava.{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p143}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p108}}Andrew's crusade (1217–1218)
(from the Illuminated Chronicle)]]
In July 1216, the newly elected Pope Honorius III once again called upon Andrew to fulfill his father's vow to lead a crusade.{{sfn|Bárány|2013|p462}} Andrew, who had postponed the crusade at least three times (in 1201, 1209 and 1213), finally agreed.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p387}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p146}} Steven Runciman, Tibor Almási and other modern historians say that Andrew hoped that his decision would increase his likelihood of being elected as Latin Emperor of Constantinople, because his wife's uncle, Emperor Henry, had died in June.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p441}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p146}}{{sfn|Almási|2012|p87}} According to a letter written by Pope Honorius in 1217, envoys from the Latin Empire had actually informed Andrew that they planned to elect either him or his father-in-law, Peter of Courtenay, as emperor.{{sfn|Bárány|2013|p463-465}} Nonetheless, the barons of the Latin Empire elected Peter of Courtenay in the summer of 1216.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p146}}{{sfn|Almási|2012|pp87–88}}{{sfn|Bárány|2013|p463}}
Andrew sold and mortgaged royal estates to finance his campaign, which became part of the Fifth Crusade.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p387}} He renounced his claim to Zadar in favor of the Republic of Venice so that he could secure shipping for his army.{{sfn|Magaš|2007|p58}}{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p387}} He entrusted Hungary to Archbishop John of Esztergom, and entrusted Croatia and Dalmatia to Pontius de Cruce, the Templar prior of Vrana.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p387}} In July 1217, Andrew departed from Zagreb, accompanied by Dukes Leopold VI of Austria and Otto I of Merania.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|pp387–388}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p133}} His army was so large{{mdash}}at least 10,000 mounted soldiers and uncountable infantrymen{{mdash}}that most of it stayed behind when Andrew and his men embarked in Split two months later.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|pp387–388}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp147–148}}{{sfn|Richard|1999|p297}} The ships transported them to Acre, where they landed in October.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p133}}
The leaders of the crusade included John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Leopold of Austria, the Grand Masters of the Hospitallers, the Templars and the Teutonic Knights. They held a war council in Acre, with Andrew leading the meeting.{{sfn|Sterns|1985|p358}} In early November, the Crusaders launched a campaign for the Jordan River, forcing Al-Adil I, Sultan of Egypt, to withdraw without fighting; the crusaders then pillaged Beisan.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p390}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p148}} After the crusaders returned to Acre, Andrew did not participate in any other military actions.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p393}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp148–149}} Instead, he collected relics, including a water jug allegedly used at the marriage at Cana, the heads of Saint Stephen and Margaret the Virgin, the right hands of the Apostles Thomas and Bartholomew and a part of Aaron's rod.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp148–149}} If Thomas the Archdeacon's report of certain "evil and audacious men" in Acre who "treacherously passed him a poisoned drink"<ref name"autogenerated165">Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (ch. 25.), p. 165.</ref> is reliable, Andrew's inactivity was because of illness.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p393}}
Andrew decided to return home at the very beginning of 1218, even though Raoul of Merencourt, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, threatened him with excommunication.{{sfn|Richard|1999|p298}}{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|pp388, 393}} Andrew first visited Tripoli and participated in the marriage of Bohemond IV of Antioch and Melisende of Lusignan on 10 January.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p393}} From Tripoli, he travelled to Cilicia, where he and Leo I of Armenia betrothed Andrew's youngest son, Andrew, and Leo's daughter, Isabella.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p393}}{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p238}} Andrew proceeded through the Seldjuk Sultanate of Rum before arriving in Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey).{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p393}} His cousins (the sons of his uncle, Géza) attacked him when he was in Nicaea.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p238}} He arranged the marriage of his oldest son, Béla, to Maria Laskarina, a daughter of Emperor Theodore I Laskaris.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p238}} When he arrived in Bulgaria, Andrew was detained until he "gave full surety that his daughter would be united in marriage"<ref name"autogenerated165"/> to Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria, according to Thomas the Archdeacon.{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p148}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p129}} Andrew returned to Hungary in late 1218.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p133}} Andrew's "crusade had achieved nothing and brought him no honor", according to historian Thomas Van Cleve.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p394}} Oliver of Paderborn, James of Vitry and other 13th-century authors blamed Andrew for the failure of the crusade.{{sfn|Van Cleve|1969|p394}} Stephen Donnachie says that "...from examining Honorius’s registers and the diplomatic communications between Andrew and the papal curia, Andrew’s genuine commitment to the crusade should not be doubted nor his extensive preparations for the campaign dismissed, even if he did ultimately bungle his opportunity."<ref>[https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/2259 Donnachie, Stephen. "review of 'Curia and Crusade: Pope Honorius III and the Recovery of the Holy Land, 1216–1227'", (review no. 2259)]{{doi| 10.14296/RiH/2014/2259}} Date accessed: 4 January 2020</ref>
Golden Bull (1218–1222)
]]
When he returned to Hungary, Andrew complained to Pope Honorius that his kingdom was "in a miserable and destroyed state, deprived of all of its revenues."{{sfn|Engel|2001|p54}} A group of barons had even expelled Archbishop John from Hungary.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p133}} Andrew was in massive debt because of his crusade, which forced him to impose extraordinarily high taxes and debase coinage.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p54}} In 1218 or 1219, Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych and captured Andrew's son, Coloman.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p134}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2003|pp289–290}} Andrew compromised with Mstislavich. Coloman was released, and Andrew's youngest son and namesake was betrothed to Mstislavich's daughter.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p134}} In 1220, a group of lords persuaded Andrew to make his eldest son, Béla, the duke of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p238}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p425}}
Andrew employed Jews and Muslims to administer royal revenues, which caused a discord between Andrew and the Holy See starting in the early 1220s.{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp96–97}}{{sfn|Berend|2006|p152}} Pope Honorius urged Andrew and Queen Yolanda to prohibit Muslims from employing Christians.{{sfn|Berend|2006|p152}} Andrew confirmed the privileges of clergymen, including their exemption from taxes and their right to be exclusively judged by church courts, but also prohibited the consecration of udvornici, castle folk and other serfs in early 1222.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p135}}{{sfn|Bartl|Čičaj|Kohútova|Letz|2002|pp30–31}} However, a new conflict emerged between Andrew and the Holy See after he persuaded Béla to separate from his wife, Maria Laskarina.{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p150}} An "immense crowd" approached Andrew around April 1222, demanding "grave and unjust things", according to a letter of Pope Honorius.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p94}} Actually, the royal servants{{mdash}}who were landowners directly subject to the monarch's power and obliged to fight in the royal army{{mdash}}assembled, forcing Andrew to dismiss Julius Kán and his other officials. Andrew was also forced to issue a royal charter, the Golden Bull of 1222.{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp85, 94}} The charter summarized the liberties of the royal servants, including their exemption from taxes and the jurisdiction of the ispáns.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p94}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|pp428–429}} The last clause of the Golden Bull authorized "the bishops as well as the other barons and nobles of the realm, singularly and in common" to resist the monarch if he did not honor the provisions of the charter.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p94}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p429}} The Golden Bull clearly distinguished the royal servants from the king's other subjects, which led to the rise of the Hungarian nobility.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p94}} The Golden Bull is commonly compared with England's Magna Carta – a similar charter which was sealed a few years earlier in 1215.{{sfn|Ertman|1997|p273}} A significant difference between them is that, in England, the settlement strengthened the position of all the royal subjects but, in Hungary, the aristocracy came to dominate both the crown and the lower orders.{{sfn|Ertman|1997|pp273&ndash;4}}Conflicts with son and the Church (1222–1234)Andrew discharged Palatine Theodore Csanád and restored Julius Kán in the second half of 1222.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p137}} The following year, Pope Honorius urged Andrew to launch a new crusade.{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p151}} If the report of the Continuatio Claustroneuburgensis is reliable, Andrew took the cross to show that he intended to launch a new crusade, but no other sources mention this event.{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p151}} Andrew planned to arrange a new marriage for his eldest son, Béla, but Pope Honorius mediated a reconciliation between Béla and his wife in the autumn of 1223.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p137}}{{sfn|Bárány|2012|p150}} This angered Andrew, and Béla fled to Austria. He returned in 1224 after the bishops persuaded Andrew to forgive him.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p=137}}
In his Diploma Andreanum of 1224, Andrew confirmed the privileges of the "Saxons" who inhabited the region of Hermannstadt in southern Transylvania (now Sibiu, Romania).{{sfn|Curta|2006|p403}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p114}} The following year, he launched a campaign against the Teutonic Knights, who had attempted to eliminate his suzerainty. The Knights were forced to leave Barcaság and the neighboring lands.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p403}}{{sfn|Spinei|2009|p147}} Andrew's envoys and Leopold VI of Austria signed a treaty on 6 June, which ended the armed conflicts along the Hungarian-Austrian border. As part of the treaty, Leopold VI paid an indemnification for the damages that his troops had caused in Hungary.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p138}} Andrew made his oldest son, Béla, Duke of Transylvania. Béla's former duchy was given to Andrew's second son, Coloman, in 1226.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p138}} Duke Béla started expanding his suzerainty over the Cumans, who inhabited the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains.{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp405–405}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p95}} Andrew launched a campaign against Mstislav Mstislavich in 1226 because the latter refused to grant Halych to Andrew's youngest son despite a previous compromise.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p138}} Andrew besieged and captured Przemyśl, Terebovl, and other fortresses in Halych.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p138}} However, his troops were routed at Kremenets and Zvenigorod, forcing him to withdraw.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p138}} Despite his victories, Mstislavich ceded Halych to Andrew's son in early 1227.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p138}}
in Budapest]]
In 1228, Andrew authorized his son, Béla, to revise his previous land grants.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p139}} Pope Honorius also supported Béla's efforts.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p139}} Béla confiscated the domains of two noblemen, Simon Kacsics and Bánk Bár-Kalán, who had taken part in the conspiracy to murder Queen Gertrude.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p139}} In 1229, upon Béla's proposal, Andrew confirmed the privileges of the Cuman chieftains who had subjected themselves to Béla.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p140}} Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom, made a complaint about Andrew to the Holy See, because Andrew continued to employ Jews and Muslims.{{sfn|Berend|2006|p155}} Pope Gregory IX authorized the archbishop to perform acts of religious censure to persuade Andrew to dismiss his non-Christian officials.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p141}} Under duress, Andrew issued a new Golden Bull in 1231, which confirmed that Muslims were banned from employment, and empowered the Archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate the king if he failed to honor the provisions of the new Golden Bull.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p141}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p94}}{{sfn|Berend|2006|pp154–155}} In the second half of the year, Andrew invaded Halych and restored his youngest son, Andrew, to the throne.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p141}}
Archbishop Robert excommunicated Palatine Denis and put Hungary under an interdict on 25 February 1232, because the employment of Jews and Muslims continued despite the Golden Bull of 1231.{{sfn|Berend|2006|p157}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p142}} Since the archbishop accused the Muslims of persuading Andrew to seize church property, Andrew restored properties to the archbishop, who soon suspended the interdict.{{sfn|Berend|2006|p157}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p142}} Upon Andrew's demand, Pope Gregory sent Cardinal Giacomo di Pecorari as his legate to Hungary and promised that nobody would be excommunicated without the pope's special authorization.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p142}} Although Andrew departed for Halych to support his youngest son in a fight against Daniel Romanivich, he continued his negotiations with the papal legate.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p143}} On 20 August 1233, in the forests of Bereg, he vowed that he would not employ Jews and Muslims to administrate royal revenues, and would pay 10,000 marks as compensation for usurped Church revenues.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p94}}{{sfn|Berend|2006|pp158–159}} Andrew repeated his oath in Esztergom in September.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p=143}}
Andrew and Frederick II, Duke of Austria, signed a peace treaty in late 1233.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p143}} Andrew, who had been widowed, married the 23-year-old Beatrice d'Este on 14 May 1234, even though his sons were sharply opposed to his third marriage.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p243}} John, Bishop of Bosnia, put Hungary under a new interdict in the first half of 1234, because Andrew had not dismissed his non-Christian officials despite his oath of Bereg.{{sfn|Berend|2006|p160}}{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p144}} Andrew and Archbishop Robert of Esztergom protested against the bishop's act at the Holy See.{{sfn|Berend|2006|p160}}Last years (1234–1235)Danilo Romanovich laid siege to Halych, and Andrew's youngest son died during the siege in the autumn of 1234.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p144}} However, Andrew stormed Austria in the summer of 1235, forcing Duke Frederick to pay an indemnification for damages that his troops had caused while raiding Hungary.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p144}} Upon Andrew's demand, Pope Gregory declared on 31 August that Andrew and his sons could only be excommunicated by the authorization of the Holy See.{{sfn|Érszegi|Solymosi|1981|p144}} Andrew died on 21 September,{{sfn|Engel|2001|p98}} and was buried in Egres Abbey.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p244}}
Family
{{ahnentafel
|collapsedyes |aligncenter
|title Ancestors of Andrew II of Hungary{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p229, Appendices 2–4}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p345, Appendix III}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p104}}{{sfn|Dimnik|1994|pp=85, 95}}
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
| 1= 1. Andrew II of Hungary
| 2= 2. Béla III of Hungary
| 3= 3. Agnes of Antioch
| 4= 4. Géza II of Hungary
| 5= 5. Euphrosyne of Kiev
| 6= 6. Raynald of Châtillon
| 7= 7. Constance of Antioch
| 8= 8. Béla II of Hungary
| 9= 9. Helena of Rascia
|10= 10. Mstislav I of Kiev
|11|12 12. Hervé II of Donzy<ref group="note">In older historiography, Raynald was described as the son of Geoffrey, Count of Gien, but in 1989 Jean Richard demonstrated Raynald's kinship with the Lords of Donzy (Hamilton 2000, p. 104.)</ref>
|13|14 14. Bohemund II of Antioch
|15= 15. Alice of Jerusalem
}}
Andrew's first wife, Gertrude of Merania, was born around 1185, according to historian Gyula Kristó.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p231}} Their first child, Mary, was born in 1203 or 1204. She became the wife of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p232, Appendix 4}} Andrew's eldest son, Béla, was born in 1206. He later succeeded his father as king.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p232, Appendix 4}} Andrew's daughter Elisabeth was born in 1207. She married Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p232, Appendix 4}} She died in 1231 and was canonized during her father's life.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p97}} Andrew's second son, Coloman, was born in 1208. His third son, Andrew, was born around 1210. Princes Coloman and Andrew each ruled the Principality of Halych for a short period.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p232, Appendix 4}}
Two years after his first wife was murdered, Andrew married Yolanda de Courtenay, who was born around 1198.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|pp236–237}} Their only child, Yolanda, was born around 1219 and married James I of Aragon.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|pAppendix 4}} Andrew's third wife, Beatrice d'Este, was about twenty-three when they married in 1234.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p243, Appendix 4}} She gave birth to a son, Stephen, after Andrew's death.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|pp243, 282, Appendix 4}} However, Andrew's two older sons, Béla and Coloman, accused her of adultery and considered her child to be a bastard.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p282}} Her grandson, Andrew, became the last monarch of the House of Árpád.{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p282}}
Notes
{{Reflist|groupnote}}References{{reflist|30em}}SourcesPrimary sources
{{Refbegin}}
*Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); Anonymus and Master Roger; CEU Press; {{ISBN|978-963-9776-95-1}}.
*Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (Latin text by Olga Perić, edited, translated and annotated by Damir Karbić, Mirjana Matijević Sokol and James Ross Sweeney) (2006). CEU Press. {{ISBN|963-7326-59-6}}.
*The Hypatian Codex II: The Galician-Volynian Chronicle (An annotated translation by George A. Perfecky) (1973). Wilhelm Fink Verlag. LCCN 72-79463.
{{Refend}}
Secondary sources
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |lastAlmási |firstTibor |editor1-lastGujdár |editor1-firstNoémi |editor2-lastSzatmáry |editor2-firstNóra |titleMagyar királyok nagykönyve: Uralkodóink, kormányzóink és az erdélyi fejedelmek életének és tetteinek képes története [Encyclopedia of the Kings of Hungary: An Illustrated History of the Life and Deeds of Our Monarchs, Regents and the Princes of Transylvania] |publisherReader's Digest |year2012 |pages86–89 |chapterII. András |isbn978-963-289-214-6 |language=hu}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitleAndrew II |volume 1 |lastBain |first Robert Nisbet |author-linkRobert Nisbet Bain| pages 967&ndash;968 }}
*{{cite book |lastBárány |firstAttila |editor1-lastKerny |editor1-firstTerézia |editor2-lastSmohay |editor2-firstAndrás |titleII. András and Székesfehérvár [Andrew II and Székesfehérvár] |publisherSzékesfehérvári Egyházmegyei Múzeum |year2012 |pages129–173 |chapterII. András balkáni külpolitikája [Andrew II's foreign policy in the Balkans] |isbn978-963-87898-4-6 |language=hu}}
* {{cite journal|last Bárány |first Attila |title II. András és a Latin Császárság [Andrew II and the Latin Empire of Constantinople] | journal Hadtörténelmi Közlemények | volume 126 | issue 2 | pages 461–480 |year2013 |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/4465330 | language hu | issn=0017-6540 }}
* {{Cite book|lastBárány|firstAttila|chapterThe Relations of King Emeric and Andrew II of Hungary with the Balkan States|titleStefan the First-Crowned and His Time|year2020|locationBelgrade|publisherInstitute of History|pages213–249|isbn9788677431396|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=jMz7DwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1Bartl |first1Július |last2Čičaj |first2Viliam |last3Kohútova |first3Mária |last4Letz |first4Róbert |last5Segeš |first5Vladimír |last6Škvarna |first6Dušan |year2002|titleSlovak History: Chronology & Lexicon |publisherBolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Slovenské Pedegogické Nakladatel'stvo |isbn0-86516-444-4}}
*{{cite book |lastBerend |firstNora |author-linkNora Berend |year2006|titleAt the Gate of Christendom: Jews, Muslims and "Pagans" in Medieval Hungary, c. 1000&ndash;c.1300 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-02720-5}}
*{{cite book |last1Berend |first1Nora |author-link1Nora Berend |last2Urbańczyk |first2Przemysław |last3Wiszewski |first3Przemysław |year2013 |titleCentral Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c. 900-c. 1300 |publisher Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78156-5 }}
*{{cite book |lastCurta |firstFlorin |author-linkFlorin Curta |year2006 |titleSoutheastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt |url-accessregistration |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89452-4}}
*{{cite book |lastDimnik |firstMartin |year1994 |titleThe Dynasty of Chernigov, 1054–1146 |publisherPontificial Institute of Mediaeval Studies |isbn0-88844-116-9 }}
*{{cite book |lastDimnik |firstMartin |year2003 |titleThe Dynasty of Chernigov, 1146–1246 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-03981-9 }}
*{{cite book |lastEngel |firstPál |author-linkPál Engel |year2001 |titleThe Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526 |publisher I.B. Tauris Publishers |isbn=1-86064-061-3}}
*{{cite book |last1Érszegi |first1Géza |last2Solymosi |first2László |editor-lastSolymosi |editor-firstLászló | titleMagyarország történeti kronológiája, I: a kezdetektől 1526-ig [Historical Chronology of Hungary, Volume I: From the Beginning to 1526] |publisherAkadémiai Kiadó |year1981 |pages79–187 |chapterAz Árpádok királysága, 1000–1301 [The Monarchy of the Árpáds, 1000–1301] |isbn963-05-2661-1|language=hu}}
*{{cite book |lastErtman |firstThomas |titleBirth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe |urlhttps://archive.org/details/birthofleviathan0000ertm |url-accessregistration |publisherCambridge University Press |year1997 |isbn9780521484275}}
*{{The Late Medieval Balkans}}
*{{cite book |lastHamilton |firstBernard |year2000 |titleThe Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-64187-6 }}
*{{cite book |lastKontler |firstLászló |year1999 |titleMillennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary |publisherAtlantisz Publishing House |isbn963-9165-37-9}}
*{{cite book |lastKristó |firstGyula |author-linkGyula Kristó |editor1-lastKristó |editor1-firstGyula |editor2-lastEngel |editor2-firstPál |editor3-lastMakk |editor3-firstFerenc | titleKorai magyar történeti lexikon (9–14. század) [Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History (9th–14th centuries)] |publisherAkadémiai Kiadó |year1994 |page43 |chapterII. András |isbn963-05-6722-9|languagehu}}
*{{Cite book |last1Kristó |first1Gyula |author-link1Gyula Kristó |last2Makk |first2Ferenc |year1996 |titleAz Árpád-ház uralkodói [Rulers of the House of Árpád]|publisherI.P.C. Könyvek | isbn963-7930-97-3|languagehu}}
*{{cite book |titleAmsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik |volume72 |editor1-firstGuus |editor1-lastKroonen |editor2-firstErika |editor2-lastLangbroek |editor3-firstArend |editor3-lastQuak |editor4-firstAnnelies |editor4-lastRoeleveld |publisherEditions Rodopi |year2014 }}
*{{cite book |lastMagaš |firstBranka |year2007 |titleCroatia Through History |publisherSAQI |isbn978-0-86356-775-9}}
*{{cite book |lastRichard |firstJean |year1999 |titleThe Crusades, c. 1071–c. 1291 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn0-521-62566-1 }}
*{{Runciman-A History of the Crusades | volume2 | year1989 |isbn0-521-06162-8 |ref{{harvid|Runciman|1989a}}}}
*{{Runciman-A History of the Crusades | volume3 | year1989 |isbn0-521-06163-6 |ref{{harvid|Runciman|1989b}}}}
*{{Cite book |lastSpinei |firstVictor |year2009 |titleThe Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century |publisherKoninklijke Brill NV |isbn978-90-04-17536-5}}
*{{cite book |lastSterns |firstIndrikis |editor1-lastSetton |editor1-firstKenneth M. |editor2-lastZacour |editor2-first Norman P. |editor3-lastHazard |editor3-firstHarry | titleA History of the Crusades, Volume V: The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East |publisherThe University of Wisconsin Press |year1985 |pages315–378 |chapterThe Teutonic Knights in the Crusader States |isbn0-299-09140-6}}
*{{cite book |lastVan Cleve |firstThomas C. |editor1-lastSetton |editor1-firstKenneth M. |editor2-lastWolff |editor2-firstRobert Lee |editor3-lastHazard |editor3-firstHarry | titleA History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |publisherThe University of Wisconsin Press |year1969 |pages377–428 |chapterThe Fifth Crusade |isbn0-299-04844-6}}
*{{cite book |lastZsoldos |firstAttila |year2022 |titleAz Aranybulla királya [The King of the Golden Bull] |publisherVárosi Levéltár és Kutatóintézet |isbn978-963-8406-26-2|language=hu}}
{{Refend}}
{{commons category|Andrew II of Hungary}}
{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|House of Árpád| |{{circa}} 1177|21 September|1235}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{S-bef|before=Roman Mstislavich}}
{{S-ttl|titlePrince of Halych|reason|years=1188–1189 or 1190}}
{{S-aft|after=Vladimir II Yaroslavich}}
{{S-bef|before=Ladislaus III}}
{{S-ttl|titleKing of Hungary and Croatia|years1205–1235}}
{{S-aft|after=Béla IV}}
{{S-break}}
{{S-bef|before=Roman II Igorevich<br/>(as prince)}}
{{S-ttl|titleKing of Halych|years1208 or 1209–1210}}
{{S-aft|after=Vladimir III Igorevich<br/>(as prince)}}
{{S-end}}
{{Hungarian kings}}
{{Croatian kings}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal|Hungary|History}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Andrew 02 of Hungary}}
Category:1170s births
Category:1235 deaths
Category:12th-century Hungarian people
Category:13th-century Hungarian monarchs
Category:Kings of Hungary
Category:Kings of Croatia
Category:House of Árpád
Category:Christians of the Fifth Crusade
Category:Burials at Oradea Cathedral, Crişana
Category:Princes of Halych
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_II_of_Hungary
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.643525
|
1756
|
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
|
thumb|right|150px|David Hume by Allan Ramsay (1766)
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding is a book by the Scottish empiricist philosopher David Hume, published in English in 1748 under the title Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding until a 1757 edition came up with the now-familiar name. It was a revision of an earlier effort, Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature, published anonymously in London in 1739–40. Hume was disappointed with the reception of the Treatise, which "fell dead-born from the press," as he put it, and so tried again to disseminate his more developed ideas to the public by writing a shorter and more polemical work.
The end product of his labours was the Enquiry. The Enquiry dispensed with much of the material from the Treatise, in favor of clarifying and emphasizing its most important aspects. For example, Hume's views on personal identity do not appear. However, more vital propositions, such as Hume's argument for the role of habit in a theory of knowledge, are retained.
This book has proven highly influential, both in the years that would immediately follow and today. Immanuel Kant points to it as the book which woke him from his self-described "dogmatic slumber." The Enquiry is widely regarded as a classic in modern philosophical literature.
Content
The argument of the Enquiry proceeds by a series of incremental steps, separated into chapters which logically succeed one another. After expounding his epistemology, Hume explains how to apply his principles to specific topics.
1. Of the different species of philosophy
In the first section of the Enquiry, Hume provides a rough introduction to philosophy as a whole. For Hume, philosophy can be split into two general parts: natural philosophy and the philosophy of human nature (or, as he calls it, "moral philosophy"). The latter investigates both actions and thoughts. He emphasizes in this section, by way of warning, that philosophers with nuanced thoughts will likely be cast aside in favor of those whose conclusions more intuitively match popular opinion. However, he insists, precision helps art and craft of all kinds, including the craft of philosophy.
2. Of the origin of ideas
Next, Hume discusses the distinction between impressions and ideas. By "impressions", he means sensations, while by "ideas", he means memories and imaginings. According to Hume, the difference between the two is that ideas are less vivacious than impressions. For example, the idea of the taste of an orange is far inferior to the impression (or sensation) of actually eating one. Writing within the tradition of empiricism, he argues that impressions are the source of all ideas.
Hume accepts that ideas may be either the product of mere sensation or of the imagination working in conjunction with sensation. According to Hume, the creative faculty makes use of (at least) four mental operations that produce imaginings out of sense-impressions. These operations are compounding (or the addition of one idea onto another, such as a horn on a horse to create a unicorn); transposing (or the substitution of one part of a thing with the part from another, such as with the body of a man upon a horse to make a centaur); augmenting (as with the case of a giant, whose size has been augmented); and diminishing (as with Lilliputians, whose size has been diminished). (Hume 1974:317) In a later chapter, he also mentions the operations of mixing, separating, and dividing. (Hume 1974:340) thumb|Fig. 1. The Missing Shade of Blue
However, Hume admits that there is one objection to his account: the problem of "The Missing Shade of Blue". In this thought-experiment, he asks us to imagine a man who has experienced every shade of blue except for one (see Fig. 1). He predicts that this man will be able to divine the color of this particular shade of blue, despite the fact that he has never experienced it. This seems to pose a serious problem for the empirical account, though Hume brushes it aside as an exceptional case by stating that one may experience a novel idea that itself is derived from combinations of previous impressions. (Hume 1974:319)
3. Of the association of ideas
In this chapter, Hume discusses how thoughts tend to come in sequences, as in trains of thought. He explains that there are at least three kinds of associations between ideas: resemblance, contiguity in space-time, and cause-and-effect. He argues that there must be some universal principle that must account for the various sorts of connections that exist between ideas. However, he does not immediately show what this principle might be. (Hume 1974:320-321)
4. Sceptical doubts concerning the operations of the understanding (in two parts)
In the first part, Hume discusses how the objects of inquiry are either "relations of ideas" or "matters of fact", which is roughly the distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions. The former, he tells the reader, are proved by demonstration, while the latter are given through experience. (Hume 1974:322) In explaining how matters of fact are entirely a product of experience, he dismisses the notion that they may be arrived at through a priori reasoning. For Hume, every effect only follows its cause arbitrarily—they are entirely distinct from one another. (Hume 1974:324)
In part two, Hume inquires into how anyone can justifiably believe that experience yields any conclusions about the world:
"When it is asked, What is the nature of all our reasonings concerning matter of fact? the proper answer seems to be, that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect. When again it is asked, What is the foundation of all our reasonings and conclusions concerning that relation? it may be replied in one word, experience. But if we still carry on our sifting humor, and ask, What is the foundation of all conclusions from experience? this implies a new question, which may be of more difficult solution and explication." (Hume 1974:328)
He shows how a satisfying argument for the validity of experience can be based neither on demonstration (since "it implies no contradiction that the course of nature may change") nor experience (since that would be a circular argument). (Hume 1974:330-332) Here he is describing what would become known as the problem of induction.
5. Sceptical solution of these doubts (in two parts)
According to Hume, we assume that experience tells us something about the world because of habit or custom, which human nature forces us to take seriously. This is also, presumably, the "principle" that organizes the connections between ideas. Indeed, one of the many famous passages of the Enquiry is on the topic of the incorrigibility of human custom. In Section XII, Of the academical or sceptical philosophy, Hume will argue,
"The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive principles of skepticism is action, and employment, and the occupations of common life. These principles may flourish and triumph in the schools; where it is, indeed, difficult, if not impossible, to refute them. But as soon as they leave the shade, and by the presence of the real objects, which actuate our passions and sentiments, are put in opposition to the more powerful principles of our nature, they vanish like smoke, and leave the most determined skeptic in the same condition as other mortals." (Hume 1974:425)
In the second part, he provides an account of beliefs. He explains that the difference between belief and fiction is that the former produces a certain feeling of confidence which the latter doesn't. (Hume 1974:340)
6. Of probability
This short chapter begins with the notions of probability and chance. For him, "probability" means a higher chance of occurring, and brings about a higher degree of subjective expectation in the viewer. By "chance", he means all those particular comprehensible events which the viewer considers possible in accord with the viewer's experience. However, further experience takes these equal chances, and forces the imagination to observe that certain chances arise more frequently than others. These gentle forces upon the imagination cause the viewer to have strong beliefs in outcomes. This effect may be understood as another case of custom or habit taking past experience and using it to predict the future. (Hume 1974:346-348)
7. Of the idea of necessary connection (in two parts)
right|thumb|150px|Nicolas Malebranche, one of Hume's philosophical opponents
By "necessary connection", Hume means the power or force which necessarily ties one idea to another. He rejects the notion that any sensible qualities are necessarily conjoined, since that would mean we could know something prior to experience. Unlike his predecessors, Berkeley and Locke, Hume rejects the idea that volitions or impulses of the will may be inferred to necessarily connect to the actions they produce by way of some sense of the power of the will. He reasons that, 1. if we knew the nature of this power, then the mind-body divide would seem totally unmysterious to us; 2. if we had immediate knowledge of this mysterious power, then we would be able to intuitively explain why it is that we can control some parts of our bodies (e.g., our hands or tongues), and not others (e.g., the liver or heart); 3. we have no immediate knowledge of the powers which allow an impulse of volition to create an action (e.g., of the "muscles, and nerves, and animal spirits" which are the immediate cause of an action). (Hume 1974:353-354) He produces like arguments against the notion that we have knowledge of these powers as they affect the mind alone. (Hume 1974:355-356) He also argues in brief against the idea that causes are mere occasions of the will of some god(s), a view associated with the philosopher Nicolas Malebranche. (Hume 1974:356-359)
Having dispensed with these alternative explanations, he identifies the source of our knowledge of necessary connections as arising out of observation of constant conjunction of certain impressions across many instances. In this way, people know of necessity through rigorous custom or habit, and not from any immediate knowledge of the powers of the will. (Hume 1974:361)
8. Of liberty and necessity (in two parts)
Here Hume tackles the problem of how liberty may be reconciled with metaphysical necessity (otherwise known as a compatibilist formulation of free will). Hume believes that all disputes on the subject have been merely verbal arguments—that is to say, arguments which are based on a lack of prior agreement on definitions. He first shows that it is clear that most events are deterministic, but human actions are more controversial. However, he thinks that these too occur out of necessity since an outside observer can see the same regularity that he would in a purely physical system. To show the compatibility of necessity and liberty, Hume defines liberty as the ability to act on the basis of one's will e.g. the capacity to will one's actions but not to will one's will. He then shows (quite briefly) how determinism and free will are compatible notions, and have no bad consequences on ethics or moral life.
9. Of the reason of animals
Hume insists that the conclusions of the Enquiry will be very powerful if they can be shown to apply to animals and not just humans. He believed that animals were able to infer the relation between cause and effect in the same way that humans do: through learned expectations. (Hume 1974:384) He also notes that this "inferential" ability that animals have is not through reason, but custom alone. Hume concludes that there is an innate faculty of instincts which both beasts and humans share, namely, the ability to reason experimentally (through custom). Nevertheless, he admits, humans and animals differ in mental faculties in a number of ways, including: differences in memory and attention, inferential abilities, ability to make deductions in a long chain, ability to grasp ideas more or less clearly, the human capacity to worry about conflating unrelated circumstances, a sagely prudence which arrests generalizations, a capacity for a greater inner library of analogies to reason with, an ability to detach oneself and scrap one's own biases, and an ability to converse through language (and thus gain from the experience of others' testimonies). (Hume 1974:385, footnote 17.)
10. Of miracles (in two parts)
The next topic which Hume strives to give treatment is that of the reliability of human testimony, and of the role that testimony plays a part in epistemology. This was not an idle concern for Hume. Depending on its outcome, the entire treatment would give the epistemologist a degree of certitude in the treatment of miracles.
True to his empirical thesis, Hume tells the reader that, though testimony does have some force, it is never quite as powerful as the direct evidence of the senses. That said, he provides some reasons why we may have a basis for trust in the testimony of persons: because a) human memory can be relatively tenacious; and b) because people are inclined to tell the truth, and ashamed of telling falsities. Needless to say, these reasons are only to be trusted to the extent that they conform to experience. (Hume 1974:389)
And there are a number of reasons to be skeptical of human testimony, also based on experience. If a) testimonies conflict one another, b) there are a small number of witnesses, c) the speaker has no integrity, d) the speaker is overly hesitant or bold, or e) the speaker is known to have motives for lying, then the epistemologist has reason to be skeptical of the speaker's claims. (Hume 1974:390)
There is one final criterion that Hume thinks gives us warrant to doubt any given testimony, and that is f) if the propositions being communicated are miraculous. Hume understands a miracle to be any event which contradicts the laws of nature. He argues that the laws of nature have an overwhelming body of evidence behind them, and are so well demonstrated to everyone's experience, that any deviation from those laws necessarily flies in the face of all evidence. (Hume 1974:391-392)
Moreover, he stresses that talk of the miraculous has no surface validity, for four reasons. First, he explains that in all of history there has never been a miracle which was attested to by a wide body of disinterested experts. Second, he notes that human beings delight in a sense of wonder, and this provides a villain with an opportunity to manipulate others. Third, he thinks that those who hold onto the miraculous have tended towards barbarism. Finally, since testimonies tend to conflict with one another when it comes to the miraculous—that is, one man's religious miracle may be contradicted by another man's miracle—any testimony relating to the fantastic is self-denunciating. (Hume 1974:393-398)
Still, Hume takes care to warn that historians are generally to be trusted with confidence, so long as their reports on facts are extensive and uniform. However, he seems to suggest that historians are as fallible at interpreting the facts as the rest of humanity. Thus, if every historian were to claim that there was a solar eclipse in the year 1600, then though we might at first naively regard that as in violation of natural laws, we'd come to accept it as a fact. But if every historian were to assert that Queen Elizabeth was observed walking around happy and healthy after her funeral, and then interpreted that to mean that they had risen from the dead, then we'd have reason to appeal to natural laws in order to dispute their interpretation. (Hume 1974:400-402)
11. Of a particular providence and of a future state
Hume continues his application of epistemology to theology by an extended discussion on heaven and hell. The brunt of this chapter allegedly narrates the opinions, not of Hume, but of one of Hume's anonymous friends, who again presents them in an imagined speech by the philosopher Epicurus. His friend argues that, though it is possible to trace a cause from an effect, it is not possible to infer unseen effects from a cause thus traced. The friend insists, then, that even though we might postulate that there is a first cause behind all things—God—we can't infer anything about the afterlife, because we don't know anything of the afterlife from experience, and we can't infer it from the existence of God. (Hume 1974:408)
Hume offers his friend an objection: if we see an unfinished building, then can't we infer that it has been created by humans with certain intentions, and that it will be finished in the future? His friend concurs, but indicates that there is a relevant disanalogy that we can't pretend to know the contents of the mind of God, while we can know the designs of other humans. Hume seems essentially persuaded by his friend's reasoning. (Hume 1974:412-414)
12. Of the academical or skeptical philosophy (in three parts)
The first section of the last chapter is well organized as an outline of various skeptical arguments. The treatment includes the arguments of atheism, Cartesian skepticism, "light" skepticism, and rationalist critiques of empiricism. Hume shows that even light skepticism leads to crushing doubts about the world which - while they ultimately are philosophically justifiable - may only be combated through the non-philosophical adherence to custom or habit. He ends the section with his own reservations towards Cartesian and Lockean epistemologies.
In the second section he returns to the topic of hard skepticism by sharply denouncing it.
"For here is the chief and most confounding objection to excessive skepticism, that no durable good can ever result from it; while it remains in its full force and vigor. We need only ask such a skeptic, What his meaning is? And what he proposes by all these curious researches? He is immediately at a loss, and knows not what to answer... a Pyrrhonian cannot expect, that his philosophy will have any constant influence on the mind: or if it had, that its influence would be beneficial to society. On the contrary, he must acknowledge, if he will acknowledge anything, that all human life must perish, were his principles universally and steadily to prevail." (Hume 1974:426)
He concludes the volume by setting out the limits of knowledge once and for all. "When we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must we make? If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion."
Critiques and rejoinders
The criteria Hume lists in his examination of the validity of human testimony are roughly upheld in modern social psychology, under the rubric of the communication-persuasion paradigm. Supporting literature includes: the work of social impact theory, which discusses persuasion in part through the number of persons engaging in influence; as well as studies made on the relative influence of communicator credibility in different kinds of persuasion; and examinations of the trustworthiness of the speaker.
The "custom" view of learning can in many ways be likened to associationist psychology. This point of view has been subject to severe criticism in the research of the 20th century. Still, testing on the subject has been somewhat divided. Testing on certain animals like cats have concluded that they do not possess any faculty which allow their minds to grasp an insight into cause and effect. However, it has been shown that some animals, like chimpanzees, were able to generate creative plans of action to achieve their goals, and thus would seem to have a causal insight which transcends mere custom.
Legacy
Albert Einstein was a great admirer of Hume and remarked in a letter to Moritz Schlick that he had read Hume's book and the works of Ernst Mach "with eagerness and admiration shortly before finding relativity theory" and that "very possibly, I wouldn't have come to the solution without those philosophical studies".
References
External links
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding: Mirrored at eBooks@Adelaide
A version of this work, slightly edited for easier reading
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding The Enquiry hosted at infidels.org
Category:1748 non-fiction books
Category:Books by David Hume
Category:Epistemology literature
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_Human_Understanding
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.655677
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1758
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André de Longjumeau
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André de Longjumeau (also known as Andrew of Longjumeau in English) was a French diplomat and Dominican missionary and one of the most active Occidental diplomats in the East in the 13th century. He led two embassies to the Mongols: the first carried letters from Pope Innocent IV and the second bore gifts and letters from Louis IX of France to Güyük Khan. Well acquainted with the Middle East, he spoke Arabic and "Chaldean" (thought to be either Syriac or Persian).
Mission for the holy Crown of Thorns
thumb|André went to Constantinople to obtain the crown of thorns bought by Louis IX from Baldwin II, Latin Emperor. It is preserved today in a 19th-century reliquary, in Notre-Dame de Paris.
André's first mission to the East was when he was asked by the French king Louis IX to go to Constantinople to obtain the crown of thorns that had been sold to him by the Latin emperor Baldwin II in 1238, who was anxious to obtain support for his empire.
He visited Muslim principalities in Syria and representatives of the Church of the East and Syriac Orthodox Church in Seljuk Persia, finally delivering the papal correspondence to a Mongol general near Tabriz. In Tabriz, André de Longjumeau met with a monk from the Far East named Simeon Rabban Ata, who had been put in charge by the Khan of protecting Christians in the Middle East.
Second mission to the Mongols (1249–1251)
At the Mongol camp near Kars, André had met a certain David, who in December 1248 appeared at the court of King Louis IX of France, who was preparing his armies in the allied Kingdom of Cyprus. André, who was now with the French King, interpreted David's words as a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general Eljigidei, and a proposal of a joint attack on Ayyubid Syria. In reply to this, the French sovereign dispatched André as his ambassador to Güyük Khan. Longjumeau went with his brother Jacques (also a Dominican) and several others – John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert "Le Sommelier", Gerbert of Sens, Robert (a clerk), a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of Poissy.
The party set out on 16 February 1249, with letters from King Louis and the papal legate, and lavish presents, including a chapel tent lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. From Cyprus they went to the port of Antioch in Syria, and thence traveled for a year to the Khan's court, going ten leagues (55.56 kilometers) per day. Their route led them through Persia, along the southern and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and certainly through Taraz, north-east of Tashkent.
Upon arrival at the supreme Mongol court – either that on the Emil River (near Lake Alakol and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the Altai Mountains), or more probably at or near Karakorum itself, southwest of Lake Baikal – André found Güyük Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by Batu Khan's agents. The regent Oghul Qaimish, Güyük Khan's widow (the "Camus" of William of Rubruck), seems to have received him with presents and a dismissive letter for Louis IX. It is certain that before the friar had left "Tartary", Möngke, Güyük's successor, had been elected khagan.
André's report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in 1251 at Caesarea Palaestina, appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols' rise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader Genghis Khan with the mythical Prester John, and in the supposed location of the Mongols' homeland, close to the prison of Gog and Magog. On the other hand, the envoy's account of Mongol customs is fairly accurate, and his statements about Mongol Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host) are likely factual.
Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations that other historians record in detail. He found Christian prisoners from Germany in the heart of "Tartary" at Taraz and was compelled to observe the ceremony of passing between two fires, as a bringer of gifts to a dead Genghis Khan, gifts which were treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This insulting behavior, and the language of the letter with which André reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says Jean de Joinville, "se repenti fort" ("felt very sorry").
Death
The date and location of André's death is unknown.
We only know of André through references in other writers: see especially William of Rubruck's in Recueil de voyages, iv. (Paris, 1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, etc.), pp. 142, etc.; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254–235; William of Nangis in Recueil des historiens des Gaules, xx. 359–367; Rémusat, Mémoires sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens… avec les… Mongols (1822, etc.), p. 52.
See also
Giovanni da Pian del Carpine
Lawrence of Portugal
Ascelin of Lombardy
Simon of Saint-Quentin
Chronology of European exploration of Asia
Franco-Mongol alliance
Notes
References
Category:13th-century explorers
Category:French Dominicans
Category:Roman Catholic missionaries in Mongolia
Category:Diplomats of the Holy See
Category:Holy See–Mongolia relations
Category:Medieval French diplomats
Category:France–Mongolia relations
Category:French explorers
Category:Explorers of Asia
Category:13th-century births
Category:13th-century deaths
Category:Ambassadors to the Mongol Empire
Category:French Roman Catholic missionaries
Category:Dominican missionaries
Category:French expatriates in Mongolia
Category:13th-century diplomats
Category:Christians of the Sixth Crusade
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_de_Longjumeau
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.664575
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1759
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Andriscus
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{{Infobox monarch
| name = Andriscus (Philip VI)
| image = File:Philip VI Andriskos.jpg
| caption = Coin issued by Andriscus during his reign; Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ (King Philip)
| succession = Basileus of Macedonia
| reign = 149–148 BC
| coronation | full name
| native_lang1 = Greek
| native_lang1_name1 = Ἀνδρίσκος (Andrískos)<br>Φίλιππος (Philippos) - royal name
| predecessor = Perseus (as king)<br>Roman client republics in Macedon (actual)
| successor = Roman conquest<br />(Alexander VI)
| spouse | issue
| royal house = Antigonid dynasty (claimed)
| dynasty | father Perseus of Macedon (claimed)
| mother | birth_date Unknown
| birth_place = Presumed to be Adramyttium in Aeolis<br />(modern-day Edremit, Balıkesir, Turkey)
| death_date = 146 BC
| death_place = Rome, Roman Italy
| date of burial | place of burial |
}}
Andriscus ({{langx|grc|Ἀνδρίσκος}}, Andrískos; {{fl.}} 154/153 BC – 146 BC), also often referenced as Pseudo-Philip, was a Greek pretender who became the last independent king of Macedon in 149 BC as Philip VI ({{langx|grc|Φίλιππος}}, Philipos), based on his claim of being Philip, a now-obscure son of the last legitimate Macedonian king, Perseus. His reign lasted just one year and was toppled by the Roman Republic during the Fourth Macedonian War.
Ancient sources generally agree that he was originally a fuller from Adramyttium in Aeolis in western Anatolia. Around 153 BC, his ancestry was supposedly revealed to him, upon which he travelled to the court of his claimed uncle, the Seleucid monarch Demetrius I Soter, to request assistance in claiming his throne. Demetrius refused and had him sent to Rome, where he was judged harmless and exiled to a city in Italy; he managed to escape, and after gathering support, primarily from Thrace, he launched an invasion of Macedon, defeating Rome's clients and establishing his rule as king. The Romans naturally reacted militarily, triggering war; after some initial successes, Andriscus was defeated and captured by the praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, who subdued Macedon once again.
He was imprisoned for two years before being paraded in Metellus' triumph in 146 BC, after which he was executed. In the aftermath of his revolt, the Romans established the Roman province of Macedonia, ending Macedonian independence and establishing a permanent presence in the region.
Origins and early life
Details of his origins are vague and sometimes conflicting, though it is generally believed that he was a fuller from Adramyttium in Aeolis in western Anatolia.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}{{sfn|Smith|1870}} His exact date of birth is unknown, though according to his own story, he was "of maturity" when he made his claims of royalty in 154 BC, and had been raised by a Cretan in Adramyttium.<ref>Livy, Periochae 49.22</ref>
By his own claims, he was educated at Adramyttium until adolescence, until the Cretan died, after which he was raised with his foster mother. Upon reaching maturity, his mother (or foster mother, according to his claim) gave him a sealed parchment that was supposedly written by Perseus himself, along with the knowledge of the location of two hidden treasures, at Amphipolis and Thessalonica; he would later use these to advance his claims.<ref>Livy, Periochae 49</ref>{{sfn|Niese|1903|p332}} Ancient sources are unanimous in calling him an impostor and dismiss the story as false; Niese suggests that there is a possibility of his claims being true, but generally agrees that he was a pretender; his main advantage in his claims was his close resemblance to Perseus.{{sfn|Niese|1903|pp331-332}}
Around 154/153 BC, he left Pergamon for Syria, where he declared his claim to be the illegitimate son of Perseus by a concubine.<ref>Livy, Periochae 49.27</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastPalairet |firstMichael |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideib5DAAAQBAJ |titleMacedonia: A Voyage through History (Vol. 1, From Ancient Times to the Ottoman Invasions) |date2016 |publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn978-1-4438-8843-1 |pages103–104 |languageen}}</ref> According to his own account, it was due to his mother (or foster mother) urging him to leave Pergamon to avoid the wrath of the pro-Roman Eumenes II.<ref>Livy, Periochae 49.26</ref>
Claiming the throne
In Syria
He first staked his claim in Syria. Livy and Cassius Dio write that he simply went from Pergamon to Syria and directly staked his claim before the Seleucid monarch, Demetrius I Soter.<ref>Livy, Periochae 49.27</ref><ref>Dio, XXI.71</ref> Diodorus Siculus offers a different account. According to him, Andriscus was already a mercenary in Demetrius' army. Due to his resemblance to the former Macedonian king, his comrades started jokingly calling him "son of Perseus"; these jokes soon began becoming serious suspicions, and at one point, Andriscus himself decided to seize the opportunity and claimed that he was indeed the son of Perseus.<ref>Diodorus, Book 32</ref> Niese attempts to reconcile both accounts, suggesting that he might have travelled to Syria and then enlisted as a mercenary before staking his claim.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p=332}}
He appealed to the king to help him win back his "ancestral" throne, and found great popular support among the Seleucid populace, to the extent that there were riots in the capital, Antioch. Large segments of the Seleucid population were of Macedonian descent, nurturing strong anti-Roman sentiment since the Roman conquest of Macedon in the Third Macedonian War; they were eager to help the claimant.{{sfn|Hoover|2000|p108}}{{refn|groupNote|Inviting Greek and Macedonian settlers to the Seleucid realm, and promoting the Hellenization of the realm, was a common policy of the Seleucids; this was the reason for large populations of Macedonian and Greek descent.<ref name"Steven C. Hause, William S. Maltby 2004 76">{{Cite book |last1Steven C. Hause |urlhttps://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000haus |titleWestern civilization: a history of European society |last2William S. Maltby |publisherThomson Wadsworth |year2004 |isbn978-0-534-62164-3 |page[https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000haus/page/76 76] |quoteThe Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BC by immigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite. |url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name"Victor, Royce M. 2010 55">{{Cite book |lastVictor, Royce M. |titleColonial education and class formation in early Judaism: a postcolonial reading |publisherContinuum International Publishing Group |year2010 |isbn978-0-567-24719-3 |page55 |quoteLike other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their "friends" and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed.}}</ref>}} They proceeded to such an extent that there were even calls for deposing the king if he did not help the pretender. Unmoved, or perhaps frightened, Demetrius had Andriscus arrested and sent to Rome.{{sfn|Hoover|2000|p108}}{{sfn|Niese|1903|p332}}{{refn|groupNote|Supporting Andriscus was difficult because Rome was already suspicious of Demetrius; he had been a Seleucid hostage at Rome who had escaped and then become king without the Roman Senate's approval for the first year of his reign. Also, his wife, Laodice V, had been the wife of Rome's former enemy, Perseus of Macedon; she had married Demetrius after Perseus' defeat and death.{{sfn|Hoover|2000|p107}}}}In RomeIn Rome, he was brought before the Senate, where Dio writes that he stood "in general contempt" due to what was perceived to be his ordinary nature and transparently false claim.<ref>Dio, XXI.71</ref> The Romans believed his claim to be fake, because the real Philip had died at Alba Fucens two years after his father Perseus. Considering him harmless, they simply exiled him to an Italian city, but he managed to escape; fleeing Italy, he went to the Greek world, to the city of Miletus.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p332}}
Gaining support
In Miletus, he tried to advance his claims further, attracting significant attention and sympathy. When the leaders of Miletus learned about this, they arrested him and sought advice from visiting Roman envoys on what to do with him; the envoys were contemptuous of the pretender and told the Miletans he was safe to release.<ref>Diodorus, 32.15</ref> He continued his travels through Ionia, meeting former acquaintances of Perseus and gaining an audience with Kallipa, a former concubine of Perseus who was now married to Athenaios, brother of the Pergamene king Attalus II Philadelphus.{{sfn|Kuzmin|2013|pp281-282, 284}} Being a Macedonian by birth, and due to her former connections to the Antigonids, she accepted his claim and agreed to help him, giving him money and slaves, and probably recommending that he travel to Thrace, where he would find a following.{{sfn|Kuzmin|2013|pp283-284}}{{refn|groupNote|It has been suggested that being the wife of the king's brother, Kallipa could not have acted secretly, and that Athenaios and Attalus knew of her intrigues with Andriscus and deliberately allowed them to proceed. However, this is contradicted by the fact that a restored Macedon would be a threat to the Pergamenes, and that the Pergamenes would loyally assist Rome in the subsequent war against Andriscus.{{sfn|Kuzmin|2013|pp285-286}}}}
He was also received favourably in Byzantium.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p332}} He finally arrived in Thrace, where he met Teres III, who had married the granddaughter of Perseus and was the son of Cotys IV, who had once been an ally of Perseus. Teres and the other Thracian chieftains, especially a certain Barsabas, received him enthusiastically; he held a coronation ceremony at Teres' court, was given a few hundred Thracian troops, and set off on his campaign.{{sfn|Niese|1903|pp332-333}}<ref>Diodorus, Book 32</ref>
Conquest of Macedon
His first attempt to invade was unsuccessful, and he initially did not inspire much enthusiasm among the Macedonians; this made the Romans complacent about the pretender.{{sfn|Morgan|1969|p423}}{{sfn|Niese|1903|p333}} However, he soon managed to encounter a force of Rome's Macedonian client republics, defeating them in Odomantice; he then invaded Macedon proper, defeating Rome's clients on the banks of the Strymon river. Amidst popular acclaim, he crowned himself king at the old Macedonian capital of Pella in 150/149 BC.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p333}}Popular supportAlthough the Macedonians' initial attitude had been lukewarm, his successes won him popularity and widespread support in Macedon. Anti-Roman sentiment was common in Macedon; the populace was obliging in overthrowing the old regime. Support for Andriscus was not uniform — there was significantly more hesitation among the gentry and upper classes, and somewhat more enthusiasm among the lower classes — but the popular mood was largely in his favour.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p333}} His claims were bolstered by his correct prediction of the locations of two treasures, which he claimed were specified in the "sealed writing" that had been handed to his caretakers by Perseus, and had later been given to him. Even if there were apprehensions about the veracity of his claim, Niese notes that "one liked to believe what one wished; the re-establishment of Macedonia enabled liberation from the burden of Roman rule. The longer these burdens had been borne, the happier they [the Macedonians] were at the prospect of Macedonia under a king restored from the old lineage."{{sfn|Niese|1903|p=332}}
However, it has also been suggested that the extent of his support may not have been as widespread as often believed, and that a significant amount of the Macedonian populace remained pro-republican and pro-Roman. The relative lack of reprisals towards Macedon after his defeat, as compared to the destructions of Corinth and Carthage in the same period, has been suggested as evidence for this theory.{{sfn|MacKay|1968|p36-37}}ReignMilitary campaignsAndriscus' reign was defined to a significant degree by his military campaigns, due to his being in a constant state of war with Rome. After his conquest of the Kingdom, he enlarged the army and began campaigns to conquer Thessaly, a key part of the realm of the old Antigonids. Initial resistance to him were from ad hoc forces of Roman allies in Greece, a few Roman units and legates in the region and some resistance from the remnants of Rome's client republics in Macedon, some elements of which seem to have survived for some time into his reign. Soon, however, the Romans sent a legion under the praetor Publius Juventius Thalna to defeat the pretender.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p333}}{{sfn|MacKay|1968|p=38}}
Thalna, however, appears to have underestimated Andriscus' strength, not taking into account the fact that the king's army had grown dramatically since his enthronement.<ref>Florus, 1.30</ref> Andriscus attacked and fought him at an unspecified location in Thessaly (Dio gives it as "near the borders of Macedon"); details of the engagement are scarce, but Thalna was killed and his forces almost annihilated.<ref>Dio, XXI.71</ref>{{sfn|Niese|1903|p333}} It was the worst defeat Rome would suffer at the hands of the Macedonians; Florus remarks on the irony of how "they that were invincible against real kings, were defeated by this imaginary and pretended king".<ref>Polybius, 37.9</ref><ref>Florus, 1.30</ref> The victory greatly increased the king's prestige; he obtained an alliance with Carthage, and his domestic popularity was increased dramatically, allowing him to stamp out republican resistance and conquer Thessaly.{{sfn|Niese|1903|pp333-334}}{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}{{sfn|MacKay|1968|p37}}Foreign policyAt first, Andriscus attempted to negotiate his position with Rome, but when it became clear that they would not recognize his throne, he embarked on a strongly anti-Roman policy, He continued to cultivate his relations with his Thracian allies, to whom he owed his throne; they would continue to provide significant forces for him during his reign.{{sfn|Niese|1903|pp333-334}}<ref>Florus, 1.32</ref>
Foreign interest in relations with him increased dramatically after his victory over Thalna; as mentioned before, Carthage, which was under attack from Rome in the Third Punic War, allied itself to him and promised him money and ships, though these could not be sent before his ultimate defeat.{{sfn|Niese|1903|pp333-334}}{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Significant sympathy, possibly cultivated to a degree by him, arose in Greece; however, the Achaean League remained pro-Roman and continued to resist and fight him. King Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon remained staunchly pro-Roman; the Pergamenes were terrified of the prospect of a revived and strong Macedonia on their doorstep.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p334}}<ref>Livy, Periochae 50.1</ref>
Domestic policy
Domestically, Andriscus implemented a strongly anti-Roman and anti-Republican policy. Ancient historians interpreted this as his cruelty and tyranny; it has been suggested that these were simply manifestations of his anti-Roman policy and his persecutions of his opponents, including pro-Roman republicans.{{sfn|MacKay|1968|pp=37-39}}
At the same time, it is also possible that he was indeed tyrannical. His persecutions increased significantly after his victory over Thalna, costing him significant popularity; this would have dire consequences for him later.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p334}}CoinageThe extent and nature of Andriscus' coinage is a matter of debate. It has been suggested that many of his coins were overstrikes of previous Antigonid, republican and Roman coinage.{{sfn|MacKay|1968|pp24-29}} He issued a very small amount of silver drachmae, on which he pictured himself as a Hellenistic king, and added Herakles on the reverse. Only three coins of Andriscus are known, two of which are overstruck, one on a drachm of the Thessalian League, the other on a Roman denarius. It is therefore possible that he also used the denarii he seized as booty after his victory against Thalna to mint his own coins.{{sfn|Hoover|2016|p415}} The coins are also of poor quality, due to the short duration of his reign, the need to reuse old dies and the need to quickly produce wartime coinage.{{sfn|MacKay|1968|pp26-34}}
Some non-royal coinage has also been discovered and dated to the period of his reign, possibly struck by the remnants of the pro-Roman republics. It has also been suggested that the king was more liberal than implied by the sources, and allowed some degree of independent coinage.{{sfn|MacKay|1968|pp38-39}}Downfall and death
.]]
Thalna's defeat shook Roman prestige in the East, and made the Senate realize the full significance of the revolt. They organized a full consular army of two legions under praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus, to defeat Andriscus and check, if not quell, his uprising.{{sfn|Morgan|1969|pp423-425}} Arriving in Greece in 148 BC, Metellus marched along the Thessalian coast in a combined land and sea advance, while the allied Pergamene fleet threatened the coastal district of northern Macedonia. To protect himself against both offensives, Andriscus took up a defensive position with his main army at Pydna, where Metellus engaged him in battle.{{sfn|Morgan|1969|p426}}{{sfn|Niese|1903|p334}} In the ensuing Battle of Pydna, Andrisus was decisively defeated. His harsh persecutions during his reign now showed their consequences; this single battle was enough to make him lose control of Macedon, as the people submitted to Metellus.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p334}}{{refn|groupNote|In fact, the battle itself may have been decided by treachery in Andriscus' ranks; it is known that an important Macedonian general, Telestes, defected at a crucial period in the war.{{sfn|Morgan|1969|p426}}{{sfn|MacKay|1968|p37}}}} He was forced to flee to Thrace, his original base of support, and began organizing a new army; however, Metellus pursued him swiftly and routed his forces before he could prepare them. Andriscus then fled to the Thracian princeling Byzes; however, Metellus managed to persuade the latter into becoming a Roman ally and handing Andriscus over as a prisoner, ending his reign.{{sfn|Morgan|1969|pp426-427}}
He remained a prisoner over the next two years, while Metellus subdued any remaining Macedonian resistance, organized Macedon as a province and settled the Achaean War of 146 BC. When Metellus returned to Rome in 146 BC, he received the agnomen Macedonicus for his victory and was granted a triumph. Andriscus was brought in chains and paraded in the triumph, and later executed — the last king to reign over Macedon.{{sfn|Niese|1903|p334}}{{sfn|Smith|1870}}Assessment and legacyAncient sources are extremely hostile, not only to the origins and claims, but also of the character of Andriscus — Diodorus calls him "shot through with cruelty, greed and every base quality"; Dio and Livy call him "a man of the lowest kind".<ref>Diodorus, Book 32</ref><ref>Dio, XXI.71</ref><ref>Livy, Periochae 49.21</ref> They also describe him as cruel and tyrannical; accusations of tyranny probably reflect his harsh persecutions of pro-Roman and pro-republican elements in Macedon. At the same time, it is possible that he was indeed tyrannical, especially after his victory over Thalna, and perpetrated acts of terrorism and repression against his subjects.{{sfn|MacKay|1968|p37}}
His main legacy was that in the aftermath of his revolt, the Romans understood the strength of anti-Roman feeling that had arisen in Macedon, and realized that the old administration could not be sustained — a thorough reorganization was necessary.{{sfn|Morgan|1969|pp427-428}} Another reason why reorganization was necessary was that Andriscus' persecutions had killed many pro-Roman republicans and thoroughly disrupted the old administrative structure; it would be difficult to re-establish it.{{sfn|MacKay|1968|p37}} Therefore, the Senate made Macedon a Roman province, with Metellus as its first governor.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
References
Notes
{{Reflist|groupNote}}Citations{{Reflist}}SourcesPrimary sources
{{Commons category|Andriskos}}
*Velleius Paterculus, Roman history, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/1*.html Book I]
*Florus, Epitome, [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Epitome_of_Roman_History/Book_1 Book 1];
*Livy, Ab Urbe Condita Libri, [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/livy/livy-periochae-46-50/ Periochae 46-50] and [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/livy/livy-periochae-51-55/ 51-55]
*Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/32*.html Book 32]
*Polybius, Histories, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Abook%3D37%3Achapter%3D2 Book 37]
*Cassius Dio, Roman History, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/21*.html Book 21]
Secondary sources
* {{Cite journal
| volume =18
| issue =4
|pages= 422–446
|last=Morgan
|first=M. Gwyn
| title =Metellus Macedonicus and the Province Macedonia
| journal =Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte
| date =1969
| jstor =4435094
|language=en
}}
* {{Citation
|language=fr
|author1=Émile Chambry
|author2=Émeline Marquis
|author3=Alain Billault
|author4=Dominique Goust
|translator=Émile Chambry
|title=Lucian
|placeParis|editorÉditions Robert Laffont
|year=2015
|isbn=978-2-221-10902-1
}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume =131
| issue |pages 106–110
|last=Hoover
|first=Oliver D.
| title = A Dedication to Aphrodite Epekoos for Demetrius I Soter and His Family.
| journal = Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik
| date = 2000
| jstor = 20190661
|language=en
}}
* {{Cite journal
| volume = 14
| issue |pages 15–40
|last= MacKay
|first= Pierre A.
| title = Macedonian Tetradrachms of 148-147 B.C.
| journal = Museum Notes (American Numismatic Society)
| date = 1968
| jstor = 43573445
|language=en
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Niese
|first=Benedict
|author-link=Benedikt Niese
|date=1903
|title=Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten seit der Schlacht bei Chaeronea
|url=https://archive.org/details/geschichtedergri03niesuoft
|language=de
|location|publisherGotha F.A. Perthes
|pages|isbn
}}
*{{cite journal
|last1=Kuzmin
|first1=Yuri N.
|title=Kallippa and Beroia
|journal=Rheinisches Museum für Philologie
|date=2013
|volume=156
|issue=3/4
|pages=277–287
|jstor=24392713
|issn=0035-449X}}
*{{cite book
|last=Crawford
|first=Michael
|author-link=Michael Crawford (historian)
|date=1974
|title=Roman republican coinage
|location|publisherCambridge University Press
|isbn=9780521074926}}
*{{cite book |lastHoover |firstOliver D. |author-link|date2016 |titleThe Handbook of Greek Coinage Series |chapterHandbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors. Part I: Macedon, Illyria, and Epeiros, Sixth to First Centuries BC |url|locationLancaster/London |publisherClassical Numismatic Group |page |volume3 |isbn9780989825412}}
Attribution
*{{EB1911|wstitleAndriscus|volume1|page=975}}
*{{DGRBM|authorWS|titleAndriscus|volume1|page171|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/moa/acl3129.0001.001/186}}
{{MacedonKings}}
{{Hellenistic rulers}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Andriscus}}
Category:2nd-century BC Macedonian monarchs
Category:Ancient Anatolian Greeks
Category:2nd-century BC Greek people
Category:Pretenders of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Category:Impostor pretenders
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andriscus
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.681983
|
1760
|
Andronikos III Palaiologos
|
{{short description|Byzantine emperor from 1328 to 1341}}
{{Infobox monarch
| name = Andronikos III Palaiologos
|title = Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans
| full name = Andronikos Doukas Angelos Komnenos Palaiologos<br />{{langx|grc-x-medieval|Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος}}
| image = Andronikos_III_Palaiologos.jpg
| caption = 14th-century miniature.<br />Stuttgart, Württembergische Landesbibliothek.
| succession = Byzantine emperor
| reign = 24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341
| coronation 2 February 1325{{sfn|PLP|loc21437. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος III. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός}}
| regent1 1308/1313 as co-emperor{{sfn|PLP|loc21437. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος III. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός}}
| reg-type1 = Proclamation
| cor-type = Coronation
| predecessor = Andronikos II Palaiologos
| successor = John V Palaiologos
| spouse = Irene of Brunswick<br />Anna of Savoy
| issue = Irene, Empress of Trebizond<br />Maria (renamed Irene)<br />John V Palaiologos<br />Michael Palaiologos
| issue-link=#Family
| issue-pipe = more...
| house = Palaiologos
| father = Michael IX Palaiologos
| mother = Rita of Armenia
| birth_date = 25 March 1297
| birth_place = Constantinople, Byzantine Empire<br />(now Istanbul, Turkey)
| death_date = 15 June 1341 (aged 44)
| death_place = Constantinople, Byzantine Empire
| burial_place| religion Eastern Orthodox
}}
Andronikos III Palaiologos ({{langx|grc-x-medieval|Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος|Andrónikos Doúkās Ángelos Komnēnós Palaiológos}}; 25 March 1297&nbsp;– 15 June 1341), commonly Latinized as Andronicus III Palaeologus, was the Byzantine emperor from 1328 to 1341.{{sfn|PLP|loc=21437. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος III. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός}} He was the son of Michael IX Palaiologos and Rita of Armenia. He was proclaimed co-emperor in his youth, before 1313, and in April 1321 he rebelled against his grandfather, Andronikos II Palaiologos. He was formally crowned co-emperor in February 1325, before ousting his grandfather outright and becoming sole emperor on 24 May 1328.
His reign included the last failed attempts to hold back the Ottoman Turks in Bithynia and the defeat at Rusokastro against the Bulgarians, but also the successful recovery of Chios, Lesbos, Phocaea, Thessaly, and Epirus.{{sfn|PLP|loc21437. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος III. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός}} His early death left a power vacuum that resulted in the disastrous civil war between his widow, Anna of Savoy, and his closest friend and supporter, John VI Kantakouzenos, leading to the establishment of the Serbian Empire and the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the Balkans.Life
Andronikos was born in Constantinople on 25 March 1297. His father, Michael IX Palaiologos, began reigning in full imperial style as co-emperor {{Circa|1295}}.
In March 1318, Andronikos married Irene of Brunswick, daughter of Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen. In {{Circa|1321}} she gave birth to a son, who died in infancy.
In 1320, Andronikos accidentally caused the death of his brother Manuel, after which their father, co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos, died in his grief. The homicide and the general dissolute behavior of Andronikos III and his coterie, mostly the young scions of the great aristocratic clans of the Empire, resulted in a deep rift in the relations between young Andronikos and his grandfather, still reigning as Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos.
Emperor Andronikos II disowned his grandson Andronikos, who fled the capital, rallied his supporters in Thrace, and began to reign as rival emperor in 1321. A few months after the rebellion began, Andronikos II relented and named Andronikos III his co-emperor. The concession was not enough to prevent intermittent civil war between the two monarchs in the years 1321 to 1328.
Empress Irene died on 16/17 August 1324 with no surviving child. Theodora Palaiologina, sister of Andronikos III, married the new tsar Michael Shishman of Bulgaria in 1324. Andronikos III, then a widower, married Anna of Savoy in October 1326. In 1327 she gave birth to Maria (renamed Irene) Palaiologina.
Andronikos III concluded the Treaty of Chernomen of 1327, an alliance with tsar Michael Shishman of Bulgaria against Stephen Uroš III Dečanski of Serbia. In 1328 the Byzantine civil war ended with the deposition of Emperor Andronikos II, who retired to a monastery.
Reign
Military history
Ottoman Turks besieged Nicaea in Asia Minor, historically the provisional capital of the Byzantine Empire from the Fourth Crusade until the Byzantine recapture of Constantinople. Andronikos III launched a relief attempt, which Ottoman sultan Orhan defeated at the Battle of Pelekanon on 10 or 15 June 1329.
Also in 1329, Andronikos III sent a naval expedition against Martino Zaccaria, Genoese ruler of the Lordship of Chios (which also included Samos and Cos). The expedition deposed Zaccaria, and regained Byzantine control of the islands.
An alliance with Bulgaria failed to secure any gains for the Byzantine empire. On 28 July 1330, the Serbians decisively defeated the Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbazhd (modern Kyustendil, Bulgaria) without significant Byzantine participation. The Ottomans continued to advance in 1331, finally taking Nicaea (İznik). Andronikos III wanted Nicomedia and the other few Byzantine forts in Anatolia not to suffer the same fate and sought to pay off the Ottomans with tribute.
Andronikos III reorganized and attempted to strengthen the weakened Byzantine navy, which comprised only 10 ships by 1332; in emergencies, he still could muster a hundred extra merchant ships.
Having failed to gain anything against Serbia, Andronikos III attempted to annex Bulgarian Thrace, but the new tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria defeated Byzantine forces at the Battle of Rusokastro on 18 July 1332. Andronikos III secured peace with Bulgaria by territorial concessions and the marriage of his daughter Maria (renamed Irene) to Ivan Alexander's son, the future Michael Asen IV of Bulgaria.
The Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta visited Constantinople towards the end of 1332 and mentions meeting Andronikos III in his memoirs.<ref>{{cite book|last1Battutah|first1Ibn|titleThe Travels of Ibn Battutah|date2002|publisherPicador|locationLondon|isbn9780330418799|pages131–132}}</ref> Byzantine sources do not attest to the meeting.
Stephen Gabrielopoulos, ruler over Thessaly, died circa 1333; taking advantage of the secession crisis, Andronikos III extended Byzantine control over the region.
Syrgiannes Palaiologos, entrusted with the governorship of Thessalonica, deserted to the side of king Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia and aided their advance in Macedonia. Serbs soon found themselves in possession of Ohrid, Prilep and Srumitsa.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |lastFine |firstJohn |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mpub.7807 |titleThe Late Medieval Balkans |date1994 |publisherUniversity of Michigan Press |isbn978-0-472-08260-5 |locationAnn Arbor, MI |pages288}}</ref> Syrgiannes then directed capture of Kastoria, after this Serbs marched down towards Thessaloniki, soon reaching the city's walls.<ref name":0"/> Byzantines responded with a well-conceived plot. Byzantine general Sphrantzes Palaiologos, posing as a deserter, entered the Serbian camp and killed Syrgiannes Palaiologos. Dušan's plans were seriously upset, for his successes until then had been chiefly owing to Syrgiannes' strategic abilities, knowledge of Byzantine position and his allies who had surrendered fortresses to Serbs.<ref name":0"/> Furthering Dušan's willingness to negotiate was intelligence that Byzantines just repelled a major Turkish raiding party, enabling more Byzantine troops to aid Thessaloniki front and the report that Hungarians were mobilizing to attack Serbia in the north.<ref name":0" /> Serbs agreed to peace on 26 August 1334.<ref name":0"/><ref>Norwich. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall p. 284</ref> Byzantines recognized Serbian gains in Ohrid, Prilep, Strumitsa, Siderokastron, Chermen and Prosek.<ref name=":0" />
Andronikos III meanwhile effected the recovery of Phocaea in 1334 from the last Genoese governor, Domenico Cattaneo. However, this victory failed to stem significantly the Ottoman advance in Asia Minor. Byzantine rule gradually vanished from Anatolia as tribute failed to appease Ottoman sultan Orhan, who took Nicomedia in 1337, leaving only Philadelphia and a handful of ports under Byzantine control.
Despite these troubles, Andronikos III took advantage of a secession crisis in the Despotate of Epirus in 1337, regaining Byzantine control from Nikephoros II Orsini. Thessaly was also reconquered by Andronikos III during this period.
In 1340, Dušan fell seriously ill. At this critical time, one of Dušan's leading commanders, Hrelja deserted to Byzantines. He could do this because he had possessed holdings right on Byzantine-Serbian border that included region of the middle of Struma river, with Strumitsa and other two other strongly fortified castles near-by.<ref>{{Cite book |lastFine |firstJohn |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mpub.7807 |titleThe Late Medieval Balkans |date1994 |publisherUniversity of Michigan Press |isbn978-0-472-08260-5 |locationAnn Arbor, MI |pages=291}}</ref>
In 1341, the Latin lords of the Peloponnese sent a delegation to Constantinople, seeking to swear allegiance to the Byzantine crown. An ailing Andronikos III then received the Latin delegation on one occasion, shortly before succumbing to an illness on 15 June 1341.
Domestic policy
John Kantakouzenos, megas domestikos of Andronikos III and later emperor, wielded effective administrative authority during the reign, while the Emperor personally enjoyed hunting and waging war.
Andronikos III also reformed the judiciary through his creation of a panel of four judges, designated "Universal Justices of the Romans".{{sfn|PLP|loc21437. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος III. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός}}Family
of Andronikos II and Andronikos III]]
Andronikos III was first married in 1318 with Irene of Brunswick,{{sfn|Garland|1999|p=231}} daughter of Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg; she died in 1324. They had an unnamed son, who died shortly after birth in 1321.
In 1326, Andronikos III married as his second wife Anna of Savoy,{{sfn|Garland|1999|p=231}} daughter of Amadeus V, Count of Savoy and of his second wife Marie of Brabant, Countess of Savoy. Their marriage produced several children, including:
* Maria (renamed Eirene) Palaiologina, who married Michael Asen IV of Bulgaria
* John V Palaiologos (born 18 June 1332)
* Michael Palaiologos, despotes (designated successor)
* Irene (renamed Maria) Palaiologina, who married Francesco I Gattilusio.
According to the contemporary Byzantine historian Nicephorus Gregoras ({{circa|1295}}–1360), Andronikos also had an illegitimate daughter, Irene Palaiologina of Trebizond, who married emperor Basil of Trebizond and took over the throne of the Empire of Trebizond from 1340 to 1341.<ref>William Miller, Trebizond: The last Greek Empire of the Byzantine Era: 1204-1461, 1926 (Chicago: Argonaut, 1969), p. 46</ref> The contemporary traveller Ibn Battuta (1304–1368/69) also records in his Rihla the existence of another daughter, who had been married to Öz Beg Khan of the Golden Horde, and taken the name Bayalun. Ibn Battuta claims to have accompanied her to Constantinople from her husband's court in late 1332 or 1334.<ref>{{Cite book |lastDunn |firstRoss E. |titleThe Adventures of Ibn Battuta |year2005 |publisherUniversity of California Press |isbn978-0-520-24385-9 |author-linkRoss E. Dunn | url {{Gbooks|h7IwDwAAQBAJ|plainurlyes}} | origyear 1986}}</ref>
Succession and legacy
Andronikos III died at Constantinople, aged 44, on 15 June 1341, possibly due to chronic malaria, and was buried in the Hodegon Monastery after lying in state at the Hagia Sophia.{{sfn|Lascaratos|Marketos|1997|pp106–109}}<ref>Melvani, N., (2018) 'The tombs of the Palaiologan emperors', Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 42 (2) pp.237-260</ref> Historians contend that his reign ended with the Byzantine Empire in a still-tenable situation and generally do not implicate deficiencies in his leadership in its later demise.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2023}} John V Palaiologos succeeded his father as Byzantine emperor, but at only nine years of age, he required a regent.
The energetic campaigns of emperor Andronikos III simply lacked sufficient strength to defeat the imperial enemies and led to several significant Byzantine reverses at the hands of Bulgarians, Serbians, and Ottomans. Andronikos III nevertheless provided active leadership and cooperated with able administrators. Under him, the empire came closest to regaining a position of power in the Balkans and the Greek peninsula after the Fourth Crusade. The loss of a few imperial territories in Anatolia, however, left the Ottoman Turks poised to expand into Europe.
Within a few months after the death of Andronikos III, controversy over the right to exercise the regency over the new emperor John V Palaiologos and the position of John Kantakouzenos as all-powerful chief minister and friend of Andronikos led to the outbreak of the destructive Byzantine civil war of 1341–47, which consumed the resources of the empire and left it in an untenable position. The weakened Byzantine Empire failed to prevent the formation of the Serbian Empire and, more ominously, the Ottoman invasion of Europe.
Ancestry
{{ahnentafel
|collapsedyes |aligncenter
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. Andronikos III Palaiologos
|2= 2. Michael IX Palaiologos
|3= 3. Rita of Armenia
|4= 4. Andronikos II Palaiologos
|5= 5. Anna of Hungary
|6= 6. Leo II of Armenia
|7= 7. Keran of Armenia
|8= 8. Michael VIII Palaiologos
|9= 9. Theodora Palaiologina
|10= 10. Stephen V of Hungary
|11= 11. Elizabeth the Cuman
|12= 12. Hethum I of Armenia
|13= 13. Isabella of Armenia
|14= 14. Hethum, Lord of Lampron
|15= 15. ...
}}
See also
{{portal|Byzantine Empire}}
*List of Byzantine emperors
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium}}
* {{citation | titleKaiser Andronikos III. Palaiologos. Versuch einer Darstellung der byzantinischen Geschichte in den Jahren 1321–1341 | first Ursula Victoria | last Bosch | publisher Adolf M. Hakkert | year 1965 | language de}}
* {{cite book | first John Van Antwerp | last Fine | author-link John Van Antwerp Fine | title The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest | publisher University of Michigan Press | location Ann Arbor | year 1994 | isbn 978-0-472-08260-5 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHh0Bu8C66TsC }}
* {{cite book |titleByzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527-1204 |firstLynda |lastGarland |author-linkLynda Garland |publisherRoutledge |year1999 }}
* {{citation | last1 Lascaratos | first1 J. | last2 Marketos | first2 S. | title The fatal disease of the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus III Palaeologus (1328-1341 A.D.) | journal Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume 90 | issue 2 | year 1997 | pages 106–109 | pmc1296151 | pmid9068444 | doi=10.1177/014107689709000215}}
* {{Cite book|lastNicol|firstDonald M.|author-linkDonald M. Nicol|titleThe Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453|orig-year1972|year1993|locationCambridge|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn9780521439916|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC}}
* {{Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit}}
External links
* {{cite EB9 |wstitleAndronicus III. |volume2 |page23 |shortx}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitleAndronicus III |volume1 |page976 |shortx}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|Palaiologos dynasty|25 March|1297|15 June|1341}}
{{S-reg|}}
{{S-bef|before=Andronikos II}}
{{S-ttl|titleByzantine emperor|years1321–1341
|regent1Andronikos II|years11325–1328}}
{{S-aft|after=John V}}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman emperors}}
{{Palaiologoi}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Andronikos 03 Palaiologos}}
Category:Palaiologos dynasty
Andronikos Palaiologos
Andronikos Palaiologos
Category:Byzantine people of Armenian descent
Category:14th-century Byzantine emperors
Category:Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars
Category:People from Constantinople
Category:Sons of Byzantine emperors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronikos_III_Palaiologos
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.692574
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1761
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Andronikos II Palaiologos
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{{Short description|Byzantine emperor from 1282 to 1328}}
{{about|the Byzantine emperor|the emperor of Trebizond|Andronikos II of Trebizond}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Andronikos II Palaiologos
| title = Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans
| full name = Andronikos Doukas Angelos Palaiologos<br/>{{langx|grc-x-medieval|Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος}}
| image = Miniature of Andronikos II.png
| caption = Miniature from the manuscript of George Pachymeres' Historia
| succession = Byzantine emperor
| reign = 11 December 1282 –<br/>24 May 1328
| coronation = 8 November 1272
| investiture | regent1 1261 (as co-emperor)
| reg-type1 = Proclamation
| cor-type = Coronation
| regent = Michael IX Palaiologos
| reg-type = Co-emperor
| predecessor = Michael VIII Palaiologos (alone)
| successor = Andronikos III Palaiologos
| spouses = Anna of Hungary<br/>Yolande of Montferrat
| issue = Michael IX Palaiologos<br/>Constantine Palaiologos<br/>John Palaiologos<br/>Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat<br/>Demetrios Palaiologos<br/>Simonis (Simonida Nemanjić), Queen of Serbia<br/>Irene Palaiologina (wife of John II Doukas), Sebastokratorissa of Thessaly
| issue-link = #Family
| issue-pipe = more...
| dynasty = Palaiologos
| father = Michael VIII Palaiologos
| mother = Theodora Palaiologina
| birth_date = 25 March 1259
| birth_place = Nicaea, Empire of Nicaea<br />(now İznik, Bursa, Turkey)
| death_date {{death date and age|1332|2|13|1259|3|25|dfy}}
| death_place = Constantinople, Byzantine Empire<br />(now Istanbul, Turkey)
| burial_place | religion Greek Orthodox
}}
Andronikos&nbsp;II Palaiologos ({{langx|el|Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος|Andrónikos Doúkās Ángelos Komnēnòs Palaiológos}}; 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332),{{sfn|PLP|loc21436. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος II. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός}} Latinized as Andronicus&nbsp;II Palaeologus, reigned as Byzantine emperor from 1282 to 1328. His reign marked the beginning of the recently restored empire's final decline. The Turks conquered most of Byzantium's remaining Anatolian territories, and Andronikos spent the last years of his reign fighting his own grandson in the First Palaiologan Civil War. The war ended in Andronikos' forced abdication in 1328, after which he retired to a monastery for the remainder of his life.Life{{Moresources|section|dateSeptember 2022}}
Early life
Andronikos was born on 25 March 1259, at Nicaea. He was the eldest surviving son of Michael VIII Palaiologos and Theodora Palaiologina, grandniece of John III Doukas Vatatzes.{{sfn|PLP|loc=21436. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος II. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός}}
Andronikos was acclaimed co-emperor in 1261, after his father Michael VIII recovered Constantinople from the Latin Empire, but he was not crowned until 8 November 1272.{{sfn|PLP|loc21436. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος II. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός}} During their joint rule, he was compelled to support his father's unpopular Church union with the Papacy. Made sole emperor by Michael's death in 1282, Andronikos immediately repudiated the union, but was unable to resolve the related schism within the Orthodox clergy until 1310. Military campaignsIn 1283, the first military action of Andronikos II's reign occurred, against the town of Demetrias in Thessaly. At the time, Thessaly was ruled by John Doukas, and this attempt was another of many by the Byzantines in an effort to reclaim the region. The protovestiarios Michael Tarchaneiotes led a force to the town where they were met by the fleet under the command of Alexios Raoul and the megas stratopedarches John Synadenos.<ref name":3">{{Cite book |lastBartusis |firstMark C. |titleThe late Byzantine army: arms and society, 1204 - 1453 |date1997 |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |isbn978-0-8122-1620-2 |seriesMiddle Ages series |locationPhiladelphia |pages67-68}}</ref> The siege was successful, however an epidemic spread which killed Michael Tarchaneiotes and much of the force. The remaining army had no choice but to abandon the town and withdraw from Thessaly.<ref name":3" />
Upon his ascension to the throne, Andronikos II faced numerous challenges on every front. Financially, his fathers policies were unsustainable, and in 1285 he was forced to dismantle the imperial fleet. This action increased the Empire's maritime dependence on Genoa, which was obligated to aid the Empire as per the Treaty of Nymphaeum. In an effort to improve the treasury's position, Andronikos II devalued the Byzantine hyperpyron, while the state treasury accumulated less than one seventh the revenue (in nominal coins) that it had previously. Seeking to increase revenue, Andronikos II raised taxes and reduced tax exemptions, exacerbating the economies already precarious positions.<ref name=":3" />
In 1291, Charles II, son of Charles of Anjou, entered into an alliance with the Despot of Epirus Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas. This alliance reawakened Byzantine fears which had been dormant since the Sicilian Vespers. A Byzantine army was dispatched to Epirus, and in 1292 sieged Ioannina. Simultaneously, a Genoese fleet accompanied by Byzantine soldiers approached the capital of the Despotate, Arta. The army at Ioannina retreated north at the approach of the prince of Achaia, Florent of Hainault. The fleet departed after some raiding in the area. Like the campaign in Thessaly, the war further stretched imperial resources with little to show for it.<ref name=":3" />
As a result of its alliance with Genoa, the empire was drawn into a pointless war with Venice between 1296 and 1302. While the Genoese settled with the Venetians in 1299, Andronikos II continued the war in hopes of gaining something from it. By the end of the war in 1302, virtually nothing was changed except the loss of resources desperately needed on other fronts.<ref name":3" /><ref>{{Cite book |lastLaiou |firstAngeliki E. |titleConstantinople and the Latins: the foreign policy of Andronicus II, 1282-1328 |date1972 |publisherHarvard University Press |isbn978-0-674-16535-9 |seriesHarvard historical studies |locationCambridge, Mass}}</ref> Asia Minor
Andronikos II Palaiologos sought to resolve some of the problems facing the Byzantine Empire through diplomacy. After the death of his first wife, Anne of Hungary, he married Yolanda (renamed Irene) of Montferrat, putting an end to the Montferrat claim to the Kingdom of Thessalonica.
Andronikos II also attempted to marry off his son and co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos to the Latin Empress Catherine I of Courtenay, thus seeking to eliminate Western agitation for a restoration of the Latin Empire. Another marriage alliance attempted to resolve the potential conflict with Serbia in Macedonia, as Andronikos II married off his five-year-old daughter Simonis to King Stefan Milutin in 1298.
depicting Andronikos II and Michael IX]]
In spite of the resolution of problems in Europe, Andronikos II was faced with the collapse of the Byzantine frontier in Asia Minor, despite the successful, but short, governorships of Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes. The military victories of Philanthropenos and Tarchaneiotes against the Turks were largely dependent on a considerable contingent of Cretan escapees, or exiles from Venetian-occupied Crete, headed by Hortatzis, whom Michael VIII had repatriated to Byzantium through a treaty agreement with the Venetians ratified in 1277.<ref>Agelarakis, P.A. (2012), "Cretans in Byzantine foreign policy and military affairs following the Fourth Crusade", Cretika Chronika, pp. 32, 41-78.</ref> Andronikos II had resettled those Cretans in the region of Meander river, the southeastern Asia Minor frontier of Byzantium with the Turks.
entering Constantinople by José Moreno Carbonero (1888).]]
After the failure of the co-emperor Michael IX to stem the Turkish advance in Asia Minor in 1302 and the disastrous Battle of Bapheus, the Byzantine government hired the Catalan Company of Almogavars (adventurers from Catalonia) led by Roger de Flor to clear Byzantine Asia Minor of the enemy.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} In spite of some successes, the Catalans were unable to secure lasting gains. Being more ruthless and savage than the enemy they intended to subdue, they quarreled with Michael IX and eventually turned on their Byzantine employers after the murder of Roger de Flor in 1305. Together with a party of willing Turks they devastated Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly on their road to Latin occupied southern Greece. There they conquered the Duchy of Athens and Thebes.
Meanwhile, the Anatolian beyliks continued to penetrate Byzantine territory. Prusa fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1326, and by the end of Andronikos II's reign much of Bithynia was in the hands of Osman I and his son and heir Orhan.<ref name":0">{{cite EB9 |wstitleAndronicus II. |volume2 |page23 |short=x}}</ref> Karasids conquered Mysia-region with Paleokastron after 1296, Germiyan conquered Simav in 1328, Saruhan captured Magnesia in 1313, and Aydinids captured Smyrna in 1310.
of Andronikos II, kneeling before Christ]]
Dethronement and death
The Empire's problems were exploited by Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria, who defeated Michael IX and conquered much of northeastern Thrace in {{circa|1305–07}}. The conflict ended with yet another dynastic marriage, between Michael IX's daughter Theodora and the Bulgarian emperor. The dissolute behavior of Michael IX's son Andronikos III Palaiologos led to a rift in the family, and after Michael IX's death in 1320, Andronikos II disowned his grandson, prompting a civil war that raged, with interruptions, until 1328. The conflict precipitated Bulgarian involvement, and Michael Asen III of Bulgaria attempted to capture Andronikos II under the guise of sending him military support. In 1328 Andronikos III entered Constantinople in triumph and Andronikos II was forced to abdicate.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Andronikos II died as a monk at Constantinople in 1332, and was buried in the Lips Monastery (now the Fenari Isa Mosque).<ref>Melvani, N., (2018) 'The tombs of the Palaiologan emperors', Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 42 (2) pp. 237-260</ref> He is the only Emperor to have been found still in his tomb.
Military policy
The military policy of Andronikos II was fundamentally shaped by the financial constraints of the empire he inherited from Michael VIII. The treasury was empty, and the grand designs of Michael were simply no longer achievable. Nonetheless, Andronikos attempted to continue his father's military policies to the best of his abilities.
Serbia
The Serbian frontier of the empire was said to have been embroiled in intermittent war for over a decade since 1282. Andronikos sent an army there in 1298, though its inability to fight a "guerrilla war" made the Emperor sign a peace with Serbia in the following year, sending his five-year-old daughter Simonis as a bride to Stefan Milutin.
Alexios Philanthropenos
The empire's Anatolian holdings, under attack since the 1260s, became the foremost concern of Andronikos; his attention would shift largely away from the west and towards the east. Andronikos frequently toured Anatolia to raise the population's morale and restored many fortresses there, yet this could not stem the massive flows of refugees coming into the empire's European holdings. In 1293, Alexios Philanthropenos was appointed to command and govern all armies in Anatolia, barring the Ionian coast. He was an effective general and would score a series of victories in 1294 and 1295 against the Meander Valley Turks. It was said that so many prisoners were taken as to lower the price of a Turkish slave beneath even that of a sheep. Other Turks surrendered and formed a part of Philanthropenos's army. The victories of Alexios Philanthropenos, in comparison to the central government's otherwise ineffective handling of the Turkish threat combined with high taxation, meant that Alexios would become regarded as the foremost leader, with particular loyalty stemming from his Cretan soldiers. The soldiers from Crete received a salary, but being "settled" in Anatolia probably also held land. It is not known, though, on what conditions they would have received this land. Reluctantly, amid massive popular support, Philanthropenos, in late 1295, accepted the challenge towards Andronikos II. Frightened, Andronikos offered Philanthropenos to become Caesar, though Alexios acted too slowly, and soon his support waned. Libadarios, the Governor of Neokastra and a loyalist of Andronikos, bribed the Cretans to blind and capture Alexios. The Cretans would never be heard of again—though John VI mentions a mysterious village in Thrace said to have been settled by an "army from Crete" before he arrived on the political scene in 1320.
John Tarchaneiotes
Following Philanthropenos, John Tarchaneiotes, a first cousin of Andronikos and an Arsenite, was sent to Anatolia. John was a general, but he was meant not to achieve quick victories but reform the military and economy of the region. It is said that many soldiers had lost their Pronoia holdings, while others had increased theirs through bribery of their superiors and stopped serving as soldiers. John sought to end this corruption and would reassess property holdings around the Meander Valley—a process known as exisosis. John's reforms in Anatolia were marked by success, revitalizing the army and even constructing a small fleet. However he faced opposition from the large landowners of Anatolia who his policies were principally aimed against as well as the Church who condemned him for being a supporter of the deposed Patriarch Arsenios. The enmity faced by Tarchaneiotes boiled over when a small number of Pronoia soldiers laid accusations of rebellion against John before the anti-Arsenite bishop of Philadelphia. With these treason charges pending in around 1300, Tarchaneiotes fled to Thessaloniki and joined Andronikos II there. Tarchaneiotes's reforms would be swiftly abandoned under the combined pressure of high clerical and landowner opposition.
The Alans
In late 1301, a group of Alans (a Christian Iranic people) crossed the empire's northern frontier. The Alans, last having fought for the empire in the late 11th century, were fleeing from the Mongol hordes and sought employment in the imperial army. Andronikos seized on this opportunity and hired them as supplemental mercenaries for two planned campaigns into Anatolia. In the spring of 1302, they were supplied with money, provisions, and horses. They would be divided into three groups: One led by the Megas Hetaireiarches Theodore Mouzalon to fight the Turks near Nicomedia, another under Michael IX would march south to Magnesia, and the third group being the wives and children of the warriors remained in Thrace. The first group under Mouzalon deserted almost as soon as it crossed into Anatolia — the deserters indiscriminately plundering Byzantine holdings — such that by July 1302, Mouzalon would only have under him a troop of 2,000 soldiers, perhaps half of which were Alans. Soon, a 5,000 strong army of light cavalry appeared between Nicaea and Nikomedia. These were led by Osman, the Turkish emir of Bithynia and founder of the Ottoman Empire. Mouzalon would meet Osman on the plains near Mount Bapheus. Mouzalon was defeated and the empire's northwestern Anatolian holdings were ravaged only accelerating the already severe refugee crisis. In April 1302, Michael IX departed for Anatolia with a mixed army of Alans and other troops. His army remained intact until it reached Magnesia on the Hermos. But once there, without fighting a battle, the native Byzantine divisions would begin to desert and the Alans would likewise request permission to abandon the campaign. Michael convinced them to stay another 3 months and sent a request to Constantinople for more funds. After the three months, the Alans refused to stay any longer and departed for Thracian Kallipolis. Michael was left in a dangerous position and fled in secrecy to Pergamon. Once this came out, his army and many of Magnesia's inhabitants followed suit in a scramble for safety. The Alans were eventually convinced to return their horses and weapons to Andronikos and left the empire.
Desperation
In 1303, the situation in Anatolia worsened to a point that Andronikos considered the most drastic of reforms that being to take all the lands from churches, monasteries, single monks and the imperial entourage and assign it to soldiers. This would have created more soldiers with more reasons not to desert, and even though there was no notable opposition to this plan the decrepit imperial administration in Anatolia and the ever worsening population flight prevented this from ever being realized. With the ever worsening Anatolian situation the remaining population felt abandoned by Constantinople and occasionally individuals took matters into their own hands. In 1303, amidst the flight of the soldiers, an officer named Kotertzes established an emergency defense and drew to him a following who were “as enemies of his enemies and friends of his friends”. Andronikos was incapable of aiding or stopping Kotertzes or a certain Attaleiates who with popular support seized Magnesia in 1304. Another curiosity was a certain John Choiroboskos named “Pigherd”. He gathered 300 peasants in Thrace wanting to campaign against the Turks in Anatolia. But the empire feared this would lead to a general insurrection and so he was Imprisoned. 9 months later, John fled from jail and together with Anatolian refugees campaigned in the east against the Turks, he was eventually captured in battle but escaped and fled back to Thrace. Having evidently proven himself he was then commissioned by Michael IX who gave him 1,000 peasants to fight the Catalans and Turks who were now in the empire's European holdings. This motley troop however only achieved the plunder of the environs of Thessalonica.<ref>{{Cite book |lastBartusis |firstMark C. |titleThe Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204-1453 |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |year1992 |isbn0-8122-1620-2 |pages67–85 |languageen}}</ref>
Fiscal policy
The economic destitution which plagued the reign of Andronikos II caused him to undertake drastic measures to cut state spending. These cuts included the native army, which was reduced to a near-token force and largely superseded, first by foreign mercenary companies and then by militias. As shown by the failed campaign of Andronikos's co-emperor Michael IX, these inexperienced militiamen made countering the Turkish advance a difficult and dangerous undertaking.
For a time the Byzantine navy was completely disbanded, leaving the empire reliant on Genoese and Venetian forces who charged exorbitantly for their service. Many discharged Byzantine sailors and shipbuilders found employment with the Turkomans, who had just reached the western Anatolian coast and sought to build up their own naval forces. The resulting new fleets contributed greatly to the exploding problem of Turkic piracy in the Aegean Sea, ravaging trade routes and coastal lands alike.<ref name=":1" />
In 1320, as a result of heightened taxation and more rigorous policies of collection, Andronikos II was able to raise a total of 1 million Hyperpyra for the budgetary year of 1321. He intended to use the money to expand his army to some 3000 horsemen, and to recreate the Byzantine Navy by building 20 ships. This plan, militarily ambitious though still insufficient for the needs of the empire, was disrupted by Andronikos II's impending civil war with his grandson Andronikos III.<ref name=":0" />
For the sake of comparison, the Hyperpyron from 1320 was worth half as much as the undebased Nomisma from the reign of Basil II.{{cn|date=October 2024}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Estimate of State Budget
for 1321<ref name":1">{{Cite book |lastTreadgold |firstWarren |titleA History of the Byzantine State and Society |publisherStanford University Press |year1997 |isbn9782036274082 |pages841–843 |language=en}}</ref>
!Budgetary Item
!Estimated total
(millions of hyperpyra)
|-
|Bodyguards
500 x 144hyp x 4/3
|0.096M hyp.
|-
|Soldiers
3000 x 144hyp x 4/3
|0.288M hyp.
|-
|Oarsmen
20ships x 5000hyp x 4/3
|0.1M hyp.
|-
|Army supplies
3500 x 20hyp
|0.07M hyp.
|-
|Navy supplies
3080 x 10hyp
|0.031M hyp.
|-
|fodder & horses
3500 x 10hyp
|0.035M hyp.
|-
|Catalan Campaign
|0.05M hyp.
|-
|Civil Expenses
|0.33M hyp.
|-
|Total
|1.0M hyp.
|}
Early church policy
depicting Andronikos II alongside Christ, AD 1301.]]
As Andronikos broke the church union of his father he also removed many of his church appointments, including the pro-unionist Patriarch John XI. The new, anti-unionist Patriarch Joseph I resigned his office and died the following year, and was replaced by a Cypriot who took the name Gregory II.
Andronikos also faced the Arsenite Schism, a movement which was anti-union but otherwise had little common ground with the emperor. Its name was derived from the former Patriarch Arsenios, who was removed from office after excommunicating Michael VIII for having blinded and imprisoned John IV. The Arsenites held that the captive John was the rightful Byzantine Emperor and that the Patriarchs John XI, Joseph I, and now Gregory II were illegitimate.
To try and mend this schism, Gregory called for a church synod to which he invited both the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, asking them to rescind their previous pro-unionist declaration. The Patriarch of Antioch refused, then abdicated from his office and fled to Syria. Gregory also extracted a public avowal from the Empress Theodora, that she would never ask that her deceased husband Michael VIII receive a Christian burial. Though this Synod did much to satisfy the Orthodox Clergy, it failed to do the same with the Arsenites.
A few years later Gregory II was forced to resign, as some of his writings were deemed to be heretical. His replacement, chosen by Andronikos in order to distract from an ever-worsening political situation, was an Athonite hermit who took the name Athanasius. The new Patriarch was intensely ascetic, and spent much of his time repudiating clergymen for their earthly possessions; eventually he sought to confiscate property from some of the wealthier churches and monasteries. Many clergymen responded with overt hostility, going as far as pelting him with stones as he walked the streets of Constantinople. Athanasius ceased to appear in public without a bodyguard.
When in the summer of 1293 Andronikos returned from a visit to his swiftly-dwindling Anatolian holdings, he was met by a delegation of leading clergyman who demanded the deposition of Athanasius. Andronikos was unwilling, but the strength of the opposition eventually forced him to comply. Meanwhile, Athanasius personally penned a church bull in which he excommunicated the clergymen who had denounced him, hiding it in a pillar in the northern gallery of Hagia Sophia. It was only found a few years later, causing much uproar.<ref>{{Cite book |lastNorwich |firstJohn Julius |titleByzanz: Verfall und Untergang |publisherEcon GmbH |year1998 |isbn3-430-17163-6 |locationMunich & Dusseldorf |pages296–299 |languagede}}</ref>FamilyOn 8 November 1273 Andronikos II married as his first wife Anna of Hungary,<ref>{{cite book|firstC.W.|lastPrevité-Orton|titleThe Shorter Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. II.|publisherCambridge at the University Press|year1962|page=922}}</ref> daughter of Stephen V of Hungary and Elizabeth the Cuman, with whom he had two sons:
* Michael IX Palaiologos (17 April 1277{{snd}}12 October 1320).
* Constantine Palaiologos, despotes ({{circa|1278}}{{snd}}1335). Constantine was forced to become a monk by his nephew Andronikos III Palaiologos.
Anna died in 1281, and in 1284 Andronikos married Yolanda (renamed Irene), a daughter of William VII of Montferrat, with whom he had:
* John Palaiologos ({{circa|1286}}–1308), despotēs.
* Bartholomaios Palaiologos (born 1289), died young.
* Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat (1291–1338).
* Simonis Palaiologina (1294 – after 1336), who married King Stefan Milutin of Serbia.
* Theodora Palaiologina (born 1295), died young.
* Demetrios Palaiologos (1297–1343), despotēs.
* Isaakios Palaiologos (born 1299), died young.
Andronikos II also had at least three other daughters, illegitimate only in the sense that they married outside their clan. 3 out of 4 daughters of the king married Mongol khans, showcasing the reality of that time.
* Irene, who first married Ghazan, Khan of Persia, and later John II Doukas, ruler of Thessaly.
* Maria, who married Toqta, Khan of the Golden Horde.
* A daughter known as Despina Khatun, who married Öljaitü, Khan of the Ilkhanate.<ref name":2">{{cite book|firstDimitri|lastKorobeinikov|titleByzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century|publisherOxford University Press|year2014|pages212|isbn978-0-198-70826-1}}</ref>
Foundations
* Ardenica Monastery
* Panagia Olympiotissa Monastery
* Zograf monastery
Ancestry
{{ahnentafel
|collapsedyes |aligncenter
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. Andronikos II Palaiologos
|2= 2. Michael VIII Palaiologos
|3= 3. Theodora Palaiologina
|4= 4. Andronikos Palaiologos
|5= 5. Theodora Angelina Palaiologina
|6= 6. John Doukas Vatatzes
|7= 7. Eudokia Angelina
|8= 8. Alexios Palaiologos
|9= 9. Irene Komnene
|10= 10. Alexios Palaiologos
|11= 11. Eirene Angelina
|12= 12. Isaac Doukas Vatatzes
|14= 14. John Komnenos Angelos
|15= 15. ...
}}
See also
{{portal|Byzantine Empire}}
*List of Byzantine emperors
*Rabban Bar Sauma
Notes
{{Reflist|30em}}
References
* {{cite book | first Mark C. | last Bartusis | title The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204–1453 | publisher University of Pennsylvania Press | year 1997 | isbn 978-0-8122-1620-2 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrUs-hHd89xAC}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitleAndronicus II |volume1 |page=976 }}
* {{cite book | first John Van Antwerp | last Fine | author-link John Van Antwerp Fine | title The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest | publisher University of Michigan Press | location Ann Arbor | year 1994 | isbn 978-0-472-08260-5 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHh0Bu8C66TsC }}
* {{cite book | editor-first Alexander | editor-last Kazhdan | editor-link Alexander Kazhdan | title Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium | publisher Oxford University Press | year 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6}}
* {{cite book | first Angeliki E. | last Laiou | author-link Angeliki Laiou | title Constantinople and the Latins: The Foreign Policy of Andronicus II, 1282–1328 | publisher Harvard University Press | year 1972 | isbn = 0-674-16535-7}}
* {{cite book | first Αναστασία | last Κοντογιαννοπούλου | title Η εσωτερική πολιτική του Ανδρονίκου Β΄ Παλαιολόγου (1282–1328). Διοίκηση - Οικονομία | publisher Κέντρο Βυζαντινών Ερευνών Θεσσαλονίκη | year 2004 | isbn 960-7856-15-5}}
* {{Cite book|lastNicol|firstDonald M.|author-linkDonald M. Nicol|titleThe Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453|orig-year1972|year1993|locationCambridge|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn9780521439916|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC}}
* {{Cite book|lastPapadakis|firstAristeides|titleCrisis in Byzantium: The Filioque Controversy in the Patriarchate of Gregory II of Cyprus (1283–1289)|year1997|orig-year1983|editionRev.|locationCrestwood, NY|publisherSt. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn9780881411768|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=TUBllg0JpgUC}}
* {{Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit}}
* {{cite book |titleA History of the Byzantine State and Society |lastTreadgold |firstWarren T. |year1997 |publisherStanford University Press |isbn0-8047-2630-2}}
External links
* {{commons category-inline|Andronikos II Palaiologos}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|Palaiologos dynasty|25 March|1259|13 February|1332}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef
| before = Michael VIII
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Byzantine emperor
|years= 1272–1328
| regent1 = Michael VIII
|years1=1272–1282
| regent2 = Michael IX
|years2=1294–1320
| regent3 = Andronikos III
| years3 = 1325–1328
}}
{{s-aft
| after = Andronikos III
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman emperors}}
{{Palaiologoi}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Andronikos 02 Palaiologos}}
Category:1259 births
Category:1332 deaths
Category:Palaiologos dynasty
Category:13th-century Byzantine emperors
Category:14th-century Byzantine emperors
Category:Byzantine emperors who abdicated
Category:Eastern Orthodox monks
Category:Burials at Lips Monastery
Category:Founders of Christian monasteries
Category:Children of Michael VIII Palaiologos
Category:Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars
Category:Sons of Byzantine emperors
Category:Forcibly monasticised
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronikos_II_Palaiologos
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.709473
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1762
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Andronikos I Komnenos
|
{{short description|Byzantine emperor from 1183 to 1185}}
{{Redirect|Misophaes|the class of demons|Demon#Christian demonology}}
{{Redirect|Andronikos Komnenos}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Andronikos I Komnenos
| title = Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans
| image = 143 - Andronikos I Komnenos (Mutinensis - color).png
| caption = Miniature portrait of Andronikos I (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras)
| succession = Byzantine emperor
| reign = September 1183 – 12 September 1185
| coronation | predecessor Alexios II Komnenos
| regent = John Komnenos
| reg-type = Co-emperor
| successor = Isaac II Angelos
| birth_date = {{Circa}} 1118–1120
| birth_place | death_date 12 September 1185<br />(aged 64–67)
| death_place = Constantinople<br /><small>(now Istanbul, Turkey)</small>
| place of burial | spouse Unknown first wife<br />Agnes of France
| issue = Manuel Komnenos<br />John Komnenos<br />Maria Komnene<br />Alexios Komnenos<br />Irene Komnene
| full name | house Komnenos
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Isaac Komnenos
| mother = Irene (Kata?)
}}
Andronikos I Komnenos ({{langx|el|Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός}}; {{c.|1118/1120|lk=no}}&nbsp;– 12 September 1185), Latinized as Andronicus I Comnenus, was Byzantine emperor from 1183 to 1185. A nephew of John II Komnenos ({{Reign}}1118–1143), Andronikos rose to fame in the reign of his cousin Manuel I Komnenos ({{Reign}}1143–1180), during which his life was marked by political failures, adventures, scandalous romances, and rivalry with the emperor.
After Manuel's death in 1180, the elderly Andronikos rose to prominence as the accession of the young Alexios II Komnenos led to power struggles in Constantinople. In 1182, Andronikos seized power in the capital, ostensibly as a guardian of the young emperor. Andronikos swiftly and ruthlessly eliminated his political rivals, including Alexios II's mother and regent, Maria of Antioch. In September 1183, Andronikos was crowned as co-emperor and had Alexios murdered, assuming power in his own name. Andronikos staunchly opposed the powerful Byzantine aristocracy and enacted brutal measures to curb their influence. Although he faced several revolts and the empire became increasingly unstable, his reforms had a favorable effect on the common citizenry. The capture of Thessaloniki by William II of Sicily in 1185 turned the people of Constantinople against Andronikos, who was captured and brutally murdered.
Andronikos was the last Byzantine emperor of the Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185). He was vilified as a tyrant by later Byzantine writers, with one historian calling him "Misophaes" ({{langx|grc|μισοφαής}}, {{lit|hater of sunlight}}) in reference to the great number of enemies he had blinded. The anti-aristocratic policies pursued by Andronikos destroyed the Komnenian system implemented by his predecessors. His reforms and policies were reversed by the succeeding Angelos dynasty (1185–1204), which contributed to the collapse of imperial central authority. When the Byzantine Empire was temporarily overthrown in the Fourth Crusade (1204), Andronikos' descendants established the Empire of Trebizond,<!-- Technically founded prior to the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders, but established as an independent state (rather than a usurpation movement) after the crusade --> where the Komnenoi continued to rule until 1461.
Early life and character
Andronikos Komnenos was born in {{Circa}} 1118–1120,{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} the son of the sebastokrator Isaac Komnenos{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} and his wife Irene.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} Andronikos had three siblings: the older brother John and two older sisters, one of which was named Anna.{{sfn|Varzos|1984a|pp254, 480–638}} Andronikos was the nephew of the reigning emperor, John II Komnenos ({{Reign}}1118–1143), and grew up together with his cousin (and John's successor) Manuel I Komnenos ({{Reign}}1143–1180).{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p=77}}
In 1130, Andronikos's father was involved in a conspiracy against John II while the emperor was away from Constantinople on campaign against the Sultanate of Rum. The conspiracy was uncovered but Isaac and his sons fled the capital and found refuge at the court of the Danishmendid emir Gümüshtigin Ghazi at Melitene.{{sfn|Varzos|1984a|pp239, 480}} The family spent six years on the run, traveling to Trebizond, Armenian Cilicia, and eventually the Sultanate of Rum, before Isaac reconciled with John II and the emperor forgave him.{{sfn|Varzos|1984a|pp243–244, 481}}
According to the historian Anthony Kaldellis, Andronikos was "one of the most colorful and versatile personalities of the age".{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p696}} He was tall, handsome, and brave, but a poor strategist,{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} and was known for his good looks, intellect, charm, and elegance.{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|locThe Fourth Crusade}} Reign of Manuel I (1143–1180) Imperial career
({{Reign}}1143–1180)]]
Manuel I Komnenos began his reign as emperor on good terms with Andronikos. Andronikos showed no signs of treachery towards his cousin and Manuel was fond of his company since the two were of similar age and had grown up together.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p197}} Andronikos took offence when officials spoke badly of Manuel's governance and was lent Manuel's favorite horse while they were on military campaigns.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p197}} Similar in personality, the friendship between Manuel and Andronikos only gradually transitioned into rivalry.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p=198}}
Manuel never succeeded in integrating Andronikos into the imperial family power network. Although talented and impressive as a person, Andronikos typically handled tasks entrusted to him carelessly.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} Relations between Manuel and Andronikos deteriorated in 1148, when Manuel appointed his favorite nephew John Doukas Komnenos as protovestiarios and protosebastos.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p197}} These appointments were the last in a long line of extraordinary favors given to John{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p196}} and greatly wounded Andronikos, who from then on became involved in various intrigues against the emperor.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p197}}
In 1151–1152, Manuel sent Andronikos with an army against Thoros II of Armenian Cilicia, who had conquered large parts of Byzantine-held Cilicia.{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p642}} The campaign was a dismal failure, as Thoros defeated Andronikos and occupied even more of Cilicia.{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p642}} Andronikos was nevertheless made governor of the portions that remained in imperial control.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p=197}}
In the winter of 1152–1153, the imperial court was at Pelagonia in Macedonia,{{Sfn|Jeffreys|2017|p185}} perhaps for recreational hunting.{{Sfn|Garland|2017|locImperial Women and Entertainment at the Middle Byzantine Court}} During the stay there, Andronikos slept in the same tent as Eudokia Komnene, Manuel's niece{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2009|p92}} and sister of John Komnenos Doukas,{{Sfn|Jeffreys|2017|p185}} committing incest.{{Sfn|Jeffreys|2017|p186}} When Eudokia's family attempted to catch the two in the act{{Sfn|Jeffreys|2017|p186}} and assassinate Andronikos,{{Sfn|Garland|2017|locImperial Women and Entertainment at the Middle Byzantine Court}} he escaped by cutting a hole in the side of the tent with his sword.{{Sfn|Garland|2017|locImperial Women and Entertainment at the Middle Byzantine Court}}{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2009|p92}} Manuel criticized the affair but Andronikos answered him that "subjects should always follow their master's example", alluding to well-founded rumors of the emperor himself having an incestuous relationship with Eudokia's sister Theodora.{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}}
Andronikos actively conspired against Manuel in the early 1150s, together with Baldwin III of Jerusalem and Mesud I of Rum.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p197}} He was then removed from his command in Cilicia and transferred to oversee the governance of Branitzova and Naissus in the west. Not long thereafter, Andronikos promised to turn over these towns to Géza II of Hungary in return for aid in seizing the imperial throne.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p197}} In 1155, Andronikos was imprisoned by Manuel in the imperial palace.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} According to Niketas Choniates, the imprisonment was a direct result of his plot to usurp the throne with Hungarian aid, and his affair with Eudokia.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p197}} John Kinnamos, however, claims that Manuel knew of the intrigues and did not punish Andronikos until he uttered death threats to John Komnenos Doukas.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p197}} Escapes from prison
, as depicted in a 16th-century Russian chronicle|170px]]
Andronikos escaped from prison in 1159, while Manuel was away on campaign in Cilicia and Syria.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p198}} Having discovered an ancient underground passage beneath his cell, he dug his way down using only his hands and managed to conceal the opening so that the guards were unable to find any damage to the cell.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p61}} The escape was reported to Manuel's wife, Empress Bertha-Irene, and a great search was ordered in Constantinople. In Andronikos's stead, his wife was briefly imprisoned in the same cell. According to Niketas Choniates, Andronikos soon emerged up into the cell again, embraced and had sex with his wife, conceiving his second son John. Andronikos then escaped the capital but was caught in Melangeia in Thrace by a soldier named Nikaias and imprisoned again with stronger chains and more guards.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p=61}}
Andronikos escaped prison for a second time in 1164.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002|p205}} He had pretended to be ill and was provided with a boy to see to his physical needs. Andronikos convinced the boy to make wax impressions of the keys to his cell and to bring these impressions to Andronikos's elder son, Manuel. Manuel forged copies of the keys, which the boy used to let Andronikos out.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p73}} Andronikos spent three days hiding in tall grass near the palace, before trying to flee in a fishing boat alongside a fisherman named Chysochoöpolos. The two were caught by guards, but Andronikos convinced them that he was an escaped slave and was let go out of compassion. Andronikos then made his way to his home, said goodbye to his family, and fled the capital,{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p74}} traveling beyond the Carpathian Mountains.{{sfn|Spinei|2009|p131}}
Andronikos first spent some time in Halych, where he was briefly captured by Vlachs from Moldavia{{sfn|Spinei|2009|p132}} who intended to bring him back to Manuel.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p74}} During his captivity, Andronikos pretended to suffer from infectious diarrhea, requiring frequent stops to dismount and defecate alone and at a distance. One night, he made a dummy out of his cloak, hat, and staff, in the position of a man defecating. While the Vlachs watched the dummy, Andronikos managed to escape.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|pp74–75}} He then made his way to Galicia, where he was well received by Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl.{{sfn|Spinei|2009|pp132–133}}
During his time at Yaroslav's court, Andronikos tried to recruit the Cumans to aid him in an invasion of the Byzantine Empire.{{sfn|Spinei|2009|p133}} Despite these efforts, Manuel sought to reconcile with him and managed to form an anti-Hungarian alliance with Yaroslav.{{sfn|Spinei|2009|p133}} When the Byzantines and Galicians joined forces in a combined invasion of Hungary in the 1160s, Andronikos led a force of Galicians and assisted Manuel during a siege of Semlin.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p975}} The campaign was a success and Andronikos returned with Manuel to Constantinople.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p975}} In 1166,{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} Andronikos was removed from court for refusing to take an oath of allegiance to then designated heir, Béla III of Hungary,{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p975}} but was entrusted once again to govern Cilicia.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} Exile
|170px]]
In 1167,{{Sfn|Venning|2015|p156}} Andronikos deserted his post in Cilicia and traveled to Antioch, where he seduced Philippa of Antioch.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} Philippa was the sister of both Manuel's second wife Maria{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} and Bohemond III, the reigning prince of Antioch.{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} The affair caused a scandal{{Sfn|Hamilton|2005|p173}} and threatened to jeopardize Manuel's foreign policy.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} Bohemond formally complained to the emperor that Andronikos was neglecting his duties in Cilicia and instead dallying with Philippa.{{Sfn|Venning|2015|p156}} Manuel was outraged and immediately recalled Andronikos,{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} replacing him as governor in Cilicia with Constantine Kalamanos.{{Sfn|Venning|2015|p156}} Kalamanos was also dispatched to attempt to wed Philippa. Upon meeting Kalamanos, the princess refused to address him by name, berated him for being short, and derided Manuel as "stupid and simple-minded" for believing she would forsake Andronikos for a man from such an obscure family line.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p80}} Andronikos refused to return home and instead fled with Philippa to Jerusalem,{{Sfn|Venning|2015|p156}} where King Amalric gave him Beirut as a fief to govern.{{Sfn|Venning|2015|p156}}{{Sfn|Hamilton|2005|p=173}}
Andronikos left Philippa in 1168{{Sfn|Venning|2015|p156}} and instead seduced the dowager queen Theodora Komnene, widow of Amalric's brother Baldwin III and daughter of Andronikos's cousin Isaac.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} Theodora was 21 years old at the time.{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|locThe Fourth Crusade}}{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} The historian John Julius Norwich has described Theodora as the love of Andronikos's life,{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|locThe Fourth Crusade}}{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} though their close relation made them unable to marry.{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} Manuel was furious over this affair as well and again ordered Andronikos to return home. Fearing that Amalric would back Manuel, Andronikos feigned acceptance. He traveled to Acre without Theodora, though she suddenly arrived after him and the two eloped together to the court of Nur al-Din Zengi in Damascus.{{Sfn|Venning|2015|p156}} The arrival of a Byzantine prince and a dowager-queen of Jerusalem in Damascus became a sensation in the Muslim world and they were welcomed with much enthusiasm.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2018|loc=Women in the Crusader States: the Queens of Jerusalem 1100–1190}}
Andronikos and Theodora traveled from court to court for several years,{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} making their way through Anatolia and the Caucasus.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p975}} They were eventually received by George III of Georgia and Andronikos was granted estates in Kakhetia. In 1173 or 1174, Andronikos accompanied George on a military expedition to Shirvan up to the Caspian shores, where the Georgians recaptured the fortress of Shabaran from invaders from Darband for his cousin, the Shirvanshah Akhsitan I.{{sfn|Minorsky|1945|pp=557–558}}
Andronikos and Theodora eventually settled in Koloneia in northeastern Anatolia, just beyond the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} Their peaceful life there came to an end when imperial officials captured Theodora{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} and their two children and brought them to Constantinople.{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} After over a decade in exile,{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} Andronikos returned to Constantinople in 1180 and theatrically pleaded for forgiveness from Manuel with a chain around his neck,{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} begging that Theodora and the children be returned.{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} The two reconciled, and Andronikos was sent to govern Paphlagonia,{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} where he lived with Theodora in a castle on the Black Sea coast.{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} The arrangement was understood as internal exile{{Sfn|Magdalino|2008|p659}} and peaceful retirement.{{Sfn|Norwich|2018|locAgainst Andronicus}} Theodora's ultimate fate is not known, though she likely died before Andronikos's return to imperial politics in 1182.{{Sfn|Hamilton|2018|locWomen in the Crusader States: the Queens of Jerusalem 1100–1190}} Reign of Alexios II (1180–1183) Power struggle
at the death of Manuel I Komnenos in 1180]]
Manuel died on 24 September 1180{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p126}} and the throne was inherited by his eleven-year-old son, Alexios II Komnenos.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p696}} A regency was set up for the young emperor, led by Manuel's widow, Maria of Antioch.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}} Manuel had made his officials and nobles swear to obey Maria as regent, on the condition that she became a nun (which she did) and guarded the honor of the empire and their son.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p205}} Maria was supported by Patriarch Theodosios Borradiotes and the prōtosebastos Alexios Komnenos, a nephew of Manuel.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}} Despite this, she was in a dangerous position. She was of Latin (i.e. Catholic/Western European) origin and regent for a minor with ambitious relatives.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p205}} Manuel had throughout his reign sought to integrate the empire into the world of the Latin states in the West and Levant through diplomacy. His efforts were largely unsuccessful, as Latin polities began to regard themselves as having a say in imperial politics and anti-Latin sentiment grew among the populace of the empire.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p=726}}, regent of the Byzantine Empire 1180–1182]]
Maria of Antioch was young and beautiful, leading to power struggles between officials who sought her favor.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p205}} Little political attention was given to Alexios II, who as a child was devoted entirely to pursuits such as chariot races and hunting.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p206}} The perceived pro-Latin stance of the regency and rumors that Maria and Alexios the prōtosebastos were lovers, as well as suspicions that the prōtosebastos planned to seize the throne for himself, led to the formation of a court faction opposed to the regency.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}}{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p205}} Some of Maria's supporters also began to abandon her as the favors they sought were increasingly given to the prōtosebastos.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p206}} The opposition was led by Manuel's daughter, Maria Komnene, her husband Renier of Montferrat,{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p696}}{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}} and Manuel's illegitimate son Alexios.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p206}}
In early 1181, a plot to assassinate the prōtosebastos was uncovered and many were arrested.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}} Maria Komnene and Renier sought asylum in the Hagia Sophia{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p696}}{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p206}} and were supported by Patriarch Theodosios and the clergy.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p206}} The two conspirators turned the church into a stronghold and issued demands that the prōtosebastos be removed from office and that those arrested should be released.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p206}} The citizenry of Constantinople were split between the two factions. Clashes erupted throughout the capital,{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p696}} lasting for two months.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}} Maria Komnene, supported by the clergy, portrayed her revolt against the regency as a holy war.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p206}} With the government focused on the power struggle, the empire swiftly lost territory to foreign enemies. Béla III of Hungary conquered Dalmatia and Sirmium, and Kilij Arslan II of Rum conquered Sozopolis and besieged Attaleia.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p=696}}
Peace was brokered in the capital by the megas doux Andronikos Kontostephanos{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p696}} and the patriarch{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p206}} but the conflict was not resolved.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}} In 1182,{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}} Maria Komnene and other nobles sent for Andronikos in Paphlagonia, inviting him to the capital to assume the protection of Alexios II.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p207}} Andronikos was by this time in his early sixties and regarded by some as an elder statesman.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} Because of his exile away from the affairs in the capital, he was seen as an impartial outsider who could champion the young emperor's best interests.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2008|p660}} Maria Komnene could also assume that he would be supportive of her since Andronikos's sons Manuel and John had been involved in her revolt.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p207}} In the spring of 1182, Andronikos assembled an army and marched on Constantinople.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p127}} He portrayed himself as a champion of Alexios II,{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} accused Maria of Antioch and the prōtosebastos of conspiracy, and falsely claimed that Manuel had appointed him as one of Alexios II's regents.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p207}} The general Andronikos Angelos was sent to intercept Andronikos but was defeated, fled back to Constantinople, and quickly defected to Andronikos out of fear of his failure being punished.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} Once Andronikos reached the Bosporus, public opinion in Constantinople was firmly on his side.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p128}} The prōtosebastos organized a fleet to stop Andronikos, led by Kontostephanos, though Kontostephanos likewise defected to the rebel's side.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}}
Regent in Constantinople
(left), depicted together with his father, Manuel (center), and wife, Agnes of France (right)]]
With no military forces left to oppose Andronikos, the prōtosebastos was taken captive and taken across the Bosporus to Andronikos's camp,{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p128}} where he was blinded.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} Andronikos then ferried his troops to the city and took control virtually without opposition.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p128}} He almost immediately made his way to the Pantokrator Monastery, apparently to pay his respects to the tomb of Manuel.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p129}}
Soon after Andronikos gained control of Constantinople in April 1182, the Massacre of the Latins erupted in the city.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p130}} Andronikos made no effort to stop the pogroms, instead referring to them as a "defeat of the tyranny of the Latins" and a "restoration of Roman affairs". There is no evidence that Andronikos was particularly anti-Latin on a personal level but the massacre was politically useful since anti-Latin sentiment had helped bring him to power and because many Latins in the city had supported Maria of Antioch's regency.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} The bulk of Constantinople's Latin population were either killed or forced to flee{{Sfn|Ducellier|1986|pp506–508}} and the Latin quarters were plundered and set on fire.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}} According to Eustathius of Thessalonica, approximately 60,000 people were killed{{Sfn|Ducellier|1986|pp506–508}}{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p208}} though this number is likely exaggerated.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p208}} A papal delegate visiting Constantinople was decapitated and his head was tied to the tail of a dog.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p697}}
In May, Patriarch Theodosios formally handed Constantinople over to Andronikos. The patriarch and Andronikos ensured that Alexios II was formally crowned as emperor on 16 May 1182. Andronikos carried the young emperor into Hagia Sophia on his shoulders and acted as a devoted supporter.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p208}} Andronikos soon dealt with his political rivals as well as all major schemers during Maria of Antioch's regency, including those who had supported him. The blinded prōtosebastos was exiled to a monastery. Both Maria Komnene and Renier of Montferrat were poisoned within a few months.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p129}} Andronikos Kontostephanos was suspected of conspiracy and blinded alongside his four sons in the summer of 1183.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p129}} Maria of Antioch remained an obstacle since she was legally appointed as regent. Andronikos had Patriarch Theodosios agree on expelling her from the palace and then had her prosecuted for treason on the basis that she had asked her brother-in-law, Béla III of Hungary, for help.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p208}} Found guilty, Maria was imprisoned{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p208}} and Andronikos had Alexios II sign a document condemning her to death.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p209}} The empress was strangled to death and subjected to damnatio memoriae, with her portraits in public places being replaced with imagery of Andronikos.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p=129}}
In the place of Manuel's officials, Andronikos raised up his own loyalists, such as Michael Haploucheir and Stephen Hagiochristophorites.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p129}} The execution of Maria of Antioch left the young Alexios II without protection.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p209}} Andronikos had some of the clergy formally absolve him of his oaths to Manuel and Alexios II{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2009|p93}} and was crowned as co-emperor in September 1183.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p309}} Soon thereafter, Alexios II was strangled and his body was thrown in the sea, encased in lead.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p209}} Just over a year after taking power as the young emperor's guardian, Andronikos had thus had him suppressed and killed{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} and now ruled in his own name.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p309}} Reign (1183–1185)
'' coin of Andronikos I Komnenos, showing him (left) being crowned by Jesus (right)]]
Andronikos's assumption of sole power rapidly plunged the empire into further instability. The elimination of Alexios II made Andronikos dependent on a power base bound only to him through self-interest.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2008|p660}} In Alexios's place, Andronikos in November 1183 named his son John as co-emperor and heir. The choice likely fell on the younger John rather than the older son, Manuel, since John was considered more loyal and his name adhered to the AIMA prophecy.{{sfn|Varzos|1984b|pp521, 529–530}} One of the only members of the previous immediate imperial family to survive Andronikos's rise to power was Agnes of France, Alexios II's young French wife.{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.1}} To increase his legitimacy,{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.1}} the elderly Andronikos controversially married the eleven-year-old empress.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p=700}}
Andronikos concentrated his political efforts on internal affairs{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} and was determined to curtail the power of the aristocracy and stop corruption,{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p309}} returning absolute control of the state to the hands of the emperor.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} Under the preceding Komnenoi emperors, regional magnates had acquired vast power, managing their administrations at will and exploiting peasants and common citizens.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} Although often brutal, Andronikos was generally successful in his anti-aristocratic measures and his policies had a favorable effect on the citizenry.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p309}} Because the emperor directly endangered their positions, aristocrats were uncooperative and many rose in revolt, in turn being suppressed with cruelty and terror.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} The situation soon evolved into a reign of terror where even suspicion of disloyalty could result in disgrace and execution.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} There were imperial spies everywhere, night arrests, and sham trials.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p700}} Andronikos's purges were not limited to Constantinople.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p129}} In the spring of 1184, the emperor marched into Anatolia to punish the cities of Nicaea and Prusa, which opposed his accession.{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.1}} The rebels included the aristocrat Isaac Angelos and his family. During the siege, Andronikos had Isaac's mother Euphrosyne placed on top of a battering ram{{sfn|Choniates|1984|pp156–157}}{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2009|p94}} to deter the defenders from trying to destroy it.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2009|p94}} After Prusa was taken by storm, several of the defenders were impaled outside the city walls,{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p129}}{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.1}} though Isaac was spared due to surrendering in return for immunity.{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p654}}
Other than his brutal suppression of aristocrats, Andronikos attempted to put sensible policies in place to secure the well-being of the peasantry and provincial administration of the empire. The taxation system was overhauled in an attempt to root out corruption and ensure that only regular taxes were paid (and not surcharges imposed by tax farmers). He further legislated that offices for collecting revenue were to be awarded based on merit and not sold to the highest bidder.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p700}}{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.2}} Andronikos was receptive to accusations against aristocrats by the common people and the prosperity of the provincial population increased under his rule.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p701}} The emperor actively responded to complaints of inequality and corruption, and tried to shorten the gap between the provinces and the capital, seeking to solve problems that had originated in Manuel's pro-aristocratic reign.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p701}}
The brutality enacted against the ruling class caused the alliances built up under Manuel in the Balkans to fall apart. Béla III of Hungary invaded the empire in 1183, posing as an avenger of Maria of Antioch, but was driven away in 1184. During this conflict, Stefan Nemanja managed to secure Serbian independence from the empire.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p309}} The suppression of aristocrats and rivals, some of whom were Andronikos's family members, led to many Byzantine nobles fleeing the empire in search of aid.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p309}} Komnenian princelings are recorded as having approached figures such as the king of Hungary, the sultan of Rum, the marquis of Montferrat, the pope, the king of Jerusalem, and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa with pleas of intervention, stirring up further trouble against the empire.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2008|p660}} In 1184, Andronikos's cousin Isaac Komnenos seized Cyprus and ruled there independently;{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p701}} in retaliation, Andronikos had two of Isaac's relatives stoned and impaled.{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p654}} Downfall and death
, France.]]
In 1185, the pinkernēs Alexios Komnenos, a great-nephew of Manuel, approached William II of Sicily with a request for aid against Andronikos. William invaded the Byzantine Empire and successfully captured both Dyrrhachium and Thessaloniki in the name of a young man pretending to be Alexios II.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2008|p660}} The capture of Thessaloniki in August 1185{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} was followed by a brutal sack of the city, portrayed by the chronicler William of Tyre as if the Sicilians were "making war on God himself", and as revenge for the Massacre of the Latins.{{Sfn|Siecienski|2023|p59}} With Thessaloniki captured, the Sicilians turned their eyes towards Constantinople.{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p654}} The war, however, slowly shifted in Andronikos's favor. The Byzantines successfully split up the invaders into several smaller forces and were slowing down their advance eastwards.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} Despite beginning to turn the tide, the atmosphere in Constantinople was tense and fearful{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} and the fall of Thessaloniki had turned the common people of the city, previously strong supporters of Andronikos, against the emperor.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p=309}}
During this time, Andronikos sent Stephen Hagiochristophorites to arrest the earlier rebel Isaac Angelos,{{sfn|Savvides|1994|pp351–352}} who was a matrilineal relative of the Komnenos dynasty.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p310}} Isaac panicked, killed Hagiochristophorites, and sought refuge in the Hagia Sophia.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} Finding himself at the center of popular demonstrations against Andronikos,{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.1}} Isaac unwittingly became the champion of an uprising and was proclaimed emperor.{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} Andronikos tried to flee Constantinople in a boat but was captured and brought to Isaac.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p975}}{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc=12.1}}
Isaac handed Andronikos over to the incensed people of Constantinople. Andronikos was tied to a post and brutally beaten for three days. Alongside numerous other punishments, his right hand was cut off, his teeth and hair were pulled out, one of his eyes was gouged out, and boiling water was thrown in his face.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p975}} Andronikos was then taken to the Hippodrome, where he was hung by his feet between two pillars. Two Latin soldiers competed over whose sword could penetrate his body more deeply, and Andronikos's body was eventually torn apart.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p193}} According to Niketas Choniates, Andronikos endured the brutality bravely, and retained his senses throughout the ordeal.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2009|p96}} He died on 12 September 1185,{{sfn|Choniates|1984|pp188–189}} and his remains were left unburied and visible for several years afterwards.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p193}} At the news of Andronikos's death, his son and co-emperor John was murdered by his own troops in Thrace.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p193}}
Family
was ruled by Andronikos's descendants 1204–1461]]
Andronikos was married twice and had numerous mistresses. He had three children with his first wife, whose name is not recorded:{{sfn|Varzos|1984a|p=637}}
* Manuel Komnenos (1145–after 1185), an ambassador under Manuel I and opposed to many of the policies of his father. Manuel was blinded by the new regime established by Isaac Angelos and disappears from the sources thereafter.{{sfn|Varzos|1984b|pp511–528}} He was married to the Georgian princess Rusudan and the couple had two sons, Alexios and David Komnenos. In 1204, Alexios and David founded the Empire of Trebizond, which continued to be ruled by their descendants.{{sfn|Varzos|1984a|pp637–638}}{{sfn|Varzos|1984b|p527}} Trapezuntine efforts to gain influence and power in the wider Byzantine world were hindered both by geography and by their emperors descending from Andronikos.{{Sfn|Treadgold|1997|p710}}
* John Komnenos (1159–1185), co-emperor with Andronikos.{{sfn|Varzos|1984b|pp528–532}} Murdered by his own troops after Andronikos's death in September 1185.{{sfn|Choniates|1984|p193}}
* Maria Komnene (born {{circa|1166}}), married to the nobleman Theodore Synadenos in 1182 and then to a nobleman named Romanos. Romanos is noted for mishandling the defence of Dyrrhachium against the Sicilians in 1185. The fates of Maria and Romanos after Andronikos's death are unknown.{{sfn|Varzos|1984b|pp=532–535}}
Andronikos had no children with his second wife, Agnes of France, nor any known illegitimate children with any of his mistresses other than his long-term partner Theodora Komnene, with whom he had two:{{sfn|Varzos|1984a|p=638}}
* Alexios Komnenos (1170–{{circa|1199}}), fled to Georgia after 1185, where he married into the local nobility. Claimed descendants include the noble family of Andronikashvili.{{sfn|Varzos|1984b|pp=532–537}}
* Irene Komnene (born 1171), married to the sebastokrator Alexios Komnenos, an illegitimate son of Manuel I. Alexios was involved in a conspiracy in October 1183, whereafter he was blinded and imprisoned and Irene became a nun.{{sfn|Varzos|1984b|pp481, 537–539}} Legacy Andronikos's fall from power ended the rule of the Komnenos dynasty, which had governed the Byzantine Empire since 1081. He was vilified as a tyrant in Byzantine writings after his death.{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.2}} The later Angeloi emperors made it official imperial policy that Andronikos had been a tyrant, echoed in all texts addressed to them or their officials. This policy included changing earlier texts; in the writings of Theodore Balsamon, for instance, all references to Andronikos as basileus (emperor) were replaced by tyrannos.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2024|p=700}} Nicetas Choniates, a contemporary historian, called Andronikos "Misophaes" ({{langx|grc|μισοφαής}}, {{lit|hater of sunlight}}) in reference to the great number of enemies he had blinded.{{sfn|Lascaratos|1999}}
The earlier Komnenoi emperors had instituted the Komnenian system of administration, family rule, and financial and military obligations. This system allowed the empire to achieve prosperity and some internal stability. It also greatly increased the power and wealth of the landowning provincial aristocracy.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p155}} Aristocrats had become able to run their administrations at will, exploit common citizens,{{Sfn|Kislinger|2019|p77}} and withhold funds from the central government to use for their own purposes.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p155}} At its extreme, this could allow for independent local governments, such as that of Isaac Komnenos in Cyprus and the later realm ruled by Leo Sgouros in the Peloponnese.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p155}} The power and abuses of the aristocracy was a very real issue, recognized by Andronikos, which ultimately contributed to the empire's catastrophic decline after his death.{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc=12.2}}
Through his reforms and brutal suppression, Andronikos destroyed the Komnenian system,{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p155}} though his death ended all attempts to curb the power of the aristocracy.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p309}} Over the course of the subsequent Angelos dynasty, aristocratic power instead increased and the empire's central authority collapsed.{{Sfn|Gregory|2010|p309}} Though blame for Byzantine decline has in the past been levied at Andronikos's brutal rule, his brutal efforts did little damage to the empire's long-term stability since they were largely confined to the ruling class, mostly in Constantinople itself.{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.2}} His domestic reforms were largely sensible, though imposed too hastily, and his brutal fall from power after a short reign stopped any chance of repairing the system.{{Sfn|Harris|2020|loc12.2}} The Angeloi emperors, Isaac II Angelos ({{Reign}}1185–1195) and Alexios III Angelos ({{Reign}}1195–1203), faced problems of manpower directly resulting from the increasingly decentralized empire.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p156}}
The historian Paul Magdalino suggested in 1993 that Andronikos's reign saw the setting of the precedents that allowed the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) to transpire, including an increasingly anti-Latin foreign policy as well as the phenomenon of relatives of the imperial family traveling abroad in the hope of securing foreign intervention in imperial politics.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2008|p660}}Ancestry
{{ahnentafel
|collapsedyes |aligncenter
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. Andronikos I Komnenos
|2= 2. Isaac Komnenos
|3= 3. Irene (Kata?)
|4= 4. Alexios I Komnenos
|5= 5. Irene Doukaina
|6= 6. Volodar of Peremyshl or David IV of Georgia
|7= 7. ... or Rusudan
|8= 8. John Komnenos
|9= 9. Anna Dalassene
|10= 10. Andronikos Doukas
|11= 11. Maria of Bulgaria
|12= 12. Rostislav of Tmutarakan or George II of Georgia
|13= 13. Anna Lanke or Elene
}}
References
{{Reflist|20em}}
Bibliography
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |lastBirkenmeier |firstJohn W. |titleThe development of the Komnenian army: 1081–1180 |date2002 |publisherBrill |isbn9789004117105}}
* {{EB1911|modecs2|wstitleAndronicus I|volume1|pages975–976}}
* {{O City of Byzantium}}
* {{cite book |lastDucellier |firstAlain |urlhttps://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00robe |titleThe Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 950–1250 |publisherCambridge University Press |year1986 |isbn978-0-521-26645-1 |pages489–524 |chapterThe death throes of Byzantium: 1080–1261 |url-accessregistration}}
* {{Cite book |lastGarland |firstLynda |titleByzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204 |date1999 |publisherRoutledge |isbn0-415-14688-7}}
* {{Cite book |lastGarland |firstLynda |titleByzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200 |date2017 |publisherTaylor & Francis |isbn9781351953719}}
* {{Cite book |lastGregory |firstTimothy E. |titleA History of Byzantium |date2010 |publisherBlackwell Publishing |isbn9781405184717 |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite book |lastHamilton |firstBernard |titleThe Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem |date2005 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn9780521017473}}
* {{Cite book |lastHamilton |firstBernard |titleCrusaders, Cathars and the Holy Places |date2018 |publisherTaylor & Francis |isbn9780429812781}}
* {{Cite book |lastHarris |firstJonathan |titleByzantium and the Crusades |date2014 |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |isbn9781780937366 |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite book |lastHarris |firstJonathan |titleIntroduction to Byzantium, 602–1453 |date2020 |publisherTaylor & Francis |isbn9781351368773 }}
* {{cite book |lastJeffreys |firstMichael |titleByzantine Macedonia: Identity, Image and History |publisherBRILL |isbn978-18-76-50306-2 |pages184–191 |chapterManuel Komnenos' Macedonian military camps: a glamorous alternative court? |url-access |date=2017}}
* {{cite book |lastKaldellis |firstAnthony |url|titleNiketas Choniates: A Historian and a Writer |publisherLa pomme d'or |isbn978-954-8446-05-1 |pages75–100 |chapterParadox, Reversal and the Meaning of History |url-access|date2009}}
* {{Cite book |lastKaldellis |firstAnthony |titleThe New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium |date2024 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn9780197549322}}
* {{cite book |lastKislinger |firstEwald |url|titleEncyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition: Volume I: A–K |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-57958-141-1 |pages77–78 |chapterAndronikos I Komnenos |url-access|date2019}}
* {{Cite journal|lastLascaratos|firstJohn|date1999|title'Eyes' on the Thrones: Imperial Ophthalmologic Nicknames|urlhttps://www.surveyophthalmol.com/article/S0039-6257(99)00039-9/abstract|journalSurvey of Ophthalmology|languageEnglish|volume44|issue1|pages73–78|doi10.1016/S0039-6257(99)00039-9|issn0039-6257|pmid=10466590}}
* {{Cite book |lastMagdalino |firstPaul |titleThe Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180 |date2002 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn9780521526531}}
* {{cite book |lastMagdalino |firstPaul |urlhttps://archive.org/details/the-cambridge-history-of-the-byzantine-empire-c.-500-1492-2009 |titleThe Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500–1492 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-83231-1 |pages627–663 |chapterThe empire of the Komnenoi (1118–1204) |url-access|date2008}}
* {{Citation |lastMinorsky |firstVladimir |titleKhāqānī and Andronicus Comnenus |journalBulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume11 |number3 |pages557–558 |year1945 |publisherUniversity of London |doi10.1017/s0041977x0007227x |s2cid161748303 |author-linkVladimir Minorsky}}
* {{Cite book |lastNorwich |firstJohn Julius |titleA Short History of Byzantium |date1998 |publisherPenguin Books |isbn978-0-14-192859-3}}
* {{Cite book |lastNorwich |firstJohn Julius |titleThe Kingdom in the Sun, 1130–1194 |date2018 |publisherFaber & Faber |isbn9780571346097}}
* {{cite journal |lastSavvides |firstAlexis G. K. |year1994 |titleNotes on 12th-century Byzantine Prosopography (Aaron Isaacius-Stephanus Hagiochristophorites) |journalVyzantiaka |locationThessaloniki |volume14 |pages341–353}}
* {{Cite book |lastSiecienski |firstA. Edward |titleBeards, Azymes, and Purgatory: The Other Issues that Divided East and West |date2023 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-006506-5}}
* {{Citation |lastSpinei |firstVictor |titleThe Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century |year2009 |publisherBrill |isbn978-90-04-17536-5}}
* {{A History of the Byzantine State and Society}}
* {{Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών|volumeA1|ref{{harvid|Varzos1984a}}}}
* {{Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών|volumeB|ref{{harvid|Varzos1984b}}}}
* {{Cite book |lastVenning |firstTimothy |titleA Chronology of the Crusades |date2015 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-138-80269-8}}
{{Refend}}
External links
{{Commons category-inline}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|Komnenian dynasty||1118/1120|12 September|1185}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef
| before = Alexios II Komnenos
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Byzantine emperor
| years = 1183–1185
}}
{{s-aft
| after = Isaac II Angelos
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman emperors}}
{{Komnenoi}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Komnenos, Andronikos I}}
Andronikos 01
Category:Byzantine people of the Crusades
Category:12th-century Byzantine emperors
Category:1110s births
Category:1185 deaths
Category:Executed Byzantine people
Category:Executed monarchs
Category:Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuk wars
Category:People executed by dismemberment
Category:Lynching deaths
Category:12th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronikos_I_Komnenos
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.739081
|
1763
|
Andronicus of Cyrrhus
|
{{short description|Greek astronomer}}
, Athens]]
Andronicus of Cyrrhus or Andronicus Cyrrhestes (Latin; {{langx|grc|Ἀνδρόνικος Κυρρήστης}}, Andrónikos Kyrrhēstēs; {{fl.|{{c.|100}}{{nbsp}}BC}}) was a Macedonian astronomer best known for designing the Tower of the Winds in Roman Athens.
Life
Little is known about the life of Andronicus, although his father is recorded as Hermias. It is usually assumed that he came from the Cyrrhus in Macedonia rather than the one in Syria.<ref>{{Cite web |titleBiographies KYRROS (Ancient city) SYRIA - GTP - Greek Travel Pages |urlhttps://www.gtp.gr/LocInfo.asp?IncludeWide1&InfoId26&CodeMSY0ZZ00ALPALE81111&PrimeCodeMSY0ZZ00ALPALE81111&Level10&PrimeLevel10&LocId63812&Entity519 |access-date2025-03-04 |websitewww.gtp.gr |languageen}}</ref>WorkAndronicus is usually credited with the construction of the Tower of the Winds in the Roman forum at Athens around {{nowrap|50 BC,}} a considerable portion of which still exists.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAndronicus of Cyrrhus {{!}} Greek astronomer|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Andronicus-of-Cyrrhus|access-date2021-07-13|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica|languageen}}</ref> It is octagonal, with figures of the eight principal winds (Anemoi) carved on the appropriate side.{{sfnp|Noble & al.|1968|p353}} Originally, a bronze figure of Triton was placed on the summit that was turned round by the wind so that the rod in his hand pointed to the correct wind direction, an idea replicated with subsequent wind vanes.{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911|p23}} The interior housed a large clepsydra and there were multiple sundials on the exterior, so that it functioned as a kind of early clocktower.
He also built a multifaced sundial for the Temple of Poseidon on the island of Tinos.
References
Citations
{{reflist|30em}}
Bibliography
* {{EB1911 |wstitleAndronicus of Cyrrhus |volume1 |page=976}}
* {{citation |lastNoble |firstJoseph V. |author2Derek J. de Solla Price |display-authors1 |ref{{harvid|Noble & al.|1968}} |date1968 |volume72 |issue4 |titleAmerican Journal of Archaeology |contributionThe Water Clock in the Tower of the Winds |location|publisher }}.
External links
*Tenos island - [http://inscriptions.packhum.org/inscriptions/main?url=oi%3Fikey%3D78245%26bookid%3D21%26region%3D7%26subregion%3D20 Epigraphical Database - IG XII,5 891]
{{Greek astronomy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Andronicus Of Cyrrhus}}
Category:Ancient Greek astronomers
Category:Ancient Macedonian scientists
Category:Ancient Macedonians in Athens
Category:Roman-era Macedonians
Category:2nd-century BC births
Category:1st-century BC deaths
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death unknown
Category:2nd-century BC astronomers
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronicus_of_Cyrrhus
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.744262
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1764
|
Andronicus of Rhodes
|
{{Short description|1st-century BC Greek philosopher from Rhodes, head of the Peripatetic school}}
Andronikos of Rhodes ({{langx|grc|Ἀνδρόνικος ὁ Ῥόδιος|translit=Andrónikos ho Rhódios}}; {{langx|la|Andronicus Rhodius}}; {{floruit|{{circa|60 BC}}}}) was a Greek philosopher from Rhodes who was also the scholarch (head) of the Peripatetic school. He is most famous for publishing a new edition of the works of Aristotle that forms the basis of the texts that survive today.{{sfn|Falcon|Zalta|2013}}
{{TOClimit|2}}
Life
Little is known about Andronicus' life. He is reported to have been the eleventh scholarch of the Peripatetic school.<ref>Ammonius, In de Int. 5.24</ref> He taught in Rome, about 58 BC, and was the teacher of Boethus of Sidon, with whom Strabo studied.<ref>Strabo, xiv.; Ammonius, in Aristot. Categ..</ref>
Works of Aristotle
Andronicus is of special interest in the history of philosophy, from the statement of Plutarch,<ref>Plutarch, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/sulla*.html#26 Sulla c. 26]</ref> that he published a new edition of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which formerly belonged to the library of Apellicon, and were brought to Rome by Sulla with the rest of Apellicon's library in 84. Tyrannion commenced this task, but apparently did not do much towards it.<ref>Comp. Porphyry, Vit. Plotin. c. 24; Boethius, ad Aristot. de Interpret.</ref> The arrangement which Andronicus made of Aristotle's writings seems to be the one which forms the basis of our present editions and we are probably indebted to him for the preservation of a large number of Aristotle's works.{{sfn|Smith|1870|ignore-erryes}}WritingsAndronicus wrote a work upon Aristotle, the fifth book of which contained a complete list of the philosopher's writings, and he also wrote commentaries upon the Physics, Ethics, and Categories. None of these works are currently known to be extant. Two treatises are sometimes erroneously attributed to him, one On Emotions, the other a commentary on Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Paleocappa in the 16th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica).<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inliney|wstitleAndronicus of Rhodes|volume1 |page976}}</ref>
Notes
{{reflist}}
References
*{{cite SEP |lastFalcon |firstAndrea |last2Zalta |first2Edward N. |date8 August 2013 |url-idaristotle-commentators |titleCommentators on Aristotle }}Further reading*{{cite EB9 |wstitleAndronicus of Rhodes |volumeII |page23}}
*{{cite book |lastBarnes |firstJonathan |author-linkJonathan Barnes |chapterRoman Aristotle |editor-firstJonathan |editor-lastBarnes |editor2-firstMiriam |editor2-lastGriffin |titlePhilosophia Togata II. Plato and Aristotle at Rome |locationNew York |publisherOxford University Press, 1997 |pages1–69 (on Andronicus, 24–44)}}
External links
* [https://www.ontology.co/corpus-aristotelicum.htm The Rediscovery of the Corpus Aristotelicum] with an annotated bibliography
Attribution
*{{SmithDGRBM|wstitle=Andronicus of Rhodes}}
{{Peripatetics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Andronicus Of Rhodes}}
Category:1st-century BC Greek philosophers
Category:Greek-language commentators on Aristotle
Category:Roman-era Peripatetic philosophers
Category:Roman-era philosophers in Rome
Category:Philosophers in ancient Rhodes
Category:Roman-era Rhodians
Category:Ancient Greek ethicists
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.756941
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1765
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Andronicus
|
Andronicus or Andronikos () is a classical Greek name. The name has the sense of "male victor, warrior". Its female counterpart is Andronikè (Ἀνδρονίκη). Notable bearers of the name include:
People
Andronicus of Olynthus, Greek general under Demetrius in the 4th century BC
Livius Andronicus (), Greco-Roman dramatist and epic poet who introduced drama to the Romans and produced the first formal play in Latin
Andronicus ben Meshullam, Jewish scholar of the 2nd century BC
Andronicus of Pergamum, 2nd-century BC diplomat
Andronicus of Macedonia, Macedonian governor of Ephesus in 2nd century BC
Andronicus of Cyrrhus (fl. ), Greek astronomer
Andronicus of Rhodes (fl. ), Greek philosopher
Andronicus of Pannonia (Saint Andronicus), Christian apostle of the seventy mentioned in Romans 16:7
Andronicus (physician), Greek physician of the 2nd century
Andronicus (poet), Greek writer of the 4th century
Saint Andronicus, 4th-century Christian martyr
Andronicus of Alexandria, soldier, martyr, saint and companion of Faustus, Abibus and Dionysius of Alexandria
Coptic Pope Andronicus of Alexandria (reigned 616–622)
Andronikos I Komnenos (–1185), Byzantine emperor
Andronikos II Palaiologos (1258–1332)
Andronikos III Palaiologos (1297–1341)
Andronikos IV Palaiologos (1348–1385)
Andronikos V Palaiologos (), co-emperor with his father, John VII Palaiologos
Andronikos Palaiologos (son of Manuel II) (1403–1429), Byzantine prince and governor
Andronikos I of Trebizond (), emperor of Trebizond
Andronikos II of Trebizond ()
Andronikos III of Trebizond ()
Andronicus of Veszprém, 13th-century Hungarian cleric
Andronikos Euphorbenos (), Byzantine aristocrat and military commander
Andronikos Kakoullis (born 2001), Cypriot footballer
Fictional characters
Titus Andronicus, a play by William Shakespeare, possibly inspired by one of the above-listed emperors
Andronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician, a 1646 satire by Thomas Fuller
See also
Andronikos Komnenos (disambiguation)
Andronikos Palaiologos (disambiguation)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronicus
|
2025-04-05T18:25:46.762149
|
1767
|
Ammianus Marcellinus
|
{{Short description|4th-century Roman historian and soldier}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ammianus Marcellinus
| birth_date = {{circa|330}}
| birth_place = Roman Syria, possibly in Ammia<br />(modern-day Amioun, Lebanon)
| death_date = {{circa|391}}–400
| death_place | nationality Roman
| occupation = Historian and soldier
| notable_works = Res gestae
| children | module
}}
Ammianus Marcellinus, occasionally anglicized as Ammian{{sfn|Thayer|2008}}{{sfn|Lexundria: Ammian}} (Greek: Αμμιανός Μαρκελλίνος; born {{circa|330}}, died {{circa|lkno|391}}{{snd}}400), was a Greek and Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). Written in Latin and known as the Res gestae, his work chronicled the history of Rome from the accession of Emperor Nerva in 96 to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Only the sections covering the period 353 to 378 survive.Biography
from Syria]]
Ammianus was born in the East Mediterranean,{{sfn|Young|1916|p336}} possibly in Syria or Phoenicia,{{efn|Following earlier scholars, Matthews suggested a hometown of Antioch on the Orontes based on the assumption that Ammianus was the recipient of a letter from a pagan contemporary, Libanius, to a certain Marcellinus;{{sfn|Matthews|1989|p8}} however Formara in 1992 argued that this letter must have referred in fact to a younger man and an orator newly arrived in Rome, rather than Ammianus, who had long been a resident in the city, and Barnes solidified this stance in modern scholarship. However, many scholars remain convinced that Ammianus was a native of Antioch.{{sfn|Barnes|1998|pp57–58}}}} around 330,{{sfn|Barnes|1998|p1}} into a noble family of Greek origin.{{sfn|Bouchier|1916|p226}}{{sfn|Moulton|1998|p31}} Since he calls himself Graecus ({{lit}} Greek), he was most likely born in a Greek-speaking area of the empire.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1880|p25}} His native language was Greek, but he also knew Latin.{{sfn|Norden|1909|p648}}<ref>{{Cite book |lastKenney |firstE. J. |url|titleThe Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 2, Latin Literature, Part 1, The Early Republic |date1983-07-14 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-27375-6 |pages5 |languageen |quoteAmmianus Marcellinus and Claudian, whose native language was Greek but who wrote in Latin, are quite untypical.}}</ref> The surviving books of his history cover the years 353 to 378.{{sfn|Kagan|2009|p=23}}
Ammianus began his career as a military officer in the Praetorian Guard, where he gained firsthand experience in various military campaigns.<ref>{{Cite book |lastAdkins |firstLesley |url|titleHandbook to Life in Ancient Rome |last2Adkins |first2Roy A. |date1998 |publisherOUP USA |isbn978-0-19-512332-6 |pages215 |languageen}}</ref> He served as an officer in the army of the emperors Constantius II and Julian. He served in Gaul (Julian) and in the east (twice for Constantius, once under Julian). He professes to have been "a former soldier and a Greek" (miles quondam et graecus),{{sfn|Barnes|1998|p65}} and his enrollment among the elite protectors domestic (household guards) shows that he was of the middle class or higher birth. Consensus is that Ammianus probably came from a curial family, but it is also possible that he was the son of a comes Orientis of the same family name. He entered the army at an early age, when Constantius II was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and magister militum. Ammianus campaigned in the East twice under Ursicinus.
, built by Constantius II before the Siege of Amida of 359. Ammianus himself was present in the city until a day before its fall.]]
He traveled with Ursicinus to Italy in an expedition against Silvanus, an officer who had proclaimed himself emperor in Gaul. Ursicinus ended the threat by having Silvanus assassinated, then stayed in the region to help install Julian as Caesar of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. Ammianus probably met Julian for the first time while serving on Ursicinus' staff in Gaul.
In 359, Constantius sent Ursicinus back to the east to help in the defense against a Persian invasion led by King Shapur II himself. Ammianus returned with his commander to the East and again served Ursicinus as a staff officer. Ursicinus, although he was the more experienced commander, was placed under the command of Sabinianus, the Magister Peditum of the east. The two did not get along, resulting in a lack of cooperation between the Limitanei (border regiments) of Mesopotamia and Osrhoene under Ursicinus' command and the comitatus (field army) of Sabinianus. While on a mission near Nisibis, Ammianus spotted a Persian patrol which was about to try and capture Ursicinus, and warned his commander in time.<ref>Ammianus, Res gestae, 18, 10–17.</ref> In an attempt to locate the Persian Royal Army, Ursicinus sent Ammianus to Jovinianus, the semi-independent governor of Corduene, and a friend of Ursicinus. Ammianus successfully located the Persian main body and reported his findings to Ursicinus.<ref>Ammianus, Res gestae, 18, 7.1–7.7.</ref>
After his mission in Corduene, Ammianus left the headquarters at Amida in the retinue of Ursinicus, who was on a mission to make sure the bridges across the Euphrates were demolished. They were attacked by the Persian vanguard, who had made a night march in an attempt to catch the Romans at Amida unprepared. After a protracted cavalry battle, the Romans were scattered; Ursicinus evaded capture and fled to Melitene, while Ammianus made a difficult journey back to Amida with a wounded comrade.<ref>Ammianus, Res gestae, 18, 8, 4–7.</ref> The Persians besieged and eventually sacked Amida, and Ammianus barely escaped with his life.{{sfn|Kagan|2009|pp=29–30}}
When Ursicinus was dismissed from his military post by Constantius, Ammianus too seems to have retired from the military; however, reevaluation of his participation in Julian's Persian campaign has led modern scholarship to suggest that he continued his service but did not for some reason include the period in his history.
He accompanied Julian, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the Alamanni and the Sassanids.
After Julian's death, Ammianus accompanied the retreat of the new emperor, Jovian, as far as Antioch.
He was residing in Antioch in 372 when a certain Theodorus was thought to have been identified as the successor to the emperor Valens by divination.
Speaking as an alleged eyewitness, Marcellinus recounts how Theodorus and several others were made to confess their deceit through the use of torture, and cruelly punished.
from a bronze coin of Antioch]]
He eventually settled in Rome and began the Res gestae. The precise year of his death is unknown, but scholarly consensus places it somewhere between 392 and 400 at the latest.{{sfn|Kelly|2008|p104}}{{sfn|Barnes|1998|p?}}
Modern scholarship generally describes Ammianus as a pagan who was tolerant of Christianity.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p133-}} Marcellinus writes of Christianity as being a "plain and simple"{{sfn|Marcellinus|1894|p275 [21.16.18]}} religion that demands only what is just and mild, and when he condemns the actions of Christians, he does not do so based on their Christianity as such.{{sfn|Hunt|1985|pp=193,195}} His lifetime was marked by lengthy outbreaks of sectarian and dogmatic strife within the new state-backed faith, often with violent consequences (especially the Arian controversy) and these conflicts sometimes appeared unworthy to him, though it was territory where he could not risk going very far in criticism, due to the growing and volatile political connections between the church and imperial power.
Ammianus was not blind to the faults of Christians or of pagans and was especially critical of them; he commented that "no wild beasts are so hostile to men as Christian sects, in general, are to one another"{{sfn|Marcellinus|1894|p283 [22.5.4]}} and he condemns the emperor Julian for excessive attachment to (pagan) sacrifice, and for his edict effectively barring Christians from teaching posts.{{sfn|Hunt|1985|p198}}
Work
While living in Rome in the 380s, Ammianus wrote a Latin history of the Roman empire from the accession of Nerva (96) to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople (378),{{sfn|Kagan|2009|p=22}} in effect writing a continuation of the history of Tacitus. At 22.16.12, he praises the Serapeum of Alexandria in Egypt as the glory of the empire, so his work was presumably completed before the destruction of that building in 391.
The Res gestae (Rerum gestarum libri XXXI) was originally composed of thirty-one books, but the first thirteen have been lost.{{sfn|Frakes|1997|p125}}{{efn|Historian T. D. Barnes argues that the original was actually thirty-six books, which if correct would mean that eighteen books have been lost.{{sfn|Barnes|1998|p28}}}} The surviving eighteen books, covering the period from 353 to 378,{{sfn|Fisher|1918|p=39}} constitute the foundation of modern understanding of the history of the fourth-century Roman Empire. They are lauded as a clear, comprehensive, and generally impartial account of events by a contemporary; like many ancient historians, however, Ammianus was in fact not impartial, although he expresses an intention to be so, and had strong moral and religious prejudices. Although criticized as lacking literary merit by his early biographers, he was in fact quite skilled in rhetoric, which significantly has brought the veracity of some of the Res gestae into question.
His work has suffered substantially from manuscript transmission. Aside from the loss of the first thirteen books, the remaining eighteen are in many places corrupt and lacunose. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth-century Carolingian text, Vatican lat. 1873 (V), produced in Fulda from an insular exemplar. The only independent textual source for Ammianus lies in Fragmenta Marbugensia (M), another ninth-century Frankish codex which was taken apart to provide covers for account-books during the fifteenth century. Only six leaves of M survive; however, before this manuscript was dismantled the Abbot of Hersfeld lent the manuscript to Sigismund Gelenius, who used it in preparing the text of the second Froben edition (G). The dates and relationship of V and M were long disputed until 1936 when R. P. Robinson demonstrated persuasively that V was copied from M. As L. D. Reynolds summarizes, "M is thus a fragment of the archetype; symptoms of an insular pre-archetype are evident."{{sfn|Reynolds|1983|pp=6ff}}
His handling from his earliest printers was little better. The editio princeps was printed in 1474 in Rome by Georg Sachsel and Bartholomaeus Golsch, which broke off at the end of Book 26. The next edition (Bologna, 1517) suffered from its editor's conjectures upon the poor text of the 1474 edition; the 1474 edition was pirated for the first Froben edition (Basle, 1518). It was not until 1533 that the last five books of Ammianus' history were put into print by Silvanus Otmar and edited by Mariangelus Accursius. The first modern edition was produced by C.U. Clark (Berlin, 1910–1913).{{sfn|Reynolds|1983|pp6ff}} The first English translations were by Philemon Holland in 1609,{{sfn|Jenkins|2017|p31}} and later by C.D. Yonge in 1862.{{sfn|Jenkins|2017|p31}}ReceptionEdward Gibbon judged Ammianus "an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary."{{sfn|Gibbon|1995|locChapter 26.5}} But he also condemned Ammianus for lack of literary flair: "The coarse and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with tedious and disgusting accuracy."{{sfn|Gibbon|1995|locChapter 25}} Austrian historian Ernst Stein praised Ammianus as "the greatest literary genius that the world produced between Tacitus and Dante".{{sfn|Stein|1928|p?}}
According to Kimberly Kagan, his accounts of battles emphasize the experience of the soldiers but at the cost of ignoring the bigger picture. As a result, it is difficult for the reader to understand why the battles he describes had the outcome they did.{{sfn|Kagan|2009|pp=27–29}}
Ammianus' work contains a detailed description of the earthquake and tsunami of 365 in Alexandria, which devastated the metropolis and the shores of the eastern Mediterranean on 21 July 365. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea, and sudden incoming giant wave.{{sfn|Kelly|2004|pp141–167}}Notes{{notelist}}Citations{{Reflist|30em}}Sources
; Editions and translations
* {{cite book | lastMarcellinus | firstAmmianus | translatorC.D. Yonge | year1894 | titleThe Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus | locationLondon | publisherGeorge Bell & Sons | oclc4540204}}
*{{Cite web| title = LacusCurtius • Ammian (Ammianus Marcellinus)
| last Thayer | first Bill
| website = penelope.uchicago.edu
| url = https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/home.html
| date 10 February 2008 | access-date 2022-01-09
}}
;Studies
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia| title = Ammian, History
| encyclopedia = Lexundria
| url = https://lexundria.com/amm/0/y
| access-date = 2022-01-09
| ref = {{harvid|Lexundria: Ammian}}
}}
*{{cite book| title = Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality (Cornell Studies in Classical Philology)
| last Barnes | first Timothy D. | year = 1998
| publisher = Cornell University Press
| isbn = 080143526-9
}}
*{{cite book |lastBouchier |firstEdmund Spenser |titleSyria as a Roman Province |date1916 |publisher=B. H. Blackwell}}
*{{cite book |last1Sanz Casasnovas |first1Gabriel |title"Rabies indomita": representación del bárbaro y violencia contra los no romanos en las "Res gestae" de Amiano Marcelino |date2022 |publisherPrensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza |locationZaragoza |isbn=9788413404479}}
*{{cite journal | title = The Last Latin Historian
| last Fisher | first H. A. L.
| author-link = H. A. L. Fisher
| journal = Quarterly Review
| year 1918 | volume 230 July
| url https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idhvd.32044092529544;view1up;seq55
}}
*{{cite journal | title = Ammianus Marcellinus and Zonaras on a Late Roman Assassination Plot
| last Frakes | first Robert M.
| author-link = Robert Frakes
| journal = Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte
| year 1997 | volume Bd. 46, H. 1 1st Qtr
}}
*{{cite book| title = Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
| last Gibbon | first Edward | year = 1995
| editor-last Bury | editor-first J.B.
| publisher = Random House
| volume = I
| isbn = 978-0-679-60148-7
}}
*{{Cite book |lastHodgkin |firstThomas |titleItaly and Her Invaders |date1880 |publisher=Clarendon Press}}
*{{cite journal | title = Christians and Christianity in Ammianus Marcellinus
| last Hunt | first E.D.
| journal = Classical Quarterly
| year 1985 | volume 35 | issue 1 | pages 186–200
| series = New Series
| doi 10.1017/S0009838800014671 | jstor 638815
| s2cid = 171046986 }}
*{{cite book| title = Ammianus Marcellinus: An Annotated Bibliography, 1474 to the Present
| last Jenkins | first Fred W. | year = 2017
| publisher = Brill
}}
*{{cite book| title = The Eye of Command
| last Kagan | first Kimberly | year = 2009
| publisher = University of Michigan Press
}}
*{{cite journal | title = Ammianus and the Great Tsunami
| last Kelly | first G.
| journal = Journal of Roman Studies
| year 2004 | volume 94 | pages = 141–167
| url = https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/ammianus-and-the-great-tsunami(635a4807-14c9-4044-9caa-8f8e3005cb24).html
| doi 10.2307/4135013 | hdl 20.500.11820/635a4807-14c9-4044-9caa-8f8e3005cb24 | jstor = 4135013
| s2cid 160152988 | hdl-access free
}}
*{{cite book| title = Ammianus Marcellinus: The Allusive Historian
| last Kelly | first Gavin | year = 2008
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-84299-0
}}
*{{cite book| title = The Roman Empire of Ammianus
| last Matthews | first J. | year = 1989
| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press
}}
*{{Cite book |lastMoulton |firstCarroll |titleAncient Greece and Rome: Achaea-Delphi |date1998 |publisherScribner |isbn978-0-684-80503-0}}
*{{cite book| title = Antika Kunstprosa
| last Norden | first Eduard | year = 1909
| publisher = Leipzig
}}
*{{cite book| title = Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics
| editor-last Reynolds | editor-first L. D.
| year = 1983
| publisher = Clarendon Press
}}
*{{cite book| title = Geschichte des spätrömischen Reiches
| trans-title = History of the late-Roman empire
| last Stein | first E. | year = 1928
| publisher = Vienna
| language = de
}}
*{{cite book| title = A history of the Byzantine state and society
| last Treadgold | first Warren T. | year = 1997
| publisher = Stanford University Press
| url https://books.google.com/books?idnYbnr5XVbzUC&pg=PA133
| page = 133
| isbn = 978-0-8047-2630-6
}}
*{{cite book| title = East and West Through Fifteen Centuries: Being a General History from B.C. 44 to A.D. 1453
| last Young | first George Frederick | year = 1916
| publisher = Longmans, Green and Co.
| url https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206948 | via Internet Archive
}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite book| title = The Text Tradition of Ammianus Marcellinus
| last Clark | first Charles Upson | year = 2015
| orig-year = First published 1904
| publisher = Creative Media Partners, LLC
| type = PhD. Discussion
| isbn = 978-129786683-8
}}
*{{Cite book| title = Ammianus Marcellinus as a military historian
| last1 Crump | first1 Gary A.
| last2 Nicols | first2 John
| last3 Kebric | first3 Robert B.
| year = 1975
| publisher = Steiner
| isbn = 3-515-01984-7
}}
*{{Cite book| title = Late Roman World and its Historian
| last1 Drijvers | first1 January
| last2 Hunt | first2 David
| year = 1999
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-20271-X
}}
*{{cite journal | title = A Tale of Two Commanders: Ammianus Marcellinus on the Campaigns of Constantius II and Julian on the Northern Frontiers
| last Marcos | first Moyses
| journal = American Journal of Philology
| year 2015 | volume 136 | issue 4 | pages 669–708
| doi 10.1353/ajp.2015.0036 | s2cid 162495059 }}
*{{Cite book| chapter = Pyrrhic paradigms: Ennius, Livy, and Ammianus Marcellinus
| last Roth | first Roman | year = 2010
| title = Hermes
| volume 138 | issue 2 | pages = 171–195
}}
*{{Cite book| title = Ammianus Marcellinus, soldier-historian of the late Roman Empire
| last Rowell | first Henry Thompson | year = 1964
| publisher = University of Cincinnati
}}
*{{Cite book| title = La Méthode d'Ammien Marcellin
| last Sabbah | first Guy | year = 1978
| publisher Les Belles Lettres | location Paris
| language = fr
}}
*{{Cite book| chapter = Ammianus Marcellinus
| last Sabbah | first Guy | year = 2003
| title = Greek and Roman Historiography in Late Antiquity: Fourth to Sixth century AD
| editor-last Marasco | editor-first Gabriele
| publisher Brill | location Leiden, The Netherlands
| pages = 43–84
}}
*{{Cite book| title = Ammianus Marcellinus: Seven Studies in His Language and Thought
| last Seager | first Robin | year = 1986
| publisher = Univ of Missouri Press
| isbn = 0-8262-0495-3
}}
*{{Cite book| title = Ammianus and the Historia Augusta
| last Syme | first Ronald | year = 1968
| publisher Clarendon | location Oxford
}}
*{{Cite book| title = The Historical Work of Ammianus Marcellinus
| last Thompson | first E.A | year = 1947
| publisher Cambridge University Press | location London
}}
*{{Cite book| chapter = Ammianus Marcellinus on the Empress Eusebia: A Split Personality
| last Tougher | first S. | year = 2000
| title = Greece and Rome
| volume 47 | issue 1 | pages = 94–101
}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Library resources box |byyes |onlinebooksyes |othersyes |aboutyes |label=Ammianus Marcellinus
| viaf|lccn |lcheading|wikititle
}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id33429| nameAmmianus Marcellinus}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Ammianus Marcellinus}}
* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?qAmmianus&redirecttrue Works by Ammianus Marcellinus at Perseus Digital Library]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181004071707/http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianus/index.htm Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project]
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ammianus.html Ammianus Marcellinus' works] in Latin at the Latin Library
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Ammianus_Marcellinus Ammianus Marcellinus' works] in English at the Tertullian Project with introduction on the manuscripts
* [http://mvdpoel.ruhosting.nl/bibliografie/ammianmarc.htm Bibliography for Ammianus Marcellinus] at [http://mvdpoel.ruhosting.nl/bibliografie/bibliografie.htm Bibliographia Latina Selecta] compiled by M.G.M. van der Poel
{{Authority control}}
<!-- Hidden categories -->
{{DEFAULTSORT:Marcellinus, Ammianus}}
Category:330 births
Category:390s deaths
Category:4th-century births
Category:4th-century Greek writers
Category:4th-century historians
Category:4th-century writers in Latin
Category:4th-century Romans
Category:Ancient Greeks in Rome
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Category:Ancient Roman soldiers
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Category:Latin historians
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Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars
Category:Roman-era Greeks
Category:Year of death unknown
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.779870
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1770
|
Apollo 13
|
{{Short description|Failed Moon landing mission in the Apollo program}}
{{About|the 1970 spaceflight|the film based upon it|Apollo 13 (film){{!}}Apollo 13 (film)||Apollo 13 (disambiguation)}}
{{Pp-semi-indef}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox spaceflight
| name = Apollo 13
| image = File:Apollo 13 Service Module (lossless crop).jpg
| image_caption = Odyssey{{'}}s damaged service module, as seen from the Apollo Lunar Module Aquarius, hours before reentry
| image_alt = see caption
| mission_type = Crewed lunar landing attempt (H)
| operator = NASA
| COSPAR_ID = {{Unbulleted list|CSM: 1970-029A|LM: 1970-029C}}
| SATCAT 4371<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.n2yo.com/satellite/?s4371|titleApollo 13 CM|websiteN2YO.com|access-dateAugust 18, 2019}}</ref>
| mission_duration 5&nbsp;days, 22&nbsp;hours, 54&nbsp;minutes, 41&nbsp;seconds{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p309}}
| spacecraft = {{Unbulleted list|Apollo CSM-109 |Apollo LM-7}}
| manufacturer = {{Unbulleted list|CSM: North American Rockwell|LM: Grumman}}
| launch_mass 44,069 kg (CSM: 28,881 kg;<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1970-029A |titleApollo 13 Command and Service Module (CSM) |publisherNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive |access-dateJanuary 9, 2023}}</ref> LM: 15,188 kg)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1970-029C |titleApollo 13 Lunar Module / EASEP |publisherNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive |access-date=January 9, 2023}}</ref>
| landing_mass {{convert|11133|lb|kg|orderflip}}{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p=307}}
| crew_size = 3
| crew_members = {{Unbulleted list|James A. Lovell Jr.|John L. Swigert Jr.|Fred W. Haise Jr.}}
| crew_callsign = {{Unbulleted list |CSM: Odyssey |LM: Aquarius}}
| launch_date {{start date text|April 11, 1970, 19:13:00|timezoneyes}}&nbsp;UTC<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1970-029A |titleApollo 13 |publisherNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive |access-date=January 9, 2023}}</ref>
| launch_rocket = Saturn V SA-508
| launch_site = Kennedy LC-39A
| landing_date {{end date text|April 17, 1970, 18:07:41|timezoneyes}}&nbsp;UTC
| landing_site South Pacific Ocean<br />{{Coord|21|38|24|S|165|21|42|W|type:event|nameApollo 13 splashdown}}
| recovery_by = {{USS|Iwo Jima|LPH-2|6}}
| interplanetary = {{Infobox spaceflight/IP
| type = flyby
| note = orbit and landing aborted
| object = Moon
| distance {{convert|137|nmi|km|orderflip|sp=us}}
| arrival_date = April 15, 1970, 00:21:00&nbsp;UTC
}}
| docking = {{Infobox spaceflight/Dock
| docking_target = LM
| docking_type = dock
| docking_date = April 11, 1970, 22:32:08&nbsp;UTC
| undocking_date = April 17, 1970, 16:43:00&nbsp;UTC
| time_docked =
}}
| insignia = Apollo 13-insignia.png
| insignia_alt = Apollo 13 logo
| crew_photo = Apollo 13 Prime Crew.jpg
| crew_photo_caption = Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, Fred Haise
| crew_photo_alt = Three astronauts posing behind a lunar globe
| programme = Apollo program
| previous_mission = Apollo 12
| next_mission = Apollo 14
}}
Apollo 13 (April 11{{endash}}17, 1970) was the seventh crewed mission in the Apollo space program and would have been the third Moon landing. The craft was launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 11, 1970, but the landing was aborted after an oxygen tank in the service module (SM) exploded two days into the mission, disabling its electrical and life-support system. The crew, supported by backup systems on the lunar module (LM), instead looped around the Moon in a circumlunar trajectory and returned safely to Earth on April 17. The mission was commanded by Jim Lovell, with Jack Swigert as command module (CM) pilot and Fred Haise as Lunar Module (LM) pilot. Swigert was a late replacement for Ken Mattingly, who was grounded after exposure to rubella.
A routine stir of an oxygen tank ignited damaged wire insulation inside it, causing an explosion that vented the contents of both of the SM's oxygen tanks to space.{{NoteTag|The event is described as an explosion in modern NASA histories and accounts by the crew.<ref>{{cite web|titleThe Apollo 13 accident|authorWilliams, David|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/ap13acc.html|publisherNASA|quoteThe Apollo 13 malfunction was caused by an explosion and rupture of oxygen tank no. 2 in the service module.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cortright|1975|pp248–249}}: "I did, of course, occasionally think of the possibility that the spacecraft explosion might maroon us... Thirteen minutes after the explosion, I happened to look out of the left-hand
window, and saw the final evidence pointing toward potential catastrophe. "</ref> However, the formal accident report avoids the use of the term.{{sfn|Accident report|p143}} NASA engineers at the time preferred "tank failure", both because it was more accurate and to avoid the negative connotations around the word "explosion".<ref>{{harvnb|Cooper|2013|page21}}: "Later, in describing what happened, NASA engineers avoided using the word "explosion;" they preferred the more delicate and less dramatic term "tank failure," and in a sense it was the more accurate expression, inasmuch as the tank did not explode in the way a bomb does but broke open under pressure."</ref>}} Without oxygen, needed for breathing and for generating electric power, the SM's propulsion and life support systems could not operate. The CM's systems had to be shut down to conserve its remaining resources for reentry, forcing the crew to transfer to the LM as a lifeboat. With the lunar landing canceled, mission controllers worked to bring the crew home alive.
Although the LM was designed to support two men on the lunar surface for two days, Mission Control in Houston improvised new procedures so it could support three men for four days. The crew experienced great hardship, caused by limited power, a chilly and wet cabin and a shortage of potable water. There was a critical need to adapt the CM's cartridges for the carbon dioxide scrubber system to work in the LM; the crew and mission controllers were successful in improvising a solution. The astronauts' peril briefly renewed public interest in the Apollo program; tens of millions watched the splashdown in the South Pacific Ocean on television.
An investigative review board found fault with preflight testing of the oxygen tank and Teflon being placed inside it. The board recommended changes, including minimizing the use of potentially combustible items inside the tank; this was done for Apollo 14. The story of Apollo&nbsp;13 has been dramatized several times, most notably in the 1995 film Apollo&nbsp;13 based on Lost Moon, the 1994 memoir co-authored by Lovell – and an episode of the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon.
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Background
In 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy challenged his nation to land an astronaut on the Moon by the end of the decade, with a safe return to Earth.<ref name "mission overview" /> NASA worked towards this goal incrementally, sending astronauts into space during Project Mercury and Project Gemini, leading up to the Apollo program.{{sfn|Hacker & Grimwood|2010|p382}} The goal was achieved with Apollo 11, which landed on the Moon on July&nbsp;20, 1969. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the lunar surface while Michael Collins orbited the Moon in Command Module Columbia. The mission returned to Earth on July&nbsp;24, 1969, fulfilling Kennedy's challenge.<ref name "mission overview">{{cite web|titleApollo 11 Mission Overview|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo11.html|dateDecember 21, 2017|access-dateFebruary 14, 2019|publisherNASA}}</ref>
NASA had contracted for fifteen Saturn&nbsp;V rockets to achieve the goal; at the time no one knew how many missions this would require.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|pp232–233}} Since success was obtained in 1969 with the sixth Saturn{{nbsp}}V on Apollo&nbsp;11, nine rockets remained available for a hoped-for total of ten landings. After the excitement of Apollo&nbsp;11, the general public grew apathetic towards the space program and Congress continued to cut NASA's budget; Apollo 20 was canceled.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p285}} Despite the successful lunar landing, the missions were considered so risky that astronauts could not afford life insurance to provide for their families if they died in space.{{NoteTag|No Apollo astronaut flew without life insurance, but the policies were paid for by private third parties whose involvement was not publicized.<ref name "weinberger" />}}<ref name"weinberger">{{cite web|lastWeinberger|firstHoward C.|titleApollo Insurance Covers|publisherSpace Flown Artifacts (Chris Spain)|urlhttp://www.spaceflownartifacts.com/flown_apollo_insurance_covers.html|access-dateDecember 11, 2019}}</ref>
is shown on the screen.]]
Even before the first U.S. astronaut entered space in 1961, planning for a centralized facility to communicate with the spacecraft and monitor its performance had begun, for the most part the brainchild of Christopher C. Kraft Jr., who became NASA's first flight director. During John Glenn's Mercury Friendship 7 flight in February 1962 (the first crewed orbital flight by the U.S.), one of Kraft's decisions was overruled by NASA managers. He was vindicated by post-mission analysis and implemented a rule that, during the mission, the flight director's word was absolute<ref name "mission control history">{{cite web|lastNeufeld|firstMichael J.|author-linkMichael J. Neufeld|titleRemembering Chris Kraft: Pioneer of Mission Control|urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/remembering-chris-kraft-pioneer-mission-control|publisherSmithsonian Air and Space Museum|dateJuly 24, 2019|access-dateDecember 8, 2019}}</ref> – to overrule him, NASA would have to fire him on the spot.<ref name "Cass 1" /> Flight directors during Apollo had a one-sentence job description, "The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success."<ref>{{cite news|titleA legendary tale, well-told|access-dateOctober 5, 2019|lastWilliams|firstMike|urlhttps://news.rice.edu/2012/09/13/a-legendary-tale-well-told/|publisherRice University Office of Public Affairs|dateSeptember 13, 2012|archive-dateAugust 17, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200817125432/https://news.rice.edu/2012/09/13/a-legendary-tale-well-told/|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Houston's Mission Control Center was opened in 1965. It was in part designed by Kraft and now named for him.<ref name "mission control history" /> In Mission Control, each flight controller, in addition to monitoring telemetry from the spacecraft, was in communication via voice loop to specialists in a Staff Support Room (or "back room"), who focused on specific spacecraft systems.<ref name "Cass 1" />
Apollo&nbsp;13 was to be the second H mission, meant to demonstrate precision lunar landings and explore specific sites on the Moon.{{sfn|Apollo Program Summary Report|1975|pB-2}} With Kennedy's goal accomplished by Apollo&nbsp;11, and Apollo 12 demonstrating that the astronauts could perform a precision landing, mission planners were able to focus on more than just landing safely and having astronauts minimally trained in geology gather lunar samples to take home to Earth. There was a greater role for science on Apollo&nbsp;13, especially for geology, something emphasized by the mission's motto, Ex luna, scientia (From the Moon, knowledge).{{sfn|Launius|2019|p186}}
Astronauts and key Mission Control personnel
{{Spaceflight crew
|terminology = Astronaut
|position1 = Commander (CDR)
|crew1_up = James A. Lovell Jr.
|flights1_up = Fourth and last
|position2 = Command Module Pilot (CMP)
|crew2_up = John "Jack" L. Swigert Jr.
|flights2_up = Only
|position3 = Lunar Module Pilot (LMP)
|crew3_up = Fred W. Haise Jr.
|flights3_up = Only
}}
Apollo&nbsp;13's mission commander, Jim Lovell, was 42 years old at the time of the spaceflight. He was a graduate of the United States Naval Academy and had been a naval aviator and test pilot before being selected for the second group of astronauts in 1962; he flew with Frank Borman in Gemini&nbsp;7 in 1965 and Buzz Aldrin in Gemini&nbsp;12 the following year before flying in Apollo 8 in 1968, the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|pp108–109}} At the time of Apollo 13, Lovell was the NASA astronaut with the most time in space, with 572 hours over the three missions.<ref name "experience" >{{cite web|titleApollo 13: The moon-mission that dodged disaster|first1Elizabeth|last1Howell|first2Kimberly|last2Hickok|urlhttps://www.space.com/17250-apollo-13-facts.html|websiteSpace.com|publisherFuture US|dateMarch 31, 2020|access-dateApril 1, 2020}}</ref>
Jack Swigert, the command module pilot (CMP), was 38&nbsp;years old and held a B.S. in mechanical engineering and an M.S. in aerospace science; he had served in the Air Force and in state Air National Guards and was an engineering test pilot before being selected for the fifth group of astronauts in 1966.<ref name "swigert bio" /> Fred Haise, the Lunar Module pilot (LMP), was 36 years old. He held a B.S. in aeronautical engineering, had been a Marine Corps fighter pilot, and was a civilian research pilot for NASA when he was selected as a Group{{nbsp}}5 astronaut.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|pp111–112}}{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|pp=589–593}}
According to the standard Apollo crew rotation, the prime crew for Apollo&nbsp;13 would have been the backup crew{{NoteTag|The role of the backup crew was to train and be prepared to fly in the event something happened to the prime crew.<ref>{{cite web|publisherNASA|access-dateDecember 5, 2019|title50 years ago: NASA names Apollo 11 crew|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-nasa-names-apollo-11-crew|dateJanuary 30, 2019}}</ref> Backup crews, according to the rotation, were assigned as the prime crew three missions after their assignment as backups.{{sfn|Slayton & Cassutt|1994|p137}}}} for Apollo 10, with Mercury and Gemini veteran Gordon Cooper in command, Donn F. Eisele as CMP and Edgar Mitchell as LMP. Deke Slayton, NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations, never intended to rotate Cooper and Eisele to a prime crew assignment, as both were out of favor{{snd}}Cooper for his lax attitude towards training, and Eisele for incidents aboard Apollo{{nbsp}}7 and an extramarital affair. He assigned them to the backup crew because no other veteran astronauts were available.{{sfn|Slayton & Cassutt|1994|p236}} Slayton's original choices for Apollo&nbsp;13 were Alan Shepard as commander, Stuart Roosa as CMP, and Mitchell as LMP. However, management felt Shepard needed more training time, as he had only recently resumed active status after surgery for an inner ear disorder and had not flown since 1961. Thus, Lovell's crew (himself, Haise and Ken Mattingly), having all backed up Apollo 11 and being slated for Apollo 14, was swapped with Shepard's.{{sfn|Slayton & Cassutt|1994|p236}}
Swigert was originally CMP of Apollo&nbsp;13's backup crew, with John Young as commander and Charles Duke as lunar module pilot.<ref name"backup">{{cite web|urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/landing-missions/apollo13-crew.cfm|titleApollo 13 Crew|websiteSmithsonian National Air and Space Museum|access-dateJanuary 6, 2018|archive-dateOctober 24, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201024155252/https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/landing-missions/apollo13-crew.cfm|url-statusdead}}</ref> Seven days before launch, Duke contracted rubella from his son's friend.<ref name"Oral">{{cite web |titleCharles M. Duke, Jr. Oral History |publisherNASA |urlhttps://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/DukeCM/DukeCM_3-12-99.htm |access-dateDecember 17, 2019}}</ref> This exposed both the prime and backup crews, who trained together. Of the five, only Mattingly was not immune through prior exposure. Normally, if any member of the prime crew had to be grounded, the remaining crew would be replaced as well, and the backup crew substituted, but Duke's illness ruled this out,{{sfn|NASA 1970|p6}} so two days before launch, Mattingly was replaced by Swigert.<ref name "swigert bio">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/swigert-jl.html|access-dateAugust 21, 2009|titleAstronaut Bio: John L. Swigert|dateJanuary 1983|publisherNASA|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090731012402/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/swigert-jl.html|archive-dateJuly 31, 2009| url-statusdead}}</ref> Mattingly never developed rubella and later flew on Apollo 16.<ref>{{cite journal|urlhttps://www.universetoday.com/62576/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-3-charlie-dukes-measles/|lastAtkinson|firstNancy|title13 things that saved Apollo 13, Part 3: Charlie Duke's measles|dateApril 12, 2010|access-dateNovember 13, 2019|journalUniverse Today}}</ref>
For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts, known as the support crew, was designated in addition to the prime and backup crews used on projects Mercury and Gemini. Slayton created the support crews because James McDivitt, who would command Apollo 9, believed that, with preparation going on in facilities across the US, meetings that needed a member of the flight crew would be missed. Support crew members were to assist as directed by the mission commander.{{sfn|Slayton & Cassutt|1994|p184}} Usually low in seniority, they assembled the mission's rules, flight plan, and checklists, and kept them updated;<ref>{{cite journal|lastHersch|firstMatthew|dateJuly 19, 2009|titleThe fourth crewmember|journalAir & Space/Smithsonian|access-dateOctober 4, 2019|urlhttps://www.airspacemag.com/space/the-fourth-crewmember-37046329/}}</ref>{{sfn|Brooks, Grimwood, & Swenson|1979|p261}} for Apollo&nbsp;13, they were Vance D. Brand, Jack Lousma and either William Pogue or Joseph Kerwin.{{NoteTag|Some sources list Kerwin{{sfn|Slayton & Cassutt|1994|p251}} and others list Pogue as the third member{{sfn|Brooks, Grimwood, & Swenson|1979|p378}}{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p137}}<ref>{{cite interview|urlhttps://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/PogueWR/WRP_7-17-2000.pdf|interviewerKevin M. Rusnak|dateJuly 17, 2000|locationHouston, Texas|titleOral History Transcript|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190501104039/https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/PogueWR/WRP_7-17-2000.pdf|archive-dateMay 1, 2019|url-statusdead|publisherNASA|pages12-25-12-26|seriesJohnson Space Center Oral History Project}}</ref>}}<ref name "support crew">{{cite press release|titleMSC 69–56|publisherNASA|dateAugust 6, 1969|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83121main_1969.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83121main_1969.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | access-date July 27, 2019|location=Houston, Texas}}</ref>
For Apollo&nbsp;13, flight directors were Gene Kranz, White team{{sfn|Mission Operations Report 1970|pI-1}} (the lead flight director);{{sfn|Kranz|2000|p307}}{{sfn|Lovell & Kluger|2000|p79}} Glynn Lunney, Black team; Milton Windler, Maroon team and Gerry Griffin, Gold team.{{sfn|Mission Operations Report 1970|pI-1}} The CAPCOMs (the person in Mission Control, during the Apollo program an astronaut, who was responsible for voice communications with the crew){{sfn|Morgan|2001|p48}} for Apollo&nbsp;13 were Kerwin, Brand, Lousma, Young and Mattingly.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p362}}
Mission insignia and call signs
]]
The Apollo&nbsp;13 mission insignia depicts the Greek god of the Sun, Apollo, with three horses pulling his chariot across the face of the Moon, and the Earth seen in the distance. This is meant to symbolize the Apollo flights bringing the light of knowledge to all people. The mission motto, Ex luna, scientia ("From the Moon, knowledge"), appears. In choosing it, Lovell adapted the motto of his alma mater, the Naval Academy, Ex scientia, tridens ("From knowledge, sea power").{{sfn|Lovell & Kluger|2000|p81}}{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p283}}
On the patch, the mission number appeared in Roman numerals as Apollo XIII. It did not have to be modified after Swigert replaced Mattingly, as it is one of only two Apollo mission insignia{{snd}}the other being Apollo 11{{snd}}not to include the names of the crew. It was designed by artist Lumen Martin Winter, who based it on a mural he had painted for the St. Regis Hotel in New York City.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/36238158/daily_news/|titleAstros Wear Badge of Apollo|last1Crafton|first1Jean|dateApril 12, 1970|page105|newspaperDaily News|locationNew York City|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref> The mural was later purchased by actor Tom Hanks,<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/lake-county-news-sun/ct-lns-moran-lovell-stories-st-1003-20151002-story.html|titleApollo 13 astronaut Jim Lovell shares stories about Tom Hanks, Ron Howard|last1Moran|first1Dan|dateOctober 2, 2015|newspaperChicago Tribune|access-dateApril 11, 2020}}</ref> who portrayed Lovell in the movie Apollo&nbsp;13, and it is now in the Captain James A. Lovell Federal Health Care Center in Illinois.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://chicagotribune.newspapers.com/clip/36239172/chicago_tribune/|titleNamesake Brings Personal Touch to Lovell Center Fete|last1Moran|first1Dan|newspaperChicago Tribune|dateOctober 2, 2015|page1|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref>
The mission's motto was in Lovell's mind when he chose the call sign Aquarius for the lunar module, taken from Aquarius, the bringer of water.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p291}}{{sfn|Lovell & Kluger|2000|p87}} Some in the media erroneously reported that the call sign was taken from a song by that name from the musical Hair.{{sfn|Lovell & Kluger|2000|p87}}{{sfn|Lattimer|1988|p77}} The command module's call sign, Odyssey, was chosen not only for its Homeric association but to refer to the recent film, 2001: A Space Odyssey, based on a short story by science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p291}} In his book, Lovell indicated he chose the name Odyssey because he liked the word and its definition: a long voyage with many changes of fortune.{{sfn|Lovell & Kluger|2000|p87}}
Due to the accident and the last minute crew change of Jack Swigert replacing Ken Mattingly three days prior to launch, the Apollo 13 Robbins medallions flown aboard the mission were melted down and reminted after the mission to reflect the correct crew, and the absence of a lunar landing date.<ref>{{Cite web |titleMedal, Robbins, Commemorative, Apollo 13 {{!}} National Air and Space Museum |urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/medal-robbins-commemorative-apollo-13/nasm_A19850166000 |access-date2024-06-15 |websiteairandspace.si.edu |languageen}}</ref> Space vehicle
]]
The Saturn V rocket used to carry Apollo&nbsp;13 to the Moon was numbered SA-508, and was almost identical to those used on Apollo{{nbsp}}8 through 12.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p74}} Including the spacecraft, the rocket weighed in at {{convert|6501733|lb|orderflip}}.{{sfn|Orloff|2000|p284}} The S-IC first stage's engines were rated to generate {{convert|100000|lbf|N|orderflip|-4}} less total thrust than Apollo 12's, though they remained within specifications.<ref name "journal launch" /> To keep its liquid hydrogen propellent cold, the S-II second stage's cryogenic tanks were insulated; on earlier Apollo missions this came in the form of panels that were affixed, but beginning with Apollo&nbsp;13, insulation was sprayed onto the exterior of the tanks.<ref name "ten launch">{{cite web|workApollo Lunar Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap10fj/as10-day1-pt1.html|titleApollo 10: Day 1, part 1: Countdown, launch and climb to orbit|dateFebruary 6, 2022|access-dateApril 15, 2022}}</ref> Extra propellant was carried as a test, since future J missions to the Moon would require more propellant for their heavier payloads. This made the vehicle the heaviest yet flown by NASA, and Apollo&nbsp;13 was visibly slower to clear the launch tower than earlier missions.<ref name "journal launch">{{cite web|workApollo Lunar Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/02earth_orbit_tli.html|titleDay 1: Earth orbit and translunar injection|dateFebruary 17, 2017|access-date=July 28, 2019}}</ref>
The Apollo&nbsp;13 spacecraft consisted of Command Module&nbsp;109 and Service Module&nbsp;109 (together CSM-109), called Odyssey, and Lunar Module{{nbsp}}7 (LM-7), called Aquarius. Also considered part of the spacecraft was the launch escape system, which would propel the command module (CM) to safety in the event of a problem during liftoff, and the Spacecraft–LM Adapter, numbered as SLA-16, which housed the lunar module (LM) during the first hours of the mission.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p364}}{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|pp78, 81}}
The LM stages, CM and service module (SM) were received at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in June 1969; the portions of the Saturn&nbsp;V were received in June and July. Thereafter, testing and assembly proceeded, culminating with the rollout of the launch vehicle, with the spacecraft atop it, on December 15, 1969.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p364}} Apollo&nbsp;13 was originally scheduled for launch on March 12, 1970, but that January NASA announced the mission would be postponed until April 11, both to allow more time for planning and to spread the Apollo missions over a longer period.<ref name "postpone">{{cite press release|titleMSC 70–9|publisherNASA|dateJanuary 8, 1970|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83122main_1970.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83122main_1970.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | access-date July 27, 2019}}</ref> The plan was to have two Apollo flights per year and was in response to budgetary constraints<ref>{{cite news|titleApollo's Schedule Shifted by NASA|dateJanuary 9, 1970|newspaperThe New York Times|page17|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1970/01/09/archives/apollos-schedule-shifted-by-nasa-next-flight-in-april.html}}</ref> that had recently seen the cancellation of Apollo 20.<ref>{{cite news|titleApollo 13 and 14 may be set back|dateJanuary 6, 1970|newspaperThe New York Times|page26|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1970/01/06/archives/apollo-13-and-14-may-be-set-back.html|agencyUPI}}</ref> Training and preparation The Apollo&nbsp;13 prime crew undertook over 1,000 hours of mission-specific training, more than five hours for every hour of the mission's ten-day planned duration. Each member of the prime crew spent over 400 hours in simulators of the CM and (for Lovell and Haise) of the LM at KSC and at Houston, some of which involved the flight controllers at Mission Control.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p104}} Flight controllers participated in many simulations of problems with the spacecraft in flight, which taught them how to react in an emergency.<ref name "Cass 1" /> Specialized simulators at other locations were also used by the crew members.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p104}}
The astronauts of Apollo 11 had minimal time for geology training, with only six months between crew assignment and launch; higher priorities took much of their time.{{sfn|Phinney|2015|p100}} Apollo 12 saw more such training, including practice in the field, using a CAPCOM and a simulated backroom of scientists, to whom the astronauts had to describe what they saw.{{sfn|Phinney|2015|pp103–104}} Scientist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt saw that there was limited enthusiasm for geology field trips. Believing an inspirational teacher was needed, Schmitt arranged for Lovell and Haise to meet his old professor, Caltech's Lee Silver. The two astronauts, and backups Young and Duke, went on a field trip with Silver at their own time and expense. At the end of their week together, Lovell made Silver their geology mentor, who would be extensively involved in the geology planning for Apollo&nbsp;13.{{sfn|Phinney|2015|pp107–111}} Farouk El-Baz oversaw the training of Mattingly and his backup, Swigert, which involved describing and photographing simulated lunar landmarks from airplanes.{{sfn|Phinney|2015|p134}} El-Baz had all three prime crew astronauts describe geologic features they saw during their flights between Houston and KSC; Mattingly's enthusiasm caused other astronauts, such as Apollo 14's CMP, Roosa, to seek out El-Baz as a teacher.{{sfn|Phinney|2015|pp=141–142}}
Concerned about how close Apollo 11's LM, Eagle, had come to running out of propellant during its lunar descent, mission planners decided that beginning with Apollo&nbsp;13, the CSM would bring the LM to the low orbit from which the landing attempt would commence. This was a change from Apollo 11 and 12, on which the LM made the burn to bring it to the lower orbit. The change was part of an effort to increase the amount of hover time available to the astronauts as the missions headed into rougher terrain.{{sfn|Harland|1999|p=53}}
The plan was to devote the first of the two four-hour lunar surface extravehicular activities (EVAs) to setting up the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) group of scientific instruments; during the second, Lovell and Haise would investigate Cone crater, near the planned landing site.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p363}} The two astronauts wore their spacesuits for some 20 walk-throughs of EVA procedures, including sample gathering and use of tools and other equipment. They flew in the "Vomit Comet" in simulated microgravity or lunar gravity, including practice in donning and doffing spacesuits. To prepare for the descent to the Moon's surface, Lovell flew the Lunar Landing Training Vehicle (LLTV) after receiving helicopter training.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p105}} Despite the crashes of one LLTV and one similar Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV) prior to Apollo 13, mission commanders considered flying them invaluable experience and so prevailed on reluctant NASA management to retain them.<ref>{{cite web|lastJones|firstEric M.|titleLunar Landing Training Vehicle NASA 952|dateApril 29, 2006|access-dateJanuary 4, 2021|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/alsj/LLTV-952.html|publisherNASA|workApollo Lunar Surface Journal}}</ref>
Experiments and scientific objectives
Apollo&nbsp;13's designated landing site was near Fra Mauro crater; the Fra Mauro formation was believed to contain much material spattered by the impact that had filled the Imbrium basin early in the Moon's history. Dating it would provide information not only about the Moon, but about the Earth's early history. Such material was likely to be available at Cone crater, a site where an impact was believed to have drilled deep into the lunar regolith.{{sfn|Harland|1999|pp=51–53}}
Apollo 11 had left a seismometer on the Moon, but the solar-powered unit did not survive its first two-week-long lunar night. The Apollo 12 astronauts also left one as part of its ALSEP, which was nuclear-powered.{{sfn|Harland|1999|pp38–39}} Apollo&nbsp;13 also carried a seismometer (known as the Passive Seismic Experiment, or PSE), similar to Apollo 12's, as part of its ALSEP, to be left on the Moon by the astronauts.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p29}} That seismometer was to be calibrated by the impact, after jettison, of the ascent stage of Apollo&nbsp;13's LM, an object of known mass and velocity impacting at a known location.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p=42}}
Other ALSEP experiments on Apollo&nbsp;13 included a Heat Flow Experiment (HFE), which would involve drilling two holes {{convert|10|ft|orderflip}} deep.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p33}} This was Haise's responsibility; he was also to drill a third hole of that depth for a core sample.{{sfn|Science News 1970-04-04|p354}} A Charged Particle Lunar Environment Experiment (CPLEE) measured the protons and electrons of solar origin reaching the Moon.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p49}} The package also included a Lunar Atmosphere Detector (LAD){{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p51}} and a Dust Detector, to measure the accumulation of debris.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p62}} The Heat Flow Experiment and the CPLEE were flown for the first time on Apollo&nbsp;13; the other experiments had been flown before.{{sfn|Science News 1970-04-04|p=354}}
To power the ALSEP, the SNAP-27 radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) was flown. Developed by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, SNAP-27 was first flown on Apollo 12. The fuel capsule contained about {{convert|8.36|lb|orderflip}} of plutonium oxide. The cask placed around the capsule for transport to the Moon was built with heat shields of graphite and of beryllium, and with structural parts of titanium and of Inconel materials. Thus, it was built to withstand the heat of reentry into the Earth's atmosphere rather than pollute the air with plutonium in the event of an aborted mission.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p65}}
A United States flag was also taken, to be erected on the Moon's surface.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|pp33, 65}} For Apollo 11 and 12, the flag had been placed in a heat-resistant tube on the front landing leg; it was moved for Apollo&nbsp;13 to the Modularized Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) in the LM descent stage. The structure to fly the flag on the airless Moon was improved from Apollo 12's.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970|p73}}
For the first time, red stripes were placed on the helmet, arms and legs of the commander's A7L spacesuit. This was done as, after Apollo 11, those reviewing the images taken had trouble distinguishing Armstrong from Aldrin, but the change was approved too late for Apollo 12.<ref name "red stripe">{{cite web|titleCommander's stripes|websiteApollo Lunar Surface Journal|publisherNASA|access-dateJuly 20, 2019|urlhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/alsj-CDRStripes.html|lastJones|firstEric M.|dateFebruary 20, 2006}}</ref> New drink bags that attached inside the helmets and were to be sipped from as the astronauts walked on the Moon were demonstrated by Haise during Apollo&nbsp;13's final television broadcast before the accident.{{sfn|Turnill|2003|p316}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/alsj-DrinkFood.html|titleWater Gun, Helmet Feedport, In-Suit Drink Bag, and Food Stick|last1Jones|first1Eric M.|dateMarch 3, 2010|websiteApollo Lunar Surface Journal|publisherNASA|access-dateNovember 15, 2019}}</ref>
Apollo&nbsp;13's primary mission objectives were to: "Perform selenological inspection, survey, and sampling of materials in a preselected region of the Fra Mauro Formation. Deploy and activate an Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package. Develop man's capability to work in the lunar environment. Obtain photographs of candidate exploration sites."{{sfn|Accident report|p3-26}} The astronauts were also to accomplish other photographic objectives, including of the Gegenschein from lunar orbit, and of the Moon itself on the journey back to Earth. Some of this photography was to be performed by Swigert as Lovell and Haise walked on the Moon.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p385}} Swigert was also to take photographs of the Lagrangian points of the Earth-Moon system. Apollo&nbsp;13 had twelve cameras on board, including those for television and moving pictures.{{sfn|Science News 1970-04-04|p354}} The crew was also to downlink bistatic radar observations of the Moon. None of these was attempted because of the accident.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p385}}
Flight of Apollo 13
followed by Apollo&nbsp;13, drawn to scale. The accident occurred about 56 hours into the mission.]]
Launch and translunar injection
The mission was launched at the planned time, 2:13:00&nbsp;pm EST (19:13:00&nbsp;UTC) on April 11. An anomaly occurred when the second-stage, center (inboard) engine shut down about two minutes early.<ref name"lver">{{cite book |author |urlhttps://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_19900066486 |titleSaturn 5 Launch Vehicle Flight Evaluation Report: AS-508 Apollo 13 Mission |dateJune 20, 1970 |publisherNASA |publication-placeGeorge C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama |idMPR-SAT-FE-70-2 |access-dateMay 30, 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Benson & Faherty|1979|pp494–499}} This was caused by severe pogo oscillations. Starting with Apollo 10, the vehicle's guidance system was designed to shut the engine down in response to chamber pressure excursions.{{sfn|Larsen|2008|p5-13}} Pogo oscillations had occurred on Titan rockets (used during the Gemini program) and on previous Apollo missions,<ref>{{cite journal|lastFenwick |firstJim |dateSpring 1992 |titlePogo |urlhttp://www.engineeringatboeing.com/articles/pogo.htm |journalThreshold |publisherPratt & Whitney Rocketdyne |access-dateJuly 3, 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071213010936/http://www.engineeringatboeing.com/articles/pogo.htm |archive-dateDecember 13, 2007 }}</ref>{{sfn|Larsen|2008|pp5-7–5-12}} but on Apollo&nbsp;13 they were amplified by an interaction with turbopump cavitation.<ref>{{cite journal |lastDotson |firstKirk |dateWinter 2003–2004 |titleMitigating Pogo on Liquid-Fueled Rockets |journalCrosslink |volume5 |issue1 |pages26–29 |locationEl Segundo, California|publisherThe Aerospace Corporation |access-dateJuly 3, 2013 |urlhttp://aerospace.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/crosslink/V5N1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://aerospace.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/crosslink/V5N1.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref namelaunch>{{cite web |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/01launch_ascent.html |titleLaunch and Reaching Earth Orbit |year2016 |editor-lastWoods |editor-firstW. David |editor-last2Turhanov|editor-first2Alexandr|editor-last3Waugh|editor-first3Lennox J. |workApollo 13 Flight Journal |publisherNASA |access-dateAugust 5, 2019}}</ref> A fix to prevent pogo was ready for the mission, but schedule pressure did not permit the hardware's integration into the Apollo&nbsp;13 vehicle.{{sfn|Larsen|2008|p5-13}}<ref>{{cite journal|urlhttps://www.universetoday.com/62672/13-things-that-saved-apollo-13-part-5-unexplained-shutdown-of-the-saturn-v-center-engine/|lastAtkinson|firstNancy|title13 things that saved Apollo 13, Part 5: Unexplained shutdown of the Saturn V center engine|dateApril 14, 2010|journalUniverse Today|access-dateSeptember 16, 2019}}</ref> A post-flight investigation revealed the engine was one cycle away from catastrophic failure.{{sfn|Larsen|2008|p5-13}} The four outboard engines and the S-IVB third stage burned longer to compensate, and the vehicle achieved very close to the planned circular {{convert|190|km|mi nmi|spus}} parking orbit, followed by a translunar injection (TLI) about two hours later, setting the mission on course for the Moon.<ref name"lver" />{{sfn|Benson & Faherty|1979|pp=494–499}}
After TLI, Swigert performed the separation and transposition maneuvers before docking the CSM Odyssey to the LM Aquarius, and the spacecraft pulled away from the third stage.<ref name "journal extraction">{{cite web|workApollo Lunar Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/03tde.html|titleDay 1: Transposition, Docking and Extraction|dateFebruary 17, 2017|access-dateAugust 12, 2019|last1Woods|first1W. David |last2Kemppanen |first2Johannes|last3Turhanov|first3Alexander|last4Waugh |first4Lennox J.}}</ref> Ground controllers then sent the third stage on a course to impact the Moon in range of the Apollo 12 seismometer, which it did just over three days into the mission.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p=367}}
The crew settled in for the three-day trip to Fra Mauro. At 30:40:50 into the mission, with the TV camera running, the crew performed a burn to place Apollo&nbsp;13 on a hybrid trajectory. The departure from a free-return trajectory meant that if no further burns were performed, Apollo&nbsp;13 would miss Earth on its return trajectory, rather than intercept it, as with a free return.<ref name "journal midcourse">{{cite web|workApollo Lunar Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/05day2-mcc2-tv.html|titleDay 2: Midcourse correction 2 on TV|dateFebruary 17, 2017|access-dateAugust 7, 2019}}</ref> A free return trajectory could only reach sites near the lunar equator; a hybrid trajectory, which could be started at any point after TLI, allowed sites with higher latitudes, such as Fra Mauro, to be reached.<ref name "journal hybrid">{{cite web|workApollo Lunar Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/launchwindow/lw1.html|titleApollo lunar landing launch window: The controlling factors and constraints|year2009|access-dateDecember 2, 2019|authorRobin Wheeler}}</ref> Communications were enlivened when Swigert realized that in the last-minute rush, he had omitted to file his federal income tax return (due April 15), and amid laughter from mission controllers, asked how he could get an extension. He was found to be entitled to a 60-day extension for being out of the country at the deadline.{{sfn|NASA 1970|p8}}
Entry into the LM to test its systems had been scheduled for 58:00:00; when the crew awoke on the third day of the mission, they were informed it had been moved up three hours and was later moved up again by another hour. A television broadcast was scheduled for 55:00:00; Lovell, acting as emcee, showed the audience the interiors of Odyssey and Aquarius.<ref namestorm>{{cite web |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/07day3-before-the-storm.html |titleDay 3: Before the storm |year2016 |editor-lastWoods |editor-firstW. David |editor-last2Turhanov|editor-first2Alexandr|editor-last3Waugh|editor-first3Lennox J. |workApollo 13 Flight Journal |publisherNASA |access-dateAugust 27, 2019}}</ref> The audience was limited since none of the television networks were carrying the broadcast,{{sfn|Houston, Heflin & Aaron|2015|p206}} forcing Marilyn Lovell (Jim Lovell's wife) to go to the VIP room at Mission Control if she wanted to watch her husband and his crewmates.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|pp=285–287}}
{{clear}}
Accident
{{For|the cause of the accident|Apollo 13#Investigation and response}}
About six and a half minutes after the TV broadcast{{snd}}approaching 56:00:00{{snd}}Apollo&nbsp;13 was about {{convert|180000|nmi|mi km}} from Earth.<ref name "journal Houston">{{cite web|workApollo Lunar Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/08day3-problem.html|titleDay 3: 'Houston, we've had a problem'|dateMay 30, 2017|access-dateAugust 18, 2019|last1Woods|first1W. David|last2Kemppanen|first2Johannes|last3Turhanov|first3Alexander|last4Waugh|first4Lennox J.}}</ref> Haise was completing the shutdown of the LM after testing its systems while Lovell stowed the TV camera. Jack Lousma, the CAPCOM, sent minor instructions to Swigert, including changing the attitude of the craft to facilitate photography of Comet Bennett.<ref name "journal Houston" />{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p292}}
The pressure sensor in one of the SM's oxygen tanks had earlier appeared to be malfunctioning, so Sy Liebergot (the EECOM, in charge of monitoring the CSM's electrical system) requested that the stirring fans in the tanks be activated. Normally this was done once daily; a stir would destratify the contents of the tanks, making the pressure readings more accurate.<ref name "journal Houston" /> The Flight Director, Kranz, had Liebergot wait a few minutes for the crew to settle down after the telecast,{{sfn|Houston, Heflin & Aaron|2015|p207}} then Lousma relayed the request to Swigert, who activated the switches controlling the fans,<ref name "journal Houston" /> and after a few seconds turned them off again.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p292}}
{{Listen|filenameApollo13-wehaveaproblem.ogg|titleHouston, we've had a problem.|descriptionSwigert and Lovell reporting the incident on April 14, 1970 [2:59] "Houston, we've had a problem"|formatOgg}}
Ninety-five seconds after Swigert activated those switches,{{sfn|Houston, Heflin & Aaron|2015|p207}} the astronauts heard a "pretty large bang", accompanied by fluctuations in electrical power and the firing of the attitude control thrusters.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p368}}{{sfn|Orloff|2000|pp152–157}} Communications and telemetry to Earth were lost for 1.8&nbsp;seconds, until the system automatically corrected by switching the high-gain S-band antenna, used for translunar communications, from narrow-beam to wide-beam mode.{{sfn|Accident report|p4-44}} The accident happened at 55:54:53 (03:08 UTC on April 14; 10:08 PM EST, April 13). Swigert reported 26&nbsp;seconds later, "Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here," echoed at 55:55:42 by Lovell, "Houston, we've had a problem. We've had a Main&nbsp;B Bus undervolt."<ref name "journal Houston" /> William Fenner was the guidance officer (GUIDO) who was the first to report a problem in the control room to Kranz.<ref name "journal Houston" />
Lovell's initial thought on hearing the noise was that Haise had activated the LM's cabin-repressurization valve, which also produced a bang (Haise enjoyed doing so to startle his crewmates), but Lovell could see that Haise had no idea what had happened. Swigert initially thought that a meteoroid might have struck the LM, but he and Lovell quickly realized there was no leak.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p293}} The "Main Bus&nbsp;B undervolt" meant that there was insufficient voltage produced by the SM's three fuel cells (fueled by hydrogen and oxygen piped from their respective tanks) to the second of the SM's two electric power distribution systems. Almost everything in the CSM required power. Although the bus momentarily returned to normal status, soon both buses A and B were short on voltage. Haise checked the status of the fuel cells and found that two of them were dead. Mission rules forbade entering lunar orbit unless all fuel cells were operational.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|pp293–294}}
In the minutes after the accident, there were several unusual readings, showing that tank{{nbsp}}2 was empty and tank{{nbsp}}1's pressure slowly falling, that the computer on the spacecraft had reset and that the high-gain antenna was not working. Liebergot initially missed the worrying signs from tank{{nbsp}}2 following the stir, as he was focusing on tank{{nbsp}}1, believing that its reading would be a good guide to what was present in tank{{nbsp}}2, as did controllers supporting him in the "back room". When Kranz questioned Liebergot on this, he initially responded that there might be false readings due to an instrumentation problem; he was often teased about that in the years to come.<ref name "Cass 1">{{cite web|lastCass|firstStephen|titleApollo 13, we have a solution|urlhttps://spectrum.ieee.org/apollo-13-we-have-a-solution|dateApril 1, 2005|access-dateOctober 13, 2022|websiteIEEE}}</ref> Lovell, looking out the window, reported "a gas of some sort" venting into space, making it clear that there was a serious problem.{{sfn|Houston, Heflin & Aaron|2015|p=215}}
Since the fuel cells needed oxygen to operate, when Oxygen Tank{{nbsp}}1 ran dry, the remaining fuel cell would shut down, meaning the CSM's only significant sources of power and oxygen would be the CM's batteries and its oxygen "surge tank". These would be needed for the final hours of the mission, but the remaining fuel cell, already starved for oxygen, was drawing from the surge tank. Kranz ordered the surge tank isolated, saving its oxygen, but this meant that the remaining fuel cell would die within two hours, as the oxygen in tank{{nbsp}}1 was consumed or leaked away.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|pp293–294}} The volume surrounding the spacecraft was filled with myriad small bits of debris from the accident, complicating any efforts to use the stars for navigation.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p299}} The mission's goal became simply getting the astronauts back to Earth alive.<ref name "Cass 2" /> Looping around the Moon The lunar module had charged batteries and full oxygen tanks for use on the lunar surface, so Kranz directed that the astronauts power up the LM and use it as a "lifeboat"<ref name "Cass 1" />{{snd}}a scenario anticipated but considered unlikely.{{sfn|Lovell & Kluger|2000|pp83–87}} Procedures for using the LM in this way had been developed by LM flight controllers after a training simulation for Apollo 10 in which the LM was needed for survival, but could not be powered up in time.<ref name "Cass 2" /> Had Apollo&nbsp;13's accident occurred on the return voyage, with the LM already jettisoned, the astronauts would have died,<ref name"LM-ALSEP">{{cite web|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1970-029C|titleApollo 13 Lunar Module/ALSEP|websiteNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-dateOctober 31, 2009}}</ref> as they would have following an explosion in lunar orbit, including one while Lovell and Haise walked on the Moon.<ref name = "Yahoo 50th" />
A key decision was the choice of return path. A "direct abort" would use the SM's main engine (the Service Propulsion System or SPS) to return before reaching the Moon. However, the accident could have damaged the SPS, and the fuel cells would have to last at least another hour to meet its power requirements, so Kranz instead decided on a longer route: the spacecraft would swing around the Moon before heading back to Earth. Apollo&nbsp;13 was on the hybrid trajectory which was to take it to Fra Mauro; it now needed to be brought back to a free return. The LM's Descent Propulsion System (DPS), although not as powerful as the SPS, could do this, but new software for Mission Control's computers needed to be written by technicians as it had never been contemplated that the CSM/LM spacecraft would have to be maneuvered from the LM. As the CM was being shut down, Lovell copied down its guidance system's orientation information and performed hand calculations to transfer it to the LM's guidance system, which had been turned off; at his request Mission Control checked his figures.<ref name "Cass 2">{{cite web|lastCass|firstStephen|titleHouston, we have a solution, part 2|urlhttps://spectrum.ieee.org/apollo-13-we-have-a-solution-part-2|dateApril 1, 2005|websiteIEEE|access-dateAugust 31, 2019}}</ref>{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|pp297–298}} At 61:29:43.49 the DPS burn of 34.23&nbsp;seconds took Apollo&nbsp;13 back to a free return trajectory.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p369}}
.]]
The change would get Apollo&nbsp;13 back to Earth in about four days' time{{snd}}though with splashdown in the Indian Ocean, where NASA had few recovery forces. Jerry Bostick and other Flight Dynamics Officers (FIDOs) were anxious both to shorten the travel time and to move splashdown to the Pacific Ocean, where the main recovery forces were located. One option would shave 36 hours off the return time, but required jettisoning the SM; this would expose the CM's heat shield to space during the return journey, something for which it had not been designed. The FIDOs also proposed other solutions. After a meeting involving NASA officials and engineers, the senior individual present, Manned Spaceflight Center director Robert R. Gilruth, decided on a burn using the DPS, that would save 12&nbsp;hours and land Apollo&nbsp;13 in the Pacific. This "PC+2" burn would take place two hours after pericynthion, the closest approach to the Moon.<ref name "Cass 2" /> At pericynthion, Apollo&nbsp;13 set the record (per the Guinness Book of World Records), which still stands, for the furthest distance from Earth by a crewed spacecraft: {{convert|400171|km|mi nmi|spus}} from Earth at 7:21&nbsp;pm EST, April 14 (00:21:00&nbsp;UTC April 15).{{sfn|Glenday|2010|p13}}{{NoteTag|The record was set because the Moon was nearly at its furthest from Earth during the mission. Apollo&nbsp;13's unique free return trajectory caused it to go approximately {{convert|100|km|-1|spus}} further from the lunar far side than other Apollo lunar missions, but this was a minor contribution to the record.{{sfn|Adamo|2009|p37}} A reconstruction of the trajectory by astrodynamicist Daniel Adamo in 2009 records the furthest distance as {{convert|400046|km|spus}} at 7:34&nbsp;pm&nbsp;EST (00:34:13&nbsp;UTC). Apollo 10 holds the record for second-furthest at a distance of {{convert|399806|km|spus}}.{{sfn|Adamo|2009|p41}}}}
While preparing for the burn, the crew was told that the S-IVB had impacted the Moon as planned, leading Lovell to quip, "Well, at least something worked on this flight."<ref name "journal leaving" />{{sfn|Cooper|2013|pp84–86}} Kranz's White team of mission controllers, who had spent most of their time supporting other teams and developing the procedures urgently needed to get the astronauts home, took their consoles for the PC+2 procedure.{{sfn|Houston, Heflin & Aaron|2015|pp221–222}} Normally, the accuracy of such a burn could be assured by checking the alignment Lovell had transferred to the LM's computer against the position of one of the stars astronauts used for navigation, but the light glinting off the many pieces of debris accompanying the spacecraft made that impractical. The astronauts accordingly used the one star available whose position could not be obscured{{snd}}the Sun. Houston also informed them that the Moon would be centered in the commander's window of the LM as they made the burn, which was almost perfect{{snd}}less than 0.3 meters (1 foot) per second off.<ref name "journal leaving" /> The burn, at 79:27:38.95, lasted four minutes and 23&nbsp;seconds.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p391}} The crew then shut down most LM systems to conserve consumables.<ref name "journal leaving">{{cite web|workApollo Lunar Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/13day4-leaving-moon.html|titleDay 4: Leaving the Moon|dateFebruary 17, 2017|access-dateSeptember 7, 2019}}</ref> Return to Earth
canisters for use in the LM]]
The LM carried enough oxygen, but that still left the problem of removing carbon dioxide, which was absorbed by canisters of lithium hydroxide pellets.
The LM's stock of canisters, meant to accommodate two astronauts for 45 hours on the Moon, was not enough to support three astronauts for the return journey to Earth.{{sfn|Houston, Heflin & Aaron|2015|p224}} The CM had enough canisters, but they were of a different shape and size to the LM's, hence unable to be used in the LM's equipment. Engineers on the ground devised a way to bridge the gap, using plastic covers ripped from procedure manuals, duct tape, and other items available on the spacecraft.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/36237422/detroit_free_press/|titleAstronauts Beat Air Crisis By Do-It-Yourself Gadget|newspaperDetroit Free Press|locationDetroit, Michigan|dateApril 16, 1970|page12–C|last1Pothier|first1Richard|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref>{{sfn|Barell|2016|p154}} NASA engineers referred to the improvised device as "the mailbox".<ref>{{Cite web|lastSmith|firstYvette|date2015-09-24|titlePutting a Square Peg in a Round Hole|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/putting-a-square-peg-in-a-round-hole|access-date2021-05-20|websiteNASA}}</ref> The procedure for building the device was read to the crew by CAPCOM Joseph Kerwin over the course of an hour, and was built by Swigert and Haise; carbon dioxide levels began dropping immediately. Lovell later described this improvisation as "a fine example of cooperation between ground and space".{{sfn|Cortright|1975|pp=257–262}}
The CSM's electricity came from fuel cells that produced water as a byproduct, but the LM was powered by silver-zinc batteries which did not, so both electrical power and water (needed for equipment cooling as well as drinking) would be critical. LM power consumption was reduced to the lowest level possible;{{sfn|Mission Operations Report 1970|ppIII‑17, III-33, III-40}} Swigert was able to fill some drinking bags with water from the CM's water tap,<ref name "journal leaving" /> but even assuming rationing of personal consumption, Haise initially calculated they would run out of water for cooling about five hours before reentry. This seemed acceptable because the systems of Apollo 11's LM, once jettisoned in lunar orbit, had continued to operate for seven to eight hours even with the water cut off. In the end, Apollo&nbsp;13 returned to Earth with {{convert|28.2|lb|orderflip}} of water remaining.{{sfn|Cortright|1975|pp254–257}} The crew's ration was 0.2&nbsp;liters (6.8&nbsp;fl&nbsp;oz) of water per person per day; the three astronauts lost a total of {{convert|31|lb|orderflip}} among them, and Haise developed a urinary tract infection.<ref name "mission summary">{{cite web|lastJones|firstEric M.|dateJanuary 4, 2006|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a13/a13.summary.html|titleThe frustrations of Fra Mauro: Part I|workApollo Lunar Surface Journal|access-dateSeptember 7, 2019}}</ref>{{sfn|Cortright|1975|pp262–263}} This infection was probably caused by the reduced water intake, but microgravity and effects of cosmic radiation might have impaired his immune system's reaction to the pathogen.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Kennedy |first1A.R. |date2014 |titleBiological effects of space radiation and development of effective countermeasures |journalLife Sciences in Space Research |volume 1|issue1 |pages10–43 |doi10.1016/j.lssr.2014.02.004|pmid25258703 |pmc4170231 |bibcode2014LSSR....1...10K }}</ref>
Inside the darkened spacecraft, the temperature dropped as low as {{convert|38|F|orderflip}}.<ref>{{Cite web|lastMars|firstKelli|date2020-04-16|title50 Years Ago: Apollo 13 Crew Returns Safely to Earth|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-apollo-13-crew-returns-safely-to-earth|access-date2021-05-20|websiteNASA}}</ref> Lovell considered having the crew don their spacesuits, but decided this would be too hot. Instead, Lovell and Haise wore their lunar EVA boots and Swigert put on an extra coverall. All three astronauts were cold, especially Swigert, who had got his feet wet while filling the water bags and had no lunar overshoes (since he had not been scheduled to walk on the Moon). As they had been told not to discharge their urine to space to avoid disturbing the trajectory, they had to store it in bags. Water condensed on the walls, though any condensation that may have been behind equipment panels{{sfn|Cortright|1975|pp257–263}} caused no problems, partly because of the extensive electrical insulation improvements instituted after the Apollo 1 fire.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/main/A13_panel.html|titleGeneration Constellation Learns about Apollo 13|lastSiceloff|firstSteven|dateSeptember 20, 2007|workConstellation Program|publisherNASA|access-dateSeptember 7, 2019}}</ref> Despite all this, the crew voiced few complaints.<ref name "Cass 3">{{cite web|lastCass|firstStephen|titleHouston, we have a solution, part 3|urlhttps://spectrum.ieee.org/apollo-13-we-have-a-solution-part-3|dateApril 1, 2005|websiteIEEE|access-date=September 8, 2019}}</ref>
Flight controller John Aaron, along with Mattingly and several engineers and designers, devised a procedure for powering up the command module from full shutdown{{snd}}something never intended to be done in flight, much less under Apollo&nbsp;13's severe power and time constraints.<ref>{{cite journal|lastLeopold|firstGeorge|dateMarch 17, 2009|titlePower engineer: Video interview with Apollo astronaut Ken Mattingly|journalEE Times|publisherUMB Tech|urlhttps://www.eetimes.com/power-engineer-video-interview-with-apollo-astronaut-ken-mattingly/|access-dateAugust 14, 2010}}</ref> The astronauts implemented the procedure without apparent difficulty: Kranz later credited all three astronauts having been test pilots, accustomed to having to work in critical situations with their lives on the line, for their survival.<ref name = "Cass 3" />
Recognizing that the cold conditions combined with insufficient rest would hinder the time-critical startup of the command module prior to reentry, at 133 hours into flight Mission Control gave Lovell the okay to fully power up the LM to raise the cabin temperature, which included restarting the LM's guidance computer. Having the LM's computer running enabled Lovell to perform a navigational sighting and calibrate the LM's Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). With the lunar module's computer aware of its location and orientation, the command module's computer was later calibrated in a reverse of the normal procedures used to set up the LM, shaving steps from the restart process and increasing the accuracy of the PGNCS-controlled reentry.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/25day6-thelastcoursecorrection.html|titleApollo Flight Journal: Day 6 Part 4|publisherNASA|access-dateMay 17, 2021|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220118020508/https://www.history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/25day6-thelastcoursecorrection.html|url-statusdead}}</ref> Reentry and splashdown Despite the accuracy of the transearth injection, the spacecraft slowly drifted off course, necessitating a correction. As the LM's guidance system had been shut down following the PC+2 burn, the crew was told to use the line between night and day on the Earth to guide them, a technique used on NASA's Earth-orbit missions but never on the way back from the Moon.<ref name "Cass 3" /> This DPS burn, at 105:18:42 for 14&nbsp;seconds, brought the projected entry flight path angle back within safe limits. Nevertheless, yet another burn was needed at 137:40:13, using the LM's reaction control system (RCS) thrusters, for 21.5&nbsp;seconds. The SM was jettisoned less than half an hour later, allowing the crew to see the damage for the first time, and photograph it. They reported that an entire panel was missing from the SM's exterior, the fuel cells above the oxygen tank shelf were tilted, that the high-gain antenna was damaged, and there was a considerable amount of debris elsewhere.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|pp370–371}} Haise could see possible damage to the SM's engine bell, validating Kranz's decision not to use the SPS.<ref name "Cass 3" /> The crew then moved out of the LM back into the CM and reactivated its life support systems.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1970-029C |titleApollo 13 Lunar Module / EASEP |publisherNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive |access-date=July 9, 2024}}</ref>
The last problem to be solved was how to separate the lunar module a safe distance away from the command module just before reentry. The normal procedure, in lunar orbit, was to release the LM and then use the service module's RCS to pull the CSM away, but by this point, the SM had already been released. Grumman, manufacturer of the LM, assigned a team of University of Toronto engineers, led by senior scientist Bernard Etkin, to solve the problem of how much air pressure to use to push the modules apart. The astronauts applied the solution, which was successful.<ref name"G&M">{{cite news|titleBernard Etkin helped avert Apollo 13 tragedy|urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/science/bernard-etkin-helped-avert-apollo-13-tragedy/article19735265/#dashboard/follows/|access-dateSeptember 7, 2019|newspaperThe Globe and Mail}}</ref> The LM reentered Earth's atmosphere and was destroyed, the remaining pieces falling in the deep ocean.<ref name"LM-ALSEP" /><ref nameimpact>{{cite web|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_impact.html|titleImpact Sites of Apollo LM Ascent and SIVB Stages|websiteNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-dateAugust 27, 2019}}</ref> Apollo&nbsp;13's final midcourse correction had addressed the concerns of the Atomic Energy Commission, which wanted the cask containing the plutonium oxide intended for the SNAP-27 RTG to land in a safe place. The impact point was over the Tonga Trench in the Pacific, one of its deepest points, and the cask sank {{convert|10|km|mi nmi|spus|0}} to the bottom. Later helicopter surveys found no radioactive leakage.<ref name = "Cass 3" />
Ionization of the air around the command module during reentry would typically cause a four-minute communications blackout. Apollo&nbsp;13's shallow reentry path lengthened this to six minutes, longer than had been expected; controllers feared that the CM's heat shield had failed.<ref>{{cite magazine|titleDid Ron Howard exaggerate the reentry scene in the movie Apollo 13?|firstJoe|lastPappalardo|urlhttp://www.airspacemag.com/need-to-know/did-ron-howard-exaggerate-the-reentry-scene-in-the-movie-apollo-13-17639496/|magazineAir & Space/Smithsonian|publisherSmithsonian Institution|locationWashington, D.C.|dateMay 1, 2007|access-dateSeptember 8, 2019}}</ref> Odyssey regained radio contact and splashed down safely in the South Pacific Ocean, {{Coord|21|38|24|S|165|21|42|W|type:event|nameApollo 13 splashdown}},{{sfn|Apollo 13 Mission Report 1970|p1-2}} southeast of American Samoa and {{convert|6.5|km|mi nmi|abbron}} from the recovery ship, USS Iwo Jima.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p371}} Although fatigued, the crew was in good condition except for Haise, who had developed a serious urinary tract infection because of insufficient water intake.{{sfn|Cortright|1975|pp262–263}} The crew stayed overnight on the ship and flew to Pago Pago, American Samoa, the next day. They flew to Hawaii, where President Richard Nixon awarded them the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/39764154/the_philadelphia_inquirer/|titleHeroes of Apollo 13 Welcomed by President and Loved Ones|agencyAssociated Press|newspaperThe Philadelphia Inquirer|locationPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania|dateApril 19, 1970|viaNewspapers.com|page1}}</ref> They stayed overnight, and then were flown back to Houston.{{sfn|Apollo 13 Mission Report 1970|p=10-5}}
En route to Honolulu, President Nixon stopped at Houston to award the Presidential Medal of Freedom to the Apollo&nbsp;13 Mission Operations Team.<ref name"nixon">{{cite web|titleBehind the Scenes of Apollo 13|urlhttps://www.nixonfoundation.org/2016/04/behind-scenes-apollo-13/|websiteRichard Nixon Foundation|access-dateJune 27, 2019|dateApril 11, 2016}}</ref> He originally planned to give the award to NASA administrator Thomas O. Paine, but Paine recommended the mission operations team.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/241054|titleRemarks on Presenting the Presidential Medal of Freedom to Apollo 13 Mission Operations Team in Houston.|publisherThe American Presidency Project|access-dateDecember 27, 2017}}</ref>
Public and media reaction
and [NASA Administrator] Dr. Paine to meet us, along with my wife Marilyn, Fred's wife Mary (who, being pregnant, also had a doctor along just in case), and bachelor Jack's parents, in lieu of his usual airline stewardesses.|source Jim Lovell{{sfn|Cortright|1975|pp262–263}}|style=padding: 15px; margin: 0;text-align: justify;}}]]
Worldwide interest in the Apollo program was reawakened by the incident; television coverage was seen by millions. Four Soviet ships headed toward the landing area to assist if needed,{{sfn|NASA 1970|p15}} and other nations offered assistance should the craft have to splash down elsewhere.{{sfn|Benson & Faherty|1979|pp489–494}} President Nixon canceled appointments, phoned the astronauts' families, and drove to NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, where Apollo's tracking and communications were coordinated.{{sfn|NASA 1970|p=15}}
The rescue received more public attention than any spaceflight to that point, other than the first Moon landing on Apollo 11. There were worldwide headlines, and people surrounded television sets to get the latest developments, offered by networks who interrupted their regular programming for bulletins. Pope Paul VI led a congregation of 10,000 people in praying for the astronauts' safe return; ten times that number offered prayers at a religious festival in India.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p316}} The United States Senate on April 14 passed a resolution urging businesses to pause at 9:00{{nbsp}}pm local time that evening to allow for employee prayer.{{sfn|NASA 1970|p15}}
An estimated 40{{nbsp}}million Americans watched Apollo{{nbsp}}13's splashdown, carried live on all three networks, with another 30{{nbsp}}million watching some portion of the 6½ hour telecast. Even more outside the U.S. watched. Jack Gould of The New York Times stated that Apollo{{nbsp}}13, "which came so close to tragic disaster, in all probability united the world in mutual concern more fully than another successful landing on the Moon would have".<ref>{{cite news|lastGould|firstJack|author-linkJack Gould|newspaperThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1970/04/18/archives/tv-millions-of-viewers-end-vigil-for-apollo-13-unusual-color.html|dateApril 18, 1970|page59|titleTV: Millions of viewers end vigil for Apollo 13|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> {{anchor|Review board report}}Investigation and response Review board Immediately upon the crew's return, NASA Administrator Paine and Deputy Administrator George Low appointed a review board to investigate the accident. Chaired by NASA Langley Research Center Director Edgar M. Cortright and including Neil Armstrong and six others,{{NoteTag|The others were Robert F. Allnutt (Assistant to the Administrator, NASA Hqs.); John F. Clark (Director, Goddard Space Flight Center); Brig. General Walter R. Hedrick Jr. (Director of Space, DCS/RED, Hqs., USAF); Vincent L. Johnson (Deputy Associate Administrator-Engineering, Office of Space Science and Applications); Milton Klein (Manager, AEC-NASA Space Nuclear Propulsion Office); Hans M. Mark (Director, Ames Research Center).{{sfn|Accident report|pp1-1–1-4}}
}} the board sent its final report to Paine on June 15.{{sfn|Accident report|p=15}}
It found that the failure began in the service module's number{{nbsp}}2 oxygen tank.{{sfn|Accident report|p4-36}} Damaged Teflon insulation on the wires to the stirring fan inside Oxygen Tank{{nbsp}}2 allowed the wires to short circuit and ignite this insulation. The resulting fire increased the pressure inside the tank until the tank dome failed, filling the fuel cell bay (SM Sector{{nbsp}}4) with rapidly expanding gaseous oxygen and combustion products. The pressure rise was sufficient to pop the rivets holding the aluminum exterior panel covering Sector{{nbsp}}4 and blow it out, exposing the sector to space and snuffing out the fire. The detached panel hit the nearby high-gain antenna, disabling the narrow-beam communication mode and interrupting communication with Earth for 1.8&nbsp;seconds while the system automatically switched to the backup wide-beam mode.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|pp372–373}} The sectors of the SM were not airtight from each other, and had there been time for the entire SM to become as pressurized as Sector{{nbsp}}4, the force on the CM's heat shield would have separated the two modules. The report questioned the use of Teflon and other materials shown to be flammable in supercritical oxygen, such as aluminum, within the tank.{{sfn|Accident report|pp5-6–5-7, 5-12–5-13}} The board found no evidence pointing to any other theory of the accident.{{sfn|Accident report|p4-37}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| width = 200
| header | image1 Honeycomb panel test (S70-41982).jpg
| alt1 = Panel in the process of being blown out
| caption1 | image2 Honeycomb panel test (S70-41983).jpg
| alt2 = Further along in the process
| caption2 = Panel similar to the SM Sector{{nbsp}}4 cover being ejected during a test performed as part of the investigation
}}
Mechanical shock forced the oxygen valves closed on the number{{nbsp}}1 and number{{nbsp}}3 fuel cells, putting them out of commission.{{sfn|Accident report|p4-40}} The sudden failure of Oxygen Tank{{nbsp}}2 compromised Oxygen Tank{{nbsp}}1, causing its contents to leak out, possibly through a damaged line or valve, over the next 130&nbsp;minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p372}}{{sfn|Accident report|p4-43}} With both SM oxygen tanks emptying, and with other damage to the SM, the mission had to be aborted.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p375}} The board praised the response to the emergency: "The imperfection in Apollo&nbsp;13 constituted a near disaster, averted only by outstanding performance on the part of the crew and the ground control team which supported them."{{sfn|Accident report|p=ii}}
Oxygen Tank&nbsp;2 was manufactured by the Beech Aircraft Company of Boulder, Colorado, as subcontractor to North American Rockwell (NAR) of Downey, California, prime contractor for the CSM.{{sfn|Accident report|p4-2}} It contained two thermostatic switches, originally designed for the command module's 28-volt DC power, but which could fail if subjected to the 65 volts used during ground testing at KSC.{{sfn|Accident report|p4-23}} Under the original 1962 specifications, the switches would be rated for 28 volts, but revised specifications issued in 1965 called for 65 volts to allow for quicker tank pressurization at KSC. Nonetheless, the switches Beech used were not rated for 65 volts.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p=374}}
At NAR's facility, Oxygen Tank&nbsp;2 had been originally installed in an oxygen shelf placed in the Apollo 10 service module, SM-106, but which was removed to fix a potential electromagnetic interference problem and another shelf substituted. During removal, the shelf was accidentally dropped at least {{convert|2|in|cm|0|orderflip|spus}}, because a retaining bolt had not been removed. The probability of damage from this was low, but it is possible that the fill line assembly was loose and made worse by the fall. After some retesting (which did not include filling the tank with liquid oxygen), in November 1968 the shelf was re-installed in SM-109, intended for Apollo&nbsp;13, which was shipped to KSC in June 1969.{{sfn|Accident report|pp=4-19, 4-21}}
The Countdown Demonstration Test took place with SM-109 in its place near the top of the Saturn&nbsp;V and began on March 16, 1970. During the test, the cryogenic tanks were filled, but Oxygen Tank&nbsp;2 could not be emptied through the normal drain line, and a report was written documenting the problem. After discussion among NASA and the contractors, attempts to empty the tank resumed on March 27. When it would not empty normally, the heaters in the tank were turned on to boil off the oxygen. The thermostatic switches were designed to prevent the heaters from raising the temperature higher than {{convert|80|F|C|orderflip}}, but they failed under the 65-volt power supply applied. Temperatures on the heater tube within the tank may have reached {{convert|1,000|F|C|orderflip|-1}}, most likely damaging the Teflon insulation.{{sfn|Accident report|p4-23}} The temperature gauge was not designed to read higher than {{convert|85|F|C|orderflip}}, so the technician monitoring the procedure detected nothing unusual. This heating had been approved by Lovell and Mattingly of the prime crew, as well as by NASA managers and engineers.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|pp330–331}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/ap13acc.html|lastWilliams|firstDavid R.|titleThe Apollo 13 Accident|websiteNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|access-dateDecember 31, 2012}}</ref> Replacement of the tank would have delayed the mission by at least a month.<ref name "mission summary" /> The tank was filled with liquid oxygen again before launch; once electric power was connected, it was in a hazardous condition.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p375}} The board found that Swigert's activation of the Oxygen Tank{{nbsp}}2 fan at the request of Mission Control caused an electric arc that set the tank on fire.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p333}}
The board conducted a test of an oxygen tank rigged with hot-wire ignitors that caused a rapid rise in temperature within the tank, after which it failed, producing telemetry similar to that seen with the Apollo&nbsp;13 Oxygen Tank&nbsp;2.{{sfn|Accident report, appendix F–H|ppF-48–F-49}} Tests with panels similar to the one that was seen to be missing on SM Sector{{nbsp}}4 caused separation of the panel in the test apparatus.{{sfn|Accident report, appendix F–H|ppF-70–F-82}}
Changes in response
For Apollo 14 and subsequent missions, the oxygen tank was redesigned, the thermostats being upgraded to handle the proper voltage. The heaters were retained since they were necessary to maintain oxygen pressure. The stirring fans, with their unsealed motors, were removed, which meant the oxygen quantity gauge was no longer accurate. This required adding a third tank so that no tank would go below half full.{{sfn|Gatland|1976|p281}} The third tank was placed in Bay{{nbsp}}1 of the SM, on the side opposite the other two, and was given an isolation valve that could isolate it from the fuel cells and from the other two oxygen tanks in an emergency and allow it to feed the CM's environmental system only. The quantity probe was upgraded from aluminum to stainless steel.{{sfn|Apollo 14 Press Kit|1971|pp96–97}}
All electrical wiring in Bay{{nbsp}}4 was sheathed in stainless steel. The fuel cell oxygen supply valves were redesigned to isolate the Teflon-coated wiring from the oxygen. The spacecraft and Mission Control monitoring systems were modified to give more immediate and visible warnings of anomalies.{{sfn|Gatland|1976|p281}} An emergency supply of {{convert|5|USgal|L|orderflip}} of water was stored in the CM, and an emergency battery, identical to those that powered the LM's descent stage, was placed in the SM. The LM was modified to make transfer of power from the LM to the CM easier.{{sfn|Apollo 14 Press Kit|1971|pp96–98}} Aftermath
awarding the Apollo&nbsp;13 astronauts the Presidential Medal of Freedom]]
On February 5, 1971, Apollo&nbsp;14's LM, Antares, landed on the Moon with astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell aboard, near Fra Mauro, the site Apollo&nbsp;13 had been intended to explore.<ref>{{cite web|websiteUSRA|publisherLunar and Planetary Institute|titleApollo 14 mission|urlhttps://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_14/|access-dateSeptember 15, 2019}}</ref> Haise served as CAPCOM during the descent to the Moon,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a14/a14.landing.html|titleLanding at Far Mauro |editor-lastJones |editor-firstEric M. |workApollo 14 Lunar Surface Journal |publisherNASA |access-dateNovember 24, 2019|dateJanuary 12, 2016}}</ref> and during the second EVA, during which Shepard and Mitchell explored near Cone crater.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a14/a14.tocone.html|titleClimbing Cone Ridge – where are we? |editor-lastJones |editor-firstEric M. |workApollo 14 Lunar Surface Journal |publisherNASA |access-dateNovember 24, 2019|date=September 29, 2017}}</ref>
None of the Apollo&nbsp;13 astronauts flew in space again. Lovell retired from NASA and the Navy in 1973, entering the private sector.<ref name"nasabio">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/lovell-ja.html |titleAstronaut Bio: James A. Lovell |access-dateDecember 16, 2016|publisherNASA|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170112213829/https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/lovell-ja.html|archive-dateJanuary 12, 2017}}</ref> Swigert was to have flown on the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (the first joint mission with the Soviet Union) but was removed as part of the fallout from the Apollo 15 postal covers incident. He took a leave of absence from NASA in 1973 and left the agency to enter politics, being elected to the House of Representatives in 1982, but died of cancer before he could be sworn in.<ref>{{cite web|titleFor Jack Swigert, on his 83rd birthday|lastCarney|firstEmily|urlhttps://www.americaspace.com/2014/08/29/for-jack-swigert-on-his-83rd-birthday/|publisherAmericaSpace|dateAugust 29, 2014|access-dateNovember 24, 2019}}</ref> Haise was slated to have been the commander of the canceled Apollo 19 mission, and flew the Space Shuttle Approach and Landing Tests before retiring from NASA in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web |first1Elizabeth|last1Howell|last2Hickok|first2Kimberly|titleAstronaut Fred Haise: Apollo 13 Crewmember |urlhttp://www.space.com/20318-fred-haise-apollo-13-biography.html |websiteSpace.com|publisherFuture US |dateApril 10, 2020 |access-date = April 11, 2020}}</ref>
Several experiments were completed during Apollo 13, even though the mission did not land on the Moon.<ref name "13 science" /> One involved the launch vehicle's S-IVB (the Saturn&nbsp;V's third stage), which on prior missions had been sent into solar orbit once detached. The seismometer left by Apollo 12 had detected frequent impacts of small objects onto the Moon, but larger impacts would yield more information about the Moon's crust, so it was decided that, beginning with Apollo&nbsp;13, the S-IVB would be crashed into the Moon.{{sfn|Harland|1999|p50}} The impact occurred at 77:56:40 into the mission and produced enough energy that the gain on the seismometer, {{convert|73|mi|orderflip|spus}} from the impact, had to be reduced.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|2006|p367}} An experiment to measure the amount of atmospheric electrical phenomena during the ascent to orbit{{snd}}added after Apollo 12 was struck by lightning{{snd}}returned data indicating a heightened risk during marginal weather. A series of photographs of Earth, taken to test whether cloud height could be determined from synchronous satellites, achieved the desired results.<ref name "13 science">{{cite web|titleApollo 13 mission: Science experiments|websiteUSRA|publisherLunar and Planetary Institute|urlhttps://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_13/experiments/|access-dateAugust 8, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180915105402/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_13/experiments/|archive-dateSeptember 15, 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref>
As a joke, Grumman issued an invoice to North American Rockwell, prime contractor for the CSM, for "towing" the CSM most of the way to the Moon and back. Line items included 400001<!--conversion makes no sense here--> miles at $1 each (plus $4 for the first mile); $536.05 for battery charging; oxygen; and four nights at $8 per night for an "additional guest in room" (Swigert). After a 20% "commercial discount", and a 2% discount for timely payment, the final total was $312,421.24. North American declined payment, noting that it had ferried three previous Grumman LMs to the Moon without compensation.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.spaceflightinsider.com/space-centers/kennedy-space-center/the-apollo-13-invoice/|titleThe Apollo 13 Invoice...|websiteSpaceflight Insider|access-dateSeptember 17, 2019|dateDecember 8, 2013|archive-dateNovember 12, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201112041957/https://www.spaceflightinsider.com/space-centers/kennedy-space-center/the-apollo-13-invoice/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|titleTongue-in-Cheek-Bill Asks Space Tow Fee|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1338&dat19700418&idOwg0AAAAIBAJ&sjidO_gDAAAAIBAJ&pg5822,839543|newspaperSpokane Daily Chronicle|dateApril 18, 1970|page7|access-dateSeptember 17, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|newspaperThe New York Times|dateApril 18, 1970|access-dateSeptember 17, 2019|title'Towing' Fee Is Asked by Grumman|page13|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/04/18/archives/towing-fee-is-asked-by-grumman.html}}</ref>
in Hutchinson, Kansas]]
The CM was disassembled for testing and parts remained in storage for years; some were used for a trainer for the Skylab Rescue Mission. That trainer was subsequently displayed at the Kentucky Science Center. Max Ary of the Cosmosphere made it a project to restore Odyssey; it is on display there, in Hutchinson, Kansas.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/35462879/the_manhattan_mercury/|titleApollo 13 Capsule Headed for Kansas|agencyAssociated Press|dateDecember 29, 1996|pageA2|viaNewspapers.com|locationManhattan, Kansas|newspaperThe Manhattan Mercury}}</ref>
Apollo&nbsp;13 was called a "successful failure" by Lovell.{{sfn|Cortright|1975|pp247–249}} Mike Massimino, a Space Shuttle astronaut, stated that Apollo 13 "showed teamwork, camaraderie and what NASA was really made of".<ref name "Yahoo 50th">{{cite news|publisher Yahoo! News|urlhttps://news.yahoo.com/houston-ve-had-problem-remembering-050652323.html|access-dateApril 11, 2020|dateApril 9, 2020|title'Houston, we've had a problem': Remembering Apollo 13 at 50|lastDunn|firstMarcia|agencyAssociated Press}}</ref> The response to the accident has been repeatedly called "NASA's finest hour";<ref name"Walt Disney's Honorary Oscars">{{cite web|firstKim|lastShiflett|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/content/members-of-apollo-13-team-reflect-on-nasas-finest-hour|titleMembers of Apollo 13 Team Reflect on 'NASA's Finest Hour'|dateApril 17, 2015|access-dateJune 16, 2018|publisherNASA|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180924162717/https://www.nasa.gov/content/members-of-apollo-13-team-reflect-on-nasas-finest-hour/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|editor-last1Foerman |editor-first1Paul |editor-last2Thompson |editor-first2Lacy|dateApril 2010|titleApollo 13 – NASA's 'successful failure'|journalLagniappe|volume5|issue4|pages5–7|locationHancock County, Mississippi|publisherJohn C. Stennis Space Center|access-dateJuly 4, 2013|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/pdf/445767main_April_10_Lagniappe.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/stennis/pdf/445767main_April_10_Lagniappe.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.cgpublishing.com/Rpdf/Apollo%20EECOM%20Boeing%20News%201(FL)1.pdf|titleNASA's Finest Hour: Sy Liebergot recalls the race to save Apollo 13|lastSeil|firstBill|dateJuly 5, 2005|workBoeing News Now|publisherBoeing Company |url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120409192033/http://www.cgpublishing.com/Rpdf/Apollo%20EECOM%20Boeing%20News%201(FL)1.pdf|archive-dateApril 9, 2012}}</ref>{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p335}} it is still viewed that way.<ref name "Yahoo 50th" /> Author Colin Burgess wrote, "the life-or-death flight of Apollo&nbsp;13 dramatically evinced the colossal risks inherent in manned spaceflight. Then, with the crew safely back on Earth, public apathy set in once again."{{sfn|Burgess|2019|p=23}}
William R. Compton, in his book about the Apollo Program, said of Apollo&nbsp;13, "Only a heroic effort of real-time improvisation by mission operations teams saved the crew."{{sfn|Compton|1989|pp196–199}} Rick Houston and Milt Heflin, in their history of Mission Control, stated, "Apollo&nbsp;13 proved mission control could bring those space voyagers back home again when their lives were on the line."{{sfn|Houston, Heflin & Aaron|2015|p199}} Former NASA chief historian Roger D. Launius wrote, "More than any other incident in the history of spaceflight, recovery from this accident solidified the world's belief in NASA's capabilities".{{sfn|Launius|2019|p187}} Nevertheless, the accident convinced some officials, such as Manned Spaceflight Center director Gilruth, that if NASA kept sending astronauts on Apollo missions, some would inevitably be killed, and they called for as quick an end as possible to the program.{{sfn|Launius|2019|p187}} Nixon's advisers recommended canceling the remaining lunar missions, saying that a disaster in space would cost him political capital.{{sfn|Chaikin|1995|p336}} Budget cuts made such a decision easier, and during the pause after Apollo&nbsp;13, two missions were canceled, meaning that the program ended with Apollo 17 in December 1972.{{sfn|Launius|2019|p187}}{{sfn|Burgess|2019|pp22–27}} Popular culture, media and 50th anniversary
filming]]
The 1974 movie Houston, We've Got a Problem'', while set around the Apollo&nbsp;13 incident, is a fictional drama about the crises faced by ground personnel when the emergency disrupts their work schedules and places further stress on their lives. Lovell publicly complained about the movie, saying it was "fictitious and in poor taste".<ref nameirks>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/35088956/the_south_bend_tribune/|titleApollo 13 Movie Irks Lovell|agencyAssociated Press|newspaperThe South Bend Tribune|locationSouth Bend, Indiana|dateFebruary 28, 1974|page5|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/04/13/houston-we-have-a-problem-the-amazing-history-of-the-iconic-apollo-13-misquote/|title'Houston, we have a problem': The amazing history of the iconic Apollo 13 misquote|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190521183910/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/04/13/houston-we-have-a-problem-the-amazing-history-of-the-iconic-apollo-13-misquote/|archive-dateMay 21, 2019|url-statuslive|newspaperThe Washington Post|dateApril 13, 2017|last1Rosenwald|first1Michael S.}}</ref>
"Houston{{nbsp}}... We've Got a Problem" was the title of an episode of the BBC documentary series A Life At Stake, broadcast in March 1978. This was an accurate, if simplified, reconstruction of the events.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/35940813/the_observer/|titleThe Week in View|last1Meades|first1Jonathan|newspaperThe Observer|locationLondon, England|dateMarch 26, 1978|page29|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref> In 1994, during the 25th anniversary of Apollo 11, PBS released a 90-minute documentary titled Apollo&nbsp;13: To the Edge and Back.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/35947551/chicago_tribune/|titleWednesday Highlights|departmentTV Week|newspaperChicago Tribune|locationChicago, Illinois|dateJuly 17, 1994|page25|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/35947573/florida_today/|titleSpace Specials at a Glance|newspaperFlorida Today|departmentTV Week|locationCocoa, Florida|dateJuly 17, 1994|page3|via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
Following the flight, the crew planned to write a book, but they all left NASA without starting it. After Lovell retired in 1991, he was approached by journalist Jeffrey Kluger about writing a non-fiction account of the mission. Swigert died in 1982 and Haise was no longer interested in such a project. The resultant book, Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo&nbsp;13, was published in 1994.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/39589313/the_postcrescent_11_december_1994/|titleLovell Describes the Dark Side of Moon Shots|newspaperThe Post-Crescent|locationAppleton, Wisconsin|agencyAssociated Press|last1Dunn|first1Marcia|dateDecember 11, 1994|pageF-8|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref>
The next year, in 1995, a film adaptation of the book, Apollo&nbsp;13, was released, directed by Ron Howard and starring Tom Hanks as Lovell, Bill Paxton as Haise, Kevin Bacon as Swigert, Gary Sinise as Mattingly, Ed Harris as Kranz, and Kathleen Quinlan as Marilyn Lovell. James Lovell, Kranz, and other principals have stated that this film depicted the events of the mission with reasonable accuracy, given that some dramatic license was taken. For example, the film changes the tense of Lovell's famous follow-up to Swigert's original words from, "Houston, we've had a problem" to "Houston, we have a problem".<ref name "journal Houston" /><ref name "nasaMembers" /> The film also invented the phrase "Failure is not an option", uttered by Harris as Kranz in the film; the phrase became so closely associated with Kranz that he used it for the title of his 2000 autobiography.<ref name"nasaMembers">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/content/members-of-apollo-13-team-reflect-on-nasas-finest-hour|titleMembers of Apollo 13 Team Reflect on 'NASA's Finest Hour'|lastGranath|firstBob|dateApril 17, 2015|websiteNASA|access-dateJuly 1, 2019|archive-dateJuly 13, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190713193613/https://www.nasa.gov/content/members-of-apollo-13-team-reflect-on-nasas-finest-hour/|url-statusdead}}</ref> The film won two of the nine Academy Awards it was nominated for, Best Film Editing and Best Sound.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/35088898/the_heraldpalladium/|titleThe Winners|agencyAssociated Press|newspaperThe Herald-Palladium|locationSaint Joseph, Michigan|dateMarch 26, 1996|page4B|viaNewspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/35088927/st_louis_postdispatch/|title'Braveheart', 'Apollo 13' Lead Oscar Nominees|newspaperSt. Louis Post Dispatch|locationSt. Louis, Missouri|dateFebruary 14, 1996|page4A|viaNewspapers.com|last1Barnes|first1Harper}}</ref>
In the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, co-produced by Hanks and Howard, the mission is dramatized in the episode "We Interrupt This Program". Rather than showing the incident from the crew's perspective as in the Apollo&nbsp;13 feature film, it is instead presented from an Earth-bound perspective of television reporters competing for coverage of the event.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/35053645/santa_cruz_sentinel/|titleTom Hanks Flies us to the Moon via HBO|newspaperSanta Cruz Sentinel|locationSanta Cruz, California|dateApril 5, 1998|pageC-6|agencyThe New York Times|viaNewspapers.com|last1Sterngold|first1James}}</ref>
In 2020, the BBC World Service began airing 13 Minutes to the Moon, radio programs which draw on NASA audio from the mission, as well as archival and recent interviews with participants. Episodes began airing for Season 2 starting on March 8, 2020, with episode 1, "Time bomb: Apollo 13", explaining the launch and the explosion. Episode 2 details Mission Control's denial and disbelief of the accident, with other episodes covering other aspects of the mission. The seventh and final episode was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In "Delay to Episode 7", the BBC explained that the presenter of the series, medical doctor Kevin Fong, had been called into service.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w13xttx2/episodes/downloads 13 minutes to the moon, season 2, BBC podcast] accessed April 14, 2020</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p083wp70 |title13 Minutes to the moon|dateMarch 11, 2020 |publisherBBC|access-date=December 28, 2022}}</ref>
In advance of the 50th anniversary of the mission in 2020, an Apollo in Real Time site for the mission went online, allowing viewers to follow along as the mission unfolds, view photographs and video, and listen to audio of conversations between Houston and the astronauts as well as between mission controllers.<ref>{{cite journal|titleRelive the drama of Apollo 13 in real time, as it happened|dateApril 8, 2020|access-dateApril 16, 2020|lastReichhardt|firstTony|urlhttps://www.airspacemag.com/daily-planet/relive-drama-apollo-13-real-time-it-happened-180974625/|publisherSmithsonian Institution|journalAir and Space Magazine}}</ref> Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, NASA did not hold any in-person events during April 2020 for the flight's 50th anniversary, but premiered a new documentary, Apollo 13: Home Safe on April 10, 2020.<ref>{{cite web|titleCelebrate Apollo 13 at 50 with NASA's 'Home Safe' documentary (and much more!)|lastHowell|firstElizabeth|urlhttps://www.space.com/apollo-13-50th-anniversary-webcast-digital-celebrations.html|dateApril 10, 2020|access-dateApril 16, 2020|publisherspace.com}}</ref> A number of events were rescheduled for later in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|titleHouston, we've had a delay: Apollo 13 50th celebrations rescheduled|lastPearlman|firstRobert Z.|urlhttps://www.space.com/apollo13-50th-celebrations-rescheduled.html|dateApril 9, 2020|access-dateApril 16, 2020|publisherspace.com}}</ref>
Gallery
<gallery widths"200" heights"200">
ALSEP Ap13-70-HC-77.jpg|Lovell practices deploying the ALSEP during training
Apollo 13 Saturn V during rollout.jpg|The Apollo 13 launch vehicle being rolled out, December 1969
Apollo 13 Mailbox at Mission Control.jpg|The "mailbox" at Mission Control during the Apollo&nbsp;13 mission
Apollo 13 LM undocking (AS13-59-8566) (cropped).jpg|Lunar Module Aquarius after it was jettisoned above the Earth
Mission Control Celebrates - GPN-2000-001313.jpg|Mission Control celebrates the successful splashdown
Apollo 13 Astronauts on the U.S.S. Iwo Jima - GPN-2002-000054.jpg|The crew on board the USS Iwo Jima following splashdown
Crew on the phone.png|The crew speaking with President Nixon shortly after their return
APOLLO 13 LUNAR PLAQUE replica.jpg|Replica of the lunar plaque with Swigert's name that was to cover the one attached to Aquarius with Mattingly's name
Apollo13-booster-crater.jpg|The crater created by the S-IVB's impact, as photographed by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, 2010</gallery>
Notes
{{NoteFoot}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Sources
* {{cite magazine|titleThe Elusive Human Maximum Altitude Record|last1Adamo|first1Daniel|magazineQuest: The History of Spaceflight Quarterly|volume16|issue4|year2009|issn1065-7738|url=http://www.aiaahouston.org/Horizons/ApolloMaxH.pdf}}
* {{cite book|titleApollo 13 Press Kit|publisherNASA|locationWashington, D.C.|year1970|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a13/A13_PressKit.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a13/A13_PressKit.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|id70-50K|ref{{sfnRef|Apollo 13 Press Kit|1970}}}}
* {{cite book|titleApollo 14 Press Kit|publisherNASA|locationWashington, D.C.|year1971|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/specials/apollo50th/pdf/A14_PressKit.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nasa.gov/specials/apollo50th/pdf/A14_PressKit.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|id71-3K|ref{{sfnRef|Apollo 14 Press Kit|1971}}}}
*{{cite report|urlhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/APSR-JSC-09423-OCR.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/APSR-JSC-09423-OCR.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleApollo Program Summary Report|date1975|publisherNational Aeronautics and Space Administration|idJSC-09423|ref={{sfnRef|Apollo Program Summary Report|1975}}}}
* {{cite book|last1Barell|first1John|titleAntarctic Adventures: Life Lessons from Polar Explorers|year2016|publisherBalboa Press|isbn978-1-5043-6651-9|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyJiaDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT154}}
* {{cite report |urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19790003956.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19790003956.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleMoonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations|first1Charles D.|last1Benson|first2William Barnaby|last2Faherty|year1978|locationWashington, D.C.|seriesNASA History Series|idSP-4204|ref{{sfnRef|Benson & Faherty|1979}}}}
* {{cite book |last1Brooks |first1Courtney G. |last2Grimwood |first2James M. |last3Swenson |first3Loyd S. Jr. |titleChariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4205.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4205.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|seriesNASA History Series |date1979 |publisherScientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |locationWashington, D.C. |isbn978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc4664449 |lccn79001042 |idNASA SP-4205 |ref{{sfnRef|Brooks, Grimwood, & Swenson|1979}}}}
* {{cite book|lastBurgess|firstColin|author-linkColin Burgess (author)|year2019|titleShattered Dreams: The Lost and Canceled Space Missions|publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press|locationLincoln, Nebraska|isbn978-1-4962-1422-5|edition=eBook}}
* {{cite book|lastChaikin|firstAndrew|titleA Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts|locationNew York|publisherPenguin Books|author-linkAndrew Chaikin|year1995|orig-year1994|isbn=978-0-14-024146-4}}
*{{cite book|last1Compton|first1William David|titleWhere No Man has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions|seriesNASA History Series|publisherNASA|idSP-4214|year1989|locationWashington, D.C.|oclc=1045558568}}
* {{cite book|lastCooper|firstHenry S. F. Jr.|author-linkHenry S. F. Cooper Jr.|titleThirteen: The Apollo Mission that Failed|orig-year1972|year2013|publisherOpen Road Integrated Media, Inc.|locationNew York|isbn=978-1-4804-6221-2}}
* {{cite book|lastCortright|firstEdgar M.|author-linkEdgar M. Cortright|titleReport of Apollo 13 Review Board|publisherNASA|dateJune 15, 1970|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/ap13cortright.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230415005711/https://history.nasa.gov/ap13cortright.pdf |archive-date2023-04-15 |url-statuslive|ref={{sfnRef|Accident report}}}}
** {{cite book|titleReport of Apollo 13 Review Board, appendix F–H|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/pdf/a13-review-report-app-f-g-h-19700078913.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap13fj/pdf/a13-review-report-app-f-g-h-19700078913.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|ref{{sfnRef|Accident report, appendix F–H}}}}
* {{cite journal|lastDriscoll|firstEverly|dateApril 4, 1970|titleApollo 13 to the highlands|jstor3954891|journalScience News|volume97|issue14|ref={{sfnRef|Science News 1970-04-04}}
| pages = 353–355
|doi=10.2307/3954891
}}{{subscription required}}
* {{cite book|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a13/A13_MissionOpReport.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a13/A13_MissionOpReport.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|authorFlight Control Division|locationHouston, Texas|titleMission Operations Report|dateApril 1970|publisherNASA Manned Spacecraft Center|ref{{sfnRef|Mission Operations Report 1970}}}}
* {{cite book|lastGatland|firstKenneth|titleManned Spacecraft|publisherMacMillan|editionSecond|year1976|locationNew York|isbn978-0-02-542820-1}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastGlenday |editor-firstCraig |editor-linkCraig Glenday|titleGuinness World Records 2010|year2010|publisherBantam Books|locationNew York|isbn978-0-553-59337-2|url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec00vari/page/13}}
* {{cite book |last1Hacker |first1Barton C. |last2Grimwood |first2James M. |titleOn the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini |urlhttp://history.nasa.gov/SP-4203.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4203.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-dateApril 8, 2018 |seriesNASA History Series |year2010 |orig-year1977 |publisherNASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |locationWashington, DC |isbn978-0-16-067157-9 |idNASA SP-4203 |oclc945144787 |ref={{sfnRef|Hacker & Grimwood|2010}}}}
* {{cite book|lastHarland|firstDavid |author-linkDavid M. Harland|titleExploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions|locationLondon; New York|publisherSpringer|year1999|isbn978-1-85233-099-6}}
* {{cite book|last1Houston|first1Rick|last2Heflin|first2J. Milt|last3Aaron|first3John|author-link2Milt Heflin|author-link3John Aaron|titleGo, Flight!: the Unsung Heroes of Mission Control, 1965–1992|year2015|publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press|editioneBook|locationLincoln, Nebraska|isbn978-0-8032-8494-4|ref={{sfnRef|Houston, Heflin & Aaron|2015}}}}
* {{cite book|titleHouston, We've Got a Problem|publisherNASA Office of Public Affairs|idEP-76|year1970|urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700021741.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700021741.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|locationWashington, D.C.|ref{{sfnRef|NASA 1970}}}}
* {{cite book|year2000|lastKranz|firstGene|titleFailure Is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond|locationNew York|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idslQZ3JOUSKQC&pgPA307|url-accessregistration|publisherSimon & Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-0079-0}}
* {{cite conference|urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20080018689.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20080018689.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleNASA Experience with Pogo in Human Spaceflight Vehicles|conferenceNATO RTO Symposium ATV-152 on Limit-Cycle Oscillations and Other Amplitude-Limited, Self-Excited Vibrations|locationNorway|last1Larsen|first1Curtis E.|websiteNASA Johnson Space Center|dateMay 22, 2008|idRTO-MP-AVT-152}}
* {{cite book|lastLattimer|firstDick|othersForeword by James A. Michener|titleAll We Did Was Fly to the Moon|edition2nd|seriesHistory-alive series|volume1|year1988|orig-year1983|publisherWhispering Eagle Press|locationGainesville, Florida|isbn978-0-9611228-0-5|lccn85222271|url-accessregistration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780961122805}}
* {{cite book|lastLaunius|firstRoger D.|author-linkRoger D. Launius|titleReaching for the Moon: A Short History of the Space Race|publisherYale University Press|locationNew Haven, Connecticut|editioneBook|year2019|isbn=978-0-300-24516-5}}
* {{cite book|lastLovell|firstJames A. |editor-lastCortright |editor-firstEdgar M.|titleApollo Expeditions to the Moon|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/cover.html|year1975|publisherNASA|locationWashington, D.C.|idSP-350|chapterChapter 13: "Houston, We've Had a Problem"|chapter-urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760005868.pdf#page261 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760005868.pdf#page261 |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|ref{{sfnRef|Cortright|1975}}}}
* {{cite book|year2000|orig-year1994|last1Lovell|first1Jim|last2Kluger|first2Jeffrey|titleLost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13|locationBoston|publisherHoughton Mifflin|isbn978-0-618-05665-1|ref={{sfnRef|Lovell & Kluger|2000}}}}
* {{cite book|urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19710003598.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19710003598.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|authorMission Evaluation Team|idMSC-02680|locationHouston, Texas|dateSeptember 1970|publisherNASA Manned Spacecraft Center|titleApollo 13 Mission Report|ref={{sfnRef|Apollo 13 Mission Report 1970}}}}
*{{cite book|last1Morgan|first1Clay|year2001|publisherNASA|locationHouston, Texas|titleShuttle–Mir|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|id=SP-4225}}
* {{cite book|last1Orloff|first1Richard W.|last2Harland|first2David M.|author-link2David M. Harland|titleApollo: The Definitive Sourcebook|year2006|publisherPraxis Publishing Company|locationChichester, UK|isbn978-0-387-30043-6|ref={{sfnRef|Orloff & Harland|2006}}}}
* {{cite book|lastOrloff|firstRichard W.|titleApollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference|seriesNASA History Series|year2000|publisherNASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans|locationWashington, D.C.|isbn978-0-16-050631-4|oclc829406439|lccn00061677|idNASA SP-2000-4029|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|lastPhinney|firstWilliam C.|titleScience Training History of the Apollo Astronauts|publisherNASA|year2015|urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20190026783.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20190026783.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|idSP-2015-626}}
* {{cite book|titleDeke! U.S. Manned Space: From Mercury to the Shuttle|last1Slayton|first1Donald K. "Deke"|author-link1Deke Slayton|last2Cassutt|first2Michael|author-link2Michael Cassutt|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz8vl46GV2JYC&pgPA236|year1994|edition1st|publisherForge|locationNew York|isbn978-0-312-85503-1|ref{{sfnRef|Slayton & Cassutt|1994}}}}
* {{cite book|lastTurnill|firstReginald|year2003|titleThe Moonlandings: An Eyewitness Account|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idou5ofrRh4-kC&pgPA316|publisherCambridge University Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-521-03535-4|author-linkReginald Turnill}}External links
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
NASA reports
* [https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a13/a13trans.html All NASA mission transcripts]
* [https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a13/AS13_TEC.PDF "Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription"] (PDF) NASA, April 1970
Multimedia
*{{Internet Archive short film | apollo13_houston_weve_got_a_problem | Apollo 13: "Houston, We've Got A Problem"}}
{{Apollo program| beforeApollo 12| afterApollo 14}}
{{Lunar landers}}
{{Moon spacecraft}}
{{Orbital launches in 1970}}
{{NASA space program}}
{{Portal bar|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Solar System}}
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Category:Fred Haise
Category:Jim Lovell
Category:Jack Swigert
Category:Apollo program missions
Category:Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Crewed missions to the Moon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.868272
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1773
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Apollo 7
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{{short description|First crewed flight of the Apollo space program}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox spaceflight
| name = Apollo 7
| image = Apollo 7 during the first live television transmission from space.jpg|
| image_caption = Apollo 7 transmitted the first live television broadcast aboard a crewed American spacecraft.
| insignia = Apollo7.png
| mission_type = Crewed Earth orbital CSM flight (C)
| operator NASA<ref name"Orloff">{{cite book |lastOrloff |firstRichard W. |titleApollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |access-dateJuly 6, 2013 |seriesNASA History Series |orig-yearFirst published 2000 |dateSeptember 2004 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |isbn978-0-16-050631-4 |lccn00061677 |idNASA SP-2000-4029 |chapterTable of Contents |chapter-urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00g_Table_of_Contents.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |archive-date=August 23, 2007}}</ref>
| COSPAR_ID 1968-089A (craft), 1968-089B (S-IVB){{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p173}}
| SATCAT 3486<ref>{{cite web|titleApollo 7|access-dateOctober 23, 2020|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1968-089A|publisherNASA}}</ref>
| mission_duration {{time interval|11 October 1968 15:02:45|22 October 1968 11:11:48|showdhms|sep=,}}
| orbits_completed 163<ref>{{cite web|publisherNational Air and Space Museum|access-dateOctober 23, 2020|urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo7.cfm|titleApollo 7 (AS-205)|archive-dateJuly 4, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170704011501/https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo7.cfm|url-statusdead}}</ref>
| spacecraft = Apollo CSM-101
| manufacturer = North American Rockwell
| launch_mass {{convert|36419|lb|kg}}<ref>{{cite web |url https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A07_MissionReport.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A07_MissionReport.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleApollo 7 Mission Report |dateDecember 1, 1968 |publisherNASA |pageA-47 |locationWashington, D.C. | access-date = 2020-12-11}}</ref>
| landing_mass {{convert|11409|lb|kg}}{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p180}}
| launch_date {{start date text|October 11, 1968, 15:02:45|timezoneyes}}{{spaces}}UTC
| launch_rocket = Saturn IB SA-205
| launch_site = Cape Kennedy LC-34
| landing_date {{end date text|October 22, 1968, 11:11:48|timezoneyes}}{{spaces}}UTC
| landing_site North Atlantic Ocean{{break}}{{coord|27|32|N|64|04|W|type:event|nameApollo 7 splashdown}}<ref name "facts">{{cite web|publisherNational Air and Space Museum|access-dateOctober 23, 2020|urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo7-facts.cfm/|title=Apollo 7}}</ref>
| recovery_by = {{USS|Essex|CV-9|6}}
| orbit_epoch October 13, 1968<ref namesatcat>{{cite web |lastMcDowell |firstJonathan |titleSATCAT |urlhttp://planet4589.org/space/log/satcat.txt |publisherJonathan's Space Pages |access-dateMarch 23, 2014}}</ref>
| orbit_reference = Geocentric
| orbit_regime = Low Earth orbit
| orbit_periapsis {{convert|227|km|nmi|spus}}{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p=173}}
| orbit_apoapsis {{convert|301|km|nmi|spus}}{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p=173}}
| orbit_inclination 31.6{{spaces}}degrees{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p173}}
| orbit_period 89.55{{spaces}}minutes{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p173}}
| apsis = gee
| crew_size = 3
| crew_members = {{Unbulleted list
|Walter M. Schirra
|Donn F. Eisele
|R. Walter Cunningham
}}
| crew_callsign = Apollo 7
| crew_photo = The Apollo 7 Prime Crew - GPN-2000-001160.jpg
| crew_photo_caption = Left to right: Eisele, Schirra, Cunningham
| previous_mission = Apollo 6
| next_mission = Apollo 8
| programme = Apollo program
}}
Apollo 7 (October 11–22, 1968) was the first crewed flight in NASA's Apollo program, and saw the resumption of human spaceflight by the agency after the fire that had killed the three Apollo&nbsp;1 astronauts during a launch rehearsal test on January 27, 1967. The Apollo{{spaces}}7 crew was commanded by Walter M. Schirra, with Command Module Pilot Donn F. Eisele and Lunar Module pilot R. Walter Cunningham (so designated even though Apollo{{spaces}}7 did not carry a Lunar Module).
The three astronauts were originally designated for the second crewed Apollo flight, and then as backups for Apollo{{spaces}}1. After the Apollo{{spaces}}1 fire, crewed flights were suspended while the cause of the accident was investigated and improvements made to the spacecraft and safety procedures, and uncrewed test flights made. Determined to prevent a repetition of the fire, the crew spent long periods monitoring the construction of their Apollo command and service modules (CSM). Training continued over much of the {{awrap|21-month}} pause that followed the Apollo{{spaces}}1 disaster.
Apollo 7 was launched on October 11, 1968, from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station, Florida, and splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean eleven days later. Extensive testing of the CSM took place, and also the first live television broadcast from an American spacecraft. Despite tension between the crew and ground controllers, the mission was a complete technical success, giving NASA the confidence to send Apollo&nbsp;8 into orbit around the Moon two months later. In part because of these tensions, none of the crew flew in space again, though Schirra had already announced he would retire from NASA after the flight. Apollo{{spaces}}7 fulfilled Apollo{{spaces}}1's mission of testing the CSM in low Earth orbit, and was a significant step towards NASA's goal of landing astronauts on the Moon.
Background and personnel
{{Spaceflight crew
|terminology Astronaut<ref name"crew">{{cite web |urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo7-crew.cfm |titleApollo 7 Crew |publisherNational Air and Space Museum |access-dateApril 19, 2018 |archive-dateJune 16, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220616203309/https://airandspace.si.edu/learn/highlighted-topics-/apollo |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|position1 = Commander
|crew1_up = Walter M. Schirra
|flights1_up = Third and last
|position2 = Command Module Pilot
|crew2_up = Donn F. Eisele
|flights2_up = Only
|position3 = Lunar Module Pilot{{efn|"Lunar Module Pilot" was the official title used for the third pilot position in Block{{spaces}}II missions, regardless of whether the LM spacecraft was present or not.}}
|crew3_up = R. Walter Cunningham
|flights3_up = Only
}}
Schirra, one of the original "Mercury Seven" astronauts, graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1945. He flew Mercury-Atlas 8 in 1962, the fifth crewed flight of Project Mercury and the third to reach orbit, and in 1965 was the command pilot for Gemini 6A. He was a 45-year-old captain in the Navy at the time of Apollo{{spaces}}7. Eisele graduated from the Naval Academy in 1952 with a B.S. in aeronautics. He elected to be commissioned in the Air Force, and was a 38-year-old major at the time of Apollo{{spaces}}7.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p171}} Cunningham joined the U.S. Navy in 1951, began flight training the following year, and served in a Marine flight squadron from 1953 to 1956, and was a civilian, aged 36, serving in the Marine Corps reserves with a rank of major, at the time of Apollo{{spaces}}7.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p171}}{{sfn|Press Kit|p68}} He received degrees in physics from UCLA, a B.A. in 1960 and an M.A. in 1961. Both Eisele and Cunningham were selected as part of the third group of astronauts in 1963.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p171}}
Eisele was originally slotted for a position on Gus Grissom's Apollo&nbsp;1 crew along with Ed White, but days prior to the official announcement on March 25, 1966, Eisele sustained a shoulder injury that would require surgery. Instead, Roger Chaffee was given the position and Eisele was reassigned to Schirra's crew.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp=689–691}}
Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were first named as an Apollo crew on September 29, 1966. They were to fly a second Earth orbital test of the Apollo Command Module (CM).{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp955–957}} Although delighted as a rookie to be assigned to a prime crew without having served as a backup, Cunningham was troubled by the fact that a second Earth orbital test flight, dubbed Apollo{{spaces}}2, seemed unnecessary if Apollo{{spaces}}1 was successful. He learned later that Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, another of the Mercury Seven who had been grounded for medical reasons and supervised the astronauts, planned, with Schirra's support, to command the mission if he gained medical clearance. When this was not forthcoming, Schirra remained in command of the crew, and in November 1966, Apollo{{spaces}}2 was cancelled and Schirra's crew assigned as backup to Grissom's.{{sfn|Cunningham 2003|pp88–91}} Thomas P. Stafford—assigned at that point as the backup commander of the second orbital test—stated that the cancellation followed Schirra and his crew submitting a list of demands to NASA management (Schirra wanted the mission to include a lunar module and a CM capable of docking with it), and that the assignment as backups left Schirra complaining that Slayton and Chief Astronaut Alan Shepard had destroyed his career.{{sfn|Stafford 2002|pp=552–556}}
On January 27, 1967, Grissom's crew was conducting a launch-pad test for their planned February 21 mission, when a fire broke out in the cabin, killing all three men.{{sfn|Chaikin 1995|pp12–18}} A complete safety review of the Apollo program followed.{{sfn|Scott & Leonov|pp193–195}} Soon after the fire, Slayton asked Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham to fly the first mission after the pause.{{sfn|Cunningham 2003|p113}} Apollo 7 would use the Block{{spaces}}II spacecraft designed for the lunar missions, as opposed to the Block I CSM used for Apollo 1, which was intended only to be used for the early Earth-orbit missions, as it lacked the capability of docking with a lunar module. The CM and astronauts' spacesuits had been extensively redesigned, to reduce any chance of a repeat of the accident which killed the first crew.<ref name"Schirra's Obituary">{{cite news |lastWatkins |firstThomas |dateMay 3, 2007 |titleAstronaut Walter Schirra dies at 84 |urlhttp://www.valleymorningstar.com/news/latest_news/article_b5ab61b9-cbe9-5db5-b76f-8cfd89096919.html |newspaperValley Morning Star |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20131005020013/http://www.valleymorningstar.com/news/latest_news/article_b5ab61b9-cbe9-5db5-b76f-8cfd89096919.html |archive-dateOctober 5, 2013 |agencyAssociated Press |locationHarlingen, Texas |access-dateOctober 4, 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schirra's crew would test the life support, propulsion, guidance and control systems during this "open-ended" mission (meaning it would be extended as it passed each test). The duration was limited to 11 days, reduced from the original 14-day limit for Apollo{{spaces}}1.<ref>{{cite news |lastKarrens |firstEd (Announcer) |year1968 |title1968 Year in Review: 1968 in Space |urlhttp://www.upi.com/Archives/Audio/Events-of-1968/1968-in-Space |workUPI.com |typeRadio transcript |publisherE. W. Scripps |agencyUnited Press International |access-dateJuly 6, 2013}}</ref>
The backup crew consisted of Stafford as commander, John W. Young as command module pilot, and Eugene A. Cernan as lunar module pilot. They became the prime crew of Apollo&nbsp;10.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p568}} Ronald E. Evans, John L. 'Jack' Swigert, and Edward G. Givens were assigned to the support crew for the mission.{{sfn|Burgess & Doolan 2003|pp296–301}} Givens died in a car accident on June 6, 1967, and William R. Pogue was assigned as his replacement. Evans was involved in hardware testing at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). Swigert was the launch capsule communicator (CAPCOM) and worked on the mission's operational aspects. Pogue spent time modifying procedures. The support crew also filled in when the primary and backup crews were unavailable.<ref>{{cite interview|urlhttps://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/PogueWR/WRP_7-17-2000.pdf|interviewerKevin M. Rusnak|dateJuly 17, 2000|locationHouston, Texas|titleOral History Transcript|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190501104039/https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/PogueWR/WRP_7-17-2000.pdf|archive-dateMay 1, 2019|url-statusdead|publisherNASA|page12-15<!-- this is a single page, not a span of pages -->|series=Johnson Space Center Oral History Project}}</ref>
CAPCOMs, the person in Mission Control responsible for communicating with the spacecraft (then always an astronaut) were Evans, Pogue, Stafford, Swigert, Young and Cernan. Flight directors were Glynn Lunney, Gene Kranz and Gerry Griffin.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|pp171–172}}PreparationAccording to Cunningham, Schirra originally had limited interest in making a third spaceflight, beginning to focus on his post-NASA career. Flying the first mission after the fire changed things: "Wally Schirra was being pictured as the man chosen to rescue the manned space program. And that was a task worthy of Wally's interest."{{sfn|Cunningham 2003|pp115–116}} Eisele noted, "coming on the heels of the fire, we knew the fate and future of the entire manned space program—not to mention our own skins—was riding on the success or failure of Apollo{{spaces}}7."{{sfn|Eisele 2017|p=38}}
Given the circumstances of the fire, the crew initially had little confidence in the staff at North American Aviation's plant at Downey, California, who built the Apollo command modules, and they were determined to follow their craft every step of the way through construction and testing. This interfered with training, but the simulators of the CM were not yet ready, and they knew it would be a long time until they launched. They spent long periods at Downey. Simulators were constructed at Houston's Manned Spacecraft Center and at KSC in Florida. Once these were available for use, the crew had difficulty finding enough time to do everything, even with the help of the backup and support crews; the crew often worked 12 or 14 hours per day. After the CM was completed and shipped to KSC, the focus of the crew's training shifted to Florida, though they went to Houston for planning and technical meetings. Rather than return to their Houston homes for the weekend, they often had to remain at KSC in order to participate in training or spacecraft testing.{{sfn|Eisele 2017|pp35–39}} According to former astronaut Tom Jones in a 2018 article, Schirra, "with indisputable evidence of the risks his crew would be taking, now had immense leverage with management at NASA and North American, and he used it. In conference rooms or on the spacecraft assembly line, Schirra got his way."<ref name "fight" />
The Apollo 7 crew spent five hours in training for every hour they could expect to remain aboard if the mission went its full eleven days. In addition, they attended technical briefings and pilots' meetings, and studied on their own. They undertook launch pad evacuation training, water egress training to exit the vehicle after splashdown, and learned to use firefighting equipment. They trained on the Apollo Guidance Computer at MIT. Each crew member spent 160 hours in CM simulations, in some of which Mission Control in Houston participated live.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp55–57}} The "plugs out" test—the test that had killed the Apollo{{spaces}}1 crew—was conducted with the prime crew in the spacecraft, but with the hatch open.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp37, 41}} One reason the Apollo{{spaces}}1 crew had died was because it was impossible to open the inward-opening hatch before the fire raced through the cabin; this was changed for Apollo{{spaces}}7.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|pp=110–115}}
Command modules similar to that used on Apollo{{spaces}}7 were subjected to tests in the run-up to the mission. A three-astronaut crew (Joseph P. Kerwin, Vance D. Brand and Joe H. Engle) was inside a CM that was placed in a vacuum chamber at the Manned Spaceflight Center in Houston for eight days in June 1968 to test spacecraft systems. Another crew (James Lovell, Stuart Roosa and Charles M. Duke) spent 48 hours at sea aboard a CM lowered into the Gulf of Mexico from a naval vessel in April 1968, to test how systems would respond to seawater. Further tests were conducted the following month in a tank at Houston. Fires were set aboard a boilerplate CM using various atmospheric compositions and pressures. The results led to the decision to use 60 percent oxygen and 40 percent nitrogen within the CM at launch, which would be replaced with a lower pressure of pure oxygen within four hours, as providing adequate fire protection. Other boilerplate spacecraft were subjected to drops to test parachutes, and to simulate the likely damage if a CM came down on land. All results were satisfactory.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp=70–75}}
During the run-up to the mission, the Soviets sent uncrewed probes Zond&nbsp;4 and Zond&nbsp;5 (Zond 5 carried two tortoises<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2018/09/18/zond-5-soviet-tortises-around-the-moon/|titleThe First Earthlings Around the Moon Were Two Soviet Tortoises|lastBetz|firstEric|date18 September 2018|workDiscover|access-date14 July 2019|archive-dateSeptember 28, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190928192410/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2018/09/18/zond-5-soviet-tortises-around-the-moon/|url-statusdead}}</ref>) around the Moon, seeming to foreshadow a circumlunar crewed mission. NASA's Lunar Module (LM) was suffering delays, and Apollo Program Spacecraft Manager George Low proposed that if Apollo{{spaces}}7 was a success, that Apollo&nbsp;8 go to lunar orbit without a LM. The acceptance of Low's proposal raised the stakes for Apollo{{spaces}}7.<ref name "fight" />{{sfn|Chaikin 1995|p76}} According to Stafford, Schirra "clearly felt the full weight of the program riding on a successful mission and as a result became more openly critical and more sarcastic."{{sfn|Stafford 2002|p=616}}
Throughout the Mercury and Gemini programs, McDonnell Aircraft engineer Guenter Wendt led the spacecraft launch pad teams, with ultimate responsibility for condition of the spacecraft at launch. He earned the astronauts' respect and admiration, including Schirra's.<ref name"Guenter Wendt Obit">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.collectspace.com/news/news-050310a.html |titleGuenter Wendt, 86, 'Pad Leader' for NASA's moon missions, dies |lastPearlman |firstRobert Z. |author-linkRobert Pearlman |dateMay 3, 2010 |websitecollectSPACE |publisherRobert Pearlman |access-dateJune 12, 2014}}</ref> However, the spacecraft contractor had changed from McDonnell (Mercury and Gemini) to North American (Apollo), so Wendt was not the pad leader for Apollo{{spaces}}1.<ref name"FirstOnTheMoon">Farmer & Hamblin 1970, pp. 51–54</ref> So adamant was Schirra in his desire to have Wendt back as pad leader for his Apollo flight, that he got his boss Slayton to persuade North American management to hire Wendt away from McDonnell, and Schirra personally lobbied North American's launch operations manager to change Wendt's shift from midnight to day so he could be pad leader for Apollo{{spaces}}7. Wendt remained as pad leader for the entire Apollo program.<ref name"FirstOnTheMoon" /> When he departed the spacecraft area as the pad was evacuated prior to launch, after Cunningham said, "I think Guenter's going", Eisele responded "Yes, I think Guenter went."{{efn|A pun on his last name, Wendt (pronounced "went")}}<ref name "launch">{{cite web|workApollo 7 Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap07fj/a7_01_launch_ascent.html|titleDay 1, part 1: Launch and ascent to Earth orbit|dateApril 2, 2018|access-dateOctober 12, 2020}}</ref><ref name "separation">{{cite web|workApollo 7 Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap07fj/a7_03_s-ivb-safing.html|titleDay 1, part 3: S-IVB takeover demonstration, separation, and first phasing maneuver|dateApril 2, 2018|access-dateOctober 12, 2020}}</ref>{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|p913}}{{sfn|Schirra 1988|p200}}
Hardware
Spacecraft
The Apollo 7 spacecraft included Command and Service Module 101 (CSM-101), the first Block{{spaces}}II CSM to be flown. The Block{{spaces}}II craft had the capability of docking with a LM,{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p172}} though none was flown on Apollo{{spaces}}7. The spacecraft also included the launch escape system and a spacecraft-lunar module adapter (SLA, numbered as SLA-5), though the latter included no LM and instead provided a mating structure between the SM and the S-IVB's Instrument Unit,{{sfn|Press Kit|pp25–26}}<ref name "hardware">{{cite web|titleApollo/Skylab ASTP and Shuttle Orbiter Major End Items|dateMarch 1978|urlhttps://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/6473665/Apollo-Skylab-ASTP-and-Shuttle-Orbiter-Major-End.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/6473665/Apollo-Skylab-ASTP-and-Shuttle-Orbiter-Major-End.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|publisherNASA|page5}}</ref> with a structural stiffener substituted for the LM.{{sfn|Mission Report|pA-43}} The launch escape system was jettisoned after S-IVB ignition,{{sfn|Mission Report|pA-41}} while the SLA was left behind on the spent S-IVB when the CSM separated from it in orbit.{{sfn|Mission Report|pA-43}}
Following the Apollo 1 fire, the Block{{spaces}}II CSM was extensively redesigned—more than 1,800 changes were recommended, of which 1,300 were implemented for Apollo{{spaces}}7.<ref name "launch" /> Prominent among these was the new aluminum and fiberglass outward-opening hatch, which the crew could open in seven seconds from within, and the pad crew in ten seconds from outside. Other changes included replacement of aluminum tubing in the high-pressure oxygen system with stainless steel, replacement of flammable materials with non-flammable (including changing plastic switches for metal ones) and, for crew protection in the event of a fire, an emergency oxygen system to shield them from toxic fumes, as well as firefighting equipment.{{sfn|Press Kit|p29}}
After the Gemini 3 craft was dubbed Molly Brown by Grissom, NASA forbade naming spacecraft.{{sfn|Shepard, Slayton, & Barbree 1994|pp227–228}} Despite this prohibition, Schirra wanted to name his ship "Phoenix," but NASA refused him permission.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p172}} The first CM to be given a call sign other than the mission designation would be that of Apollo 9, which carried a LM that would separate from it and then re-dock, necessitating distinct call signs for the two vehicles.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|p340}}Launch vehicleSince it flew in low Earth orbit and did not include a LM, Apollo{{spaces}}7 was launched with the Saturn IB booster rather than the much larger and more powerful Saturn V.<ref name"Saturn IB history">{{cite magazine |lastPortree |firstDavid S. F. |dateSeptember 16, 2013 |titleA Forgotten Rocket: The Saturn IB |urlhttps://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2013/09/a-forgotten-rocket-the-saturn-ib/ |magazineWired |locationNew York |access-dateOctober 4, 2013}}</ref> That Saturn IB was designated SA-205,{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p172}} and was the fifth Saturn IB to be flown—the earlier ones did not carry crews into space. It differed from its predecessors in that stronger propellant lines to the augmented spark igniter in the J-2 engines had been installed, so as to prevent a repetition of the early shutdown that had occurred on the uncrewed Apollo&nbsp;6 flight; postflight analysis had shown that the propellant lines to the J-2 engines, also used in the Saturn V tested on Apollo{{spaces}}6, had leaked.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp3, 33}}
The Saturn IB was a two-stage rocket, with the second stage an S-IVB similar to the third stage of the Saturn V,{{sfn|Press Kit|p31}} the rocket used by all later Apollo missions.<ref name"Saturn IB history" /> The Saturn IB was used after the close of the Apollo Program to bring crews in Apollo CSMs to Skylab, and for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project.<ref>{{cite web|publisherEd Kyle|titleSaturn 1B|urlhttp://www.spacelaunchreport.com/satstg2.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101010043820/http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/satstg2.html|url-statususurped|archive-dateOctober 10, 2010|access-dateOctober 14, 2020|workSpace Launch Report|date=December 6, 2012}}</ref>
Apollo 7 was the only crewed Apollo mission to launch from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station's Launch Complex 34. All subsequent Apollo and Skylab spacecraft flights (including Apollo–Soyuz) were launched from Launch Complex 39 at the nearby Kennedy Space Center.<ref name"Saturn IB history" /> Launch Complex 34 was declared redundant and decommissioned in 1969, making Apollo{{spaces}}7 the last human spaceflight mission to launch from the Cape Air Force Station in the 20th century.<ref name"Saturn IB history" />
Mission highlights
The main purposes of the Apollo{{spaces}}7 flight were to show that the Block II CM would be habitable and reliable over the length of time required for a lunar mission, to show that the service propulsion system (SPS, the spacecraft's main engine) and the CM's guidance systems could perform a rendezvous in orbit, and later make a precision reentry and splashdown.<ref name "fight" /> In addition, there were a number of specific objectives, including evaluating the communications systems and the accuracy of onboard systems such as the propellant tank gauges. Many of the activities aimed at gathering these data were scheduled for early in the mission, so that if the mission was terminated prematurely, they would already have been completed, allowing for fixes to be made prior to the next Apollo flight.{{sfn|Press Kit|p6}}
Launch and testing
Apollo 7, the first crewed American space flight in 22 months, launched from Launch Complex 34 at 11:02:45{{spaces}}am EDT (15:02:45{{spaces}}UTC) on Friday, October 11, 1968.<ref name "launch" /><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo7.html |titleApollo 7 |publisherNASA |firstJeanne |lastRyba |dateJuly 8, 2009 |access-dateMay 27, 2017}}</ref>
During the countdown, the wind was blowing in from the east. Launching under these weather conditions was in violation of safety rules, since in the event of a launch vehicle malfunction and abort, the CM might be blown back over land instead of making the usual water landing. Apollo{{spaces}}7 was equipped with the old Apollo{{spaces}}1-style crew couches, which provided less protection than later ones. Schirra later related that he felt the launch should have been scrubbed, but managers waived the rule and he yielded under pressure.<ref name "fight">{{cite journal |urlhttps://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/02_on2018-forgotten-apollo-7-mission-180970365/ |access-dateOctober 14, 2020|titleThe Flight (and Fights) of Apollo 7 |journalAir & Space Magazine |firstTom |lastJones |dateOctober 2018}}</ref>
Liftoff proceeded flawlessly; the Saturn IB performed well on its first crewed launch and there were no significant anomalies during the boost phase. The astronauts described it as very smooth.<ref name "launch" /><ref name "orbit">{{cite web|workApollo 7 Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap07fj/a7_02_s-ivb-ops.html|titleDay 1, part 2: CSM/S-IVB orbital operations|dateApril 2, 2018|access-dateOctober 15, 2020}}</ref> The ascent made the 45-year-old Schirra the oldest person to that point to enter space,<ref name nyt1012 /> and, as it proved, the only astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini and Apollo missions.<ref name="Schirra's Obituary" />
Within the first three hours of flight, the astronauts performed two actions which simulated what would be required on a lunar mission. First, they maneuvered the craft with the S-IVB still attached, as would be required for the burn that would take lunar missions to the Moon. Then, after separation from the S-IVB, Schirra turned the CSM around and approached a docking target painted on the S-IVB, simulating the docking maneuver with the lunar module on Moon-bound missions prior to extracting the combined craft.<ref name nyt1012 /> Cunningham reported that the hinged SLA panels on the S-IVB had not fully opened, which CAPCOM Tom Stafford likened to the "angry alligator" from his Gemini 9A flight.<ref name"Astronautix">[http://www.astronautix.com/a/apollo7.html "Apollo 7"] at Encyclopedia Astronautica</ref> Partially open panels would have presented a collision hazard on flights with an LM, so on subsequent missions the SLA panels were jettisoned after the CSM had separated.<ref name="Astronautix"/>
After station keeping with the S-IVB for 20 minutes, Schirra let it drift away, putting {{convert|76|mi}} between the CSM and it in preparation for the following day's rendezvous attempt.<ref name="fight"/>
The astronauts also enjoyed a hot lunch, the first hot meal prepared on an American spacecraft.<ref name nyt1012>{{cite news|lastWilford|firstJohn Noble|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1968/10/12/76935378.html|pages1, 20|title3 on Apollo 7 circling Earth in 11-day test for moon trip|newspaperThe New York Times|dateOctober 12, 1968}}</ref> Schirra had brought instant coffee along over the opposition of NASA doctors, who argued it added nothing nutritionally.{{sfn|Schirra 1988|pp192–193}} Five hours after launch, he reported having, and enjoying, his first plastic bag full of coffee.<ref name "coffee">{{cite web|workApollo 7 Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap07fj/a7_04_day1.html|titleDay 1, part 4: Remainder (preliminary)|dateApril 2, 2018|access-date=October 17, 2020}}</ref>
The purpose of the rendezvous was to demonstrate the CSM's ability to match orbits with and rescue a LM after an aborted lunar landing attempt, or following liftoff from the lunar surface.{{sfn|Press Kit|p14}} This was to occur on the second day; but by the end of the first, Schirra had reported he had a cold, and, despite Slayton coming on the loop to argue in favor, declined Mission Control's request that the crew power up and test the onboard television camera prior to the rendezvous, citing the cold, that the crew had not eaten, and that there was already a very full schedule.<ref name"fight"/>
The rendezvous was complicated by the fact that the Apollo{{spaces}}7 spacecraft lacked a rendezvous radar, something the Moon-bound missions would have. The SPS, the engine that would be needed to send later Apollo CSMs into and out of lunar orbit, had been fired only on a test stand. Although the astronauts were confident it would work, they were concerned it might fire in an unexpected manner, necessitating an early end to the mission. The burns would be computed from the ground but the final work in maneuvering up to the S-IVB would require Eisele to use the telescope and sextant to compute the final burns, with Schirra applying the ship's reaction control system (RCS) thrusters. Eisele was startled by the violent jolt caused by activating the SPS. The thrust caused Schirra to yell, "Yabba dabba doo!" in reference to The Flintstones cartoon. Schirra eased the craft close to the S-IVB, which was tumbling out of control, successfully completing the rendezvous.<ref name"fight" />{{sfn|Eisele 2017|pp63–68}}
The first television broadcast took place on October 14. It began with a view of a card reading "From the Lovely Apollo Room high atop everything", recalling tag lines used by band leaders on 1930s radio broadcasts. Cunningham served as camera operator with Eisele as emcee. During the seven-minute broadcast, the crew showed off the spacecraft and gave the audience views of the southern United States. Before the close, Schirra held another sign, "Keep those cards and letters coming in folks", another old-time radio tag line that had been used recently by Dean Martin.<ref name nyt1015>{{cite news|lastWilford|firstJohn Noble|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1968/10/15/archives/orbiting-apollo-craft-transmits-tv-show-u-s-audience-gets-a-view-of.html|pages1, 44|titleOrbiting Apollo craft transmits TV show|newspaperThe New York Times|dateOctober 15, 1968}}</ref> This was the first live television broadcast from an American spacecraft (Gordon Cooper had transmitted slow-scan television pictures from Faith{{spaces}}7 in 1963, but the pictures were of poor quality and were never broadcast).<ref name"Apollo video camera">Steven-Boniecki 2010, pp. 55–58</ref> According to Jones, "these apparently amiable astronauts delivered to NASA a solid public relations coup."<ref name "fight" /> Daily television broadcasts of about 10 minutes each followed, during which the crew held up more signs and educated their audience about spaceflight; after the return to Earth, they were awarded a special Emmy for the telecasts.<ref name "Eisele obit">{{cite news|lastMcQuiston|firstJohn T.|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1987/12/03/744687.html|page58|titleDonn F. Eisele, 57: One of 3 crewmen On Apollo 7 mission|newspaperThe New York Times|dateDecember 3, 1987}}</ref>
Later on October 14, the craft's onboard radar receiver was able to lock onto a ground-based transmitter, again showing a CSM in lunar orbit could keep contact with a LM returning from the Moon's surface.<ref name nyt1015 /> Throughout the remainder of the mission, the crew continued to run tests on the CSM, including of the propulsion, navigation, environmental, electrical and thermal control systems. All checked out well; according to authors Francis French and Colin Burgess, "The redesigned Apollo spacecraft was better than anyone had dared to hope."{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1011–1012}} Eisele found that navigation was not as easy as anticipated; he found it difficult to use Earth's horizon in sighting stars due to the fuzziness of the atmosphere, and water dumps made it difficult to discern which glistening points were stars and which ice particles.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1012–1014}} By the end of the mission, the SPS engine had been fired eight times without any problems.<ref name "fight" />
One difficulty that was encountered was with the sleep schedule, which called for one crew member to remain awake at all times; Eisele was to remain awake while the others slept, and sleep during part of the time the others were awake. This did not work well, as it was hard for crew members to work without making a disturbance. Cunningham later remembered waking up to find Eisele dozing.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1015–1018}}Conflict and splashdownSchirra was angered by NASA managers allowing the launch to proceed despite the winds, saying "The mission pushed us to the wall in terms of risk."{{sfn|Schirra 1988|p200}} Jones said, "This prelaunch dispute was the prelude to a tug of war over command decisions for the rest of the mission."<ref name "fight" /> Lack of sleep and Schirra's cold probably contributed to the conflict between the astronauts and Mission Control that surfaced from time to time during the flight.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1021–1022}}
helicopter]]
The testing of the television resulted in a disagreement between the crew and Houston. Schirra stated at the time, "You've added two burns to this flight schedule, and you've added a urine water dump; and we have a new vehicle up here, and I can tell you at this point, TV will be delayed without any further discussion until after the rendezvous."<ref name "fight" /> Schirra later wrote, "we'd resist anything that interfered with our main mission objectives. On this particular Saturday morning a TV program clearly interfered."{{sfn|Schirra 1988|p202}} Eisele agreed in his memoirs, "We were preoccupied with preparations for that critical exercise and didn't want to divert our attention with what seemed to be trivialities at the time.{{spaces}}... Evidently the earth people felt differently; there was a real stink about the hotheaded, recalcitrant Apollo{{spaces}}7 crew who wouldn't take orders."{{sfn|Eisele 2017|pp71–72}} French and Burgess wrote, "When this point is considered objectively—that in a front-loaded mission the rendezvous, alignment, and engine tests should be done before television shows—it is hard to argue with him [Schirra]."{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|p1026}} Although Slayton gave in to Schirra, the commander's attitude surprised flight controllers.<ref name = "fight" />
]]
On Day 8, after being asked to follow a new procedure passed up from the ground that caused the computer to freeze, Eisele radioed, "We didn't get the results that you were after. We didn't get a damn thing, in fact{{spaces}}... you bet your ass{{spaces}}... as far as we're concerned, somebody down there screwed up royally when he laid that one on us."{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|p1032}} Schirra later stated his belief that this was the one main occasion when Eisele upset Mission Control.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|p1032}} The next day saw more conflict, with Schirra telling Mission Control after having to make repeated firings of the RCS system to keep the spacecraft stable during a test, "I wish you would find out the idiot's name who thought up this test. I want to find out, and I want to talk to him personally when I get back down."<ref name"fight"/> Eisele joined in, "While you are at it, find out who dreamed up 'P22 horizon test'; that is a beauty also."{{efn|"P22" refers to Program 22 of the Apollo Guidance Computer, a means of getting a navigational fix on the spacecraft. Earlier in the day Eisele had been asked to perform "P22 horizon sightings," to which he initially replied, "What in the world is a P22 horizon sighting?"<ref>{{cite web|workApollo 7 Flight Journal|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap07fj/a7_12_day9.html|titleDay 9 (preliminary)|dateJune 14, 2019|access-dateNovember 27, 2020}}</ref>}}<ref name="fight"/>
A further source of tension between Mission Control and the crew was that Schirra repeatedly expressed the view that the reentry should be conducted with their helmets off. He perceived a risk that their eardrums might burst due to the sinus pressure from their colds, and they wanted to be able to pinch their noses and blow to equalize the pressure as it increased during reentry. This would have been impossible wearing the helmets. Over several days, Schirra refused advice from the ground that the helmets should be worn, stating it was his prerogative as commander to decide this, though Slayton warned him he would have to answer for it after the flight. Schirra stated in 1994, "In this case I had a cold, and I'd had enough discussion with the ground, and I didn't have much more time to talk about whether we would put the helmet on or off. I said, essentially, I'm on board, I'm commanding. They could wear all the black armbands they wanted if I was lost or if I lost my hearing. But I had the responsibility for getting through the mission."<ref name"fight"/> No helmets were worn during the entry. Director of Flight Operations Christopher C. Kraft demanded an explanation for what he believed was Schirra's insubordination from the CAPCOM, Stafford. Kraft later said, "Schirra was exercising his commander’s right to have the last word, and that was that."<ref name "fight" />
Apollo 7 splashed down without incident at 11:11:48 UTC on October 22, 1968, {{convert|200|nmi|mi km}} SSW of Bermuda and {{convert|7|nmi|mi km|0|adjri0}} north of the recovery ship USS Essex. The mission's duration was 10{{spaces}}days, 20{{spaces}}hours, 9{{spaces}}minutes and 3{{spaces}}seconds.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland 2006|p180}}<ref name "fight" />Assessment and aftermath
and Charles Lindbergh]]
After the mission, NASA awarded Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham its Exceptional Service Medal in recognition of their success. On November 2, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson held a ceremony at the LBJ Ranch in Johnson City, Texas, to present the astronauts with the medals. He also presented NASA's highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, to recently retired NASA administrator James E. Webb, for his "outstanding leadership of America's space program" since the beginning of Apollo.<ref>{{cite speech|urlhttps://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/236803|titleRemarks at a Ceremony Honoring the Apollo 7 Astronauts and Former NASA Administrator James E. Webb|eventReception at LBJ Ranch, Johnson City, Texas |publisherThe American Presidency Project|firstLyndon B.|lastJohnson|author-linkLyndon B. Johnson|dateNovember 2, 1968}}</ref> Johnson also invited the crew to the White House, and they went there in December 1968.<ref name = "acc" />
Despite the difficulties between the crew and Mission Control, the mission successfully met its objectives to verify the Apollo command and service module's flightworthiness, allowing Apollo{{spaces}}8's flight to the Moon to proceed just two months later.<ref name"Apollo Crew Honored 2008">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.collectspace.com/news/news-102008a.html |titleFirst Apollo flight crew last to be honored |lastPearlman |firstRobert Z. |dateOctober 20, 2008 |websitecollectSPACE |publisherRobert Pearlman |access-dateJune 12, 2014}}</ref> John T. McQuiston wrote in The New York Times after Eisele's death in 1987 that Apollo{{spaces}}7's success brought renewed confidence to NASA's space program.<ref name "Eisele obit" /> According to Jones, "Three weeks after the Apollo{{spaces}}7 crew returned, NASA administrator Thomas Paine green-lighted Apollo{{spaces}}8 to launch in late December and orbit the Moon. Apollo{{spaces}}7 had delivered NASA from its trial by fire—it was the first small step down a path that would lead another crew, nine months later, to the Sea of Tranquility."<ref name = "fight" />
General Sam Phillips, the Apollo Program Manager, said at the time, "Apollo{{spaces}}7 goes into my book as a perfect mission. We accomplished 101 percent of our objectives."<ref name "fight" /> Kraft wrote, "Schirra and his crew did it all—or at least all of it that counted{{spaces}}... [T]hey proved to everyone's satisfaction that the SPS engine was one of the most reliable we'd ever sent into space. They operated the Command and Service Modules with true professionalism."<ref name "fight" /> Eisele wrote, "We were insolent, high-handed, and Machiavellian at times. Call it paranoia, call it smart—it got the job done. We had a great flight."<ref name = "fight" />
Kranz stated in 1998, "we all look back now with a longer perspective. Schirra really wasn't on us as bad as it seemed at the time.{{spaces}}... Bottom line was, even with a grumpy commander, we got the job done as a team."{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp=1073–1074}}
None of the Apollo 7 crew members flew in space again.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1077–1078}} According to Jim Lovell, "Apollo{{spaces}}7 was a very successful flight—they did an excellent job—but it was a very contentious flight. They all teed off the ground people quite considerably, and I think that kind of put a stop on future flights [for them]."{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1077–1078}} Schirra had announced, before the flight,<ref namehboldst>{{cite news |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idIa1VAAAAIBAJ&sjidBOEDAAAAIBAJ&pg6602%2C4771765 |workEugene Register-Guard |location(Oregon) |agencyAssociated Press |lastBenedict |firstHoward |titleOldest U.S. astronaut eyes retirement |dateSeptember 22, 1968 |page8A}}</ref> his retirement from NASA and the Navy, effective July 1, 1969.{{sfn|Schirra 1988|p189}} The other two crew members had their spaceflight careers stunted by their involvement in Apollo{{spaces}}7; by some accounts, Kraft told Slayton he was unwilling to work in future with any member of the crew.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1074–1075}} Cunningham heard the rumors that Kraft had said this and confronted him in early 1969; Kraft denied making the statement "but his reaction wasn't exactly outraged innocence."{{sfn|Cunningham 2003|p183}} Eisele's career may also have been affected by becoming the first active astronaut to divorce, followed by a quick remarriage, and an indifferent performance as backup CMP for Apollo{{spaces}}10.{{sfn|Cunningham 2003|pp217–220}} He resigned from the Astronaut Office in 1970 though he remained with NASA at the Langley Research Center in Virginia until 1972, when he was eligible for retirement.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1116–1121}}{{sfn|Eisele 2017|pp121–122}} Cunningham was made the leader of the Astronaut Office's Skylab division. He related that he was informally offered command of the first Skylab crew, but when this instead went to Apollo&nbsp;12 commander Pete Conrad, with Cunningham offered the position of backup commander, he resigned as an astronaut in 1971.{{sfn|French & Burgess 2007|pp1079–1082}}{{sfn|Cunningham 2003|p=291}}
Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were the only crew, of all the Apollo, Skylab and Apollo–Soyuz missions, who had not been awarded the Distinguished Service Medal immediately following their missions (though Schirra had received the medal twice before, for his Mercury and Gemini missions). Therefore, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin decided to belatedly award the medals to the crew in October 2008, "[f]or exemplary performance in meeting all the Apollo{{spaces}}7 mission objectives and more on the first crewed Apollo mission, paving the way for the first flight to the Moon on Apollo{{spaces}}8 and the first crewed lunar landing on Apollo{{spaces}}11." Only Cunningham was still alive at the time as Eisele had died in 1987 and Schirra in 2007.<ref name"Schirra's Obituary" /><ref name"Apollo Crew Honored 2008" /> Eisele's widow accepted his medal, and Apollo&nbsp;8 crew member Bill Anders accepted Schirra's. Other Apollo astronauts, including Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Alan Bean, were present at the award ceremony. Kraft, who had been in conflict with the crew during the mission, sent a conciliatory video message of congratulations, saying: "We gave you a hard time once but you certainly survived that and have done extremely well since{{spaces}}... I am frankly, very proud to call you a friend."<ref name"Apollo Crew Honored 2008" />Mission insignia
]]
The insignia for the flight shows a command and service module with its SPS engine firing, the trail from that fire encircling a globe and extending past the edges of the patch symbolizing the Earth-orbital nature of the mission. The Roman numeral{{spaces}}VII appears in the South Pacific Ocean and the crew's names appear on a wide black arc at the bottom.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/36239742/the_humboldt_republican/|titleDesigned Insignia for Astronauts|newspaperThe Humboldt Republican|locationHumboldt, Iowa|viaNewspapers.com|page12|dateNovember 6, 1968}}</ref> The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.collectspace.com/news/news-052008a.html |titleThe man behind the Moon mission patches |lastHengeveld |firstEd |dateMay 20, 2008 |websitecollectSPACE |publisherRobert Pearlman |access-dateJuly 6, 2013}} "A version of this article was published concurrently in the British Interplanetary Society's Spaceflight magazine." (June 2008; pp. 220–225).</ref>Spacecraft locationIn January 1969, the Apollo{{spaces}}7 command module was displayed on the NASA float in the inauguration parade of President Richard M. Nixon. The Apollo{{spaces}}7 astronauts rode in an open car. After being transferred to the Smithsonian Institution in 1970, the spacecraft was loaned to the National Museum of Science and Technology, in Ottawa, Ontario. It was returned to the United States in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.collectspace.com/news/news-011909a.html|titleForty years of astronauts, moon craft in the Presidential Inaugural Parade|dateJanuary 19, 2009|websitecollectSPACE|publisherRobert Pearlman|access-dateOctober 21, 2020}}</ref> Currently, the Apollo{{spaces}}7 CM is on loan to the Frontiers of Flight Museum at Love Field in Dallas, Texas.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/spacecraft/location/cm.cfm|titleLocation of Apollo Command Modules|publisherNational Air and Space Museum|access-dateAugust 27, 2019|archive-dateJune 1, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210601052353/https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/spacecraft/location/cm.cfm|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Depiction in media
, Bob Hope, Eisele, Cunningham, Schirra, and "voice of Mission Control" Paul Haney,<ref>[https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/PaulHaney.html Paul Haney]. hq.nasa.gov.</ref> on The Bob Hope Show.]]
On November 6, 1968, comedian Bob Hope broadcast one of his variety television specials from NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston to honor the Apollo{{spaces}}7 crew. Barbara Eden, star of the popular comedy series I Dream of Jeannie, which featured fictional astronauts among its regular characters, appeared with Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham.<ref name "acc">{{cite web|publisherNASA|access-dateOctober 21, 2020|dateDecember 11, 2018|title50 years ago, accolades for Apollo 7 astronauts|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-accolades-for-apollo-7-astronauts}}</ref>
Schirra parlayed the head cold he contracted during Apollo{{spaces}}7 into a television advertising contract as a spokesman for Actifed, an over-the-counter version of the medicine he took in space.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/40thmerc7/schirra.htm |title40th Anniversary of Mercury 7: Walter Marty Schirra Jr. |publisherNASA|access-dateOctober 21, 2020}}</ref>
The Apollo 7 mission is dramatized in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode "We Have Cleared the Tower", with Mark Harmon as Schirra, John Mese as Eisele, Fredric Lehne as Cunningham and Nick Searcy as Slayton.<ref>{{cite web|publisherVerizon|urlhttps://tv.verizon.com/watch/tv/from-the-earth-to-the-moon/S1E03/we-have-cleared-the-tower/HVDD0000000001317354/|titleFrom the Earth to the Moon|access-dateOctober 21, 2020}}</ref>
{{clear}}
Gallery
<gallery class"" widths"180" heights"160" mode"packed">
File:Apollo 7 photographed in flight by ALOTS (68-HC-641).jpg|Apollo 7 in flight
File:Saturn IB Second Stage with open LM adapter.jpg|Distant view of the S-IVB stage
File:AS07-11-2000 (21355660044).jpg|View of the Sinai Peninsula from Apollo 7
File:Apollo 7 Command Module Museum.jpg|The Apollo 7 command module on display
</gallery>
See also
* List of Apollo missions
* Timeline of longest spaceflights
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
Bibliography
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|titleApollo 7 Mission Report|publisherNASA|locationHouston, Texas|year1968|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap07fj/pdf/a07-mission-report.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap07fj/pdf/a07-mission-report.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|ref={{sfnRef|Mission Report}}}}
* {{cite book|titleApollo 7 Press Kit|publisherNASA|locationWashington, D.C.|year1968|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A07_PressKit.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A07_PressKit.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|id68-168K|ref{{sfnRef|Press Kit}}}}
* {{cite book|last1Burgess|first1Colin|author-linkColin Burgess (author)|last2Doolan|first2Kate|titleFallen Astronauts: Heroes Who Died Reaching for the Moon|isbn978-0-8032-6212-6|publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press|year2003|ref{{sfnRef|Burgess & Doolan 2003}}}}
* {{cite book|lastChaikin|firstAndrew|titleA Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts|publisherPenguin Books|author-linkAndrew Chaikin|year1995|orig-year1994|isbn978-0-14-024146-4|ref={{sfnRef|Chaikin 1995}}}}
* {{cite book|lastCunningham|firstWalter|author-linkWalter Cunningham|titleThe All-American Boys|year2003|orig-year1977|editionupdated|publisheribooks, inc.|isbn978-1-59176-605-6|ref{{sfnRef|Cunningham 2003}}}}
* {{cite book|lastEisele|firstDonn|author-linkDonn Eisele|titleApollo Pilot: The Memoir of Astronaut Donn Eisele|year2017|publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press|isbn978-0-8032-6283-6|ref{{sfnRef|Eisele 2017}}}}
* {{Cite book |last1Farmer |first1Gene |last2Hamblin |first2Dora Jane |last3Armstrong |first3Neil |author-link3Neil Armstrong |last4Collins |first4Michael |author-link4Michael Collins (astronaut) |last5Aldrin |first5Edwin E. Jr. |author-link5Buzz Aldrin |year1970 |titleFirst on the Moon: A Voyage with Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. |othersEpilogue by Arthur C. Clarke |edition1st |publisherLittle, Brown and Company |isbn978-0-7181-0736-9 |lccn76103950 |oclc71625 |refFarmer & Hamblin 1970}}
* {{cite book|last1French|first1Francis|author-link1Francis French (author)|last2Burgess|first2Colin|author-link2Colin Burgess (author)|isbn978-0-8032-1128-5|year2007|publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press|titleIn the Shadow of the Moon : a Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965-1969|editioneBook|ref{{sfnRef|French & Burgess 2007}}}}
* {{cite book|last1Orloff|first1Richard W.|last2Harland|first2David M.|author-link2David M. Harland|titleApollo: The Definitive Sourcebook|year2006|publisherSpringer Science+Business Media|isbn978-0-387-30043-6|ref{{sfnRef|Orloff & Harland 2006}}}}
* {{cite book |last1Schirra |first1Wally |author-link1Wally Schirra |last2Billings |first2Richard N. |year1988 |titleSchirra's Space |seriesBluejacket Books |publisherNaval Institute Press |isbn978-1-55750-792-1|ref={{sfnRef|Schirra 1988}}}}
* {{cite book |last1Scott |first1David |editioneBook|author-link2Alexei Leonov|last2Leonov|first2Alexei |otherswith Christine Toomey|titleTwo Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race |year2006 |publisherSt. Martin's Griffin |isbn978-0-312-30866-7|ref{{sfnRef|Scott & Leonov}}}}
* {{cite book |last1Shepard |first1Alan B. |last2Slayton |first2Donald K. |author-link2Deke Slayton |last3Barbree |first3Jay |author-link3Jay Barbree |last4Benedict |first4Howard|titleMoon Shot: The Inside Story of America's Race to the Moon |title-linkMoon Shot |date1994 |publisherTurner Publishing Company |isbn978-1-878685-54-4 |oclc29846731 |lccn94003027 |ref{{sfnRef|Shepard, Slayton, & Barbree 1994}}}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Stafford
| first1 = Thomas
| author-link = Thomas P. Stafford
| last2 = Cassutt
| first2 = Michael
|author2-link = Michael Cassutt
| title = We Have Capture
| publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press
| date = 2002
| location = Washington, DC
| edition = eBook
|pages=552–55
| url https://books.google.com/books?idBqdqBgAAQBAJ&q=We+Have+Capture
|isbn978-1-58834-070-2| ref{{sfnRef|Stafford 2002}}}}
* {{cite book |lastSteven-Boniecki |firstDwight |year2010 |titleLive TV From the Moon|publisherApogee Books |isbn978-1-926592-16-9 |oclc489010199 |refSteven-Boniecki 2010}}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
* {{cite book|lastLattimer|firstDick|year1985|titleAll We Did Was Fly to the Moon|edition1st|seriesHistory-alive series|volume1|othersForeword by James A. Michener|locationAlachua, FL|publisherWhispering Eagle Press|isbn978-0-9611228-0-5|lccn85222271|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780961122805}}
External links
{{Commons category|Apollo 7}}
* [https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1968-089A Master catalog entry] at NASA/NSSDC\
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171209084600/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm |dateDecember 9, 2017 }} NASA, NASA SP-4009
* [https://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm "Apollo Program Summary Report"] (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975
* {{Internet Archive short film|flight_of_apollo_7|The Flight of Apollo 7}}
* {{YouTube|id3HrLdLgdhpI|titleThe Log of Apollo 7, 1968 documentary produced by George Van Valkenburg|link=no}}
{{Apollo program}}
{{Orbital launches in 1968}}
{{Portal bar|Solar System|Outer space|Spaceflight}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Apollo 07}}
Category:Apollo 7
Category:1968 in the United States
Apollo 07
Category:Human spaceflights
Category:Spacecraft launched in 1968
Category:Spacecraft which reentered in 1968
Category:October 1968
Category:Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets
Category:Wally Schirra
Category:Saturn IB
Category:Successful space missions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_7
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Apollo 9
|
{{Short description|3rd crewed mission of the Apollo space program}}
{{For|the single by Adam Ant|Vive Le Rock{{!}}Vive Le Rock}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2014}}
{{Infobox spaceflight
| name = Apollo 9
| image = Gumdrop Meets Spider - GPN-2000-001100.jpg
| image_size = 270
| image_caption = CM pilot David Scott performs a stand-up EVA<br>from CM Gumdrop, seen from docked LM Spider
| insignia = Apollo 9 mission patch.svg
| insignia_alt = Apollo 9 insignia
| mission_type = Crewed Earth orbital<br>CSM/LM flight (D)
| operator = NASA
| COSPAR_ID = {{Unbulleted list
|CSM: 1969-018A{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p=227}}
|LM ascent stage: 1969-018C{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p=227}}
|LM descent stage: 1969-018D{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p=227}}
}}
| SATCAT = {{Unbulleted list
|CSM: 3769
|LM: 3771
}}
| mission_duration 10{{nbsp}}days, 1{{nbsp}}hour, 54{{nbsp}}seconds<ref name "nasa nine" />
| orbits_completed 151{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p230}}
| spacecraft = {{Unbulleted list
|Apollo CSM-104
|Apollo LM-3
}}
| manufacturer = {{Unbulleted list
|CSM: North American Rockwell
|LM: Grumman
}}
| launch_mass {{cvt|95231|lb}}<ref name"nasadatabook">Ezell 1988, Table 2-37: [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.37.htm "Apollo 9 Characteristics"].</ref>
| landing_mass = {{cvt|11094|lb|kg}}
| launch_date {{start-date|March 3, 1969, 16:00:00|timezoneyes}}{{nbsp}}UTC
| launch_rocket = Saturn V SA-504
| launch_site = Kennedy, LC-39A
| landing_date {{end-date|March 13, 1969, 17:00:54|timezoneyes}}{{nbsp}}UTC
| landing_site North Atlantic Ocean<br />({{coord|23|15|N|67|56|W|type:event|nameApollo 9 splashdown}})
| recovery_by = {{USS|Guadalcanal|LPH-7|6}}
| decay_date = {{nowrap|October 23, 1981 (LM ascent stage)}}
| orbit_epoch March 5, 1969<ref namesatcat>{{cite web|lastMcDowell|firstJonathan|titleSATCAT|urlhttp://planet4589.org/space/log/satcat.txt|publisherJonathan's Space Pages|access-dateMarch 23, 2014}}</ref>
| orbit_reference = Geocentric
| orbit_regime = Low Earth orbit
| orbit_periapsis = {{cvt|204|km|nmi mi}}
| orbit_apoapsis = {{cvt|497|km|nmi mi}}
| orbit_inclination = 33.8°
| orbit_period = 91.55{{nbsp}}minutes
| apsis = gee
| crew_size = 3
| crew_members = {{Unbulleted list
|James A. McDivitt
|David R. Scott
|Russell L. Schweickart
}}
| crew_callsign = {{Unbulleted list
|CSM: Gumdrop
|LM: Spider
}}
| crew_EVAs = 1
| crew_EVA_duration = 1{{nbsp}}hour, 17{{nbsp}}seconds
| crew_photo = Apollo9 Prime Crew.jpg
| crew_photo_caption = Left to right: McDivitt, Scott, Schweickart
| crew_photo_size = 270px
| crew_photo_alt = Apollo 9 crew
| docking = {{Infobox spaceflight/Dock
| docking_target = LM
| docking_type = dock
| docking_date = March 3, 1969, 19:01:59{{nbsp}}UTC
| undocking_date = March 7, 1969, 12:39:06{{nbsp}}UTC
| time_docked =
}}
{{Infobox spaceflight/Dock
| docking_target = LM ascent stage
| docking_type = dock
| docking_date = March 7, 1969, 19:02:26{{nbsp}}UTC
| undocking_date = March 7, 1969, 21:22:45{{nbsp}}UTC
| time_docked =
}}
| previous_mission = Apollo 8
| next_mission = Apollo 10
| programme = Apollo program
}}
Apollo 9 (March 3–13, 1969) was the third human spaceflight in NASA's Apollo program, which successfully tested systems and procedures critical to landing on the Moon. The three-man crew consisted of Commander James McDivitt, Command Module Pilot David Scott, and Lunar Module Pilot Rusty Schweickart. Flown in low Earth orbit, it was the second crewed Apollo mission that the United States launched via a Saturn V rocket, and was the first flight of the full Apollo spacecraft: the command and service module (CSM) with the Lunar Module (LM).
The mission was flown to qualify the LM for lunar orbit operations in preparation for the first Moon landing by demonstrating its descent and ascent propulsion systems, showing that its crew could fly it independently, then rendezvous and dock with the CSM again, as would be required for the first crewed lunar landing. Other objectives of the flight included firing the LM descent engine to propel the spacecraft stack as a backup mode (as was required on the Apollo 13 mission), and use of the portable life support system backpack outside the LM cabin.
After launching on March 3, 1969, the crew performed the first crewed flight of a lunar module, the first docking and extraction of the same, one two-person spacewalk (EVA), and the second docking of two crewed spacecraft—two months after the Soviets performed a spacewalk crew transfer between {{nowrap|Soyuz 4}} and {{nowrap|Soyuz 5}}. The mission concluded on March 13 and was a complete success. It proved the LM worthy of crewed spaceflight, setting the stage for the dress rehearsal for the lunar landing, Apollo 10, before the ultimate goal, landing on the Moon.
Mission background
{{Further|Apollo program}}
In April 1966, McDivitt, Scott, and Schweickart were selected by Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton as the second Apollo crew. Their initial job was as backup to the first Apollo crew to be chosen, Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, for the first crewed Earth orbital test flight of the block I command and service module,<ref>{{cite news |title'Open End' Orbit Planned for Apollo |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idReojAAAAIBAJ&dqapollo-1&pg7152%2C998301 |agencyUnited Press International |newspaperThe Pittsburgh Press |locationPittsburgh, PA |dateAugust 4, 1966 |page20 |access-dateJuly 11, 2019|viaGoogle News}}</ref> designated AS-204. Delays in the block I CSM development pushed AS-204 into 1967. The revised plan had the McDivitt crew scheduled for the second crewed CSM, which was to rendezvous in Earth orbit with an uncrewed LM, launched separately. The third crewed mission, to be commanded by Frank Borman, was to be the first launch of a Saturn{{nbsp}}V with a crew.<ref name"chariots_preparation">Brooks, et al. 1979, Chapter 8.7: [https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch8-7.html "Preparations for the First Manned Apollo Mission"] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210515032936/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch8-7.html |date=May 15, 2021 }})</ref>
On January 27, 1967, Grissom's crew was conducting a launch-pad test for their planned February 21 mission, which they named Apollo 1, when a fire broke out in the cabin, killing all three men.{{sfn|Chaikin|pp12–18}} A complete safety review of the Apollo program followed.{{sfn|Scott & Leonov|pp193–195}} During this time Apollo 5 took place, an uncrewed launch to test the first lunar module (LM-1).<ref>{{cite web|title Apollo 5 (AS-204)|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1968-007A|workNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive|publisherNASA|access-dateApril 26, 2019}}</ref>
Under the new schedule, the first Apollo crewed mission to go into space would be Apollo 7, planned for October 1968. This mission, which was to test the block II command module, did not include a lunar module.<ref name "Apollo 7">{{cite web|titleApollo 7 (AS-205)|urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo7.cfm|publisherNational Air and Space Museum|access-dateApril 26, 2019|archive-dateJuly 4, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170704011501/https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo7.cfm|url-statusdead}}</ref> In 1967, NASA had adopted a series of lettered missions leading up to the crewed lunar landing, the "G mission", completion of one being a prerequisite to the next.<ref name"chronology">Ertel, Roland, & Brooks 1975, Part 2(D): [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4p2d.htm "Recovery, Spacecraft Redefinition, and First Manned Apollo Flight"] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210523002535/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4p2d.htm |dateMay 23, 2021 }}).</ref> Apollo{{nbsp}}7 would be the "C{{nbsp}}mission", but the "D{{nbsp}}mission" required testing of the crewed lunar module, which was running behind schedule and endangering John F. Kennedy's goal of Americans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s.{{sfn|Chaikin|pp56–57}}<ref name"chariots_proposal">Brooks, et al. 1979, Chapter 11.2: [https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-2.html "Proposal for a lunar orbit mission"] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210509004916/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-2.html |dateMay 9, 2021 }})</ref> McDivitt's crew had been announced by NASA in November 1967 as prime crew for the D{{nbsp}}mission, lengthy testing of the command and lunar modules in Earth orbit.<ref name"chariots_training">Brooks, et al. 1979, Chapter 11.3: [https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-3.html "Selecting and training crews"] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210504162810/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-3.html |dateMay 4, 2021 }})</ref>
Seeking to keep Kennedy's goal on schedule, in August 1968, Apollo Program Manager George M. Low proposed that if Apollo{{nbsp}}7 in October went well, Apollo{{nbsp}}8 would go to lunar orbit without a LM.{{efn|The Lunar Module was originally named the Lunar Excursion Module, abbreviated and pronounced as "LEM". Once the name was shortened to LM, NASA personnel continued to pronounce LM as "lem".<ref>{{cite book |editor-lastCortright |editor-firstE. M. |year1975 |chapter4.2: Two Magnificent Flying Machines |chapter-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20011123030638/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-4-2.html |titleApollo Expeditions to the Moon |urlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19760005868 |locationWashington, D.C. |publisherScientific and Technical Information Office, National Aeronautics and Space Administration |idSP-350}}</ref>}} Until then, Apollo{{nbsp}}8 was the D{{nbsp}}mission with Apollo{{nbsp}}9 the "E mission", testing in medium Earth orbit.<ref name'chronology' /><ref name"chariots_proposal" />{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp298–299}} After NASA approved sending Apollo{{nbsp}}8 to the Moon, while making Apollo{{nbsp}}9 the D{{nbsp}}mission, Slayton offered McDivitt the opportunity to stay with Apollo{{nbsp}}8 and thus go to lunar orbit. McDivitt turned it down on behalf of his crew, preferring to stay with the D{{nbsp}}mission, now Apollo{{nbsp}}9.{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp328–329}}{{sfn|Chaikin|pp=62, 141}}
Apollo{{nbsp}}7 went well, and the crews were switched.{{sfn|Chaikin|pp76–77}} The crew swap also affected who would be the first astronauts to land on the Moon, for when the crews for Apollo{{nbsp}}8 and{{nbsp}}9 were swapped, so were the backup crews. Since the rule of thumb was for backup crews to fly as prime crew three missions later, this put Neil Armstrong's crew (Borman's backup) in position to make the first landing attempt on Apollo 11 instead of Pete Conrad's crew,{{sfn|Chaikin|pp136–137}} who made the second landing on Apollo 12.{{sfn|Chaikin|p597}} Framework Crew and key Mission Control personnel
{{Spaceflight crew
|terminology = Astronaut
|references <ref namenasmcrew>{{cite web|titleApollo 9 Crew|urlhttp://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/orbital-missions/apollo9-crew.cfm|publisherNational Air and Space Museum|access-dateMay 10, 2015}}</ref>
|position1 = Commander
|crew1_up = James A. McDivitt
|flights1_up = Second and last
|position2 = Command Module Pilot (CMP)
|crew2_up = David R. Scott
|flights2_up = Second
|position3 = Lunar Module Pilot (LMP)
|crew3_up = Russell L. Schweickart
|flights3_up = Only
}}
McDivitt was in the Air Force; selected as a member of the second group of astronauts in 1962, he was command pilot of Gemini 4 (1965).{{sfn|Press Kit|pp94–95}} Scott, also Air Force, was selected in the third astronaut group in 1963 and flew alongside Neil Armstrong in Gemini 8, on which the first spacecraft docking was performed.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp96–97}} Schweickart, a civilian who had served in the Air Force and Massachusetts Air National Guard, was selected as a Group{{nbsp}}3 astronaut but was not assigned to a Gemini mission and had no spaceflight experience.{{sfn|Press Kit|p=98}}
The backup crew consisted of Pete Conrad as commander, Command Module Pilot Richard F. Gordon Jr., and Lunar Module Pilot Alan L. Bean. This crew flew as prime on Apollo 12 in November 1969. The support crew for Apollo{{nbsp}}9 consisted of Stuart A. Roosa, Jack R. Lousma, Edgar D. Mitchell and Alfred M. Worden. Lousma was not an original member of the Apollo{{nbsp}}9 support crew, but was assigned after Fred W. Haise Jr. was moved to the position of backup lunar module pilot on Apollo 8—several astronauts were shifted in the wake of Michael Collins being removed from the Apollo{{nbsp}}8 prime crew because of treatment for bone spurs.<ref name"chariots_training" /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/afj/ap09fj/000_preparations.html|titlePreparations for Launch|workApollo Flight Journal|last1Woods|first1David|last2Vignaux|first2Andrew|publisherNASA|access-dateDecember 29, 2017}}</ref>
The flight directors were Gene Kranz, first shift, Gerry Griffin, second shift, and Pete Frank, third shift. Capsule communicators were Conrad, Gordon, Bean, Worden, Roosa and Ronald Evans.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p224}} Mission insignia
]]
The circular patch shows a drawing of a Saturn V rocket with the letters USA on it. To its right, an Apollo CSM is shown next to a LM, with the CSM's nose pointed at the "front door" of the LM rather than at its top docking port. The CSM is trailing rocket fire in a circle. The crew's names are along the top edge of the circle, with APOLLO IX at the bottom. The "D" in McDivitt's name is filled with red to mark that this was the "D{{nbsp}}mission" in the alphabetic sequence of Apollo missions. The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.<ref>{{cite web|firstEd |lastHengeveld |urlhttp://www.collectspace.com/news/news-052008a.html |titleThe man behind the Moon mission patches |publishercollectSPACE |dateMay 20, 2008 |access-dateJuly 18, 2009}} "A version of this article was published concurrently in the British Interplanetary Society's Spaceflight magazine."</ref> Planning and training Apollo 9's main purpose was to qualify the LM for crewed lunar flight, demonstrating that it could perform the maneuvers in space that would be needed for a lunar landing, including docking with the CSM.{{sfn|Mission Report|p3-2}} Colin Burgess and Francis French, in their book about the Apollo Program, deemed McDivitt's crew among the best trained ever—they had worked together since January 1966, at first as backups for Apollo 1, and they always had the assignment of being the first to fly the LM. Flight Director Gene Kranz deemed the Apollo{{nbsp}}9 crew the best prepared for their mission, and felt Scott was an extremely knowledgeable CMP.{{sfn|French & Burgess|p330}} Crew members underwent 1,800 hours of mission-specific training, about seven hours for every hour they would spend in flight. Their training started on the day before the Apollo{{nbsp}}1 fire, in the very first Block II spacecraft in which they were originally intended to fly. They took part in the vehicle checkouts for the CSM at North American Rockwell's facility in Downey, California, and for the LM at Grumman's plant in Bethpage, New York. They also participated in testing of the modules at the launch site.{{sfn|Press Kit|p83}}
Among the types of the training which the crew underwent were simulations of zero-G, both underwater and in the Vomit Comet. During these exercises, they practiced for the planned extravehicular activities (EVAs). They traveled to Cambridge, Massachusetts, for training on the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) at MIT. The crew studied the sky at the Morehead Planetarium and at the Griffith Planetarium, especially focusing on the 37 stars used by the AGC. They each spent more than 300 hours in the CM and LM simulators at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and at Houston, some involving live participation by Mission Control. Additional time was spent in simulators in other locations.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp=83–84}}
The first mission to use the CSM, the LM and a Saturn{{nbsp}}V, Apollo{{nbsp}}9 allowed the launch preparations team at KSC its first opportunity to simulate the launch of a lunar landing mission. The LM arrived from Grumman in June 1968 and was subjected to extensive testing including in the altitude chamber, simulating space conditions. As this occurred, other technicians assembled the Saturn{{nbsp}}V inside the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). The CM and SM arrived in October, but even the experienced KSC team from North American had trouble joining them together. When the lander was done with the altitude chamber, the CSM took its place, letting the LM be available for installation of equipment such as rendezvous radar and antennas. There were no lengthy delays, and on January 3, 1969, the launch vehicle was taken out of the VAB and moved to Launch Complex 39A by crawler. Flight readiness reviews for the CM, the LM, and the Saturn{{nbsp}}V were held and passed in the following weeks.<ref name"chariots_double">Brooks, et al. 1979, Chapter 12.3: [https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-3.html "A double workload"] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210316180647/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-3.html |dateMarch 16, 2021 }})</ref> Hardware Launch vehicle The Saturn V (AS-504) used on Apollo{{nbsp}}9 was the fourth to be flown, the second to carry astronauts to space,{{sfn|Press Kit|p8}} and the first to bear a lunar module. Although similar in configuration to the Saturn{{nbsp}}V used on Apollo 8, several changes were made. The inner core of the F-1 engine chamber in the first (S-IC) stage was removed, thus saving weight and allowing for a slight increase in specific impulse. Weight was also saved by replacing the skins of the liquid oxygen tanks with lighter ones, and by providing lighter versions of other components. Efficiency was increased in the S-II second stage with uprated J-2 engines, and through a closed-loop propellant utilization system rather than Apollo 8's open-loop system.{{sfn|Mission Report|ppA-59, inside back cover}} Of the {{convert|3250|lb}} weight reduction in the second stage, about half came from a 16 percent reduction in the thickness of the tank side walls.{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-22b|p283}}
Spacecraft, equipment and call signs
Apollo{{nbsp}}9 used CSM-104, the third Block II CSM to be flown with astronauts aboard. Apollo 8, lacking a lunar module, did not have docking equipment; Apollo{{nbsp}}9 flew the probe-and-drogue assembly used for docking along with other equipment added near the forward hatch of the CM; this allowed for rigid docking of the two craft, and for internal transfer between CM and LM.{{sfn|Mission Report|ppA-1, inside back cover}} Had the switch in missions between Apollo{{nbsp}}8 and{{nbsp}}9 not occurred, the Earth-orbit mission would have flown CSM-103, which flew on Apollo 8.{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp338–339}}
The Earth-orbit mission was originally supposed to use LM-2 as its lunar module, but the crew found numerous flaws in it, many associated with it being the first flight-ready lunar module off Grumman's production line. The delay occasioned by the switch in missions allowed LM-3 to be available, a machine the crew found far superior.{{sfn|French & Burgess|p339}} Neither LM-2 nor LM-3 could have been sent to the Moon as both were too heavy; Grumman's weight reduction program for the LMs only became fully effective with LM-5, designated for Apollo 11.{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-01|p218}} Small cracks in LM-3's aluminum alloy structure due to stresses such as the insertion of a rivet proved an ongoing issue; Grumman's engineers continued working to fix them until the LM had to be mounted on the Saturn{{nbsp}}V in December 1968,{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-01|p219}} where it was housed inside the Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter, numbered as SLA-11A.<ref name "hardware">{{cite web|titleApollo/Skylab ASTP and Shuttle Orbiter Major End Items|dateMarch 1978|urlhttps://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/6473665/Apollo-Skylab-ASTP-and-Shuttle-Orbiter-Major-End.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/6473665/Apollo-Skylab-ASTP-and-Shuttle-Orbiter-Major-End.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|publisherNASA|page11}}</ref> LM-2 never flew in space and is in the National Air and Space Museum.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/lunar-module-2-apollo|publisherNational Air and Space Museum|titleLunar Module LM-2|access-dateApril 19, 2019|archive-dateJanuary 15, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200115082343/https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/lunar-module-2-apollo|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The Apollo astronauts were provided with early versions of the Sony Walkman, portable cassette recorders intended to allow them to make observations during the mission. The Apollo{{nbsp}}9 crew was the first to be allowed to bring music mixtapes, one each, that could be played in that device. McDivitt and Scott preferred easy listening and country music; Schweickart's cassette tape of classical music went missing until the ninth day of the ten-day mission, when it was presented to him by Scott.<ref>{{cite web|lastHollingham|firstRichard|urlhttp://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130429-thirteen-space-music-firsts|publisherBBC|titleSpace music firsts|dateNovember 18, 2014|access-dateJuly 5, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|lastHollingham|firstRichard|urlhttp://www.bbc.com/future/story/20190704-apollo-in-50-numbers-the-technology|publisherBBC|titleApollo in 50 numbers: The technology|dateJuly 5, 2019|access-dateJuly 5, 2019}}</ref>
After the Gemini 3 craft was dubbed Molly Brown by Grissom, NASA forbade naming spacecraft.{{sfn|Shepard, Slayton, & Barbree|pp227–228}} The fact that during the Apollo{{nbsp}}9 mission, the CSM and LM would separate and need different call signs caused the Apollo{{nbsp}}9 astronauts to push for a change. In simulations, they began to refer to the CSM as "Gumdrop", a name inspired by the CM's appearance while in the blue protective wrapping in which it was transported from the manufacturer, and the LM as "Spider", inspired by the LM's appearance with landing legs deployed.{{sfn|Orloff|p282}} Personnel in NASA public relations thought the names were too informal, but the call signs ultimately gained official sanction.{{sfn|French & Burgess|p340}} NASA required more formal call signs for future missions, starting with Apollo 11.{{sfn|Scott & Leonov|p234}}
<gallery widths"200" heights"160">
File:Lunar Module 3 arrives at KSC aboard Super Guppy (KSC-68PC-85).jpg|alt=cased LM on airplane in hangar|LM-3 arrives at KSC, June 1968
File:Apollo 9 backup crew (S68-55255).jpg|alt=Blue command module Gumdrop|Apollo{{nbsp}}9 backup crew training in Gumdrop
</gallery>
Life Support System backpack
The Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) backpack flew for the first time on Apollo{{nbsp}}9, used by Schweickart during his EVA.<ref name"sp368ch6">Carson et al. 1975</ref> This included the Portable Life Support System (PLSS), providing oxygen to the astronaut and water for the Liquid Cooling Garment (LCG), which helped prevent overheating during extravehicular activity.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp84–85}} Also present was the Oxygen Purge System (OPS), the "bedroll" atop the backpack, which could provide oxygen for up to roughly an hour if the PLSS failed.{{sfn|Thomas|p22}} A more advanced version of the EMU was used for the lunar landing on Apollo 11.{{sfn|Thomas|p22}}
During his stand-up EVA,{{efn|A stand-up EVA is when the astronaut only partially exits the spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://planet4589.org/space/jsr/back/news.601.txt|titleShuttle and Station|dateOctober 12, 2008|access-dateApril 29, 2019|publisherJonathan's Space Report}}</ref>{{sfn|Thomas|McMann|p68}}}} Scott did not wear a PLSS, but was connected to the CM's life support systems through an umbilical, utilizing a Pressure Control Valve (PCV). This device had been created in 1967 to allow for stand-up EVAs from the hatches of the LM or CM, or for brief ventures outside. It was later used by Scott for his lunar surface stand-up EVA on Apollo 15, and for the deep-space EVAs by the command module pilots of the final three Apollo flights.{{sfn|Thomas|pp24–25}} Mission highlights First through fifth days (March 3–7)
, March 3, 1969]]
Originally scheduled to launch on February 28, 1969, the liftoff of Apollo{{nbsp}}9 was postponed because all three astronauts had colds, and NASA did not want to risk that the mission might be affected. Around-the-clock labor shifts were required to keep the spacecraft in readiness; the delay cost $500,000.{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-15|p255}} The rocket launched from KSC at 11:00:00 EST (16:00:00 GMT) on March 3.{{sfn|Mission Report|p1-1}} This was well within the launch window, which would have remained open for another three and a quarter hours.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p224}} Present in the firing control room was Vice President Spiro Agnew on behalf of the new Nixon administration.<ref name"chariots_apollonine">Brooks, et al. 1979, Chapter 12.5: [https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-5.html "Apollo 9: Earth orbital trials"] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111027200206/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-5.html |dateOctober 27, 2011 }})</ref>
McDivitt reported a smooth ride during the launch, although there was some vibration and the astronauts were surprised to be pushed forward when the Saturn V's first stage stopped firing, before its second stage took over, when they were pushed back into their couches.<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> Each of the first two stages slightly underperformed; a deficiency made up, more or less, by the S-IVB third stage.{{sfn|Mission Report|p7-1}} Once the third stage cut out at 00:11:04.7 into the mission,{{sfn|Mission Report|p3-4}} Apollo{{nbsp}}9 had entered a parking orbit of {{convert|102.3|by|103.9|mi}}.{{sfn|Mission Report|p1-1}}
The crew began their first major orbital task with the separation of the CSM from the S-IVB at 02:41:16 into the mission, seeking to turn around and then dock with the LM, which was on the end of the S-IVB, after which the combined spacecraft would separate from the rocket. If it was not possible to make such a docking, the lunar landing could not take place. It was Scott's responsibility to fly the CSM, which he did to a successful docking, as the probe-and-drogue docking assembly worked properly. After McDivitt and Schweickart inspected the tunnel connecting the CM and LM, the assembled spacecraft separated from the S-IVB. The next task was to demonstrate that two docked spacecraft could be maneuvered by one engine. The five-second burn took place at 05:59.01.1 into the mission, accomplished with the SM's Service Propulsion System (SPS), after which Scott excitedly reported the LM was still in place. Thereafter, the S-IVB was fired again, and the stage was sent into solar orbit.<ref name"chariots_apollonine" />{{sfn|Mission Report|p3-4}}
thumb|500px|left|alt=labeled drawing of two docked spacecraft|Apollo spacecraft configuration with CSM (right) and LM docked<br>
I - Lunar module descent stage; II - Lunar module ascent stage; III - Command module; IV - Service module.<br>
1 LM descent engine skirt; 2 LM landing gear; 3 LM ladder; 4 Egress platform; 5 Forward hatch; 6 LM reaction control system quad; 7 S-band inflight antenna (2); 8 Rendezvous radar antenna; 9 S-band steerable antenna; 10 Command Module crew compartment; 11 Electrical power system radiators; 12 SM reaction control system quad; 13 Environmental control system radiator; 14 S-band steerable
From 09:00:00 to 19:30:00, a sleep period was scheduled.{{sfn|Mission Report|pp3-6–3-7}} The astronauts slept well, but complained of being woken by non-English transmissions. Scott theorized that they were possibly in Chinese.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/mission_trans/AS09_TEC.PDF |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/mission_trans/AS09_TEC.PDF |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleApollo 9 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription|dateMarch 1969|locationHouston, Texas|page76|publisherNASA}}</ref> The highlight of the second day in orbit (March 4) was three SPS burns.<ref name "NYT March 5">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1969/03/05/archives/apollo-9-proves-its-linkup-is-firm-combined-craft-and-lunar-module.html |url-accesssubscription|lastWilford|firstJohn Noble|author-linkJohn Noble Wilford|titleApollo 9 proves its linkup is firm|dateMarch 5, 1969|newspaperThe New York Times|pages1, 20}}</ref> The initial burn, at 22:12:04.1,{{sfn|Mission Report|p3-4}} lasted 110 seconds,<ref name "NYT March 5" /> and including swiveling or "gimbaling" the engine to test whether the autopilot could dampen the induced oscillations, which it did within five seconds. Two more SPS burns followed, lightening the SM's fuel load.<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> The spacecraft and engine passed every test, sometimes proving more robust than expected.{{sfn|French & Burgess|p343}} The performance of the CSM in remaining stable while the engine was being gimbaled would in 1972 help cause McDivitt, by then manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program, to approve the continuation of Apollo 16 when its CSM was experiencing an unstable gimbal after separation from its LM in lunar orbit.{{sfn|Chaikin|pp=461–462}}
The flight plan for the third day in space was to have the commander and lunar module pilot enter the LM to check out its systems and use its descent engine to move the entire spacecraft.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp3–4}} The descent engine was the backup to the SPS; the ability to use it in this manner would prove critical on Apollo 13.{{sfn|Chaikin|pp298–301}} The flight plan was thrown into question when Schweickart, suffering from space adaptation sickness, vomited, while McDivitt felt queasy as well. They had been avoiding sudden physical motions, but the contortion-like maneuvers to don their space suits for the LM checkout caused them to feel ill. The experience would teach the doctors enough about the sickness to have the astronauts avoid it on the lunar landings, but at the time Schweickart feared his vomiting might endanger Kennedy's goal. They were well enough to continue with the day's plan, and entered the LM, thus transferring between vehicles for the first time in the US space program, and making the first ever transfer without needing to spacewalk, as Soviet cosmonauts had. The hatches were then closed, though the modules remained docked, showing that Spider{{'s}} communications and life support systems would work in isolation from those of Gumdrop. On command, the landing legs sprang into the position they would assume for landing on the Moon.{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp=344–345}}
In the LM, Schweickart vomited again, causing McDivitt to request a private channel to the doctors in Houston. The first episode had not been reported to the ground because of its brief nature, and when the media learned what had happened to Schweickart, there were "repercussions and a spate of unfriendly stories".<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> They finished the LM checkout, including the successful firing of the descent engine, and returned to Scott in Gumdrop.<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> The burn lasted 367 seconds and simulated the throttle pattern to be used during the landing on the Moon.<ref name "nasa nine" /> After they returned, a fifth firing of the SPS was made, designed to circularize Apollo{{nbsp}}9's orbit in preparation for the rendezvous.{{sfn|Mission Report|p3-1}} This took place at 54:26:12.3,{{sfn|Mission Report|p3-4}} raising the craft's orbit to {{convert|142|by|149|mi}}.<ref name "nasa nine">{{cite web|titleApollo 9|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo9.html|publisherNASA|dateJuly 8, 2009|access-date=April 2, 2019}}</ref>
The fourth day's program (March 6) was for Schweickart to exit the hatch on the LM and make his way along the outside of the spacecraft to the CM's hatch, where Scott would stand by to assist, demonstrating that this could be done in the event of an emergency. Schweickart was to wear the life support backpack, or PLSS, to be worn on the lunar surface EVAs.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp4–5}} This was the only EVA scheduled before the lunar landing, and thus the only opportunity to test the PLSS in space. McDivitt initially canceled the EVA due to Schweickart's condition, but with the lunar module pilot feeling better, decided to allow him to exit the LM, and once he was there, to move around the LM's exterior using handholds. Scott stood in the CM's hatch; both men photographed each other and retrieved experiments from the exterior of their vehicles. Schweickart found moving around easier than it had been in simulations; both he and Scott were confident that Schweickart could have completed the exterior transfer if called upon to do so, but considered it unnecessary.<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /><ref name"chariots_overview">Brooks, et al. 1979, Chapter 12.4: [https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-4.html "The mission and the men"] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210428014236/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-4.html |dateApril 28, 2021 }}).</ref> During the EVA, Schweickart used the call sign "Red Rover", a nod to the color of his hair.<ref name "rover" />
On March 7, the fifth day, came "the key event of the entire mission: the separation and rendezvous of the lunar module and the command module".<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> The lunar module lacked the capability to return the astronauts to Earth;{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-01|p218}} this was the first time space travelers had flown in a vehicle that could not take them home.<ref name "rover">{{cite web|title50 years ago: Spider, Gumdrop, and Red Rover in space|publisherNASA|dateMarch 6, 2019|access-dateMay 3, 2019|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-spider-gumdrop-and-red-rover-in-space}}</ref> McDivitt and Schweickart entered the LM early, having obtained permission to do so without wearing their helmets and gloves, making it easier to set up the LM.<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> When Scott in Gumdrop pushed the button to release the LM, it initially hung on the latches at the end of the docking probe, but he hit the button again and Spider was released.{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp349–350}} After spending about 45 minutes near Gumdrop, Spider went into a slightly higher orbit, meaning that over time, the two craft would separate, with Gumdrop ahead.<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> Over the next hours, McDivitt fired the LM's descent engine at several throttle settings; by the end of the day the LM was thoroughly test-flown.{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp350–351}} At a distance of {{convert|185|km|spus|orderflip}}, Spider fired to lower its orbit and thus begin to catch up with Gumdrop, a process that would take over two hours, and the descent stage was jettisoned.<ref name="chariots_apollonine" />
The approach and rendezvous were conducted as near as possible to what was planned for the lunar missions. To demonstrate that rendezvous could be performed by either craft, Spider was the active party during the maneuver.{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp351–352}} McDivitt brought Spider close to Gumdrop, then maneuvered the LM to show each side to Scott, allowing him to inspect for any damage. Then, McDivitt docked the craft.<ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> Due to glare from the Sun, he had trouble doing this and Scott guided him in. During the later missions, the job of docking the two spacecraft in lunar orbit would fall to the command module pilot.{{sfn|French & Burgess|p352}} After McDivitt and Schweickart returned to Gumdrop, Spider was jettisoned, its engine fired to fuel depletion remotely by Mission Control as part of further testing of the engine,<ref name "nasa nine" /><ref name"chariots_apollonine" /> simulating an ascent stage's climb from the lunar surface. This raised Spider to an orbit with apogee of over {{convert|3700|nmi}}.{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-22a|p277}} The only major lunar module system not fully tested was the landing radar, as this could not be done in Earth orbit.{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-22a|pp277–278}} Sixth through eleventh days (March 8–13)
in the Atlantic Ocean, March 13, 1969]]
Apollo 9 was to remain in space for about ten days to check how the CSM would perform over the period of time required for a lunar mission.{{sfn|French & Burgess|p352}} Most major events had been scheduled for the first days so that they would be accomplished if the flight needed to be ended early.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p223}} The remaining days in orbit were to be conducted at a more leisurely pace.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp2, 6}} With the main goals of the mission accomplished, the hatch window was used for special photography of Earth, using four identical Hasselblad cameras, coupled together and using film sensitive to different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.<ref namenasa>{{cite book|editor-lastNicks|editor-firstOran W.|titleThis Island Earth|publisherNASA|year1970|pages100–101}}</ref> Such photography allowed different features of the Earth's surface to appear, for example, tracking of water pollution as it exits mouths of rivers into the sea,{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-15|p255}} and the highlighting of agricultural areas using infrared.<ref namenasa/> The camera system was a prototype, and would pave the way for the Earth Resources Technology Satellite, predecessor to the Landsat series.{{sfn|Harland|p335}} The photography was successful, as the ample time in orbit meant the crew could wait to allow cloud cover to pass, and would inform Skylab's mission planning.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p230}}
Scott used a sextant to track landmarks on the Earth, and turned the instrument to the skies to observe the planet Jupiter, practicing navigation techniques that were to be used on later missions.<ref name "NYT March 10">{{cite news|lastWilford|firstJohn Noble|author-linkJohn Noble Wilford|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1969/03/10/archives/the-apollo-9-astronauts-take-a-restful-cruise-through-space.html|titleThe Apollo 9 astronauts take a restful cruise through space|dateMarch 10, 1969|newspaperThe New York Times|page40|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> The crew was able to track the Pegasus 3 satellite (launched in 1965) as well as the ascent stage of Spider.{{sfn|Orloff & Harland|p230}} The sixth burn of the SPS engine took place on the sixth day, though it was postponed one orbit as the reaction control system (RCS) thruster burn needed to settle the reactants in their tanks was not properly programmed. The SPS burn lowered the perigee of Apollo{{nbsp}}9's orbit,{{sfn|Mission Report|p3-2}} allowing for improved RCS thruster deorbit capability as a backup to the SPS.{{sfn|Press Kit|pp=6, 22}}
Considerable testing of the CSM took place, but this was principally Scott's responsibility, allowing McDivitt and Schweickart leisure to observe the Earth; they alerted Scott if anything particularly noteworthy was upcoming, letting him leave his work for a moment to look at Earth too.{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp352–353}} The seventh burn of the SPS system took place on the eighth day, March 10; its purpose was again to aid RCS deorbit capability, as well as extending Gumdrop{{'s}} orbital lifetime. It shifted the apogee of the orbit to the Southern Hemisphere, allowing for a longer free-fall time to entry when Apollo{{nbsp}}9 returned to Earth. The burn was extended to allow for testing of the propellent gaging system, which had been behaving anomalously during earlier SPS burns.{{sfn|Mission Report|p3-2}}{{sfn|Press Kit|p22}} Once it was accomplished, Apollo{{nbsp}}9's RCS thrusters could have returned it to Earth and still allowed it to land in the primary recovery zone had the SPS engine failed. The eighth and final SPS burn, to return the vehicle to Earth, was accomplished on March&nbsp;13, less than an hour after the ten-day mark of the mission, after which the service module was jettisoned. The landing was delayed one orbit because of unfavorable weather in the primary landing zone{{sfn|Mission Report|p7-4}} some {{convert|220|nmi}} ESE of Bermuda.{{sfn|Press Kit|p7}}<ref nameclss>{{cite news |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?id9GxYAAAAIBAJ&sjidEvgDAAAAIBAJ&pg6683%2C3180989 |workSpokane Daily Chronicle |location(Washington) |agencyAssociated Press |titleCapsule's landing sight shifted |dateMarch 12, 1969 |page1}}</ref><ref namemapsite>{{cite news |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?id9GxYAAAAIBAJ&sjidEvgDAAAAIBAJ&pg5651%2C3217879 |workSpokane Daily Chronicle |location(Washington) |agencyAP map |titleSplashdown sites |dateMarch 12, 1969 |page2}}</ref> Instead, Apollo{{nbsp}}9 splashed down {{convert|160|nmi}} east of the Bahamas, about {{convert|3|mi}} from the recovery carrier, the USS Guadalcanal,{{sfn|French & Burgess|p353}} after a mission lasting 10 days, 1{{nbsp}}hour, 54 seconds.{{sfn|Mission Report|p1-2}} Apollo{{nbsp}}9 was the last spacecraft to splash down in the Atlantic Ocean for a half century, until the Crew Dragon Demo-1 mission in 2019,<ref>{{cite web|publisherNASA|titleCrew Dragon splashes down in Atlantic ending first commercial crew mission|lastMoran|firstNorah|dateMarch 8, 2019|access-dateApril 17, 2019|urlhttps://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/03/08/crew-dragon-splashes-down-in-atlantic-ending-first-commercial-crew-mission/}}</ref><ref namesleaf>{{cite news |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?id9WxYAAAAIBAJ&sjidEvgDAAAAIBAJ&pg7360%2C3565458 |workSpokane Daily Chronicle |location(Washington) |agencyAssociated Press |titleSafe landing ends Apollo flight |dateMarch 13, 1969 |page1}}</ref> and last crewed splashdown in the Atlantic until Inspiration4 in 2021.<ref>{{cite news |titleSpaceX Inspiration4 crew returns to Earth in Atlantic Ocean splashdown |urlhttps://www.today.com/news/spacex-inspiration4-crew-makes-splashdown-atlantic-ocean-t231570 |access-dateSeptember 18, 2021 |agencyAssociated Press |dateSeptember 18, 2021 |languageen}}</ref> Hardware disposition
]]
The Apollo{{nbsp}}9 Command Module Gumdrop (1969-018A) is on display at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://sandiegoairandspace.org/collection/item/apollo-ix-command-module|titleApollo IX Command Module|publisherSan Diego Air & Space Museum|access-dateDecember 13, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/spacecraft/location/cm.cfm|titleLocation of Apollo Command Modules|publisherSmithsonian National Air and Space Museum|access-dateAugust 27, 2019|archive-dateJune 1, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210601052353/https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/spacecraft/location/cm.cfm|url-statusdead}}</ref> Gumdrop was formerly displayed at the Michigan Space and Science Center, Jackson, Michigan, until April 2004, when the center closed.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.collectspace.com/news/news-052604a.html|titleMuseum prepares Apollo 9 for display|publishercollectSPACE|access-dateJune 1, 2019|dateJuly 18, 2004|last1French|first1Francis}}</ref> The service module, jettisoned shortly after the deorbit burn, reentered the atmosphere and disintegrated.{{sfn|Press Kit|p=7}}
The ascent stage of LM-3 Spider (1969-018C) reentered on October 23, 1981.<ref name1969-018A>{{cite web |titleApollo 9 |urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id1969-018A |workNASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive |publisherNASA |access-dateApril 7, 2014}}</ref> The descent stage of LM-3 Spider (1969-018D) reentered on March 22, 1969, landing in the Indian Ocean near North Africa.<ref name1969-018A/>{{sfn|Mission Report|p=7-3}}
The S-IVB (1969-018B) was sent into solar orbit, with initial aphelion of {{convert|80093617|mi}}, perihelion of {{convert|44832845|mi}} and orbital period of 245 days.{{sfn|Mission Report|p7-2}} It remains in solar orbit {{asof|2020|lcyes}}.<ref nameha20130923>{{cite web |titleSaturn 5 R/B|urlhttps://www.n2yo.com/satellite/?s3770 |publisherN2YO.com |access-dateJanuary 16, 2020 }}</ref>
Appraisal and aftermath
As NASA Associate Administrator George Mueller put it, "Apollo{{nbsp}}9 was as successful a flight as any of us could ever wish for, as well as being as successful as any of us have ever seen."{{sfn|French & Burgess|p353}} Gene Kranz called Apollo{{nbsp}}9 "sheer exhilaration".{{sfn|French & Burgess|p353}} Apollo Program Director Samuel C. Phillips stated, "in every way, it has exceeded even our most optimistic expectations."{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-22a|p277}} Apollo{{nbsp}}11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin stood in Mission Control as Spider and Gumdrop docked after their separate flights, and with the docking, according to Andrew Chaikin, "Apollo{{nbsp}}9 had fulfilled all its major objectives. At that moment, Aldrin knew Apollo{{nbsp}}10 would also succeed, and that he and Armstrong would attempt to land on the Moon. On March 24, NASA made it official."{{sfn|Chaikin|pp140, 144–145}}
Although he might have been offered command of an Apollo lunar landing mission, McDivitt chose to leave the Astronaut Corps after Apollo{{nbsp}}9, becoming manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program later in 1969. Scott was soon given another spaceflight assignment as backup commander of Apollo 12, and then was made mission commander of Apollo 15, landing on the Moon in 1971. Schweickart volunteered for medical investigation of his spacesickness, but was unable to shake its stigma, and was never again assigned to a prime crew. He took a leave of absence from NASA in 1977 that eventually became permanent.{{sfn|French & Burgess|pp354–362}} Eugene Cernan, commander of Apollo 17, stated that when it came to understanding spacesickness, Schweickart "paid the price for them all".{{sfn|French & Burgess|p357}}
Following the success of Apollo 9, NASA did not conduct the "E mission" (further testing in medium Earth orbit), and even considered skipping the "F mission", the dress rehearsal for the lunar landing, going straight to the landing attempt. As the spacecraft designated for the first landing attempt were still being assembled, this was not done.{{sfn|French & Burgess|p354}} NASA officials also felt that given the past difficulties with the LM, there was a need for a further test flight before the actual landing attempt, and that orbiting the Moon would give them the opportunity to study mass concentrations there, which had affected Apollo{{nbsp}}8's orbit.{{sfn|Science News 1969-03-22a|p278}} According to French and Burgess in their study of the Apollo program, "Apollo{{nbsp}}9's success had ensured that the next Apollo mission would go back to the moon."{{sfn|French & Burgess|p354}} See also * List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999 Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |lastBaker |firstDavid |titleThe History of Manned Space Flight |urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofmanneds0000bake |url-accessregistration |edition1st |year1982 |publisherCrown Publishers |locationNew York |isbn0-517-54377-X |ref=Baker }}
* {{cite book |last1Brooks |first1Courtney G. |last2Grimwood |first2James M. |last3Swenson |first3Loyd S. Jr. |othersForeword by Samuel C. Phillips |titleChariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |access-dateApril 1, 2019 |seriesThe NASA History Series |date1979 |publisherScientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |locationWashington, D.C. |isbn978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc4664449 |lccn79001042 |idNASA SP-4205 |refBrooks, et al. |archive-dateOctober 20, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151020095653/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |url-statusdead }}
* {{cite book|last1Carson|first1Maurice A.|last2Rouen|first2Michael N.|last3Lutz|first3Charles C.|last4McBarron, II|first4James W.|titleBiomedical Results of Apollo|idSP-368|chapterExtravehicular Mobility Unit|chapter-urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/s6ch6.htm|urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/contents.htm|year1975|volumeNASA-SP-368 |locationWashington, D.C.|publisherNASA Johnson Space Center and BioTechnology|refsp368}}
* {{cite book |lastChaikin |firstAndrew |author-linkAndrew Chaikin |titleA Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts |year1994 |publisherViking |locationNew York, NY |isbn978-0-670-81446-6|lccn93048680 |ref{{sfnRef|Chaikin}}|title-link=A Man on the Moon }}
* {{cite book |lastCompton |firstWilliam D. |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4214/contents.html |titleWhere No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions |year1989 |idSP-4214 |publisherU.S. Government Printing Office |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc1045558568 |ref{{sfnRef|Compton}} }}
* {{cite journal
|last=Eberhart
|first=Jonathan
| date = March 1, 1969
| title = Moonward by jungle gym
| jstor =4548203
| journal = Science News
|volume=95
|issue=9
| ref = {{sfnRef|Science News 1969-03-01}}
| pages = 218–219
}}{{subscription required}}
* {{cite book|urlhttp://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20IV|titleThe Apollo Spacecraft{{nbsp}}– A Chronology. Volume IV|last1Ertel|first1Ivan D.|last2Newkirk|first2Roland W.|last3Brooks|first3Courtney G.|publisherNASA|year1975|access-date2008-01-29|idSP-4009|refchronology|archive-dateFebruary 5, 2008|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080205020128/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20IV|url-statusdead}}
* {{cite book|titleNASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978|first1Linda Neuman|last1Ezell|seriesNASA History Series|idSP-4012|year1988|ref=Ezell}}
* {{cite book|titleIn the Shadow of the Moon|author-linkFrancis French (author)|author-link2Colin Burgess (author)| last1French|first1Francis |last2Burgess|first2Colin |publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press|locationLincoln, NE|isbn978-0-8032-2979-2|year2010|orig-year2007|ref{{sfnRef|French & Burgess}}|title-linkIn the Shadow of the Moon (book)}}
* {{cite book |lastHarland |firstDavid M. |titleExploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions |isbn978-1-85233-099-6 |publisherSpringer-Praxis|locationChichester, UK|ref{{sfnRef|Harland}}|year1999 }}
* {{cite book |titleApollo 9 Mission Report |publisherNASA |locationHouston, TX |year1969 |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/static/history/alsj/a410/A09_MissionReport.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A09_MissionReport.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |ref={{sfnRef|Mission Report}} }}
* {{cite book |titleApollo 9 Press Kit |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |year1969 |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A09_PressKit.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A09_PressKit.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |id69-29 |ref{{sfnRef|Press Kit}} }}
* {{cite book |lastOrloff |firstRichard W. |urlhttps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleApollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |seriesNASA History Series |orig-year2000 |dateSeptember 2004 |publisherNASA |locationWashington, D.C. |idSP-4029 |isbn978-0-16-050631-4 |ref={{sfnRef|Orloff}} }}
* {{cite book |last1Orloff |first1Richard W. |last2Harland |first2David M. |author-link2David M. Harland |titleApollo: The Definitive Sourcebook |year2006 |publisherPraxis Publishing Company |locationChichester, UK |isbn978-0-387-30043-6 |ref={{sfnRef|Orloff & Harland}}}}
* {{cite journal
| date = March 15, 1969
| title = Apollo: Healthy in Mid-flight
| jstor =3954137
| journal = Science News
| volume = 95
| issue = 11
| ref = {{sfnRef|Science News 1969-03-15}}
| page = 255
| doi = 10.2307/3954137
}}{{subscription required}}
* {{cite journal
| date = March 22, 1969
| title = Spider Makes Its Mark
| jstor =3953852
| journal = Science News
| volume = 95
| issue = 12
| ref = {{sfnRef|Science News 1969-03-22a}}
| pages = 277–278
| doi = 10.2307/3953852
}}{{subscription required}}
* {{cite journal
| date = March 22, 1969
| title = Space Sciences
| jstor =3953857
| journal = Science News
| volume = 95
| issue = 12
| ref = {{sfnRef|Science News 1969-03-22b}}
| page = 283
| doi = 10.2307/3953857
}}{{subscription required}}
* {{cite book |last1Scott |first1David |typeE-Book |author-link2Alexei Leonov|last2Leonov|first2Alexei |otherswith Christine Toomey |titleTwo Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race |year2006 |publisherSt. Martin's Griffin |isbn978-0-312-30866-7|ref{{sfnRef|Scott & Leonov}}}}
* {{cite book |last1Shepard |first1Alan B. |last2Slayton |first2Donald K. |author-link2Deke Slayton |last3Barbree |first3Jay |author-link3Jay Barbree |last4Benedict |first4Howard|titleMoon Shot: The Inside Story of America's Race to the Moon |title-linkMoon Shot |date1994 |publisherTurner Publishing Company |locationAtlanta |isbn1-878685-54-6 |oclc29846731 |lccn94003027 |ref={{sfnRef|Shepard, Slayton, & Barbree}}}}
* {{cite web|lastThomas|firstKenneth S.|titleThe Apollo Portable Life Support System|urlhttps://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/ALSJ-FlightPLSS.pdf|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/ALSJ-FlightPLSS.pdf|archive-date2022-10-09|url-statuslive|workApollo Lunar Surface Journal}}
* {{cite book|last1Thomas|first1Kenneth S.|last2McMann|first2Harold J.|titleU.S. Spacesuits|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media|dateNov 23, 2011|isbn9781441995667|ref={{sfnRef|Thomas|McMann}}}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Commons category|Apollo 9}}
; NASA reports
* [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19710011038_1971011038.pdf "Apollo 9 flight plan AS-504/CSM-104/LM-3 Final Report"] (PDF) by J. V. Rivers, NASA, February 1969
* [https://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm "Apollo Program Summary Report"] (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975
; Multimedia
* [https://archive.org/details/apollo9_three_to_make_ready Apollo 9: Three to Make Ready] Official NASA documentary film (1969)
* [https://archive.org/details/Apollo0916mmOnboardFilm1 Apollo 9 16mm onboard film part 1], [https://archive.org/details/Apollo0916mmOnboardFilm2 part 2]—Raw footage taken from Apollo 9
* [https://archive.org/details/Apollo9SpaceDuetOfSpidergumdrop Apollo 9: The Space Duet of Spider & Gumdrop], {{OCLC|7682161}}—Official NASA documentary film (1969)
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/images/html/as9.htm Apollo 9 images] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080517125709/http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/images/html/as9.htm |dateMay 17, 2008 }}) at NASA'S Kennedy Space Center
{{Apollo program}}
{{Orbital launches in 1969}}
{{NASA space program}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Apollo 09}}
Category:1969 in the United States
Apollo 09
Category:David Scott
Category:Extravehicular activity
Category:Human spaceflights
Category:James McDivitt
Category:March 1969
Category:Rusty Schweickart
Category:Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets
Category:Spacecraft launched in 1969
Category:Spacecraft which reentered in 1969
Category:Successful space missions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_9
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.936837
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Arthritis
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{{Short description|Type of joint disorder}}
{{Distinguish|Arteritis}}
{{For|the journal|Arthritis (journal){{!}}Arthritis (journal)}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Arthritis
| pronounce {{IPAc-en|ɑːr|ˈ|θ|r|aɪ|t|ɪ|s}}<ref>{{cite web|titlearthritis noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary|urlhttps://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/arthritis|websitewww.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com|access-date=14 December 2017}}</ref>
| image = Rheumatoid Arthritis.JPG
| caption = A hand affected by rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune form of arthritis
| alt = photograph of elderly hand depicting advanced rheumatoid arthritis
| field = Rheumatology
| symptoms Joint pain, stiffness, redness, swelling, decreased range of motion<ref nameniams/><ref name=cdc-ar/>
| complications Amplified musculoskeletal pain syndrome<ref nameChildrensHealth>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.childrens.com/specialties-services/conditions/amplified-musculoskeletal-pain-syndrome-amps |titleAmplified Musculoskeletal Pain Syndrome (AMPS) |publisher=Children's Health}}</ref>
| onset | duration
| types > 100, most common (osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis)<ref namecdc-ar/><ref name=niams-liv/>
| causes | risks Family history, age, sex trait, previous joint injury, obesity.<ref name"mayo">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/arthritis/symptoms-causes/syc-20350772|titleArthritis|publisherMayo Clinic|date29 August 2023 |access-date30 January 2025}}</ref>
| diagnosis | differential
| prevention | treatment Resting, applying ice or heat, weight loss, exercise, joint replacement<ref name=niams-liv/>
| medication Ibuprofen, paracetamol (acetaminophen)<ref name"mayo-pain">{{cite web|publisherMayo Clinic|date20 September 2023|access-date30 January 2025|urlhttps://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/arthritis/in-depth/arthritis/art-20046440|title=Arthritis pain: Do's and don'ts}}</ref>
| frequency | deaths
}}
<!-- Definition and symptoms -->
Arthritis is a general medical term used to describe a disorder that affects joints.<ref name"niams">{{cite web|dateSeptember 2023|titleArthritis and Rheumatic Diseases|urlhttps://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/arthritis-and-rheumatic-diseases|access-date30 January 2025 |publisherNational Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, US National Institutes of Health}}</ref> Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness.<ref nameniams/> Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints.<ref nameniams/><ref namecdc-ar>{{cite web|titleArthritis|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/basics/index.html |publisherUS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date22 March 2024|access-date30 January 2025}}</ref> In certain types of arthritis, other organs such as the skin are also affected.<ref nameniams-liv>{{cite web |titleLiving With Arthritis: Health Information Basics for You and Your Family|urlhttps://www.niams.nih.gov/community-outreach-initiative/understanding-joint-health/living-with-arthritis|publisherNational Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, US National Institutes of Health|dateMay 2023|access-date30 January 2025 }}</ref> Onset can be gradual or sudden.<ref name=cdc-ar/>
<!-- Cause and diagnosis -->
There are several types of arthritis.<ref nameniams/><ref>{{cite book | vauthors Clegg HB, Jackson L |titleEating well to fight arthritis: 200 easy recipes and practical tips to help reduce inflammation and ease symptoms |year2013 |publisherFavorite Recipes Press |isbn978-0-9815640-5-0 |oclc854909375}}</ref><ref nameAth2013>{{cite book| vauthors Athanasiou KA, Darling EM, Hu JC, DuRaine GD, Reddi AH |titleArticular Cartilage|date2013 |publisherCRC Press|isbn9781439853252|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBn_RBQAAQBAJ&pgPA105 |page105}}</ref> The most common forms are osteoarthritis (most commonly seen in weightbearing joints) and rheumatoid arthritis.<ref nameniams/> Osteoarthritis usually occurs as an individual ages and often affects the hips, knees, shoulders, and fingers.<ref nameniams-liv/> Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disorder that often affects the hands and feet.<ref nameniams-liv/> Other types of arthritis include gout, lupus, and septic arthritis.<ref namecdc-ar/><ref nameniams-liv/> These are inflammatory based types of rheumatic disease.<ref name=niams/>
<!-- Treatment -->
Early treatment for arthritis commonly includes resting the affected joint and conservative measures such as heating or icing.<ref nameniams-liv/> Weight loss and exercise may also be useful to reduce the force across a weightbearing joint.<ref nameniams-liv/> Medication intervention for symptoms depends on the form of arthritis.<ref nameniams-liv/> These may include anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen and paracetamol (acetaminophen). With severe cases of arthritis, joint replacement surgery may be necessary.<ref nameniams-liv/>
<!-- Epidemiology and history -->
Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis affecting more than 3.8% of people, while rheumatoid arthritis is the second most common affecting about 0.24% of people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors March L, Smith EU, Hoy DG, Cross MJ, Sanchez-Riera L, Blyth F, Buchbinder R, Vos T, Woolf AD | display-authors 6 | title Burden of disability due to musculoskeletal (MSK) disorders | journal Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology | volume 28 | issue 3 | pages 353–366 | date June 2014 | pmid 25481420 | doi 10.1016/j.berh.2014.08.002 }}</ref> In Australia about 15% of people are affected by arthritis,<ref nameABS2015>{{cite web|websiteABS |urlhttp://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/allprimarymainfeatures/F6CE5715FE4AC1B1CA257AA30014C725?opendocument|access-date14 January 2017 |titleNational Health Survey|date8 December 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170116162239/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/F6CE5715FE4AC1B1CA257AA30014C725?opendocument|archive-date16 January 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref> while in the United States more than 20% have a type of arthritis.<ref namecdc-ar/> Overall arthritis becomes more common with age.<ref nameniams/> Arthritis is a common reason people are unable to carry out their work and can result in decreased ability to complete activities of daily living.<ref nameniams/><ref namecdc-ar/> The term arthritis is derived from arthr- (meaning 'joint') and -itis (meaning 'inflammation').<ref>{{cite book| veditors Waite M |titlePaperback Oxford English Dictionary|date2012|publisherOxford University Press |placeOxford |isbn9780199640942 |page35|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmYicAQAAQBAJ&pgPA35 |url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220150636/https://books.google.com/books?idmYicAQAAQBAJ&pgPA35|archive-date20 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthorsLeonard C|titleQuick & Easy Medical Terminology - E-Book|date2015|publisherElsevier Health Sciences|isbn9780323370646 |page160|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_h2KCwAAQBAJ&pgPA160}}</ref> Classification
There are several diseases where joint pain is the most prominent symptom. Generally when a person has "arthritis" it means that they have one of the following diseases:
* Hemarthrosis
* Osteoarthritis<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/osteoarthritis/| title Osteoarthritis|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Rheumatoid arthritis<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/rheumatoid-arthritis/| title Rheumatoid Arthritis
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Gout and pseudo-gout<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/gout/| title Gout|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library | date 9 September 2020|access-date= 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Septic arthritis<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/septic-arthritis/| title Septic Arthritis
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Ankylosing spondylitis<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/ankylosing-spondylitis/| title Ankylosing Spondylitis
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Juvenile idiopathic arthritis<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Prakken B, Albani S, Martini A | title Juvenile idiopathic arthritis | journal Lancet | volume 377 | issue 9783 | pages 2138–2149 | date June 2011 | pmid 21684384 | doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60244-4 | s2cid 202802455 }}</ref>
* Still's disease<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Akkara Veetil BM, Yee AH, Warrington KJ, Aksamit AJ, Mason TG | title Aseptic meningitis in adult onset Still's disease | journal Rheumatology International | volume 32 | issue 12 | pages 4031–4034 | date December 2012 | pmid 20495923 | doi 10.1007/s00296-010-1529-8 | s2cid 19431424 }}</ref>
* Psoriatic arthritis<ref>{{cite web| vauthors Garrick N |date14 April 2017|titlePsoriatic Arthritis|urlhttps://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/psoriatic-arthritis|access-date24 November 2021|websiteNational Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases|language=en}}</ref>
Joint pain can also be a symptom of other diseases. In this case, the person may not have arthritis and instead have one of the following diseases:
* Psoriasis<ref>{{cite web|titleQuestions and Answers About Psoriasis|urlhttps://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/psoriasis/|websiteNational Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases|access-date22 April 2017|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170422134800/https://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/psoriasis/|archive-date22 April 2017|date12 April 2017}}</ref>
* Reactive arthritis<ref>{{cite web|titleReactive Arthritis|authorAmerican College of Rheumatology|access-date24 January 2017|urlhttp://www.rheumatology.org/I-Am-A/Patient-Caregiver/Diseases-Conditions/Reactive-Arthritis}}</ref>
* Ehlers–Danlos syndrome<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/ehlers-danlos-syndrome/| title Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Iron overload<ref>{{cite book | vauthors McDowell LA, Kudaravalli P, Sticco KL | chapter Iron Overload |date2021 | chapter-url http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526131/ | title StatPearls|placeTreasure Island (FL)|publisherStatPearls Publishing|pmid30252387|access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref>
* Hepatitis<ref>{{cite web | titleHepatitis | websiteMedlinePlus | date20 May 2020 | urlhttps://medlineplus.gov/hepatitis.html | access-date19 July 2020 | quoteYour liver is the largest organ inside your body. It helps your body digest food, store energy, and remove poisons. Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleHepatitis|urlhttps://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/hepatitis|websiteNIAID|access-date2 November 2016|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161104002228/https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/hepatitis|archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref>
* Lyme disease<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/lyme-disease/| title Lyme Disease
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Sjögren's disease<ref>{{cite web|titleWhat Is Sjögren's Syndrome? Fast Facts| url http://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/sjogrens_syndrome/sjogrens_syndrome_ff.asp|websiteNIAMS|access-date15 July 2016| dateNovember 2014| url-status live |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160704210602/http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Sjogrens_Syndrome/sjogrens_syndrome_ff.asp|archive-date4 July 2016}}</ref>
* Hashimoto's thyroiditis<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/hashimotos-thyroiditis/| title Hashimoto's Thyroiditis
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Celiac disease<ref nameGuandaliniAssiri2014>{{cite journal | vauthors Guandalini S, Assiri A | title Celiac disease: a review | journal JAMA Pediatrics | volume 168 | issue 3 | pages 272–278 | date March 2014 | pmid 24395055 | doi 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.3858 }}</ref>
* Non-celiac gluten sensitivity<ref name"FasanoSapone2015">{{cite journal | vauthors Fasano A, Sapone A, Zevallos V, Schuppan D | title Nonceliac gluten sensitivity | journal Gastroenterology | volume 148 | issue 6 | pages 1195–1204 | date May 2015 | pmid 25583468 | doi 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.12.049 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref nameVoltaCaio2015>{{cite journal | vauthors Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE | title Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders | journal Best Practice & Research. Clinical Gastroenterology | volume 29 | issue 3 | pages 477–491 | date June 2015 | pmid 26060112 | doi 10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006 }}</ref><ref name"CatassiBai2013">{{cite journal | vauthors Catassi C, Bai JC, Bonaz B, Bouma G, Calabrò A, Carroccio A, Castillejo G, Ciacci C, Cristofori F, Dolinsek J, Francavilla R, Elli L, Green P, Holtmeier W, Koehler P, Koletzko S, Meinhold C, Sanders D, Schumann M, Schuppan D, Ullrich R, Vécsei A, Volta U, Zevallos V, Sapone A, Fasano A | display-authors 6 | title Non-Celiac Gluten sensitivity: the new frontier of gluten related disorders | journal Nutrients | volume 5 | issue 10 | pages 3839–3853 | date September 2013 | pmid 24077239 | pmc 3820047 | doi 10.3390/nu5103839 | type Review | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* Inflammatory bowel disease (including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/crohns-disease/| title Crohn's Disease
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library | date 28 August 2020
|access-date22 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/ulcerative-colitis/| title= Ulcerative Colitis
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library | date 26 August 2020
|access-date= 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Henoch–Schönlein purpura<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/henoch-schonlein-purpura/| title Henoch-Schönlein Purpura
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Hyperimmunoglobulinemia D with recurrent fever
* Sarcoidosis<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/sarcoidosis/| title Sarcoidosis|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* Whipple's disease<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/whipples-disease/| title Whipple's Disease
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
* TNF receptor associated periodic syndrome<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Rezaei N | title TNF-receptor-associated periodic syndrome (TRAPS): an autosomal dominant multisystem disorder | journal Clinical Rheumatology | volume 25 | issue 6 | pages 773–777 | date November 2006 | pmid 16447098 | doi 10.1007/s10067-005-0198-6 | s2cid 41808394 }}subscription needed</ref>
* Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (and many other vasculitis syndromes)
* Familial Mediterranean fever<ref>{{cite book | vauthors James W, Berger T, Elston D | date 2005 | title Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology | edition 10th | publisher Saunders | isbn 0-7216-2921-0 }}</ref>
* Systemic lupus erythematosus<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.lecturio.com/concepts/systemic-lupus-erythematosus/| title Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
|websiteThe Lecturio Medical Concept Library |access-date 22 August 2021}}</ref>
{{anchor|undifferentiated}}
An undifferentiated arthritis is an arthritis that does not fit into well-known clinical disease categories, possibly being an early stage of a definite rheumatic disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Wollenhaupt J, Zeidler H | title Undifferentiated arthritis and reactive arthritis | journal Current Opinion in Rheumatology | volume 10 | issue 4 | pages 306–313 | date July 1998 | pmid 9725091 | doi 10.1097/00002281-199807000-00005 }}</ref> Signs and symptoms {| class"wikitable" align="right"
|-
! Extra-articular features of joint disease<ref>{{cite book | veditors Swash M, Glynn M |titleHutchison's Clinical Methods: An Integrated Approach to Clinical Practice |date2007 |publisherSaunders Elsevier |locationEdinburgh |isbn978-0702027994 |edition=22nd}}</ref>
|-
| Cutaneous nodules
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| Cutaneous vasculitis lesions
|-
| Lymphadenopathy
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| Oedema
|-
| Ocular inflammation
|-
| Urethritis
|-
| Tenosynovitis (tendon sheath effusions)
|-
| Bursitis (swollen bursa)
|-
| Diarrhea
|-
| Orogenital ulceration
|}
Pain in varying severity is a common symptom in most types of arthritis.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors Eustice C |titleArthritis: types of arthritis |date2012 |publisherAdams Media |isbn978-1-4405-4446-0 |oclc808835849}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors Galloway JB, Scott DL |chapterManagement of common types of arthritis in older adults |dateDecember 2017 |titleOxford Textbook of Geriatric Medicine |pages577–584 |publisherOxford University Press |doi10.1093/med/9780198701590.003.0075 |isbn978-0-19-870159-0 }}</ref> Other symptoms include swelling, joint stiffness, redness, and aching around the joint(s).<ref nameniams/> Arthritic disorders like lupus and rheumatoid arthritis can affect other organs in the body, leading to a variety of symptoms including:<ref namecdc-ar/>
* Inability to use the hand or walk
* Stiffness in one or more joints
* Rash or itch
* Malaise and fatigue
* Weight loss
* Poor sleep
* Muscle aches and pains
* Tenderness
* Difficulty moving the joint
Causes
Several factors contribute to the development of arthritis, differing on the type of arthritis.<ref nameniams/><ref namemayo/>
Osteoarthritis occurs from damage to joint cartilage from prior injury or long-term wear-and-tear, resulting in bone-to-bone contact and grinding.<ref namemayo/> The resulting arthritis can occur over years, or be worsened by further injury or infection.<ref namemayo/> If joint cartilage is severely damaged, inflammation and swelling may add to the extent and pain of osteoarthritis.<ref name=mayo/>
In rheumatoid arthritis, the immune system itself, which normally serves to protect against infection and diseases, attacks the lining of the joint capsule, causing inflammation and swelling.<ref namemayo/><ref nameniams-ra/>
Gout is a form of arthritis caused by excessive uric acid production, resulting in urate crystals depositing in joints, particularly in extremities, such as toes.<ref name"niams-gout">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/gout|titleGout|dateDecember 2023|access-date30 January 2025|publisherNational Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, US National Institutes of Health}}</ref><ref name"mayo-gout">{{cite web |titleGout |urlhttps://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gout/symptoms-causes/syc-20372897 |publisherMayo Clinic |access-date30 January 2025 |date16 November 2022}}</ref> Urate levels in the blood may increase from consuming purine-rich foods or from body factors affecting urate clearance from the blood, a topic remaining under study.<ref name=niams-gout/>
Arthritis types may also include ankylosing spondylitis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and reactive arthritis, among others.<ref nameniams/><ref namemayo/>
Risk factors
There are common risk factors that increase a person's chance of developing arthritis later in adulthood. Some of these are modifiable while others are not.<ref nameniams/><ref namecdc-ar/>
Some common risk factors that can increase the chances of developing osteoarthritis include obesity, prior injury to the joint, type of joint, and muscle strength.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Vina |first1Ernest R. |last2Kwoh |first2C. Kent |dateMarch 2018 |titleEpidemiology of Osteoarthritis: Literature Update |journalCurrent Opinion in Rheumatology |volume30 |issue2 |pages160–167 |doi10.1097/BOR.0000000000000479 |issn1040-8711 |pmc5832048 |pmid29227353}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Christensen |first1Robin |last2Bartels |first2Else Marie |last3Astrup |first3Arne |last4Bliddal |first4Henning |dateApril 2007 |titleEffect of weight reduction in obese patients diagnosed with knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journalAnnals of the Rheumatic Diseases |volume66 |issue4 |pages433–439 |doi10.1136/ard.2006.065904 |issn0003-4967 |pmc1856062 |pmid17204567}}</ref>
The risk factors with the strongest association for developing inflammatory arthritis (such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus arthritis) are the female sex, a family history, age, obesity, joint damage from a previous injury, and exposure to tobacco smoke.<ref namemayo/><ref>{{Citation |last1Chauhan |first1Krati |titleRheumatoid Arthritis |date2025 |workStatPearls |urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441999/ |access-date2025-01-24 |placeTreasure Island (FL) |publisherStatPearls Publishing |pmid28723028 |last2Jandu |first2Jagmohan S. |last3Brent |first3Lawrence H. |last4Al-Dhahir |first4Mohammed A.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsDeane KD, Demoruelle MK, Kelmenson LB, Kuhn KA, Norris JM, Holers VM |dateFebruary 2017 |titleGenetic and environmental risk factors for rheumatoid arthritis |journalBest Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology |volume31 |issue1 |pages3–18 |doi10.1016/j.berh.2017.08.003 |pmc5726551 |pmid=29221595}}</ref>
Smoking has been linked to an increased susceptibility of developing arthritis, particularly rheumatoid arthritis.<ref>{{cite web |titleSmoking and Rheumatoid Arthritis |urlhttps://www.nras.org.uk/smoking-and-rheumatoid-arthritis |websiteNRAS |publisherNational Rheumatoid Arthritis Society |access-date20 November 2020}}</ref> Diagnosis
{{Synovial fluid analysis}}
Diagnosis is made by clinical examination from an appropriate health professional, and may be supported by tests such as radiologic imaging and blood tests, depending on the type of suspected arthritis.<ref>{{cite web|title How is arthritis diagnosed? {{!}} Arthritis Research UK|url http://www.arthritisresearchuk.org/arthritis-information/conditions/arthritis/diagnosis.aspx|website www.arthritisresearchuk.org|access-date 9 June 2015|url-status live|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150402061641/http://www.arthritisresearchuk.org/arthritis-information/conditions/arthritis/diagnosis.aspx|archive-date 2 April 2015}}</ref> Pain patterns may vary depending on the type of arthritis and the location. Rheumatoid arthritis is generally worse in the morning and associated with stiffness lasting over 30 minutes.<ref name":5">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/rheumatoid-arthritis|titleRheumatoid Arthritis| vauthors Garrick N |date20 April 2017|websiteNational Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases|access-date6 May 2019}}</ref> On the other hand, with osteoarthritis, the pain tends to initially be related to activity and then becomes more constant over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Yu |first1Huan |last2Huang |first2Tianwen |last3Lu |first3William Weijia |last4Tong |first4Liping |last5Chen |first5Di |date2022-04-22 |titleOsteoarthritis Pain |journalInternational Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume23 |issue9 |pages4642 |doi10.3390/ijms23094642 |doi-accessfree |issn1422-0067 |pmc9105801 |pmid=35563035}}</ref>
Important features to look out for include the following:
* Rate of onset of symptoms
* Pattern of joint involvement
* Symmetry of symptoms
* Early morning stiffness
* Associated tenderness around the joint
* Locking of joint with inactivity
* Aggravating and relieving factors, and/or
* Presence of systemic symptoms
Physical examination may include observing the affected joints, evaluating gait, and examining the skin for findings that could be related to rheumatological disease or pulmonary inflammation. Physical examination may confirm the diagnosis or may indicate systemic disease. Chest radiographs are often used to follow progression or help assess severity.<ref name"davis">{{cite journal |last1Davis |first1J. Lucian |last2Murray |first2John F. |date2016 |titleHistory and Physical Examination |journalMurray and Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine |pages263–277.e2 |doi10.1016/B978-1-4557-3383-5.00016-6 |pmc7152492|isbn978-1-4557-3383-5 }}</ref>
Screening blood tests for suspected arthritis include: rheumatoid factor, antinuclear factor (ANF), extractable nuclear antigen, and specific antibodies.<ref name=davis/>
Rheumatoid arthritis patients often have elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR, also known as sed rate) or C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, which indicates the presence of an inflammatory process in the body.<ref name":5" /> Anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibodies and rheumatoid factor (RF) are two more common blood tests when assessing for rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name":5" />
Imaging tests like X-rays are commonly utilized to diagnose and monitor arthritis.<ref name":2" /> Other imaging tests for rheumatoid arthritis that may be considered include computed tomography (CT) scanning, positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, bone scanning, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA).<ref name":2">{{cite web |titleRheumatoid arthritis - Diagnosis |urlhttps://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rheumatoid-arthritis/diagnosis/ |websitenhs.uk |languageen |date23 October 2017}}</ref> Osteoarthritis
{{Main|Osteoarthritis}}
Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common form of arthritis.<ref nameVan2010>{{cite journal | vauthors VanItallie TB | title Gout: epitome of painful arthritis | journal Metabolism | volume 59 | issue Suppl 1 | pages S32–S36 | date October 2010 | pmid 20837191 | doi 10.1016/j.metabol.2010.07.009 }}</ref> It affects humans and other animals, notably dogs, but also occurs in cats and horses. It can affect both the larger (ie. knee, hip, shoulder, etc.) and the smaller joints (ie. fingers, toes, foot, etc.) of the body. The disease is caused by daily wear and tear of the joint. This process can progress more rapidly as a result of injury to the joint. Osteoarthritis is caused by the break down of the smooth surface between two bones, known as cartilage, which can eventually lead to the two opposing bones coming in direct contact and eroding one another. OA symptoms typically begin with minor pain during physical activity, but can eventually progress to be present at rest. The pain can be debilitating and prevent one from doing activities that they would normally do as part of their daily routine. OA typically affects the weight-bearing joints, such as the back, knee and hip due to the mechanical nature of this disease process. Unlike rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis is most commonly a disease of the elderly. The strongest predictor of osteoarthritis is increased age, likely due to the declining ability of chondrocytes to maintain the structural integrity of cartilage.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Pereira D, Ramos E, Branco J | title Osteoarthritis | journal Acta Médica Portuguesa | volume 28 | issue 1 | pages 99–106 | date January 2015 | pmid 25817486 | doi 10.20344/amp.5477 | doi-access free }}</ref> More than 30 percent of women have some degree of osteoarthritis by age 65. One of the primary tools for diagnosing OA are X-rays of the joint. Findings on X-ray that are consistent with OA include those with joint space narrowing (due to cartilage breakdown), bone spurs, sclerosis, and bone cysts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Fan |first1Zijuan |last2Yan |first2Lei |last3Liu |first3Haifeng |last4Li |first4Xiaoke |last5Fan |first5Kenan |last6Liu |first6Qiang |last7Li |first7Jiao Jiao |last8Wang |first8Bin |date2023-03-29 |titleThe prevalence of hip osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journalArthritis Research & Therapy |languageen |volume25 |issue1 |page51 |doi10.1186/s13075-023-03033-7 |doi-accessfree |issn1478-6362 |pmc10053484 |pmid36991481}}</ref>
Rheumatoid arthritis
{{Main|Rheumatoid arthritis}}
s by rheumatoid arthritis<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ideguchi H, Ohno S, Hattori H, Senuma A, Ishigatsubo Y | title Bone erosions in rheumatoid arthritis can be repaired through reduction in disease activity with conventional disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs | journal Arthritis Research & Therapy | volume 8 | issue 3 | pages R76 | year 2006 | pmid 16646983 | pmc 1526642 | doi 10.1186/ar1943 | doi-access = free }}</ref>]]
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a disorder in which the body's own immune system starts to attack body tissues specifically the cartilage at the end of bones known as articular cartilage.<ref name"niams-ra">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/rheumatoid-arthritis |titleRheumatoid arthritis|dateNovember 2022|access-date30 January 2025|publisherNational Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, US National Institutes of Health}}</ref> The attack is not only directed at the joint but to many other parts of the body. RA often affects joints in the fingers, wrists, knees and elbows, is symmetrical (appears on both sides of the body), and can lead to severe progressive deformity in a matter of years if not adequately treated. RA usually onsets earlier in life than OA and commonly effects people aged 20 and above. In children, the disorder can present with a skin rash, fever, pain, disability, and limitations in daily activities.<ref nameniams-ra/> With earlier diagnosis and appropriate aggressive treatment, many individuals can obtain control of their symptoms leading to a better quality of life compared to those without treatment.<ref nameniams-ra/><ref>{{cite report |urlhttps://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/topics/rheumatoid-arthritis-medicine-update/final-report-update-2018 |titleDrug Therapy for Early Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systematic Review Update |last1Donahue |first1Katrina E. |last2Gartlehner |first2Gerald |date2018 |publisherAgency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) |doi10.23970/ahrqepccer211 |last3Schulman |first3Elizabeth R. |last4Jonas |first4Beth |last5Coker-Schwimmer |first5Emmanuel |last6Patel |first6Sheila V. |last7Weber |first7Rachel Palmieri |last8Lohr |first8Kathleen N. |last9Bann |first9Carla|doi-accessfree }}</ref>
One of the main triggers of bone erosion in the joints in rheumatoid arthritis is inflammation of the synovium (lining of the joint capsule), caused in part by the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL), a cell surface protein present in Th17 cells and osteoblasts.<ref name"Chabaud_2000">{{cite journal | vauthors Chabaud M, Garnero P, Dayer JM, Guerne PA, Fossiez F, Miossec P | title Contribution of interleukin 17 to synovium matrix destruction in rheumatoid arthritis | journal Cytokine | volume 12 | issue 7 | pages 1092–1099 | date July 2000 | pmid 10880256 | doi 10.1006/cyto.2000.0681 }}</ref> Osteoclast activity can be directly induced by osteoblasts through the RANK/RANKL mechanism.<ref name"pmid21464945">{{cite journal | vauthors Won HY, Lee JA, Park ZS, Song JS, Kim HY, Jang SM, Yoo SE, Rhee Y, Hwang ES, Bae MA | display-authors 6 | title Prominent bone loss mediated by RANKL and IL-17 produced by CD4+ T cells in TallyHo/JngJ mice | journal PLOS ONE | volume 6 | issue 3 | pages e18168 | date March 2011 | pmid 21464945 | pmc 3064589 | doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0018168 | bibcode 2011PLoSO...618168W | doi-access free }}</ref>
Lupus
{{Main|Lupus erythematosus}}
Lupus is an autoimmune collagen vascular disorder that can be present with severe arthritis. In fact, about 90% of patients with Lupus have musculoskeletal involvement.<ref name":6">{{Cite journal |last1Ceccarelli |first1Fulvia |last2Govoni |first2Marcello |last3Piga |first3Matteo |last4Cassone |first4Giulia |last5Cantatore |first5Francesco Paolo |last6Olivieri |first6Giulio |last7Cauli |first7Alberto |last8Favalli |first8Ennio Giulio |last9Atzeni |first9Fabiola |last10Gremese |first10Elisa |last11Iannone |first11Florenzo |last12Caporali |first12Roberto |last13Sebastiani |first13Marco |last14Ferraccioli |first14Gian Franco |last15Lapadula |first15Giovanni |date2022-10-12 |titleArthritis in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: From 2022 International GISEA/OEG Symposium |journalJournal of Clinical Medicine |languageen |volume11 |issue20 |pages6016 |doi10.3390/jcm11206016 |doi-accessfree |issn2077-0383 |pmc9604412 |pmid36294337}}</ref> Symptoms in these patients can often mimic those of rheumatoid arthritis with similar stiffness and pain patterns. Joints in the fingers, wrist, and knee tend to be the most affected.<ref name":6" /> Other features commonly seen in patients with Lupus include a skin rash (pictured on the right), extreme photosensitivity, hair loss, kidney problems, and shortness of breath secondary to scarring that occurs in the lungs.<ref>{{EMedicine|article|331715|Rheumatoid Arthritis: Differential Diagnoses & Workup|diagnosis}}</ref>
Gout
{{Main|Gout}}
In the early stages of gout, usually only one joint is affected; however over time, many joints can become affected. Gout most commonly occurs in joints located in the big toe, knee, and/or fingers.<ref namemayo-gout/> During a gout flare, the affected joints often become swollen with associated warmth and redness. The resulting pain can be significant and potentially debilitating.<ref name"Becker">{{cite book |titleArthritis and Allied Conditions: A textbook of Rheumatology edition 15 |vauthorsBecker MA |publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins |year2005 |pages2303–2339}}</ref> When one of these flares occurs, management involves the use of anti-inflammatories, such as NSAIDs, colchicine, or glucocorticoids.<ref name":8">{{Cite journal |last1Afinogenova |first1Yuliya |last2Danve |first2Abhijeet |last3Neogi |first3Tuhina |date2022-03-01 |titleUpdate on Gout Management: what's old and what's new |journalCurrent Opinion in Rheumatology |volume34 |issue2 |pages118–124 |doi10.1097/BOR.0000000000000861 |issn1040-8711 |pmc8799507 |pmid34907116}}</ref> In between gout flares, it is recommended that patients take medications that decrease the production of uric acid (i.e. allopurinol, febuxostat) or increase the elimination of uric acid from the body (i.e. probenecid).<ref name":8" /><ref name"Ali">{{cite journal |vauthorsAli S, Lally EV |dateNovember 2009 |titleTreatment failure gout |journalMedicine and Health, Rhode Island |volume92 |issue11 |pages369–371 |citeseerx10.1.1.608.3812 |pmid=19999896}}</ref>
Gout has been associated with excessive intake of alcohol and food, such as red meat.<ref namemayo-gout/> Thus, it is also recommended that patients with gout adhere to a diet rich in fiber, vegetables, and whole grains, while limiting the intake of alcohol and fatty foods.<ref namemayo-gout/>
There is also an uncommon form of gout that is known as pseudogout, which is caused by the formation of calcium pyrophosphate crystals in the joint.<ref name":9">{{Cite journal |last1Stack |first1John |last2McCarthy |first2Geraldine |date2021-12-01 |titleCalcium pyrophosphate deposition (CPPD) disease – Treatment options |journalBest Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology |seriesCrystal Induced Arthritis |volume35 |issue4 |pages101720 |doi10.1016/j.berh.2021.101720 |pmid34756508 |issn1521-6942|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Unlike gout, no targeted treatments are currently available.<ref name":9" /> At this time, management is aimed at decreasing inflammation in order to reduce the intensity and frequency of flares.<ref name":9" />
Comparison of types
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Comparison of some major forms of arthritis<ref nameagabegi2nd6-7unless>Unless otherwise specified in table box, the reference is: {{cite book | vauthors Agabegi ED, Agabegi SS |chapterTable 6–7 |titleStep-Up to Medicine |urlhttps://archive.org/details/stepuptomedicine0000agab |url-accessregistration |seriesStep-Up Series |publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins |locationHagerstwon MD |year2008 |page[https://archive.org/details/stepuptomedicine0000agab/page/253 253] |isbn978-0-7817-7153-5 }}</ref>
|-
! !! Osteoarthritis !! Rheumatoid arthritis !! Gouty arthritis
|-
! Speed of onset
| Months-Years || Weeks-months<ref nameChan1994>Diagnosis lag time of median 4 weeks, and median diagnosis lag time of 18 weeks, taken from: {{cite journal | vauthors Chan KW, Felson DT, Yood RA, Walker AM | title The lag time between onset of symptoms and diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis | journal Arthritis and Rheumatism | volume 37 | issue 6 | pages 814–820 | date June 1994 | pmid 8003053 | doi 10.1002/art.1780370606 }}</ref> || Hours for an attack<ref nameHarwood-Nuss2009>{{cite book | vauthors Schaider J, Wolfson AB, Hendey GW, Ling L, Rosen CL |titleHarwood-Nuss' Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine (Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine (Harwood-Nuss)) |publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins |locationHagerstwon, MD |year2009 |pages740 (upper right of page) |isbn978-0-7817-8943-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIdb0Z658lFQC&pgPT773 |url-status live|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150321185321/http://books.google.com/books?idIdb0Z658lFQC&pgPT773 |archive-date21 March 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! Main locations
| Weight-bearing joints (such as knees, hips, vertebral column) and hands
| Hands (proximal interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joint) wrists, ankles, knees and hips
| Great toe, ankles, knees and elbows
|-
! Inflammation
| May occur, though often mild compared to inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis || Yes || Yes
|-
! Radiologic changes
|
* Narrowed joint space
* Osteophytes
* Local osteosclerosis
* Subchondral cysts
|
* Narrowed joint space
* Bone erosions
|
* "Punched out" bone erosions
|-
! Laboratory findings
| None || Anemia, elevated ESR and C-reactive protein (CRP), rheumatoid factor, anti-citrullinated protein antibody
| Crystal in joints
|-
!Other features
|
* No systemic signs
* Bouchard's and Heberden's nodes
|
* Extra-articular features are common
* Ulnar deviation, swan neck- and Boutonniere deformity of the hand
|
* Tophi
* Nephrolithiasis
|}
Other
Infectious arthritis is another severe form of arthritis that is sometimes referred to as septic arthritis. It typically occurs when a patient is ill or has an infection. Common symptoms include the sudden onset of chills, fever, and joint pain. The condition is caused by bacteria that spread through the blood stream from elsewhere in the body. This bacteria can travel to specific joints and start to erode cartilage. Infectious arthritis must be rapidly diagnosed and treated promptly in order to prevent irreversible joint damage.<ref>{{cite web | url http://www.arthritis.org/ | title Severe Arthritis Disease Facts | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070423120449/http://www.arthritis.org/ | work Arthritis.org | archive-date23 April 2007 | access-date 5 February 2010 }}</ref> Only about 1% of cases of infectious arthritis are a result of viruses.<ref name"pmid27037381">{{cite journal | vauthors Marks M, Marks JL | title Viral arthritis | journal Clinical Medicine | volume 16 | issue2 | pages 129–134 | date2016 | doi 10.7861/clinmedicine.16-2-129 | pmc4868140 | pmid 27037381}}</ref> Within recent years, the virus SARS-CoV-2, which causes Covid-19, has been added to this list.<ref name"pmid35655110">{{cite journal | vauthors Slouma M, Abbes M, Louzir B | title Reactive arthritis occurring after COVID-19 infection: a narrative review | journal Infection | volume 51 | issue1 | pages 37–45 | date2023 | doi 10.1007/s15010-022-01858-z | pmc9162104 | pmid 35655110}}</ref> SARS-CoV-2 tends to cause reactive arthritis rather than local septic arthritis.<ref name="pmid35655110" />
Psoriasis can develop into psoriatic arthritis.<ref name":3" /> With psoriatic arthritis, most individuals first develop skin symptoms (such as scaly patches and itchiness) and then begin to experience joint related symptoms. They typically experience continuous joint pain, stiffness and swelling like other forms of arthritis. This disease can go into remission, but there is currently no known cure for the disorder.<ref name":3" /> Treatment current revolves around decreasing autoimmune attacks with immune suppressive medications.<ref name":3" /> A small percentage of patients with psoriatic arthritis can develop a severely painful and destructive form of arthritis which destroys the small joints in the hands and sometimes lead to permanent disability and loss of hand function.<ref name":3">{{cite web | url http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/psoriatic-arthritis/DS00476/DSECTIONsymptoms | title Psoriatic Arthritis | work Mayo Clinic | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100209073725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/psoriatic-arthritis/DS00476/DSECTION%3Dsymptoms | archive-date9 February 2010 | access-date 5 February 2010 }}</ref> Treatment There is no known cure for arthritis and rheumatic diseases. Treatment options vary depending on the type of arthritis and include physical therapy, exercise and diet, orthopedic bracing, and oral and topical medications.<ref nameniams/><ref>{{cite web|titleKnee braces for osteoarthritis - Mayo Clinic|urlhttps://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/knee-braces/about/pac-20384791|access-date31 March 2021|websitewww.mayoclinic.org}}</ref> Joint replacement surgery may be required to repair damage, restore function, or relieve pain.<ref nameniams/> Physical therapy In general, studies have shown that physical exercise of the affected joint can noticeably improve long-term pain relief. Furthermore, exercise of the arthritic joint is encouraged to maintain the health of the particular joint and the overall body of the person.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ettinger WH, Burns R, Messier SP, Applegate W, Rejeski WJ, Morgan T, Shumaker S, Berry MJ, O'Toole M, Monu J, Craven T | display-authors 6 | title A randomized trial comparing aerobic exercise and resistance exercise with a health education program in older adults with knee osteoarthritis. The Fitness Arthritis and Seniors Trial (FAST) | journal JAMA | volume 277 | issue 1 | pages 25–31 | date January 1997 | pmid 8980206 | doi = 10.1001/jama.1997.03540250033028 }}</ref>
Individuals with arthritis can benefit from both physical and occupational therapy. In arthritis the joints become stiff and the range of movement can be limited. Physical therapy has been shown to significantly improve function, decrease pain, and delay the need for surgical intervention in advanced cases.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fransen M, Crosbie J, Edmonds J | title Physical therapy is effective for patients with osteoarthritis of the knee: a randomized controlled clinical trial | journal The Journal of Rheumatology | volume 28 | issue 1 | pages 156–164 | date January 2001 | pmid 11196518 | url http://www.jrheum.org/cgi/pmidlookup?viewlong&pmid11196518 }}</ref> Exercise prescribed by a physical therapist has been shown to be more effective than medications in treating osteoarthritis of the knee. Exercise often focuses on improving muscle strength, endurance and flexibility. In some cases, exercises may be designed to train balance. Occupational therapy can provide assistance with activities. Assistive technology is a tool used to aid a person's disability by reducing their physical barriers by improving the use of their damaged body part, typically after an amputation. Assistive technology devices can be customized to the patient or bought commercially.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aota.org/About-Occupational-Therapy/Professionals/RDP/assistive-technology.aspx|titleThe Role of Occupational Therapy in Providing Assistive Technology Devices and Services|date2018|websitewww.aota.org|access-date8 April 2018}}</ref>
Medications
There are several types of medications that are used for the treatment of arthritis. Treatment typically begins with medications that have the fewest side effects with further medications being added if insufficiently effective.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.arthritistoday.org/treatments/drug-guide/index.php|titleArthritis Drugs|workarthritistoday.org|access-date5 July 2010| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100722013235/http://www.arthritistoday.org/treatments/drug-guide/index.php| archive-date 22 July 2010 <!--DASHBot-->|url-status = live}}</ref>
Depending on the type of arthritis, the medications that are given may be different. For example, the first-line treatment for osteoarthritis is acetaminophen (paracetamol) while for inflammatory arthritis it involves non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen. Opioids and NSAIDs may be less well tolerated.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Reid MC, Shengelia R, Parker SJ | title Pharmacologic management of osteoarthritis-related pain in older adults | journal The American Journal of Nursing | volume 112 | issue 3 Suppl 1 | pages S38–S43 | date March 2012 | pmid 22373746 | pmc 3733545 | doi 10.1097/01.NAJ.0000412650.02926.e3 }}</ref> However, topical NSAIDs may have better safety profiles than oral NSAIDs. For more severe cases of osteoarthritis, intra-articular corticosteroid injections may also be considered.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1McAlindon |first1Timothy E. |last2LaValley |first2Michael P. |last3Harvey |first3William F. |last4Price |first4Lori Lyn |last5Driban |first5Jeffrey B. |last6Zhang |first6Ming |last7Ward |first7Robert J. |date2017-05-16 |titleEffect of Intra-articular Triamcinolone vs Saline on Knee Cartilage Volume and Pain in Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis: A Randomized Clinical Trial |journalJAMA |languageen |volume317 |issue19 |pages1967–1975 |doi10.1001/jama.2017.5283 |issn0098-7484 |pmc5815012 |pmid28510679}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Taruc-Uy RL, Lynch SA | title Diagnosis and treatment of osteoarthritis | journal Primary Care | volume 40 | issue 4 | pages 821–36, vii | date December 2013 | pmid 24209720 | doi 10.1016/j.pop.2013.08.003 | s2cid = 43061687 }}</ref>
The drugs to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA) range from corticosteroids to monoclonal antibodies given intravenously. Due to the autoimmune nature of RA, treatments may include not only pain medications and anti-inflammatory drugs, but also another category of drugs called disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs). csDMARDs, TNF biologics and tsDMARDs are specific kinds of DMARDs that are recommended for treatment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Donahue KE, Schulman ER, Gartlehner G, Jonas BL, Coker-Schwimmer E, Patel SV, Weber RP, Bann CM, Viswanathan M | display-authors 6 | title Comparative Effectiveness of Combining MTX with Biologic Drug Therapy Versus Either MTX or Biologics Alone for Early Rheumatoid Arthritis in Adults: a Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis | journal Journal of General Internal Medicine | volume 34 | issue 10 | pages 2232–2245 | date October 2019 | pmid 31388915 | pmc 6816735 | doi 10.1007/s11606-019-05230-0 }}</ref> Treatment with DMARDs is designed to slow down the progression of RA by initiating an adaptive immune response, in part by CD4+ T helper (Th) cells, specifically Th17 cells.<ref name"pmid23383714">{{cite journal | vauthors Kurebayashi Y, Nagai S, Ikejiri A, Koyasu S | title Recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms of the development and function of Th17 cells | journal Genes to Cells | volume 18 | issue 4 | pages 247–265 | date April 2013 | pmid 23383714 | pmc 3657121 | doi 10.1111/gtc.12039 }}</ref> Th17 cells are present in higher quantities at the site of bone destruction in joints and produce inflammatory cytokines associated with inflammation, such as interleukin-17 (IL-17).<ref name"Chabaud_2000" /> Surgery A number of surgical interventions have been incorporated in the treatment of arthritis since the 1950s. The primary surgical treatment option of arthritis is joint replacement surgery known as arthroplasty.<ref name":4">{{Cite journal |last1Park |first1Jisu |last2Chang |first2Moon Jong |last3Kim |first3Tae Woo |last4D'Lima |first4Darryl D. |last5Kim |first5Hyunkwon |last6Han |first6Hyuk-Soo |date2024-12-04 |titleSerial changes in patient-reported outcome measures and satisfaction rate during long-term follow-up after total knee arthroplasty: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journalKnee Surgery & Related Research |languageen |volume36 |issue1 |page43 |doi10.1186/s43019-024-00241-6 |doi-accessfree |issn2234-2451 |pmc11616191 |pmid39633483}}</ref> Common joints that are replaced due to arthritis include the shoulder, hip, and knee.<ref name":4" /> Arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee provides no additional benefit to patients when compared to optimized physical and medical therapy.<ref name"pmid18784099">{{cite journal | vauthors Kirkley A, Birmingham TB, Litchfield RB, Giffin JR, Willits KR, Wong CJ, Feagan BG, Donner A, Griffin SH, D'Ascanio LM, Pope JE, Fowler PJ | display-authors 6 | title A randomized trial of arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 359 | issue 11 | pages 1097–1107 | date September 2008 | pmid 18784099 | doi 10.1056/NEJMoa0708333 | doi-access free }}</ref> Joint replacement surgery can last anywhere from 15-30 years depending on the patient.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Evans |first1Jonathan T |last2Walker |first2Robert W |last3Evans |first3Jonathan P |last4Blom |first4Ashley W |last5Sayers |first5Adrian |last6Whitehouse |first6Michael R |dateFebruary 2019 |titleHow long does a knee replacement last? A systematic review and meta-analysis of case series and national registry reports with more than 15 years of follow-up |journalThe Lancet |languageen |volume393 |issue10172 |pages655–663 |doi10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32531-5 |pmc6381229 |pmid30782341}}</ref> Following joint replacement surgery, patients can expect to get back to several physical activities including those such as swimming, tennis, and golf.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Liu |first1Joseph N. |last2Steinhaus |first2Michael E. |last3Garcia |first3Grant H. |last4Chang |first4Brenda |last5Fields |first5Kara |last6Dines |first6David M. |last7Warren |first7Russell F. |last8Gulotta |first8Lawrence V. |dateJanuary 2018 |titleReturn to sport after shoulder arthroplasty: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journalKnee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy |languageen |volume26 |issue1 |pages100–112 |doi10.1007/s00167-017-4547-1 |pmid28409200 |issn0942-2056}}</ref> Adaptive aids People with hand arthritis can have trouble with simple activities of daily living tasks (ADLs), such as turning a key in a lock or opening jars, as these activities can be cumbersome and painful. There are adaptive aids or assistive devices (ADs) available to help with these tasks,<ref>{{cite web |lastBloomquist |firstMichele |titleArthritis-Friendly Tools |websiteEveryday Health |date5 February 2013 |urlhttps://www.everydayhealth.com/arthritis-pictures/10-terrific-arthritis-gadgets.aspx |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200530173038/https://www.everydayhealth.com/arthritis-pictures/10-terrific-arthritis-gadgets.aspx |archive-date2020-05-30 |access-date8 March 2019}}</ref> but they are generally more costly than conventional products with the same function. It is now possible to 3-D print adaptive aids, which have been released as open source hardware to reduce patient costs.<ref>{{cite web |date15 December 2018 |urlhttps://orthofeed.com/2018/12/15/3-d-printing-offers-helping-hand-to-people-with-arthritis/ |title3-D Printing Offers Helping Hand to People with Arthritis |websiteOrthoFeed |access-date8 March 2019 |archive-date15 November 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201115053144/https://orthofeed.com/2018/12/15/3-d-printing-offers-helping-hand-to-people-with-arthritis/ |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsGallup N, Bow JK, Pearce JM |titleEconomic Potential for Distributed Manufacturing of Adaptive Aids for Arthritis Patients in the U.S |journalGeriatrics |volume3 |issue4 |pages89 |dateDecember 2018 |pmid31011124 |pmc6371113 |doi10.3390/geriatrics3040089 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> Adaptive aids can significantly help arthritis patients and the vast majority of those with arthritis need and use them.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsYeung KT, Lin CH, Teng YL, Chen FF, Lou SZ, Chen CL |titleUse of and Self-Perceived Need for Assistive Devices in Individuals with Disabilities in Taiwan |journalPLOS ONE |volume11 |issue3 |pagese0152707 |date29 March 2016 |pmid27023276 |pmc4811424 |doi10.1371/journal.pone.0152707 |doi-accessfree |bibcode2016PLoSO..1152707Y}}</ref> Alternative medicine Further research is required to determine if transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) for knee osteoarthritis is effective for controlling pain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Rutjes AW, Nüesch E, Sterchi R, Kalichman L, Hendriks E, Osiri M, Brosseau L, Reichenbach S, Jüni P | display-authors 6 | title Transcutaneous electrostimulation for osteoarthritis of the knee | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 2009 | issue 4 | pages CD002823 | date October 2009 | pmid 19821296 | pmc 7120411 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD002823.pub2 }}</ref>
Low level laser therapy may be considered for relief of pain and stiffness associated with arthritis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Brosseau L, Welch V, Wells G, Tugwell P, de Bie R, Gam A, Harman K, Shea B, Morin M | display-authors 6 | title Low level laser therapy for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis: a metaanalysis | journal The Journal of Rheumatology | volume 27 | issue 8 | pages 1961–1969 | date August 2000 | pmid 10955339 }}</ref> Evidence of benefit is tentative.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Brosseau L, Robinson V, Wells G, Debie R, Gam A, Harman K, Morin M, Shea B, Tugwell P | display-authors 6 | title Low level laser therapy (Classes I, II and III) for treating rheumatoid arthritis | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 2005 | issue 4 | pages CD002049 | date October 2005 | pmid 16235295 | pmc 8406947 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD002049.pub2 }}</ref>
Pulsed electromagnetic field therapy (PEMFT) has tentative evidence supporting improved functioning but no evidence of improved pain in osteoarthritis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Vavken P, Arrich F, Schuhfried O, Dorotka R | title Effectiveness of pulsed electromagnetic field therapy in the management of osteoarthritis of the knee: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | journal Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine | volume 41 | issue 6 | pages 406–411 | date May 2009 | pmid 19479151 | doi 10.2340/16501977-0374 | doi-access free }}</ref> The FDA has not approved PEMFT for the treatment of arthritis. In Canada, PEMF devices are legally licensed by Health Canada for the treatment of pain associated with arthritic conditions.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/medical-devices/licences/medical-devices-active-licence-listing.html|titleMedical Devices Active Licence Listing (MDALL) | work Health Canada|date16 July 2002 |access-date28 March 2020}}</ref> Epidemiology Arthritis is predominantly a disease of the elderly, but children can also be affected by the disease.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000451.htm|titleJuvenile idiopathic arthritis: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia|websitemedlineplus.gov|access-date6 May 2019}}</ref> Arthritis is more common in women than men at all ages and affects all races, ethnic groups and cultures. In the United States, a CDC survey based on data from 2013 to 2015 showed 54.4 million (22.7%) adults had self-reported doctor-diagnosed arthritis, and 23.7 million (43.5% of those with arthritis) had arthritis-attributable activity limitation (AAAL). With an aging population, this number is expected to increase. Adults with co-morbid conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, and obesity, were seen to have a higher than average prevalence of doctor-diagnosed arthritis (49.3%, 47.1%, and 30.6% respectively).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Barbour KE, Helmick CG, Boring M, Brady TJ | title Vital Signs: Prevalence of Doctor-Diagnosed Arthritis and Arthritis-Attributable Activity Limitation - United States, 2013-2015 | journal MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume 66 | issue 9 | pages 246–253 | date March 2017 | pmid 28278145 | pmc 5687192 | doi = 10.15585/mmwr.mm6609e1 }}</ref>
Disability due to musculoskeletal disorders increased by 45% from 1990 to 2010. Of these, osteoarthritis is the fastest increasing major health condition.<ref>{{cite journal | title GBD 2010 country results: a global public good | journal Lancet | volume 381 | issue 9871 | pages 965–970 | date March 2013 | pmid 23668561 | doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60283-4 | s2cid 11808683 | author1 ((GBD 2010 Country Collaboration)) }}</ref> Among the many reports on the increased prevalence of musculoskeletal conditions, data from Africa are lacking and underestimated. A systematic review assessed the prevalence of arthritis in Africa and included twenty population-based and seven hospital-based studies.<ref name":0">{{cite journal | vauthors Usenbo A, Kramer V, Young T, Musekiwa A | title Prevalence of Arthritis in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | journal PLOS ONE | volume 10 | issue 8 | pages e0133858 | date 4 August 2015 | pmid 26241756 | pmc 4524637 | doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0133858 | doi-access free | bibcode 2015PLoSO..1033858U }}</ref> The majority of studies, twelve, were from South Africa. Nine studies were well-conducted, eleven studies were of moderate quality, and seven studies were conducted poorly. The results of the systematic review were as follows:<ref name":0" />
* Rheumatoid arthritis: 0.1% in Algeria (urban setting); 0.6% in Democratic Republic of Congo (urban setting); 2.5% and 0.07% in urban and rural settings in South Africa respectively; 0.3% in Egypt (rural setting), 0.4% in Lesotho (rural setting)
* Osteoarthritis: 55.1% in South Africa (urban setting); ranged from 29.5 to 82.7% in South Africans aged 65 years and older
** Knee osteoarthritis has the highest prevalence from all types of osteoarthritis, with 33.1% in rural South Africa
* Ankylosing spondylitis: 0.1% in South Africa (rural setting)
* Psoriatic arthritis: 4.4% in South Africa (urban setting)
* Gout: 0.7% in South Africa (urban setting)
* Juvenile idiopathic arthritis: 0.3% in Egypt (urban setting)
History
Evidence of osteoarthritis and potentially inflammatory arthritis has been discovered in dinosaurs.<ref name"DeLisaGans2005">{{cite book| vauthors DeLisa JA, Gans BM, Walsh NE |titlePhysical Medicine and Rehabilitation: Principles and Practice|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1sWk1GYCvKoC&pgPA765|year2005|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn978-0-7817-4130-9|pages765–|url-status live|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170108193339/https://books.google.com/books?id1sWk1GYCvKoC&pgPA765|archive-date8 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Blumberg BS, Sokoloff L | title Coalescence of caudal vertebrae in the giant dinosaur Diplodocus | journal Arthritis and Rheumatism | volume 4 | issue 6 | pages 592–601 | date December 1961 | pmid 13870231 | doi 10.1002/art.1780040605 | doi-access }}</ref> The first known traces of human arthritis date back as far as 4500 BC. In early reports, arthritis was frequently referred to as the most common ailment of prehistoric peoples.<ref name"Bridges ">{{cite journal | vauthorsBridges PS | titlePrehistoric Arthritis in the Americas | journalAnnual Review of Anthropology | year1992| volume21 |pages67–91 | doi10.1146/annurev.an.21.100192.000435}}</ref> It was noted in skeletal remains of Native Americans found in Tennessee and parts of what is now Olathe, Kansas. Evidence of arthritis has been found throughout history, from Ötzi, a mummy ({{circa|3000 BC}}) found along the border of modern Italy and Austria, to the Egyptian mummies {{Circa|2590 BC}}.<ref>{{cite web | url http://www.news-medical.net/health/Arthritis-History.aspx | title Arthritis History | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100130200315/http://www.news-medical.net/health/Arthritis-History.aspx | archive-date30 January 2010 | work Medical News | date = 2 December 2009 }}</ref>
In 1715, William Musgrave published the second edition of his most important medical work, De arthritide symptomatica, which concerned arthritis and its effects.<ref nameODNB>{{cite book | vauthors Cameron A | chapter Musgrave, William (1655–1721) | title Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher Oxford University Press | date September 2004 }}</ref> Augustin Jacob Landré-Beauvais, a 28-year-old resident physician at Salpêtrière Asylum in France was the first person to describe the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. Though Landré-Beauvais' classification of rheumatoid arthritis as a relative of gout was inaccurate, his dissertation encouraged others to further study the disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Entezami P, Fox DA, Clapham PJ, Chung KC | title Historical perspective on the etiology of rheumatoid arthritis | journal Hand Clinics | volume 27 | issue 1 | pages 1–10 | date February 2011 | pmid 21176794 | pmc 3119866 | doi 10.1016/j.hcl.2010.09.006 }}</ref>
John Charnley completed the first hip replacement (total hip arthroplasty) in England to treat arthritis in the 1960s.
Society and culture
Arthritis is the most common cause of disability in the United States. More than 20 million individuals with arthritis have severe limitations in function on a daily basis.<ref namecdc-ar/> Absenteeism and frequent visits to the physician are common in individuals who have arthritis. Arthritis can make it difficult for individuals to be physically active and some become home bound.<ref name":1">{{Cite web |lastMutter |firstJustin |date2023-11-21 |titleAsk the Expert {{!}} What medical conditions most commonly cause older adults to become homebound? |urlhttps://dailyprogress.com/opinion/column/ask-the-expert-what-medical-conditions-most-commonly-cause-older-adults-to-become-homebound/article_e09690f8-8700-11ee-b460-5fe470a56392.html |access-date2024-04-20 |websiteThe Daily Progress |languageen}}</ref> It is estimated that the total cost of arthritis cases is close to $100 billion of which almost 50% is from lost earnings.
Terminology
The term is derived from arthr- (from {{langx|grc|ἄρθρον|árthron| joint}}) and -itis (from {{lang|grc|-ῖτις}}, {{transliteration|grc|-îtis}}, {{Literal translation|pertaining to|lk=no}}), the latter suffix having come to be associated with inflammation.
The word arthritides is the plural form of arthritis, and denotes the collective group of arthritis-like conditions.<ref>{{cite web|titleDefinition of ARTHRITIDES|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ARTHRITIDES|access-date5 November 2020|websitewww.merriam-webster.com|languageen}}</ref> See also
* Antiarthritics
* Arthritis Care (charity in the UK)
* Arthritis Foundation (US not-for-profit)
* Knee arthritis
* Osteoimmunology
* Weather pains
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
* [http://www.rheumatology.org American College of Rheumatology]&nbsp;– US professional society of rheumatologists
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150116000259/http://niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Arthritis/default.asp National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases]&nbsp;- US National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
* [https://www.arthritis.org/health-wellness/healthy-living/nutrition/anti-inflammatory/the-ultimate-arthritis-diet The Ultimate Arthritis Diet] Arthritis Foundation
{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB = 15237
| ICD11 = {{ICD11|FA00}}–{{ICD11|FA38}}
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|M00-M03}}, {{ICD10|M05-M14}}, {{ICD10|M15-M19}}, {{ICD10|M20-M25}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|710}}-{{ICD9|719}}
| ICDO | OMIM
| MedlinePlus = 001243
| eMedicineSubj = search
| eMedicineTopic = arthritis
| MeshID = D001168
| SNOMED CT = 372091005
}}
{{Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Aging-associated diseases
Category:Inflammations
Category:Rheumatology
Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate
Category:Skeletal disorders
Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis
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2025-04-05T18:25:46.997682
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1777
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April 2
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{{pp-move-indef}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*1513 &ndash; Having spotted land on March 27, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León comes ashore on what is now the U.S. state of Florida, landing somewhere between the modern city of St. Augustine and the mouth of the St. Johns River.<ref>{{cite book|lastTucker|firstSpencer C.|titleAlmanac of American Military History. Vol. 1: 1000-1830|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABC-CLIO|date2013|isbn9781598845303|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTO2mx314ST0C|page37}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1755 &ndash; Commodore William James captures the Maratha fortress of Suvarnadurg on the west coast of India.<ref>{{cite book|lastSridharan|firstK.|titleA Maritime History of India|locationNew Delhi|publisherMinistry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|date1982|oclc1027237577|page112}}</ref>
*1792 &ndash; The Coinage Act is passed by Congress, establishing the United States Mint.<ref>{{cite book|authorDepartment of the Treasury|titleA Brief History of Coinage Legislation in the United States: 1792-1857|locationWashington, D.C.|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office|date1891|oclc1118151364|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF1nPAAAAMAAJ|page=3}}</ref>
*1800 &ndash; Ludwig van Beethoven leads the premiere of his First Symphony in Vienna.<ref>{{cite book|lastYoung|firstJohn Bell|titleBeethoven's Symphonies: A Guided Tour|locationNew York|publisherAmadeus Press|date2008|isbn9781574671698|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idG867QI1Un7UC|page17}}</ref>
*1801 &ndash; French Revolutionary Wars: In the Battle of Copenhagen a British Royal Navy squadron defeats a hastily assembled, smaller, mostly-volunteer Dano-Norwegian Navy at high cost, forcing Denmark out of the Second League of Armed Neutrality.<ref>{{cite book|lastLauring|firstPalle|translator-lastHohnen|translator-firstDavid|titleA History of the Kingdom of Denmark|locationCopenhagen|publisherCopenhagen Høst|date1968|oclc252308058|pages190–192}}</ref>
*1863 &ndash; American Civil War: The largest in a series of Southern bread riots occurs in Richmond, Virginia.<ref>{{cite book|lastBarber|firstE. Susan|chapterBread Riots|titleWomen in the American Civil War. Vol. 1: A—G|editor-lastFrank|editor-firstLisa Tendrich|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABC-CLIO|date2008|isbn9781851096008|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX2GeBUmW_MgC|page=140}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; American Civil War: Defeat at the Third Battle of Petersburg forces the Army of Northern Virginia and the Confederate government to abandon Richmond, Virginia.<ref>{{cite book|lastBowery|firstCharles R.|titleThe Richmond-Petersburg Campaign, 1864-65|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherPraeger|date2014|isbn9781440800436|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbxGJBAAAQBAJ|pages142–145}}</ref>
*1885 &ndash; Canadian Cree warriors attack the village of Frog Lake, killing nine.<ref>{{cite book|lastTucker|firstSpencer C.|chapterChronology|titleA Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Vol. 4: 1861—1918|editor-lastTucker|editor-firstSpencer C.|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABCCLIO|date2010|isbn9781851096671|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh5_tSnygvbIC|page1485}}</ref>
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Dmitry Sipyagin, Minister of Interior of the Russian Empire, is assassinated in the Mariinsky Palace, Saint Petersburg.
* 1902 &ndash; "Electric Theatre", the first full-time movie theater in the United States, opens in Los Angeles.
*1911 &ndash; The Australian Bureau of Statistics conducts the country's first national census.
*1912 &ndash; The ill-fated {{RMS|Titanic}} begins sea trials.
*1917 &ndash; American entry into World War I: President Wilson asks the U.S. Congress for a declaration of war on Germany.<ref>{{cite magazine |titleIn Defense of Woodrow Wilson |first1David |last1Frum |magazineThe Atlantic |date2 February 2024 |access-date24 March 2024 |volume333|issue2|url-accesssubscription |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2024/03/woodrow-wilson-racism-civil-rights/677174/ |page75 |issn1072-7825}}</ref>
*1921 &ndash; The Autonomous Government of Khorasan, a military government encompassing the modern state of Iran, is established.
*1921 &ndash; The suppresion of February Uprising by Bolshevik forces
*1930 &ndash; After the mysterious death of Empress Zewditu, Haile Selassie is proclaimed emperor of Ethiopia.
*1954 &ndash; A 19-month-old infant is swept up in the ocean tides at Hermosa Beach, California. Local photographer John L. Gaunt photographs the incident; 1955 Pulitzer winner "Tragedy by the Sea".
*1956 &ndash; As the World Turns and The Edge of Night premiere on CBS. The two soaps become the first daytime dramas to debut in the 30-minute format.
*1964 &ndash; The Soviet Union launches Zond 1.
*1969 &ndash; LOT Polish Airlines Flight 165 crashes into the Polica mountain near Zawoja, Poland, killing 53.<ref name"Lachowice">{{cite web |titleAviation tragedy on Polica |urlhttp://www.zswsucha.iap.pl/STREFA_N/WiLeHi/zawoja/tragedia.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071020032311/http://www.zswsucha.iap.pl/STREFA_N/WiLeHi/zawoja/tragedia.html |archive-date20 October 2007 |accessdate1 April 2008 |languagepl}}</ref>
*1972 &ndash; Actor Charlie Chaplin returns to the United States for the first time since being labeled a communist during the Red Scare in the early 1950s.
*1973 &ndash; Launch of the LexisNexis computerized legal research service.
*1975 &ndash; Vietnam War: Thousands of civilian refugees flee from Quảng Ngãi Province in front of advancing North Vietnamese troops.
*1976 &ndash; Prince Norodom Sihanouk resigns as leader of Cambodia and is placed under house arrest.<ref>{{cite book |lastOsborne |firstMilton E |author-linkMilton Osborne |titleSihanouk Prince of Light, Prince of Darkness |year1994 |publisherUniversity of Hawaiʻi Press |locationHonolulu, Hawaii, United States of America |isbn978-0-8248-1639-1 |page=223}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; A Soviet bio-warfare laboratory at Sverdlovsk accidentally releases airborne anthrax spores, killing 66 plus an unknown amount of livestock.
*1980 &ndash; United States President Jimmy Carter signs the Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax Act.
*1982 &ndash; Falklands War: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands.
*1986 &ndash; Alabama governor George Wallace, a former segregationist, best known for the "Stand in the Schoolhouse Door", announces that he will not seek a fifth four-year term and will retire from public life upon the end of his term in January 1987.
*1989 &ndash; Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev arrives in Havana, Cuba, to meet with Fidel Castro in an attempt to mend strained relations.
*1991 &ndash; Rita Johnston becomes the first female Premier of a Canadian province when she succeeds William Vander Zalm (who had resigned) as Premier of British Columbia.
*1992 &ndash; In New York, Mafia boss John Gotti is convicted of murder and racketeering and is later sentenced to life in prison.
* 1992 &ndash; Forty-two civilians are massacred in the town of Bijeljina in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
*2002 &ndash; Israeli forces surround the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, into which armed Palestinians had retreated.
*2004 &ndash; Islamist terrorists involved in the 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks attempt to bomb the Spanish high-speed train AVE near Madrid; the attack is thwarted.
*2006 &ndash; Over 60 tornadoes break out in the United States; Tennessee is hardest hit with 29 people killed.
*2011 – India wins the Cricket World Cup for the second time in history under the captaincy of MS Dhoni.<ref>{{Cite web |date2011-04-02 |titleIndia beat Sri Lanka, India won by 6 wickets (with 10 balls remaining) |urlhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-cricket-world-cup-2010-11-381449/india-vs-sri-lanka-final-433606/live-cricket-score |access-date2024-04-22 |websiteESPNcricinfo |languageen}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; A mass shooting at Oikos University in California leaves seven people dead and three injured.<ref>{{cite news |last1Wu |first1Gwendolyn |titleMan who killed 7 in Oikos University mass shooting dies in prison |urlhttps://www.sfchronicle.com/crime/article/Man-who-killed-7-in-Oikos-University-mass-13721226.php |newspaperSan Francisco Chronicle |access-date29 August 2020 |date=27 March 2019}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; UTair Flight 120 crashes after takeoff from Roshchino International Airport in Tyumen, Russia, killing 33 and injuring 10.<ref name":0">{{Cite news |date2020-04-12 |titleДо 33 возросло число жертв авиакатастрофы под Тюменью |trans-titleThe number of victims of the crash near Tyumen increased to 33 |urlhttps://tass.ru/arhiv/566919 |access-date2020-05-29 |websiteТАSS |languageru}} [https://translate.google.com/translate?hlru&slru&tlen&uhttps%3A%2F%2Ftass.ru%2Farhiv%2F566919 Translated article] (Note: this translation was made automatically from the original (in Russian) and has low technical quality, lends itself only to specific queries).</ref>
*2014 &ndash; A spree shooting occurs at the Fort Hood army base in Texas, with four dead, including the gunman, and 16 others injured.<ref>{{Cite web|date2014-04-03|titleFort Hood shooting: four dead and 16 injured at Texas army base|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/02/fort-hood-shooting-army-base-texas|access-date2021-05-23|websiteThe Guardian|languageen}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; Gunmen attack Garissa University College in Kenya, killing at least 148 people and wounding 79 others.
* 2015 &ndash; Four men steal items worth up to £200&nbsp;million from an underground safe deposit facility in London's Hatton Garden area in what has been called the "largest burglary in English legal history."<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-34899627 |titleHatton Garden raid 'largest in English history' |workBBC News |date23 November 2015 |access-date=23 November 2015}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; COVID-19 pandemic: The total number of confirmed cases reach one million.<ref>{{cite news |date3 April 2020 |titleCoronavirus Covid-19: Global cases pass 1&nbsp;million as London's epic pandemic response revealed |workNew Zealand Herald |urlhttps://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id2&objectid12322109 |url-statuslive |access-date3 April 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200403005250/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id2&objectid12322109 |archive-date3 April 2020}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; At least 49 people are killed in a train derailment in Taiwan after a truck accidentally rolls onto the track.<ref>{{cite web|titleTrain hits truck that slid onto track in Taiwan, killing 51|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/taiwan-train-crash-updates-edb06519a7c0cab305bc710b3ea026df|author1Jennings, Ralph|author2Johnson Lai|websiteAPNews|dateApril 2, 2021|access-date=April 2, 2021}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; A Capitol Police officer is killed and another injured when an attacker rams his car into a barricade outside the United States Capitol.<ref>{{cite web|titleMan rams car into 2 Capitol police; 1 officer, driver killed|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/car-rams-capitol-barricade-add0fea76244f1755344aa856ee64ecd|author1Balsamo, Michael|author2Nomaan Merchant|author3Colleen Long|websiteAPNews|dateApril 2, 2021|access-dateApril 2, 2021}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Viertola school shooting: A 12-year-old pupil is killed and two others injured by a shooter of the same age in Vantaa, Finland.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68712104|titleFinland shooting: Child held after pupil aged 12 shot dead at school in Vantaa|firstPaul|lastKirby|workBBC News|date2 April 2024|access-date2 April 2024}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600*181 &ndash; Emperor Xian of Han, Chinese emperor (d. 234)<ref>{{Cite book |lastde Crespigny |firstRafe |titleA Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23-220 AD |publisherBrill Publishers |year2007 |isbn9789004156050 |locationLeiden |pages554 |languageen}}</ref>
*747 &ndash; Charlemagne, Frankish king (d. 814)<ref>{{cite web |titleCharlemagne {{!}} Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Charlemagne |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date29 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1473 &ndash; John Corvinus, Hungarian noble (d. 1504)
*1545 &ndash; Elisabeth of Valois (d. 1568)
*1565 &ndash; Cornelis de Houtman, Dutch explorer (d. 1599)
*1586 &ndash; Pietro Della Valle, Italian traveler (d. 1652)
1601–1900
*1602 &ndash; Mary of Jesus of Ágreda, Franciscan abbess (d. 1665)
*1618 &ndash; Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Italian mathematician and physicist (d. 1663)
*1647 &ndash; Maria Sibylla Merian, German-Dutch botanist and illustrator (d. 1717)
*1653 &ndash; Prince George of Denmark (d. 1708)
*1696 &ndash; Francesca Cuzzoni, Italian operatic soprano (d. 1778)
*1719 &ndash; Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, German poet (d. 1803)
*1725 &ndash; Giacomo Casanova, Italian explorer and author (d. 1798)
*1755 &ndash; Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, French lawyer and politician (d. 1826)<ref>*{{cite book | last MacDonogh| first Giles| authorlinkGiles MacDonogh| title Brillat-Savarin: The Judge and his Stomach| publisher John Murray| date 1992| location London| isbn 978-0-71-954711-9}}</ref>
*1788 &ndash; Francisco Balagtas, Filipino poet and author (d. 1862)
* 1788 &ndash; Wilhelmine Reichard, German balloonist (d. 1848)
*1789 &ndash; Lucio Norberto Mansilla, Argentinian general and politician (d. 1871)
*1792 &ndash; Francisco de Paula Santander, Colombian general and politician, 4th President of the Republic of the New Granada (d. 1840)
*1798 &ndash; August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, German poet and academic (d. 1874)
*1805 &ndash; Hans Christian Andersen, Danish novelist, short story writer, and poet (d. 1875)
*1814 &ndash; Henry L. Benning, American general and judge (d. 1875)
* 1814 &ndash; Erastus Brigham Bigelow, American inventor (d. 1879)
*1827 &ndash; William Holman Hunt, English soldier and painter (d. 1910)
*1835 &ndash; Jacob Nash Victor, American engineer (d. 1907)
*1838 &ndash; Léon Gambetta, French lawyer and politician, 45th Prime Minister of France (d. 1882)
*1840 &ndash; Émile Zola, French novelist, playwright, journalist (d. 1902)
*1841 &ndash; Clément Ader, French engineer, designed the Ader Avion III (d. 1926)
*1842 &ndash; Dominic Savio, Italian Catholic saint, adolescent student of Saint John Bosco (d. 1857)
*1861 &ndash; Iván Persa, Slovenian priest and author (d. 1935)
*1862 &ndash; Nicholas Murray Butler, American philosopher and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1947)
*1869 &ndash; Hughie Jennings, American baseball player and manager (d. 1928)
*1870 &ndash; Edmund Dwyer-Gray, Irish-Australian politician, 29th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1945)<ref name"adb">R. P. Davis, [http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A080416b.htm 'Dwyer-Gray, Edmund John Chisholm (1870–1945)'] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071110003534/http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A080416b.htm |date=10 November 2007 }}, Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 8, Melbourne University Press, 1981, pp 390–391.</ref>
*1875 &ndash; Walter Chrysler, American businessman, founded Chrysler (d. 1940)
* 1875 &ndash; William Donne, English cricketer and captain (d. 1942)
*1884 &ndash; J. C. Squire, English poet, author, and historian (d. 1958)<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://archive.org/details/literaryrivalsfe0000brad/page/243|titleLiterary rivals : feuds and antagonisms in the world of books|lastBradford|firstRichard|year2014|isbn978-1-84954-602-7|locationLondon|pages[https://archive.org/details/literaryrivalsfe0000brad/page/243 243-244]|oclc=856200735}}</ref>
*1888 &ndash; Neville Cardus, English cricket and music writer (d. 1975)<ref>{{cite book | lastO'Brien| first Christopher | year2018| title Cardus Uncovered| locationNottingham| publisher Whitethorn Range Publishing | isbn978-1-9999105-0-1 |pages23–25}}</ref>
*1891 &ndash; Jack Buchanan, Scottish entertainer (d. 1957)
* 1891 &ndash; Max Ernst, German painter, sculptor, and poet (d. 1976)
* 1891 &ndash; Tristão de Bragança Cunha, Indian nationalist and anti-colonial activist from Goa (d. 1958)
*1896 &ndash; Johnny Golden, American golfer (d. 1936)
*1898 &ndash; Harindranath Chattopadhyay, Indian poet, actor and politician (d. 1990)
* 1898 &ndash; Chiungtze C. Tsen, Chinese mathematician (d. 1940)
*1900 &ndash; Roberto Arlt, Argentinian journalist, author, and playwright (d. 1942)
* 1900 &ndash; Anis Fuleihan, Cypriot-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1970)
* 1900 &ndash; Alfred Strange, English footballer (d. 1978)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Jan Tschichold, German-Swiss graphic designer and typographer (d. 1974)
* 1902 &ndash; Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the seventh Lubavitcher Rebbe (d. 1994)<ref>{{Cite news|last|first|titleSchneerson Led a Small Hasidic Sect to World Prominence|workThe New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/13/nyregion/rabbi-schneerson-led-a-small-hasidic-sect-to-world-prominence.htmlRabbi}}</ref>
*1903 &ndash; Lionel Chevrier, Canadian lawyer and politician, 27th Canadian Minister of Justice (d. 1987)
*1906 &ndash; Alphonse-Marie Parent, Canadian priest and educator (d. 1970)
*1907 &ndash; Harald Andersson, American-Swedish discus thrower (d. 1985)
* 1907 &ndash; Luke Appling, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991)
*1908 &ndash; Buddy Ebsen, American actor and dancer (d. 2003)
*1910 &ndash; Paul Triquet, Canadian general, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1980)
* 1910 &ndash; Chico Xavier, Brazilian spiritual medium (d. 2002)
*1914 &ndash; Alec Guinness, English actor (d. 2000)
*1919 &ndash; Delfo Cabrera, Argentinian runner and soldier (d. 1981)
*1920 &ndash; Gerald Bouey, Canadian lieutenant and civil servant (d. 2004)
* 1920 &ndash; Jack Stokes, English animator and director (d. 2013)
* 1920 &ndash; Jack Webb, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1982)
*1922 &ndash; John C. Whitehead, American banker and politician, 9th United States Deputy Secretary of State (d. 2015)
*1923 &ndash; Gloria Henry, actress<ref>{{cite web |titleGloria Henry |urlhttps://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b9f55d599 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190310091236/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b9f55d599 |url-statusdead |archive-dateMarch 10, 2019 |websiteBFI |access-date1 April 2020 |languageen}}</ref> (d. 2021)
* 1923 &ndash; Johnny Paton, Scottish footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2015)
* 1923 &ndash; G. Spencer-Brown, English mathematician, psychologist, and author (d. 2016)
*1924 &ndash; Bobby Ávila, Mexican baseball player (d. 2004)
*1925 &ndash; George MacDonald Fraser, Scottish author and screenwriter (d. 2008)
* 1925 &ndash; Hans Rosenthal, German radio and television host (d. 1987)
*1926 &ndash; Jack Brabham, Australian race car driver (d. 2014)
* 1926 &ndash; Rudra Rajasingham, Sri Lankan police officer and diplomat (d. 2006)
*1927 &ndash; Carmen Basilio, American boxer and soldier (d. 2012)
* 1927 &ndash; Howard Callaway, American soldier and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Army (d. 2014)
* 1927 &ndash; Rita Gam, American actress (d. 2016)<ref>{{cite web |last1Roberts |first1Sam |titleRita Gam, Midcentury Hollywood Actress, Dies at 88 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/24/movies/rita-gam-midcentury-hollywood-actress-dies-at-88.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/24/movies/rita-gam-midcentury-hollywood-actress-dies-at-88.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |websiteThe New York Times |access-date29 August 2020 |date23 March 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* 1927 &ndash; Billy Pierce, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015)
* 1927 &ndash; Kenneth Tynan, English author and critic (d. 1980)
*1928 &ndash; Joseph Bernardin, American cardinal (d. 1996)
* 1928 &ndash; Serge Gainsbourg, French singer-songwriter, actor, and director (d. 1991)
* 1928 &ndash; Roy Masters, English-American radio host (d. 2021)
* 1928 &ndash; David Robinson, Northern Irish horticulturist and academic (d. 2004)
*1929 &ndash; Ed Dorn, American poet and educator (d. 1999)
*1930 &ndash; Roddy Maude-Roxby, English actor
*1931 &ndash; Keith Hitchins, American historian (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.historia.ro/sectiune/actualitate/articol/a-murit-istoricul-american-keith-hitchins-unul-dintre-cei-mai-buni-specialisti-straini-in-istoria-romaniei|titleA murit istoricul american Keith Hitchins, unul dintre cei mai buni specialiști străini în istoria României|newspaperHistoria|date2 November 2020|language=ro}}</ref>
* 1931 &ndash; Vladimir Kuznetsov, Russian javelin thrower (d. 1986)
*1932 &ndash; Edward Egan, American cardinal (d. 2015)
*1933 &ndash; György Konrád, Hungarian sociologist and author (d. 2019)
*1934 &ndash; Paul Cohen, American mathematician and theorist (d. 2007)
* 1934 &ndash; Brian Glover, English wrestler and actor (d. 1997)
* 1934 &ndash; Carl Kasell, American journalist and game show host (d. 2018)
* 1934 &ndash; Richard Portman, American sound engineer (d. 2017)
* 1934 &ndash; Dovid Shmidel, Austrian-born Israeli rabbi
*1936 &ndash; Shaul Ladany, Serbian-Israeli race walker and engineer
*1937 &ndash; Dick Radatz, American baseball player (d. 2005)
*1938 &ndash; John Larsson, Swedish 17th General of The Salvation Army (d. 2022)
* 1938 &ndash; Booker Little, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1961)
* 1938 &ndash; Al Weis, American baseball player
*1939 &ndash; Marvin Gaye, American singer-songwriter (d. 1984)
* 1939 &ndash; Anthony Lake, American academic and diplomat, 18th United States National Security Advisor
* 1939 &ndash; Lise Thibault, Canadian journalist and politician, 27th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec
*1940 &ndash; Donald Jackson, Canadian figure skater and coach
* 1940 &ndash; Mike Hailwood, English motorcycle racer (d. 1981)
* 1940 &ndash; Penelope Keith, English actress
*1941 &ndash; Dr. Demento, American radio host
* 1941 &ndash; Sonny Throckmorton, American country singer-songwriter
*1942 &ndash; Leon Russell, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2016)
* 1942 &ndash; Roshan Seth, Indian-English actor
*1943 &ndash; Michael Boyce, Baron Boyce, South African-English admiral and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (d. 2022)
* 1943 &ndash; Caterina Bueno, Italian singer (d. 2007)
* 1943 &ndash; Larry Coryell, American jazz guitarist (d. 2017)
* 1943 &ndash; Antonio Sabàto, Sr., Italian actor (d. 2021)
*1944 &ndash; Bill Malinchak, American football player
*1945 &ndash; Jürgen Drews, German singer-songwriter
* 1945 &ndash; Guy Fréquelin, French race car driver
* 1945 &ndash; Linda Hunt, American actress
* 1945 &ndash; Reggie Smith, American baseball player and coach
* 1945 &ndash; Don Sutton, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2021)
* 1945 &ndash; Anne Waldman, American poet
*1946 &ndash; Richard Collinge, New Zealand cricketer
* 1946 &ndash; David Heyes, English politician
* 1946 &ndash; Sue Townsend, English author and playwright (d. 2014)
* 1946 &ndash; Kurt Winter, Canadian guitarist and songwriter (d. 1997)
*1947 &ndash; Paquita la del Barrio, Mexican singer, songwriter and actress (d. 2025)<ref>{{Cite news |lastSmith |firstHarrison |dateFebruary 18, 2025 |titlePaquita la del Barrio, whose songs took aim at machismo, dies at 77 |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2025/02/18/paquita-la-del-barrio-dead/ |access-dateFebruary 19, 2025 |work=The Washington Post}}</ref>
* 1947 &ndash; Tua Forsström, Finnish writer
* 1947 &ndash; Emmylou Harris, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1947 &ndash; Camille Paglia, American author and critic
*1948 &ndash; Roald Als, Danish author and illustrator
* 1948 &ndash; Dimitris Mitropanos, Greek singer (d. 2012)
* 1948 &ndash; Daniel Okrent, American journalist and author
* 1948 &ndash; Joan D. Vinge, American author
*1949 &ndash; Paul Gambaccini, American-English radio and television host
* 1949 &ndash; Bernd Müller, German footballer
* 1949 &ndash; Pamela Reed, American actress
* 1949 &ndash; David Robinson, American drummer
*1950 &ndash; Lynn Westmoreland, American politician
*1951 &ndash; Ayako Okamoto, Japanese golfer
*1952 &ndash; Lennart Fagerlund, Swedish cyclist
* 1952 &ndash; Will Hoy, English race car driver (d. 2002)
* 1952 &ndash; Leon Wilkeson, American bass player and songwriter (d. 2001)
*1953 &ndash; Jim Allister, Northern Irish lawyer and politician
* 1953 &ndash; Rosemary Bryant Mariner, 20th and 21st-century U.S. Navy aviator (d. 2019)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.holleygamble.com/obituary/captain-rosemary-mariner?lud88FA68EA85EC834CB6630AA6D58DCC63|titleObituary for Captain Rosemary Bryant Mariner at Holley Gamble Funeral Home -Clinton|websitewww.holleygamble.com|languageen|access-date2019-02-01}}</ref>
* 1953 &ndash; Malika Oufkir, Moroccan Berber writer<ref>{{cite journal |last1Leser |first1David |titleMalika Oufkir: From a Palace to a Prison |journalAustralian Women's Weekly |dateNovember 28, 2001 |page99 |urlhttp://davidleser.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Malika-Oufkir.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://davidleser.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Malika-Oufkir.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* 1953 &ndash; Debralee Scott, American actress (d. 2005)
* 1953 &ndash; James Vance, American author and playwright (d. 2017)
*1954 &ndash; Gregory Abbott, American singer-songwriter and producer
* 1954 &ndash; Donald Petrie, American actor and director
*1955 &ndash; Michael Stone, Northern Irish loyalist paramilitary
*1957 &ndash; Caroline Dean, English biologist and academic
* 1957 &ndash; Hank Steinbrenner, American businessman (d. 2020)
*1958 &ndash; Stefano Bettarello, Italian rugby player
* 1958 &ndash; Larry Drew, American basketball player and coach
*1959 &ndash; Gelindo Bordin, Italian runner
* 1959 &ndash; David Frankel, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1959 &ndash; Juha Kankkunen, Finnish race car driver
* 1959 &ndash; Yves Lavandier, French director and producer
* 1959 &ndash; Badou Ezzaki, Moroccan footballer and manager
*1960 &ndash; Linford Christie, Jamaican-English sprinter
* 1960 &ndash; Brad Jones, Australian race car driver
* 1960 &ndash; Pascale Nadeau, Canadian journalist
*1961 &ndash; Buddy Jewell, American singer-songwriter
* 1961 &ndash; Christopher Meloni, American actor
* 1961 &ndash; Keren Woodward, English singer-songwriter
*1962 &ndash; Pierre Carles, French director and producer
* 1962 &ndash; Billy Dean, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1962 &ndash; Clark Gregg, American actor
*1963 &ndash; Karl Beattie, English director and producer
* 1963 &ndash; Mike Gascoyne, English engineer
*1964 &ndash; Pete Incaviglia, American baseball player and coach
* 1964 &ndash; Jonathon Sharkey, American wrestler
*1965 &ndash; Rodney King, American victim of police brutality (d. 2012)
*1966 &ndash; Bill Romanowski, American football player and actor
* 1966 &ndash; Teddy Sheringham, English international footballer and coach<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id7239|titleTeddy Sheringham|websitesoccerbase.com|access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref>
*1967 &ndash; Greg Camp, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1967 &ndash; Phil Demmel, American guitarist and songwriter
*1969 &ndash; Ajay Devgn, Indian actor, director, and producer
*1971 &ndash; Edmundo Alves de Souza Neto, Brazilian footballer
* 1971 &ndash; Jason Lewry, English cricketer
* 1971 &ndash; Todd Woodbridge, Australian tennis player and sportscaster
*1972 &ndash; Eyal Berkovic, Israeli footballer<ref>Bob Wechsler (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?idaOTWUl-9LQoC&dqEyal+Berkovic+2+April+1972&pg=PA93 Day by day in Jewish sports history]</ref>
* 1972 &ndash; Remo D'Souza, Indian choreographer and dancer
* 1972 &ndash; Calvin Davis, American sprinter and hurdler (d. 2023)
* 1972 &ndash; Zane Lamprey, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1973 &ndash; Dmitry Lipartov, Russian footballer
* 1973 &ndash; Roselyn Sánchez, Puerto Rican-American actress
* 1973 &ndash; Aleksejs Semjonovs, Latvian footballer
*1974 &ndash; Tayfun Korkut, Turkish football manager and former player
*1975 &ndash; Nate Huffman, American basketball player (d. 2015)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.basketball-reference.com/players/h/huffmna01.html|titleNate Huffman Stats|website=Basketball-Reference.com}}</ref>
* 1975 &ndash; Randy Livingston, American basketball player
* 1975 &ndash; Katrin Rutschow-Stomporowski, German rower
* 1975 &ndash; Pattie Mallette, Canadian author and film producer<ref>{{Cite web|lastLaCroix|firstJane|date2018-04-02|titleHappy Birthday Pattie: See Justin Bieber's Sweetest Photos With His Mom On Her Special Day|urlhttps://hollywoodlife.com/2018/04/02/pattie-mallette-birthday-sweet-pics-justin-bieber-eg18/|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210626231152/https://hollywoodlife.com/2018/04/02/pattie-mallette-birthday-sweet-pics-justin-bieber-eg18/|archive-date2021-06-26|access-date2021-06-26|websiteHollywood Life|language=en-US}}</ref>
* 1975 &ndash; Pedro Pascal, Chilean and American actor<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://comicbook.com/starwars/news/star-wars-the-mandalorian-fans-and-more-celebrate-pedro-pascals-birthday/|titleStar Wars: The Mandalorian Fans and More Celebrate Pedro Pascal's Birthday |date=2 April 2022 }}</ref>
*1976 &ndash; Andreas Anastasopoulos, Greek shot putter
* 1976 &ndash; Rory Sabbatini, South African golfer
*1977 &ndash; Per Elofsson, Swedish skier
* 1977 &ndash; Michael Fassbender, German-Irish actor and producer
* 1977 &ndash; Hanno Pevkur, Estonian lawyer and politician, Estonian Minister of Justice
*1980 &ndash; Avi Benedi, Israeli singer and songwriter
* 1980 &ndash; Adam Fleming, Scottish journalist
* 1980 &ndash; Gavin Heffernan, Canadian director and screenwriter
* 1980 &ndash; Ricky Hendrick, American race car driver (d. 2004)
* 1980 &ndash; Wairangi Koopu, New Zealand rugby league player
* 1980 &ndash; Carlos Salcido, Mexican international footballer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id41338|titleBenoît Carlos Salcido|websitesoccerbase.com|access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Michael Clarke, Australian cricketer
* 1981 &ndash; Kapil Sharma, Indian stand-up comedian, television presenter and actor
*1982 &ndash; Marco Amelia, Italian footballer
* 1982 &ndash; David Ferrer, Spanish tennis player
*1983 &ndash; Arthur Boka, Ivorian footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleA. Boka|urlhttps://int.soccerway.com/players/arthur-boka/5134/|websiteSoccerway|access-date2 April 2024}}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Maksym Mazuryk, Ukrainian pole vaulter
*1984 &ndash; Engin Atsür, Turkish basketball player
* 1984 &ndash; Nóra Barta, Hungarian diver
* 1984 &ndash; Jérémy Morel, French footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Miguel Ángel Moyá, Spanish footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleMoyà|urlhttps://int.soccerway.com/players/miquel-angel-moya-rumbo/3195/|websiteSoccerway|access-date2 April 2024}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Thom Evans, Zimbabwean-Scottish rugby player
* 1985 &ndash; Stéphane Lambiel, Swiss figure skater
*1986 &ndash; Ibrahim Afellay, Dutch footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Andris Biedriņš, Latvian basketball player<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.nba.com/playerfile/andris_biedrins/bio.html |titleNBA.com: Andris Biedrins Bio Page |websiteNBA.com |access-date2007-01-15 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091230024241/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/andris_biedrins/bio.html |archive-date2009-12-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*1987 &ndash; Pablo Aguilar, Paraguayan footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Shane Lowry, Irish Professional Golfer, winner of the 2019 Open Championship and European Team Member for the 2021 and 2023 Ryder Cups
*1988 &ndash; Jesse Plemons, American actor
*1990 &ndash; Yevgeniya Kanayeva, Russian gymnast
* 1990 &ndash; Miralem Pjanić, Bosnian footballer
* 1990 &ndash; Amr El Solia, Egyptian footballer<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://fdp.fifa.org/assetspublic/ce14/pdf/SquadLists-English.pdf |titleFIFA Arab Cup Qatar 2021: List of players: Egypt |publisherFIFA |page3 |date4 December 2021 |access-date12 December 2022}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Quavo, American rapper<ref>{{cite web |last1Madden |first1Sidney |titleHappy Birthday, Quavo! |urlhttps://www.xxlmag.com/happy-birthday-quavo/ |publisherXXL |access-date18 March 2023 |date=2 April 2017}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Keshorn Walcott, Trinidadian javelin thrower<ref>{{cite web|titleKeshorn Walcott|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/keshorn-walcott|publisherInternational Olympic Committee|access-date5 March 2020}}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Bruno Zuculini, Argentine footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleBruno Zuculini|urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/10468/Bruno-Zuculini/overview|websitePremier League|access-date2 April 2024}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Pascal Siakam, Cameroonian basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titlePascal Siakam |urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/1627783/pascal-siakam |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date18 March 2023}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Zack Steffen, American soccer player<ref>{{cite web|titleZack Steffen|urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/54392/Zack-Steffen/overview|websitePremier League|access-date2 April 2024}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Zach Bryan, American singer-songwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleZach Bryan |urlhttps://music.apple.com/us/artist/zach-bryan/1436413980 |websiteApple Music |access-dateApril 2, 2024}}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; André Onana, Cameroonian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleAndré Onana Stats, Goals, Records, Assists, Cups |urlhttps://fbref.com/en/players/e9c0c1b2/Andre-Onana |websitefbref.com |access-dateApril 2, 2024}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Dillon Bassett, American race car driver<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.racing-reference.info/driver/Dillon_Bassett|titleDillon Bassett|workracing-reference.info|access-date2019-11-17}}</ref>
* 1997 &ndash; Abdelhak Nouri, Dutch footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleUEFA.com's weekly wonderkid: Abdelhak Nouri {{!}} Inside UEFA |urlhttps://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid2325616.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160207085513/http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid2325616.html |url-statusdead |archive-dateFebruary 7, 2016 |websiteUEFA |access-date1 April 2020 |languageen |date=6 February 2016}}</ref>
* 1997 &ndash; Austin Riley, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleAustin Riley |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/austin-riley-663586 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date18 March 2023}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Rodrigo Riquelme, Spanish footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleRodrigo Riquelme|urlhttps://en.atleticodemadrid.com/jugadores/rodrigo-riquelme-reche-2023-2024-2|websiteAtlético Madrid|access-date2 April 2024}}</ref>
*2002 &ndash; Emma Myers, American actress<ref>{{Cite web |titleWhat movies and TV shows has Emma Myers been in? |urlhttps://www.popbuzz.com/tv-film/features/emma-myers/movies-tv-shows/ |access-dateNovember 30, 2022 |websitePopBuzz}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Diana Shnaider, Russian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleDiana Shnaider {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/330482/diana-shnaider |access-date2022-10-19 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleDiana Shnaider - Player Profile - Tennis |urlhttps://www.eurosport.com/tennis/diana-shnaider_prs553825/person.shtml |access-date2022-10-19 |websiteEurosport |languageen}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; Brenda Fruhvirtová, Czech tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleBrenda Fruhvirtova {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/331545/brenda-fruhvirtova |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleWimbledon Player Profile: Brenda Fruhvirtová |urlhttps://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/players/overview/wta331545.html |access-date2022-10-18 |website=www.wimbledon.com}}</ref>
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 670 &ndash; Hasan ibn Ali the second Shia Imam (b. 624)<ref nameIranica>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-b-ali ''Hasan b. 'Ali b. Abi Taleb''] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140101025819/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-b-ali |date=1 January 2014 }}, Encyclopedia Iranica.</ref>
* 870 &ndash; Æbbe the Younger, Frankish abbess
* 872 &ndash; Muflih al-Turki, Turkish general
* 968 &ndash; Yuan Dezhao, Chinese chancellor (b. 891)
* 991 &ndash; Bardas Skleros, Byzantine general<ref name"basil">{{cite book |last1Holmes |first1Catherine |titleBasil II and the Governance of Empire, 976–1025 |date2005 |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford |isbn0-19-927968-3 |pages=976–1025}}</ref>
*1118 &ndash; Baldwin I, king of Jerusalem
*1244 &ndash; Henrik Harpestræng, Danish botanical and medical author
*1272 &ndash; Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall, English husband of Sanchia of Provence (b. 1209)
*1335 &ndash; Henry of Bohemia (b. 1265)
*1412 &ndash; Ruy González de Clavijo, Spanish explorer and author
*1416 &ndash; Ferdinand I, king of Aragon (b. 1379)
*1502 &ndash; Arthur, prince of Wales (b. 1486)<ref>{{cite book |last1Guy |first1John |titleThe Children of Henry VIII |date25 April 2013 |publisherOUP Oxford |isbn978-0-19-165594-4 |page15 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idebvmoj_MjY4C&pgPT15 |language=en}}</ref>
*1507 &ndash; Francis of Paola, Italian friar and saint, founded the Order of the Minims (b. 1416)
*1511 &ndash; Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe, German nobleman (b. 1428)
1601–1900
*1640 &ndash; Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, Polish author and poet (b. 1595)
*1657 &ndash; Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1608)
* 1657 &ndash; Jean-Jacques Olier, French priest, founded the Society of Saint-Sulpice (b. 1608)
*1672 &ndash; Pedro Calungsod, Filipino missionary and saint (b. 1654)
* 1672 &ndash; Diego Luis de San Vitores, Spanish Jesuit missionary (b. 1627)
*1720 &ndash; Joseph Dudley, English politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (b. 1647)
*1742 &ndash; James Douglas, Scottish physician and anatomist (b. 1675)
*1747 &ndash; Johann Jacob Dillenius, German-English botanist and mycologist (b. 1684)
*1754 &ndash; Thomas Carte, English historian and author (b. 1686)
*1787 &ndash; Thomas Gage, English general and politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (b. 1719)
*1791 &ndash; Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, French journalist and politician (b. 1749)<ref>{{cite web |titleHonoré-Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau {{!}} French politician and orator |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Honore-Gabriel-Riqueti-comte-de-Mirabeau |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date24 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1801 &ndash; Thomas Dadford, Jr., English engineer (b. 1761)
*1803 &ndash; Sir James Montgomery, 1st Baronet, Scottish judge and politician (b. 1721)
*1817 &ndash; Johann Heinrich Jung, German author and academic (b. 1740)
*1827 &ndash; Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus, German physician and educator (b. 1776)
*1845 &ndash; Philip Charles Durham, Scottish admiral and politician (b. 1763)
*1865 &ndash; A. P. Hill, American general (b. 1825)
*1872 &ndash; Samuel Morse, American painter and academic, invented the Morse code (b. 1791)
*1891 &ndash; Albert Pike, American lawyer and general (b. 1809)
* 1891 &ndash; Ahmed Vefik Pasha, Greek playwright and politician, 249th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1823)
*1894 &ndash; Achille Vianelli, Italian painter and academic (b. 1803)
*1896 &ndash; Theodore Robinson, American painter and academic (b. 1852)
1901–present
*1914 &ndash; Paul Heyse, German author, poet, and translator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1830)
*1917 &ndash; Bryn Lewis, Welsh international rugby player (b. 1891)
*1923 &ndash; Topal Osman, Turkish colonel (b. 1883)
*1928 &ndash; Theodore William Richards, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1868)
*1930 &ndash; Zewditu I of Ethiopia (b. 1876)
*1933 &ndash; Ranjitsinhji, Indian cricketer (b. 1872)
*1936 &ndash; Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne, French general (b. 1860)
*1942 &ndash; Édouard Estaunié, French novelist (b. 1862)
*1948 &ndash; Sabahattin Ali, Turkish journalist, author, and poet (b. 1907)
*1953 &ndash; Hugo Sperrle, German field marshal (b. 1885)
*1954 &ndash; Hoyt Vandenberg, US Air Force general (b. 1899)
*1966 &ndash; C. S. Forester, English novelist (b. 1899)
*1972 &ndash; Franz Halder, German general (b. 1884)
* 1972 &ndash; Toshitsugu Takamatsu, Japanese martial artist and educator (b. 1887)
*1974 &ndash; Georges Pompidou, French banker and politician, 19th President of France (b. 1911)<ref>{{cite news |lastRobertson |firstNan |date3 April 1974 |titlePresident Pompidou Dead after almost Five Years as De Gaulle's Successor |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1974/04/03/archives/president-pompidou-dead-after-almost-five-years-as-de-gaulles.html |url-statuslive |workThe New York Times |access-date3 April 2019 |archive-date3 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403074933/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/04/03/archives/president-pompidou-dead-after-almost-five-years-as-de-gaulles.html }}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Walter Wolf, German academic and politician (b. 1907)
*1987 &ndash; Buddy Rich, American drummer, songwriter, and bandleader (b. 1917)<ref>{{Cite web|titleJazz Drummer Buddy Rich Dies at Age 69|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/0a94ae62b9d13dbaf4d0183438b19f8b|access-dateOctober 15, 2020|websiteAP News}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Manolis Angelopoulos, Greek singer (b. 1939)
*1992 &ndash; Juanito, Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1954)
* 1992 &ndash; Jan van Aartsen, Dutch politician (b. 1909)
*1994 &ndash; Betty Furness, American actress, consumer advocate, game show panelist, television journalist and television personality (b. 1916)
* 1994 &ndash; Marc Fitch, British historian and philanthropist (b. 1908)
*1995 &ndash; Hannes Alfvén, Swedish physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite work|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/05/obituaries/hannes-alfven-86-founder-of-field-in-physics-is-dead.html|authorWalter Sullivan|titleHannes Alfven, 86, Founder Of Field in Physics, Is Dead|workThe New York Times|date=April 5, 1995}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Tomoyuki Tanaka, Japanese director and producer (b. 1910)
*1998 &ndash; Rob Pilatus, American-German singer-songwriter (b. 1965)<ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/artists/millivanilli/articles/story/5927796/milli_vanillis_pilatus_dead_at_33|titleMilli Vanilli's Pilatus Dead at 32|date7 April 1998|magazineRolling Stone|access-date25 July 2008|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080622144027/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/millivanilli/articles/story/5927796/milli_vanillis_pilatus_dead_at_33|archive-date22 June 2008}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Charles Daudelin, Canadian sculptor and painter (b. 1920)
*2002 &ndash; Levi Celerio, Filipino composer and songwriter (b. 1910)
* 2002 &ndash; John R. Pierce, American engineer and author (b. 1910)
*2003 &ndash; Edwin Starr, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942)
*2004 &ndash; John Argyris, Greek computer scientist, engineer, and academic (b. 1913)
*2005 &ndash; Lillian O'Donnell, American crime novelist (b. 1926)<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/04/classified/paid-notice-deaths-odonnell-lillian.html|titleO'DONNELL, LILLIAN|date2005-04-04|workThe New York Times|access-date2019-01-29|languageen-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
* 2005 &ndash; Pope John Paul II (b. 1920)
*2006 &ndash; Lloyd Searwar, Guyanese anthologist and diplomat (b. 1925)
*2007 &ndash; Henry L. Giclas, American astronomer and academic (b. 1910)
*2008 &ndash; Yakup Satar, Turkish World War I veteran (b. 1898)
*2009 &ndash; Albert Sanschagrin, Canadian bishop (b. 1911)
* 2009 &ndash; Bud Shank, American saxophonist and flute player (b. 1926)<ref>{{cite news |titleBud Shank, Jazz Saxophonist, Is Dead at 82 |firstBruce |lastWeber |dateApril 7, 2009 |access-dateApril 7, 2009 |newspaperThe New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/07/arts/music/07shank.html}}</ref>
*2010 &ndash; Chris Kanyon, American wrestler (b. 1970)
*2011 &ndash; John C. Haas, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1918)
*2012 &ndash; Jesús Aguilarte, Venezuelan captain and politician (b. 1959)
* 2012 &ndash; Elizabeth Catlett, American-Mexican sculptor and illustrator (b. 1915)
* 2012 &ndash; Mauricio Lasansky, American graphic designer and academic (b. 1914)<ref>{{cite news | url https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/08/arts/design/mauricio-lasansky-master-printmaker-dies-at-97.html?_r0 | title Mauricio Lasansky, Master Printmaker, Dies at 97 | first Margalit | last Fox | date 7 April 2012 | access-date 15 July 2015 | work New York Times}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Fred, French author and illustrator (b. 1931)
* 2013 &ndash; Jesús Franco, Spanish director, screenwriter, producer, and actor (b. 1930)
* 2013 &ndash; Milo O'Shea, Irish-American actor (b. 1926)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22011629|titleMilo O'Shea dies after a short illness|dateApril 3, 2013|websiteBBC News|access-date=January 21, 2022}}</ref>
*2014 &ndash; Urs Widmer, Swiss author and playwright (b. 1938)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.nzz.ch/aktuell/feuilleton/uebersicht/schriftsteller-urs-widmer-gestorben-1.18276311 |titleDer Schriftsteller Urs Widmer gestorben |workNeue Zürcher Zeitung |authorRoman Bucheli |date3 April 2014 |languagede |access-date=3 April 2014}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; Manoel de Oliveira, Portuguese actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1908)
* 2015 &ndash; Robert H. Schuller, American pastor and author (b. 1926)
* 2015 &ndash; Steve Stevaert, Belgian businessman and politician, Governor of Limburg (b. 1954)
*2016 &ndash; Gallieno Ferri, Italian comic book artist and illustrator (b. 1929)
* 2016 &ndash; Robert Abajyan, Armenian sergeant (b. 1996)
*2017 &ndash; Alma Delia Fuentes, Mexican actress (b. 1937)<ref>{{Cite web|last|first|titleEntre la basura y el olvido, el triste final de Alma Delia Fuentes, figura de la Época de Oro|urlhttps://www.infobae.com/america/entretenimiento/2021/04/02/entre-la-basura-y-el-olvido-el-triste-final-de-alma-delia-fuentes-figura-de-la-epoca-de-oro/|url-statuslive|access-date2022-01-18|websiteinfobae|date2 April 2021|languagees-ES|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210402071124/https://www.infobae.com/america/entretenimiento/2021/04/02/entre-la-basura-y-el-olvido-el-triste-final-de-alma-delia-fuentes-figura-de-la-epoca-de-oro/ |archive-date=2021-04-02 }}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Simon Bainbridge, British composer (b. 1952)<ref>{{Cite web|date2021-04-13|titleSimon Bainbridge obituary|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/apr/13/simon-bainbridge-obituary|access-date2021-04-18|websiteThe Guardian|languageen}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Estelle Harris, American actress and comedian (b. 1928)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://deadline.com/2022/04/estelle-harris-dead-seinfelds-estelle-costanza-was-93-1234993091/|titleEstelle Harris Dies: Seinfeld's Estelle Costanza, 'Toy Story' Franchise's Mrs. Potato Head Was 93|first1Matt|last1Grobar|dateApril 3, 2022 |access-dateApril 3, 2022}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Jerry Abbott, American country music songwriter and record producer (b. 1942)<ref>{{Cite web |lastKennelty |firstGreg |date2024-04-03 |titleJERRY ABBOTT, Father Of DIMEBAG & VINNIE PAUL, Dead At 80 |urlhttps://metalinjection.net/this-is-just-a-tribute/jerry-abbott-father-of-dimebag-vinnie-paul-dead-at-80 |access-date2024-04-04 |websiteMetal Injection |languageen-US}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; John Barth, American writer (b. 1930)<ref>{{Cite news |lastSmith |firstHarrison |date2024-04-03 |titleJohn Barth, novelist who orchestrated literary fantasies, dies at 93 |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2024/04/02/john-barth-author-dead-obituary/ |access-date2024-04-03 |newspaperWashington Post |languageen-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Maryse Condé, Guadeloupean novelist, critic, and playwright (b. 1934)<ref>{{Cite news |date2024-04-02 |titleMaryse Condé: Author who won 'alternative Nobel Literature Prize' dies at 90 |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-68712276 |access-date2024-04-02 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Christopher Durang, American playwright (b. 1949)<ref>{{Cite web |lastEvans |firstGreg |date2024-04-03 |titleChristopher Durang Dies: Playwright With A Genius For The Absurd Was 75 |urlhttps://deadline.com/2024/04/christopher-durang-dead-playwright-1235872874/ |access-date2024-04-03 |websiteDeadline |languageen-US}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Larry Lucchino, American attorney and baseball executive (b. 1945)<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-04-02 |titleFormer Red Sox CEO Larry Lucchino dies at 78 |urlhttps://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/39859714/larry-lucchino-former-president-ceo-red-sox-dies-78 |access-date2024-04-02 |websiteESPN.com |languageen}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; John Sinclair, American poet (b. 1941)<ref>{{Cite magazine |lastLegaspi |firstAlthea |date2024-04-02 |titleJohn Sinclair, Poet, MC5 Manager, and Activist, Dead at 82 |urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/john-sinclair-dead-obit-1234997977/ |access-date2024-04-02 |magazineRolling Stone |languageen-US}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Juan Vicente Pérez, Venezuelan supercentenarian (b. 1909)<ref>{{Cite web |lastMaglov |firstStefan |date2024-04-02 |titleJuan Vicente Pérez Mora, World's Oldest Man Dies at 114 |urlhttps://longeviquest.com/2024/04/worlds-oldest-man-dies-at-114/ |access-date2024-04-03 |websiteLongeviQuest |languageen-US}}</ref>
<!-- Please do not add non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
**Abundius of Como<ref>Watkins 2015, p. 3</ref>
**Amphianus of Lycia<ref>{{cite book |last1Abbey |first1Saint Augustine's |last2Press |first2Aeterna |titleThe Book of Saints |date1966 |publisherAeterna Press |page83 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhpfmCgAAQBAJ&pgPT83 |languageen}}</ref>
**Æbbe the Younger<ref>{{cite book |last1Carroll |first1Barbara |titleGods, Goddesses, and Saints: A Solitary Practice of Chanting and Meditation |date2015 |publisherOutskirts Press |isbn978-1-4787-4700-0 |page405 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2BszCwAAQBAJ&pgPA405 |language=en}}</ref>
**Bronach of Glen-Seichis (Irish martyrology)<ref>{{cite book |last1O'Clery |first1Michael |title"The" Martyrology of Donegal: A Calendar of the Saints of Ireland |date1864 |publisherIrish archael. & Celtic Soc. |page369 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHkEl1tCKgVgC&pgPA369 |languageen}}</ref>
**Francis of Paola<ref>{{cite book |last1Hynes |first1Mary Ellen |titleCompanion to the Calendar: A Guide to the Saints and Mysteries of the Christian Calendar |date1993 |publisherLiturgyTrainingPublications |isbn978-1-56854-011-5 |page[https://archive.org/details/companiontocalen0000hyne/page/208 208] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/companiontocalen0000hyne |url-accessregistration |languageen}}</ref>
**Francisco Coll Guitart<ref>Watkins 2015, p. 423</ref>
**Henry Budd (Anglican Church of Canada)<ref>{{cite book |last1Treat |first1J. |titleAround the Sacred Fire: Native Religious Activism in the Red Power Era |date2016 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-1-137-05175-2 |page67 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idM7IYDAAAQBAJ&pgPA67 |language=en}}</ref>
**Nicetius of Lyon<ref>{{cite book |titleThe Anniversary Calendar, Natal Book and Universal Mirror: Embracing Anniversaries of Persons, Events, Institutions and Festivals ... from the Creation to the Present Age |date1832 |publisherWilliam Kidd |page959 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idU1_TNJRCNbkC&pgPA959 |languageen}}</ref>
**Pedro Calungsod<ref>{{cite book |last1Tylenda |first1Joseph N. |titleSaints and Feasts of the Liturgical Year |date2003 |publisherGeorgetown University Press |isbn978-0-87840-399-8 |page217 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id61MmDwAAQBAJ&pgPA217 |language=en}}</ref>
**Theodosia of Tyre<ref>{{cite book |last1Butler |first1Alban |titleThe lives of the fathers, martyrs, and other principal saints |date1821 |page23 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYHgTAAAAQAAJ&pgPA23 |language=en}}</ref>
**Urban of Langres<ref>{{cite book |last1Realy |first1Margaret Rose |titleA Catholic Gardener's Spiritual Almanac: Cultivating Your Faith Throughout the Year |date2015 |publisherAve Maria Press |isbn978-1-59471-485-6 |page77 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAJ1UDwAAQBAJ&pgPA77 |language=en}}</ref>
**April 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*International Children's Book Day (International)
*Thai Heritage Conservation Day (Thailand)
*Unity of Peoples of Russia and Belarus Day (Belarus)
*World Autism Awareness Day (International)<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Days |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |websitewww.un.org |access-date2 January 2021 |languageen |date6 January 2015}}</ref>
*Malvinas Day (Argentina)<ref>{{cite web|titleNational Holiday in Argentina|urlhttp://www.officeholidays.com/countries/argentina/malvinas_day.php|publisherofficeholidays.com|access-date22 May 2012}}</ref>
References
{{reflist}}
Bibliography
* {{cite book |last1Watkins |first1Basil |titleThe Book of Saints: A Comprehensive Biographical Dictionary |date2015 |publisherBloomsbury Academic |isbn978-0-567-66414-3 |page3 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ida06TCgAAQBAJ&pgPA3 |languageen}}External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/2 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day2}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/2 Historical Events on April 2]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2
|
2025-04-05T18:25:47.045417
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1778
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Acetylene
|
{{Short description|Hydrocarbon compound (HC≡CH)}}
{{Redirect|HCCH}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Ethyne|ethane|ethene}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{chembox
|Watchedfields = changed
|verifiedrevid = 477240406
|Name = Acetylene
|ImageFile = Acetylene-CRC-IR-dimensions-2D.svg
|ImageSize = 150px
|ImageName = Acetylene
|ImageClass = skin-invert-image
|ImageFile1 = Acetylene-CRC-IR-3D-balls.png
|ImageSize1 = 150px
|ImageName1 = Acetylene
|ImageFile2 = Acetylene-3D-vdW.png
|ImageSize2 = 150px
|ImageName2 = Acetylene – space-filling model
|ImageFile3 = Acetylene-xtal-3D-vdW-111.png
|ImageSize3 = 200px
|ImageName3 = space-filling model of solid acetylene
|PIN Acetylene<ref nameiupac2013>{{cite book | title Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book) | publisher The Royal Society of Chemistry | date 2014 | location Cambridge | page 375 | doi 10.1039/9781849733069 | isbn 978-0-85404-182-4 | quote The name acetylene is retained for the compound HC≡CH. It is the preferred IUPAC name, but substitution of any kind is not allowed; however, in general nomenclature, substitution is allowed, for example fluoroacetylene [fluoroethyne (PIN)], but not by alkyl groups or any other group that extends the carbon chain, nor by characteristic groups expressed by suffixes. | last1 Favre | first1 Henri A. | last2 Powell | first2 Warren H. }}</ref><ref nameP-14.3.4.2 >{{cite web |urlhttps://iupac.qmul.ac.uk/BlueBook/P1.html#1403 |websiteNomenclature of Organic Chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 |locationLondon |publisherQueen Mary University |titleP-14.3 Locants |authorMoss, G.P. (web version) |atSection P-14.3.4.2&nbsp;(d) |access-date=24 August 2024}}</ref>
| SystematicName Ethyne<ref>[http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/79/r79_53.htm Acyclic Hydrocarbons. Rule A-3. Unsaturated Compounds and Univalent Radicals] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20001010202833/http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/79/r79_53.htm |date=10 October 2000 }}, IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry</ref>
|Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
|ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
|ChemSpiderID = 6086
|UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
|UNII = OC7TV75O83
|KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
|KEGG = C01548
|InChI = 1/C2H2/c1-2/h1-2H
|InChIKey = HSFWRNGVRCDJHI-UHFFFAOYAY
|ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
|ChEMBL = 116336
|StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
|StdInChI = 1S/C2H2/c1-2/h1-2H
|StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
|StdInChIKey = HSFWRNGVRCDJHI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
|CASNo = 74-86-2
|CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
|UNNumber = 1001 (dissolved)<br />3138 (in mixture with ethylene and propylene)
|ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
|ChEBI = 27518
|PubChem = 6326
|EC_number = 200-816-9
|RTECS = AO9600000
|Gmelin = 210
|Beilstein = 906677
|SMILES = C#C
}}
|Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
|C2 | H2
|Appearance = Colorless gas
|Odour = Odorless
|Density 1.1772 g/L 1.1772 kg/m<sup>3</sup> (0&nbsp;°C, 101.3 kPa)<ref name"GESTIS">{{GESTIS|NameAcetylene|ZVG13570|CAS74-86-2}}</ref>
|SublimationConditions = −84&nbsp;°C; −119&nbsp;°F; 189 K (1 atm)
|MeltingPtC = −80.8
|MeltingPt_notes = Triple point at 1.27 atm
|Solubility = slightly soluble
|SolubleOther = slightly soluble in alcohol <br> soluble in acetone, benzene
|MagSus −20.8{{e|−6}} cm<sup>3</sup>/mol <ref name"CRC97">{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/930681942 |titleCRC handbook of chemistry and physics : a ready-reference book of chemical and physical data. |date2016 |author1William M. Haynes |author2David R. Lide |author3Thomas J. Bruno |isbn978-1-4987-5428-6 |edition2016-2017, 97th |locationBoca Raton, Florida |publisherCRC Press |oclc930681942 |access-date4 May 2022 |archive-date4 May 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220504220656/https://www.worldcat.org/title/crc-handbook-of-chemistry-and-physics-a-ready-reference-book-of-chemical-and-physical-data/oclc/930681942 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|ConjugateAcid = Ethynium
|pKa 25<ref name"airliquide">{{cite web|urlhttp://encyclopedia.airliquide.com/Encyclopedia.asp?GasID1#MajorApplications|titleAcetylene – Gas Encyclopedia Air Liquide|websiteAir Liquide|access-date2018-09-27|archive-date4 May 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220504220655/https://encyclopedia.airliquide.com/Encyclopedia.asp?GasID1#MajorApplications|url-status=live}}</ref>
|VaporPressure 44.2 atm (20&nbsp;°C)<ref nameNIOSH>{{PGCH|0008}}</ref>
|ThermalConductivity 21.4&nbsp;mW·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup> (300&nbsp;K) <ref name"CRC97"/>
}}
|Section3 = {{Chembox Structure
|MolShape = Linear
}}
|Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
|Thermochemistry_ref <ref name"CRC97"/>
|HeatCapacity = 44.036&nbsp;J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup>
|Entropy = 200.927&nbsp;J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup>
|DeltaHform = 227.400&nbsp;kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>
|DeltaGfree = 209.879&nbsp;kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>
|DeltaHcombust = 1300&nbsp;kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>
}}
|Section5 = {{Chembox Hazards
|NFPA-H = 1
|NFPA-F = 4
|NFPA-R = 3
|GHSPictograms = {{GHS02}}{{GHS07}}
|GHSSignalWord = Danger
|HPhrases = {{H-phrases|220|336}}
|PPhrases = {{P-phrases|202|210|261|271|304|340|312|377|381|403|233|405|501}}
|ExploLimits = 2.5–100%
|AutoignitionPtC = 300
|PEL none<ref nameNIOSH/>
|REL C 2500 ppm (2662 mg/m<sup>3</sup>)<ref nameNIOSH/>
|IDLH N.D.<ref nameNIOSH/>
}}
}}
Acetylene (systematic name: ethyne) is the chemical compound with the formula {{chem2|C2H2}} and structure {{chem2|HC\tCH}}. It is a hydrocarbon and the simplest alkyne.<ref>{{Cite book |author1R. H. Petrucci |author2W. S. Harwood |author3F. G. Herring | title General Chemistry | edition 8th | publisher Prentice-Hall | date 2002 | page 1072}}</ref> This colorless gas is widely used as a fuel and a chemical building block. It is unstable in its pure form and thus is usually handled as a solution.<ref name"Ullmann">{{Ullmann|doi10.1002/14356007.a01_097.pub3|year2008|last1Pässler|first1Peter|last2Hefner|titleAcetylene Chemistry|first2Werner|last3Buckl|first3Klaus|last4Meinass|first4Helmut|last5Meiswinkel|first5Andreas|last6Wernicke|first6Hans-Jürgen|last7Ebersberg|first7Günter|last8Müller|first8Richard|last9Bässler|first9Jürgen|last10Behringer|first10Hartmut|last11Mayer|first11Dieter|isbn978-3527306732}}</ref> Pure acetylene is odorless, but commercial grades usually have a marked odor due to impurities such as divinyl sulfide and phosphine.<ref nameUllmann/><ref namemsds>Compressed Gas Association (1995) [http://www.stoodyind.com/Safety/MSDS/Acetylene.pdf Material Safety and Data Sheet – Acetylene] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120711030340/http://www.stoodyind.com/safety/msds/Acetylene.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.stoodyind.com/safety/msds/Acetylene.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |date11 July 2012 }}</ref>
As an alkyne, acetylene is unsaturated because its two carbon atoms are bonded together in a triple bond. The carbon–carbon triple bond places all four atoms in the same straight line, with CCH bond angles of 180°.<ref>Whitten K. W., Gailey K. D. and Davis R. E. General Chemistry (4th ed., Saunders College Publishing 1992), pp. 328–329, 1046. {{ISBN|0-03-072373-6}}.</ref>
Discovery
Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, who identified it as a "new carburet of hydrogen".<ref>Edmund Davy (August 1836) [https://books.google.com/books?idgrtZAAAAcAAJ&pgRA1-PA62 "Notice of a new gaseous bicarburet of hydrogen"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160506050712/https://books.google.com/books?idgrtZAAAAcAAJ&pgRA1-PA62 |date6 May 2016}}, Report of the Sixth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ..., 5: 62–63.</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleAcetylene: Its Properties, Manufacture and Uses |last1Miller |first1S. A. |year1965 |publisherAcademic Press Inc. |volume1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-u1GAQAAIAAJ |access-date16 July 2021 |archive-date15 April 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415082551/https://books.google.com/books?id-u1GAQAAIAAJ |url-statuslive }}</ref> It was an accidental discovery while attempting to isolate potassium metal. By heating potassium carbonate with carbon at very high temperatures, he produced a residue of what is now known as potassium carbide, (K<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>), which reacted with water to release the new gas. It was rediscovered in 1860 by French chemist Marcellin Berthelot, who coined the name acétylène.<ref>Bertholet (1860) [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3007r/f817.image "''Note sur une nouvelle série de composés organiques, le quadricarbure d'hydrogène et ses dérivés"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713191835/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3007r/f817.image |date13 July 2015 }} (Note on a new series of organic compounds, tetra-carbon hydride and its derivatives), Comptes rendus'', series 3, 50: 805–808.</ref> Berthelot's empirical formula for acetylene (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>), as well as the alternative name "''quadricarbure d'hydrogène" (hydrogen quadricarbide), were incorrect because many chemists at that time used the wrong atomic mass for carbon (6 instead of 12).<ref>{{cite journal |last1Ihde |first1Aaron J. |titleThe Karlsruhe Congress: A centennial retrospective |journalJournal of Chemical Education |date1961 |volume38 |issue2 |page83 |doi10.1021/ed038p83 |bibcode1961JChEd..38...83I |urlhttps://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed038p83 |access-date29 December 2021 |quoteAtomic weights of 6 and 12 were both in use for carbon. |archive-date30 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211230033049/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed038p83 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Berthelot was able to prepare this gas by passing vapours of organic compounds (methanol, ethanol, etc.) through a red hot tube and collecting the effluent. He also found that acetylene was formed by sparking electricity through mixed cyanogen and hydrogen gases. Berthelot later obtained acetylene directly by passing hydrogen between the poles of a carbon arc.<ref>Berthelot (1862) [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30115/f640.image.langEN "Synthèse de l'acétylène par la combinaison directe du carbone avec l'hydrogène"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200814023647/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30115/f640.image.langEN |date14 August 2020 }} (Synthesis of acetylene by the direct combination of carbon with hydrogen), Comptes rendus, series 3, 54: 640–644.</ref><ref>[http://chestofbooks.com/crafts/metal/Welding-Cutting/Acetylene.html Acetylene] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120128110843/http://chestofbooks.com/crafts/metal/Welding-Cutting/Acetylene.html |date28 January 2012}}.</ref>Preparation Partial combustion of hydrocarbons Since the 1950s, acetylene has mainly been manufactured by the partial combustion of methane in the US, much of the EU, and many other countries:<ref name"Ullmann"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1Habil |first1Phil |last2Sachsse |first2Hans |date1954 |titleHerstellung von Acetylen durch unvollständige Verbrennung von Kohlenwasserstoffen mit Sauerstoff (Production of acetylene by incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen) |journalChemie Ingenieur Technik |volume26 |issue5 |pages245–253 |doi10.1002/cite.330260502}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Habil |first1Phil |last2Bartholoméa |first2E. |date1954 |titleProbleme großtechnischer Anlagen zur Erzeugung von Acetylen nach dem Sauerstoff-Verfahren (Problems of large-scale plants for the production of acetylene by the oxygen method) |journalChemie Ingenieur Technik |volume26 |issue5 |pages253–258 |doi10.1002/cite.330260503}}</ref>
: {{chem2|3 CH4 + 3 O2 -> C2H2 + CO + 5 H2O}}
It is a recovered side product in production of ethylene by cracking of hydrocarbons. Approximately 400,000 tonnes were produced by this method in 1983.<ref name"Ullmann" /> Its presence in ethylene is usually undesirable because of its explosive character and its ability to poison Ziegler–Natta catalysts. It is selectively hydrogenated into ethylene, usually using Pd–Ag catalysts.<ref>[http://science.enotes.com/how-products-encyclopedia/acetylene Acetylene: How Products are Made] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070120055804/http://science.enotes.com/how-products-encyclopedia/acetylene|date20 January 2007}}</ref> Dehydrogenation of alkanes
The heaviest alkanes in petroleum and natural gas are cracked into lighter molecules which are dehydrogenated at high temperature:
: {{chem2|C2H6 -> C2H2 + 2 H2}}
: {{chem2|2 CH4 -> C2H2 + 3 H2}}
This last reaction is implemented in the process of anaerobic decomposition of methane by microwave plasma.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHow it Works |urlhttps://www.transformmaterials.com/howitworks/ |access-date2023-07-21 |websiteTransform Materials |languageen-US}}</ref> Carbochemical method The first acetylene produced was by Edmund Davy in 1836, via potassium carbide.<ref>{{cite web |last1Institution |first1Smithsonian |titleCarbide Lamps |urlhttps://www.si.edu/spotlight/mining-lights-and-hats/carbide-lamps |websiteSmithsonian Institution |language=en}}</ref>
Acetylene was historically produced by hydrolysis (reaction with water) of calcium carbide:
:{{chem2|CaC2 + 2 H2O -> Ca(OH)2 + C2H2}}
This reaction was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in 1862,<ref>Wohler (1862) [https://books.google.com/books?id6zIzAAAAYAAJ&pgRA1-PA220 "Bildung des Acetylens durch Kohlenstoffcalcium"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160512225014/https://books.google.com/books?id6zIzAAAAYAAJ&pgRA1-PA220|date12 May 2016}} (Formation of actylene by calcium carbide), Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie'', 124: 220.</ref> but a suitable commercial scale production method which allowed acetylene to be put into wider scale use was not found until 1892 by the Canadian inventor Thomas Willson while searching for a viable commercial production method for aluminum.<ref name"Willson">{{cite web |titleA National Historic Chemical Landmark - Discovery of the Commercial Processes For Making Calcium Carbide and Acetylene - Commemorative Booklet |urlhttps://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/calciumcarbideacetylene/commericialization-of-calcium-carbide-and-acetylene-commemorative-booklet.pdf |websiteAmerican Chemical Society |publisherACS Office of Communications |access-date10 October 2024 |date=1998}}</ref>
As late as the early 21st century, China, Japan, and Eastern Europe produced acetylene primarily by this method.<ref>{{cite book |doi10.1002/0471238961.0103052007011414.a01 |chapterAcetylene from Hydrocarbons |titleKirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology |year2000 |last1Gannon |first1Richard E. |isbn9780471484943 }}{{quotation needed|dateOctober 2024}}</ref>
The use of this technology has since declined worldwide with the notable exception of China, with its emphasis on coal-based chemical industry, as of 2013. Otherwise oil has increasingly supplanted coal as the chief source of reduced carbon.<ref>{{cite book |doi10.1002/14356007.a04_533.pub2 |chapterCalcium Carbide |titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date2013 |last1Holzrichter |first1Klaus |last2Knott |first2Alfons |last3Mertschenk |first3Bernd |last4Salzinger |first4Josef |pages1–14 |isbn978-3-527-30673-2 }}</ref>
Calcium carbide production requires high temperatures, ~2000&nbsp;°C, necessitating the use of an electric arc furnace. In the US, this process was an important part of the late-19th century revolution in chemistry enabled by the massive hydroelectric power project at Niagara Falls.<ref>{{cite journal |lastFreeman |firstHorace |year1919 |titleManufacture of Cyanamide |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5SAzAQAAMAAJ&qcalcium+carbide&pgPA232 |url-statuslive |journalThe Chemical News and the Journal of Physical Science |volume117 |page232 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415083126/https://books.google.com/books?id5SAzAQAAMAAJ&qcalcium+carbide&pgPA232 |archive-date15 April 2021 |access-date2013-12-23}}</ref>
Bonding
In terms of valence bond theory, in each carbon atom the 2s orbital hybridizes with one 2p orbital thus forming an sp hybrid. The other two 2p orbitals remain unhybridized. The two ends of the two sp hybrid orbital overlap to form a strong σ valence bond between the carbons, while on each of the other two ends hydrogen atoms attach also by σ bonds. The two unchanged 2p orbitals form a pair of weaker π bonds.<ref>Organic Chemistry 7th ed. by J. McMurry, Thomson 2008</ref>
Since acetylene is a linear symmetrical molecule, it possesses the D<sub>∞h</sub> point group.<ref>{{Housecroft3rd|pages94–95}}</ref>Physical propertiesChanges of stateAt atmospheric pressure, acetylene cannot exist as a liquid and does not have a melting point. The triple point on the phase diagram corresponds to the melting point (−80.8&nbsp;°C) at the minimal pressure at which liquid acetylene can exist (1.27 atm). At temperatures below the triple point, solid acetylene can change directly to the vapour (gas) by sublimation. The sublimation point at atmospheric pressure is −84.0&nbsp;°C.<ref>Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (60th ed., CRC Press 1979–80), p. C-303 in Table Physical Constants of Organic Compounds (listed as ethyne).</ref>Other
At room temperature, the solubility of acetylene in acetone is 27.9 g per kg. For the same amount of dimethylformamide (DMF), the solubility is 51 g. At
20.26 bar, the solubility increases to 689.0 and 628.0 g for acetone and DMF, respectively. These solvents are used in pressurized gas cylinders.<ref nameUll/>ApplicationsWeldingApproximately 20% of acetylene is supplied by the industrial gases industry for oxyacetylene gas welding and cutting due to the high temperature of the flame. Combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces a flame of over {{convert|3600|K|C F}}, releasing 11.8&nbsp;kJ/g. Oxygen with acetylene is the hottest burning common gas mixture.<ref nameLinde2013>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.linde-gas.com/en/products_and_supply/gases_fuel/acetylene.html |titleAcetylene |access-date2013-11-30 |publisherLinde |websiteProducts and Supply > Fuel Gases |archive-date12 January 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180112184128/http://www.linde-gas.com/en/products_and_supply/gases_fuel/acetylene.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Acetylene is the third-hottest natural chemical flame after dicyanoacetylene's {{convert|5260|K|C F}} and cyanogen at {{convert|4798|K|C F}}. Oxy-acetylene welding was a popular welding process in previous decades. The development and advantages of arc-based welding processes have made oxy-fuel welding nearly extinct for many applications. Acetylene usage for welding has dropped significantly. On the other hand, oxy-acetylene welding equipment is quite versatile – not only because the torch is preferred for some sorts of iron or steel welding (as in certain artistic applications), but also because it lends itself easily to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating (for annealing or tempering, bending or forming), the loosening of corroded nuts and bolts, and other applications. Bell Canada cable-repair technicians still use portable acetylene-fuelled torch kits as a soldering tool for sealing lead sleeve splices in manholes and in some aerial locations. Oxyacetylene welding may also be used in areas where electricity is not readily accessible. Oxyacetylene cutting is used in many metal fabrication shops. For use in welding and cutting, the working pressures must be controlled by a regulator, since above {{convert|15|psi|abbron}}, if subjected to a shockwave (caused, for example, by a flashback), acetylene decomposes explosively into hydrogen and carbon.<ref>[http://www.esabna.com/euweb/oxy_handbook/589oxy3_3.htm ESAB Oxy-acetylene welding handbook – Acetylene properties] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200510192947/https://www.esabna.com/euweb/oxy_handbook/589oxy3_3.htm |date=10 May 2020 }}.</ref>
]]
Chemicals
Acetylene is useful for many processes, but few are conducted on a commercial scale.<ref nametrot>{{cite journal |doi10.1021/cr400357r |titleCatalytic Reactions of Acetylene: A Feedstock for the Chemical Industry Revisited |date2014 |last1Trotuş |first1Ioan-Teodor |last2Zimmermann |first2Tobias |last3Schüth |first3Ferdi |journalChemical Reviews |volume114 |issue3 |pages1761–1782 |pmid24228942 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
One of the major chemical applications is ethynylation of formaldehyde.<ref name="Ullmann" />
Acetylene adds to aldehydes and ketones to form α-ethynyl alcohols:
:
The reaction gives butynediol, with propargyl alcohol as the by-product. Copper acetylide is used as the catalyst.<ref>{{Citation |last1Gräfje |first1Heinz |titleButanediols, Butenediol, and Butynediol |date2000-06-15 |urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a04_455 |encyclopediaUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |pagesa04_455 |editor-lastWiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA |placeWeinheim, Germany |publisherWiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA |languageen |doi10.1002/14356007.a04_455 |isbn978-3-527-30673-2 |access-date2022-03-03 |last2Körnig |first2Wolfgang |last3Weitz |first3Hans-Martin |last4Reiß |first4Wolfgang |last5Steffan |first5Guido |last6Diehl |first6Herbert |last7Bosche |first7Horst |last8Schneider |first8Kurt |last9Kieczka |first9Heinz |s2cid178601434 |archive-date19 March 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220319160632/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a04_455 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1Falbe |first1Jürgen |titleAlcohols, Aliphatic |date2000-06-15 |urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a01_279 |encyclopediaUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |pagesa01_279 |editor-lastWiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA |placeWeinheim, Germany |publisherWiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA |languageen |doi10.1002/14356007.a01_279 |isbn978-3-527-30673-2 |access-date2022-03-03 |last2Bahrmann |first2Helmut |last3Lipps |first3Wolfgang |last4Mayer |first4Dieter |archive-date9 March 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220309153410/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a01_279 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In addition to ethynylation, acetylene reacts with carbon monoxide, acetylene reacts to give acrylic acid, or acrylic esters. Metal catalysts are required. These derivatives form products such as acrylic fibers, glasses, paints, resins, and polymers. Except in China, use of acetylene as a chemical feedstock has declined by 70% from 1965 to 2007 owing to cost and environmental considerations.<ref>{{cite journal|author1Takashi Ohara|author2Takahisa Sato|author3Noboru Shimizu|author4Günter Prescher|author5Helmut Schwind|author6Otto Weiberg|author7Klaus Marten|author8Helmut Greim|titleAcrylic Acid and Derivatives|journalUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year2003|page7|doi10.1002/14356007.a01_161.pub2|isbn3527306730 }}</ref> In China, acetylene is a major precursor to vinyl chloride.<ref nametrot/>Historical usesPrior to the widespread use of petrochemicals, coal-derived acetylene was a building block for several industrial chemicals. Thus acetylene can be hydrated to give acetaldehyde, which in turn can be oxidized to acetic acid. Processes leading to acrylates were also commercialized. Almost all of these processes became obsolete with the availability of petroleum-derived ethylene and propylene.<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1021/cr400276u |titleProduction of Acetylene and Acetylene-based Chemicals from Coal |date2014 |last1Schobert |first1Harold |journalChemical Reviews |volume114 |issue3 |pages1743–1760 |pmid24256089 }}</ref>Niche applicationsIn 1881, the Russian chemist Mikhail Kucherov<ref>{{Cite journal|doi10.1002/cber.188101401320|titleUeber eine neue Methode direkter Addition von Wasser (Hydratation) an die Kohlenwasserstoffe der Acetylenreihe|year1881|last1Kutscheroff|first1M.|journalBerichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft|volume14|pages1540–1542|urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1425226|access-date9 September 2019|archive-date2 December 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201202225306/https://zenodo.org/record/1425226|url-statuslive}}</ref> described the hydration of acetylene to acetaldehyde using catalysts such as mercury(II) bromide. Before the advent of the Wacker process, this reaction was conducted on an industrial scale.<ref>{{cite journal | title Hydration of Acetylene: A 125th Anniversary | author1 Dmitry A. Ponomarev | author2 Sergey M. Shevchenko | journal J. Chem. Educ. | volume 84 | issue 10 | year 2007 | page 1725 | url http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/HS/Journal/Issues/2007/OctACS/ACSSub/p1725.pdf | doi 10.1021/ed084p1725 | bibcode 2007JChEd..84.1725P | access-date 18 February 2009 | archive-date 11 June 2011 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110611190527/http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/HS/Journal/Issues/2007/OctACS/ACSSub/p1725.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>
The polymerization of acetylene with Ziegler–Natta catalysts produces polyacetylene films. Polyacetylene, a chain of CH centres with alternating single and double bonds, was one of the first discovered organic semiconductors. Its reaction with iodine produces a highly electrically conducting material. Although such materials are not useful, these discoveries led to the developments of organic semiconductors, as recognized by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2000 to Alan J. Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa.<ref name=Ullmann/>
In the 1920s, pure acetylene was experimentally used as an inhalation anesthetic.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year1930 |titleAcetylene in medicine|encyclopediaEncyclopaedia Britannica |edition14|volume1|page119 |authorWilliam Stanley Sykes |author-linkWilliam Stanley Sykes |language=en}}</ref>
Acetylene is sometimes used for carburization (that is, hardening) of steel when the object is too large to fit into a furnace.<ref nameBOC2006>{{cite web |urlhttp://boc.com/products_and_services/by_product/acetylene/index.asp |titleAcetylene |publisherBOC |websiteProducts and Services |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060517074022/http://boc.com/products_and_services/by_product/acetylene/index.asp |archive-date=2006-05-17 }}</ref>
Acetylene is used to volatilize carbon in radiocarbon dating. The carbonaceous material in an archeological sample is treated with lithium metal in a small specialized research furnace to form lithium carbide (also known as lithium acetylide). The carbide can then be reacted with water, as usual, to form acetylene gas to feed into a mass spectrometer to measure the isotopic ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12.<ref>{{cite journal|lastGeyh, Mebus|titleRadiocarbon dating problems using acetylene as counting gas|journalRadiocarbon|year1990|volume32|issue3|pages321–324|doi10.2458/azu_js_rc.32.1278|urlhttps://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/view/1278/1283|access-date2013-12-26|archive-date26 December 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131226194553/https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/view/1278/1283|url-statuslive|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Acetylene combustion produces a strong, bright light and the ubiquity of carbide lamps drove much acetylene commercialization in the early 20th century. Common applications included coastal lighthouses,<ref>{{Cite web|titleLighthouse Lamps Through Time by Thomas Tag {{!}} US Lighthouse Society|urlhttp://uslhs.org/lighthouse-lamps-through-time|access-date2017-02-24|websiteuslhs.org|languageen|archive-date25 February 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170225130406/http://uslhs.org/lighthouse-lamps-through-time|url-statuslive}}</ref> street lights,<ref>{{Cite book|lastMyers|firstRichard L.|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0AnJU-hralEC|titleThe 100 Most Important Chemical Compounds: A Reference Guide|date2007|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-0-313-33758-1|languageen|access-date21 November 2015|archive-date17 June 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160617093705/https://books.google.com/books?id0AnJU-hralEC|url-statuslive}}</ref> and automobile<ref>Grainger, D., (2001). By cars' early light: A short history of the headlamp: 1900s lights bore port and starboard red and green lenses. National Post. [Toronto Edition] DT7.</ref> and mining headlamps.<ref name"Thorpe-2005">{{cite book|lastThorpe|firstDave|titleCarbide Light: The Last Flame in American Mines|publisherBergamot Publishing|year2005|isbn978-0976090526}}</ref> In most of these applications, direct combustion is a fire hazard, and so acetylene has been replaced, first by incandescent lighting and many years later by low-power/high-lumen LEDs. Nevertheless, acetylene lamps remain in limited use in remote or otherwise inaccessible areas and in countries with a weak or unreliable central electric grid.<ref name"Thorpe-2005"/>
Natural occurrence
The energy richness of the C≡C triple bond and the rather high solubility of acetylene in water make it a suitable substrate for bacteria, provided an adequate source is available.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastAkob |firstDenise |dateAugust 2018 |titleAcetylenotrophy: a hidden but ubiquitous microbial metabolism? |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/femsec/article/94/8/fiy103/5026170 |access-date2022-07-28 |journalFEMS Microbiology Ecology|volume94 |issue8 |doi10.1093/femsec/fiy103 |pmid29933435 |pmc7190893 }}</ref> A number of bacteria living on acetylene have been identified. The enzyme acetylene hydratase catalyzes the hydration of acetylene to give acetaldehyde:<ref>{{cite book|first1Felix|last1ten Brink|editorPeter M. H. Kroneck and Martha E. Sosa Torres|titleThe Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment|seriesMetal Ions in Life Sciences|volume14|year2014|publisherSpringer|chapterChapter 2. Living on acetylene. A Primordial Energy Source|pages15–35|doi10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_2|pmid25416389|isbn=978-94-017-9268-4 }}</ref>
:{{chem2|C2H2 + H2O -> CH3CHO}}
Acetylene is a moderately common chemical in the universe, often associated with the atmospheres of gas giants.<ref>{{cite press release|publisherW. M. Keck Observatory |titlePrecursor to Proteins and DNA found in Stellar Disk |date20 December 2005 |urlhttp://www.keckobservatory.org/article.php?id39 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070223211405/http://www.keckobservatory.org/article.php?id39 |archive-date2007-02-23 }}</ref> One curious discovery of acetylene is on Enceladus, a moon of Saturn. Natural acetylene is believed to form from catalytic decomposition of long-chain hydrocarbons at temperatures of {{convert|1700|K|C F}} and above. Since such temperatures are highly unlikely on such a small distant body, this discovery is potentially suggestive of catalytic reactions within that moon, making it a promising site to search for prebiotic chemistry.<ref>{{cite web|publisherThe Planetary Society |author Emily Lakdawalla |titleLPSC: Wednesday afternoon: Cassini at Enceladus |date17 March 2006 |urlhttp://www.planetary.org/blog/article/00000498/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120220053655/http://www.planetary.org/blog/article/00000498/ |archive-date2012-02-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journalNature | volume445 | pages376–377| date25 January 2007| doi 10.1038/445376b| titlePlanetary science: Inside Enceladus|author1John Spencer |author2David Grinspoon |pmid17251967|issue7126| bibcode2007Natur.445..376S | s2cid4427890 | doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Reactions
Vinylation reactions
In vinylation reactions, H−X compounds add across the triple bond. Alcohols and phenols add to acetylene to give vinyl ethers. Thiols give vinyl thioethers. Similarly, vinylpyrrolidone and vinylcarbazole are produced industrially by vinylation of 2-pyrrolidone and carbazole.<ref nameUll>{{Ullmann|first1Albrecht Ludwig|last1Harreus|first2R.|last2Backes|first3J.-O.|last3Eichler|first4R.|last4Feuerhake|first5C. |last5Jäkel|first6U.|last6Mahn|first7R.|last7Pinkos|first8R.|last8Vogelsang|title2-Pyrrolidone|year2011|doi10.1002/14356007.a22_457.pub2}}</ref><ref name=Ullmann/>
:
The hydration of acetylene is a vinylation reaction, but the resulting vinyl alcohol isomerizes to acetaldehyde. The reaction is catalyzed by mercury salts. This reaction once was the dominant technology for acetaldehyde production, but it has been displaced by the Wacker process, which affords acetaldehyde by oxidation of ethylene, a cheaper feedstock. A similar situation applies to the conversion of acetylene to the valuable vinyl chloride by hydrochlorination vs the oxychlorination of ethylene.
Vinyl acetate is used instead of acetylene for some vinylations, which are more accurately described as transvinylations.<ref>{{cite book |doi10.1002/047084289X.rv008|chapterVinyl Acetate |titleEncyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis |year2001 |last1Manchand |first1Percy S. |isbn0471936235 }}</ref> Higher esters of vinyl acetate have been used in the synthesis of vinyl formate.Organometallic chemistryAcetylene and its derivatives (2-butyne, diphenylacetylene, etc.) form complexes with transition metals. Its bonding to the metal is somewhat similar to that of ethylene complexes. These complexes are intermediates in many catalytic reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to benzene, tetramerization to cyclooctatetraene,<ref nameUllmann/> and carbonylation to hydroquinone:<ref nameCyclization>{{cite journal|author1Reppe, Walter |author2Kutepow, N |author3Magin, A |titleCyclization of Acetylenic Compounds|journalAngewandte Chemie International Edition in English|year1969|volume8|issue10|pages727–733 |doi=10.1002/anie.196907271 }}</ref>
:
:
:{{chem2|Fe(CO)5 + 4 C2H2 + 2 H2O -> 2 C6H4(OH)2 + FeCO3}} at basic conditions (50–{{val|80|udegC}}, 20–{{val|25|uatm}}).
Metal acetylides, species of the formula {{chem2|L_{n}M\sC2R}}, are also common. Copper(I) acetylide and silver acetylide can be formed in aqueous solutions with ease due to a favorable solubility equilibrium.<ref nameViehe />Acid-base reactions
{{Main|Acetylide#Preparation}}
Acetylene has a pK<sub>a</sub> of 25, acetylene can be deprotonated by a superbase to form an acetylide:<ref nameViehe>{{cite book|last1Viehe|first1Heinz Günter|titleChemistry of Acetylenes|urlhttps://archive.org/details/chemistryofacety0000vieh|url-accessregistration|date1969|publisherMarcel Dekker, inc.|locationNew York|pages170–179 & 225–241|edition1st|isbn978-0824716752}}</ref>
:{{chem2 | HC\tCH + RM -> RH + HC\tCM }}
Various organometallic<ref nameMidland1990>{{Cite journal|last1Midland|first1M. M.|last2McLoughlin|first2J. I.|last3Werley|first3Ralph T. (Jr.)|date1990|titlePreparation and Use of Lithium Acetylide: 1-Methyl-2-ethynyl-endo-3,3-dimethyl-2-norbornanol|journalOrganic Syntheses|volume68|page14|doi10.15227/orgsyn.068.0014}}</ref> and inorganic<ref nameCoffman>{{cite journal|last1Coffman|first1Donald D.|titleDimethylethhynylcarbinol|journalOrganic Syntheses|date1940|volume40|page20|doi10.15227/orgsyn.020.0040}}</ref> reagents are effective.
, commissioned in 2020]]
Hydrogenation
Acetylene can be semihydrogenated to ethylene, providing a feedstock for a variety of polyethylene plastics. Halogens add to the triple bond.
Safety and handling
Acetylene is not especially toxic, but when generated from calcium carbide, or CaC<sub>2</sub>, it can contain toxic impurities such as traces of phosphine and arsine, which gives it a distinct garlic-like smell. It is also highly flammable, as are most light hydrocarbons, hence its use in welding. Its most singular hazard is associated with its intrinsic instability, especially when it is pressurized: under certain conditions acetylene can react in an exothermic addition-type reaction to form a number of products, typically benzene and/or vinylacetylene, possibly in addition to carbon and hydrogen.{{Citation needed|dateDecember 2016}} Consequently, acetylene, if initiated by intense heat or a shockwave, can decompose explosively if the absolute pressure of the gas exceeds about {{convert|200|kPa|psi}}. Most regulators and pressure gauges on equipment report gauge pressure, and the safe limit for acetylene therefore is 101&nbsp;kPa<sub>gage</sub>, or 15&nbsp;psig.<ref>{{cite web | url http://www.c-f-c.com/specgas_products/acetylene.htm | title Acetylene Specification | access-date 2012-05-02 | publisher CFC StarTec LLC | archive-date 11 March 2014 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140311222208/http://www.c-f-c.com/specgas_products/acetylene.htm | url-status live }}</ref><ref name"law">{{Cite web|urlhttps://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/003/cga.g-1.2009.pdf|titlelaw.resource.org CGA g-1 2009 (incorporated by reference)|access-date2016-11-30|archive-date10 October 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161010200240/https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/003/cga.g-1.2009.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref> It is therefore supplied and stored dissolved in acetone or dimethylformamide (DMF),<ref name"law" /><ref name"Industrial Gases">{{cite book | last1 Downie | first1 N. A. | title Industrial Gases | publisher Blackie Academic & Professional | year 1997 | location London; New York | isbn 978-0-7514-0352-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstMikołaj|lastKorzun|title1000 słów o materiałach wybuchowych i wybuchu|isbn83-11-07044-X|year1986|locationWarszawa|publisherWydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej|oclc69535236}}</ref> contained in a gas cylinder with a porous filling, which renders it safe to transport and use, given proper handling. Acetylene cylinders should be used in the upright position to avoid withdrawing acetone during use.<ref name"EIGA">{{Cite web|urlhttp://eiga.web1.apollo-com.be/fileadmin/docs_pubs/Doc_123_13_Code_of_Practice_Acetylene.pdf|titleEIGA Code of Practice: Acetylene|access-date2016-11-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201014426/http://eiga.web1.apollo-com.be/fileadmin/docs_pubs/Doc_123_13_Code_of_Practice_Acetylene.pdf|archive-date1 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Information on safe storage of acetylene in upright cylinders is provided by the OSHA,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_tableSTANDARDS&p_id9748|titleOSHA 29 CFR 1910.102 Acetylene|access-date2016-11-30|archive-date1 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201080130/https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_tableSTANDARDS&p_id9748|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"OSHA">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_tableSTANDARDS&p_id10696|titleOSHA 29 CFR 1926.350 Gas Welding and cutting.|access-date2016-11-30|archive-date1 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201012751/https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_tableSTANDARDS&p_id10696|url-statuslive}}</ref> Compressed Gas Association,<ref name"law" /> United States Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA),<ref>[http://arlweb.msha.gov/alerts/hazardsofacetylene.htm Special Hazards of Acetylene] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160324115350/http://arlweb.msha.gov/alerts/hazardsofacetylene.htm |date24 March 2016 }} UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Mine Safety and Health Administration – MSHA.</ref> EIGA,<ref name="EIGA" /> and other agencies.
Copper catalyses the decomposition of acetylene, and as a result acetylene should not be transported in copper pipes.<ref name"brown">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.brown.edu/Administration/EHS/lab/assets/SA-2.2003.pdf|date2003-10-16|authorDaniel_Sarachick|titleACETYLENE SAFETY ALERT|publisherOffice of Environmental Health & Safety (EHS)|access-date2018-09-27|archive-date13 July 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180713033908/http://www.brown.edu/Administration/EHS/lab/assets/SA-2.2003.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Cylinders should be stored in an area segregated from oxidizers to avoid exacerbated reaction in case of fire/leakage.<ref name"law" /><ref name"OSHA" /> Acetylene cylinders should not be stored in confined spaces, enclosed vehicles, garages, and buildings, to avoid unintended leakage leading to explosive atmosphere.<ref name"law" /><ref name"OSHA" /> In the US, National Electric Code (NEC) requires consideration for hazardous areas including those where acetylene may be released during accidents or leaks.<ref name"NFPA">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards?modecode&code70&tabeditions|titleNFPA free access to 2017 edition of NFPA 70 (NEC)|access-date2016-11-30|archive-date1 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201075712/http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards?modecode&code70&tabeditions|url-statuslive}}</ref> Consideration may include electrical classification and use of listed Group A electrical components in US.<ref name"NFPA" /> Further information on determining the areas requiring special consideration is in NFPA 497.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards?modecode&code497&tabeditions|titleNFPA Free Access to NFPA 497 – Recommended Practice for the Classification of Flammable Liquids, Gases, or Vapors and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas|access-date2016-11-30|archive-date1 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201015905/http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards?modecode&code497&tabeditions|url-statuslive}}</ref> In Europe, ATEX also requires consideration for hazardous areas where flammable gases may be released during accidents or leaks.<ref name"EIGA"/>References{{Reflist}}External links
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
*[http://pureacetylenegenerator.com Acetylene Production Plant and Detailed Process] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150411085620/http://www.pureacetylenegenerator.com/ |date11 April 2015 }}
*[http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCESoft/CCA/CCA5/MAIN/1ORGANIC/ORG07/MENU.HTM Acetylene at Chemistry Comes Alive!]
*{{Gutenberg|nameAcetylene, the Principles of Its Generation and Use|no8144}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXh7__ri1VQ Movie explaining acetylene formation from calcium carbide and the explosive limits forming fire hazards]
*[http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_calcium_carbide.htm Calcium Carbide & Acetylene] at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
*[https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0008.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Acetylene]
{{Alkynes}}
{{Molecules detected in outer space}}
{{Hydrides by group}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Alkynes
Category:Fuel gas
Category:Industrial gases
Category:Synthetic fuel technologies
Category:Explosive gases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.072292
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1779
|
Alfred
|
Alfred may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Alfred J. Kwak, Dutch-German-Japanese anime television series
Alfred (Arne opera), a 1740 masque by Thomas Arne
Alfred (Dvořák), an 1870 opera by Antonín Dvořák
"Alfred (Interlude)" and "Alfred (Outro)", songs by Eminem from the 2020 album Music to Be Murdered By
Business and organisations
Alfred, a radio station in Shaftesbury, England
Alfred Music, an American music publisher
Alfred University, New York, U.S.
The Alfred Hospital, a hospital in Melbourne, Australia
People
Alfred (name) includes a list of people and fictional characters called Alfred
Alfred the Great (848/49 – 899), or Alfred I, a king of the West Saxons and of the Anglo-Saxons
Places
Antarctica
Mount Alfred (Antarctica)
Australia
Alfredtown, New South Wales
County of Alfred, South Australia
Canada
Alfred and Plantagenet, Ontario
Alfred, Ontario, a community in Alfred and Plantagenet
Alfred Island, Nunavut
Mount Alfred, British Columbia
United States
Alfred, Maine, a New England town
Alfred (CDP), Maine, the main village in the town
Alfred, New York, a town
Alfred (village), New York, within the town of Alfred
Alfred, North Dakota
Alfred, Texas
Lake Alfred, Florida
Other uses
HMS Alfred, the name of several ships of the Royal Navy
USS Alfred, launched in 1774 as Black Prince
Alfred (software), an application launcher for macOS
ALFRED (nuclear reactor), lead-cooled fast reactor demonstrator
Allele Frequency Net Database (AlFreD), an electronic database of genetic alleles
Cyclone Alfred, several tropical cyclones in the Australian region
See also
Alfredo (disambiguation)
HMS King Alfred
HMS Royal Alfred (1864)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.077098
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1781
|
August 28
|
Events
Pre-1600
475 – The Roman general Orestes forces western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos to flee his capital city, Ravenna.
489 – Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, defeats Odoacer at the Battle of Isonzo, forcing his way into Italy.
632 – Fatimah, daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, dies, with her cause of death being a controversial topic among the Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims.
663 – Silla–Tang armies crush the Baekje restoration attempt and force Yamato Japan to withdraw from Korea in the Battle of Baekgang.
1189 – Third Crusade: The Crusaders begin the Siege of Acre under Guy of Lusignan.
1521 – Ottoman wars in Europe: The Ottoman Turks occupy Belgrade.
1524 – The Kaqchikel Maya rebel against their former Spanish allies during the Spanish conquest of Guatemala.
1542 – Turkish–Portuguese War: Battle of Wofla: The Portuguese are scattered, their leader Christovão da Gama is captured and later executed.
1565 – Pedro Menéndez de Avilés sights land near St. Augustine, Florida and founds the oldest continuously occupied European-established city in the continental United States.
1601–1900
1609 – Henry Hudson discovers Delaware Bay.
1619 – Election of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor.
1640 – Second Bishop's War: King Charles I's English army loses to a Scottish Covenanter force at the Battle of Newburn.
1648 – Second English Civil War: The Siege of Colchester ends when Royalists Forces surrender to the Parliamentary Forces after eleven weeks.
1709 – Meidingnu Pamheiba is crowned King of Manipur.
1789 – William Herschel discovers a new moon of Saturn: Enceladus.
1810 – Napoleonic Wars: The French Navy accepts the surrender of a British Royal Navy fleet at the Battle of Grand Port.
1830 – The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's new Tom Thumb steam locomotive races a horse-drawn car, presaging steam's role in U.S. railroads.
1833 – The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 receives royal assent, making the purchase or ownership of slaves illegal in the British Empire with exceptions.
1845 – The first issue of Scientific American magazine is published.
1849 – Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire: After a month-long siege, Venice, which had declared itself independent as the Republic of San Marco, surrenders to Austria.
1850 – Richard Wagner’s Lohengrin premieres at the Staatskapelle Weimar.
1859 – The Carrington event is the strongest geomagnetic storm on record to strike the Earth. Electrical telegraph service is widely disrupted.
1861 – American Civil War: Union forces attack Cape Hatteras, North Carolina in the Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries which lasts for two days.
1862 – American Civil War: The Second Battle of Bull Run, also known as the Battle of Second Manassas, begins in Virginia. The battle ends on August 30 with another Union defeat.
1867 – The United States takes possession of the (at this point unoccupied) Midway Atoll.
1879 – Anglo-Zulu War: Cetshwayo, last king of the Zulus, is captured by the British.
1898 – Caleb Bradham's beverage "Brad's Drink" is renamed "Pepsi-Cola".
1901–present
1901 – Silliman University is founded in the Philippines. It is the first American private school in the country.
1909 – A group of mid-level Greek Army officers launches the Goudi coup, seeking wide-ranging reforms.
1913 – Queen Wilhelmina opens the Peace Palace in The Hague.
1914 – World War I: The Royal Navy defeats the German fleet in the Battle of Heligoland Bight.
1916 – World War I: Germany declares war on Romania.
1916 – World War I: Italy declares war on Germany.
1917 – Ten suffragists, members of the Silent Sentinels, are arrested while picketing the White House in favor of women's suffrage in the United States.
1921 – Russian Civil War: The Red Army dissolves the Makhnovshchina after driving the Revolutionary Insurgent Army out of Ukraine.
1924 – The Georgian opposition stages the August Uprising against the Soviet Union.
1936 – Nazi Germany begins its mass arrests of Jehovah's Witnesses, who are interned in concentration camps.
1937 – Toyota Motors becomes an independent company.
1943 – Denmark in World War II: German authorities demand that Danish authorities crack down on acts of resistance. The next day, martial law is imposed on Denmark.
1944 – World War II: Marseille and Toulon are liberated.
1946 – The Workers' Party of North Korea, predecessor of the ruling Workers' Party of Korea, is founded at a congress held in Pyongyang, North Korea.
1955 – Black teenager Emmett Till is lynched in Mississippi for whistling at a white woman, galvanizing the nascent civil rights movement.
1957 – U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond begins a filibuster to prevent the United States Senate from voting on the Civil Rights Act of 1957; he stopped speaking 24 hours and 18 minutes later, the longest filibuster ever conducted by a single Senator.
1963 – March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom: Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gives his I Have a Dream speech.
1964 – The Philadelphia race riot begins.
1968 – Police and protesters clash during 1968 Democratic National Convention protests as protesters chant "The whole world is watching".
1973 – Norrmalmstorg robbery: Stockholm police secure the surrenders of hostage-takers Jan-Erik Olsson and Clark Olofsson, defusing the Norrmalmstorg hostage crisis. The behaviours of the hostages later give rise to the term Stockholm syndrome.
1988 – Ramstein air show disaster: Three aircraft of the Frecce Tricolori demonstration team collide and the wreckage falls into the crowd. Seventy-five are killed and 346 seriously injured.
1990 – Gulf War: Iraq declares Kuwait to be its newest province.
1990 – An F5 tornado strikes the Illinois cities of Plainfield and Joliet, killing 29 people.
1993 – NASA's Galileo probe performs a flyby of the asteroid 243 Ida. Astronomers later discover a moon, the first known asteroid moon, in pictures from the flyby and name it Dactyl.
1993 – Singaporean presidential election: Former Deputy Prime Minister Ong Teng Cheong is elected President of Singapore. Although it is the first presidential election to be determined by popular vote, the allowed candidates consist only of Ong and a reluctant whom the government had asked to run to confer upon the election the semblance of an opposition.
1993 – The autonomous Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia in Bosnia and Herzegovina is transformed into the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia.
1993 – A Tajikistan Airlines Yakovlev Yak-40 crashes during takeoff from Khorog Airport in Tajikistan, killing 82.
1996 – Chicago Seven defendant David Dellinger, antiwar activist Bradford Lyttle, Civil Rights Movement historian Randy Kryn, and eight others are arrested by the Federal Protective Service while protesting in a demonstration at the Kluczynski Federal Building in downtown Chicago during that year's Democratic National Convention.
1998 – Pakistan's National Assembly passes a constitutional amendment to make the "Qur'an and Sunnah" the "supreme law" but the bill is defeated in the Senate.
1998 – Second Congo War: Loyalist troops backed by Angolan and Zimbabwean forces repulse the RCD and Rwandan offensive on Kinshasa.
1999 – The Russian space mission Soyuz TM-29 reaches completion, ending nearly 10 years of continuous occupation on the space station Mir as it approaches the end of its life.
2003 – In "one of the most complicated and bizarre crimes in the annals of the FBI", Brian Wells dies after becoming involved in a complex plot involving a bank robbery, a scavenger hunt, and a homemade explosive device.
2009 – NASA's Space Shuttle Discovery launches on STS-128.
2016 – The first experimental mission of ISRO's Scramjet Engine towards the realisation of an Air Breathing Propulsion System is successfully conducted from Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota.
2017 – China–India border standoff: China and India both pull their troops out of Doklam, putting an end to a two-month-long stalemate over China's construction of a road in disputed territory.
2022 – 2022 Phoenix shooting: A man opens fire on pedestrians outside of a hotel in Phoenix, Arizona, resulting in the deaths of 3 people, including the perpetrator.
Births
Pre-1600
1023 – Go-Reizei, emperor of Japan (d. 1068)
1366 – Jean Le Maingre, marshal of France (d. 1421)
1476 – Kanō Motonobu, Japanese painter (d. 1559)
1481 – Francisco de Sá de Miranda, Portuguese poet (d. 1558)
1582 – Taichang, emperor of China (d. 1620)
1591 – John Christian of Brieg, duke of Brzeg (d. 1639)
1592 – George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, English courtier and politician (d. 1628)
1601–1900
1612 – Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn, Dutch linguist and scholar (d. 1653)
1667 – Louise of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, queen of Denmark and Norway (d. 1721)
1691 – Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Holy Roman Empress (d. 1750)
1714 – Anthony Ulrich, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1774)
1728 – John Stark, American general (d. 1822)
1739 – Agostino Accorimboni, Italian composer (d. 1818)
1749 – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German novelist, poet, playwright, and diplomat (d. 1832)
1774 – Elizabeth Ann Seton, American nun and saint, co-founded the Sisters of Charity Federation in the Vincentian-Setonian Tradition (d. 1821)
1801 – Antoine Augustin Cournot, French mathematician and philosopher (d. 1877)
1814 – Sheridan Le Fanu, Irish author (d. 1873)
1816 – Charles Sladen, English-Australian politician, 6th Premier of Victoria (d. 1884)
1822 – Graham Berry, English-Australian politician, 11th Premier of Victoria (d. 1904)
1827 – Catherine Mikhailovna, Russian grand duchess (d. 1894)
1833 – Edward Burne-Jones, English artist of the Pre-Raphaelite movement (d. 1898)
1837 – Francis von Hohenstein, duke of Teck (d. 1900)
1840 – Alexander Cameron Sim, Scottish-Japanese pharmacist and businessman, founded Kobe Regatta & Athletic Club (d. 1900)
1853 – Vladimir Shukhov, Russian architect and engineer, designed the Adziogol Lighthouse (d. 1939)
1859 – Matilda Howell, American archer (d. 1938)
1859 – Vittorio Sella, Italian mountaineer and photographer (d. 1943)
1867 – Umberto Giordano, Italian composer and academic (d. 1948)
1878 – George Whipple, American physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)
1884 – Peter Fraser, Scottish-New Zealand journalist and politician, 24th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1950)
1885 – Vance Palmer, Australian author, playwright, and critic (d. 1959)
1887 – August Kippasto, Estonian-Australian wrestler and poet (d. 1973)
1887 – István Kühár, Slovenian priest and politician (d. 1922)
1888 – Evadne Price, Australian actress, astrologer, and author (d. 1985)
1891 – Benno Schotz, Estonian-Scottish sculptor and engineer (d. 1984)
1894 – Karl Böhm, Austrian conductor and director (d. 1981)
1896 – Firaq Gorakhpuri, Indian author, poet, and critic (d. 1982)
1898 – Charlie Grimm, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster (d. 1983)
1899 – Charles Boyer, French-American actor, singer, and producer (d. 1978)
1899 – Andrei Platonov, Russian author and poet (d. 1951)
1899 – James Wong Howe, Chinese American cinematographer (d. 1976)
1901–present
1903 – Bruno Bettelheim, Austrian-American psychologist and author (d. 1990)
1904 – Secondo Campini, Italian-American engineer (d. 1980)
1904 – Leho Laurine, Estonian chess player (d. 1998)
1905 – Cyril Walters, Welsh-English cricketer (d. 1992)
1906 – John Betjeman, English poet and academic (d. 1984)
1908 – Roger Tory Peterson, American ornithologist and author (d. 1996)
1910 – Morris Graves, American painter and academic (d. 2001)
1910 – Tjalling Koopmans, Dutch-American mathematician and economist Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)
1911 – Joseph Luns, Dutch politician and diplomat, 5th Secretary General of NATO (d. 2002)
1913 – Robertson Davies, Canadian journalist, author, and playwright (d. 1995)
1913 – Jack Dreyfus, American businessman, founded the Dreyfus Corporation (d. 2009)
1913 – Lindsay Hassett, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1993)
1913 – Robert Irving, English conductor and director (d. 1991)
1913 – Terence Reese, English bridge player and author (d. 1996)
1913 – Richard Tucker, American tenor and actor (d. 1975)
1915 – Max Robertson, Bengal-born English sportscaster and author (d. 2009)
1915 – Tasha Tudor, American author and illustrator (d. 2008)
1916 – Hélène Baillargeon, Canadian singer and actress (d. 1997)
1916 – C. Wright Mills American sociologist and author (d. 1962)
1916 – Jack Vance, American author (d. 2013)
1917 – Jack Kirby, American author and illustrator (d. 1994)
1918 – L. B. Cole, American illustrator and publisher (d. 1995)
1919 – Godfrey Hounsfield, English biophysicist and engineer Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)
1921 – John Herbert Chapman, Canadian physicist and engineer (d. 1979)
1921 – Fernando Fernán Gómez, Spanish actor, director, and playwright (d. 2007)
1921 – Nancy Kulp, American actress and soldier (d. 1991)
1921 – Lidia Gueiler Tejada, the first female President of Bolivia (d. 2011)
1924 – Janet Frame, New Zealand author and poet (d. 2004)
1933 – Patrick Kalilombe, Malawian bishop and theologian (d. 2012)
1935 – Melvin Charney, Canadian sculptor and architect (d. 2012)
1935 – Gilles Rocheleau, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1998)
1935 – Sonny Shroyer, American actor
1938 – Paul Martin, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Prime Minister of Canada
1939 – John Kingman, English mathematician and academic
1940 – William Cohen, American lawyer and politician, 20th United States Secretary of Defense
1940 – Ken Jenkins, American actor
1951 – Keiichi Suzuki, Japanese singer-songwriter
1952 – Jacques Chagnon, Canadian educator and politician
1952 – Rita Dove, American poet and essayist
1952 – Wendelin Wiedeking, German businessman
1953 – Ditmar Jakobs, German footballer
1953 – Tõnu Kaljuste, Estonian conductor and journalist
1954 – Katharine Abraham, American feminist economist
1954 – George M. Church, American geneticist, chemist, and engineer
1954 – John Dorahy, Australian rugby player and coach
1954 – Ravi Kanbur, Indian-English economist and academic
1956 – Luis Guzmán, Puerto Rican-American actor and producer
1956 – Steve Whiteman, American singer-songwriter
1957 – Greg Clark, English businessman and politician, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government
1957 – Ivo Josipović, Croatian lawyer, jurist, and politician, 3rd President of Croatia
1957 – Daniel Stern, American actor and director
1966 – Priya Dutt, Indian social worker and politician
1967 – Jamie Osborne, English jockey and trainer
1968 – Billy Boyd, Scottish actor and singer
1979 – Shaila Dúrcal, Spanish singer-songwriter
1979 – Robert Hoyzer, German footballer and referee
1979 – Kristen Hughes, Australian netball player
1979 – Markus Pröll, German footballer
1979 – Ruth Riley, American basketball player
1980 – Antony Hämäläinen, Finnish singer-songwriter
1980 – Debra Lafave, American sex offender and former teacher
1980 – Ryan Madson, American baseball player
1980 – Jaakko Ojaniemi, Finnish decathlete
1980 – Carly Pope, Canadian actress and producer
1982 – LeAnn Rimes, American singer-songwriter and actress
1983 – Lilli Schwarzkopf, German heptathlete
1984 – Will Harris, American baseball player
1985 – Kjetil Jansrud, Norwegian skier
1986 – Jeff Green, American basketball player
1986 – Armie Hammer, American actor
1989 – César Azpilicueta, Spanish footballer
1989 – Valtteri Bottas, Finnish race car driver
1989 – Jo Kwon, South Korean singer and dancer
1989 – Cassadee Pope, American singer-songwriter
1992 – Bismack Biyombo, Congolese basketball player
1992 – Max Collins, American-Filipino actress and model
1992 – Gabriela Drăgoi, Romanian gymnast
1993 – Jakub Sokolík, Czech footballer
1994 – Manon Arcangioli, French tennis player
1994 – Ons Jabeur, Tunisian tennis player
1996 – Kim Se-jeong, South Korean actress and singer
1998 – Weston McKennie, American soccer player
2001 – Kamilla Rakhimova, Russian tennis player
2003 – Quvenzhané Wallis, American actress
Deaths
Pre-1600
388 – Magnus Maximus, Roman emperor (b. 335)
430 – Augustine of Hippo, Algerian bishop, theologian, and saint (b. 354)
476 – Orestes, Roman general and politician
632 – Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad (b. 605)
683 – Kʼinich Janaab Pakal I, ajaw of the city-state of Palenque (b. 615)
770 – Kōken, emperor of Japan (b. 718)
876 – Louis the German, Frankish king (b. 804)
919 – He Gui, Chinese general (b. 858)
1055 – Xing Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 1016)
1149 – Mu'in ad-Din Unur, Turkish ruler and regent
1231 – Eleanor of Portugal, Queen of Denmark
1341 – Levon IV, king of Armenia (b. 1309)
1406 – John de Sutton V, Baron Sutton of Dudley (b. 1380)
1481 – Afonso V, king of Portugal (b. 1432)
1540 – Federico II Gonzaga, duke of Mantua (b. 1500)
1601–1900
1609 – Francis Vere, English governor and general
1645 – Hugo Grotius, Dutch playwright, philosopher, and jurist (b. 1583)
1646 – Johannes Banfi Hunyades, English-Hungarian alchemist, chemist and metallurgist. (b. 1576)
1648 – George Lisle, English general (b. 1610)
1648 – Charles Lucas, English general (b. 1613)
1654 – Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (b. 1583)
1665 – Elisabetta Sirani, Italian painter (b. 1638)
1678 – John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1602)
1735 – Edwin Stead, English landowner and cricketer (b. 1701)
1757 – David Hartley, English psychologist and philosopher (b. 1705)
1761 – Melchor de Navarrete, Spanish colonial governor of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia, 1739–1742); of Spanish Florida (1749–1752); and of Yucatán (Mexico, 1754–1758) (b. 1693)
1784 – Junípero Serra, Spanish priest and missionary (b. 1713)
1793 – Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine, French general (b. 1740)
1805 – Alexander Carlyle, Scottish church leader and author (b. 1722)
1818 – Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, American fur trader, founded Chicago (b. 1750)
1820 – Andrew Ellicott, American surveyor and urban planner (b. 1754)
1832 – Edward Dando, English thief
1839 – William Smith, English geologist and engineer (b. 1769)
1888 – Julius Krohn, Finnish poet and journalist (b. 1835)
1891 – Robert Caldwell, English missionary and linguist (b. 1814)
1900 – Henry Sidgwick, English economist and philosopher (b. 1838)
1901–present
1903 – Frederick Law Olmsted, American journalist and architect, co-designed Central Park (b. 1822)
1919 – Adolf Schmal, Austrian fencer and cyclist (b. 1872)
1934 – Edgeworth David, Welsh-Australian geologist and explorer (b. 1858)
1937 – George Prendergast, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Victoria (b. 1854)
1943 – Georg Hellat, Estonian architect (b. 1870)
1943 – Boris III of Bulgaria (b. 1894)
1955 – Emmett Till, African-American kidnapping and lynching victim (b. 1941)
1959 – Bohuslav Martinů, Czech-American composer and educator (b. 1890)
1965 – Giulio Racah, Italian-Israeli physicist and mathematician (b. 1909)
1968 – Dimitris Pikionis, Greek architect and academic (b. 1887)
1971 – Reuvein Margolies, Israeli author and scholar (b. 1889)
1972 – Prince William of Gloucester (b. 1941)
1975 – Fritz Wotruba, Austrian sculptor (b. 1907)
1976 – Anissa Jones, American actress (b. 1958)
1978 – Bruce Catton, American historian and journalist (b. 1899)
1978 – Robert Shaw, English actor (b. 1927)
1981 – Béla Guttmann, Hungarian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1899)
1982 – Geoff Chubb, South African cricketer (b. 1911)
1984 – Muhammad Naguib, Egyptian general and politician, 1st President of Egypt (b. 1901)
1985 – Ruth Gordon, American actress and screenwriter (b. 1896)
1986 – Russell Lee, American photographer and journalist (b. 1903)
1987 – John Huston, Irish actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1906)
1988 – Jean Marchand, Canadian union leader and politician, 43rd Secretary of State for Canada (b. 1918)
1988 – Max Shulman, American author and screenwriter (b. 1919)
1989 – John Steptoe, American author and illustrator (b. 1950)
1990 – Willy Vandersteen, Belgian author and illustrator (b. 1913)
1991 – Alekos Sakellarios, Greek director and screenwriter (b. 1913)
1993 – William Stafford, American poet and academic (b. 1914)
1995 – Earl W. Bascom, American rodeo performer and painter (b. 1906)
1995 – Michael Ende, German scientist and author (b. 1929)
2005 – Jacques Dufilho, French actor (b. 1914)
2005 – Esther Szekeres, Hungarian-Australian mathematician and academic (b. 1910)
2005 – George Szekeres, Hungarian-Australian mathematician and academic (b. 1911)
2006 – Heino Lipp, Estonian shot putter and discus thrower (b. 1922)
2006 – Benoît Sauvageau, Canadian educator and politician (b. 1963)
2006 – Melvin Schwartz, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1932)
2007 – Arthur Jones, American businessman, founded Nautilus, Inc. and MedX Corporation (b. 1926)
2007 – Hilly Kristal, American businessman, founded CBGB (b. 1932)
2007 – Paul MacCready, American engineer and businessman, founded AeroVironment (b. 1925)
2007 – Francisco Umbral, Spanish journalist and author (b. 1935)
2007 – Miyoshi Umeki, Japanese-American actress (b. 1929)
2008 – Phil Hill, American race car driver (b. 1927)
2009 – Adam Goldstein, American drummer, DJ, and producer (b. 1973)
2009 – Richard Egan, US Ambassador, Owner of Dell EMC, Engineer (b. 1936)
2010 – William P. Foster, American bandleader and educator (b. 1919)
2011 – Bernie Gallacher, English footballer (b. 1967)
2012 – Rhodes Boyson, English educator and politician (b. 1925)
2012 – Shulamith Firestone, Canadian-American activist and author (b. 1945)
2012 – Dick McBride, American author, poet, and playwright (b. 1928)
2012 – Saul Merin, Polish-Israeli ophthalmologist and academic (b. 1933)
2012 – Ramón Sota, Spanish golfer (b. 1938)
2013 – John Bellany, Scottish painter and academic (b. 1942)
2013 – Lorella Cedroni, Italian political scientist and philosopher (b. 1961)
2013 – Edmund B. Fitzgerald, American businessman (b. 1926)
2013 – Frank Pulli, American baseball player and umpire (b. 1935)
2013 – Barry Stobart, English footballer (b. 1938)
2013 – Rafael Díaz Ycaza, Ecuadorian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1925)
2014 – Glenn Cornick, English bass guitarist (b. 1947)
2014 – Hal Finney, American cryptographer and programmer (b. 1956)
2014 – John Anthony Walker, American soldier and spy (b. 1937)
2015 – Al Arbour, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1932)
2015 – Mark Krasniqi, Kosovan ethnographer, poet, and translator (b. 1920)
2015 – Nelson Shanks, American painter and educator (b. 1937)
2016 – Juan Gabriel, Mexican singer and songwriter (b. 1950)
2016 – Mr. Fuji, American professional wrestler and manager (b. 1934)
2017 – Mireille Darc, French actress and model (b. 1938)
2020 – Chadwick Boseman, American actor and playwright (b. 1976)
2024 – Obi Ndefo, American actor (b. 1972)
2024 – Steve Silberman, American writer and journalist (b. 1957)
Holidays and observances
Christian feast day:
Alexander of Constantinople
Augustine of Hippo
Edmund Arrowsmith
Hermes
Moses the Black
August 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
National Grandparents Day (Mexico)
References
External links
Category:Days of August
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_28
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.206018
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1786
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Arabic numerals
|
upright1.5|thumb|altNumbers written from 0 to 9|Arabic numerals set in Source Sans typeface
The ten Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) are the most commonly used symbols for writing numbers. The term often also implies a positional notation number with a decimal base, in particular when contrasted with Roman numerals. However the symbols are also used to write numbers in other bases, such as octal, as well as non-numerical information such as trademarks or license plate identifiers.
They are also called Western Arabic numerals, Western digits, European digits, Ghubār numerals, or Hindu–Arabic numerals due to positional notation (but not these digits) originating in India. The Oxford English Dictionary uses lowercase Arabic numerals while using the fully capitalized term Arabic Numerals for Eastern Arabic numerals. In contemporary society, the terms digits, numbers, and numerals often implies only these symbols, although it can only be inferred from context.
Europeans first learned of Arabic numerals , though their spread was a gradual process. After Italian scholar Fibonacci of Pisa encountered the numerals in the Algerian city of Béjaïa, his 13th-century work became crucial in making them known in Europe. However, their use was largely confined to Northern Italy until the invention of the printing press in the 15th century. European trade, books, and colonialism subsequently helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world. The numerals are used worldwide—significantly beyond the contemporary spread of the Latin alphabet—and have become common in the writing systems where other numeral systems existed previously, such as Chinese and Japanese numerals.
History
Origin
alt=|thumb|Evolution of Indian numerals into Arabic numerals and their adoption in Europe
Positional decimal notation including a zero symbol was developed in India, using symbols visually distinct from those that would eventually enter into international use. As the concept spread, the sets of symbols used in different regions diverged over time.
The immediate ancestors of the digits now commonly called "Arabic numerals" were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic speakers of Spain and North Africa, with digits at the time in wide use from Libya to Morocco. In the east from Egypt to Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabs were using the Eastern Arabic numerals or "Mashriki" numerals: ٠, ١, ٢, ٣, ٤, ٥, ٦, ٧, ٨, ٩.
Al-Nasawi wrote in the early 11th century that mathematicians had not agreed on the form of the numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals. The oldest specimens of the written numerals available are from Egypt and date to 873–874 AD. They show three forms of the numeral "2" and two forms of the numeral "3", and these variations indicate the divergence between what later became known as the Eastern Arabic numerals and the Western Arabic numerals. The Western Arabic numerals came to be used in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus from the 10th century onward. Some amount of consistency in the Western Arabic numeral forms endured from the 10th century, found in a Latin manuscript of Isidore of Seville's from 976 and the Gerbertian abacus, into the 12th and 13th centuries, in early manuscripts of translations from the city of Toledo.
thumb|Etching from 1503 (or earlier) showing usage of Arabic numerals
Adoption and spread
thumb|right|The first Arabic numerals in the West appeared in the in Spain.
The first mentions of the numerals from 1 to 9 in the West are found in the 976 , an illuminated collection of various historical documents covering a period from antiquity to the 10th century in Hispania. Other texts show that numbers from 1 to 9 were occasionally supplemented by a placeholder known as , represented as a circle or wheel, reminiscent of the eventual symbol for zero. The Arabic term for zero is (), transliterated into Latin as , which became the English word cipher.
From the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France.
Italy
thumb|A page of the Liber Abaci. The list on the right shows the Fibonacci sequence: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377. The 2, 8, and 9 resemble Arabic numerals more than Eastern Arabic numerals or Indian numerals.
Leonardo Fibonacci was a Pisan mathematician who had studied in the Pisan trading colony of Bugia, in what is now Algeria, and he endeavored to promote the numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book :
When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.
The s analysis highlighting the advantages of positional notation was widely influential. Likewise, Fibonacci's use of the Béjaïa digits in his exposition ultimately led to their widespread adoption in Europe. Fibonacci's work coincided with the European commercial revolution of the 12th and 13th centuries centered in Italy. Positional notation facilitated complex calculations (such as currency conversion) to be completed more quickly than was possible with the Roman system. In addition, the system could handle larger numbers, did not require a separate reckoning tool, and allowed the user to check their work without repeating the entire procedure. Late medieval Italian merchants did not stop using Roman numerals or other reckoning tools: instead, Arabic numerals were adopted for use in addition to their preexisting methods. Early evidence of their use in Britain includes: an equal hour horary quadrant from 1396, in England, a 1445 inscription on the tower of Heathfield Church, Sussex; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church, Berkshire; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church, Dorset; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin Cathedral. In central Europe, the King of Hungary Ladislaus the Posthumous, started the use of Arabic numerals, which appear for the first time in a royal document of 1456.
By the mid-16th century, they had been widely adopted in Europe, and by 1800 had almost completely replaced the use of counting boards and Roman numerals in accounting. Roman numerals were mostly relegated to niche uses such as years and numbers on clock faces.
Russia
Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals, Cyrillic numerals, derived from the Cyrillic alphabet, were used by South and East Slavs. The system was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century, although it was formally replaced in official use by Peter the Great in 1699. Reasons for Peter's switch from the alphanumerical system are believed to go beyond a surface-level desire to imitate the West. Historian Peter Brown makes arguments for sociological, militaristic, and pedagogical reasons for the change. At a broad, societal level, Russian merchants, soldiers, and officials increasingly came into contact with counterparts from the West and became familiar with the communal use of Arabic numerals. Peter also covertly travelled throughout Northern Europe from 1697 to 1698 during his Grand Embassy and was likely informally exposed to Western mathematics during this time. The Cyrillic system was found to be inferior for calculating practical kinematic values, such as the trajectories and parabolic flight patterns of artillery. With its use, it was difficult to keep pace with Arabic numerals in the growing field of ballistics, whereas Western mathematicians such as John Napier had been publishing on the topic since 1614.
China
thumb|right|250px|Chinese Shang dynasty oracle bone numerals of 14th century BC
The Chinese Shang dynasty numerals from the 14th century BC predates the Indian Brahmi numerals by over 1000 years and shows substantial similarity to the Brahmi numerals. Similar to the modern Arabic numerals, the Shang dynasty numeral system was also decimal based and positional. the externally-developed system was eventually introduced to medieval China by the Hui people. In the early 17th century, European-style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuits.
Encoding
The ten Arabic numerals are encoded in virtually every character set designed for electric, radio, and digital communication, such as Morse code. They are encoded in ASCII (and therefore in Unicode encodings) at positions 0x30 to 0x39. Masking all but the four least-significant binary digits gives the value of the decimal digit, a design decision facilitating the digitization of text onto early computers. EBCDIC used a different offset, but also possessed the aforementioned masking property.
ASCII Unicode EBCDIChex binary octal decimal hex00011 00000604830U+0030 DIGIT ZEROF010011 00010614931U+0031 DIGIT ONEF120011 00100625032U+0032 DIGIT TWOF230011 00110635133U+0033 DIGIT THREEF340011 01000645234U+0034 DIGIT FOURF450011 01010655335U+0035 DIGIT FIVEF560011 01100665436U+0036 DIGIT SIXF670011 01110675537U+0037 DIGIT SEVENF780011 10000705638U+0038 DIGIT EIGHTF890011 10010715739U+0039 DIGIT NINEF9
See also
Arabic numeral variations
Regional variations in modern handwritten Arabic numerals
Seven-segment display
Text figures
Footnotes
Sources
Further reading
External links
Lam Lay Yong, "Development of Hindu Arabic and Traditional Chinese Arithmetic", Chinese Science 13 (1996): 35–54.
"Counting Systems and Numerals", Historyworld. Retrieved 11 December 2005.
. 16 April 2005.
O'Connor, J. J., and E. F. Robertson, Indian numerals . November 2000.
History of the numerals
Arabic numerals
Hindu–Arabic numerals
Numeral & Numbers' history and curiosities
Gerbert d'Aurillac's early use of Hindu–Arabic numerals at Convergence
Category:Numerals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals
|
2025-04-05T18:25:47.243962
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1787
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April 9
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{{About|the day in the Gregorian calendar|the 2015 Danish film|April 9th (film)|the Arthur episode|Arthur (season 7)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 193 &ndash; The distinguished soldier Septimius Severus is proclaimed emperor by the army in Illyricum.<ref>{{cite book|firstJacques|lastLegrand|titleChronicle of the World|publisherEcam Publication|year1989|page236|isbn=0-13-133463-8}}</ref>
* 475 &ndash; Byzantine Emperor Basiliscus issues a circular letter (Enkyklikon) to the bishops of his empire, supporting the Monophysite christological position.<ref>{{cite book|lastFontaine|firstPetrus F.M.|titleThe Light and the Dark: A Cultural History of Dualism. Volume 15: Imperialism in Medieval History I. Dualism in Byzantine History 476-638 and Dualism in Islam 572-732|locationAmsterdam|publisherJ.C. Gieben|date1986|oclc15535828|page196}}</ref>
* 537 &ndash; Siege of Rome: The Byzantine general Belisarius receives his promised reinforcements, 1,600 cavalry, mostly of Hunnic or Slavic origin and expert bowmen. He starts, despite shortages, raids against the Gothic camps and Vitiges but is forced into a stalemate.
*1241 &ndash; Battle of Liegnitz: Mongol forces defeat the Polish and German armies.<ref>{{cite book|lastGrant|firstR.G.|title1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History|locationNew York|publisherChartwell Books|date2017|isbn9780785835530|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2ZNADwAAQBAJ|page168}}</ref>
*1288 &ndash; Mongol invasions of Vietnam: Yuan forces are defeated by Trần forces in the Battle of Bach Dang in present-day northern Vietnam.<ref>{{cite book|editor-lastEmbree|editor-firstAinslie T.|titleEncyclopedia of Asian History. Volume 4: Sri—Zuny|locationNew York|publisherScribner|date1988|isbn9780684189017|page128}}</ref>
*1388 &ndash; Despite being outnumbered 16:1, forces of the Old Swiss Confederacy are victorious over the Archduchy of Austria in the Battle of Näfels.<ref>{{cite journal|lastWidmer|firstMarie|titleThree Decisive Battles in Swiss History|journalThe American Educational Review|dateOctober 1914|page18|accessdateApril 15, 2022|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=T5SgAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
*1454 &ndash; The Treaty of Lodi is signed, establishing a balance of power among northern Italian city-states for almost 50 years.<ref>{{cite book|lastKirshner|firstJulius|titleThe Origins of the State in Italy, 1300-1600|locationChicago|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press|date1996|isbn9780226437699|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgAvk-MkzVNsC|page183}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1609 &ndash; Eighty Years' War: Spain and the Dutch Republic sign the Treaty of Antwerp to initiate twelve years of truce.
* 1609 &ndash; Philip III of Spain issues the decree of the "Expulsion of the Moriscos".
*1682 &ndash; Robert Cavelier de La Salle discovers the mouth of the Mississippi River, claims it for France and names it Louisiana.
*1784 &ndash; The Treaty of Paris, ratified by the United States Congress on January 14, 1784, is ratified by King George III of the Kingdom of Great Britain, ending the American Revolutionary War. Copies of the ratified documents are exchanged on May 12, 1784.<ref>{{cite book|lastPowers|firstDave|titleImportant Documents in American History: A Collection of the Important Documents Throughout America's History|locationFallbrook, Calif.|publisherHarvest Publishers|date2010|isbn978-0-557-79841-4|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHG9yAgAAQBAJ|page35|postscriptnone}}<br />{{cite book|lastRenehan|firstEdward|titleThe Treaty of Paris: The Precursor to a New Nation|locationNew York|publisherChelsea House|date2007|isbn9780791093528|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id77SN_7zebb8C|page=105}}</ref>
*1860 &ndash; On his phonautograph machine, Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville makes the first known recording of an audible human voice.
*1865 &ndash; American Civil War: Robert E. Lee surrenders the Army of Northern Virginia (26,765 troops) to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, effectively ending the war.
1901–present
*1909 &ndash; The U.S. Congress passes the Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act.
*1917 &ndash; World War I: The Battle of Arras: The battle begins with Canadian Corps executing a massive assault on Vimy Ridge.
*1918 &ndash; World War I: The Battle of the Lys: The Portuguese Expeditionary Corps is crushed by the German forces during what is called the Spring Offensive on the Belgian region of Flanders.
*1937 &ndash; The Kamikaze arrives at Croydon Airport in London. It is the first Japanese-built aircraft to fly to Europe.
*1939 &ndash; African-American singer Marian Anderson gives a concert at the Lincoln Memorial after being denied the use of Constitution Hall by the Daughters of the American Revolution.
*1940 &ndash; World War II: Operation Weserübung: Germany invades Denmark and Norway.
* 1940 &ndash; Vidkun Quisling seizes power in Norway.
*1942 &ndash; World War II: The Battle of Bataan ends. An Indian Ocean raid by Japan's 1st Air Fleet sinks the British aircraft carrier {{HMS|Hermes|95|6}} and the Australian destroyer {{HMAS|Vampire|D68|6}}.
*1945 &ndash; Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Lutheran pastor and anti-Nazi dissident, is executed by the Nazi regime.
* 1945 &ndash; World War II: The German heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer is sunk by the Royal Air Force.
* 1945 &ndash; World War II: The Battle of Königsberg, in East Prussia, ends.
* 1945 &ndash; The United States Atomic Energy Commission is formed.
*1947 &ndash; The Glazier–Higgins–Woodward tornadoes kill 181 and injure 970 in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas.
* 1947 &ndash; The Journey of Reconciliation, the first interracial Freedom Ride begins through the upper South in violation of Jim Crow laws. The riders wanted enforcement of the United States Supreme Court's 1946 Irene Morgan decision that banned racial segregation in interstate travel.
* 1947 &ndash; United Nations Security Council Resolution 22 relating to Corfu Channel incident is adopted.
*1948 &ndash; Jorge Eliécer Gaitán's assassination provokes a violent riot in Bogotá (the Bogotazo), and a further ten years of violence in Colombia.
* 1948 &ndash; Fighters from the Irgun and Lehi Zionist paramilitary groups attacked Deir Yassin near Jerusalem, killing over 100.
*1952 &ndash; Hugo Ballivián's government is overthrown by the Bolivian National Revolution, starting a period of agrarian reform, universal suffrage and the nationalization of tin mines
* 1952 &ndash; Japan Air Lines Flight 301 crashes into Mount Mihara, Izu Ōshima, Japan, killing 37.<ref name"TSM">{{cite web |date1996 |titleAccident Description |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19520409-0 |access-date4 December 2022 |publisher=aviation-safety.net}}</ref>
*1957 &ndash; The Suez Canal in Egypt is cleared and opens to shipping following the Suez Crisis.
*1959 &ndash; Project Mercury: NASA announces the selection of the United States' first seven astronauts, whom the news media quickly dub the "Mercury Seven".
*1960 &ndash; Dr. Hendrik Verwoerd, Prime Minister of South Africa and architect of apartheid, narrowly survives an assassination attempt by a white farmer, David Pratt in Johannesburg.
*1967 &ndash; The first Boeing 737 (a 100 series) makes its maiden flight.
*1969 &ndash; The first British-built Concorde 002 makes its maiden flight from Filton to RAF Fairford with Brian Trubshaw as the test pilot.
*1980 &ndash; The Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein kills philosopher Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and his sister Bint al-Huda after three days of torture.
*1981 &ndash; The U.S. Navy nuclear submarine {{USS|George Washington|SSBN-598|6}} accidentally collides with the Nissho Maru, a Japanese cargo ship, sinking it and killing two Japanese sailors.<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-04-09|title1981: USS George Washington Sank a Japanese Ship after Surfacing|urlhttps://history.info/wars/1981-uss-george-washington-sank-a-japanese-ship-after-surfacing/|access-date2021-04-09|websiteHistory.info|languageen-US}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Tbilisi massacre: An anti-Soviet peaceful demonstration and hunger strike in Tbilisi, demanding restoration of Georgian independence, is dispersed by the Soviet Army, resulting in 20 deaths and hundreds of injuries.<ref>{{cite magazine |titleRereading Russian Classics in the Shadow of the Ukraine War |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/01/30/rereading-russian-classics-in-the-shadow-of-the-ukraine-war |date23 January 2023 |access-date23 January 2023 |first1Elif |last1Batuman |page44 |volume98 |issue47 |issn0028-792X |magazine=The New Yorker}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; An IRA bombing in County Down, Northern Ireland, kills three members of the UDR.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://cain.ulst.ac.uk/cgi-bin/dyndeaths.pl?querytypedate&day9&month04&year1990 |titleCAIN: Sutton Index of Deaths |publisherCain.ulst.ac.uk |date1990-04-09 |access-date=2016-12-31}}</ref>
* 1990 &ndash; The Sahtu Dene and Metis Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement is signed for {{Convert|180,000|km2|mi2}} in the Mackenzie Valley of the western Arctic.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBIsNAQAAMAAJ|titleThe Native North American Almanac: A Reference Work on Native North Americans in the United States and Canada|lastChampagne|firstDuane|date2001|publisherGale Research|isbn978-0-7876-1655-7|language=en}}</ref>
* 1990 &ndash; An Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia collides in mid-air with a Cessna 172 over Gadsden, Alabama, killing both of the Cessna's occupants.<ref name"NTSB Final Report ATL90FA095A">{{cite web |dateMarch 5, 1993 |titleAviation Accident Final Report |urlhttps://app.ntsb.gov/pdfgenerator/ReportGeneratorFile.ashx?EventID20001212X22846-20170725-91135&AKey1&RTypeFinal&ITypeFA |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211222214258/https://app.ntsb.gov/pdfgenerator/ReportGeneratorFile.ashx?EventID20001212X22846-20170725-91135&AKey1&RTypeFinal&ITypeFA |archive-dateDecember 22, 2021 |access-dateJanuary 24, 2020 |publisherNational Transportation Safety Board |idATL90FA095A}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Georgia declares independence from the Soviet Union.
*1992 &ndash; A U.S. Federal Court finds former Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega guilty of drug and racketeering charges. He is sentenced to 30 years in prison.
*1994 &ndash; Space Shuttle program: Space Shuttle Endeavour is launched on STS-59.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSTS-59 |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission/sts-59/ |access-date2024-04-08 |websiteNASA}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Iraq War: Baghdad falls to American forces.
*2009 &ndash; In Tbilisi, Georgia, up to 60,000 people protest against the government of Mikheil Saakashvili.
*2013 &ndash; A 6.1–magnitude earthquake strikes Iran killing 32 people and injuring over 850 people.
* 2013 &ndash; At least 13 people are killed and another three injured after a man goes on a spree shooting in the Serbian village of Velika Ivanča.
*2014 &ndash; A student stabs 20 people at Franklin Regional High School in Murrysville, Pennsylvania.
*2017 &ndash; The Palm Sunday church bombings at Coptic churches in Tanta and Alexandria, Egypt, take place.
* 2017 &ndash; After refusing to give up his seat on an overbooked United Express flight, Dr. David Dao Duy Anh is forcibly dragged off the flight by aviation security officers, leading to major criticism of United Airlines.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/10/business/united-flight-passenger-dragged.html|titleUnited Airlines Passenger Is Dragged From an Overbooked Flight|last1Victor|first1Daniel|date2017-04-10|workThe New York Times|access-date2019-04-08|last2Stevens|first2Matt|languageen-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Burmese military and security forces commit the Bago massacre, during which at least 82 civilians are killed.<ref>{{Cite news |date2021-04-10 |titleMyanmar coup: 'Dozens killed' in military crackdown in Bago |languageen-GB |workBBC News |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-56703416 |access-date2021-04-11}}</ref>
Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->
Pre-1600
*1096 &ndash; Al-Muqtafi, caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate (d. 1160)<ref>{{EI2 | volume 7 | pages 543–544 | last Zetterstéen | first K. V. | author-link Karl Vilhelm Zetterstéen | title al-Muḳtafī | doi = 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5482}}</ref>
*1285 &ndash; Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan, Emperor Renzong of Yuan (d. 1320)
*1458 &ndash; Camilla Battista da Varano, Italian saint (d. 1524)
*1498 &ndash; Jean, Cardinal of Lorraine (d. 1550)
*1586 &ndash; Julius Henry, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (d. 1665)
*1597 &ndash; John Davenport, English minister, co-founded the New Haven Colony (d. 1670)
*1598 &ndash; Johann Crüger, Sorbian-German composer and theorist (d. 1662)
1601–1900
*1624 &ndash; Henrik Rysensteen, Dutch military engineer (d. 1679)
*1627 &ndash; Johann Caspar Kerll, German organist and composer (d. 1693)
*1634 &ndash; Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau (d. 1696)
*1648 &ndash; Henri de Massue, Earl of Galway, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1720)
*1649 &ndash; James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire (d. 1685)
*1654 &ndash; Samuel Fritz, Czech Jesuit missionary to South America (d. 1725?)
*1680 &ndash; Philippe Néricault Destouches, French playwright (d. 1754)
*1686 &ndash; James Craggs the Younger, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (d. 1721)
*1691 &ndash; Johann Matthias Gesner, German scholar and academic (d. 1761)
*1717 &ndash; Georg Matthias Monn, Austrian organist, composer, and educator (d. 1750)
*1770 &ndash; Thomas Johann Seebeck, German physicist and academic (d. 1831)
*1773 &ndash; Étienne Aignan, French author and academic (d. 1824)
*1794 &ndash; Theobald Boehm, German flute player and composer (d. 1881)
* 1794 &ndash; Søren Christian Sommerfelt, Norwegian priest and botanist (d. 1838)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleSøren Christian Sommerfelt |first |last|encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date22 December 2023|editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Søren_Christian_Sommerfelt_-_prest |languageno|access-date17 March 2024}}</ref>
*1802 &ndash; Elias Lönnrot, Finnish physician and philologist (d. 1884)
*1806 &ndash; Isambard Kingdom Brunel, English engineer, designed the Clifton Suspension Bridge (d. 1859)
*1807 &ndash; James Bannerman, Scottish theologian and academic (d. 1868)
*1821 &ndash; Charles Baudelaire, French poet and critic (d. 1867)
*1830 &ndash; Eadweard Muybridge, English photographer and cinematographer (d. 1904)
*1835 &ndash; Leopold II of Belgium (d. 1909)
* 1835 &ndash; Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore (d. 1913)
*1846 &ndash; Paolo Tosti, Italian-English composer and educator (d. 1916)
*1848 &ndash; Ezequiél Moreno y Díaz, Spanish Augustinian Recollect priest and saint (d. 1906)
*1865 &ndash; Erich Ludendorff, German general and politician (d. 1937)
* 1865 &ndash; Charles Proteus Steinmetz, Polish-American mathematician and engineer (d. 1923)
*1867 &ndash; Chris Watson, Chilean-Australian journalist and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1941)
* 1867 &ndash; Charles Winckler, Danish tug of war competitor, discus thrower, and shot putter (d. 1932)
*1872 &ndash; Léon Blum, French lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1950)
*1875 &ndash; Jacques Futrelle, American journalist and author (d. 1912)
*1880 &ndash; Jan Letzel, Czech architect (d. 1925)
*1882 &ndash; Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (d. 1946)
* 1882 &ndash; Otz Tollen, German actor (d. 1965)
*1883 &ndash; Frank King, American cartoonist (d. 1969)
*1887 &ndash; Konrad Tom, Polish actor, writer, singer, and director (d. 1957)
*1888 &ndash; Sol Hurok, Ukrainian-American talent manager (d. 1974)
*1893 &ndash; Charles E. Burchfield, American painter (d. 1967)
* 1893 &ndash; Victor Gollancz, English publisher, founded Victor Gollancz Ltd (d. 1967)
* 1893 &ndash; Rahul Sankrityayan, Indian linguist, author, and scholar (d. 1963)
*1895 &ndash; Mance Lipscomb, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1976)
* 1895 &ndash; Michel Simon, Swiss-French actor (d. 1975)
*1897 &ndash; John B. Gambling, American radio host (d. 1974)
*1898 &ndash; Curly Lambeau, American football player and coach (d. 1965)
* 1898 &ndash; Paul Robeson, American singer, actor, and activist (d. 1976)
*1900 &ndash; Allen Jenkins, American actor and singer (d. 1974)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Jean Bruchési, Canadian historian and author (d. 1979)
* 1901 &ndash; Paul Willis, American actor and director (d. 1960)
*1902 &ndash; Théodore Monod, French explorer and scholar (d. 2000)
*1903 &ndash; Ward Bond, American actor (d. 1960)<ref>{{cite book |last1Matheson |first1Sue |titleThe John Ford Encyclopedia |date2019 |publisherRowman & Littlefield |isbn978-1-5381-0382-1 |page26 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSvuzDwAAQBAJ&pgPA26 |language=en}}</ref>
*1904 &ndash; Sharkey Bonano, American singer, trumpet player, and bandleader (d. 1972)
*1905 &ndash; J. William Fulbright, American lawyer and politician (d. 1995)
*1906 &ndash; Rafaela Aparicio, Spanish actress (d. 1996)
* 1906 &ndash; Antal Doráti, Hungarian-American conductor and composer (d. 1988)
* 1906 &ndash; Hugh Gaitskell, British politician and leader of the Labour Party (d. 1963)
* 1906 &ndash; Victor Vasarely, Hungarian-French painter (d. 1997)
*1908 &ndash; Joseph Krumgold, American author and screenwriter (d. 1980)
* 1908 &ndash; Paula Nenette Pepin, French composer, pianist and lyricist (d. 1990)<ref name"Ata_Pablo">{{cite web|last1Chavero|first1Kolla|titlePablo del Cerro|urlhttp://www.fundacionyupanqui.com.ar/ata-pablo.html|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141227031130/http://www.fundacionyupanqui.com.ar/ata-pablo.html|archive-date27 December 2014|access-date17 November 2017|websiteFundacion Yupanqui}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; Robert Helpmann, Australian dancer, actor, and choreographer (d. 1986)
*1910 &ndash; Abraham A. Ribicoff, American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Secretary of Health and Human Services (d. 1998)
*1912 &ndash; Lev Kopelev, Ukrainian-German author and academic (d. 1997)
*1915 &ndash; Daniel Johnson Sr., Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Premier of Quebec (d. 1968)
*1916 &ndash; Julian Dash, American swing music jazz tenor saxophonist (d. 1974)
* 1916 &ndash; Heinz Meyer, German Fallschirmjäger (paratrooper) during World War II (d. 1987)
* 1916 &ndash; Bill Leonard, American journalist (d. 1994)
*1917 &ndash; Johannes Bobrowski, German songwriter and poet (d. 1965)
* 1917 &ndash; Ronnie Burgess, Welsh international footballer and manager (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.spursodyssey.com/articles/burgess.html|titleSpurs Odyssey Tribute to the late Ron Burgess|websitespursodyssey.com|access-date30 March 2020}}</ref>
* 1917 &ndash; Brad Dexter, American actor (d. 2002)
* 1917 &ndash; Henry Hewes, American theater writer (d. 2006)<ref>{{cite news |titleHenry Hewes, Theater Critic, 89, Is Dead|workThe New York Times|authorIsherwood, Charles|author-linkCharles Isherwood|dateJuly 20, 2006|access-dateMarch 11, 2020| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/20/theater/20hewes.html?ex1311048000&enb9f130d20a9f31a3&ei5088&partnerrssnyt&emcrss}}</ref>
*1918 &ndash; Jørn Utzon, Danish architect, designed the Sydney Opera House (d. 2008)
*1919 &ndash; J. Presper Eckert, American engineer, invented the ENIAC (d. 1995)
*1921 &ndash; Jean-Marie Balestre, French businessman (d. 2008)
* 1921 &ndash; Yitzhak Navon, Israeli politician (d. 2015)
* 1921 &ndash; Frankie Thomas, American actor (d. 2006)
* 1921 &ndash; Mary Jackson, African-American mathematician and aerospace engineer (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite web |titleMary Jackson {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Mary-Jackson-mathematician-and-engineer |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date20 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Carl Amery, German author and activist (d. 2005)
*1923 &ndash; Leonard Levy, American historian and author (d. 2006)
*1924 &ndash; Arthur Shaw, English professional footballer (d. 2015)
*1925 &ndash; Virginia Gibson, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2013)
* 1925 &ndash; Art Kane, American photographer (d. 1995)
*1926 &ndash; Gerry Fitt, Northern Irish soldier and politician; British life peer (d. 2005)
* 1926 &ndash; Hugh Hefner, American publisher, founded Playboy Enterprises (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite web |last1Jeffries |first1Stuart |titleHugh Hefner obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/sep/28/hugh-hefner-obituary |websiteThe Guardian |access-date24 September 2020 |date=28 September 2017}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Harris Wofford, American politician, author, and civil rights activist (d. 2019)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/harris-wofford-civil-rights-activist-who-helped-kennedy-win-the-white-house-dies-at-92/2019/01/22/026fe870-1e09-11e9-9145-3f74070bbdb9_story.html |titleHarris Wofford, civil rights activist who helped Kennedy win the White House, dies at 92 |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date15 October 2021 |lastWoo |firstElaine |date=22 January 2019}}</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Tiny Hill, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2019)
*1928 &ndash; Paul Arizin, American basketball player (d. 2006)
* 1928 &ndash; Tom Lehrer, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and mathematician
*1929 &ndash; Sharan Rani Backliwal, Indian sarod player and scholar (d. 2008)
* 1929 &ndash; Fred Hollows, New Zealand-Australian ophthalmologist (d. 1993)
* 1929 &ndash; Paule Marshall, American author and academic (d. 2019)
*1930 &ndash; Nathaniel Branden, Canadian-American psychotherapist and author (d. 2014)
* 1930 &ndash; F. Albert Cotton, American chemist and academic (d. 2007)
* 1930 &ndash; Jim Fowler, American zoologist and television host (d. 2019)
* 1930 &ndash; Wallace McCain, Canadian businessman, founded McCain Foods (d. 2011)
*1931 &ndash; Richard Hatfield, Canadian lawyer and politician, 26th Premier of New Brunswick (d. 1991)
*1932 &ndash; Armin Jordan, Swiss conductor (d. 2006)
* 1932 &ndash; Peter Moores, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 2016)
* 1932 &ndash; Carl Perkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1998)
*1933 &ndash; Jean-Paul Belmondo, French actor and producer (d. 2021)
* 1933 &ndash; René Burri, Swiss photographer and journalist (d. 2014)
* 1933 &ndash; Fern Michaels, American author
* 1933 &ndash; Richard Rose, American political scientist and academic
* 1933 &ndash; Gian Maria Volonté, Italian actor (d. 1994)
*1934 &ndash; Bill Birch, New Zealand surveyor and politician, 38th New Zealand Minister of Finance
* 1934 &ndash; Tom Phillis, Australian motorcycle racer (d. 1962)
* 1934 &ndash; Mariya Pisareva, Russian high jumper (d. 2023)
*1935 &ndash; Aulis Sallinen, Finnish composer and academic
* 1935 &ndash; Avery Schreiber, American actor and comedian (d. 2002)
*1936 &ndash; Jerzy Maksymiuk, Polish pianist, composer, and conductor
*1936 &ndash; Drew Shafer, American LGBT rights activist from Missouri (d. 1989)<ref>{{Cite web |lastScharlau |firstKevin |titleDrew Robert Shafer – Profiles in Kansas City Activism |urlhttps://info.umkc.edu/kcactivism/?page_id116 |access-date2023-07-18 |language=en-US}}</ref>
* 1936 &ndash; Valerie Solanas, American radical feminist author, attempted murderer (d. 1988)
*1937 &ndash; Simon Brown, Baron Brown of Eaton-under-Heywood, English lieutenant, lawyer, and judge (d. 2023)
* 1937 &ndash; Marty Krofft, Canadian screenwriter and producer (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://variety.com/2023/film/news/marty-krofft-dead-h-r-pufnstuf-1235808822/|titleMarty Krofft, Producer of 'H.R. Pufnstuf,' 'Land of the Lost,' Dies at 86|publisherVariety|accessdateNovember 25, 2023|date=November 25, 2023}}</ref>
* 1937 &ndash; Valerie Singleton, English television and radio host
*1938 &ndash; Viktor Chernomyrdin, Russian businessman and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Russia (d. 2010)
*1939 &ndash; Michael Learned, American actress
* 1939 &ndash; Margo Smith, American singer-songwriter (d. 2024)
*1940 &ndash; Hans-Joachim Reske, German sprinter
* 1940 &ndash; Jim Roberts, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015)
*1941 &ndash; Kay Adams, American singer-songwriter
* 1941 &ndash; Hannah Gordon, Scottish actress<ref>{{cite web |titleHannah goes back to roots with River City role |urlhttps://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/hannah-goes-back-roots-river-city-role-2467380 |websitewww.scotsman.com |date2 November 2007 |access-date13 October 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Brandon deWilde, American actor (d. 1972)
*1943 &ndash; Leila Khaled, Palestinian activist
* 1943 &ndash; Terry Knight, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2004)
* 1943 &ndash; Clive Sullivan, Welsh rugby league player (d. 1985)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.scotsman.com/news/people/clive-sullivan-who-was-welsh-rugby-league-icon-when-did-he-die-and-why-is-a-google-doodle-celebrating-him-3194476|titleHere's why Welsh rugby league icon Clive Sullivan is being celebrated with a Google Doodle|date=9 April 2021 }}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; Joe Brinkman, American baseball player and umpire
* 1944 &ndash; Heinz-Joachim Rothenburg, German shot putter
*1945 &ndash; Steve Gadd, American drummer and percussionist<ref>{{cite book|authorJohn Thomakos|titleDrum Backbeats Encyclopedia: Hundreds of Useful Backbeats for the Drumset|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7veMMkzVvCUC&pgPA10|date3 May 2005|publisherAlfred Music|isbn978-1-4574-1707-8|pages=10}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; Nate Colbert, American baseball player (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite web |titleNate Colbert, Padres' all-time HR leader, dies at 76 |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/news/nate-colbert-dies |websiteMLB.com |access-date9 January 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Alan Knott, English cricketer<ref>{{cite book|authorAshley Alexander Mallett|titleEleven: The Greatest Eleven of the 20th Century|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-HnJQ16XracC&pgPA93|year2001|publisherUniv. of Queensland Press|isbn978-0-7022-3258-9|pages=93}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Sara Parkin, Scottish activist and politician<ref>{{cite book|authorElizabeth Sleeman|titleThe International Who's Who of Women 2002|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6J8xDWDqOkEC&pgPA435|year2001|publisherPsychology Press|isbn978-1-85743-122-3|pages=435}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; David Webb, English footballer, coach, and manager
*1947 &ndash; Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Italian economist and academic
*1948 &ndash; Jaya Bachchan, Indian actress and politician
* 1948 &ndash; Tito Gómez, Puerto Rican salsa singer (d. 2007)<ref>[http://www.prpop.org/biografias/t_bios/tito_gomez.shtml Biografías:Tito Gómez] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080925224620/http://www.prpop.org/biografias/t_bios/tito_gomez.shtml |date2008-09-25 }} from the Puerto Rican Institute of Culture</ref>
* 1948 &ndash; Michel Parizeau, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1948 &ndash; Patty Pravo, Italian singer
*1949 &ndash; Tony Cragg, English sculptor
*1952 &ndash; Robert Clark, American author
* 1952 &ndash; Bruce Robertson, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2023)
* 1952 &ndash; Tania Tsanaklidou, Greek singer and actress
*1953 &ndash; John Howard, English singer-songwriter and pianist
* 1953 &ndash; Hal Ketchum, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020)
* 1953 &ndash; Stephen Paddock, American mass murderer responsible for the 2017 Las Vegas shooting (d. 2017)
*1954 &ndash; Ken Kalfus, American journalist and author
* 1954 &ndash; Dennis Quaid, American actor
* 1954 &ndash; Iain Duncan Smith, British soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Work and Pensions
*1955 &ndash; Yamina Benguigui, Algerian-French director and politician
* 1955 &ndash; Joolz Denby, English poet and author
*1956 &ndash; Miguel Ángel Russo, Argentinian footballer and coach
* 1956 &ndash; Nigel Shadbolt, English computer scientist and academic
* 1956 &ndash; Marina Zoueva, Russian ice dancer and coach
*1957 &ndash; Seve Ballesteros, Spanish golfer and architect (d. 2011)
* 1957 &ndash; Martin Margiela, Belgian fashion designer
* 1957 &ndash; Jamie Redfern, English-born Australian television presenter and pop singer
*1958 &ndash; Nadey Hakim, British-Lebanese surgeon and sculptor<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.imperial.ac.uk/people/n.hakim/cv/Short%20CV%20Nadey%208-2016%20version%20%20copy.doc |titleCURRICULUM VITAE Prof NADEY S. HAKIM |publisherImperial College London |access-date15 October 2021 |format=DOC}}</ref>
* 1958 &ndash; Tony Sibson, English boxer
* 1958 &ndash; Nigel Slater, English food writer and author
*1959 &ndash; Bernard Jenkin, English businessman and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Defence
*1960 &ndash; Jaak Aab, Estonian educator and politician, Minister of Social Affairs of Estonia
*1961 &ndash; Mark Kelly, Irish keyboard player
* 1961 &ndash; Kirk McCaskill, Canadian-American baseball and hockey player
*1962 &ndash; John Eaves, American production designer and illustrator
* 1962 &ndash; Ihor Podolchak, Ukrainian director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1962 &ndash; Imran Sherwani, English field hockey player
* 1962 &ndash; Jeff Turner, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster
*1963 &ndash; Marc Jacobs, American-French fashion designer
* 1963 &ndash; Joe Scarborough, American journalist, lawyer, and politician
*1964 &ndash; Rob Awalt, German-American football player
* 1964 &ndash; Juliet Cuthbert, Jamaican sprinter
* 1964 &ndash; Doug Ducey, American politician and businessman, 23rd Governor of Arizona<ref>{{cite web |titleDoug Ducey |date7 January 2019 |urlhttps://www.nga.org/governor/doug-ducey/ |publisherNational Governors Association |access-date=9 February 2023}}</ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Peter Penashue, Canadian businessman and politician, 9th Canadian Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs
* 1964 &ndash; Margaret Peterson Haddix, American author
* 1964 &ndash; Rick Tocchet, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach
*1965 &ndash; Helen Alfredsson, Swedish golfer
* 1965 &ndash; Paulina Porizkova, Czech-born Swedish-American model and actress
* 1965 &ndash; Jeff Zucker, American businessman
* 1965 &ndash; Mark Pellegrino, American actor<ref>{{Cite web|last1Rose|first1Mike|last2clevel|last3.com|date2020-04-09|titleToday's famous birthdays list for April 9, 2020 includes celebrities Dennis Quaid, Elle Fanning|urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/life-and-culture/j66j-2020/04/dffe221d0e5638/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-april-9-2020-includes-celebrities-dennis-quaid-elle-fanning.html|url-statuslive|access-date2021-06-02|websiteCleveland.com|languageen|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200417100421/https://www.cleveland.com/life-and-culture/j66j-2020/04/dffe221d0e5638/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-april-9-2020-includes-celebrities-dennis-quaid-elle-fanning.html |archive-date=2020-04-17 }}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; John Hammond, English weather forecaster
* 1966 &ndash; Cynthia Nixon, American actress
*1967 &ndash; Natascha Engel, German-English translator and politician
* 1967 &ndash; Sam Harris, American author, philosopher, and neuroscientist
*1968 &ndash; Jay Chandrasekhar, American actor, comedian, writer and director
*1969 &ndash; Barnaby Kay, English actor
* 1969 &ndash; Linda Kisabaka, German runner
*1970 &ndash; Chorão, Brazilian singer-songwriter (d. 2013)
*1971 &ndash; Peter Canavan, Irish footballer and manager
* 1971 &ndash; Leo Fortune-West, English footballer and manager
* 1971 &ndash; Austin Peck, American actor
* 1971 &ndash; Jacques Villeneuve, Canadian race car driver
*1972 &ndash; Bernard Ackah, German-Japanese martial artist and kick-boxer
* 1972 &ndash; Siiri Vallner, Estonian architect
*1974 &ndash; Megan Connolly, Australian actress (d. 2001)
* 1974 &ndash; Jenna Jameson, American actress and pornographic performer
*1975 &ndash; Robbie Fowler, English footballer and manager
* 1975 &ndash; David Gordon Green, American director and screenwriter
*1976 &ndash; Kyle Peterson, American baseball player and sportscaster
*1977 &ndash; Gerard Way, American singer-songwriter and comic book writer
*1978 &ndash; Kousei Amano, Japanese actor
* 1978 &ndash; Jorge Andrade, Portuguese footballer
* 1978 &ndash; Rachel Stevens, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress
*1979 &ndash; Jeff Reed, American football player
* 1979 &ndash; Keshia Knight Pulliam, American actress
*1980 &ndash; Sarah Ayton, English sailor
* 1980 &ndash; Luciano Galletti, Argentinian footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Albert Hammond Jr., American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1981 &ndash; Milan Bartovič, Slovak ice hockey player
* 1981 &ndash; A. J. Ellis, American baseball player
* 1981 &ndash; Ireneusz Jeleń, Polish footballer
* 1981 &ndash; Dennis Sarfate, American baseball player
* 1981 &ndash; Eric Harris, American mass murderer, responsible for the Columbine High School massacre (d. 1999)
*1982 &ndash; Jay Baruchel, Canadian actor
* 1982 &ndash; Carlos Hernández, Costa Rican footballer
* 1982 &ndash; Kathleen Munroe, Canadian-American actress
*1983 &ndash; Ryan Clark, Australian actor
*1984 &ndash; Habiba Ghribi, Tunisian runner<ref>{{cite web |titleHabiba GHRIBI {{!}} Profile |urlhttps://www.worldathletics.org/athletes/tunisia/habiba-ghribi-174776 |websitewww.worldathletics.org |access-date8 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Adam Loewen, Canadian baseball player
* 1984 &ndash; Óscar Razo, Mexican footballer
*1985 &ndash; Antonio Nocerino, Italian footballer
* 1985 &ndash; David Robertson, American baseball player
*1986 &ndash; Mike Hart, American football player
* 1986 &ndash; Leighton Meester, American actress
*1987 &ndash; Kassim Abdallah, French-Comorian footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Graham Gano, American football player
* 1987 &ndash; Craig Mabbitt, American singer
* 1987 &ndash; Jesse McCartney, American singer-songwriter and actor
* 1987 &ndash; Jarrod Mullen, Australian rugby league player
* 1987 &ndash; Jazmine Sullivan, American singer-songwriter
* 1988 &ndash; Jeremy Metcalfe, English race car driver
*1989 &ndash; Bianca Belair, American wrestler<ref>{{cite web |titleBianca Belair |urlhttps://www.espn.com/wwe/story/_/id/29125761/wwe-profile-page-bianca-belair |publisherESPN |access-date28 March 2023 |date=2 May 2020}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Danielle Kahle, American figure skater
*1990 &ndash; Kristen Stewart, American actress
* 1990 &ndash; Ryan Williams, American football player
*1991 &ndash; Gai Assulin, Israeli footballer<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.furialiga.fr/2019/01/23/barca-gai-assulin-le-nouveau-messi-sest-perdu-en-chemin/|titleBarça : Gai Assulin, le nouveau Messi s'est perdu en chemin|date=January 23, 2019}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Ryan Kelly, American basketball player
* 1991 &ndash; Mary Killman, American synchronized swimmer
*1992 &ndash; Joshua Ledet, American singer
*1993 &ndash; Alexandra Hunt, American politician<ref name"Weiss 2021">{{cite news | lastWeiss | firstHaley | titleShe was a stripper during college. Now she's running for Congress and sharing her story. | newspaperThe Washington Post | date4 October 2021 | urlhttps://www.thelily.com/she-was-a-stripper-during-college-now-shes-running-for-congress-and-sharing-her-story/ | access-date3 April 2023}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Joey Pollari, American actor
*1995 &ndash; Domagoj Bošnjak, Croatian basketball player
* 1995 &ndash; Robert Bauer, German-Kazakhstani footballer
* 1995 &ndash; Demi Vermeulen, Dutch Paralympic equestrian<ref>{{cite web |titleDemi Vermeulen data |urlhttps://data.fei.org/Person/Detail.aspx?personFeiID10043890 |websitefei.org |access-date=2 August 2020}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Jayden Brailey, Australian rugby league player<ref>{{cite web |titleJayden Brailey |urlhttps://www.newcastleknights.com.au/teams/telstra-premiership/newcastle-knights/jayden-brailey/ |websiteNewcastle Knights |access-date8 April 2020 |languageen |archive-date14 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200814013426/https://www.newcastleknights.com.au/teams/telstra-premiership/newcastle-knights/jayden-brailey/ |url-statusdead }}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; Giovani Lo Celso, Argentinian international footballer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/19851/Giovani-Lo-Celso/stats|titleGiovani Lo Celso|websitepremierleague.com|access-date30 March 2020}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Luis Arráez, Venezuelan baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleLuis Arraez |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/luis-arraez-650333 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date28 March 2023}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Elle Fanning, American actress<ref>{{cite web |titleElle Fanning · BIFA · British Independent Film Awards |urlhttps://www.bifa.film/people/elle-fanning/ |websiteBIFA · British Independent Film Awards |access-date8 April 2020 |date=12 October 2018}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Lil Nas X, American rapper<ref>{{cite web |titleWho is Lil Nas X, how old is he, and what is his net worth? |urlhttps://metro.co.uk/2019/07/03/lil-nas-x-old-net-worth-10110918/ |websiteMetro |access-date8 April 2020 |languageen |date3 July 2019}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Jackie Evancho, American singer<ref>{{cite web |last1Greenburg |first1Zack O'Malley |titleJackie Evancho: 14 Questions With The 30 Under 30 Opera Prodigy |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/zackomalleygreenburg/2017/11/17/jackie-evancho-14-questions-with-the-30-under-30-opera-prodigy/ |websiteForbes |access-date8 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; TommyInnit, British YouTuber and Twitch streamer<ref>{{Cite web|dateApril 9, 2021|titleOne day into being 17 and Dwayne The Rock Johnson has told me to do hard drugs. Best Birthday EVER!|urlhttps://twitter.com/tommyinnit/status/1380651249675161602|url-statuslive|access-dateMay 15, 2021|websiteTwitter|languageen|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210409223838/https://twitter.com/tommyinnit/status/1380651249675161602 |archive-date=2021-04-09 }}</ref>
<!---Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*585 BC &ndash; Jimmu, emperor of Japan (b. 711 BC)
* 436 &ndash; Tan Daoji, Chinese general and politician
* 491 &ndash; Zeno, emperor of the Byzantine Empire (b. 425)
* 682 &ndash; Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari, Egyptian politician, Governor of Egypt (b. 616)
* 715 &ndash; Constantine, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 664)
*1024 &ndash; Benedict VIII, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 980)
*1137 &ndash; William X, duke of Aquitaine (b. 1099)
*1241 &ndash; Henry II, High Duke of Poland (b. 1196)
*1283 &ndash; Margaret of Scotland, queen of Norway (b. 1261)
*1327 &ndash; Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland, Scottish nobleman (ca. 1296)
*1483 &ndash; Edward IV, king of England (b. 1442)
*1484 &ndash; Edward of Middleheim, prince of Wales (b. 1473)
*1550 &ndash; Alqas Mirza, Safavid prince (b. 1516)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title ALQĀS MĪRZA | last Fleischer | first C. | url http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alqas-alqasb-alqas-mirza-safawi | encyclopedia Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 9 | pages 907–909 }}</ref>
*1553 &ndash; François Rabelais, French monk and scholar (b. 1494)
*1557 &ndash; Mikael Agricola, Finnish priest and scholar (b. 1510)
*1561 &ndash; Jean Quintin, French priest, knight and writer (b. 1500)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Vella |first1Horatio C. R. |titleJean Quintin's Insulae Melitae Descriptio (1536) : an anniversary and a discussion on its sources |journalHumanitas: Journal of the Faculty of Arts |date2003 |volume2 |pages155–171 |urlhttps://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/51546/1/Humanitas2A8.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200919235623/https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/51546/1/Humanitas2A8.pdf |archive-date19 September 2020 |publisherUniversity of Malta}}</ref>1601–1900*1626 &ndash; Francis Bacon, English jurist and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (b. 1561)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Gaukroger |first1Stephen |titleBacon, Francis |journalThe Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |date2007 |pages79 |doi10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_94|isbn=978-0-387-31022-0 }}</ref>
*1654 &ndash; Matei Basarab, Romanian prince (b. 1588)
*1693 &ndash; Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy, French author (b. 1618)
*1747 &ndash; Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, Scottish soldier and politician (b. 1667)
*1754 &ndash; Christian Wolff, German philosopher and academic (b. 1679)
*1761 &ndash; William Law, English priest and theologian (b. 1686)
*1768 &ndash; Sarah Fielding, English author (b. 1710)
*1804 &ndash; Jacques Necker, Swiss-French politician, Chief Minister to the French Monarch (b. 1732)
*1806 &ndash; William V, stadtholder of the Dutch Republic (b. 1748)
*1872 &ndash; Erastus Corning, American businessman and politician (b. 1794)
*1876 &ndash; Charles Goodyear, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1804)
*1882 &ndash; Dante Gabriel Rossetti, English poet and painter (b. 1828)
*1889 &ndash; Michel Eugène Chevreul, French chemist and academic (b. 1786)
1901–present
*1904 &ndash; Isabella II, Spanish queen (b. 1830)<ref>{{cite web |titleIsabella II, queen of Spain |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Isabella-II-queen-of-Spain |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date12 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; Helena Modjeska, Polish-American actress (b. 1840)
*1915 &ndash; Raymond Whittindale, English rugby player (b. 1883)
*1917 &ndash; James Hope Moulton, English philologist and scholar (b. 1863)
*1922 &ndash; Hans Fruhstorfer, German entomologist and explorer (b. 1866)
*1926 &ndash; Zip the Pinhead, American freak show performer (b. 1857)
*1936 &ndash; Ferdinand Tönnies, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1855)
*1940 &ndash; Mrs Patrick Campbell, English actress (b. 1865)
*1944 &ndash; Yevgeniya Rudneva, Ukrainian lieutenant and pilot (b. 1920)
*1945 &ndash; Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German pastor and theologian (b. 1906)
* 1945 &ndash; Wilhelm Canaris, German admiral (b. 1887)
* 1945 &ndash; Johann Georg Elser, German carpenter (b. 1903)
* 1945 &ndash; Hans Oster, German general (b. 1887)
* 1945 &ndash; Karl Sack, German lawyer and jurist (b. 1896)
* 1945 &ndash; Hans von Dohnányi, Austrian-German lawyer and jurist (b. 1902)
*1948 &ndash; George Carpenter, Australian 5th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1872)
* 1948 &ndash; Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian lawyer and politician, 16th Colombian Minister of National Education (b. 1903)
*1951 &ndash; Vilhelm Bjerknes, Norwegian physicist and meteorologist (b. 1862)
*1953 &ndash; Eddie Cochems, American football player and coach (b. 1877)
* 1953 &ndash; C. E. M. Joad, English philosopher and television host (b. 1891)
* 1953 &ndash; Hans Reichenbach, German philosopher from the Vienna Circle (b. 1891)
*1959 &ndash; Frank Lloyd Wright, American architect, designed the Price Tower and Fallingwater (b. 1867)
*1961 &ndash; Zog I of Albania (b. 1895)
*1963 &ndash; Eddie Edwards, American trombonist (b. 1891)
* 1963 &ndash; Xul Solar, Argentinian painter and sculptor (b. 1887)
*1970 &ndash; Gustaf Tenggren, Swedish-American illustrator and animator (b. 1896)
*1976 &ndash; Dagmar Nordstrom, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1903)
* 1976 &ndash; Phil Ochs, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1940)
* 1976 &ndash; Renato Petronio, Italian rower (b. 1891)
*1978 &ndash; Clough Williams-Ellis, English-Welsh architect, designed Portmeirion (b. 1883)
*1980 &ndash; Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, Iraqi cleric and philosopher (b. 1935)
*1982 &ndash; Wilfrid Pelletier, Canadian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1896)
*1988 &ndash; Brook Benton, American singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1931)
* 1988 &ndash; Hans Berndt, German footballer (b. 1913)
* 1988 &ndash; Dave Prater, American singer (b. 1937)
*1991 &ndash; Forrest Towns, American hurdler and coach (b. 1914)
*1993 &ndash; Joseph B. Soloveitchik, American rabbi and philosopher (b. 1903)
*1996 &ndash; Richard Condon, American author and publicist (b. 1915)
*1997 &ndash; Mae Boren Axton, American singer-songwriter (b. 1914)
* 1997 &ndash; Helene Hanff, American author and screenwriter (b. 1916)
*1998 &ndash; Tom Cora, American cellist and composer (b. 1953)
*1999 &ndash; Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara, Nigerien general and politician, President of Niger (b. 1949)
*2000 &ndash; Tony Cliff, Trotskyist activist and founder of the Socialist Workers Party (b. 1917)<ref>{{cite news | authorPaul Foot | author-linkPaul Foot (journalist) | titleTony Cliff | newspaperThe Guardian | date11 April 2000 | urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/apr/11/guardianobituaries.paulfoot | access-date=9 April 2021 }}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Willie Stargell, American baseball player and coach (b. 1940)
*2002 &ndash; Pat Flaherty, American race car driver (b. 1926)
* 2002 &ndash; Leopold Vietoris, Austrian soldier, mathematician, and academic (b. 1891)
*2003 &ndash; Jerry Bittle, American cartoonist (b. 1949)
*2006 &ndash; Billy Hitchcock, American baseball player, coach, manager (b. 1916)
* 2006 &ndash; Vilgot Sjöman, Swedish director and screenwriter (b. 1924)
*2007 &ndash; Egon Bondy, Czech philosopher and poet (b. 1930)
* 2007 &ndash; Dorrit Hoffleit, American astronomer and academic (b. 1907)
*2009 &ndash; Nick Adenhart, American baseball player (b. 1986)
*2010 &ndash; Zoltán Varga, Hungarian footballer and manager (b. 1945)
*2011 &ndash; Zakariya Rashid Hassan al-Ashiri, Bahraini journalist (b. 1971)
* 2011 &ndash; Sidney Lumet, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1924)
*2012 &ndash; Malcolm Thomas, Welsh rugby player and cricketer (b. 1929)
* 2012 &ndash; Boris Parygin, Soviet philosopher, psychologist, and author (b. 1930)<ref>[https://psyjournals.ru/journals/sps/archive/2012_n2/51684 In Memory of Boris Dmitriyevich Parygin] // Social Psychology and Society. Issues 2012. Vol. 3, no. 2 ISSN: 2221-1527 / 2311-7052</ref>
*2013 &ndash; David Hayes, American sculptor and painter (b. 1931)
* 2013 &ndash; Greg McCrary, American football player (b. 1952)
* 2013 &ndash; Mordechai Mishani, Israeli lawyer and politician (b. 1945)
* 2013 &ndash; McCandlish Phillips, American journalist and author (b. 1927)
* 2013 &ndash; Paolo Soleri, Italian-American architect, designed the Cosanti (b. 1919)
*2014 &ndash; Gil Askey, American trumpet player, composer, and producer (b. 1925)
* 2014 &ndash; Chris Banks, American football player (b. 1973)
* 2014 &ndash; Rory Ellinger, American lawyer and politician (b. 1941)
* 2014 &ndash; Norman Girvan, Jamaican economist, academic, and politician (b. 1941)
* 2014 &ndash; Aelay Narendra, Indian politician (b. 1946)
* 2014 &ndash; A. N. R. Robinson, Trinbagonian politician, 3rd President of Trinidad and Tobago (b. 1926)
* 2014 &ndash; Svetlana Velmar-Janković, Serbian author (b. 1933)
*2015 &ndash; Paul Almond, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1931)
* 2015 &ndash; Margaret Rule, British marine archaeologist (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite web |titleMargaret Rule obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/apr/16/margaret-rule |websiteThe Guardian |access-date10 April 2021 |languageen |date16 April 2015}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Nina Companeez, French director and screenwriter (b. 1937)<ref>{{cite web |titleNina Companeez |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b9f22e70c |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190829221034/https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b9f22e70c |url-statusdead |archive-dateAugust 29, 2019 |websiteBFI |access-date10 April 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
* 2015 &ndash; Alexander Dalgarno, English physicist and academic (b. 1928)
* 2015 &ndash; Ivan Doig, American journalist and author (b. 1939)
* 2015 &ndash; Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Chinese-American academic (b. 1909)
*2016 &ndash; Duane Clarridge, American spy (b. 1932)
* 2016 &ndash; Will Smith, American football player (b. 1981)
*2017 &ndash; John Clarke, New Zealand-Australian comedian, writer, and satirist (b. 1948)
*2019 &ndash; Charles Van Doren, American writer and editor (b. 1926)<ref>{{Cite news|lastMcFadden|firstRobert D.|date2019-04-10|titleCharles Van Doren, a Quiz Show Whiz Who Wasn't, Dies at 93|languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/10/obituaries/charles-van-doren-dead.html|access-date2021-08-01|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200707194338/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/10/obituaries/charles-van-doren-dead.html|archive-date2020-07-07|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite news |titlePrince Philip has died aged 99, Buckingham Palace announces |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-11437314 |access-date9 April 2021 |agencyBBC News |archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210409111256/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-11437314|archivedate9 April 2021|date9 April 2021|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; DMX, American rapper and actor (b. 1970)<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/09/arts/music/dmx-dead-earl-simmons.html|titleDMX, Top-Selling but Troubled Rapper, Dies at 50|newspaperThe New York Times|date9 April 2021|last1Slotnik|first1Daniel E.}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; Nikki Grahame, British reality-TV icon (b. 1982)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/2021/04/10/big-brother-star-nikki-grahame-has-died-age-38/amp/ |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/2021/04/10/big-brother-star-nikki-grahame-has-died-age-38/amp/ |archive-date2022-01-12 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive|titleBig Brother star Nikki Grahame dies, aged 38}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; Ian Gibson, British scientist and Labour Party politician (b. 1938)<ref>{{Cite web|date2021-04-25|titleIan Gibson obituary|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/apr/25/ian-gibson-obituary|access-date2021-04-26|websiteThe Guardian|languageen}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; Ramsey Clark, American lawyer (b. 1927)<ref>{{Cite news|lastMartin|firstDouglas|date2021-04-10|titleRamsey Clark, Attorney General and Rebel With a Cause, Dies at 93|languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/10/us/politics/ramsey-clark-dead.html|access-date2021-04-26|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Dwayne Haskins, American football player (b. 1997)<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-04-09 |titleSteelers QB Haskins dies after being hit by car |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/story/_/id/33706232/pittsburgh-steelers-qb-dwayne-haskins-dies-being-hit-car |access-date2022-04-09 |websiteESPN.com |languageen}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Karl Berger, German-American jazz pianist (b. 1935)<ref name"West">{{cite news |lastWest |firstMichael J. |titleJazz musician and local treasure, Karl Berger dies at 88 |urlhttps://www.wrti.org/arts-desk/2023-04-11/karl-berger-pianist-vibraphonist-and-avant-garde-mentor-dies-at-88 |access-dateApril 15, 2023 |workWRTI |dateApril 11, 2023}}</ref>
<!---Please do not add non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Dietrich Bonhoeffer (Anglicanism, Lutheranism)
**Gaucherius
**Materiana
**Waltrude
**April 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Anniversary of the German Invasion of Denmark (Denmark)
*Baghdad Liberation Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)
*Constitution Day (Kosovo)
*Day of National Unity (Georgia)
*Day of the Finnish Language (Finland)
*Day of Valor or Araw ng Kagitingan (Philippines)
*Feast of the Second Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
*Martyr's Day (Tunisia)
*National Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States)
*Remembrance for Haakon Sigurdsson (The Troth)
*Vimy Ridge Day (Canada)<ref>{{cite book |last1Cunningham |first1Jack |last2Maley |first2William |titleAustralia and Canada in Afghanistan: Perspectives on a Mission |date2 May 2015 |publisherDundurn |isbn978-1-4597-3126-4 |page218 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2RIiBQAAQBAJ&pgPA218 |language=en}}</ref>
*Valour Day (CRPF)<ref>{{Cite web |lastPolice |firstCentral |titleValour Day |urlhttps://crpf.gov.in/Valour-Day1-western-sector.htm.htm |websitecrpf.gov.in }}</ref>References{{Reflist}}External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/9 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day9}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/9 Historical Events on April 9]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_9
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.294553
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1788
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ABM
|
ABM or Abm may refer to:
Aviation
Air Battle Manager, US Air Force rated officer position
IATA airport code for Northern Peninsula Airport in Bamaga, State of Queensland, Australia
Companies
ABM Industries, a US facility management provider
ABM Intelligence, a UK software company
Advantage Business Media, a US digital marketing and information services company
Associated British Maltsters, acquired by Dalgety plc
Computing
Advanced Bit Manipulation, an instruction set extension for x86
Agent-based model, a computational model for simulating autonomous agents
Asynchronous Balanced Mode, an HDLC communication mode
Military
Anti-ballistic missile
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, 1972 arms control treaty between the US and USSR
Organizations
Abahlali baseMjondolo, movement of South African shack dwellers
Anglican Board of Mission - Australia, the national mission agency of the Anglican Church of Australia
Ansar Bait al-Maqdis, an Egyptian jihadist group
Other uses
Abanyom language of Nigeria, ISO 639-3 code
ABM (video game), 1980 video game
Account-based marketing, strategic approach to business marketing
Activity-based management, method of identifying and evaluating activities that a business performs
Agaricus blazei Murill, a species of mushroom
Automated banking machine, Canadian term for automated teller machine
Atmospheric Black Metal
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABM
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.298408
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1789
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Apuleius
|
{{Short description|2nd-century Numidian Latin-language writer, rhetorician and philosopher}}
{{distinguish|text=Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, a Roman demagogue, or others with the name Apuleius or Appuleius}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| name = Apuleius
| image = Apuleuis.jpg
| caption = Late antique ceiling painting c. 330, possibly of Apuleius
| birth_date = {{circa|124}}
| birth_place = Madaurus, Numidia
| death_date = c. 170 – 190
| death_place = <!--Unknown-->
| occupation = Novelist, writer, public speaker
| notable_works = The Golden Ass
| school_tradition = Middle Platonism
}}
Apuleius ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|p|j|ʊ|ˈ|l|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|APP|yuu|LEE|əs}}; also called Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis; c. 124 – after 170<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30917/Lucius-Apuleius "Lucius Apuleius"]. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref>) was a Numidian Latin-language prose writer, Platonist philosopher and rhetorician.<ref name"GTUApo">{{cite web |urlhttps://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/apuleius/ |titleApuleius, Apology |workGeorge Town University}}</ref> He was born in the Roman province of Numidia, in the Berber city of Madauros, modern-day M'Daourouch, Algeria.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titleBerbers |quote... The best known of them were the Roman author Apuleius, the Roman emperor Septimius Severus, and St. Augustine |encyclopediaEncyclopedia Americana |publisherScholastic Library Publishing |year2005 |volume3 |page=569}}</ref> He studied Platonism in Athens, travelled to Italy, Asia Minor, and Egypt, and was an initiate in several cults or mysteries. The most famous incident in his life was when he was accused of using magic to gain the attentions (and fortune) of a wealthy widow. He declaimed and then distributed his own defense before the proconsul and a court of magistrates convened in Sabratha, near Oea (modern Tripoli, Libya). This is known as the Apologia.
His most famous work is his bawdy picaresque novel the Metamorphoses, otherwise known as The Golden Ass. It is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It relates the adventures of its protagonist, Lucius, who experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into a donkey. Lucius goes through various adventures before he is turned back into a human being by the goddess Isis.<ref name":0">{{cite book |last1Roman |first1Luke |last2Roman |first2Monica |name-list-styleamp |year2010 |titleEncyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology |page78 |publisherInfobase |isbn9781438126395 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtOgWfjNIxoMC |viaGoogle Books}}</ref>
Life
Apuleius was born in Madauros, a colonia in Numidia on the North African coast bordering Gaetulia, and he described himself as "half-Numidian half-Gaetulian."<ref name"Apuleius, Apology, 24">Apuleius, Apology, 24</ref> Madaurus was the same colonia where Augustine of Hippo later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. As to his first name, no praenomen is given in any ancient source;{{sfn|Walsh|1999|pxi}} late-medieval manuscripts began the tradition of calling him Lucius from the name of the hero of his novel.<ref>{{citation |firstJulia Haig |lastGaisser |year2008 |titleThe fortunes of Apuleius and the Golden Ass: a study in transmission and Reception |page69 |publisherPrinceton University Press}} {{isbn|0691131368|9780691131368}}</ref> Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (Apology) and his work Florida, which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches.
His father was a municipal magistrate (duumvir)<ref name="Apuleius, Apology, 24" /> who bequeathed at his death the sum of nearly two million sesterces to his two sons.<ref>Apuleius, Apology, 23</ref> Apuleius studied with a master at Carthage (where he later settled) and later at Athens, where he studied Platonist philosophy among other subjects. He subsequently went to Rome<ref>Apuleius, Florida, 17.4</ref> to study Latin rhetoric and, most likely, to speak in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in Asia Minor and Egypt, studying philosophy and religion, burning up his inheritance while doing so.
Apuleius was an initiate in several Greco-Roman mysteries, including the Dionysian Mysteries.{{refn |groupnote|As he proudly claims in his Apologia.<ref>{{cite journal |lastWinter |firstThomas Nelson |year2006 |urlhttp://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1003&contextclassicsfacpub |titleApology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius |journalFaculty Publications, Classics and Religious Studies Department |issue4}}</ref>}} He was a priest of Asclepius<ref>Apuleius, Florida 16.38 and 18.38</ref> and, according to Augustine,<ref>Augustine, Epistle 138.19.</ref> sacerdos provinciae Africae (i.e., priest of the province of Carthage).
Not long after his return home he set out upon a new journey to Alexandria.<ref name"Apuleius, Apology, 72">Apuleius, Apology, 72.</ref> On his way there he was taken ill at the town of Oea (modern-day Tripoli) and was hospitably received into the house of Sicinius Pontianus, with whom he had been friends when he had studied in Athens.<ref name"Apuleius, Apology, 72" /> The mother of Pontianus, Pudentilla, was a very rich widow. With her son's consent&nbsp;– indeed encouragement&nbsp;– Apuleius agreed to marry her.<ref>Apuleius, Apology, 73</ref> Meanwhile, Pontianus himself married the daughter of one Herennius Rufinus; he, indignant that Pudentilla's wealth should pass out of the family, instigated his son-in-law, together with a younger brother, Sicinius Pudens, a mere boy, and their paternal uncle, Sicinius Aemilianus, to join him in impeaching Apuleius upon the charge that he had gained the affections of Pudentilla by charms and magic spells.<ref>Apuleius, Apology, 53, 66, 70, etc</ref> The case was heard at Sabratha, near Tripoli, c.&nbsp;158&nbsp;AD, before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa.<ref>Apuleius, Apology, 1, 59, 65</ref> The accusation itself seems to have been ridiculous, and the spirited and triumphant defence spoken by Apuleius is still extant. This is known as the Apologia (A Discourse on Magic).<ref name="GTUApo" />
Apuleius accused an extravagant personal enemy of turning his house into a brothel and prostituting his wife.<ref>Apuleius, Apology, 75–76</ref>{{sfn|Flemming|1999|p=41}}
Of his subsequent career, we know little. Judging from the many works of which he was author, he must have devoted himself diligently to literature. He occasionally gave speeches in public to great reception; he had the charge of exhibiting gladiatorial shows and wild beast events in the province, and statues were erected in his honour by the senate of Carthage and of other senates.<ref>Apuleius, Apology, 55, 73</ref><ref>Apuleius, Florida, iii. n. 16</ref><ref>Augustine, Ep. v.</ref>
The date, place and circumstances of Apuleius' death are not known.<ref name"Gollnick2006">{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX1g9DgAAQBAJ&pgPA17 |titleThe Religious Dreamworld of Apuleius' Metamorphoses: Recovering a Forgotten Hermeneutic |lastGollnick |firstJames |publisherWilfrid Laurier Univ. Press |year1999 |isbn978-0-88920-803-2 |page17}}</ref><ref name"Apuleius2004">{{cite book |authorApuleius |titleThe Golden Ass, Or, The Metamorphoses |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiRwMi58gjdMC&pgPR13 |year2004 |publisherBarnes & Noble Publishing |isbn978-0-7607-5598-3 |page13 |viaGoogle Books}}</ref> There is no record of his activities after 170, a fact which has led some people to believe that he must have died about then (say in 171), although other scholars feel that he may still have been alive in 180 or even 190.<ref name"LondeyJohanson1987">{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkZ03AAAAIAAJ&pgPA11 |titleThe Logic of Apuleius: Including a Complete Latin Text and English Translation of the Peri Hermeneias of Apuleius of Madaura |last1Londey |first1David George |last2Johanson |first2Carmen J. |publisherBrill Publishers |year1987 |isbn90-04-08421-5 |page11 |name-list-styleamp}}</ref>
Works
edition of The Works of Apuleius: a portrait of Apuleius flanked by Pamphile changing into an owl and the Golden Ass]]
The Golden Ass
{{Main article|The Golden Ass}}
The Golden Ass (Asinus Aureus) or Metamorphoses is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It relates the adventures of one Lucius, who introduces himself as related to the famous philosophers Plutarch and Sextus of Chaeronea. Lucius experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into an ass. In this guise, he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way. Within this frame story are found many digressions, the longest among them being the well-known tale of Cupid and Psyche. This story is a rare instance of a fairy tale preserved in an ancient literary text.<ref name=":0" />
The Metamorphoses ends with the (once again human) hero, Lucius, eager to be initiated into the mystery cult of Isis; he abstains from forbidden foods, bathes, and purifies himself. He is introduced to the Navigium Isidis''. Then the secrets of the cult's books are explained to him, and further secrets are revealed before he goes through the process of initiation, which involves a trial by the elements on a journey to the underworld. Lucius is then asked to seek initiation into the cult of Osiris in Rome, and eventually is initiated into the pastophoroi&nbsp;– a group of priests that serves Isis and Osiris.<ref>{{citation |lastIles Johnson |firstSarah |chapterMysteries |titleAncient Religions |pages104–105 |publisherThe Belknap Press of Harvard University |year2007 |isbn978-0-674-02548-6}}</ref>
Apologia
<!-- Apologia (Apuleius) redirects here: please update if changing section title-->
{{lang|la|Apologia}} ({{lang|la|Apulei Platonici pro Se de Magia}}) is the version of the defence presented in Sabratha, in 158–159, before the proconsul Claudius Maximus, by Apuleius accused of the crime of magic. Between the traditional exordium and peroratio, the argumentation is divided into three sections:
# Refutation of the accusations levelled against his private life. He demonstrates that by marrying Pudentilla he had no interested motive and that he carries it away, intellectually and morally, on his opponents.
# Attempt to prove that his so-called "magical operations" were in fact indispensable scientific experiments for an imitator of Aristotle and Hippocrates, or the religious acts of a Roman Platonist.
# A recount of the events that have occurred in Oea since his arrival and pulverize the arguments against him.
The main interest of the {{lang|la|Apologia}} is historical, as it offers substantial information about its author, magic and life in Africa in the second century.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year1989 |titleApulée |encyclopediaEncyclopédie berbère |publisherEdisud |urlhttp://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/2565 |lastCèbe |firstJean-Pierre |locationAix-en-Provence |volume6 {{!}} Antilopes – Arzuges |issue6 |pages820–827|doi10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.2565 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> Other
His other works are:
* Florida. A compilation of twenty-three extracts from his various speeches and lectures.
* De Platone et dogmate eius (On Plato and his Doctrine). An outline in two books of Plato's physics and ethics, preceded by a life of Plato
* {{visible anchor|De Deo Socratis}} (On the God of Socrates). A work on the existence and nature of daemons, the intermediaries between gods and humans. This treatise was attacked by Augustine of Hippo. It contains a passage comparing gods and kings which is the first recorded occurrence of the proverb "familiarity breeds contempt":<ref>{{citation |page149 |titleApuleius |firstS. J. |lastHarrison |publisherOxford University Press |year2004 |isbn978-0-19-927138-2}}</ref>{{Blockquote|parit enim conversatio contemptum, raritas conciliat admirationem<br />(familiarity breeds contempt, rarity brings admiration)|sign|source=}}
* On the Universe. This Latin translation of Pseudo-Aristotle's work De Mundo is probably by Apuleius.
Apuleius wrote many other works which have not survived. He wrote works of poetry and fiction, as well as technical treatises on politics, dendrology, agriculture, medicine, natural history, astronomy, music, and arithmetic, and he translated Plato's Phaedo.{{sfn|Walsh|1999|ppxiv–xv}} Spurious Extant works wrongly attributed to Apuleius include:<ref>{{cite book |firstMark P. O. |lastMorford |year2002 |titleThe Roman philosophers |page227 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>
* Peri Hermeneias (On interpretation). A brief Latin version of a guide to Aristotelian logic.
* Asclepius. A Latin paraphrase of a lost Greek dialogue (The perfect discourse) featuring Asclepius and Hermes Trismegistus.
* Herbarium Apuleii Platonici by Pseudo-Apuleius.
Apuleian Sphere
The Apuleian Sphere described in Petosiris to Nechepso, also known as "Columcille's Circle" or "Petosiris' Circle",<ref>{{cite web |lastKalesmaki |firstJoel |titleTypes of Greek Numerology |workTheology of Arithmetic |date18 November 2006 |urlhttp://www.kalvesmaki.com/Arithmetic/GreekNumerology.html |access-date26 June 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090514012910/http://www.kalvesmaki.com/Arithmetic/GreekNumerology.html |archive-date14 May 2009 |url-statuslive }}</ref> is a magical prognosticating device for predicting the survival of a patient.<ref>{{cite journal |lastRust |firstMartha Dana |year1999 |title Art of Beekeeping Meets the Arts of Grammar: A Gloss of 'Columcille's Circle'|journalPhilological Quarterly |volume78 |issue4 |pages359–387 |urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/211225560|id{{ProQuest|211225560}} }}</ref>
See also
* Boethius
* Square of opposition
Notes
{{reflist|groupnote}}References{{Reflist}} Further reading
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |authorApuleius |translatorPatrick Gerard Walsh |translator-first|year1999 |titleThe Golden Ass |publisherOxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |authorApuleius |titleRhetorical Works |translator1Stephen Harrison |translator2John Hilton |translator3Vincent Hunink |editor-firstStephen |editor-lastHarrison |name-list-styleamp |locationNew York |publisherOxford University Press |year=2001}}
* {{cite book |lastFinkelpearl |firstEllen D. |titleMetamorphosis of Language in Apuleius: A Study of Allusion in the Novel |locationAnn Arbor |publisherThe University of Michigan Press |year1998}}
* {{cite journal |lastFlemming |firstRebecca |year1999 |titleQuae corpore quaestum facit: The Sexual Economy of Female Prostitution in the Roman Empire |journalJournal of Roman Studies |volume89 |pages38–61 |doi10.2307/300733 |jstor300733 |s2cid162922327 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |lastFrangoulidis |firstStavros |titleWitches, Isis and narrative: approaches to magic in Apuleius' Metamorphoses |locationBerlin; New York |publisherWalter de Gruyter |year2008 |seriesTrends in classics – Supplementary volumes |volume2}}
* {{cite book |lastGraverini |firstLuca |titleLiterature and Identity in the Golden Ass of Apuleius |locationColumbus/Pisa |publisherOhio State University Press/Pacini |year2012 |editionoriginal |languageit |orig-year2007 |isbn978-0814292921}}
* {{cite book |lastMoreschini |firstClaudio |titleApuleius and the Metamorphoses of Platonism |locationTurnhout |publisherBrepols Publishers |year2016 |seriesNutrix. Studies in Late Antique, Medieval and Renaissance Thought |volume10 |isbn=978-2-503-55470-9}}
* {{cite book |lastPasetti |firstLucia |titlePlauto in Apuleio |locationBologna |publisherPatron Editore |year2007 |language=it}}
* {{cite book |last1Pecere |first1Oronzo |last2Stramaglia |first2Antonio |name-list-styleamp |titleStudi apuleiani. Note di aggiornamento di L. Graverini |locationCassino |publisherEdizioni dell' Università degli Studi di Cassino |year2003 |languageit |isbn=88-8317-012-1}}
* {{cite book |lastSandy |firstGerald |titleThe Greek World of Apuleius: Apuleius and the Second Sophistic |locationLeiden |publisherBrill |year1997}}
* {{cite book |lastSchlam |firstCarl C. |titleThe Metamorphoses of Apuleius: On Making an Ass of Oneself |locationChapel Hill-London |year1992 |publisherDuckworth}} {{isbn|9780715624029}}
* {{cite book |lastWalsh |firstP. G. |chapterPreface |year1999 |titleThe Golden Ass |publisherOxford University Press}}
{{Refend}}
External links
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category|Apuleius}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{Library resources box |byyes |onlinebooksyes |othersyes |aboutyes |label=Apuleius
|viaf|lccn |lcheading|wikititle }}
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/apuleius}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=685}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?qApuleius&redirecttrue Works by Apuleius at Perseus Digital Library]
* {{Librivox author |id=2204}}
* {{OL author}}
* [https://archive.org/details/operaomnia01apuluoft L. Apuleii Opera Omnia, Lipsia, sumtibus C. Cnoblochii, 1842, pars I] (the Metamorphoses) and [https://archive.org/details/operaomnia02apuluoft pars II] (Florida, De Deo Socratis, De Dogmate Platonis, De Mundo Libri, Asclepius, Apologia et Fragmenta), in a critical edition with explanatory notes
* [https://archive.org/details/worksofapuleiusc00apulrich The works of Apuleius, London, George Bell and sons, 1878] (English translation)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080920112552/http://www.kabylia.info/apuleius-123-ad-180-famous-berber-writer Apuleius (123–180 CE) the Famous Berber writer]
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/apuleius.html Apulei Opera] (Latin texts of all the surviving works of Apuleius) at The Latin Library
* [http://www.attalus.org/translate/florida.html English translation of Florida by H. E. Butler]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720172359/http://www.chieftainsys.freeserve.co.uk/ English translation of the Apologia by H. E. Butler]
* [http://www.prometheustrust.co.uk/html/14_-_apuleius.html English translation of the God of Socrates by Thomas Taylor]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040607030012/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/apuleius/index.html Apuleius – Apologia: Seminar] (Latin text of the Apologia with H. E. Butler's English translation and an English crib with discussion and commentary)
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/classicsfacpub/4/ Apology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius]
* [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT23.HTM Apuleius' works]: text, concordances and frequency list
* [https://sites.google.com/site/apuleiusandafrica/HOME/ Ongoing website for "Apuleius and Africa" conference]
* [https://sites.google.com/site/apuleiusandafrica/prolegomena-and-bibliography/bibliography Apuleius and Africa Bibliography]
* [http://thespectaclesofapuleius.weebly.com/index.html The Spectacles of Apuleius]: a digital humanities project
* [https://archive.org/details/luciusapuleius Free public domain audiobook version of ''Apuleius on the Doctrines of Plato] translated by George Burges
{{Ancient Rome topics|state=collapsed}}
{{The Golden Ass}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
Category:2nd-century Berber people
Category:124 births
Category:2nd-century clergy
Category:2nd-century writers
Category:2nd-century philosophers
Category:2nd-century Romans
Category:2nd-century writers in Latin
Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians
Category:Appuleii
Category:Berber writers
Category:Classical Latin novelists
Category:History of magic
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Category:People from Souk Ahras Province
Category:Priests from the Roman Empire
Category:Romans from Africa
Category:Silver Age Latin writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apuleius
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.313219
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1790
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Alexander Selkirk
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{{short description|18th-century Scottish sailor and castaway}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Alexander Selkirk
| image = Alexander Selkirk Statue.jpg
| alt = Bronze statue of Selkirk located in a stone alcove
| caption = Clad in goatskins, Selkirk awaits rescue in a sculpture by&nbsp;Thomas Stuart Burnett (1885)
| birth_date = 1676
| birth_place = Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland
| death_date = 13 December 1721 (aged 45)
| death_place = Cape Coast, Gold Coast
| nationality = Scottish and British (after 1707)
| parents = John Selcraig, Euphan Mackie
| other_names | known_for Inspiring Robinson Crusoe
| occupation = Sailor
}}
Alexander Selkirk (1676{{spaced ndash}}13 December 1721) was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent four years and four months as a castaway (1704–1709) after being marooned by his captain, initially at his request, on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean.
Selkirk was an unruly youth and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on Cinque Ports, captained by Thomas Stradling, under the overall command of William Dampier. Stradling's ship stopped to resupply at the uninhabited Juan Fernández Islands, west of South America, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there. Selkirk's suspicions were soon justified, as Cinque Ports foundered near Malpelo Island 400&nbsp;km (250&nbsp;mi) from the coast of what is now Colombia.
By the time he was eventually rescued by the privateer Woodes Rogers, who was accompanied by Dampier, Selkirk had become adept at hunting and making use of the resources that he found on the island. His story of survival was widely publicized after his return, becoming one of the reputed sources of inspiration for the English writer Daniel Defoe's fictional character Robinson Crusoe.
Early life and privateering
Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676.{{sfnp|Howell|1829|pp18–19}} In his youth, he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition. He was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693{{sfnp|Takahashi|Caldwell|Cáceres|Calderón|2007|locn.&nbsp;11|ps, "Date of 1693, verified from the original Kirk Session Records (CH2/960/2, pp.&nbsp;29, 30), is erroneously given in other printed sources as 1695."}} for his "indecent conduct in church", but he "did not appear, being gone to sea". He was back at Largo in 1701 when he again came to the attention of church authorities for assaulting his brothers.{{sfnp|Howell|1829|pp24–25}}
Early on, he was engaged in buccaneering. In 1703, he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean,{{sfnp|Funnell|1707|pp1–2}} setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September.{{sfnp|Funnell|1707|p3}} They carried letters of marque from the Lord High Admiral authorizing their armed merchant ships to attack foreign enemies as the War of the Spanish Succession was then going on between England and Spain.<ref>{{cite web|access-date13 March 2016|date13 October 1702|titleLetters of Marque and Reprisal for St George, Declaration of William Dampier|websiteThe National Archives|urlhttps://archive.today/20130615201828/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/journeys/voyage_html/transcripts/stgeorge.htm#selection-31.8-67.13 }}</ref> Dampier was captain of St George and Selkirk served on Cinque Ports, St George{{'}}s companion ship, as sailing master under Captain Thomas Stradling.{{sfnp|Howell|1829|pp33, 37–38}} By this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea.{{sfnp|Howell|1829|pp=24–25}}
In February 1704, following a stormy passage around Cape Horn,{{sfnp|Funnell|1707|pp14–15}} the privateers fought a long battle with a well-armed French vessel, St Joseph, only to have it escape to warn its Spanish allies of their arrival in the Pacific.{{sfnp|Funnell|1707|p26}} A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their landing party was ambushed.{{sfnp|Funnell|1707|pp44–45}} The easy capture of Asunción, a heavily laden merchantman, revived the men's hopes of plunder, and Selkirk was put in charge of the prize ship. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar, and flour, then abruptly set the ship free, arguing that the gain was not worth the effort. In May 1704, Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own.{{sfnp|Funnell|1707|pp45–47}}
Castaway
(formerly Más a Tierra island), where Selkirk lived as a castaway]]
In September 1704, after parting ways with Dampier,{{sfnp|Funnell|1707|pp46–47}} Captain Stradling brought Cinque Ports to an island known to the Spanish as Más a Tierra located in the uninhabited Juan Fernández archipelago {{convert|670|km|mi|-1|abbron}} off the coast of Chile for a mid-expedition restocking of fresh water and supplies.{{sfnp|Lee|1987|pp=394–395}}
Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel and wanted to make the necessary repairs before going any further. He declared that he would rather stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p125}} Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, a Bible, bedding and some clothes.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p126}} Selkirk immediately regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p=125}}
Cinque Ports later foundered off the coast of what is now Colombia. Stradling and "six or seven of his Men"{{Sfnb|Rogers|1712|p145}} survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. They were taken to Lima where they endured a harsh imprisonment.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|pp145, 333}} Stradling attempted escape after stealing a canoe in Lima, but was recaptured and punished. The Spanish governor threatened to send all the survivors to the mines. The survivors ultimately returned to England after four years of imprisonment.{{Sfnb|Howell|1829|p168|locAppendix}}{{Sfnb|Rogers|1712|pp337-338}}Life on the islandAt first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Más a Tierra. During this time, he ate spiny lobsters and scanned the ocean daily for rescue, suffering all the while from loneliness, misery, and remorse. Hordes of raucous sea lions, gathering on the beach for the mating season, eventually drove him to the island's interior.{{sfnp|Steele|1713|p169–171}} Once inland, his way of life took a turn for the better. More foods were available there: feral goats—introduced by earlier sailors—provided him with meat and milk, while wild turnips, the leaves of the indigenous cabbage tree and dried Schinus fruits (pink peppercorns) offered him variety and spice. Rats would attack him at night, but he was able to sleep soundly and in safety by domesticating and living near feral cats.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|pp=127–128}}
Selkirk proved resourceful in using materials that he found on the island: he forged a new knife out of barrel hoops left on the beach;{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p128}} built two huts out of pepper trees, one of which he used for cooking and the other for sleeping; and employed his musket to hunt goats and his knife to clean their carcasses. As his gunpowder dwindled, he had to chase prey on foot. During one such chase, he was badly injured when he tumbled from a cliff, lying helpless and unable to move for about a day. His prey had cushioned his fall, probably sparing him a broken back.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|pp126–127}}
Childhood lessons learned from his father, a tanner, now served him well. For example, when his clothes wore out, he made new ones from hair-covered goatskins using a nail for sewing. As his shoes became unusable, he did not need to replace them, since his toughened, calloused feet made protection unnecessary.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p128}} He sang psalms{{Broken anchor|date2025-03-31|botUser:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_linkPsalms#The Psalms in Christian worship|reasonThe anchor (The Psalms in Christian worship) has been deleted.|diff_id905565318}} and read from the Bible, finding it a comfort in his situation and a prop for his English.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p=126}}
During his sojourn on the island, two vessels came to anchor. Unfortunately for Selkirk, both were Spanish. Being British and a privateer, he would have faced a grim fate if captured and therefore did his best to hide. Once, he was spotted and chased by a group of Spanish sailors from one of the ships. His pursuers urinated beneath the tree in which he was hiding but failed to notice him. The would-be captors then gave up and sailed away.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p125}}RescueSelkirk's long-awaited deliverance came on 2 February 1709 by way of Duke,{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|pp124–125}} a privateering ship piloted by William Dampier, and its sailing companion Duchess.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p6}} Thomas Dover led the landing party that met Selkirk.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p124}} After four years and four months without human company, Selkirk was almost incoherent with joy.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p129}} The Duke{{'s}} captain and leader of the expedition was Woodes Rogers, who wryly referred to Selkirk as the governor of the island. The agile castaway caught two or three goats a day and helped restore the health of Rogers' men, who had developed scurvy.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|pp131–132}}
Captain Rogers was impressed by Selkirk's physical vigour, but also by the peace of mind that he had attained while living on the island, observing: "One may see that solitude and retirement from the world is not such an insufferable state of life as most men imagine, especially when people are fairly called or thrown into it unavoidably, as this man was."{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p130}} He made Selkirk Duke{{'}}s second mate, later giving him command of one of their prize ships, Increase,{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p147}} before it was ransomed by the Spanish.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p=220}}
Selkirk returned to privateering with a vengeance. At Guayaquil in present-day Ecuador, he led a boat crew up the Guayas River where several wealthy Spanish ladies had fled, and looted the gold and jewels they had hidden inside their clothing.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|pp178–179}} His part in the hunt for treasure galleons along the coast of Mexico resulted in the capture of Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño,{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p294}} renamed Bachelor, on which he served as sailing master under Captain Dover to the Dutch East Indies.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p312}} Selkirk completed the around-the-world voyage by the Cape of Good Hope as the sailing master of Duke,{{sfnp|Cooke|1712|p61}} arriving at the Downs off the English coast on 1 October 1711.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|p427}} He had been away for eight years.{{sfnp|Funnell|1707|p3}}
Later life and influence
in goatskin clothing shows the influence of Selkirk]]
Selkirk's experience as a castaway aroused a great deal of attention in Britain. His fellow crewman Edward Cooke mentioned Selkirk's ordeal in a book chronicling their privateering expedition, A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World (1712). A more detailed recounting was published by the expedition's leader, Rogers, within months.{{sfnp|Rogers|1712|pp124–125}} The following year, prominent essayist Richard Steele wrote an article about him for The Englishman newspaper. Selkirk appeared set to enjoy a life of ease and celebrity, claiming his share of Duke{{'s}} plundered wealth—about £800{{sfnp|Steele|1713|p173}} (equivalent to £{{Inflation|UK|800|1713|r-4|fmtc}} today).<ref>{{cite web|lastClark|firstGregory|titleThe Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present|urlhttp://www.measuringworth.com/ukearncpi/|websiteMeasuringWorth|date2016|access-date13 March 2016}}</ref> However, legal disputes made the amount of any payment uncertain.{{sfnp|Souhami|2001|pp180–181}}
After a few months in London, he began to seem more like his former self again.{{sfnp|Steele|1713|p173}} However, he still missed his secluded and solitary moments, remarking, "I am now worth eight hundred pounds, but shall never be as happy as when I was not worth a farthing."<ref>Howell (1829) chap.V, p.127, 129</ref> In September 1713, he was charged with assaulting a shipwright in Bristol and might have been kept in confinement for two years.{{sfnp|Lee|1987|p399|ps; cf. Souhami (2001), p.&nbsp;186, "He did not show up for the hearing. He moved to the obscurity of London for some months, then went home to Largo."}} He returned to Lower Largo, where he met Sophia Bruce, a young dairymaid. They eloped to London early and married on 4 March 1717. He was soon off to sea again, having enlisted in the Royal Navy.{{sfnp|Souhami|2001|pp190–192}} While on a visit to Plymouth in 1720, he married a widowed innkeeper named Frances Candis.{{sfnp|Souhami|2001|pp201–202}} He was serving as an officer<ref>Howell (1829) chap. V, p. 135</ref> on board {{HMS|Weymouth|1693|6}}, engaged in an anti-piracy patrol off the west coast of Africa. The ship arrived near the mouth of the River Gambia in March 1721 and lingered due to damage from bad weather. The locals took several crew hostage and ransomed them for "gold and food."{{Sfnp|Souhami|2001|p203}} As the ship sailed down the coast of West Africa, men went into the forests to cut wood and began to contract yellow fever from the swarms of mosquitoes, and perhaps typhoid.<ref name":0">{{Cite web |lastMagazine |firstSmithsonian |titleThe Real Robinson Crusoe |urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-real-robinson-crusoe-74877644/ |access-date2024-12-31 |websiteSmithsonian Magazine |languageen}}</ref> Four died in June and, by September, "so many men were dying a makeshift hospital was erected on shore" near Cape Coast Castle.{{Sfnp|Souhami|2001|p204}} Selkirk became sick in November with the same symptoms as his crewmates. He died on 13 December 1721 along with shipmate William King, and both were buried at sea; three more died the following day.{{sfnp|Souhami|2001|pp203–205}}<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C2534427 |titleMasters' logs, including: Weymouth (1718/19 Mar 3 - 1719 Nov 6). / Weymouth (1719/20 Feb 18 - 1722 Apr 25). / Windsor (1719/20 Jan 27 - 1720 Dec 7). / Windsor (1721 May 11 - 1721/2 Feb 10) |date1719–1722 |languageen |via=The National Archives (United Kingdom)}}</ref>
When Daniel Defoe published The Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1719), few readers could have missed the resemblance to Selkirk. An illustration on the first page of the novel shows "a rather melancholy-looking man standing on the shore of an island, gazing inland", in the words of modern explorer Tim Severin. He is dressed in the familiar hirsute goatskins, his feet and shins bare.{{sfnp|Severin|2002|p11}} Yet Crusoe's island is located not in the mid-latitudes of the South Pacific but {{convert|4300|km|mi|-2|abbron}} away in the Caribbean, where the furry attire would hardly be comfortable in the tropical heat. This incongruity supports the popular belief that Selkirk was a model for the fictional character,{{sfnp|Severin|2002|p17}} though most literary scholars now accept that he was "just one of many survival narratives that Defoe knew about".<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/09/robinson-crusoe-alexander-selkirk-history/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160928201018/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/09/robinson-crusoe-alexander-selkirk-history/|url-statusdead|archive-date28 September 2016|titleDebunking the Myth of the 'Real' Robinson Crusoe|workNational Geographic|authorLittle, Becky|date28 September 2016|access-date30 September 2016}}</ref>
In other literary works
{{unordered list
|William Cowper's "The Solitude of Alexander Selkirk" is about Selkirk's feelings as the castaway who lived all alone on the island. This poem gave rise to the common phrase "monarch of all I survey" via the verse:
{{poemquote|I am monarch of all I survey,
My right there is none to dispute;
From the center all around to the sea,
I am the lord of the fowl and the brute.{{sfnp|Ravitch|Ravitch|2006|p=134}}}}
| Jorge Luis Borges wrote a sonnet named after Selkirk. In it, Selkirk wakes from a dream of the island to find himself "returned to the world of men", and thinks of his past, castaway self as a separate person he wishes to comfort.
| Charles Dickens used Selkirk as a simile in Chapter Two of The Pickwick Papers (1836): "Colonel Builder and Sir Thomas Clubber exchanged snuff-boxes, and looked very much like a pair of Alexander Selkirks—' Monarchs of all they surveyed. {{'"}}{{sfnp|Dickens|1836|p15}} This is also a reference to William Cowper's poem.{{sfnp|Ravitch|Ravitch|2006|p134}}
| Poet Patrick Kavanagh likens his loneliness on the road to that of Selkirk, in his poem "Inniskeen Road: July Evening":
{{poemquote|Oh, Alexander Selkirk knew the plight
Of being king and government and nation.
A road, a mile of the kingdom, I am king
Of banks and stones and every blooming thing.{{sfnp|Regan|2004|pp=402–403}}}}
| In "Etiquette", one of W. S. Gilbert's Bab Ballads, Selkirk is used as a model for the English castaways:
{{poemquote|These passengers, because they clung to a mast,
Upon a desert island were eventually cast.
They hunted for their meals, as Alexander Selkirk used,
But they couldn't chat together—they had not been introduced.{{sfnp|Gilbert|1970|p=274}}}}
| Joshua Slocum mentions Selkirk in the book Sailing Alone Around the World (1900). During his visit to the Juan Fernández Islands, Slocum runs across a marker commemorating Selkirk's stay.{{sfnp|Slocum|1900|p=141}}| Diana Souhami draws on testimony from Selkirk and many others in her ''Selkirk's Island'' (2001), from a journey to rescue to arrival home and inspiration for the prolific Daniel Defoe.
| In Allan Cole and Chris Bunch's Sten science fiction series, Book Two, The Wolf Worlds, the Scottish character Alex bemoans their predicament after crash landing: {{"'}}A slack way for a mon,' Alex mourned to himself. 'Ah, didnae ken Ah'd ever been Alex Selkirk. {{'"}}{{sfnp|Bunch|Cole|1984|p21}}}}In filmSelkirk, the Real Robinson Crusoe is a stop motion film by Walter Tournier based on Selkirk's life. It premièred simultaneously in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay on 2 February 2012,<ref>{{cite news |date2011 |titleSelkirk, el verdadero Robinson Crusoe |trans-titleSelkirk, the real Robinson Crusoe |urlhttp://www.cinenacional.com/pelicula/selkirk-el-verdadero-robinson-crusoe |access-date13 March 2016 |workCine Nacional |languagees}}</ref> distributed by The Walt Disney Company. It was the first full-length animated feature to be produced in Uruguay.<ref>{{cite web |date8 April 2012 |titleSelkirk llega al DVD con algunas novedades |trans-title"Selkirk" comes to DVD with some new features |urlhttp://www.elpais.com.uy/120804/pespec-655726/novedades/-selkirk-llega-al-dvd-con-algunas-novedades/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120805084032/http://www.elpais.com.uy/120804/pespec-655726/novedades/-selkirk-llega-al-dvd-con-algunas-novedades/ |archive-date5 August 2012 |workEl País |languagees |publication-placeMontevideo, Uruguay}}</ref>
Commemoration
, Scotland, which reads: "In memory of Alexander Selkirk, mariner, the original of Robinson Crusoe who lived on the island of Juan Fernández in complete solitude for four years and four months. He died {{Sic|1723|expected1721}}, lieutenant of HMS Weymouth, {{Sic|nolinky|aged 47 years|expected=aged 45 years}}. This statue is erected by David Gillies, net manufacturer, on the site of the cottage in which Selkirk was born."]]
Selkirk has been memorialized in his Scottish birthplace. Lord Aberdeen delivered a speech on 11 December 1885, after which his wife, Lady Aberdeen, unveiled a bronze statue and plaque in memory of Selkirk outside a house on the site of his original home on the Main Street of Lower Largo. David Gillies of Cardy House, Lower Largo, a descendant of the Selkirks, donated the statue created by Thomas Stuart Burnett.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.scotsindependent.org/dates1-f.htm |titleNotable Dates in History |workScots Independent |date2006 |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141205083554/http://www.scotsindependent.org/dates1-f.htm |archive-date=5 December 2014 }}</ref>
The Scotsman is also remembered in his former island home. In 1869 the crew of {{HMS|Topaze|1858|6}} placed a bronze tablet at a spot called Selkirk's Lookout on a mountain of Más a Tierra, Juan Fernández Islands, to mark his stay.{{sfnp|Severin|2002|p59}} On 1 January 1966 Chilean president Eduardo Frei Montalva renamed Más a Tierra Robinson Crusoe Island after Defoe's fictional character to attract tourists. The largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, known as Más Afuera, became Alejandro Selkirk Island, although Selkirk probably never saw that island since it is located {{convert|180|km|mi nmi|-1|abbroff}} to the west.{{sfnp|Severin|2002|pp23–24}}Archaeological findingsAn archaeological expedition to the Juan Fernández Islands in February 2005 found part of a nautical instrument that likely belonged to Selkirk. It was "a fragment of copper alloy identified as being from a pair of navigational dividers"{{sfnp|Takahashi|Caldwell|Cáceres|Calderón|2007|p270}} dating from the early 18th (or late 17th) century. Selkirk is the only person known to have been on the island at that time who is likely to have had dividers and was even said by Rogers to have had such instruments in his possession.{{sfnp|Takahashi|Caldwell|Cáceres|Calderón|2007|pp294–295}} The artifact was discovered while excavating a site not far from Selkirk's Lookout where the famous castaway is believed to have lived.{{sfnp|Takahashi|Caldwell|Cáceres|Calderón|2007|pp274–275}}
In 1825, during John Howell's research of Alexander Selkirk's biography, his "flip-can" was in the possession of his great-grand-nephew John Selkirk, and Alexander's musket was "in the possession of Major Lumsden of Lathallan."<ref>Howell (1829) chap. V, p. 136, 137</ref>
See also
*List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea
Notes
{{Reflist|30em}}
References
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book
|last1 = Bunch
|first1 = Chris
|last2 = Cole
|first2 = Allan
|year = 1984
|title = Sten 2: The Wolf Worlds
|location = London
|publisher = Orbit Books
|isbn = 978-143-44-3107-3
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Cooke
|first = Edward
|year = 1712
|title = A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World, Performed in the Years 1708, 1709, 1710 and 1711
|volume = 2
|location = London
|publisher = B. Lintot & R. Gossling
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Dickens
|first = Charles
|year = 1836
|title = The Pickwick Papers
|location = London
|publisher = Chapman & Hall
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Funnell
|first = William
|year = 1707
|title = A Voyage Round the World, Containing an Account of Captain Dampier's Expedition into the South Seas in the Ship St George in the Years 1703 and 1704
|location = London
|publisher = W. Botham
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Gilbert
|first = W. S.
|editor = James Ellis
|year = 1970
|title = The Bab Ballads
|url = https://archive.org/details/babballadsmuchs00conggoog
|location = Cambridge, MA
|publisher = Belknap Press
|isbn = 978-067-405801-9
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Howell
|first = John
|title = The Life and Adventures of Alexander Selkirk
|year = 1829
|location = Edinburgh
|publisher = Oliver & Boyd
}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Lee
|first = C. D.
|year = 1987
|title = Alexander Selkirk and the Last Voyage of the Cinque Ports Galley
|journal = Mariner's Mirror
|volume = 73
|issue = 4
|pages = 385–399
|doi = 10.1080/00253359.1987.10656168
}}
* {{cite book
|last1 = Ravitch
|first1 = Michael
|last2 = Ravitch
|first2 = Diane
|year = 2006
|title = The English Reader: What Every Literate Person Needs to Know
|location = New York
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|isbn = 978-019-50-7729-2
|url-access = registration
|url = https://archive.org/details/englishreaderwha0000unse
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Regan
|first = Stephen
|year = 2004
|title = Irish Writing: An Anthology of Irish Literature in English 1789–1939
|location = Oxford
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|isbn = 978-019-95-4982-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Rogers
|first = Woodes
|year = 1712
|title = A Cruising Voyage Round the World: First to the South Sea, Thence to the East Indies, and Homewards by the Cape of Good Hope
|location = London
|publisher = A. Bell
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Severin
|first = Tim
|year = 2002
|title = In Search of Robinson Crusoe
|location = New York
|publisher = Basic Books
|isbn = 978-046-50-7698-7
|url = https://archive.org/details/insearchofrobins00seve_0
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Slocum
|first = Joshua
|year = 1900
|title = Sailing Alone Around the World
|location = Mineola, NY
|publisher = Dover Publications
|isbn = 978-048-620326-3
|url = https://archive.org/details/sailingalonearo100sloc
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Souhami
|first = Diana
|year = 2001
|title = Selkirk's Island: The True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson Crusoe
|url = https://archive.org/details/selkirksislandtr00souh
|url-access = registration
|location = New York
|publisher = Harcourt Books
|isbn = 978-015-60-2717-5
}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Steele
|first = Richard
|date = 3 December 1713
|title = Alexander Selkirk, an Account of His Living Alone Above Four Years in a Desolate Island
|url https://books.google.com/books?idIY2UnI4L6g8C&pg=PA168
|journal = The Englishman
|volume = 1
|issue = 26
|pages = 168–173
}}
* {{cite journal
|last1 = Takahashi
|first1 = Daisuke
|last2 = Caldwell
|first2 = David H.
|last3 = Cáceres
|first3 = Iván
|last4 = Calderón
|first4 = Mauricio
|last5 = Morrison-Low
|first5 = A. D.
|last6 = Saavedra
|first6 = Miguel A.
|last7 = Tate
|first7 = Jim
|name-list-style = amp
|year = 2007
|title = Excavation at Aguas Buenas, Robinson Crusoe Island, Chile, of a Gunpowder Magazine and the Supposed Campsite of Alexander Selkirk, Together with an Account of Early Navigational Dividers
|journal = Post-Medieval Archaeology
|volume = 41
|issue = 2
|pages = 270–304
|doi = 10.1179/174581307X236157
|s2cid = 162283658
|url = http://repository.nms.ac.uk/57/
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100907235430/http://repository.nms.ac.uk/57/
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 7 September 2010
}}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
* {{cite book
|last = Kraske
|first = Robert
|year = 2005
|title = Marooned: The Strange But True Adventures of Alexander Selkirk
|location = New York
|publisher = Clarion Books
|isbn = 978-061-85-6843-7
|url = https://archive.org/details/marooned00robe
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Takahashi
|first = Daisuke
|year = 2002
|title = In Search of Robinson Crusoe
|location = New York
|publisher = Cooper Square Press
|isbn = 978-081-54-1200-7
|url = https://archive.org/details/insearchofrobins00taka
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Wilson
|first = Rick
|year = 2009
|title = The Man Who Was Robinson Crusoe: A Personal View of Alexander Selkirk
|location = Glasgow
|publisher = Neil Wilson Publishing
|isbn = 978-19-064-7602-1
}}
External links
{{Wikisourcehas|1the original text of William Cowper's|2The Solitude of Alexander Selkirk}}
{{DNB Poster|Selkirk, Alexander|Alexander Selkirk}}
{{EB1911 poster|Selkirk, Alexander}}
* [http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/0,1518,605963,00.html "Trapped on a Pacific Island: Scientists Research the Real Robinson Crusoe"] by Marco Evers (6&nbsp; Feb&shy;ru&shy;ary 2009) in Spiegel Online
* [https://archive.today/20130202093840/http://www.scotsman.com/news/scottish-news/top-stories/island-gives-up-secret-of-real-robinson-crusoe-1-1096982 "Island Gives Up Secret of Real Robinson Crusoe"] in The Scotsman (22&nbsp; Sep&shy;tem&shy; ber 2005)
* [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-real-robinson-crusoe-74877644/ "The Real Robinson Crusoe"] by Bruce Selcraig (July 2005) in Smithsonian
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070402052327/http://www.ini.unizh.ch/~tobi/fun/alex/alex.php An account of a trip to Selkirk's Island] by James S. Bruce and Mayme S. Bruce (Spring 1993) in The Explorers Journal
*[https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0395911508 "On a Piece of Stone: Alexander Selkirk on Greater Land"] by Edward E. Leslie (1988) in Desperate Journeys, Abandoned Souls: True Stories of Castaways and Other Survivors (pp.&nbsp;61–85)
*[https://maps.google.com/maps?qJuan+Fern%C3%A1ndez+Islands&sll37.0625,-95.677068&sspn48.956293,56.777344&hnearArchipi%C3%A9lago+Juan+Fern%C3%A1ndez&ll-33.641307,-78.829097&spn0.025331,0.044074&tf&z15&ecpose=-33.61752429,-78.8220852,1039.22,-166.21,69.778,0 Satellite imagery of the Juan Fernández Islands] from Google Maps
* {{librivox book | titleThe Life and Adventures of Alexander Selkirk | authorJohn HOWELL}}
{{Gutenberg book|authorHowell, John|origyear1841|no70639|titleThe life and adventures of Alexander Selkirk, the real Robinson Crusoe|publisherM. Day & Co.|locationNew York, New York|languageen|bulletno}}
{{Pirates|state=collapsed}}
{{Robinson Crusoe|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Selkirk, Alexander}}
Category:1676 births
Category:1700s missing person cases
Category:1721 deaths
Category:18th century in Chile
Category:18th-century Scottish people
Category:Scottish privateers
Category:Burials at sea
Category:Castaways
Category:Circumnavigators of the globe
Category:Date of birth unknown
Category:Deaths from yellow fever
Category:Formerly missing British people
Category:Juan Fernández Islands
Category:Maritime folklore
Category:People from Lower Largo
Category:People who died at sea
Category:Piracy in the Pacific Ocean
Category:Robinson Crusoe
Category:Scottish sailors
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Selkirk
|
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Anti-ballistic missile
|
{{short description|Surface-to-air missile designed to counter ballistic missiles}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
of the United States' Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system, loaded into a silo at Fort Greely, Alaska, in July 2004]]
An anti-ballistic missile (ABM) is a surface-to-air missile designed to destroy in-flight ballistic missiles. They achieve this explosively (chemical or nuclear), or via hit-to-kill kinetic vehicles, which may also have self-maneuvering.
Tactical systems are widely deployed to counter short and intermediate-range ballistic missiles that carry conventional warheads.
Strategic systems, deployed by the United States, Russia, and Israel, are capable of intercepting intercontinental ballistic missiles, typically used to carry strategic nuclear warheads. During the Cold War, the 1972 ABM Treaty limited the nuclear arms race; excessive ICBM production would have been favoured to overwhelm ABM systems. Of the modern strategic ABM systems, only Russia's are themselves armed with nuclear warheads.<ref name"b078">{{cite journal |lastKristensen |firstHans M. |last2Korda |first2Matt |last3Johns |first3Eliana |last4Knight |first4Mackenzie |date2024-03-03 |titleRussian nuclear weapons, 2024 |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2024.2314437?needAccesstrue |journalBulletin of the Atomic Scientists |volume80 |issue2 |pages118–145 |doi10.1080/00963402.2024.2314437 |issn0096-3402 |access-date2025-03-20 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>Current counter-ICBM systems
]]
There are a limited number of systems worldwide that can intercept intercontinental ballistic missiles:
* The Russian A-135 anti-ballistic missile system (upgraded in 2017 to A-235)<ref name":2">{{Cite journal |last1ARBATOV |first1ALEXEY |last2DVORKIN |first2VLADIMIR |last3TOPYCHKANOV |first3PETR |last4ZHAO |first4TONG |last5BIN |first5LI |date2017 |titleENTANGLEMENT AS A NEW SECURITY THREAT: A RUSSIAN PERSPECTIVE |journalEntanglement |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep26908.6 |pages11–46}}</ref> is used for the defense of Moscow. It became operational in 1995 and was preceded by the A-35 anti-ballistic missile system. The system uses Gorgon and Gazelle missiles previously armed with nuclear warheads. These missiles have been updated (2017) and use non-nuclear kinetic interceptors instead, to intercept any incoming ICBMs.<ref name=":2" />
* The Israeli Arrow 3 system entered operational service in 2017. It is designed for exo-atmosphere interception of ballistic missiles during the spaceflight portion of their trajectory, including those of ICBMs.<ref nameis>[http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Israel-successfully-tests-Davids-Slings-interceptor Israel successfully tests David's Sling's interceptor] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130509060922/http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Israel-successfully-tests-Davids-Slings-interceptor |date=9 May 2013 }} By Yaakov Lappin. Jpost.com, 25 November 2012</ref> It may also act as an anti-satellite weapon.
* The American Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) system, formerly known as National Missile Defense (NMD), was first tested in 1997 and had its first successful intercept test in 1999. Instead of using an explosive charge, it launches a hit-to-kill kinetic projectile to intercept an ICBM. The current GMD system is intended to shield the United States mainland against a limited nuclear attack by a rogue state such as North Korea. GMD does not have the ability to protect against an all-out nuclear attack from Russia, as there are currently only 44 ground-based interceptors available to counter projectiles headed towards the US.<ref name"economist,0">{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21734465-someone-ought-explain-commander-chief-there-no-guaranteed-defence |titleThere is no guaranteed defence against ballistic missiles—yet |newspaperThe Economist |languageen |access-date28 January 2018 |url-accesssubscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://missilethreat.csis.org/system/gmd/ |titleGround-based Midcourse Defense (GMD) System |websiteMissile Threat}}</ref> (This interceptor count does not include the THAAD, or Aegis, or Patriot defenses which provide shorter range defence against incoming projectiles.)
* The Aegis ballistic missile defense-equipped SM-3 Block II-A missile demonstrated it can shoot down an ICBM target on 16 Nov 2020.<ref name= aegisSm3BlockIia >[https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2417334/us-successfully-conducts-sm-3-block-iia-intercept-test-against-an-intercontinen/ FTM-44 (17 Nov 2020) U.S. Successfully Conducts SM-3 Block IIA Intercept Test Against an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile Target] Flight Test Aegis Weapon System-44 (FTM-44). The C2BMC network detected an ICBM launch; U.S. Navy sailors aboard the USS John Finn (DDG-113) then launched an SM-3 Block IIA missile which destroyed the ICBM in mid-course.</ref>
**In a November 2020 test, the US launched a surrogate ICBM from Kwajalein Atoll toward Hawaii in the general direction of the continental US, which triggered a satellite warning to a Colorado Air Force base.<ref nameftm44 /> In response, {{USS|John Finn}} launched a missile which destroyed the surrogate ICBM, while still outside the atmosphere.<ref name ftm44 >[https://web.archive.org/web/20201203121551/https://www.mda.mil/video/FTM44PostMissionVideo2.mp4 MDA (18 Nov 2020) FTM-44 mission overview] 20-MDA-10624 (Not to scale nor in real time)</ref><ref name":1">{{Cite news|lastKluth|firstAndreas|date2020-11-29|titleA Successful U.S. Missile Intercept Ends the Era of Nuclear Stability|languageen|workBloomberg.com|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2020-11-30/a-successful-u-s-missile-intercept-ends-the-era-of-nuclear-stability|access-date=2020-11-30}}</ref><!--
PLEASE place minor info, such as SAM missiles that potentially can have limited ABM capability, at the country sections located in further part of article; this part is for short summary of OPERATIONAL SYSTEMS that can shoot down INTERCONTINENTAL ballistic missiles. -->
American plans for Central European site
{{further|National missile defense#Recent developments}}
During 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to discuss potential future ballistic missile defence programs. In the end, the council recommended deployment of early warning and surveillance systems as well as regionally controlled defence systems.<ref>Assembly of the Western European Union. Technological and Aerospace Committee. Lenzer. via FAS.[https://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/europe/weu_93/weu1363tasc.htm Anti-missile defence for Europe – guidelines drawn from the symposium] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015200451/http://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/europe/weu_93/weu1363tasc.htm |date15 October 2015 }}. 17 May 1993.</ref>
During spring 2006 reports about negotiations between the United States, Poland, and the Czech Republic were published.<ref name="MDA Intl Coop" />
The plans propose the installation of a latest generation ABM system with a radar site in the Czech Republic and the launch site in Poland.<ref name"MDA Intl Coop" /> The system was announced to be aimed against ICBMs from Iran and North Korea.<ref name"MDA Intl Coop" /> This caused harsh comments by Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) security conference during spring 2007 in Munich. Other European ministers commented that any change of strategic weapons should be negotiated on NATO level and not 'unilaterally' [sic, actually bilaterally] between the U.S. and other states (although most strategic arms reduction treaties were between the Soviet Union and U.S., not NATO). The German foreign minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier, a Social Democrat, expressed severe concerns about the way in which the U.S. had conveyed its plans to its European partners and criticised the U.S. administration for not having consulted Russia prior to announcing its endeavours to deploy a new missile defence system in Central Europe.<ref>Gaspers, J. (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080910223745/http://www.hsfk.de/fileadmin/content-ABM/Natolin_Analiza_7_2007.pdf A US Missile Defence Shield in Europe? Opinions and Arguments in the German Political Debate. Natolin Analyses 7(20)/2007].</ref> According to a July 2007 survey, a majority of Poles were opposed to hosting a component of the system in Poland.<ref name"wp_antimissile">{{cite news | languagepl | title55% Polaków przeciw budowie tarczy (55% of Poles against building the Shield) | date17 July 2007 | publisherPolska Agencja Prasowa | urlhttp://wiadomosci.wp.pl/wiadomosc.html?kat1342&wid9029388&ticaid146b1 | access-date7 September 2007 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120120062339/http://wiadomosci.wp.pl/wiadomosc.html?kat1342&wid9029388&ticaid146b1 | archive-date20 January 2012 | url-statuslive }}</ref>
By 28 July 2016 Missile Defense Agency planning and agreements<ref name"MDA Intl Coop">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.mda.mil/system/international_cooperation.html|titleMDA International cooperation|access-date11 October 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170901154454/https://www.mda.mil/system/international_cooperation.html|archive-date1 September 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref> had clarified enough to give more details about the Aegis Ashore sites in Romania (2014) and Poland (2018).<ref nameaegisAshore>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.mda.mil/global/documents/pdf/aegis_ashore.pdf|title(28 July 2016) Aegis Ashore|access-date11 October 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171011130348/https://www.mda.mil/global/documents/pdf/aegis_ashore.pdf|archive-date11 October 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Current tactical systems{{anchor|Countries with ABM capability|reasonOld section name}}People's Republic of China{{Unreliable sources section|dateMarch 2022}}
Historical Project 640
Project 640 had been the PRC's indigenous effort to develop ABM capability.<ref name"sinodefence.com">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sinodefence.com/special/airdefence/project640.asp |titleProject 640: China's National Missile Defence in the '70s |publisherSinoDefence.com |access-date11 May 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111213232047/http://www.sinodefence.com/special/airdefence/project640.asp |archive-date13 December 2011}}</ref> The Academy of Anti-Ballistic Missile & Anti-Satellite was established from 1969 for the purpose of developing Project 640.<ref name"sinodefence.com" /> The project was to involve at least three elements, including the necessary sensors and guidance/command system, the Fan Ji (FJ) missile interceptor, and the XianFeng missile-intercepting cannon.<ref name"sinodefence.com" /> The FJ-1 had completed two successful flight tests during 1979, while the low-altitude interceptor FJ-2 completed some successful flight tests using scaled prototypes.<ref name"sinodefence.com" /> A high altitude FJ-3 interceptor was also proposed. Despite the development of missiles, the programme was slowed down due to financial and political reasons. It was finally closed down during 1980 under a new leadership of Deng Xiaoping as it was seemingly deemed unnecessary after the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty between the Soviet Union and the United States and the closure of the US Safeguard ABM system.<ref name"sinodefence.com" />
Operational Chinese systems
In March 2006, China tested an interceptor system comparable to the U.S. Patriot missiles.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://english.donga.com/srv/service.php3?bicode060000&biid2006032829898 |titledonga.com[English donga&#93; |publisherEnglish.donga.com |date28 March 2006 |access-date11 May 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120620031722/http://english.donga.com/srv/service.php3?bicode060000&biid2006032829898 |archive-date20 June 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.missilethreat.com/archives/id.537/detail.asp |titleChinese Version of Patriot Interceptor Said Undergoing Tests |publisherMissileThreat |date29 March 2006 |access-date11 May 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120720065356/http://www.missilethreat.com/archives/id.537/detail.asp |archive-date20 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20100112_1311.php |titlePentagon Received No Warning of Chinese Missile Defense Test |publisherGlobalsecuritynewswire.org |access-date11 May 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111213234815/http://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20100112_1311.php |archive-date13 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
China has acquired and is license-producing the S-300PMU-2/S-300PMU-1 series of terminal ABM-capable SAMs. The HQ-9 SAM system<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sinodefence.com/army/surfacetoairmissile/hongqi9.asp |titleHongQi 9 (HQ-9) Surface-to-Air Missile System |publisherSinoDefence.com |date3 October 2009 |access-date11 May 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130904130239/http://www.sinodefence.com/army/surfacetoairmissile/hongqi9.asp |archive-date4 September 2013 }}</ref> and HQ-15<ref>{{cite web |titleHongqi-15 (HQ-15) |urlhttp://www.missilethreat.com/missiledefensesystems/id.29/system_detail.asp |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120505035238/http://www.missilethreat.com/missiledefensesystems/id.29/system_detail.asp |archive-date5 May 2012 |access-date11 May 2012 |publisher=MissileThreat}}</ref> may possess terminal ABM capabilities. PRC Navy's operating modern air-defense destroyers known as the Type 052C Destroyer and Type 051C Destroyer are armed with naval HQ-9 missiles.
The HQ-19, roughly analogous to the THAAD, was first tested in 2003, and subsequently a few more times, including in November 2015.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/11/11/did-china-just-test-a-new-satellite-killer|titleDid China Just Test a New Satellite-Killer?|firstDavid|lastAxe|date11 November 2015|websiteThe Daily Beast|access-date21 July 2017}}</ref> The HQ-29, a counterpart to the MIM-104F PAC-3, was first tested in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/china/hq-29.htm|titleHQ-29 Anti-Ballistic Missile Interceptor|firstJohn|lastPike|websitewww.globalsecurity.org|access-date21 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170806195843/http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/china/hq-29.htm|archive-date6 August 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref>
China carried out a land-based anti-ballistic missile test on 11 January 2010. The test was exoatmospheric and the intercept performed in midcourse phase by a kinetic kill vehicle.<ref name"wikileaks">{{cite news | urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/wikileaks-files/china-wikileaks/8299323/DEMARCHE-FOLLOWING-CHINAS-JANUARY-2010-INTERCEPT-FLIGHT-TEST.html | locationLondon | workThe Daily Telegraph | titleDemarche Following China's January 2010 Intercept Flight-Test | date2 February 2011 | access-date4 April 2018 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180203065924/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/wikileaks-files/china-wikileaks/8299323/DEMARCHE-FOLLOWING-CHINAS-JANUARY-2010-INTERCEPT-FLIGHT-TEST.html | archive-date3 February 2018 | url-statuslive }}</ref> The interceptor missile was a SC-19.<ref name"wikileaks" /><ref name"anti-BM">{{cite web|urlhttp://mil.news.sina.com.cn/2010-01-12/0247580308.html |script-titlezh:我国试验陆基反导 此前仅美国进行过相关试验 |publisherSINA News |date12 January 2010 <!-- 02:47 --> |access-date11 January 2010| languagezh| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100114072145/http://mil.news.sina.com.cn/2010-01-12/0247580308.html| archive-date 14 January 2010 | url-statuslive}}</ref> The sources suggest the system was not operationally deployed as of 2010.<ref name"wikileaks" /><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20100114_5918.php |titleNTI |publisherGlobal Security Newswire |access-date11 May 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100119032640/http://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20100114_5918.php |archive-date19 January 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>
On 27 January 2013, China conducted another anti-ballistic missile test. According to the Chinese Defense Ministry, the missile launch was defensive in character and was not aimed against any countries. On 4 February 2021, China reportedly conducted a mid-course intercept anti-ballistic missile test.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/china-conducts-another-mid-course-anti-ballistic-missile-test |titleChina conducts another mid-course anti-ballistic missile test |websiteJanes |date8 February 2021 |firstAndrew |lastTate}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/39093/china-claims-it-has-conducted-a-new-midcourse-intercept-anti-ballistic-missile-test |titleChina Claims It Has Conducted A New Midcourse Intercept Anti-Ballistic Missile Test |websiteThe Drive |date4 February 2021 |firstJoseph |lastTrevithick |access-date13 May 2021 |archive-date13 May 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210513164726/https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/39093/china-claims-it-has-conducted-a-new-midcourse-intercept-anti-ballistic-missile-test |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Europe
Aster
s (pictured), and French Navy and Italian Navy {{sclass2|Horizon|frigate|5}} and FREMM frigates operate Aster 30 missiles]]
{{Main|Aster (missile family)}}
The Aster is a family of missiles jointly developed by France and Italy. The Aster 30 variants are capable of ballistic missile defense. An export customer, the United Kingdom also operates the Aster 30 Block 0.
On 18 October 2010, France announced a successful tactical ABM test of the Aster 30 missile<ref name"ATBM">{{cite web|urlhttp://defense-update.com/wp/20101126_samp_t.html |titleSAMP/T Successful on First European Missile Defense Intercept Test |date26 November 2010 |publisherDefense Update |access-date26 November 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101129040354/http://defense-update.com/wp/20101126_samp_t.html |archive-date29 November 2010}}</ref> and on 1 December 2011 a successful interception of a Black Sparrow ballistic target missile.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://ead-minerve.fr/WordPress3/?p683 |titlePremier tir anti-balistique &#124; Blog de la DE |publisherEad-minerve.fr |access-date11 May 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120426071256/http://ead-minerve.fr/WordPress3/?p683 |archive-date26 April 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.marianne2.fr/blogsecretdefense/m/Une-premiere-en-France-un-missile-intercepte-par-un-antimissile-Aster_a442.html?com |titleUne première en France : un missile intercepté par un antimissile Aster |languagefr |publisherMarianne2.fr |access-date11 May 2012 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120905155335/http://www.marianne2.fr/blogsecretdefense/m/Une-premiere-en-France-un-missile-intercepte-par-un-antimissile-Aster_a442.html?com |archive-date5 September 2012}}</ref> The {{sclass2|Horizon|frigate|1}}s in French and Italian service, the Royal Navy's Type 45 destroyers, and the French and Italian FREMM-class frigates are all armed with PAAMS (or variants of it) integrating Aster 15 and Aster 30 missiles. France and Italy are developing a new variant, the Aster 30 Block II, which can destroy ballistic missiles up to a maximum range of {{cvt|3000|km}}. It will incorporate a kill vehicle warhead.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/eurosatory/2016/06/14/france-italy-to-cooperate-in-development-of-aster-missile/ |titleFrance, Italy To Cooperate in Development of Aster Missile |lastTran |firstPierre |workDefenseNews |date14 June 2016 |access-date18 June 2021 }}</ref>
HYDIS²
Involving France, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands, the HYDIS² (HYpersonic Defence Interceptor Study) was announced on June 20, 2023, and is a project led by MBDA. It was selected in March 2023 and is partially funded by the European Defense Fund (EDF). Its aim is to propose an architecture and technology maturation concept study for an endo-atmospheric interceptor to counter new, highly sophisticated emerging threats. HYDIS² is centered around the MBDA's Aquila hypersonic missile interceptor concept and will involve a consortium of 19 partners and over 30 subcontractors from 14 European countries.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://breakingdefense.com/2023/06/mbda-debuts-european-hypersonic-interceptor-concept-aquila/|titleMBDA debuts European hypersonic interceptor concept Aquila |date 20 June 2023}}</ref> France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands have already confirmed their support and commitment, by signing a letter of intent and agreeing to initial joint requirements.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://newsroom.mbda-systems.com/aquila-mbda-to-lead-consortium-for-european-interceptor-against-hypersonic-threats/|title Aquila: MBDA to lead consortium for European interceptor against hypersonic threats |date 20 June 2023}}</ref> The ultimate goal of the project is to develop a countermeasure that could be integrated into the French-led EU TWISTER (Timely Warning and Interception with Space-based TheatER surveillance) capability program. TWISTER, launched in 2019 with MBDA France acting as lead contractor as well, is intended to be an air defense system capable of early warning, tracking and intercepting high-performance air threats, including defense against ballistic missiles (BMD) and hypersonic vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/41333/pesco-projects-12-nov-2019.pdf|title Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO)'s projects - Overview|date 12 November 2019}}</ref><ref name"defensenews.com">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2022/09/05/spanish-german-companies-start-work-on-hypersonic-missile-interceptor/|titleSpanish, German companies start work on hypersonic missile interceptor|date 5 September 2022}}</ref> The program involves France, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Finland and Germany.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.pesco.europa.eu/project/timely-warning-and-interception-with-space-based-theater-surveillance-twister/|title Timely Warning and Interception With Space-Based Theater Surveillance (TWISTER)|date 12 November 2019}}</ref>
EU HYDEF
Competing against HYDIS², the EU HYDEF (European Hypersonic Defence Interceptor) also covers the concept phase to develop an endo-atmospheric interceptor and is related to TWISTER. Selected in July 2022, it is also partially funded by the EDF. It is coordinated by Spain's SENER Aeroespacial Sociedad Anonima, while Germany's Diehl Defence is serving as the overall technical lead. They are heading a consortium of partners and subcontractors from various EU countries.<ref name"defensenews.com"/>India
{{anchor|India}}
{{Main|Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme}}
In November 2006, India successfully conducted the PADE (Prithvi Air Defence Exercise) in which an anti-ballistic missile, called the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD), an exo-atmospheric (outside the atmosphere) interceptor system, intercepted a Prithvi-II ballistic missile. The PAD missile has the secondary stage of the Prithvi missile and can reach altitude of {{convert|80|km|0|abbron}}. During the test, the target missile was intercepted at a {{convert|50|km|0|abbron}} altitude.<ref>[http://mod.nic.in/samachar/dec15-06/h1.htm Prithvi Mission Milestone in Missile Defence] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071208161324/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/dec15-06/h1.htm |date8 December 2007 }}.</ref> On 6 December 2007, the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missile system was tested successfully.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid33815|titleIndia successfully conducts interceptor supersonic missile test|publisherPib.nic.in|access-date11 May 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015200451/http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid33815|archive-date15 October 2015|url-statuslive}}</ref> This missile is an endo-atmospheric interceptor with an altitude of {{convert|30|km|0|abbron}}. First reported in 2009, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is developing a new Prithvi interceptor missile code-named PDV. The PDV is designed to take out the target missile at altitudes above {{convert|150|km|abbron}}.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hindu.com/2009/10/17/stories/2009101755791100.htm |titleDRDO to launch series of missiles |access-date6 December 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121108160559/http://www.hindu.com/2009/10/17/stories/2009101755791100.htm |archive-date8 November 2012 |workThe Hindu |date2009-10-17 |url-statusdead }}</ref> The first PDV was successfully test fired on 27 April 2014.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://news.outlookindia.com/items.aspx?artid838755 |titleIndia Successfully Test-Fires New Interceptor Missile |publisherNews.outlookindia.com |access-date2014-04-30 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140428163936/http://news.outlookindia.com/items.aspx?artid838755 |archive-date28 April 2014 }}</ref> On 15 May 2016, India successfully launched AAD renamed Ashwin from Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://thediplomat.com/2016/05/india-successfully-tests-supersonic-interceptor-missile/|titleIndia Successfully Tests Supersonic Interceptor Missile|lastFranz-Stefan|firstGady|access-date21 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170814205906/https://thediplomat.com/2016/05/india-successfully-tests-supersonic-interceptor-missile/|archive-date14 August 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref>
As of 8 January 2020, the BMD programme has been completed and the Indian Air Force and the DRDO are awaiting government's final approval before the system is deployed to protect New Delhi and then Mumbai. After these two cities, it will be deployed in other major cities and regions.<ref name":0">{{Cite web|urlhttps://theprint.in/defence/indias-ballistic-missile-shield-ready-iaf-drdo-to-seek-govt-nod-to-protect-delhi/345853/|titleIndia's ballistic missile shield ready, IAF & DRDO to seek govt nod to protect Delhi|lastPhilip|firstSnehesh Alex|date2020-01-08|websiteThePrint|languageen-US|access-date2020-02-11}}</ref> PAD and PDV are designed for mid-course interception, while AAD is for terminal phase interception.<ref>{{Cite web |lastGady |firstFranz-Stefan |date8 January 2020 |titleReport: India's Homemade Anti-Ballistic Missile Shield Ready |urlhttps://thediplomat.com/2020/01/report-indias-homemade-anti-ballistic-missile-shield-ready/ |access-date2022-11-04 |websitethediplomat.com |languageen-US}}</ref> India had previously planned to acquire NASAMS-II<ref>{{Cite news|lastLakshman|firstSriram|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/international/us-approves-sale-of-integrated-air-defence-weapon-system-to-india/article30787461.ece|titleU.S. State dept. nod for sale of air defence system to India|date2020-02-11|workThe Hindu|access-date2020-02-11|languageen-IN|issn0971-751X}}</ref> but the Indian Air Force instead is now seeking a domestic alternative (potentially the land-based VL-SRSAM).<ref>{{Cite web |date2020-02-16 |titleIndia concerned over 'very high price' of American missile shield for Delhi |urlhttps://www.livemint.com/news/india/india-concerned-over-very-high-price-of-american-missile-shield-for-delhi-11581863130642.html |access-date2022-11-03 |websitemint |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last|first |date20 July 2022 |titleNot Keen On NASAMS-II, IAF Wants Indian Missile Defence |urlhttps://www.livefistdefence.com/not-keen-on-nasams-ii-iaf-wants-indian-missile-defence/ |access-date2022-11-03 |websiteLivefist Defence |languageen-US}}</ref>
Iran
anti-ballistic missile interceptor.]]
Iran used Arman and S-300 missile systems for ballistic missile defense.<ref name"Iran unveils new air defense weaponry as regional tensions ramp up, IRNA reports">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iran-unveils-new-air-defense-weaponry-regional-tensions-ramp-up-irna-2024-02-17/|titleIran unveils new air defense weaponry as regional tensions ramp up, IRNA reports|workReuters|date17 February 2024 |access-date16 November 2024}}</ref><ref name"Russia Risks Reputation Of Its Weapons Systems With Iran Air Defense Delivery">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2024/08/07/russia-risks-reputation-of-its-weapons-systems-with-iran-air-defense-delivery/|titleRussia Risks Reputation Of Its Weapons Systems With Iran Air Defense Delivery|access-date16 November 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240924165401/https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2024/08/07/russia-risks-reputation-of-its-weapons-systems-with-iran-air-defense-delivery/|archive-date24 September 2024|url-statuslive}}</ref> Israel Arrow 2
{{Main|Arrow (Israeli missile)}}
The Arrow project was begun after the U.S. and Israel agreed to co-fund it on 6 May 1986.<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.policyalmanac.org/world/archive/crs_israeli-us_relations.shtml |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20021104204721/http://www.policyalmanac.org/world/archive/crs_israeli-us_relations.shtml |url-status dead |archive-date 4 November 2002 |title Israeli-United States Relations |publisher Policy almanac |access-date = 11 May 2012 }}</ref>
The Arrow ABM system was designed and constructed in Israel with financial support by the United States by a multibillion-dollar development program called "Minhelet Homa" (Wall Administration) with the participation of companies like Israel Military Industries, Tadiran and Israel Aerospace Industries.
During 1998 the Israeli military conducted a successful test of their Arrow missile. Designed to intercept incoming missiles travelling at up to 2-mile/s (3&nbsp;km/s), the Arrow is expected to perform much better than the Patriot did in the Gulf War. On 29 July 2004 Israel and the United States carried out a joint experiment in the US, in which the Arrow was launched against a real Scud missile. The experiment was a success, as the Arrow destroyed the Scud with a direct hit. During December 2005 the system was deployed successfully in a test against a replicated Shahab-3 missile. This feat was repeated on 11 February 2007.<ref>{{cite news | url http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6352659.stm | publisher BBC | work News | title Israeli missile test 'successful' | date 11 February 2007 | access-date 25 April 2010 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071216001604/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6352659.stm | archive-date 16 December 2007 | url-status live }}</ref> Arrow 3
{{main|Arrow 3}}
in testing.]]
The Arrow 3 system is capable of exo-atmosphere interception of ballistic missiles, including of ICBMs.<ref name=is/> It also acts as an anti-satellite weapon.
Lieutenant General Patrick J. O'Reilly, Director of the US Missile Defense Agency, said: "The design of Arrow 3 promises to be an extremely capable system, more advanced than what we have ever attempted in the U.S. with our programs."
On 10 December 2015 Arrow 3 scored its first intercept in a complex test designed to validate how the system can detect, identify, track and then discriminate real from decoy targets delivered into space by an improved Silver Sparrow target missile.<ref namegoodtest>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/air-space/strike/2015/12/10/us-israel-arrow-3-intercepts-target-space/77087084/ |workDefense News |titleUS-Israel Arrow-3 intercepts target in space |firstBarbara |lastOpall-Rome |date2015-12-10 |access-date2015-12-10}}</ref> According to officials, the milestone test paves the way toward low-rate initial production of the Arrow 3.<ref namegoodtest/>David’s sling
{{Main|David's Sling}}
, designed to intercept tactical ballistic missiles]]
David's Sling (Hebrew: קלע דוד), also sometimes called Magic Wand (Hebrew: שרביט קסמים), is an Israel Defense Forces military system being jointly developed by the Israeli defense contractor Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and the American defense contractor Raytheon, designed to intercept tactical ballistic missiles, as well as medium- to long-range rockets and slower-flying cruise missiles, such as those possessed by Hezbollah, fired at ranges from 40&nbsp;km to 300&nbsp;km. It is designed with the aim of intercepting the newest generation of tactical ballistic missiles, such as Iskander.
Japan
{{ship|JDS|Kongō|DDG-173|6}} firing a Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile.]]
{{Main|RIM-161 Standard Missile 3}}
Since 1998, when North Korea launched a Taepodong-1 missile over northern Japan, the Japanese have been jointly developing a new surface-to-air interceptor known as the Patriot Advanced Capability 3 (PAC-3) with the US. Tests have been successful, and there are 11 locations that are planned for the PAC-3 to be installed. The approximate locations are near major air bases, like Kadena Air Base, and ammunition storage centers of the Japanese military. The exact location are not known to the public.<ref name":5">{{Cite web |titleU.S. and Allied Ballistic Missile Defenses in the Asia-Pacific Region {{!}} Arms Control Association |urlhttps://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/us-allied-ballistic-missile-defenses-asia-pacific-region#Japan |access-date2022-04-26 |websitewww.armscontrol.org}}</ref> A military spokesman<ref>{{cite news | url http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7188698.stm | work BBC News | title Japan plans Tokyo missile shield | date 15 January 2008 | access-date 17 January 2008 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080118152525/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7188698.stm | archive-date 18 January 2008 | url-status = live }}</ref> said that tests had been done on two sites, one of them a business park in central Tokyo, and Ichigaya – a site not far from the Imperial Palace.
Along with the PAC-3, Japan has installed a US-developed ship-based anti-ballistic missile system, which was tested successfully on 18 December 2007. Japan has 4 destroyers of this type capable of carrying RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 and equipped with the Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System. Japan is currently modifying another 4 destroyers so that they can take part of their defense force against ballistic missiles, bringing the total number to 8 ships.<ref name":5" />Soviet Union/Russian Federation
vehicles. From left to right: 64N6E2 detection radar, 54K6E2 command post and 5P85 TEL.]]
The Moscow ABM defense system was designed with the aim of being able to intercept the ICBM warheads aimed at Moscow and other important industrial regions, and is based on:
* A-35 Aldan
** ABM-1 Galosh / 5V61<ref>{{cite web |authorJohn Pike |urlhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/abm1.htm |titleGlobalSystems: ABM-1 |publisherGlobalsecurity.org |access-date11 May 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120516040109/http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/abm1.htm |archive-date16 May 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.wonderland.org.nz/rusabgm.htm#ABM-1|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080209161638/http://www.wonderland.org.nz/rusabgm.htm#ABM-1|url-statusdead|titleRussian Anti-Ballistic Guided Missile Systems<!-- Bot generated title -->|archivedate9 February 2008}}</ref> (decommissioned)<ref name"Pike 2018">{{cite web|authorJohn Pike|urlhttps://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/galosh.htm|titleGalosh - Moscow System|date20 April 2018|publisherGlobalsecurity.org|access-date8 October 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181009013325/https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/galosh.htm|archive-date9 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* A-35M
** ABM-1B<ref>{{cite web|authorSean O'Connor|urlhttp://ausairpower.net/APA-Rus-ABM-Systems.html|titleRussian/Soviet Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems|date27 January 2014|pages1|access-date8 October 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151121053912/http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Rus-ABM-Systems.html|archive-date21 November 2015|url-statuslive}}</ref> (decommissioned)<ref name"Pike 2018"/>
* A-135 Amur
** ABM-3 Gazelle / 53T6<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.wonderland.org.nz/rusabgm.htm#ABM-3|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080209161638/http://www.wonderland.org.nz/rusabgm.htm|url-statusdead|titleWonderland.org: ABM-3|archivedate=9 February 2008}}</ref>
** ABM-4 Gorgon / 51T6<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wonderland.org.nz/rusabgm.htm|titleRussian Anti-Ballistic Guided Missile Systems|date20 December 2008|access-date21 July 2017|url-statusbot: unknown|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081220232305/http://www.wonderland.org.nz/rusabgm.htm|archive-date20 December 2008}}</ref> (decommissioned)<ref>{{cite web|authorJohn Pike|urlhttps://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/gorgon.htm|title51T6 Gorgon|date20 April 2018|publisherGlobalsecurity.org|access-date8 October 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181009013309/https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/gorgon.htm|archive-date9 October 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* A–235 Nudol (In development)
* S-300P (SA-10)
* S-300V/V4 (SA-12)
* S-300PMU-1/2 (SA-20)
* S-400 (SA-21)
* S-300VM (SA-23)
* S-500 Prometey (serial production began in 2021)
United States
{{See also|Safeguard Program|Ground-Based Interceptor#Next generation interceptor (NGI)|label2=Next generation interceptor}}
anti-ballistic missile.]]
In several tests, the U.S. military have demonstrated the feasibility of destroying long and short range ballistic missiles.<ref name usaSmdc2019 >{{cite web| url https://www.army.mil/article/225470/leader_gives_space_and_missile_defense_update_at_smd_symposium| title Jason Cutshaw (August 8, 2019) Leader gives space and missile defense update at SMD Symposium}}</ref> Combat effectiveness of newer systems against 1950s tactical ballistic missiles seems very high, as the MIM-104 Patriot (PAC-1 and PAC-2) had a 100% success rate in Operation Iraqi Freedom.<ref>{{cite web |authorJohn Pike |urlhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/space/ops/oif-patriot.htm |titleOperation Iraqi Freedom – Patriot |publisherGlobalSecurity.org |access-date11 May 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120220031217/http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/ops/oif-patriot.htm |archive-date20 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The U.S. Navy Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System (Aegis BMD) uses RIM-161 Standard Missile 3, which hit a target going faster than ICBM warheads.<ref name antiSat >{{cite news|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7254540.stm|titleBBC NEWS – World – Americas – US missile hits 'toxic satellite'|websitenews.bbc.co.uk|date21 February 2008|access-date21 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090413122801/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7254540.stm|archive-date13 April 2009|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 16 November 2020 an SM-3 Block IIA interceptor successfully destroyed an ICBM in mid-course, under Link-16 Command and Control, Battle Management, and Communications (C2BMC).<ref name ftm,44 >[https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2417334/us-successfully-conducts-sm-3-block-iia-intercept-test-against-an-intercontinen/ MDA Newsroom (17 Nov 2020) U.S. Successfully Conducts SM-3 Block IIA Intercept Test Against an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile Target] SM-3 Block IIA Intercept Test animation https://www.youtube.com/watch?vlUDQrLcY5oI {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210425000520/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vlUDQrLcY5oI |date25 April 2021 }}</ref>
The U.S. Army Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system began production in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|last1Panda|first1Ankit|titleWhat Is THAAD, What Does It Do, and Why Is China Mad About It?|urlhttps://thediplomat.com/2016/02/what-is-thaad-what-does-it-do-and-why-is-china-mad-about-it/|websiteThe Diplomat|access-date3 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170404130539/https://thediplomat.com/2016/02/what-is-thaad-what-does-it-do-and-why-is-china-mad-about-it/|archive-date4 April 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref> Its stated range as a short to intermediate ballistic missile interceptor means that it is not designed to hit midcourse ICBMs, which can reach terminal phase speeds of mach 8 or greater. The THAAD interceptor has a reported maximum speed of mach 8, and THAAD has repeatedly proven it can intercept descending exoatmospheric missiles in a ballistic trajectory.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMcCarthy |firstNiall |titleCan The U.S. Intercept A North Korean Missile? [Infographic] |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/niallmccarthy/2017/09/05/can-the-u-s-intercept-a-north-korean-missile-infographic/ |access-date2023-05-17 |websiteForbes |languageen}}</ref>
The U.S. Army Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) system was developed by the Missile Defense Agency. It combines ground-based AN/FPS-132 Upgraded Early Warning Radar installations and mobile AN/TPY-2 X-band radars with 44 exoatmospheric interceptors stationed in underground silos around California and Alaska, to protect against low-count ICBM attacks from rogue states. Each Ground-Based Interceptor (GBI) rocket carries an Exoatmospheric Kill Vehicle (EKV) kinetic kill interceptor, with 97% probability of intercept when four interceptors are launched at the target.
Since 2004, the United States Army plans to replace Raytheon's Patriot missile (SAM) engagement control station (ECS), along with seven other forms of ABM defense command systems, with Integrated Air and Missile Defense Battle Command System (IBCS) designed to shoot down short, medium, and intermediate range ballistic missiles in their terminal phase by intercepting with a hit-to-kill approach.<ref name ibcs2004 >{{cite web|titleArmy Seeks To Field One-Size-Fits-All Battle Command System|urlhttp://spacenews.com/army-seeks-field-one-size-fits-all-battle-command-system/|publisherSpace News|date29 June 2004}}</ref><ref name history >{{cite web|last1Kiley|first1 Gregory T.|titleCongress and the Administration Must Reassess Failing Missile Defense Programs|url http://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2017/05/17/failing_missile_defense_programs_111398.html|publisherRealClearDefense|date 17 May 2017|access-date22 June 2017|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170521151129/http://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2017/05/17/failing_missile_defense_programs_111398.html|archive-date21 May 2017|url-status live}}</ref><ref name 14e >{{cite web| url https://www.army.mil/article/225475/mos_14e_linchpin_of_patriot_missile_system| title Fort Sill Tribune staff (August 8, 2019) MOS 14E: Linchpin of Patriot missile system}}</ref><ref name ibcsPatriotThaad >{{cite web| url https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/ausa/2018/10/10/so-patriot-and-thaad-will-talk-what-does-that-really-mean/| title Jen Judson (11 Oct 2018) So Patriot and THAAD will talk. What does that really mean?| date = 10 October 2018}}</ref>
Northrop Grumman was selected as the prime contractor in 2010; the Army spent $2.7 billion on the program between 2009 and 2020.<ref namepac2Pac3Intercepts >{{cite web| url https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/smd/2020/08/20/armys-future-missile-defense-battle-command-system-caps-off-major-test-with-defeat-of-cruise-ballistic-missile-threats/| title Jen Judson (20 Aug 2020) US Army's future missile defense command system nearly simultaneously defeats cruise, ballistic missile threats| date 20 August 2020}}</ref> IBCS engagement stations will support identification and tracking of targets using sensor fusion from disparate data streams, and selection of appropriate kill vehicles from available launcher systems.<ref name ibcsNorthrup >[http://www.northropgrumman.com/Capabilities/IBCS/Pages/default.aspx Integrated Air and Missile Defense Battle Command System (IBCS)]{{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171006163751/http://www.northropgrumman.com/Capabilities/IBCS/Pages/default.aspx |date6 October 2017 }} vendor summary</ref><ref nameibcsAward >{{cite web| url https://www.defensenews.com/land/2018/10/02/army-continues-push-for-integrated-sensors-and-shooters-with-latest-ibcs-contract/| title Daniel Cebul (12 October 2018) Army continues push for integrated sensors and shooters with latest IBCS contract| date 2 October 2018}}</ref><ref name "ibcs, thaad, lrpf" >[https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/ausa/2018/10/08/army-looks-to-a-future-of-integrated-fire/ Daniel Cebul (9 October 2018) Army looks to a future of integrated fire ] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221126000941/https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/ausa/2018/10/08/army-looks-to-a-future-of-integrated-fire/ |date26 November 2022 }} by integrating THAAD IBCS LRPF</ref><ref>Andrew Eversden [https://breakingdefense.com/2021/12/army-awards-northrop-grumman-1-4-billion-contract-for-ibcs/ (23 Dec 2021) Army awards Northrop Grumman $1.4 billion contract for IBCS] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211224073613/https://breakingdefense.com/2021/12/army-awards-northrop-grumman-1-4-billion-contract-for-ibcs/ |date24 December 2021 }}</ref><ref namefallsBehind >{{cite web| url https://www.defensenews.com/land/2017/02/06/army-falls-behind-with-new-anti-missile-command-system/| title Jen Judson (February 6, 2017) Army falls behind with new anti-missile command system| date 6 February 2017}}</ref>
In February 2022 THAAD radar and TFCC (THAAD Fire Control & Communication) demonstrated their interoperability with Patriot PAC-3 MSE missile launchers, engaging targets using both THAAD and Patriot interceptors.<ref nameibcsProofOfConcept >Jen Judson [https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2022/03/10/missile-defense-agency-fires-patriot-missile-from-thaad-system/ (10 Mar 2022) Missile Defense Agency fires Patriot missile from THAAD system] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221126000939/https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2022/03/10/missile-defense-agency-fires-patriot-missile-from-thaad-system/ |date26 November 2022 }}</ref>Republic of ChinaProcurement of MIM-104 Patriot and indigenous Tien-Kung anti-ballistic missile systems. With the tense situations with China, Taiwan developed the Sky Bow (or Tien-Kung), this surface-to-air missile can intercept and destroy enemy aircraft and ballistic missiles.<ref>{{cite web |lastHuang |firstPo-Chang |date9 May 2017 |titleWho to Protect? Taiwan's SAM Systems and the Distribution of Protection |urlhttps://sites.tufts.edu/gis/files/2017/06/Huang_Po-Chang_DHP_207_Spring_2017.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sites.tufts.edu/gis/files/2017/06/Huang_Po-Chang_DHP_207_Spring_2017.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date7 April 2022 |websiteTUFTS University}}</ref> These system was created in partnership with Raytheon Technologies, using Lockheed Martin ADAR-HP as inspiration to create the Chang Bai S-band radar system. The missiles have a range of 200&nbsp;km and was designed to take on fast moving vehicles with low radar cross-section. The latest variant of this system is the Sky Bow III (TK-3). South Korea Since North Korea started developing its nuclear weapon program, South Korea has been under imminent danger. South Korea started its BDM program by acquiring 8 batteries of the MIM-104 Patriot (PAC-2) missiles from the United States. The PAC-2 was developed to destroy incoming aircraft and is now unreliable in defending a ballistic missile attack from North Korea, as they have developed further their nuclear program. As of 2018, South Korea decided to improve its defense system by upgrading to the PAC-3, which has a hit-to-kill capability against incoming missiles.<ref name":6">{{Cite journal |lastPark |firstHwee Rhak |date2018 |titleThe Ballistic Missile Defense Construction Strategies of South Korea and Japan: Self-reliance versus Cooperation with the US |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/26909945 |journalJournal of International and Area Studies |volume25 |issue2 |pages87–106 |jstor26909945 |issn1226-8550}}</ref> The main reason that the South Korean anti-ballistic defense system is not very developed is because they have tried to developed their own, without help from other countries, since the beginning of the 1990s.<ref name":6" /> The South Korean Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) has confirmed that it has test launched the L-SAM system in February 2022. This particular missile has been in development since 2019 and is South Korea's next anti-ballistic missile generation. It is expected to have a range of 150&nbsp;km and be able to intercept targets between 40&nbsp;km and 100&nbsp;km of altitude, and it can also be used as an aircraft interceptor. The L-SAM system is expected to be complete and ready to use in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSouth Korea tests indigenous long-range surface-to-air missile |urlhttps://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/south-korea-tests-indigenous-long-range-surface-to-air-missile |access-date2022-04-26 |websiteJanes.com |languageen}}</ref>History 1940s and 1950s
missile]]
Nike Zeus missile, the first ABM system to enter widespread testing.]]
The idea of destroying rockets before they can hit their target dates from the first use of modern missiles in warfare, the German V-1 and V-2 program of World War II.
British fighters destroyed some V-1 "buzz bombs" in flight, although concentrated barrages of heavy anti-aircraft artillery had greater success. Under the lend-lease program, 200 US 90 mm AA guns with SCR-584 radars and Western Electric/Bell Labs computers were sent to the UK. These demonstrated a 95% success rate against V-1s that flew into their range.<ref namecav>Gregory Canavan, [http://missilethreat.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/20030000-Heritage-canavan.pdf "Missile Defense for the 21st Century"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713192027/http://missilethreat.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/20030000-Heritage-canavan.pdf |date=13 July 2015 }}, Heritage Foundation, 2003, p.3</ref>
The V-2, the first true ballistic missile, has no known record of being destroyed in the air. SCR-584's could be used to plot the trajectories of the missiles and provide some warning, but were more useful in backtracking their ballistic trajectory and determining the rough launch locations. The Allies launched Operation Crossbow to find and destroy V-2s before launch, but these operations were largely ineffective. In one instance a Spitfire happened upon a V-2 rising through the trees, and fired on it with no effect.<ref name=cav/> This led to allied efforts to capture launching sites in Belgium and the Netherlands.
A wartime study by Bell Labs into the task of shooting down ballistic missiles in flight concluded it was not possible. In order to intercept a missile, one needs to be able to steer the attack onto the missile before it hits. A V-2's speed would require guns of effectively instantaneous reaction time,{{dubious|dateSeptember 2019}} or some sort of weapon with ranges on the order of dozens of miles, neither of which appeared possible. This was, however, just before the emergence of high-speed computing systems. By the mid-1950s, things had changed considerably, and many forces worldwide were considering ABM systems.<ref name"Ramsey">{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaUk5DAAAQBAJ&qBy+the+mid-1950s,+things+had+changed+considerably,+and+many+forces+worldwide+were+considering+ABM+systems.&pgPT28|titleTools of War: History of Weapons in Modern Times|lastRamsey|firstSyed|date2016-05-12|publisherVij Books India Pvt Ltd|isbn9789386019837|language=en}}</ref>
The American armed forces began experimenting with anti-missile missiles soon after World War II, as the extent of German research into rocketry became clear. Project Wizard began in 1946, with the aim of creating a missile capable of intercepting the V-2.
But defences against Soviet long-range bombers took priority until 1957, when the Soviet Union demonstrated its advances in ICBM technology with the launch of Sputnik, the Earth's first artificial satellite. The US Army accelerated development of their LIM-49 Nike Zeus system in response. Zeus was criticized throughout its development program, especially from those within the US Air Force and nuclear weapons establishments who suggested it would be much simpler to build more nuclear warheads and guarantee mutually assured destruction. Zeus was eventually cancelled in 1963.
In 1958, the U.S. sought to explore whether airbursting nuclear weapons might be used to ward off ICBMs. It conducted several test explosions of low-yield nuclear weapons – 1.7kt boosted fission W25 warheads – launched from ships to very high altitudes over the southern Atlantic Ocean.<ref>Nuclear Weapon Archive.org. [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Argus.html Argus] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060911023819/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Argus.html |date11 September 2006 }}.</ref> Such an explosion releases a burst of X-rays in the Earth's atmosphere, causing secondary showers of charged particles over an area hundreds of miles across. These can become trapped in the Earth' magnetic field, creating an artificial radiation belt. It was believed that this might be strong enough to damage warheads traveling through the layer. This proved not to be the case, but Argus returned key data about a related effect, the nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP).
Canada
Other countries were also involved in early ABM research. A more advanced project was at CARDE in Canada, which researched the main problems of ABM systems. A key problem with any radar system is that the signal is in the form of a cone, which spreads with distance from the transmitter. For long-distance interceptions like ABM systems, the inherent inaccuracy of the radar makes an interception difficult. CARDE considered using a terminal guidance system to address the accuracy concerns, and developed several advanced infrared detectors for this role. They also studied a number of missile airframe designs, a new and much more powerful solid rocket fuel, and numerous systems for testing it all. After a series of drastic budget reductions during the late 1950s the research ended. One offshoot of the project was Gerald Bull's system for inexpensive high-speed testing, consisting of missile airframes shot from a sabot round, which would later be the basis of Project HARP. Another was the CRV7 and Black Brant rockets, which used the new solid rocket fuel.
Soviet Union
The Soviet military had requested funding for ABM research as early as 1953, but were only given the go-ahead to begin deployment of such a system on 17 August 1956. Their test system, known simply as System A, was based on the V-1000 missile, which was similar to the early US efforts. The first successful test interception was carried out on 24 November 1960, and the first with a live warhead on 4 March 1961. In this test, a dummy warhead was released by a R-12 ballistic missile launched from the Kapustin Yar,<ref namegobarev>{{cite journal |last1Gobarev |first1Victor |year2001 |titleThe early development of Russia's ballistic missile defense system |journalThe Journal of Slavic Military Studies |volume14 |issue2 |pages29–48|doi10.1080/13518040108430478|s2cid144681318 }} Viewed 26 May 2012.</ref> and intercepted by a V-1000 launched from Sary-Shagan. The dummy warhead was destroyed by the impact of 16,000 tungsten-carbide spherical impactors 140 seconds after launch, at an altitude of {{convert|25|km|ft|abbron}}.<ref name"Karpenko1999">{{Cite journal| first A| last Karpenko| year 1999| title ABM AND SPACE DEFENSE| journal Nevsky Bastion| volume 4| pages 2–47| url https://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/soviet/990600-bmd-rus.htm| access-date 18 October 2015| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165344/http://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/soviet/990600-bmd-rus.htm| archive-date 3 March 2016| url-status = live}}</ref>
The V-1000 missile system was nonetheless considered not reliable enough and abandoned in favour of nuclear-armed ABMs. Retired V-1000 was used to develop 1Ya2TA sounding rocket, capable of launching 520&nbsp;kg scientific payload to an altitude of 400&nbsp;km.<ref>{{Cite web |lastKrebs |firstGunter Dirk |title1Ya2TA |urlhttps://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/1ya2ta.htm |access-date2024-11-12 |websiteGunter's Space Page}}</ref> A much larger missile, the Fakel 5V61 (known in the west as Galosh), was developed to carry the larger warhead and carry it much further from the launch site. Further development continued, and the A-35 anti-ballistic missile system, designed to protect Moscow, became operational in 1971. A-35 was designed for exoatmospheric interceptions, and would have been highly susceptible to a well-arranged attack using multiple warheads and radar black-out techniques.
A-35 was upgraded during the 1980s to a two-layer system, the A-135. The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. The A-135 system is considered to be technologically equivalent to the United States Safeguard system of 1975.<ref>GlobalSecurity.org. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/abm3.htm -135 anti-ballistic missile system] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071015034259/http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/abm3.htm |date15 October 2007 }}.</ref>
American Nike-X and Sentinel
Nike Zeus failed to be a credible defense in an era of rapidly increasing ICBM counts due to its ability to attack only one target at a time. Additionally, significant concerns about its ability to successfully intercept warheads in the presence of high-altitude nuclear explosions, including its own, lead to the conclusion that the system would simply be too costly for the very low amount of protection it could provide.
By the time it was cancelled in 1963, potential upgrades had been explored for some time. Among these were radars capable of scanning much greater volumes of space and able to track many warheads and launch several missiles at once. These, however, did not address the problems identified with radar blackouts caused by high-altitude explosions. To address this need, a new missile with extreme performance was designed to attack incoming warheads at much lower altitudes, as low as 20&nbsp;km. The new project encompassing all of these upgrades was launched as Nike-X.
The main missile was LIM-49 Spartan—a Nike Zeus upgraded for longer range and a much larger 5 megaton warhead intended to destroy enemy's warheads with a burst of x-rays outside the atmosphere. A second shorter-range missile called Sprint with very high acceleration was added to handle warheads that evaded longer-ranged Spartan. Sprint was a very fast missile (some sources{{who|date=March 2015}} claimed it accelerated to 8,000&nbsp;mph (13&nbsp;000&nbsp;km/h) within 4 seconds of flight—an average acceleration of 90 g) and had a smaller W66 enhanced radiation warhead in the 1–3 kiloton range for in-atmosphere interceptions.
The experimental success of Nike X persuaded the Lyndon B. Johnson administration to propose a thin ABM defense, that could provide almost complete coverage of the United States. In a September 1967 speech, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara referred to it as "Sentinel". McNamara, a private ABM opponent because of cost and feasibility (see cost-exchange ratio), claimed that Sentinel would be directed not against the Soviet Union's missiles (since the USSR had more than enough missiles to overwhelm any American defense), but rather against the potential nuclear threat of the People's Republic of China.
In the meantime, a public debate over the merit of ABMs began. Difficulties that had already made an ABM system questionable for defending against an all-out attack. One problem was the Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS) that would give little warning to the defense. Another problem was high altitude EMP (whether from offensive or defensive nuclear warheads) which could degrade defensive radar systems.
When this proved infeasible for economic reasons, a much smaller deployment using the same systems was proposed, namely Safeguard (described later).
Defense against MIRVs
re-entry vehicles, all eight shot from only one missile. Each line is the path of a warhead which, were it live, would detonate with the explosive power of twenty-five Hiroshima-style weapons.]]
ABM systems were developed initially to counter single warheads launched from large intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The economics seemed simple enough; since rocket costs increase rapidly with size, the price of the ICBM launching a large warhead should always be greater than the much smaller interceptor missile needed to destroy it. In an arms race the defense would always win.<ref name"Ramsey" />{{rp|p18}}
In addition to the blast effect, the detonation of nuclear devices against attacking intercontinental ballistic missiles produces a neutron kill effect from the strong radiation emitted, and this neutralizes the warhead, or warheads, of the attacking missile.<ref>{{cite book |titleA Dictionary of Aviation |firstDavid W. |lastWragg |isbn9780850451634 |editionfirst |publisherOsprey |date1973 |page200 }}</ref> Most A.B.M. devices depend on neutron kill for their effectiveness.
In practice, the price of the interceptor missile was considerable, due to its sophistication. The system had to be guided all the way to an interception, which demanded guidance and control systems that worked within and outside the atmosphere. Due to their relatively short ranges, an ABM missile would be needed to counter an ICBM wherever it might be aimed. That implies that dozens of interceptors are needed for every ICBM since warhead's targets couldn't be known in advance. This led to intense debates about the "cost-exchange ratio" between interceptors and warheads.
Conditions changed dramatically in 1970 with the introduction of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) warheads. Suddenly, each launcher was throwing not one warhead, but several. These would spread out in space, ensuring that a single interceptor would be needed for each warhead. This simply added to the need to have several interceptors for each warhead in order to provide geographical coverage. Now it was clear that an ABM system would always be many times more expensive than the ICBMs they defended against.<ref name"Ramsey"/>Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972
{{main|Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty}}
Technical, economic and political problems described resulted in the ABM treaty of 1972, which restricted the deployment of strategic (not tactical) anti-ballistic missiles.
By the ABM treaty and a 1974 revision, each country was allowed to deploy a mere 100 ABMs to protect a single, small area. The Soviets retained their Moscow defences. The U.S. designated their ICBM sites near Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, where Safeguard was already under advanced development. The radar systems and anti-ballistic missiles were approximately 90 miles north/northwest of Grand Forks AFB, near Concrete, North Dakota. The missiles were deactivated in 1975. The main radar site (PARCS) is still used as an early warning ICBM radar, facing relative north. It is located at Cavalier Air Force Station, North Dakota.
Brief use of Safeguard in 1975/1976
The U.S. Safeguard system, which utilized the nuclear-tipped LIM-49A Spartan and Sprint missiles, in the short operational period of 1975/1976, was the second counter-ICBMs system in the world. Safeguard protected only the main fields of US ICBMs from attack, theoretically ensuring that an attack could be responded to with a US launch, enforcing the mutually assured destruction principle.
SDI experiments in the 1980s
{{main|Strategic Defense Initiative}}
The Reagan-era Strategic Defense Initiative (often referred to as "Star Wars"), along with research into various energy-beam weaponry, brought new interest in the area of ABM technologies.
SDI was an extremely ambitious program to provide a total shield against a massive Soviet ICBM attack. The initial concept envisioned large sophisticated orbiting laser battle stations, space-based relay mirrors, and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites. Later research indicated that some planned technologies such as X-ray lasers were not feasible with then-current technology. As research continued, SDI evolved through various concepts as designers struggled with the difficulty of such a large complex defense system. SDI remained a research program and was never deployed. Several post-SDI technologies are used by the present Missile Defense Agency (MDA).
Lasers originally developed for the SDI plan are in use for astronomical observations. Used to ionize gas in the upper atmosphere, they provide telescope operators with a target to calibrate their instruments.<ref>{{cite journal|titleMilitary Magic Boosts Astronomy : Declassified technology enhances celestial knowledge|journalAstronomy|dateJanuary 2001|volume29|issue1|page48|urlhttps://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid6&sidd2b37e4a-4a62-4a05-8cc7-7521f023995e%40sessionmgr101&bdataJnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#ANedsgcl.75029301&dbedsgbc|access-date26 January 2018}}{{Dead link|dateAugust 2018 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
Tactical ABMs deployed in 1990s
The Israeli Arrow missile system was tested initially during 1990, before the first Gulf War. The Arrow was supported by the United States throughout the 1990s.
The Patriot was the first deployed tactical ABM system, although it was not designed from the outset for that task and consequently had limitations. It was used during the 1991 Gulf War to attempt to intercept Iraqi Scud missiles. Post-war analyses show that the Patriot was much less effective than initially thought because of its radar and control system's inability to discriminate warheads from other objects when the Scud missiles broke up during reentry.
<!--[https://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/nmd/index.html FAS] also has a time line for ABM/NMB/TBMD starting in [https://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/milestone.htm Missile Defense Milestones]-->
Testing ABM technology continued during the 1990s with mixed success. After the Gulf War, improvements were made to several U.S. air defense systems. A new Patriot, PAC-3, was developed and tested—a complete redesign of the PAC-2 deployed during the war, including a totally new missile. The improved guidance, radar and missile performance improves the probability of kill over the earlier PAC-2. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, Patriot batteries engaged 100% of enemy TBMs within their engagement territory. Of these engagements, 8 of them were verified as kills by multiple independent sensors; the remaining was listed as a probable kill due to lack of independent verification. Patriot was involved in three friendly fire incidents: two incidents of Patriot shootings at coalition aircraft and one of U.S. aircraft shooting at a Patriot battery.<ref>{{cite web |publisherDefense Science Board Task Force |urlhttp://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/2005-01-Patriot_Report_Summary.pdf |titlePatriot system performance – report summary |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060226111836/http://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/2005-01-Patriot_Report_Summary.pdf |archive-date26 February 2006 |date=January 2005}}</ref>
A new version of the Hawk missile was tested during the early to mid-1990s and by the end of 1998 the majority of US Marine Corps Hawk systems were modified to support basic theater anti-ballistic missile capabilities.<ref>{{cite web |publisherFAS |urlhttps://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/hawk.htm |titleHawk |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015200451/http://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/hawk.htm |archive-date15 October 2015}}</ref> The MIM-23 Hawk missile is not operational in U.S. service since 2002, but is used by many other countries.
used by the U.S. Navy]]
Soon after the Gulf War, the Aegis Combat System was expanded to include ABM capabilities. The Standard missile system was also enhanced and tested for ballistic missile interception. During the late 1990s, SM-2 block IVA missiles were tested in a theater ballistic missile defense function.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/sm2.htm |titleNavy Area Defense (NAD) |publisherFAS |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070812145613/https://fas.org/spp/starwars/program/sm2.htm|archive-date12 August 2007}}</ref> Standard Missile 3 (SM-3) systems have also been tested for an ABM role. In 2008, an SM-3 missile launched from the {{sclass|Ticonderoga|cruiser|2}} {{USS|Lake Erie|CG-70|6}}, successfully intercepted a non-functioning satellite.<ref>{{cite press release|titleDoD Succeeds in Intercepting Non-Functioning Satellite|urlhttp://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid11704|date20 February 2008|numberNo. 0139-08|publisherU.S. Department of Defense|access-date20 February 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080226105236/http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid11704| archive-date 26 February 2008 | url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title Navy Succeeds in Intercepting Non-Functioning Satellite|urlhttp://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id35114|publisherU.S. Navy|date20 February 2008|numberNNS080220-19|access-date20 February 2008| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080225234718/http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id35114| archive-date25 February 2008 | url-status live}}</ref>
Brilliant Pebbles concept
Approved for acquisition by the Pentagon during 1991 but never realized, Brilliant Pebbles was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that was meant to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on improvements of computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites.
It promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk.
The name Brilliant Pebbles comes from the small size of the satellite interceptors and great computational power enabling more autonomous targeting. Rather than rely exclusively on ground-based control, the many small interceptors would cooperatively communicate among themselves and target a large swarm of ICBM warheads in space or in the late boost phase. Development was discontinued later in favor of a limited ground-based defense.
Transformation of SDI into MDA, development of NMD/GMD
While the Reagan era Strategic Defense Initiative was intended to shield against a massive Soviet attack, during the early 1990s, President George H. W. Bush called for a more limited version using rocket-launched interceptors based on the ground at a single site. Such system was developed since 1992, was expected to become operational in 2010<ref>{{cite web|titleGround-based Midcourse Defense (GMD)|urlhttp://www.mda.mil/system/gmd.html|publisherMDA|access-date8 February 2011|quote"A total of 30 interceptors are planned for deployment by the end of 2010. "|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101206200507/http://www.mda.mil/system/gmd.html|archive-date6 December 2010}}</ref> and capable of intercepting small number of incoming ICBMs. First called the National Missile Defense (NMD), since 2002 it was renamed Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD). It was planned to protect all 50 states from a rogue missile attack. The Alaska site provides more protection against North Korean missiles or accidental launches from Russia or China, but is likely less effective against missiles launched from the Middle East. The Alaska interceptors may be augmented later by the naval Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System or by ground-based missiles in other locations.
During 1998, Defense Secretary William Cohen proposed spending an additional $6.6 billion on intercontinental ballistic missile defense programs to build a system to protect against attacks from North Korea or accidental launches from Russia or China.<ref>PBS. The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. [https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/military/jan-june99/nmd_1-28a.html A Viable Defense?] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110127132413/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/military/jan-june99/nmd_1-28a.html |date27 January 2011 }}. 28 January 1999.</ref>
In terms of organization, during 1993 SDI was reorganized as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. In 2002, it was renamed to Missile Defense Agency (MDA).
21st century
On 13 June 2002, the United States withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and recommenced developing missile defense systems that would have formerly been prohibited by the bilateral treaty. The action was stated as needed to defend against the possibility of a missile attack conducted by a rogue state. The next day, the Russian Federation dropped the START II agreement, intended to completely ban MIRVs.
The Lisbon Summit of 2010 saw the adoption of a NATO program that was formed in response to the threat of a rapid increase of ballistic missiles from potentially unfriendly regimes, though no specific region, state, or country was formally mentioned. This adoption came from the recognition of territorial missile defense as a core alliance objective. At this time, Iran was seen as the likely aggressor that eventually led to the adoption of this ABM system, as Iran has the largest missile arsenal of the Middle East, as well as a space program. From this summit, NATO's ABM system was potentially seen as a threat by Russia, who felt that their ability to retaliate any perceived nuclear threats would be degraded. To combat this, Russia proposed that any ABM system enacted by NATO must be universal to operate, cover the entirety of the European continent, and not upset any nuclear parity. The United States actively sought NATO involvement in the creation of an ABM system, and saw an Iranian threat as a sufficient reason to warrant its creation. The United States also had plans to create missile defense facilities, but NATO officials feared that it would have provided protection to Europe, it would have detracted from the responsibility of NATO for collective defense. The officials also argued the potential prospect of U.S-commanded operation system that would work in conjunction with the Article 5 defense of NATO.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Hildreth |first1Steven A. |last2Ek |first2Carl |date2010-12-28 |titleMissile Defense and NATO's Lisbon Summit |urlhttps://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc491310/ |access-date2022-05-11 |websiteUNT Digital Library |languageEnglish}}</ref>
On 15 December 2016, the US Army SMDC had a successful test of a U.S. Army Zombie Pathfinder rocket, to be used as a target for exercising various anti-ballistic missile scenarios. The rocket was launched as part of NASA's sounding rocket program, at White Sands Missile Range.<ref>[https://www.army.mil/article/179788/us_army_announces_successful_test_of_us_army_zombie_pathfinder_rocket U.S. Army announces successful test of U.S. Army Zombie Pathfinder rocket] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170109113728/https://www.army.mil/article/179788/us_army_announces_successful_test_of_us_army_zombie_pathfinder_rocket |date9 January 2017 }} accessdate=2017-01-08</ref>
In November 2020, the US successfully destroyed a dummy ICBM. The ICBM was launched from Kwajalein Atoll<ref namein20years>[http://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/weather/climatechange/ADA422382.pdf Richard F. Pittenger and Robert B. Gagosian (Dec 2003) Global Warming Could Have a Chilling Effect on the Military] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210506004712/https://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/weather/climatechange/ADA422382.pdf |date=6 May 2021 }} "Military planners should begin to consider potential abrupt
climate change scenarios and their impacts on national defense."
*[https://www.defense.gov/Explore/News/Article/Article/2582051/defense-secretary-calls-climate-change-an-existential-threat/ David Vergun (22 April 2021) Defense Secretary Calls Climate Change an Existential Threat] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427140653/https://www.defense.gov/Explore/News/Article/Article/2582051/defense-secretary-calls-climate-change-an-existential-threat/ |date27 April 2021 }}
*[https://www.huffpost.com/entry/defense-department-climate-change-national-security-threat_n_5c420386e4b027c3bbc1713f Chris D’Angelo and Alexander C. Kaufman (01/18/2019) Pentagon Confirms Climate Change Is A National Security Threat, Contradicting Trump] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427135218/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/defense-department-climate-change-national-security-threat_n_5c420386e4b027c3bbc1713f |date27 April 2021 }} 79 Military installations; " 'Air Force's $1 billion radar installation on a Marshall Islands atoll 'is projected to be underwater within two decades'."
*[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/key-missile-defense-installation-will-be-uninhabitable-in-less-than-20-years/ Scott Waldman, E&E News (1 March 2018) Key Missile Defense Installation Will be Uninhabitable in Less Than 20 Years] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427134105/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/key-missile-defense-installation-will-be-uninhabitable-in-less-than-20-years/ |date27 April 2021 }}:Rising seas will ruin Kwajalein Atoll site where 1,300 work and live</ref><ref namereaganTestSite >{{cite web| url https://www.army.mil/article/243648/armys_reagan_test_site_supports_missile_test| title Jason Cutshaw (24 February 2021) Army's Reagan Test Site supports missile test}}</ref> in the general direction of Hawaii, triggering a satellite warning to a Colorado Air Force base, which then contacted the {{USS|John Finn}}. The ship launched a SM-3 Block IIA missile to destroy the US dummy, still outside the atmosphere.<ref>{{cite web |last1Bowman |first1Bradley |titleSuccessful SM-3 weapons test offers missile defense opportunity |urlhttps://www.defensenews.com/opinion/commentary/2020/11/21/successful-sm-3-weapons-test-offers-missile-defense-opportunity/ |websitedefensenews.com |date23 November 2020 |access-date25 November 2020}}</ref>
See also
* 2010 Chinese anti-ballistic missile test
* Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System
* Atmospheric entry
* Command systems in the United States Army
* Comparison of anti-ballistic missile systems
* Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme
* Kinetic kill vehicle
* Missile defense
* Anti-torpedo torpedoes
* Multiple Kill Vehicle
* National Missile Defense
* Nuclear disarmament
* Nuclear proliferation
* Nuclear warfare
* Safeguard/Sentinel ABM system
* Spartan (missile)
* Sprint (missile)
* Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
* Intercontinental ballistic missile
Notes
{{Notelist}}
Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
General sources
* Murdock, Clark A. (1974), Defense Policy Formation: A Comparative Analysis of the McNamara Era. SUNY Press.
Further reading
* Laura Grego and David Wright, "Broken Shield: Missiles designed to destroy incoming nuclear warheads fail frequently in tests and could increase global risk of mass destruction", Scientific American, vol. 320, no. no. 6 (June 2019), pp.&nbsp;62–67. "Current U.S. missile defense plans are being driven largely by technology, politics and fear. Missile defenses will not allow us to escape our vulnerability to nuclear weapons. Instead large-scale developments will create barriers to taking real steps toward reducing nuclear risks—by blocking further cuts in nuclear arsenals and potentially spurring new deployments." (p.&nbsp;67.)
External links
{{Commons category|Anti-ballistic missiles}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140201183352/http://www.thediplomat.ro/articol.php?id=554 Article on Missile Threat Shift to the Black Sea region]
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid2723153636466253240 Video of the Endo-Atmospheric Interceptor missile system test by India] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110716140208/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid2723153636466253240 |date16 July 2011 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061219195340/http://www.ibnlive.com/videos/27568/india-unveils-missile-interceptors.html Video of the Exo-Atmospheric interceptor missile system test by India]
*[http://www.cdi.org Center for Defense Information]
*[https://fas.org/ssp/bmd/index.html Federation of American Scientists]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120720083017/http://missilethreat.com/systems/ MissileThreat.com]
*[http://www.srmsc.org/ Stanley R. Mickelson Safeguard complex]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051229203013/http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/vigilant/intro.html History of U.S. Air Defense Systems]
{{Missile types}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Anti-Ballistic Missile}}
Category:Missile defense
Category:Missile types
Category:Soviet inventions
Category:Surface-to-air missiles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.411754
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1793
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August 29
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 708 &ndash; Copper coins are minted in Japan for the first time (Traditional Japanese date: August 10, 708).
* 870 &ndash; The city of Melite surrenders to an Aghlabid army following a siege, putting an end to Byzantine Malta.<ref>{{cite book | last Luttrell | first Anthony | title Medieval Malta : studies on Malta before the Knights | publisher The British School at Rome | location London | year 1975 | isbn 9780904152029 | page83}}</ref>
*1009 &ndash; Mainz Cathedral suffers extensive damage from a fire, which destroys the building on the day of its inauguration.
*1219 &ndash; The Battle of Fariskur occurs during the Fifth Crusade.<ref>{{cite journal |lastMarvin |firstLaurence W. |titleThe Battle of Fariskur (29 August 1219) and the Fifth Crusade: Causes, Course, and Consequences |journalJournal of Military History |year2021 |volume85 |issue3 |pages597–618}}</ref>
*1261 &ndash; Pope Urban IV succeeds Pope Alexander IV, becoming the 182nd pope.
*1315 &ndash; Battle of Montecatini: The army of the Republic of Pisa, commanded by Uguccione della Faggiuola, wins a decisive victory against the joint forces of the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Florence despite being outnumbered.<ref>{{cite book | last Bowsky | first William | title A medieval Italian commune : Siena under the Nine, 1287–1355 | publisher University of California Press | location Berkeley | year 1981 | isbn 9780520042568 | page167}}</ref>
*1350 &ndash; Battle of Winchelsea (or Les Espagnols sur Mer): The English naval fleet under King Edward III defeats a Castilian fleet of 40 ships.<ref>{{cite book|authorRobin Neillands|titleThe Hundred Years War|publisherTaylor & Francis|isbn9781134507405|year2002|page114}}</ref>
*1475 &ndash; The Treaty of Picquigny ends a brief war between the kingdoms of France and England.
*1484 &ndash; Pope Innocent VIII succeeds Pope Sixtus IV.
*1498 &ndash; Vasco da Gama decides to depart Calicut and return to the Kingdom of Portugal.
*1521 &ndash; The Ottoman Turks capture Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade).
*1526 &ndash; Battle of Mohács: The Ottoman Turks led by Suleiman the Magnificent defeat and kill the last Jagiellonian king of Hungary and Bohemia.
*1541 &ndash; The Ottoman Turks capture Buda, the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom.
*1588 &ndash; Toyotomi Hideyoshi issues a nationwide sword hunting ordinance, disarming the peasantry so as to firmly separate the samurai and commoner classes, prevent peasant uprisings, and further centralise his own power.<ref>{{Cite web |date25 November 2005 |title荻野研究室収集文書 |urlhttps://www.wul.waseda.ac.jp/collect/b12/b12-87.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220724202815/https://www.wul.waseda.ac.jp/collect/b12/b12-87.html |archive-date24 July 2022 |access-date29 August 2022 |websiteWaseda University Library}} For date conversion, see {{Cite book |lastZhang |firstPeiyu |title三千五百年历日天象 |publisherElephant Press |year1997 |languagezh}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1604 &ndash; The Guru Granth Sahib is fully compiled and completed by Guru Arjan.<ref>{{Cite book |lastJhutti-Johal |firstJagbir |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTJb_i97CG70C&qGuru+Granth+Sahib+september+1604&pgPT17 |titleSikhism Today. |date2011 |publisherA&C Black |isbn978-1-4411-7001-9 |page17 |languageen}}</ref>
*1728 &ndash; The city of Nuuk in Greenland is founded as the fort of Godt-Haab by the royal governor Claus Paarss.
*1741 &ndash; The eruption of Oshima–Ōshima and the Kampo tsunami: At least 2,000 people along the Japanese coast drown in a tsunami caused by the eruption of Oshima.<ref name"A Study on the Impacts of the 1741 Tsunami Recorded in the Annals of Joseon Dynasty">{{cite journal |author1Sang-Shin Byun |author2Kyeong Ok Kim |titleA study on the effects of the 1741 tsunami recorded in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty |journalJournal of Korean Society of Coastal and Ocean Engineers |date25 February 2021 |volume33 |issue1 |pages30–37 |doi10.9765/KSCOE.2021.33.1.30 |s2cid233955868 |urlhttp://jkscoe.or.kr/journal/view.php?number361 |access-date30 March 2021|doi-access=free }}</ref>
*1756 &ndash; Frederick the Great attacks Saxony, beginning the Seven Years' War in Europe.
*1758 &ndash; The Treaty of Easton establishes the first American Indian reservation, at Indian Mills, New Jersey, for the Lenape.
*1778 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: British and American forces battle indecisively at the Battle of Rhode Island.
*1779 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: American forces battle and defeat the British and Iroquois forces at the Battle of Newtown.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://usgwarchives.net/pa/1pa/1picts/sullivan/sullbio2.html|title Sullbio2}}</ref>
*1786 &ndash; Shays' Rebellion, an armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers, begins in response to high debt and tax burdens.
*1807 &ndash; British troops under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeat a Danish militia outside Copenhagen in the Battle of Køge.
*1825 &ndash; Portuguese and Brazilian diplomats sign the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, which has Portugal recognise Brazilian independence, formally ending the Brazilian war of independence. The treaty will be ratified by the King of Portugal three months later.<ref>{{Cite web |titleTratado de Paz, Amizade e Aliança |urlhttp://dai-mre.serpro.gov.br/atos-internacionais/bilaterais/1825/b_2 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170623195152/http://dai-mre.serpro.gov.br/atos-internacionais/bilaterais/1825/b_2 |archive-date23 June 2017 |access-date29 August 2022 |website=Sistema Atos Internacionais}}</ref>
*1831 &ndash; Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction.
*1842 &ndash; Treaty of Nanking signing ends the First Opium War.
*1861 &ndash; American Civil War: The Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries gives Federal forces control of Pamlico Sound.
*1869 &ndash; The Mount Washington Cog Railway opens, making it the world's first mountain-climbing rack railway.
*1871 &ndash; Emperor Meiji orders the abolition of the han system and the establishment of prefectures as local centers of administration. (Traditional Japanese date: July 14, 1871).
*1885 &ndash; Gottlieb Daimler patents the world's first motorcycle with an internal combustion engine, the Reitwagen.
*1898 &ndash; The Goodyear tire company is founded in Akron, Ohio.
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; The {{ship|Russian battleship|Slava||2}}, the last of the five {{sclass|Borodino|battleship|1}}s, is launched.
*1907 &ndash; The Quebec Bridge collapses during construction, killing 75 workers.
*1910 &ndash; The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910, also known as the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty, becomes effective, officially starting the period of Japanese rule in Korea.
*1911 &ndash; Ishi, considered the last Native American to make contact with European Americans, emerges from the wilderness of northeastern California.
* 1911 &ndash; The Canadian Naval Service becomes the Royal Canadian Navy.<ref>Gilbert Norman Tucker The Naval Service of Canada: Its Official History Ottawa, 1952</ref>
*1912 &ndash; A typhoon strikes China, killing at least 50,000 people.<ref name"NOAA">{{cite web|publisherNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|titleThe Worst Natural Disasters by Death Toll|year2009|access-dateJanuary 2, 2012|urlhttp://docs.lib.noaa.gov/noaa_documents/NOAA_related_docs/death_toll_natural_disasters.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/noaa_documents/NOAA_related_docs/death_toll_natural_disasters.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
*1914 &ndash; World War I: Start of the Battle of St. Quentin in which the French Fifth Army counter-attacked the invading Germans at Saint-Quentin, Aisne.
*1915 &ndash; US Navy salvage divers raise {{USS|F-4|SS-23|2}}, the first U.S. submarine sunk in an accident.
*1916 &ndash; The United States passes the Philippine Autonomy Act.
*1918 &ndash; World War I: Bapaume taken by the New Zealand Division in the Hundred Days Offensive.
*1930 &ndash; The last 36 remaining inhabitants of St Kilda are voluntarily evacuated to other parts of Scotland.
*1941 &ndash; World War II: Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, is occupied by Nazi Germany following an occupation by the Soviet Union.
*1943 &ndash; World War II: German-occupied Denmark scuttles most of its navy; Germany dissolves the Danish government.
*1944 &ndash; World War II: Slovak National Uprising takes place as 60,000 Slovak troops turn against the Nazis.
*1948 &ndash; Northwest Airlines Flight 421 crashes in Fountain City, Wisconsin, killing all 37 aboard.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident Martin 2-0-2 NC93044 Winona, WI |urlhttps://www.aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19480829-0 |access-date2022-08-28 |website=www.aviation-safety.net}}</ref>
*1949 &ndash; Soviet atomic bomb project: The Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb, known as First Lightning or Joe 1, at Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan.
*1950 &ndash; Korean War: British Commonwealth Forces Korea arrives to bolster the US presence.
*1952 &ndash; American experimental composer John Cage's 4’33” premieres at Maverick Concert Hall, played by American pianist David Tudor.<ref>{{cite magazine |lastRoss |firstAlex |date4 October 2010 |titleSearching for Silence: John Cage's art of noise |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/10/04/searching-for-silence |magazineThe New Yorker |locationNew York |publisherCondé Nast |access-date=}}</ref>
*1958 &ndash; United States Air Force Academy opens in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
*1960 &ndash; Air France Flight 343 crashes on approach to Yoff Airport in Senegal, killing all 63 aboard.<ref name"asn">{{cite web |titleASN Aircraft accident Lockheed L-1049G Super Constellation F-BHBC Dakar-Yoff Airport (DKR) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19600829-0 |access-date4 June 2021 |websiteAviation Safety Network |publisher=Flight Safety Foundation}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; The Gemini V spacecraft returns to Earth, landing in the Atlantic Ocean.
*1966 &ndash; The Beatles perform their last concert before paying fans at Candlestick Park in San Francisco.
* 1966 &ndash; Leading Egyptian thinker Sayyid Qutb is executed for plotting the assassination of President Gamal Abdel Nasser.
*1970 &ndash; Chicano Moratorium against the Vietnam War, East Los Angeles, California. Police riot kills three people, including journalist Rubén Salazar.
*1975 &ndash; El Tacnazo: Francisco Morales Bermúdez, Peruvian Prime Minister carries out a coup d'état in the city of Tacna, forcing the sitting President of Peru, Juan Velasco Alvarado, to resign and assuming his place as the new President.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastOsorio Soto |firstGary M. |dateAugust 2021 |titleEl Tacnazo: Crónica De Una Llamada Que Cambió La Historia |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/52576698 |journalRevista de la Asociación de Estudios Históricos de Tacna |volume1 |issue3 |page9 |viaAcademia}}</ref>
*1982 &ndash; Meitnerium, a synthetic chemical element with the atomic number 109, is first synthesized at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt, Germany.
*1987 &ndash; Odaeyang mass suicide: Thirty-three individuals linked to a religious cult are found dead in the attic of a cafeteria in Yongin, South Korea. Investigators attribute their deaths to a murder-suicide pact.<ref>{{Cite news |lastRenfrew |firstBarry |date29 August 1987 |title33 Bodies Found In Attic After Apparent Murder-Suicide Pact |workAssociated Press |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/ad93eedacb89524018ecbec4a1cf9f5c |url-statuslive |access-date29 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220516181223/https://apnews.com/article/ad93eedacb89524018ecbec4a1cf9f5c |archive-date16 May 2022}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union suspends all activities of the Soviet Communist Party.
* 1991 &ndash; Libero Grassi, an Italian businessman from Palermo, is killed by the Sicilian Mafia after taking a solitary stand against their extortion demands.
*1996 &ndash; Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801, a Tupolev Tu-154, crashes into a mountain on the Arctic island of Spitsbergen, killing all 141 aboard.
*1997 &ndash; Netflix is launched as an internet DVD rental service.
* 1997 &ndash; At least 98 villagers are killed by the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria GIA in the Rais massacre, Algeria.
*1998 &ndash; Eighty people are killed when Cubana de Aviación Flight 389 crashes during a rejected takeoff from the Old Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito, Ecuador.<ref>{{Cite web|lastRanter|firstHarro|titleASN Aircraft accident Tupolev Tu-154M CU-T1264 Quito-Mariscal Sucre Airport (UIO)|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19980829-0|url-statuslive|access-date2021-08-27|websiteaviation-safety.net|publisherAviation Safety Network|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050307092250/http://aviation-safety.net:80/database/record.php?id19980829-0 |archive-date2005-03-07 }}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Four people are killed when Binter Mediterráneo Flight 8261 crashes into the N-340 highway near Málaga Airport.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident CASA CN-235-200 EC-FBC Málaga Airport (AGP) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20010829-0 |access-date2022-08-28 |website=aviation-safety.net}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Sayed Ayatollah Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, the Shia Muslim leader in Iraq, is assassinated in a terrorist bombing, along with nearly 100 worshippers as they leave a mosque in Najaf.
*2005 &ndash; Hurricane Katrina devastates much of the U.S. Gulf Coast from Louisiana to the Florida Panhandle, killing up to 1,836 people and causing $125&nbsp;billion in damage.
*2012 &ndash; At least 26 Chinese miners are killed and 21 missing after a blast in the Xiaojiawan coal mine, located at Panzhihua, Sichuan Province.
* 2012 &ndash; The XIV Paralympic Games open in London, England, United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLondon 2012 |urlhttps://www.paralympic.org/london-2012 |access-date29 August 2022 |websiteInternational Paralympic Committee}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; 2020 Women's FA Community Shield.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.thefa.com/news/2020/aug/29/chelsea-manchester-city-womens-fa-community-shield-match-report-290820 |title Millie Bright's stunner helps Chelsea beat Man City in women's Community Shield |date29 August 2020 |website thefa.com |publisherThe Football Association |access-date 16 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |lastSanders |first Emma |date29 August 2020 |title Chelsea 2-0 Man City in Women's Community Shield: Millie Bright stunner helps Blues win |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/53894486 |work BBC Sport |access-date= 16 September 2024}} </ref>
*2022 &ndash; Russo-Ukrainian War: Ukraine begins its southern counteroffensive in the Kherson Oblast, eventually culminating in the liberation of the city of Kherson.<ref>{{cite web|titleKherson: Ukraine claims new push in Russian-held region|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-62712299|author1Sands, Leo|author2Lukov, Yaroslav|websiteBBC.com|publisherBBC|dateAugust 30, 2022|access-dateFebruary 13, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleUkrainian Forces Enter Kherson, a Strategic Prize, in a Blow to Putin|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/11/world/europe/kherson-ukraine-russia.html|author1Kramer, Andrew E.|author2Marc Santora|websiteThe New York Times|dateNovember 11, 2022|access-dateFebruary 13, 2023}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600
* 979 &ndash; Otto (or Eudes), French nobleman (d. 1045)
*1321 &ndash; John of Artois, French nobleman (d. 1387)
*1347 &ndash; John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English nobleman and soldier (d. 1375)
*1434 &ndash; Janus Pannonius, Hungarian bishop and poet (d. 1472)
*1514 &ndash; García Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Marquis of Villafranca, Spanish noble and admiral (d. 1577)
*1534 &ndash; Nicholas Pieck, Dutch Franciscan friar and martyr (d. 1572)
*1597 &ndash; Henry Gage, Royalist officer in the English Civil War (d. 1645)
1601–1900
*1619 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste Colbert, French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (d. 1683)
*1628 &ndash; John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1701)
*1632 &ndash; John Locke, English physician and philosopher (d. 1704)
*1724 &ndash; Giovanni Battista Casti, Italian poet and author (d. 1803)
*1725 &ndash; Charles Townshend, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1767)
*1728 &ndash; Maria Anna Sophia of Saxony, electress of Bavaria (d. 1797)
*1756 &ndash; Jan Śniadecki, Polish mathematician and astronomer (d. 1830)
*1756 &ndash; Count Heinrich von Bellegarde, Austrian general and politician (d. 1845)
*1772 &ndash; James Finlayson, Scottish Quaker (d. 1852)<ref>Brian D. J. Denoon: Finlayson, James (1772–1852), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref>
*1777 &ndash; Hyacinth, Russian religious leader, founded Sinology (d. 1853)
*1780 &ndash; Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, French painter and illustrator (d. 1867)
*1792 &ndash; Charles Grandison Finney, American minister and author (d. 1875)
*1805 &ndash; Frederick Denison Maurice, English priest, theologian, and author (d. 1872)
*1809 &ndash; Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., American physician and author (d. 1894)
*1810 &ndash; Juan Bautista Alberdi, Argentine theorist and diplomat (d. 1884)
*1813 &ndash; Henry Bergh, American activist, founded the ASPCA (d. 1888)<ref>National Cyclopedia of American Biography: Volume 3. New York: James White and Co., 1893; p. 106.</ref>
*1842 &ndash; Alfred Shaw, English cricketer, rugby player, and umpire (d. 1907)
*1843 &ndash; David B. Hill, American lawyer and politician, 29th Governor of New York (d. 1910)
*1844 &ndash; Edward Carpenter, English anthologist and poet (d. 1929)
*1854 &ndash; William C. White, American Seventh-day Adventist Church minister (d. 1937)<ref>{{Cite web |titleEllenWhite.Org Website – Brief Life Sketch of William C. White (DF 780) |urlhttp://ellenwhite.org/media/document/8460 |access-date2024-01-13 |websiteellenwhite.org |language=en}}</ref>
*1857 &ndash; Sandford Schultz, English cricketer (d. 1937)
*1861 &ndash; Byron G. Harlan, American singer (d. 1936)
*1862 &ndash; Andrew Fisher, Scottish-Australian politician and diplomat, 5th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1928)
* 1862 &ndash; Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgian poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1949)
*1871 &ndash; Albert François Lebrun, French engineer and politician, 15th President of France (d. 1950)
*1875 &ndash; Leonardo De Lorenzo, Italian flute player and educator (d. 1962)
*1876 &ndash; Charles F. Kettering, American engineer and businessman, founded Delco Electronics (d. 1958)
* 1876 &ndash; Kim Koo, South Korean politician, 6th President of The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (d. 1949)
*1879 &ndash; Han Yong-un, Korean independence activist, reformer, and poet (d. 1944)<ref>{{Cite web |titleHan Yong-un |urlhttp://www.hongseong.go.kr/eng/sub01_0503.do |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220701042240/http://www.hongseong.go.kr/eng/sub01_0503.do |archive-date1 July 2022 |access-date29 August 2022 |website=Hongseong}}</ref>
*1887 &ndash; Jivraj Narayan Mehta, Indian physicians and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Gujarat (d. 1978)
*1888 &ndash; Salme Dutt, Estonian-English politician (d. 1964)
*1890 &ndash; Peder Furubotn, Norwegian Communist and anti-Nazi Resistance leader (d. 1975)
*1891 &ndash; Marquis James, American journalist and author (d. 1955)
*1898 &ndash; Preston Sturges, American director and producer (d. 1959)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Aurèle Joliat, Canadian ice hockey player and referee (d. 1986)
*1904 &ndash; Werner Forssmann, German physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)
*1905 &ndash; Dhyan Chand, Indian field hockey player (d. 1979)
* 1905 &ndash; Arndt Pekurinen, Finnish activist (d. 1941)
*1910 &ndash; Vivien Thomas, American surgeon and academic (d. 1985)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Soylu |first1Erdinc |last2Athanasiou |first2Thanos |last3Jarral |first3Omar A |titleVivien Theodore Thomas (1910–1985): An African-American laboratory technician who went on to become an innovator in cardiac surgery |journalJournal of Medical Biography |dateMay 2017 |volume25 |issue2 |pages106–113 |doi10.1177/0967772015601566 |pmid26307408 |s2cid31036235 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
*1911 &ndash; John Charnley, British orthopedic surgeon (d. 1982)
*1912 &ndash; Sohn Kee-chung, South Korean runner (d. 2002)
* 1912 &ndash; Barry Sullivan, American actor (d. 1994)
* 1912 &ndash; Wolfgang Suschitzky, Austrian-English cinematographer and photographer (d. 2016)
*1913 &ndash; Len Butterfield, New Zealand cricketer (d. 1999)
*1913 &ndash; Jackie Mitchell, American baseball pitcher (d. 1987)<ref name"obit">{{cite news |last1Minsberg |first1Talya |titleOverlooked No More: Jackie Mitchell, Who Fanned Two of Baseball's Greats |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/07/obituaries/jackie-mitchell-overlooked.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/07/obituaries/jackie-mitchell-overlooked.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |access-date29 July 2020 |workThe New York Times |date=7 November 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*1915 &ndash; Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress (d. 1982)<ref name"UPI">{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for Aug. 29: Elliott Gould, Liam Payne |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2022/08/29/Famous-birthdays-for-Aug-29-Elliott-Gould-Liam-Payne/9421661699862/ |publisherUPI |access-date28 August 2023 |date29 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1915 &ndash; Nathan Pritikin, American nutritionist and author (d. 1985)
*1916 &ndash; Luther Davis, American playwright and screenwriter (d. 2008)
*1917 &ndash; Isabel Sanford, American actress (d. 2004)<ref name="UPI" />
*1920 &ndash; Otis Boykin, American inventor and engineer (d. 1982)<ref>{{cite web |titleOtis Boykin |urlhttps://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/otis-boykin |websitelemelson.mit.edu |publisherLemelson-MIT Program |access-date27 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleOtis Frank Boykin |urlhttps://www.nsbp.org/nsbp-news/bhm-physics-profiles/2019-honorees/128-otis-frank-boykin |websitewww.nsbp.org |publisherNational Society of Black Physicists |access-date27 August 2020}}</ref>
* 1920 &ndash; Charlie Parker, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1955)<ref name="UPI" />
* 1920 &ndash; Herb Simpson, American baseball player (d. 2015)
*1921 &ndash; Iris Apfel, American businesswoman, interior designer, and philanthropist (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/01/fashion/iris-apfel-dead.html|titleIris Apfel, Eye-Catcher With a Kaleidoscopic Wardrobe, Dies at 102|lastMcFadden|firstRobert D.|newspaperThe New York Times|dateMarch 1, 2024|access-date=March 1, 2024}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Arthur Anderson, American actor (d. 2016)
* 1922 &ndash; Richard Blackwell, American actor, fashion designer, and critic (d. 2008)
* 1922 &ndash; John Edward Williams, American author and educator (d. 1994)
*1923 &ndash; Richard Attenborough, English actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)<ref name="UPI" />
*1924 &ndash; Dinah Washington, American singer and pianist (d. 1963)<ref name="UPI" />
*1926 &ndash; Helene Ahrweiler, Greek historian and academic
* 1926 &ndash; René Depestre, Haitian writer<ref>{{cite news |titleLes grandes voix de l'Afrique – René Depestre: un très long exil |urlhttps://www.rfi.fr/fr/emission/20180806-haiti-depestre-rene-ecrivain-exil |access-date14 April 2024 |workRadio France Internationale |date6 August 2018 |languagefr |trans-title=The great voices of Africa - René Depestre: a very long exile}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Donn Fendler, American author and speaker (d. 2016)
* 1926 &ndash; Betty Lynn, American actress (d. 2021)
*1927 &ndash; Jimmy C. Newman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014)
*1928 &ndash; Herbert Meier, Swiss author and translator (d. 2018)
*1929 &ndash; Thom Gunn, English-American poet and academic (d. 2004)
*1930 &ndash; Jacques Bouchard, Canadian businessman (d. 2006)
* 1930 &ndash; Carlos Loyzaga, Filipino basketball player and coach (d. 2016)
*1931 &ndash; Stelios Kazantzidis, Greek singer and guitarist (d. 2001)
* 1931 &ndash; Lise Payette, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 2018)
*1933 &ndash; Sorel Etrog, Romanian-Canadian sculptor, painter, and illustrator (d. 2014)
* 1933 &ndash; Arnold Koller, Swiss politician
*1934 &ndash; Dimitris Papamichael, Greek actor and director (d. 2004)
*1935 &ndash; Hugo Brandt Corstius, Dutch linguist and author (d. 2014)
* 1935 &ndash; William Friedkin, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news |last1Dagan |first1Carmel |titleWilliam Friedkin, 'The Exorcist' Director, Dies at 87 |urlhttps://variety.com/2023/film/news/william-friedkin-dead-the-exorcist-1235689676/ |access-dateAugust 7, 2023 |publisherVariety |date=August 7, 2023}}</ref>
* 1935 &ndash; László Garai, Hungarian psychologist and scholar (d. 2019)
*1936 &ndash; John McCain, American captain and politician (d. 2018)<ref name="UPI" />
*1937 &ndash; James Florio, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 49th Governor of New Jersey (d. 2022)
*1938 &ndash; Elliott Gould, American actor and producer<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 29, 2022 includes celebrities Liam Payne, Lea Michele |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-29-2022-includes-celebrities-liam-payne-lea-michele.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date28 August 2023 |date=29 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1938 &ndash; Angela Huth, English journalist and author
* 1938 &ndash; Christian Müller, German footballer and manager
* 1938 &ndash; Robert Rubin, American lawyer and politician, 70th United States Secretary of the Treasury
*1939 &ndash; Jolán Kleiber-Kontsek, Hungarian discus thrower and shot putter (d. 2022)
* 1939 &ndash; Joel Schumacher, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2020)
*1940 &ndash; James Brady, American politician and activist, 15th White House Press Secretary (d. 2014)
* 1940 &ndash; Gary Gabelich, American race car driver (d. 1984)
*1941 &ndash; Robin Leach, English journalist and television host (d. 2018)<ref name="UPI" />
*1942 &ndash; James Glennon, American cinematographer (d. 2006)
* 1942 &ndash; Gottfried John, German actor (d. 2014)
* 1942 &ndash; Sterling Morrison, American singer and guitarist (d. 1995)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.allmusic.com/artist/sterling-morrison-mn0000749365 |titleSterling Morrison |firstRichie |lastUnterberger |author-linkRichie Unterberger |websiteAllMusic |access-dateDecember 10, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140207085628/http://www.allmusic.com/artist/sterling-morrison-mn0000749365 |archive-dateFebruary 7, 2014 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Mohamed Amin, Kenyan photographer and journalist (d. 1996)
* 1943 &ndash; Dick Halligan, American pianist and composer (d. 2022)
* 1943 &ndash; Arthur B. McDonald, Canadian astrophysicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
*1945 &ndash; Chris Copping, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1945 &ndash; Wyomia Tyus, American sprinter
*1946 &ndash; Bob Beamon, American long jumper
* 1946 &ndash; Francine D. Blau, American economist and academic
* 1946 &ndash; Demetris Christofias, Cypriot businessman and politician, 6th President of Cyprus (d. 2019)
* 1946 &ndash; Warren Jabali, American basketball player (d. 2012)<ref>{{cite web |titleWarren Jabali |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nba/player/bio/_/id/369 |publisherESPN |access-date28 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Giorgio Orsoni, Italian lawyer and politician, 17th Mayor of Venice
*1947 &ndash; Temple Grandin, American ethologist, academic, and author<ref name="UPI" />
* 1947 &ndash; James Hunt, English race car driver and sportscaster (d. 1993)
*1948 &ndash; Robert S. Langer, American chemical engineer, entrepreneur, and academic
*1949 &ndash; Stan Hansen, American wrestler and actor
* 1949 &ndash; Darnell Hillman, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleDarnell Hillman |urlhttps://www.nba.com/stats/player/77028/career |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date28 August 2023}}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Doug DeCinces, American baseball player
* 1950 &ndash; Frank Henenlotter, American director and screenwriter
* 1950 &ndash; Dave Reichert, American soldier and politician
* 1950 &ndash; Aki Yashiro, Japanese singer (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite web |title【追悼】八代亜紀 |publisherTower Records Japan |urlhttps://tower.jp/article/feature_item/2024/01/09/0712 |access-date13 April 2024 |date9 January 2024 |langja}}</ref>
*1951 &ndash; Geoff Whitehorn, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1952 &ndash; Karen Hesse, American author and poet
* 1952 &ndash; Dave Malone, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1952 &ndash; Don Schlitz, American Hall of Fame country music songwriter
* 1952 &ndash; Deborah Van Valkenburgh, American actress<ref name="AP" />
*1953 &ndash; David Boaz, American businessman and author
* 1953 &ndash; Richard Harding, English rugby player
* 1953 &ndash; James Quesada, Nicaraguan-American anthropologist and academic
*1954 &ndash; Michael P. Kube-McDowell, American journalist, author, and academic
*1955 &ndash; Diamanda Galás, American singer-songwriter and pianist
* 1955 &ndash; Jack Lew, American lawyer and politician, 25th White House Chief of Staff
*1956 &ndash; Mark Morris, American dancer and choreographer
* 1956 &ndash; Eddie Murray, American football player
* 1956 &ndash; Charalambos Xanthopoulos, Greek footballer
* 1956 &ndash; Steve Yarbrough, American novelist and short story writer
*1957 &ndash; Jerry D. Bailey, American jockey and sportscaster
* 1957 &ndash; Grzegorz Ciechowski, Polish singer-songwriter, film music composer (d. 2001)
*1958 &ndash; Lenny Henry, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter
* 1958 &ndash; Michael Jackson, American singer-songwriter, producer, dancer, and actor (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite Grove |last1Brackett |first1David |titleJackson, Michael |date2001 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.47207}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; Rebecca De Mornay, American actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1959 &ndash; Ramón Díaz, Argentine footballer and manager
* 1959 &ndash; Ray Elgaard, Canadian football player
* 1959 &ndash; Chris Hadfield, Canadian colonel, pilot, and astronaut<ref name="UPI" />
* 1959 &ndash; Eddi Reader, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1959 &ndash; Timothy Shriver, American businessman and activist
* 1959 &ndash; Stephen Wolfram, English-American physicist and mathematician
* 1959 &ndash; Nagarjuna, Indian film actor, Producer and Businessman
*1960 &ndash; Todd English, American chef and author
* 1960 &ndash; Tony MacAlpine, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer
*1961 &ndash; Carsten Fischer, German field hockey player
* 1961 &ndash; Rodney McCray, American basketball player
*1962 &ndash; Carl Banks, American football player and sportscaster
* 1962 &ndash; Hiroki Kikuta, Japanese game designer and composer
* 1962 &ndash; Ian James Corlett, Canadian voice actor, writer, producer and author
* 1962 &ndash; Simon Thurley, English historian and academic
* 1962 &ndash; Richard Angelo, American serial killer and poisoner<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.thoughtco.com/profile-of-serial-killer-richard-angelo-973130 | titleRichard Angelo: Angel of Death Serial Killer }}</ref>
*1963 &ndash; Elizabeth Fraser, Scottish singer-songwriter
*1964 &ndash; Perri "Pebbles" Reid, American dance-pop and urban contemporary singer-songwriter
* 1964 &ndash; Zisis Tsekos, Greek footballer
*1965 &ndash; Will Perdue, American basketball player and sportscaster
* 1965 &ndash; Geir-Inge Sivertsen, Norwegian politician and engineer, Norwegian Minister of Fisheries and Seafood<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.stortinget.no/no/Representanter-og-komiteer/Representantene/Representant/?peridGIS | titleBiografi: Sivertsen, Geir Inge | date9 November 2021 }}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Jörn Großkopf, German footballer and manager
*1967 &ndash; Neil Gorsuch, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
* 1967 &ndash; Anton Newcombe, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1968 &ndash; Meshell Ndegeocello, German-American singer-songwriter
*1969 &ndash; Joe Swail, Northern Irish snooker player
* 1969 &ndash; Jennifer Crittenden, American screenwriter and producer
* 1969 &ndash; Lucero, Mexican singer, songwriter, actress, and television host<ref>{{citation|websiteAll Music.com |titleLucero|access-dateAugust 24, 2019|urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/artist/lucero-mn0000306033/biography|author=Heather Phares}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Henry Blanco, Venezuelan baseball player and coach
* 1971 &ndash; Alex Griffin, English bass player
* 1971 &ndash; Carla Gugino, American actress<ref name="AP" />
*1972 &ndash; Amanda Marshall, Canadian singer-songwriter
* 1972 &ndash; Bae Yong-joon, South Korean actor
*1973 &ndash; Vincent Cavanagh, English singer and guitarist
* 1973 &ndash; Olivier Jacque, French motorcycle racer
*1974 &ndash; Kumi Tanioka, Japanese keyboard player and composer
*1975 &ndash; Dante Basco, American actor<ref name="UPI" />
* 1975 &ndash; Kyle Cook, American singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref name="AP" />
*1976 &ndash; Stephen Carr, Irish footballer
* 1976 &ndash; Phil Harvey, English manager<ref>{{Cite web |date13 April 2022 |titleConoce a Phil Harvey, el Quinto Integrante de Coldplay |trans-titleMeet Phil Harvey, Coldplay's Fifth Member |urlhttps://www.telehit.com/musica/conoce-a-phil-harvey-el-quinto-integrante-de-coldplay |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20230227015556/https://www.telehit.com/musica/conoce-a-phil-harvey-el-quinto-integrante-de-coldplay |archive-date27 February 2023 |access-date27 February 2023 |websiteTelehit |languagees}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; Kevin Kaesviharn, American football player
* 1976 &ndash; Georgios Kalaitzis, Greek basketball player
* 1976 &ndash; Pablo Mastroeni, Argentine-American soccer player and manager
* 1976 &ndash; Jon Dahl Tomasson, Danish footballer and manager
*1977 &ndash; Cayetano, Greek DJ and producer
* 1977 &ndash; Devean George, American basketball player
* 1977 &ndash; John Hensley, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1977 &ndash; John Patrick O'Brien, American soccer player
* 1977 &ndash; Roy Oswalt, American baseball player
* 1977 &ndash; Charlie Pickering, Australian comedian and radio host
* 1977 &ndash; Aaron Rowand, American baseball player and sportscaster
*1978 &ndash; Volkan Arslan, German-Turkish footballer
* 1978 &ndash; Celestine Babayaro, Nigerian footballer
*1979 &ndash; Stijn Devolder, Belgian cyclist
* 1979 &ndash; Kristjan Rahnu, Estonian decathlete
* 1979 &ndash; Ryan Shealy, American baseball player
*1980 &ndash; Chris Simms, American football player
* 1980 &ndash; David West, American basketball player
*1981 &ndash; Martin Erat, Czech ice hockey player
* 1981 &ndash; Geneviève Jeanson, Canadian cyclist
* 1981 &ndash; Jay Ryan, New Zealand-Australian actor and producer
*1982 &ndash; Ruhila Adatia-Sood, Kenyan journalist and radio host (d. 2013)
* 1982 &ndash; Carlos Delfino, Argentine-Italian basketball player
* 1982 &ndash; Yakhouba Diawara, French basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleYakhouba Diawara |urlhttps://www.nba.com/stats/player/200821/career |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date28 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1982 &ndash; Vincent Enyeama, Nigerian footballer
*1983 &ndash; Jennifer Landon, American actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1983 &ndash; Antti Niemi, Finnish ice hockey player
* 1983 &ndash; Anthony Recker, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleAnthony Recker |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/anthony-recker-489232 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date28 August 2023}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Hajime Isayama, Japanese illustrator
* 1986 &ndash; Lea Michele, American actress and singer<ref name="AP" />
*1987 &ndash; Tony Kane, Irish footballer
*1989 &ndash; Charlotte Ritchie, English actress<ref name="AP" />
*1990 &ndash; Jakub Kosecki, Polish footballer
* 1990 &ndash; Chris Taylor, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleChris Taylor |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/chris-taylor-621035 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date28 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1990 &ndash; Patrick van Aanholt, Dutch footballer
*1991 &ndash; Néstor Araujo, Mexican footballer
* 1991 &ndash; Deshaun Thomas, American basketball player
*1992 &ndash; Mallu Magalhães, Brazilian singer-songwriter
* 1992 &ndash; Noah Syndergaard, American baseball player
*1993 &ndash; Lucas Cruikshank, American YouTuber and actor<ref>{{cite web |last1Cruikshank |first1Lucas |dateMar 14, 2013 |titleDraw My Life – Lucas Cruikshank |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vw-p1xx8kkhA |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130317081050/http://www.youtube.com/watch?vw-p1xx8kkhA&glUS&hlen |archive-date2013-03-17 |access-dateOctober 27, 2014 |websiteYouTube |format=Adobe Flash}}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Liam Payne, English singer-songwriter from One Direction (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |date16 October 2024 |titleLiam Payne, former One Direction member, dies at 31 in Argentina hotel fall |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/liam-payne-dies-one-direction-6b7893a56e0d8701096775f611399dd8 |access-date17 October 2024|websiteAP News |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleOne Direction {{!}} Members, Songs, & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/One-Direction |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date26 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Ysaline Bonaventure, Belgian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleYsaline Bonaventure {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/317317/ysaline-bonaventure |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Daryll Neita, British sprinter<ref>{{Cite web |titleDaryll Neita |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/130202 |websiteolympedia.org |access-date27 March 2024 }}</ref>
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 886 &ndash; Basil I, Byzantine emperor (b. 811)
* 892 &ndash; Theodora of Thessaloniki, Byzantine nun and saint (b. 812)<ref>{{cite book |last1Talbot |first1Alice-Mary Maffry |author-linkAlice-Mary Talbot |titleHoly Women of Byzantium: Ten Saints' Lives in English Translation |date1996 |publisherDumbarton Oaks |isbn978-0-88402-248-0 |pages159–160 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSaViaGCeiZIC |access-date3 March 2024 |languageen |chapter=Life of St. Theodora of Thessalonike}}</ref>
* 939 &ndash; Wang Jipeng, Chinese emperor of Min
* 939 &ndash; Li Chunyan, Chinese empress
* 956 &ndash; Fu the Elder, Chinese empress
* 979 &ndash; Abu Taghlib, Hamdanid emir
*1021 &ndash; Minamoto no Yorimitsu, Japanese nobleman (b. 948)
*1046 &ndash; Gerard of Csanád Venetian monk and Hungarian bishop (b.980)<ref name"ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA">{{cite book |url https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Gerard |title St. Gerard |publisher Encyclopædia Britannica |year = 2019 }}</ref>
*1093 &ndash; Hugh I, duke of Burgundy (b. 1057)
*1123 &ndash; Eystein I, king of Norway (b. 1088)
*1135 &ndash; Al-Mustarshid, Abbasid caliph (b. 1092)
*1159 &ndash; Bertha of Sulzbach, Byzantine empress
*1298 &ndash; Eleanor of England, Countess of Bar, English princess (b. 1269)
*1315 &ndash; Peter Tempesta, Italian nobleman (b. 1291)
* 1315 &ndash; Charles of Taranto, Italian nobleman (b. 1296)
*1395 &ndash; Albert III, duke of Austria (b. 1349)
*1442 &ndash; John V, duke of Brittany (b. 1389)
*1499 &ndash; Alesso Baldovinetti, Florentine painter (b. 1427)
*1523 &ndash; Ulrich von Hutten, Lutheran reformer (b. 1488)
*1526 &ndash; Louis II, king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1506)
* 1526 &ndash; Pál Tomori Hungarian archbishop and soldier (b. 1475)
*1533 &ndash; Atahualpa, Inca emperor (b. 1497)
*1542 &ndash; Cristóvão da Gama, Portuguese commander (b. 1516)
1601–1900
*1604 &ndash; Hamida Banu Begum, Mughal empress (b. 1527)<ref>{{cite book |last1Lal |first1Muni |titleShah Jahan |date1986 |publisherVikas Publishing House |pagexv |isbn9780706929294 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id__BtAAAAMAAJ&qhamida+banu+Begum+August+29 |language=en}}</ref>
*1657 &ndash; John Lilburne, English activist (b. 1614)
*1712 &ndash; Gregory King, English genealogist, engraver, and statistician (b. 1648)
*1749 &ndash; Matthias Bel, Hungarian pastor and polymath (b. 1684)
*1769 &ndash; Edmond Hoyle, English author and educator (b. 1672)
*1780 &ndash; Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect, co-designed The Panthéon (b. 1713)
*1799 &ndash; Pius VI, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1717)<ref>{{cite web |titlePius VI {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Pius-VI |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date10 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1844 &ndash; Edmund Ignatius Rice, Irish missionary and educator, founded the Christian Brothers and Presentation Brothers (b. 1762)
*1856 &ndash; Mary Anne Schimmelpenninck, English author and activist (b. 1778)
*1866 &ndash; Tokugawa Iemochi, Japanese shōgun (b. 1846)
*1877 &ndash; Brigham Young, American religious leader, 2nd President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1801)
*1889 &ndash; Stefan Dunjov, Bulgarian colonel (b. 1815)
*1891 &ndash; Pierre Lallement, French businessman, invented the bicycle (b. 1843)
*1892 &ndash; William Forbes Skene, Scottish historian and author (b. 1809)
1901–present
*1904 &ndash; Murad V, Ottoman sultan (b. 1840)
*1911 &ndash; Mir Mahboob Ali Khan, 6th Nizam of Hyderabad (b. 1866)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/180816/picturing-the-beloved.html|title Picturing the 'Beloved'|date = 18 August 2016}}</ref>
*1917 &ndash; George Huntington Hartford, American businessman (b. 1833)
*1930 &ndash; William Archibald Spooner, English priest and author (b. 1844)
*1931 &ndash; David T. Abercrombie, American businessman, co-founded Abercrombie & Fitch (b. 1867)
*1932 &ndash; Raymond Knister, Canadian poet and author (b. 1899)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Pinder |first1Kait |titleKnister, (John) Raymond (1899–1932) |journalRoutledge Encyclopedia of Modernism |date2016 |doi10.4324/9781135000356-REM104-1|isbn=9781135000356 }}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; Attik, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1885)
*1946 &ndash; Adolphus Busch III, American businessman (b. 1891)
* 1946 &ndash; John Steuart Curry, American painter and academic (b. 1897)
*1951 &ndash; Sydney Chapman, English economist and civil servant (b. 1871)
*1952 &ndash; Anton Piëch, Austrian lawyer (b. 1894)
*1958 &ndash; Marjorie Flack, American author and illustrator (b. 1897)<ref>{{cite book|lastWhitehead|firstWinifred|chapterFlack, Marjorie|editor-firstD.L.|editor-lastKirkpatrick|titleTwentieth-century Children's Writers|locationLondon|publisherMacmillan|year1978|isbn978-0-33323-414-3|page=461}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Sayyid Qutb, Egyptian theorist, author, and poet (b. 1906)
*1968 &ndash; Ulysses S. Grant III, American general (b. 1881)
*1971 &ndash; Nathan Freudenthal Leopold Jr., American murderer (b. 1904)
*1972 &ndash; Lale Andersen, German singer-songwriter (b. 1905)
*1975 &ndash; Éamon de Valera, Irish soldier and politician, 3rd President of Ireland (b. 1882)
*1977 &ndash; Jean Hagen, American actress (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite web |titleJean Hagen |urlhttp://projects.latimes.com/hollywood/star-walk/jean-hagen/ |websiteLos Angeles Times |access-date27 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1977 &ndash; Brian McGuire, Australian race car driver (b. 1945)
*1979 &ndash; Gertrude Chandler Warner, American author and educator (b. 1890)
*1981 &ndash; Lowell Thomas, American journalist and author (b. 1892)
*1982 &ndash; Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress (b. 1915)
* 1982 &ndash; Lehman Engel, American composer and conductor (b. 1910)
*1985 &ndash; Evelyn Ankers, British-American actress (b. 1918)
*1987 &ndash; Archie Campbell, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1914)
* 1987 &ndash; Lee Marvin, American actor (b. 1924)
*1989 &ndash; Peter Scott, English explorer and painter (b. 1909)
*1990 &ndash; Manly Palmer Hall, Canadian-American mystic and author (b. 1901)
*1991 &ndash; Libero Grassi, Italian businessman (b. 1924)
*1992 &ndash; Félix Guattari, French philosopher and theorist (b. 1930)
*1995 &ndash; Frank Perry, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1930)
*2000 &ndash; Shelagh Fraser, English actress (b. 1922)
* 2000 &ndash; Willie Maddren, English footballer and manager (b. 1951)
* 2000 &ndash; Conrad Marca-Relli, American-Italian painter and academic (b. 1913)
*2001 &ndash; Graeme Strachan, Australian singer-songwriter & television personality (b. 1952)
* 2001 &ndash; Francisco Rabal, Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926)
*2002 &ndash; Lance Macklin, English race car driver (b. 1919)
*2003 &ndash; Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim, Iraqi politician (b. 1939)
* 2003 &ndash; Patrick Procktor, English painter and academic (b. 1936)
*2004 &ndash; Hans Vonk, Dutch conductor (b. 1942)
*2007 &ndash; James Muir Cameron Fletcher, New Zealand businessman (b. 1914)
* 2007 &ndash; Richard Jewell, American police officer (b. 1962)
* 2007 &ndash; Pierre Messmer, French civil servant and politician, 154th Prime Minister of France (b. 1916)
* 2007 &ndash; Alfred Peet, Dutch-American businessman, founded Peet's Coffee & Tea (b. 1920)
*2008 &ndash; Geoffrey Perkins, English actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1953)
* 2008 &ndash; Michael Schoenberg, American geophysicist and theorist (b. 1939)
*2011 &ndash; Honeyboy Edwards, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1915)
* 2011 &ndash; Junpei Takiguchi, Japanese voice actor (b. 1931)
*2012 &ndash; Ruth Goldbloom, Canadian academic and philanthropist, co-founded Pier 21 (b. 1923)
* 2012 &ndash; Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, English historian and author (b. 1953)
* 2012 &ndash; Shoshichi Kobayashi, Japanese-American mathematician and academic (b. 1932)
* 2012 &ndash; Anne McKnight, American soprano (b. 1924)
* 2012 &ndash; Les Moss, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1925)
* 2012 &ndash; Sergei Ovchinnikov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b. 1969)
*2013 &ndash; Joan L. Krajewski, American lawyer and politician (b. 1934)
* 2013 &ndash; Medardo Joseph Mazombwe, Zambian cardinal (b. 1931)
* 2013 &ndash; Bruce C. Murray, American geologist and academic, co-founded The Planetary Society (b. 1931)
*2014 &ndash; Octavio Brunetti, Argentine pianist and composer (b. 1975)
* 2014 &ndash; Björn Waldegård, Swedish race car driver (b. 1943)
*2016 &ndash; Gene Wilder, American stage and screen comic actor, screenwriter, film director, and author (b. 1933)
*2018 &ndash; James Mirrlees, Scottish economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1936)
* 2018 &ndash; Paul Taylor, American choreographer (b. 1930)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/notable-deaths-in-2018 |titleNotable Deaths in 2018|websiteCBS News|access-date2018-09-04}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Ed Asner, American actor (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://variety.com/2021/tv/news/ed-asner-dead-lou-grant-1235051373/|titleEd Asner, Emmy-Winning 'Lou Grant' Star, Dies at 91|last1Dagan|first1Carmel|last2Natale|first2Richard|dateAugust 29, 2021|access-dateAugust 29, 2021|work=Variety}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; Lee "Scratch" Perry, Jamaican reggae producer (b. 1936)<ref>{{Cite magazine|lastKreps|firstDaniel|date2021-08-29|titleLee 'Scratch' Perry, Reggae Giant and Dub Pioneer, Dead at 85|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/lee-scratch-perry-dead-obit-1045198/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210830031023/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/lee-scratch-perry-dead-obit-1045198/|archive-date2021-08-30|access-date2021-08-31|magazineRolling Stone|language=en-US}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; Jacques Rogge, French orthopedic surgeon, Olympic sailor and the 8th President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1942)<ref>{{Cite news|lastGenzlinger|firstNeil|date2021-08-30|titleJacques Rogge, Who Led Olympic Committee, Dies at 79|languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/30/sports/olympics/jacques-rogge-dead.html|access-date2021-09-03|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Mike Enriquez, Filipino broadcaster (b. 1951)<ref>{{Cite news |lastSarao |firstZacarian |dateAugust 29, 2023 |titleVeteran broadcaster Mike Enriquez dies at 71 |urlhttps://entertainment.inquirer.net/516334/embargo-veteran-broadcaster-mike-enriquez-dies-at-71 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230829121315/https://entertainment.inquirer.net/516334/embargo-veteran-broadcaster-mike-enriquez-dies-at-71 |archive-dateAugust 29, 2023 |access-dateAugust 29, 2023 |newspaperPhilippine Daily Inquirer}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Johnny Gaudreau, American ice hockey player (b. 1993)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.fox29.com/news/2-cyclists-dead-after-crash-salem-county-reports.amp|titleNHL star Johnny Gaudreau, brother struck and killed by car while riding bikes in New Jersey|dateAugust 30, 2024|workFox 29 Philadelphia|access-dateAugust 30, 2024}}</ref>Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Adelphus of Metz
**Beheading of St. John the Baptist
**Eadwold of Cerne
**Euphrasia Eluvathingal (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church)
**John Bunyan (Episcopal Church)
**Sabina
**Vitalis, Sator and Repositus
**August 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*International Day against Nuclear Tests<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Days |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |websitewww.un.org |access-date2 January 2021 |languageen |date6 January 2015}}</ref>
*Miners' Day (Ukraine)
*Day of Remembrance of the Defenders of Ukraine (Ukraine)
*Municipal Police Day (Poland)
*National Sports Day (India)
*Slovak National Uprising Anniversary (Slovakia)
*Telugu Language Day (India)
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/29 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day29}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/29 |titleHistorical Events on August 29 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 29}}
Category:Days of August
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_29
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.491542
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1794
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August 30
|
Events
Pre-1600
70 – Titus ends the siege of Jerusalem after destroying Herod's Temple.
1060 – The Mirdasids defeat the Fatimid Caliphate at the Battle of al-Funaydiq, signalling the definitive loss of Aleppo for the Fatimids.
1282 – Peter III of Aragon lands at Trapani to intervene in the War of the Sicilian Vespers.
1363 – The five-week Battle of Lake Poyang begins, in which the forces of two Chinese rebel leaders (Chen Youliang and Zhu Yuanzhang) meet to decide who will supplant the Yuan dynasty.
1464 – Pope Paul II succeeds Pope Pius II as the 211th pope.
1574 – Guru Ram Das becomes the Fourth Sikh Guru/Master.
1590 – Tokugawa Ieyasu enters Edo Castle. (Traditional Japanese date: August 1, 1590)
1594 – King James VI of Scotland holds a masque at the baptism of Prince Henry at Stirling Castle.
1601–1900
1721 – The Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia ends in the Treaty of Nystad.
1727 – Anne, eldest daughter of King George II of Great Britain, is given the title Princess Royal.
1757 – Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf: Russian force under Field Marshal Stepan Fyodorovich Apraksin beats a smaller Prussian force commanded by Field Marshal Hans von Lehwaldt, during the Seven Years' War.
1791 – sinks after having run aground on the outer Great Barrier Reef the previous day.
1799 – The entire Dutch fleet is captured by British forces under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby and Admiral Sir Charles Mitchell during the War of the Second Coalition.
1800 – Gabriel Prosser postpones a planned slave rebellion in Richmond, Virginia, but is arrested before he can make it happen.
1813 – First Battle of Kulm: French forces are defeated by an Austrian-Prussian-Russian alliance.
1813 – Creek War: Fort Mims massacre: Creek "Red Sticks" kill over 500 settlers (including over 250 armed militia) in Fort Mims, north of Mobile, Alabama.
1835 – Australia: Melbourne, Victoria is founded.
1836 – The city of Houston is founded by Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen.
1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Richmond: Confederates under Edmund Kirby Smith rout Union forces under General William "Bull" Nelson.
1873 – Austrian explorers Julius von Payer and Karl Weyprecht discover the archipelago of Franz Josef Land in the Arctic Sea.
1896 – Philippine Revolution: After Spanish victory in the Battle of San Juan del Monte, eight provinces in the Philippines are declared under martial law by the Spanish Governor-General Ramón Blanco y Erenas.
1901–present
1909 – Burgess Shale fossils are discovered by Charles Doolittle Walcott.
1914 – World War I: Germans defeat the Russians in the Battle of Tannenberg.
1916 – Ernest Shackleton completes the rescue of all of his men stranded on Elephant Island in Antarctica.
1917 – Vietnamese prison guards led by Trịnh Văn Cấn mutiny at the Thái Nguyên penitentiary against local French authority.
1918 – Fanni Kaplan shoots and seriously injures Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, which along with the assassination of Bolshevik senior official Moisei Uritsky days earlier, prompts the decree for Red Terror.
1922 – Battle of Dumlupınar: The final battle in the Greco-Turkish War (Turkish War of Independence).
1936 – The RMS Queen Mary wins the Blue Riband by setting the fastest transatlantic crossing.
1940 – The Second Vienna Award reassigns the territory of Northern Transylvania from Romania to Hungary.
1941 – The Tighina Agreement, a treaty regarding administration issues of the Transnistria Governorate, is signed between Germany and Romania.
1942 – World War II: The Battle of Alam el Halfa begins.
1945 – The Japanese occupation of Hong Kong comes to an end.
1945 – The Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, General Douglas MacArthur lands at Atsugi Air Force Base.
1945 – The Allied Control Council, governing Germany after World War II, comes into being.
1959 – South Vietnamese opposition figure Phan Quang Dan was elected to the National Assembly despite soldiers being bussed in to vote for President Ngo Dinh Diem's candidate.
1962 – Japan conducts a test of the NAMC YS-11, its first aircraft since World War II and its only successful commercial aircraft from before or after the war.
1963 – The Moscow–Washington hotline between the leaders of the U.S. and the Soviet Union goes into operation.
1967 – Thurgood Marshall is confirmed as the first African American Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
1974 – A Belgrade–Dortmund express train derails at the main train station in Zagreb killing 153 passengers.
1974 – A powerful bomb explodes at the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries headquarters in Marunouchi, Tokyo. Eight are killed, 378 are injured. Eight left-wing activists are arrested on May 19, 1975, by Japanese authorities.
1974 – The Third World Population Conference ends in Bucharest, Romania. At the end of the ceremony, the UN-Romanian Demographic Centre is inaugurated.
1981 – President Mohammad-Ali Rajai and Prime Minister Mohammad-Javad Bahonar of Iran are assassinated in a bombing committed by the People's Mujahedin of Iran.
1983 – Aeroflot Flight 5463 crashes into Dolan Mountain while approaching Almaty International Airport in present-day Kazakhstan, killing all 90 people on board.
1983 – STS-8: The Space Shuttle Challenger takes off on the first night launch of the shuttle program. Guion Bluford becomes the first African-American in space on this mission.
1984 – STS-41-D: The Space Shuttle Discovery takes off on its maiden voyage.
1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union: Azerbaijan declares independence from Soviet Union.
1992 – The 11-day Ruby Ridge standoff ends with Randy Weaver surrendering to federal authorities.
1995 – Bosnian War: NATO launches Operation Deliberate Force against Bosnian Serb forces.
1998 – Second Congo War: Armed forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and their Angolan and Zimbabwean allies recapture Matadi and the Inga dams in the western DRC from RCD and Rwandan troops.
2002 – Rico Linhas Aéreas Flight 4823 crashes on approach to Rio Branco International Airport, killing 23 of the 31 people on board.
2008 – A Conviasa Boeing 737 crashes into Illiniza Volcano in Ecuador, killing all three people on board.
2014 – Prime Minister of Lesotho Tom Thabane flees to South Africa as the army allegedly stages a coup.
2021 – The last remaining American troops leave Afghanistan, ending U.S. involvement in the war.
2023 – Gabonese coup d'état: After Ali Bongo Ondimba's reelection, a military coup ousted him, ending 56 years of Bongo family rule in Gabon.
Births
Pre-1600
1334 – Peter of Castile (d. 1369)
1574 – Albert Szenczi Molnár, Hungarian writer and translator (d. 1634)
1601–1900
1609 – Sir Alexander Carew, 2nd Baronet, English politician (d. 1644)
1609 – Artus Quellinus the Elder, Flemish sculptor (d. 1668)
1627 – Itō Jinsai, Japanese philosopher (d. 1705)
1716 – Capability Brown, English landscape architect (d. 1783)
1720 – Samuel Whitbread, English brewer and politician, founded Whitbread (d. 1796)
1748 – Jacques-Louis David, French painter and illustrator (d. 1825)
1768 – Joseph Dennie, American author and journalist (d. 1812)
1797 – Mary Shelley, English novelist and playwright (d. 1851)
1812 – Agoston Haraszthy, Hungarian-American businessman, founded Buena Vista Winery (d. 1869)
1818 – Alexander H. Rice, American businessman and politician, 30th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1895)
1839 – Gulstan Ropert, French-American bishop and missionary (d. 1903)
1842 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Alexandrovna of Russia (d. 1849)
1844 – Emily Ruete/Salama bint Said, also called Sayyida Salme, a Princess of Zanzibar and Oman (d. 1924)
1848 – Andrew Onderdonk, American surveyor and contractor (d. 1905)
1850 – Marcelo H. del Pilar, Filipino journalist and lawyer (d. 1896)
1852 – Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Dutch chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1911)
1852 – J. Alden Weir, American painter and academic (d. 1919)
1855 – Evelyn De Morgan, English painter (d. 1919)
1856 – Carl David Tolmé Runge, German mathematician, physicist, and spectroscopist (d. 1927)
1858 – Ignaz Sowinski, Galician architect (d. 1917)
1860 – Isaac Levitan, Russian painter and illustrator (d. 1900)
1870 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna of Russia (d. 1891)
1871 – Ernest Rutherford, New Zealand-English physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937)
1883 – Theo van Doesburg, Dutch artist (d. 1931)
1884 – Theodor Svedberg, Swedish chemist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
1885 – Tedda Courtney, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1957)
1887 – Paul Kochanski, Polish violinist and composer (d. 1934)
1890 – Samuel Frederick Henry Thompson, English captain and pilot (d. 1918)
1893 – Huey Long, American lawyer and politician, 40th Governor of Louisiana (d. 1935)
1896 – Raymond Massey, Canadian-American actor and playwright (d. 1983)
1898 – Shirley Booth, American actress and singer (d. 1992)
1901–present
1901 – John Gunther, American journalist and author (d. 1970)
1901 – Roy Wilkins, American journalist and activist (d. 1981)
1903 – Bhagwati Charan Verma, Indian author (d. 1981)
1906 – Joan Blondell, American actress and singer (d. 1979)
1906 – Olga Taussky-Todd, Austrian mathematician (d. 1995)
1907 – Leonor Fini, Argentine painter, illustrator, and author (d. 1996)
1907 – Bertha Parker Pallan, American archaeologist (d. 1978)
1907 – John Mauchly, American physicist and co-founder of the first computer company (d. 1980)
1908 – Fred MacMurray, American actor (d. 1991)
1909 – Virginia Lee Burton, American author and illustrator (d. 1968)
1910 – Roger Bushell, South African-English soldier and pilot (d. 1944)
1912 – Edward Mills Purcell, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
1912 – Nancy Wake, New Zealand-English captain (d. 2011)
1913 – Richard Stone, English economist and statistician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)
1915 – Princess Lilian, Duchess of Halland (d. 2013)
1915 – Robert Strassburg, American composer, conductor, and educator (d. 2003)
1916 – Shailendra, Pakistani-Indian songwriter (d. 1968)
1917 – Dan Enright, American television producer (d. 1992)
1917 – Denis Healey, English soldier and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 2015)
1917 – Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich of Russia (d. 1992)
1918 – Harold Atcherley, English businessman (d. 2017)
1918 – Billy Johnson, American baseball player (d. 2006)
1918 – Ted Williams, American baseball player and manager (d. 2002)
1919 – Maurice Hilleman, American microbiologist and vaccinologist (d. 2005)
1919 – Wolfgang Wagner, German director and manager (d. 2010)
1919 – Kitty Wells, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2012)
1920 – Arnold Green, Estonian soldier and politician (d. 2011)
1922 – Lionel Murphy, Australian jurist and politician, 22nd Attorney-General of Australia (d. 1986)
1922 – Regina Resnik, American soprano and actress (d. 2013)
1923 – Barbara Ansell, English physician and author (d. 2001)
1923 – Charmian Clift, Australian journalist and author (d. 1969)
1923 – Vic Seixas, American tennis player (d. 2024)
1924 – Kenny Dorham, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player (d. 1972)
1924 – Lajos Kisfaludy, Hungarian chemist and engineer (d. 1988)
1924 – Geoffrey Beene, American fashion designer (d. 2004)
1925 – Laurent de Brunhoff, French author and illustrator (d. 2024)
1925 – Donald Symington, American actor (d. 2013)
1926 – Daryl Gates, American police officer, created the D.A.R.E. Program (d. 2010)
1927 – Bill Daily, American actor and comedian (d. 2018)
1927 – Piet Kee, Dutch organist and composer (d. 2018)
1928 – Lloyd Casner, American race car driver (d. 1965)
1928 – Harvey Hart, Canadian director and producer (d. 1989)
1928 – Johnny Mann, American singer-songwriter and conductor (d. 2014)
1929 – Guy de Lussigny, French painter and sculptor (d. 2001)
1929 – Ian McNaught-Davis, English mountaineer and television host (d. 2014)
1930 – Warren Buffett, American businessman and philanthropist
1930 – Noel Harford, New Zealand cricketer and basketball player (d. 1981)
1931 – Jack Swigert, American pilot and astronaut (d. 1982)
1933 – Don Getty, Canadian football player and politician, 11th Premier of Alberta (d. 2016)
1934 – Antonio Cabangon Chua, Filipino media mogul and businessman (d. 2016)
1935 – John Phillips, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)
1935 – Alexandra Bellow, Romanian-American mathematician
1936 – Peter North, English scholar and academic
1937 – Bruce McLaren, New Zealand race car driver and engineer, founded the McLaren racing team (d. 1970)
1938 – Murray Gleeson, Australian lawyer and judge, 11th Chief Justice of Australia
1939 – Elizabeth Ashley, American actress
1939 – John Peel, English radio host and producer (d. 2004)
1940 – Jack Biondolillo, American bowler (d. 2021)
1941 – Ignazio Giunti, Italian race car driver (d. 1971)
1941 – Ben Jones, American actor and politician
1941 – Sue MacGregor, English journalist and radio host
1941 – John McNally, English singer and guitarist
1942 – Jonathan Aitken, Irish-British journalist and politician, Minister for Defence Procurement
1942 – John Kani, South African actor
1942 – Pervez Sajjad, Pakistani cricketer
1943 – Tal Brody, American-Israeli basketball player and coach
1943 – Robert Crumb, American illustrator
1943 – Colin Dann, English author
1943 – Nigel Hall, English sculptor and academic
1943 – Jean-Claude Killy, French skier
1943 – David Maslanka, American composer and academic (d. 2017)
1944 – Frances Cairncross, English economist, journalist, and academic
1944 – Freek de Jonge, Dutch singer and comedian
1944 – Molly Ivins, American journalist and author (d. 2007)
1944 – Tug McGraw, American baseball player (d. 2004)
1944 – Alex Wyllie, New Zealand rugby player and coach
1946 – Queen Anne-Marie of Greece
1946 – Peggy Lipton, American model and actress (d. 2019)
1947 – Allan Rock, Canadian lawyer, politician, and diplomat, Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations
1948 – Lewis Black, American comedian, actor, and author
1948 – Fred Hampton, American activist and revolutionary, chairman of the Illinois chapter of the Black Panther Party (d. 1969)
1948 – Victor Skumin, Russian psychiatrist, psychologist, and academic
1949 – Ted Ammon, American financier and banker (d. 2001)
1949 – Don Boudria, Canadian public servant and politician, 2nd Canadian Minister for International Cooperation
1950 – Antony Gormley, English sculptor and academic
1950 – Dana Rosemary Scallon, Irish singer and activist
1951 – Timothy Bottoms, American actor
1951 – Gediminas Kirkilas, Lithuanian politician, 11th Prime Minister of Lithuania (d. 2024)
1951 – Jim Paredes, Filipino singer-songwriter and actor
1952 – Simon Bainbridge, English composer and educator (d. 2021)
1952 – Wojtek Fibak, Polish tennis player
1953 – Ron George, American businessman and politician
1953 – Lech Majewski, Polish director, producer, and screenwriter
1953 – Horace Panter, English bass player
1953 – Robert Parish, American basketball player
1954 – Alexander Lukashenko, Belarusian marshal and politician, 1st President of Belarus
1954 – Ravi Shankar Prasad, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Communications and IT
1954 – David Paymer, American actor and director
1955 – Jamie Moses, English-American guitarist
1955 – Martin Jackson, English drummer
1956 – Frank Conniff, American actor, producer, and screenwriter
1957 – Gerald Albright, American musician
1958 – Karen Buck, Northern Irish politician
1958 – Fran Fraschilla, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster
1958 – Muriel Gray, Scottish journalist and author
1958 – Anna Politkovskaya, Russian journalist and activist (d. 2006)
1958 – Peter Tunks, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster
1959 – Mark "Jacko" Jackson, Australian footballer, actor, and singer
1960 – Ben Bradshaw, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport
1960 – Gary Gordon, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1993)
1960 – Guy A. Lepage, Canadian comedian and producer
1962 – Ricky Sanders, American football player
1962 – Craig Whittaker, English businessman and politician
1963 – Dave Brockie, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014)
1963 – Michael Chiklis, American actor, director, and producer
1963 – Sabine Oberhauser, Austrian physician and politician (d. 2017)
1963 – Phil Mills, Welsh race car driver
1964 – Gavin Fisher, English engineer and designer
1964 – Ra Luhse, Estonian architect
1966 – Peter Cunnah, Northern Irish singer-songwriter and producer
1966 – Joann Fletcher, English historian and academic
1966 – Michael Michele, American actress
1967 – Frederique van der Wal, Dutch model and actress
1967 – Justin Vaughan, New Zealand cricketer
1968 – Diran Adebayo, English author and critic
1968 – Vladimir Malakhov, Russian ice hockey player
1969 – Vladimir Jugović, Serbian footballer
1969 – Dimitris Sgouros, Greek pianist and composer
1970 – Carlo Checchinato, Italian rugby player and manager
1970 – Paulo Sousa, Portuguese footballer and manager
1970 – Michael Wong, Malaysian-Chinese singer-songwriter
1971 – Lars Frederiksen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1971 – Julian Smith, Scottish politician
1972 – Cameron Diaz, American model, actress, and producer
1972 – Pavel Nedvěd, Czech footballer
1972 – Hani Hanjour, Saudi terrorist, hijacker of American Airlines Flight 77 during the September 11 attacks (d. 2001)
1973 – Lisa Ling, American journalist and author
1974 – Javier Otxoa, Spanish cyclist (d. 2018)
1975 – Radhi Jaïdi, Tunisian footballer and coach
1976 – Mike Koplove, American baseball player
1977 – Shaun Alexander, American football player
1977 – Marlon Byrd, American baseball player
1977 – Raúl Castillo, American actor
1977 – Michael Gladis, American actor
1977 – Kamil Kosowski, Polish footballer
1977 – Félix Sánchez, American-Dominican runner and hurdler
1978 – Sinead Kerr, Scottish figure skater
1978 – Cliff Lee, American baseball player
1979 – Juan Ignacio Chela, Argentine tennis player
1979 – Leon Lopez, English singer-songwriter and actor
1979 – Scott Richmond, Canadian baseball player
1980 – Roberto Hernández, Dominican baseball player
1981 – Germán Legarreta, Puerto Rican-American actor
1981 – Adam Wainwright, American baseball player
1982 – Will Davison, Australian race car driver
1982 – Andy Roddick, American tennis player
1983 – Emmanuel Culio, Argentine footballer
1983 – Gustavo Eberto, Argentine footballer (d. 2007)
1983 – Jun Matsumoto, Japanese singer, dancer, and actor
1983 – Simone Pepe, Italian footballer
1983 – Tian Qin, Chinese canoe racer
1983 – Marco Vianello, Italian footballer
1984 – Anthony Ireland, Zimbabwean cricketer
1984 – Joe Staley, American football player
1984 – Michael Grant Terry, American actor
1985 – Duane Brown, American football player
1985 – Richard Duffy, Welsh footballer
1985 – Joe Inoue, American singer-songwriter
1985 – Leisel Jones, Australian swimmer
1985 – Éva Risztov, Hungarian swimmer
1985 – Steven Smith, Scottish footballer
1985 – Eamon Sullivan, Australian swimmer
1985 – Anna Ushenina, Ukrainian chess player
1985 – Holly Weston, English actress
1986 – Theo Hutchcraft, English singer-songwriter
1986 – Lelia Masaga, New Zealand rugby player
1986 – Ryan Ross, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1986 – Zafer Yelen, Turkish footballer
1987 – Johanna Braddy, American actress
1987 – Tania Foster, English singer-songwriter
1988 – Ernests Gulbis, Latvian tennis player
1989 – Simone Guerra, Italian footballer
1989 – Ronald Huth, Paraguayan footballer
1989 – Bebe Rexha, American singer-songwriter
1991 – Seriki Audu, Nigerian footballer (d. 2014)
1991 – Jacqueline Cako, American tennis player
1991 – Liam Cooper, Scottish footballer
1992 – Jessica Henwick, British actress
1994 – Monika Povilaitytė, Lithuanian volleyball player
1994 – Heo Young-ji, South Korean singer
1994 – Kwon So-hyun, South Korean singer-songwriter and actress
1996 – Mikal Bridges, American basketball player
1996 – Trevor Jackson, American actor and singer-songwriter
2002 – Fábio Carvalho, Portuguese footballer
2002 – Drake Maye, American football player
Deaths
Pre-1600
526 – Theodoric the Great, Italian ruler (b. 454)
832 – Cui Qun, Chinese chancellor (b. 772)
1131 – Hervey le Breton, bishop of Bangor and Ely
1181 – Pope Alexander III (b. c. 1100–1105)
1329 – Khutughtu Khan Kusala, Chinese emperor (b. 1300)
1428 – Emperor Shōkō of Japan (b. 1401)
1483 – Louis XI of France (b. 1423)
1500 – Victor, Duke of Münsterberg and Opava, Count of Glatz (b. 1443)
1580 – Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (b. 1528)
1601–1900
1604 – John Juvenal Ancina, Italian Oratorian and bishop (b. 1545)
1619 – Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1535)
1621 – Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī, co-founder of Isfahan School of Islamic Philosophy (b. 1547)
1751 – Christopher Polhem, Swedish physicist and engineer (b. 1661)
1773 – Peshwa Narayan Rao, Prime Minister of Maratha Empire (b. 1755, assassinated)
1856 – Gilbert Abbott à Beckett, English lawyer and author (b. 1811)
1879 – John Bell Hood, American general (b. 1831)
1886 – Ferris Jacobs, Jr., American general and politician (b. 1836)
1896 – Aleksey Lobanov-Rostovsky, Russian politician and diplomat, Minister of Foreign Affairs for Russia (b. 1824)
1901–present
1906 – Hans Auer, Swiss-Austrian architect and educator, designed the Federal Palace of Switzerland (b. 1847)
1907 – Richard Mansfield, American actor and manager (b. 1857)
1908 – Alexander P. Stewart, American general (b. 1821)
1928 – Wilhelm Wien, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1864)
1935 – Henri Barbusse, French journalist and author (b. 1873)
1935 – Namık İsmail, Turkish painter and educator (b. 1890)
1936 – Ronald Fellowes, 2nd Baron Ailwyn, English peer (b. 1886)
1938 – Max Factor, Sr., Polish-born American make-up artist and businessman, founded the Max Factor Company (b. 1877)
1940 – J. J. Thomson, English physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1856)
1941 – Peder Oluf Pedersen, Danish physicist and engineer (b. 1874)
1943 – Eddy de Neve, Indonesian-Dutch footballer and lieutenant (b. 1885)
1943 – Eustáquio van Lieshout, Dutch priest and missionary (b. 1890)
1945 – Alfréd Schaffer, Hungarian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1893)
1946 – Konstantin Rodzaevsky, Russian lawyer (b. 1907)
1947 – Gunnar Sommerfeldt, Danish actor and director (b. 1890)
1948 – Alice Salomon, German-American social reformer (b. 1872)
1949 – Arthur Fielder, English cricketer (b. 1877)
1951 – Konstantin Märska, Estonian director and cinematographer (b. 1896)
1954 – Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster, Italian cardinal (b. 1880)
1961 – Cristóbal de Losada y Puga, Peruvian mathematician (b. 1894)
1961 – Charles Coburn, American actor (b. 1877)
1963 – Guy Burgess, English-Soviet spy (b. 1911)
1964 – Salme Dutt, Estonian-English lawyer and politician (b. 1888)
1967 – Ad Reinhardt, American painter, illustrator, and academic (b. 1913)
1968 – William Talman, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1915)
1970 – Del Moore, American comedian and actor (b. 1916)
1970 – Abraham Zapruder, American clothing manufacturer, witness to the assassination of John F. Kennedy (b. 1905)
1971 – Ali Hadi Bara, Iranian-Turkish sculptor (b. 1906)
1979 – Jean Seberg, American actress (b. 1938)
1981 – Vera-Ellen, American actress and dancer (b. 1921)
1981 – Mohammad-Ali Rajai, Iranian politician, 2nd President of Iran (b. 1933)
1985 – Taylor Caldwell, English-American author (b. 1900)
1988 – Jack Marshall, New Zealand colonel, lawyer and politician, 28th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1912)
1989 – Seymour Krim, American journalist and critic (b. 1922)
1990 – Bernard D. H. Tellegen, Dutch engineer and academic (b. 1900)
1991 – Cyril Knowles, English footballer and manager (b. 1944)
1991 – Vladimír Padrůněk, Czech bass player (b. 1952)
1991 – Jean Tinguely, Swiss painter and sculptor (b. 1925)
1993 – Richard Jordan, American actor (b. 1938)
1994 – Lindsay Anderson, English director and screenwriter (b. 1923)
1995 – Fischer Black, American economist and academic (b. 1938)
1995 – Sterling Morrison, American guitarist and singer (b. 1942)
1996 – Christine Pascal, French actress, director, and screenwriter (b. 1953)
1999 – Reindert Brasser, Dutch discus thrower (b. 1912)
1999 – Raymond Poïvet, French illustrator (b. 1910)
2001 – Govan Mbeki, ANC activist and father of President of South Africa Thabo Mbeki (b. 1910)
2002 – J. Lee Thompson, English-Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1914)
2003 – Charles Bronson, American actor and soldier (b. 1921)
2003 – Donald Davidson, American philosopher and academic (b. 1917)
2004 – Fred Lawrence Whipple, American astronomer and academic (b. 1906)
2006 – Robin Cooke, Baron Cooke of Thorndon, New Zealand lawyer and judge (b. 1926)
2006 – Glenn Ford, Canadian-American actor and producer (b. 1916)
2006 – Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)
2007 – Michael Jackson, English author and journalist (b. 1942)
2007 – Charles Vanik, American soldier and politician (b. 1918)
2008 – Brian Hambly, Australian rugby player and coach (b. 1937)
2008 – Killer Kowalski, Canadian-American wrestler and trainer (b. 1926)
2009 – Klaus-Peter Hanisch, German footballer (b. 1952)
2010 – J. C. Bailey, American wrestler (b. 1983)
2010 – Alain Corneau, French director and screenwriter (b. 1943)
2010 – Myrtle Edwards, Australian cricketer and softball player (b. 1921)
2010 – Francisco Varallo, Argentine footballer (b. 1910)
2013 – William C. Campbell, American golfer (b. 1923)
2013 – Howie Crittenden, American basketball player and coach (b. 1933)
2013 – Allan Gotthelf, American philosopher and academic (b. 1942)
2013 – Seamus Heaney, Irish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1939)
2013 – Leo Lewis, American football player and coach (b. 1933)
2014 – Charles Bowden, American non-fiction author, journalist and essayist (b. 1945)
2014 – Bipan Chandra, Indian historian and academic (b. 1928)
2014 – Igor Decraene, Belgian cyclist (b. 1996)
2014 – Andrew V. McLaglen, English-American director and producer (b. 1920)
2014 – Felipe Osterling, Peruvian lawyer and politician (b. 1932)
2015 – Wes Craven, American director, producer, screenwriter, and actor (b. 1939)
2015 – Edward Fadeley, American lawyer and politician (b. 1929)
2015 – M. M. Kalburgi, Indian scholar, author, and academic (b. 1938)
2015 – Marvin Mandel, American lawyer and politician, 56th Governor of Maryland (b. 1920)
2015 – Oliver Sacks, English-American neurologist, author, and academic (b. 1933)
2017 – Louise Hay, American motivational author (b. 1926)
2017 – Skip Prokop, Canadian drummer, guitarist and keyboardist (b. 1943)
2019 – Valerie Harper, American actress and writer (b. 1939)
2022 – Mikhail Gorbachev, 8th and final leader of the Soviet Union (b. 1931)
2024 – Tūheitia Paki, Māori King (b. 1955)
2024 – Fatman Scoop, American rapper, hype man and radio personality (b. 1971)
Holidays and observances
Christian feast day:
Alexander of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodoxy)
Blessed Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster
Blessed Eustáquio van Lieshout
Blessed Stephen Nehmé (Maronite Church / Catholic Church)
Charles Chapman Grafton (Episcopal Church)
Fantinus
Felix and Adauctus
Fiacre
Jeanne Jugan
Narcisa de Jesús
Pammachius
Theodosius of Oria
August 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Constitution Day (Kazakhstan)
Constitution Day (Turks and Caicos Islands)
Independence Day (Tatarstan, Russia not formally recognized)
International Day of the Disappeared
International Whale Shark Day
Popular Consultation Day (East Timor)
Saint Rose of Lima's Day (Peru)
Victory Day (Turkey)
References
External links
Category:Days of August
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_30
|
2025-04-05T18:25:47.594834
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1797
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Acre
|
{{short description|Unit of area}}
{{About|the unit of area measure|other uses|Acre (disambiguation)|}}
{{Redirect|Acres|the surname|Acres (surname)}}
{{Use dmy dates|dateNovember 2024 |cs1-datesll}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox unit
| bgcolor | name acre
| image = Comparison land area units.svg <!--Need more useful/clear image-->
| caption = One hectare, with an acre represented as the lower white-and-yellow checkered region <!--Carefully interpret image before editing-->
| standard = US customary units, Imperial units
| quantity = area
| symbol = ac
| symbol2 = acre
| extralabel | extradata
| units1 = SI units
| inunits1 {{convert|1|acre|m2|dispout|sigfig11}}
| units2 = US customary, Imperial
| inunits2 ≡ {{convert|1|acre|yd2|dispout|sigfig=4}}<br />≡ {{frac|1|640}}&nbsp;sq mi
}}
; the dark blue area at right represents 100 acres.]]
The acre ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|eɪ|k|ər}} {{Respell|AY|kər}}) is a unit of land area used in the British imperial and the United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one chain by one furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to 10 square chains, {{frac|1|640}} of a square mile, 4,840 square yards, or 43,560 square feet, and approximately 4,047&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup>, or about 40% of a hectare. Based upon the international yard and pound agreement of 1959, an acre may be declared as exactly 4,046.8564224 square metres. The acre is sometimes abbreviated ac<ref>{{cite book |titleDictionary of Weights, Measures and Units |urlhttps://archive.org/details/dictionaryofweig0000fenn |url-accessregistration |page[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofweig0000fenn/page/4 4]|firstDonald |lastFenna |publisherOxford University Press |year2002 |isbn0-19-860522-6}}</ref> but is usually spelled out as the word "acre".<ref name"NIST">National Institute of Standards and Technology [http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Publications/upload/h4402_appenc.pdf (n.d.) General Tables of Units of Measurement]. {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061126120208/http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Publications/upload/h4402_appenc.pdf |date26 November 2006 }}.</ref>
Traditionally, in the Middle Ages, an acre was conceived of as the area of land that could be ploughed by one man using a team of eight oxen in one day.<ref namenottingham>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/researchguidance/weightsandmeasures/measurements.aspx |titleManuscripts and Special Collections – Measurements |publisher the University of Nottingham |access-date= 1 August 2018}}</ref>
The acre is still a statutory measure in the United States. Both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but they differ by only four parts per million (see below). The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land.
The acre is used in many established and former Commonwealth of Nations countries by custom. In a few, it continues as a statute measure, although not since 2010 in the UK, and not for decades in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. In many places where it is not a statute measure, it is still lawful to "use for trade" if given as supplementary information and is not used for land registration.
Description
One acre equals {{frac|1|640}} (0.0015625) square mile, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet,<ref name"NIST" /> or about {{convert|4047|m2|ha|abbroff|lkon|sigfig4}} (see below). While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are alternative definitions of a yard, so the exact size of an acre depends upon the particular yard on which it is based. Originally, an acre was understood as a strip of land sized at forty perches (660&nbsp;ft, or 1&nbsp;furlong) long and four perches (66&nbsp;ft) wide;<ref name"Klein2012">{{cite book| lastKlein |firstHerbert Arthur |titleThe Science of Measurement: A Historical Survey |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCrmuSiCFyikC&pgPA76 |year2012 |publisherCourier Corporation |isbn978-0-486-14497-9 |page76}}</ref> this may have also been understood as an approximation of the amount of land a yoke of oxen could plough in one day (a furlong being "a furrow long"). A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57&nbsp;yards, or 208&nbsp;feet 9&nbsp;inches ({{convert|208.71|ft|m|abbroff|dispout}}), on a side. As a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape; any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre.US survey acresIn the international yard and pound agreement of 1959, the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metre.<ref nameNBS1959>{{cite web |publisherNational Bureau of Standards |date 25 June 1959 |urlhttp://geodesy.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/FedRegister/FRdoc59-5442.pdf |title Refinement of Values for the Yard and the Pound |websitenoaa.gov |archive-url https://archive.today/20200305184155/https://geodesy.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/FedRegister/FRdoc59-5442.pdf |archive-date5 March 2020 |url-status dead |access-date3 December 2006 }}</ref> The US authorities decided that, while the refined definition would apply nationally in all other respects, the US survey foot (and thus the survey acre) would continue 'until such a time as it becomes desirable and expedient to readjust [it]'.<ref nameNBS1959 /> By inference, an "international acre" may be calculated as exactly {{gaps|4,046.856|422|4}} square metres but it does not have a basis in any international agreement.
Both the international acre and the US survey acre contain {{frac|640}} of a square mile or 4,840 square yards, but alternative definitions of a yard are used (see survey foot and survey yard), so the exact size of an acre depends upon the yard upon which it is based. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872 square metres; its exact value ({{sfrac|4046|13,525,426|15,499,969}}&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup>) is based on an inch defined by 1&nbsp;metre 39.37&nbsp;inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order of 1893.<ref>* {{cite journal |lastMendenhall |firstT.C. |date6 October 1922 |titleThe United States Fundamental Standards of Length and Mass |journalScience |seriesNew Series |volume56 |issue1449 |pages337–380 |issn0036-8075 |doi10.1126/science.56.1449.377 |jstor1647062 |pmid17833047 |bibcode1922Sci....56..377M |access-date16 August 2021 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1647062}}</ref> Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre.<ref>National Geodetic Survey, (January 1991), [http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/INFO/Policy/st_plane.html Policy of the National Geodetic Survey Concerning Units of Measure for the State Plane Coordinate System of 1983].</ref>
Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre (0.016 square metres, 160 square centimetres or 24.8 square inches), is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet or US letter, it is usually not important which one is being discussed. Areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable.<ref>[https://www.nsps.us.com/resource/resmgr/alta_standards/2021_Standards_20201030_grk.pdf Minimum Standard Detail Requirements For ALTA/NSPS Land Title Surveys]. Federick, MD: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. 2021. [The stated maximum allowable "precision" (page 2) is 2&nbsp;cm and 50 parts per million. An instrument consistently measuring 2&nbsp;cm short would measure the area of a one international acre square, 63.614907&nbsp;m on a side, as 4044.3 square metres, 2.6 square metres less than the true value, a far greater discrepancy than the difference between the international and survey acres.]</ref>
In October 2019, the US National Geodetic Survey and the National Institute of Standards and Technology announced their joint intent to end the "temporary" continuance of the US survey foot, mile, and acre units (as permitted by their 1959 decision, above), with effect from the end of 2022.<ref>{{cite web |titleNGS and NIST to Retire U.S. Survey Foot after 2022 |urlhttps://www.ngs.noaa.gov/web/news/us-survey-foot.shtml |publisherNational Geodetic Survey |access-date4 March 2020 |date31 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleU.S. Survey Foot: Revised Unit Conversion Factors |urlhttps://www.nist.gov/pml/us-surveyfoot/revised-unit-conversion-factors |publisherNIST |access-date4 March 2020 |date16 October 2019}}</ref>
Spanish acre
The Puerto Rican cuerda ({{convert|1|cda|dispout}}) is sometimes called the "Spanish acre" in the continental United States.<ref name"Rowlett">[http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/dictC.html Units: C: cuerda]. Russ Rowlett. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.</ref>
Use
The acre is commonly used in many current and former Commonwealth countries by custom, and in a few it continues as a statute measure. These include Antigua and Barbuda,<ref name"antiguaobserver">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.antiguaobserver.com/govt-gifts-bakka-with-half-acre-land/|titleGov't Gifts 'Bakka' With Half-Acre Land {{pipe}} Antigua Observer Newspaper|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004213313/http://www.antiguaobserver.com/govt-gifts-bakka-with-half-acre-land/|archive-date4 October 2013|url-statusdead|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> American Samoa,<ref name"samoanews">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.samoanews.com/?qnode/4505|titleNational Park of American Samoa completes two successful forest projects {{pipe}} Samoa News|date15 April 2012 |publisherSamoaNews.com|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> The Bahamas,<ref name"thenassauguardian">{{cite web |last1Lowe |first1Alison |titleConstruction underway on Old Fort School |urlhttps://thenassauguardian.com/2013/08/15/construction-underway-on-old-fort-school/ |websiteThe Nassau Guardian |date15 August 2013 |access-date6 February 2019 |archive-date25 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190425055105/https://thenassauguardian.com/2013/08/15/construction-underway-on-old-fort-school/ |url-statusdead }}</ref> Belize,<ref name"amandala">{{cite web|urlhttp://amandala.com.bz/news/2225-acre-cobia-farm-proposed-near-lark-and-bugle-cayes/|title2,225-acre Cobia farm proposed near Lark and Bugle Cayes {{pipe}} Amandala Newspaper|date7 January 2008 |publisheramandala.com.bz|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> the British Virgin Islands,<ref name"bvibeacon">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.bvibeacon.com/2/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id3051%3Awork-continues-on-development-&Itemid1&showall1|titleWork continues on development|publisherbvibeacon.com|access-date14 February 2014}},</ref> Canada,<ref name"Statistics Canada">{{cite web|urlhttps://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid3210004701|titleValue per acre of farm land and buildings at July 1|date13 April 2021 |publisherStatistics Canada|access-date11 March 2023}}</ref> the Cayman Islands,<ref name"compasscayman">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.compasscayman.com/caycompass/2013/08/21/Kai-drama-over-50-acre-development/|titleKai drama over 50-acre development :: cayCompass.com|publishercompasscayman.com|access-date14 February 2014|archive-date1 March 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140301003404/http://www.compasscayman.com/caycompass/2013/08/21/Kai-drama-over-50-acre-development/|url-statusdead}}</ref> Dominica,<ref name"dominicanewsonline">{{cite web|urlhttp://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/agriculture/dominica-not-meeting-quota-in-banana-industry/|titleDominica not meeting quota for international banana markets {{pipe}} Dominica News Online|publisherdominicanewsonline.com|access-date14 February 2014|archive-date4 October 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004213258/http://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/agriculture/dominica-not-meeting-quota-in-banana-industry/|url-statusdead}}</ref> the Falkland Islands,<ref name"penguin-news">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.penguin-news.com/index.php/columns/28-farm-yarns-with-elaine/462-farm-yarns-with-elaine-turner-part-13|titleFarm Yarns with Elaine – Farm yarns with Elaine Turner – Part 13|publisherpenguin-news.com|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924070635/http://www.penguin-news.com/index.php/columns/28-farm-yarns-with-elaine/462-farm-yarns-with-elaine-turner-part-13|archive-date24 September 2015|url-statusdead|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> Grenada,<ref name"grenadabroadcast">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.grenadabroadcast.com/news/diaspora/14367-the-grenada-spices-industry|titleGrenada Broadcast – George Grant – The Grenada Spices Industry|publishergrenadabroadcast.com|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004215245/http://www.grenadabroadcast.com/news/diaspora/14367-the-grenada-spices-industry|archive-date4 October 2013|url-statusdead|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> Ghana,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.theafricareport.com/News-Analysis/mortgages-in-ghana-snapping-up-an-acre-of-accra-real-estate.html|titleMortgages in Ghana: Snapping up an acre of Accra real estate |lastOfori-Atta|firstPrince|websitewww.theafricareport.com|languageen-gb|access-date31 March 2018}}</ref> Guam,<ref name"guampdn">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.guampdn.com/article/20130824/NEWS01/308240022/Manamko-could-see-new-homes|titleLocal News {{pipe}} Pacific Daily News|publisherguampdn.com|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20131001040155/http://www.guampdn.com/article/20130824/NEWS01/308240022/Manamko-could-see-new-homes|archive-date1 October 2013|url-statusdead|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> the Northern Mariana Islands,<ref name"saipantribune">{{cite web |titleIslan Pagan |urlhttp://www.saipantribune.com/newsstory.aspx?cat15&newsID126803 |websitesaipantribune.com |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131017024119/http://www.saipantribune.com/newsstory.aspx?cat15&newsID126803 |archive-date17 October 2013}}</ref> Jamaica,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://supremecourt.gov.jm/sites/default/files/judgments/Tropicrop%20Mushrooms%20Ltd%20v%20Saint%20Thomas%20Parish%20Council%2C%20etal.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://supremecourt.gov.jm/sites/default/files/judgments/Tropicrop%20Mushrooms%20Ltd%20v%20Saint%20Thomas%20Parish%20Council%2C%20etal.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleTropicrop Mushrooms Ltd v Saint Thomas Parish Council, etal}}</ref> Montserrat,<ref name"themontserratreporter">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.themontserratreporter.com/beresford-allen-of-st-peters-montserrat-is-a-wanted-man/|titleBeresford Allen of St. Peters Montserrat is a Wanted Man! {{pipe}} The Montserrat Reporter|publisherthemontserratreporter.com|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> Samoa,<ref name"samoaobserver">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.samoaobserver.ws/local-news/politics/3110-conflicting-stories-about-nuu-estate|titleConflicting stories about Nu'u estate|publishersamoaobserver.ws|access-date14 February 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180919111736/http://www.samoaobserver.ws/local-news/politics/3110-conflicting-stories-about-nuu-estate|archive-date19 September 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref> Saint Lucia,<ref name"thevoiceslu">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.thevoiceslu.com/features/2008/july/12_07_08/The_Redevelopment_of_the_Union_Agricultural_Station.htm|titleThe Voice – The national newspaper of St. Lucia since 1885|publisherthevoiceslu.com|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004215536/http://www.thevoiceslu.com/features/2008/july/12_07_08/The_Redevelopment_of_the_Union_Agricultural_Station.htm|archive-date4 October 2013|url-statusdead|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> St. Helena,<ref name"sthelenaonline">{{cite web|urlhttp://sthelenaonline.org/2012/09/02/feature-we-built-an-island-dream-on-our-own-st-helena/|titleFEATURE: We built an island dream on our own St Helena {{pipe}} St Helena Online|publishersthelenaonline.org|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131021090201/http://sthelenaonline.org/2012/09/02/feature-we-built-an-island-dream-on-our-own-st-helena/|archive-date21 October 2013|url-statusdead|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> St. Kitts and Nevis,<ref name"thestkittsnevisobserver">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.thestkittsnevisobserver.com/2013/06/14/passport-money.html|titleSIDF Sinks SKN Passport Money into Christophe Harbour :: The St. Kitts-Nevis Observer|publisherthestkittsnevisobserver.com|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004212924/http://www.thestkittsnevisobserver.com/2013/06/14/passport-money.html|archive-date4 October 2013|url-statusdead|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> St. Vincent and the Grenadines,<ref name"iwnsvg">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.iwnsvg.com/2013/03/15/pmvows-to-spend-rest-of-life-seeking-reparations/|titlePM vows to spend rest of life seeking reparations – I-Witness News|date15 March 2013 |publisheriwnsvg.com|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> Turks and Caicos,<ref name"suntci">{{cite web|urlhttp://suntci.com/government-gets-million-from-emerald-cay-sale-p402-106.htm|titleGovernment gets $8million from Emerald Cay sale|publishersuntci.com|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> the United Kingdom, the United States and the US Virgin Islands.<ref name"virginislandsdailynews">{{cite web|urlhttp://m.virginislandsdailynews.com/news/proposed-dolphin-facility-will-enclose-about-2-acres-of-water-bay-1.1415178|titleProposed dolphin facility will enclose about 2 acres of Water Bay – News – Virgin Islands Daily News|publisherm.virginislandsdailynews.com|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022220250/http://m.virginislandsdailynews.com/news/proposed-dolphin-facility-will-enclose-about-2-acres-of-water-bay-1.1415178|archive-date22 October 2013|url-statusdead|access-date14 February 2014}}</ref>
Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, the hectare is legally used under European units of measurement directives; however, the acre (the same standard statute as used in the UK, not the old Irish acre, which was of a different size) is still widely used, especially in agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.farmersjournal.ie/hectacre-recognised-as-official-area-measurement-359167|title'Hectacre' recognised as official area measurement|websitewww.farmersjournal.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.farmersjournal.ie/what-is-an-acre-the-history-of-land-surveying-154946|titleWhat is an acre? The history of land surveying|websitewww.farmersjournal.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.irishexaminer.com/opinion/columnists/arid-20170714.html|titleTime to fully embrace the metric system|date15 October 2011|websiteIrish Examiner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://usma.org/metrication-in-other-countries|titleMetrication in other countries – US Metric Association|websiteusma.org}}</ref>Indian subcontinentIn India, residential plots are measured in square feet or square metre, while agricultural land is measured in acres.<ref>{{Cite web|date17 April 2020|titleLand Measurement Units in India – Confident Group|urlhttps://www.confident-group.com/land-measurement-units-in-india/|access-date19 October 2020|websitewww.confident-group.com|languageen}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, the division of an acre into 160&nbsp;perches or 4&nbsp;roods is common.<ref>{{Cite web|date27 July 2018|titleWhat is a perch of land in Sri Lanka?|urlhttps://www.ceylonestateagents.com/faqs/what-is-a-perch-of-land-in-sri-lanka|access-date19 October 2020|languageen-GB}}</ref>
In Pakistan, residential plots are measured in {{lang|ur-Latn|kanal}} (20 {{lang|ur-Latn|marla}} 1&nbsp;{{lang|ur-Latn|kanal}} 605 sq yards) and open/agriculture land measurement is in acres (8 {{lang|ur-Latn|kanal}} 1 acre) and {{lang|ur-Latn|muraba}} (25 acres 1 {{lang|ur-Latn|muraba}} 200 {{lang|ur-Latn|kanal}}), {{lang|ur-Latn|jerib, wiswa}} and {{lang|ur-Latn|gunta}}.<ref>{{Cite web |titleMurabba to Kanal Calculator {{!}} Convert Murabba to Kanal |urlhttps://housing.com/calculators/murabba-to-kanal |access-date21 November 2024 |websiteHousing |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastRowlett |firstRuss |titleHow Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement |urlhttps://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/dictK.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080112120328/https://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/dictK.html |archive-date12 January 2008 |access-date21 November 2024 |website=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill}}</ref>
<!-- text suspended pending citations. Articles need to be written first for these measures, properly supported with evidence
*4 peli = 1 acre
* 1 Acre 2 Jarebs 43,560 Square feet = 4,840 square yards
* 1 Jareb 20 Wiswa 21,780 Square feet = 2,420 square yards
* 1 Wiswa 1089 Square feet 121 SYards = 33 x 33 feet
-->
United Kingdom
Its use as a primary unit for trade in the United Kingdom ceased to be permitted from 1 October 1995, due to the 1994 amendment of the Weights and Measures Act,<ref nameUK1994>[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1994/2866/schedule/made The Weights and Measures Act 1985 (Metrication) (Amendment) Order 1994] HM Government, 1995</ref> where it was replaced by the hectare{{snd}} though its use as a supplementary unit continues to be permitted indefinitely.<ref name"legislation_20093045">{{Cite web| urlhttp://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2009/3045/pdfs/uksiem_20093045_en.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2009/3045/pdfs/uksiem_20093045_en.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive | year 2009 | title Explanatory memorandum to The weights and measures (metrication amendments) regulations 2009|publisherLegislation.gov.uk}}</ref> This was with the exemption of land registration,<ref name UK1994 /> which records the sale and possession of land;<ref>{{cite web| titleLand Registration Act 2002 | urlhttps://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2002/9/contents | websitelegislation.gov.uk | publisherThe National Archives | locationUK | year2002 | access-date3 August 2018}}</ref> in 2010 HM Land Registry ended its exemption.<ref name"legislation_20093045"/> The measure is still used to communicate with the public<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://waddesdon.org.uk/about-us/waddesdon-estate/ |publisherWaddesdon Manor |titleAbout us. Waddesdon Estate |quoteBy purchasing the adjoining land, the estate has grown from the original 2,700 acres in 1874 to 6,000 acres in 2011.}}</ref> and informally (non-contract) by the farming and property industries.<ref>{{cite web|titleOutlook and historical context|url https://www.savills.co.uk/research_articles/229130/228020-0A|publisherSavills|date 12 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|titleAmount of UK farmland put up for sale shrinks as prices fall|date13 February 2018|newspaperFinancial Times|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/bce30bee-1016-11e8-8cb6-b9ccc4c4dbbb |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/bce30bee-1016-11e8-8cb6-b9ccc4c4dbbb |archive-date10 December 2022 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.farminguk.com/farmsandlandforsale|titleLand for Sale|websitefarminguk}}</ref>Equivalence to other units of area
field (green) and Association football/soccer pitch (blue)]]
1 international acre is equal to the following metric units:
* 0.40468564224 hectare (A square with 100&nbsp;m sides has an area of 1 hectare.)
* 4,046.8564224 square metres (or a square with approximately 63.61&nbsp;m sides)
1 United States survey acre is equal to:
* 0.404687261 hectare
* 4,046.87261 square metres (1 square kilometre is equal to 247.105 acres)
1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units:
* 66 feet × 660 feet (43,560 square feet)
* 10 square chains (1 chain 66 feet 22 yards 4 rods 100 links)
* 1 acre is approximately 208.71 feet × 208.71 feet (a square)
* 4,840 square yards
* 43,560 square feet
* 160 perches. A perch is equal to a square rod (1 square rod is 0.00625 acre)
* 4 roods
* A furlong by a chain (furlong 220 yards, chain 22 yards)
* 40 rods by 4 rods, 160 rods<sup>2</sup> (historically fencing was often sold in 40 rod lengths<ref>{{Cite journal|date1919|titleed. 842|journalFarmers' Bulletin|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office|page=24}}</ref>)
* {{frac|1|640}} (0.0015625) square mile (1 square mile is equal to 640 acres)
Perhaps the easiest way for US residents to envision an acre is as a rectangle measuring 88 yards by 55 yards ({{frac|1|10}} of 880 yards by {{frac|1|16}} of 880 yards), about {{frac|9|10}} the size of a standard American football field. To be more exact, one acre is 90.75% of a 100-yd-long by 53.33-yd-wide American football field (without the end zone). The full field, including the end zones, covers about {{convert|1.32|acres|2|abbr=on}}.
For residents of other countries, the acre might be envisioned as rather more than half of a {{convert|1.76|acres|2|abbron}} football pitch. Historical origin
{{Anthropic_Farm_Units}}
The word acre is derived from the Norman, attested for the first time in a text of Fécamp in 1006 to the meaning of «agrarian measure».<ref>{{cite web |last1CNTRL | titlePortail Lexical - Etymologie de acre |urlhttps://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?urlhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnrtl.fr%2Fetymologie%2Facre#federationarchive.wikiwix.com&taburl}}</ref> Acre dates back to the old Scandinavian akr “cultivated field, ploughed land” which is perpetuated in Icelandic and the Faroese {{lang|de|akur}} “field (wheat)”, Norwegian and Swedish {{lang|de|åker}}, Danish {{lang|de|ager}} “field”, cognate with German {{lang|de|Acker}}, Dutch {{lang|nl|akker}}, Latin {{lang|la|ager}}, Sanskrit {{lang|sa-Latn|ajr}}, and Greek {{lang|el|αγρός}} ({{lang|el-Latn|agros}}). In English, an obsolete variant spelling was aker.
According to the Act on the Composition of Yards and Perches, dating from around 1300, an acre is "40 perches <nowiki>[</nowiki>rods] in length and four in breadth",<ref name"BritainRuffhead1765">{{cite book|author1Great Britain|author2Owen Ruffhead |author-link2Owen Ruffhead |titleStatutes at Large |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUn1RAAAAYAAJ&q%22quod%20tria%20grana%22&pgPA421 |access-date12 February 2012 |year1765 |publisherPrinted by M. Baskett |page421| quoteIt is ordained that 3 grains of barley dry and round do make an inch, 12 inches make 1 foot, 3 feet make 1 yard, 5 yards and a half make a perch, and 40 perches in length and 4 in breadth make an acre.}}</ref> meaning 220 yards by 22 yards.{{efn|22 yards is about 20 meters.}} As detailed in the diagram, an acre was roughly the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/1769|titleacre, n. |encyclopedia Oxford English Dictionary | date December 2011}}</ref>
Before the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres. In France, the traditional unit of area was the arpent carré, a measure based on the Roman system of land measurement.
The {{lang|fr|acre}} was used only in Normandy (and neighbouring places outside its traditional borders), but its value varied greatly across Normandy, ranging from 3,632 to 9,725 square metres, with 8,172 square metres being the most frequent value.{{clarify|dateJune 2023|reasonWhat is this in traditional units? How was it measured?}} But inside the same {{lang|fr|pays}} of Normandy, for instance in pays de Caux, the farmers (still in the 20th century) made the difference between the {{lang|fr|grande acre}} (68 ares, 66 centiares) and the {{lang|fr|petite acre}} (56 to 65 ca).<ref>Raymond Mensire, {{lang|fr|Le Patois cauchois}}, 1939, p. 55.</ref> The Normandy {{lang|fr|acre}} was usually divided in 4 {{lang|fr|vergées}} (roods) and 160 square {{lang|fr|perches}}, like the English acre.
The Normandy {{lang|fr|acre}} was equal to 1.6 {{lang|fr|arpents}}, the unit of area more commonly used in Northern France outside of Normandy. In Canada, the Paris {{lang|fr|arpent}} used in Quebec before the metric system was adopted is sometimes called "French acre" in English, even though the Paris {{lang|fr|arpent}} and the Normandy {{lang|fr|acre}} were two very different units of area in ancient France (the Paris {{lang|fr|arpent}} became the unit of area of French Canada, whereas the Normandy {{lang|fr|acre}} was never used in French Canada).
In Germany, the Netherlands, and Eastern Europe the traditional unit of area was {{lang|de|Morgen}}. Like the acre, the morgen was a unit of ploughland, representing a strip that could be ploughed by one man and an ox or horse in a morning. There were many variants of the morgen, differing between the different German territories, ranging from {{convert|1/2|to|2+1/2|acre|m2}}. It was also used in Old Prussia, in the Balkans, Norway, and Denmark, where it was equal to about {{convert|2/3|acre|m2|spell=in}}.
Statutory values for the acre were enacted in England, and subsequently the United Kingdom, by acts of:
* Edward I
* Edward III
* Henry VIII
* George IV
* Queen Victoria – the British Weights and Measures Act of 1878 defined it as containing 4,840 square yards.
Historically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles. For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land.
The acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile. One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards). In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof. If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a side length of {{frac|1|2}} mile (880 yards) and is {{frac|1|4}} square mile in area, or 160 acres. These subunits are typically then again divided into quarters, with each side being {{frac|1|4}} mile long, and being {{frac|1|16}} of a square mile in area, or 40 acres. In the United States, farmland was typically divided as such, and the phrase "the back 40" refers to the 40-acre parcel to the back of the farm. Most of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and the US Midwest are on square-mile grids for surveying purposes.
Legacy units
* Customary acre – The customary acre was roughly similar to the Imperial acre, but it was subject to considerable local variation similar to the variation in carucates, virgates, bovates, nooks, and farundels. These may have been multiples of the customary acre, rather than the statute acre.
* Builder's acre an even {{convert|40000|sqft}} or {{convert|200|x|200|ft}}, used in US real-estate development to simplify the math and for marketing. It is nearly 10% smaller than a survey acre, and the discrepancy has led to lawsuits alleging misrepresentation.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.maxrealestateexposure.com/acre-land/ |titleHow Much is an Acre of Land |websiteMaximum Exposure Real Estate web site |access-date=6 August 2021}}</ref>
* Feddan - Middle Eastern measurement unit, {{convert|4200|m2|acre|sigfig=5}}.
* Scottish acre = 1.3 Imperial acres (5,080 m<sup>2</sup>, an obsolete Scottish measurement)
* Irish acre = {{convert|7,840|yd2}}
* Cheshire acre = {{convert|10,240|yd2}}<ref>Holland, Robert. (1886). [https://archive.org/details/glossaryofwordsu16holluoft A glossary of words used in the County of Chester.] London: Trübner for the English Dialect Society. p. 3.</ref>
* Stremma or Greek acre ≈ 10,000 square Greek feet, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the zeugarion)<ref nameMalcolm>{{cite book|lastMalcolm|firstNoel|titleKosovo: A Short History|year1999|publisherHarper Perennial|isbn=978-0-06-097775-7}}</ref>
* Dunam or Turkish acre ≈ 1,600 square Turkish paces, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the çift)<ref name=Malcolm/>
* Actus quadratus or Roman acre ≈ 14,400 square Roman feet (about 1,260 square metres)
* God's Acre – a synonym for a churchyard.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/God%27s+acre|titleDefinition of GOD'S ACRE|website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref>
* Long acre {{snd}} the grass strip on either side of a road that may be used for illicit grazing.
* Town acre was a term used in early 19th century in the planning of towns on a grid plan, such as Adelaide, South Australia<ref>{{cite web | titleLight's Plan of Adelaide, 1840 | websiteAdelaidia|firstJude|lastElton|publisherHistory Trust of South Australia | date10 December 2013 | urlhttps://adelaidia.history.sa.gov.au/panoramas/lights-plan-of-adelaide-1840 | access-date16 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|lastLlewellyn-Smith|first Michael|chapterThe Background to the Founding of Adelaide and South Australia in 1836|title Behind the Scenes: The Politics of Planning Adelaide|pages11–38|publisherUniversity of Adelaide Press|date2012|jstor 10.20851/j.ctt1sq5wvd.8|isbn9781922064400|access-date16 January 2021|urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/10.20851/j.ctt1sq5wvd.8.}}</ref> and Wellington, New Plymouth and Nelson in New Zealand. The land was divided into plots of an Imperial acre, and these became known as town acres.<ref nameencycnz>{{cite web | websiteTe Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand | date 26 March 2015|firstBen |lastSchrader|titleCity planning – Early settlement planning | urlhttps://teara.govt.nz/en/city-planning/page-1 | access-date16 January 2021}}</ref>See also{{Div col|colwidth30em}}
* Acre-foot – used in US to measure a large water volume
* Anthropic units
* Conversion of units
* French arpent – used in Louisiana to measure length and area
* Jugerum
* a Morgen ("morning") of land is normally {{frac|2|3}} of a Tagwerk ("day work") of ploughing with an ox
* Public Land Survey System
* Quarter acre
* Section (United States land surveying)
* Spanish customary units
* Chinese acre
{{div col end}}
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{EB1911 poster|Acre (land measure)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101017003707/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1995/1804/contents/made The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 (United Kingdom)]
<!--noMaelgwnbot-->
{{Imperial units}}
{{United States Customary Units}}
Category:Customary units of measurement in the United States
Category:Imperial units
Category:Surveying
Category:Units of area
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.638209
|
1799
|
ATP
|
ATP may refer to:
Science, technology and biology
Adenosine triphosphate, an organic chemical used for driving biological processes
ATPase, any enzyme that makes use of adenosine triphosphate
Advanced Technology Program, US government program
Alberta Taciuk process, for extracting oil from shale, etc.
Anti-tachycardia pacing, process similar to a pacemaker
Assistive Technology Practitioner - Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America (RESNA)
AT Protocol, an open communications protocol intended for decentralized social networking services
Automated theorem proving, method of proving mathematical theorems by computer programs
Companies and organizations
Association of Tennis Professionals, men's professional tennis governing body
ATP Tour
American Technical Publishers, employee-owned publishing company
Armenia Tree Project, non-profit organization
Association for Transpersonal Psychology
ATP architects engineers, architecture- and engineering office for integrated design
ATP Oil and Gas, defunct US energy company
Entertainment, arts and media
All Tomorrow's Parties (festival), UK organisation
ATP Recordings, record label
Alberta Theatre Projects, professional, not-for-profit, Canadian theatre company
Associated Talking Pictures, former name of Ealing Studios, a television and film production company
Transport
British Aerospace ATP, airliner
Airline transport pilot license
ATP Flight School, US
ATP (treaty), UN treaty that establishes standards for the international transport of perishable food
Aitape Airport, Papua New Guinea, IATA code
Anti-trespass panels, meant to deter pedestrians from walking on or adjacent to train tracks
Automatic train protection, system installed in trains to prevent collisions through driver error
Automatic Train Protection (United Kingdom), method of beacon based railway cab signalling
Economics
Available-to-promise, responding to customer order enquiries
, a Danish pension
, a Swedish pension
Other uses
Around-the-post, a term used in the game of pickleball
Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod, created by Lockheed Martin
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP
|
2025-04-05T18:25:47.642779
|
1800
|
Adenosine triphosphate
|
{{Short description|Energy-carrying molecule in living cells}}
{{chembox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 477228486
| Name = Adenosine-5'-triphosphate
| ImageFile = Adenosintriphosphat protoniert.svg
| ImageSize = 280px
| ImageClass = skin-invert-image
| ImageFileL1 = ATP-xtal-3D-balls.png
| ImageFileR1 = ATP-xtal-3D-vdW.png
| OtherNames | IUPACName Adenosine 5′-(tetrahydrogen triphosphate)
| SystematicName = O<sup>1</sup>-<nowiki/>{[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-5-(6-Amino-9H-purin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methyl} tetrahydrogen triphosphate
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
| DrugBank = DB00171
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 15422
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = C00002
| SMILES OP(O)(O)OP(O)(O)OP(O)(O)OC[C@H]3O[C@@H](n2cnc1c(ncnc12)N)[C@H](O)[C@@H]3O
| InChIKey = ZKHQWZAMYRWXGA-KQYNXXCUBG
| PubChem = 5957
| IUPHAR_ligand = 1713
| SMILES1 c1nc(c2c(n1)n(cn2)[C@H]3[C@@H]([C@@H]([C@H](O3)COP(O)(O)OP(O)(O)OP(O)(O)O)O)O)N
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C10H16N5O13P3/c11-8-5-9(13-2-12-8)15(3-14-5)10-7(17)6(16)4(26-10)1-25-30(21,22)28-31(23,24)27-29(18,19)20/h2-4,6-7,10,16-17H,1H2,(H,21,22)(H,23,24)(H2,11,12,13)(H2,18,19,20)/t4-,6-,7-,10-/m1/s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = ZKHQWZAMYRWXGA-KQYNXXCUSA-N
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CASNo = 56-65-5
| CASNo_Comment = (free acid)
| CASNo2_Ref = {{cascite|unknown|CAS}}
| CASNo2 = 34369-07-8
| CASNo2_Comment = (disodium salt hydrate)
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = 8L70Q75FXE
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 14249
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 5742
}}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
| C10|H16|N5|O13|P=3
| MolarMass = 507.18 g/mol
| MeltingPtC = 187
| MeltingPt_notes = disodium&nbsp;salt; decomposes
| Density = 1.04 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (disodium salt)
| pKa = 0.9, 1.4, 3.8, 6.5
| LambdaMax 259 nm<ref name"lamda_source_1">{{cite web |titleAdenosine 5'-triphosphate disodium salt Product Information |urlhttps://www.sigmaaldrich.com/content/dam/sigma-aldrich/docs/Sigma/Product_Information_Sheet/a7699pis.pdf |publisherSigma |access-date2019-03-22 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190323054630/https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/content/dam/sigma-aldrich/docs/Sigma/Product_Information_Sheet/a7699pis.pdf |archive-date2019-03-23 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| Absorbance ε<sub>259</sub> 15.4 mM<sup>−1</sup> cm<sup>−1</sup> <ref name="lamda_source_1" />
}}
| Section3 | Section4
| Section5 | Section6
}}
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleoside triphosphate<ref>{{cite journal |last1Dunn |first1Jacob |last2Grider |first2Michael H. |titlePhysiology, Adenosine Triphosphate |urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553175/ |websiteStatPearls |publisherStatPearls Publishing |access-date13 November 2023 |date2023 |pmid31985968}}</ref> that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known forms of life, it is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" for intracellular energy transfer.<ref>{{cite journal |lastKnowles |firstJ.&nbsp;R. |titleEnzyme-catalyzed phosphoryl transfer reactions |journalAnnu. Rev. Biochem. |volume49 |pages877–919 |year1980 |pmid6250450 | doi10.1146/annurev.bi.49.070180.004305}}</ref>
When consumed in a metabolic process, ATP converts either to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) or to adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Other processes regenerate ATP. It is also a precursor to DNA and RNA, and is used as a coenzyme. An average adult human processes around 50 kilograms (about 100 moles) daily.<ref>"An average individual with a daily diet of 8000 kJ and a 30% efficiency of turning foodstuffs into chemical energy will synthesize (and hydrolyze) about 50 kg of ATP during 1 day." {{cite book |doi10.1002/9780470048672.wecb648 |chapterATP Synthesis, Chemistry of |titleWiley Encyclopedia of Chemical Biology |date2008 |last1Wilkens |first1Stephan |isbn=9780471754770 }}</ref>
From the perspective of biochemistry, ATP is classified as a nucleoside triphosphate, which indicates that it consists of three components: a nitrogenous base (adenine), the sugar ribose, and the triphosphate.
Structure
ATP consists of an adenine attached by the #9-nitrogen atom to the 1′ carbon atom of a sugar (ribose), which in turn is attached at the 5' carbon atom of the sugar to a triphosphate group. In its many reactions related to metabolism, the adenine and sugar groups remain unchanged, but the triphosphate is converted to di- and monophosphate, giving respectively the derivatives ADP and AMP. The three phosphoryl groups are labeled as alpha (α), beta (β), and, for the terminal phosphate, gamma (γ).<ref>{{Citation |last1Dunn |first1Jacob |titlePhysiology, Adenosine Triphosphate |date2023 |urlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553175/ |workStatPearls |access-date2023-09-28 |placeTreasure Island (FL) |publisherStatPearls Publishing |pmid31985968 |last2Grider |first2Michael H.}}</ref>
In neutral solution, ionized ATP exists mostly as ATP<sup>4−</sup>, with a small proportion of ATP<sup>3−</sup>.<ref nameStorer>{{cite journal |last1Storer |first1A.|author-link2Athel Cornish-Bowden |last2Cornish-Bowden |first2A. | title Concentration of MgATP<sup>2−</sup> and other ions in solution. Calculation of the true concentrations of species present in mixtures of associating ions | pmc1164030 | journal Biochem. J. | volume 159 | issue 1 | pages 1–5 | year 1976 | pmid 11772 | doi10.1042/bj1590001}}</ref>Metal cation bindingPolyanionic and featuring a potentially chelating polyphosphate group, ATP binds metal cations with high affinity. The binding constant for {{chem|linkmagnesium|Mg|2+}} is ({{gaps|9|554}}).<ref>{{cite journal |last1Wilson |first1J. |last2Chin |first2A. | title Chelation of divalent cations by ATP, studied by titration calorimetry | journal Anal. Biochem. | volume 193 | issue 1 | pages 16–19 | year 1991 | pmid 1645933| doi10.1016/0003-2697(91)90036-S}}</ref> The binding of a divalent cation, almost always magnesium, strongly affects the interaction of ATP with various proteins. Due to the strength of the ATP-Mg<sup>2+</sup> interaction, ATP exists in the cell mostly as a complex with {{chem|Mg|2+}} bonded to the phosphate oxygen centers.<ref nameStorer/><ref>{{cite journal |last1Garfinkel |first1L. |last2Altschuld |first2R. |last3Garfinkel |first3D. | title Magnesium in cardiac energy metabolism | journal J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. | volume 18 | issue 10 | pages 1003–1013 | year 1986 | pmid 3537318 | doi = 10.1016/S0022-2828(86)80289-9 }}</ref>
A second magnesium ion is critical for ATP binding in the kinase domain.<ref name"Saylor">{{cite journal |last1Saylor |first1P. |last2Wang |first2C. |last3Hirai |first3T. |last4Adams |first4J. | title A second magnesium ion is critical for ATP binding in the kinase domain of the oncoprotein v-Fps | journal Biochemistry | volume 37 | issue 36 | pages 12624–12630 | year 1998 | pmid 9730835 | doi 10.1021/bi9812672 }}</ref> The presence of Mg<sup>2+</sup> regulates kinase activity.<ref nameLin>{{cite journal |last1Lin |first1X. |last2Ayrapetov |first2M |last3Sun |first3G. | title Characterization of the interactions between the active site of a protein tyrosine kinase and a divalent metal activator |pmc1316873 | doi 10.1186/1471-2091-6-25 |doi-accessfree | journal BMC Biochem. | volume 6 | pages 25 | year 2005| pmid 16305747}}</ref> It is interesting from an RNA world perspective that ATP can carry a Mg ion which catalyzes RNA polymerization.{{citation needed|dateDecember 2023}}
Chemical properties
Salts of ATP can be isolated as colorless solids.<ref>{{Merck13th}}</ref>
ATP is stable in aqueous solutions between pH&nbsp;6.8 and 7.4 (in the absence of catalysts). At more extreme pH levels, it rapidly hydrolyses to ADP and phosphate. Living cells maintain the ratio of ATP to ADP at a point ten orders of magnitude from equilibrium, with ATP concentrations fivefold higher than the concentration of ADP.<ref nameNicholls>{{cite book |last1Ferguson |first1S.&nbsp;J. |last2Nicholls |first2David |last3Ferguson |first3Stuart |titleBioenergetics 3 |publisherAcademic |locationSan Diego, CA |year2002 |isbn978-0-12-518121-1 |edition3rd}}</ref><ref name"Stryer p376">{{cite book |first1J.&nbsp;M. |last1Berg |first2J.&nbsp; L. |last2Tymoczko |first3L. |last3Stryer | title Biochemistry |urlhttps://archive.org/details/biochemistry200100jere |url-accessregistration | publisher W.&nbsp;H. Freeman | year 2003 | location New York, NY | page [https://archive.org/details/biochemistry200100jere/page/376 376] |isbn 978-0-7167-4684-3}}</ref> In the context of biochemical reactions, the P-O-P bonds are frequently referred to as high-energy bonds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Chance|first1 B. |last2Lees|first2 H. |last3Postgate|first3 J.&nbsp;G. | title The Meaning of "Reversed Electron Flow" and "High Energy Electron" in Biochemistry|doi10.1038/238330a0|journal Nature | volume 238 | pages 330–331 | year 1972 | pmid 4561837 | issue 5363 |bibcode1972Natur.238..330C |s2cid 4298762 }}</ref>
Reactive aspects
The hydrolysis of ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate
:ATP{{sup|4-}}(aq) + {{chem2|H2O}}(l) = ADP{{sup|3-}}(aq) + HPO{{sub|3}}{{sup|2-}}(aq) + H{{sup|+}}(aq)
releases {{convert|20.5|kJ/mol}} of enthalpy. This may differ under physiological conditions if the reactant and products are not exactly in these ionization states.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Gajewski |first1E. |last2Steckler |first2D. |last3Goldberg |first3R. |titleThermodynamics of the hydrolysis of adenosine 5′-triphosphate to adenosine 5′-diphosphate |journalJ. Biol. Chem. |volume261 |issue27 |pages12733–12737 |year1986 |doi10.1016/S0021-9258(18)67153-4 |pmid3528161 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> The values of the free energy released by cleaving either a phosphate (P<sub>i</sub>) or a pyrophosphate (PP<sub>i</sub>) unit from ATP at standard state concentrations of 1&nbsp;mol/L at pH&nbsp;7 are:<ref>{{cite book |titleBiochemistry |last1Berg |first1Jeremy M. |last2Tymoczko|first2 John L.|last3Stryer|first3 Lubert |year2007 |edition6th |publisherW.&nbsp;H. Freeman |locationNew York, NY |isbn978-0-7167-8724-2 |page413}}</ref>
:ATP + {{chem|H|2|O}} → ADP + P<sub>i</sub> {{pad|1.5em}} ΔG°' = −30.5&nbsp;kJ/mol (−7.3&nbsp;kcal/mol)
:ATP + {{chem|H|2|O}} → AMP + PP<sub>i</sub> {{pad|1em}}ΔG°' = −45.6&nbsp;kJ/mol (−10.9&nbsp;kcal/mol)
These abbreviated equations at a pH near 7 can be written more explicitly (R = adenosyl):
:[RO-P(O)<sub>2</sub>-O-P(O)<sub>2</sub>-O-PO<sub>3</sub>]<sup>4−</sup> + {{chem|H|2|O}} → [RO-P(O)<sub>2</sub>-O-PO<sub>3</sub>]<sup>3−</sup> + [HPO<sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> + H<sup>+</sup>
:[RO-P(O)<sub>2</sub>-O-P(O)<sub>2</sub>-O-PO<sub>3</sub>]<sup>4−</sup> + {{chem|H|2|O}} → [RO-PO<sub>3</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> + [HO<sub>3</sub>P-O-PO<sub>3</sub>]<sup>3−</sup> + H<sup>+</sup>
At cytoplasmic conditions, where the ADP/ATP ratio is 10 orders of magnitude from equilibrium, the ΔG is around −57&nbsp;kJ/mol.<ref name=Nicholls/>
Along with pH, the free energy change of ATP hydrolysis is also associated with Mg<sup>2+</sup> concentration, from ΔG°' −35.7&nbsp;kJ/mol at a Mg<sup>2+</sup> concentration of zero, to ΔG°' −31&nbsp;kJ/mol at [Mg<sup>2+</sup>] 5&nbsp;mM. Higher concentrations of Mg<sup>2+</sup> decrease free energy released in the reaction due to binding of Mg<sup>2+</sup> ions to negatively charged oxygen atoms of ATP at pH&nbsp;7.<ref>{{cite book |last1Garrett |first1Reginald H. |last2Grisham |first2Charles M. |edition6th |date2016 |titleBiochemistry |publisherCengage Learning |page68 |isbn=978-1305577206}}</ref>
-ATP chelate with a charge of −2. The anion was optimized at the UB3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) theoretical level and the atomic connectivity modified by the human optimizer to reflect the probable electronic structure.]]
Production from AMP and ADP
Production, aerobic conditions
A typical intracellular concentration of ATP may be 1–10&nbsp;μmol per gram of tissue in a variety of eukaryotes.<ref>{{cite journal| last1 Beis |first1I. |last2Newsholme |first2E.&nbsp;A. | date October 1, 1975 | title The contents of adenine nucleotides, phosphagens and some glycolytic intermediates in resting muscles from vertebrates and invertebrates | journalBiochem. J. | volume152 | pages23–32 | pmid1212224 |pmc1172435| issue 1 | doi=10.1042/bj1520023}}
</ref> The dephosphorylation of ATP and rephosphorylation of ADP and AMP occur repeatedly in the course of aerobic metabolism.<ref name"brit">{{cite web |titleAdenosine triphosphate |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/science/adenosine-triphosphate |publisherBritannica |access-date1 December 2023 |date11 November 2023}}</ref>
ATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes; the three main pathways in eukaryotes are (1) glycolysis, (2) the citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, and (3) beta-oxidation. The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide, the combination of pathways 1 and 2, known as cellular respiration, produces about 30 equivalents of ATP from each molecule of glucose.<ref nameRich>{{cite journal |lastRich |firstP.&nbsp;R. |titleThe molecular machinery of Keilin's respiratory chain |journalBiochem. Soc. Trans. |volume31 |issue6 |pages1095–1105 |year2003 |pmid14641005 |doi=10.1042/BST0311095}}</ref>
ATP production by a non-photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote occurs mainly in the mitochondria, which comprise nearly 25% of the volume of a typical cell.<ref name"Lodish">{{cite book |last1Lodish |first1H. |last2Berk |first2A. |last3Matsudaira |first3P. |last4Kaiser |first4C.&nbsp;A. |last5Krieger |first5M. |last6Scott |first6M.&nbsp;P. |last7Zipursky |first7S.&nbsp;L. |last8Darnell |first8J. |titleMolecular Cell Biology |edition5th |publisherW.&nbsp;H. Freeman |locationNew York, NY |isbn978-0-7167-4366-8 |year2004 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/molecularcellbio00harv }}</ref>Glycolysis
{{Main|Glycolysis}}
In glycolysis, glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate. Glycolysis generates two equivalents of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes, phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) and pyruvate kinase. Two equivalents of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) are also produced, which can be oxidized via the electron transport chain and result in the generation of additional ATP by ATP synthase. The pyruvate generated as an end-product of glycolysis is a substrate for the Krebs Cycle.<ref nameVoet>{{cite book |last1Voet |first1D. |last2Voet |first2J.&nbsp;G. | year2004 | titleBiochemistry |volume1 |edition3rd | publisher Wiley |locationHoboken, NJ | isbn 978-0-471-19350-0}}</ref>
Glycolysis is viewed as consisting of two phases with five steps each. In phase 1, "the preparatory phase", glucose is converted to 2 d-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (g3p). One ATP is invested in Step 1, and another ATP is invested in Step 3. Steps 1 and 3 of glycolysis are referred to as "Priming Steps". In Phase 2, two equivalents of g3p are converted to two pyruvates. In Step 7, two ATP are produced. Also, in Step 10, two further equivalents of ATP are produced. In Steps 7 and 10, ATP is generated from ADP. A net of two ATPs is formed in the glycolysis cycle. The glycolysis pathway is later associated with the Citric Acid Cycle which produces additional equivalents of ATP.{{citation needed|dateApril 2023}}RegulationIn glycolysis, hexokinase is directly inhibited by its product, glucose-6-phosphate, and pyruvate kinase is inhibited by ATP itself. The main control point for the glycolytic pathway is phosphofructokinase (PFK), which is allosterically inhibited by high concentrations of ATP and activated by high concentrations of AMP. The inhibition of PFK by ATP is unusual since ATP is also a substrate in the reaction catalyzed by PFK; the active form of the enzyme is a tetramer that exists in two conformations, only one of which binds the second substrate fructose-6-phosphate (F6P). The protein has two binding sites for ATP&nbsp;– the active site is accessible in either protein conformation, but ATP binding to the inhibitor site stabilizes the conformation that binds F6P poorly.<ref name"Voet" /> A number of other small molecules can compensate for the ATP-induced shift in equilibrium conformation and reactivate PFK, including cyclic AMP, ammonium ions, inorganic phosphate, and fructose-1,6- and -2,6-biphosphate.<ref name"Voet" /> {{confusing|dateOctober 2024}}
Citric acid cycle
{{Main|Citric acid cycle|Oxidative phosphorylation}}
In the mitochondrion, pyruvate is oxidized by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex to the acetyl group, which is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide by the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle). Every "turn" of the citric acid cycle produces two molecules of carbon dioxide, one equivalent of ATP guanosine triphosphate (GTP) through substrate-level phosphorylation catalyzed by succinyl-CoA synthetase, as succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, three equivalents of NADH, and one equivalent of FADH<sub>2</sub>. NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub> are recycled (to NAD<sup>+</sup> and FAD, respectively) by oxidative phosphorylation, generating additional ATP. The oxidation of NADH results in the synthesis of 2–3 equivalents of ATP, and the oxidation of one FADH<sub>2</sub> yields between 1–2 equivalents of ATP.<ref name"Rich" /> The majority of cellular ATP is generated by this process. Although the citric acid cycle itself does not involve molecular oxygen, it is an obligately aerobic process because O<sub>2</sub> is used to recycle the NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub>. In the absence of oxygen, the citric acid cycle ceases.<ref name"Lodish" />
The generation of ATP by the mitochondrion from cytosolic NADH relies on the malate-aspartate shuttle (and to a lesser extent, the glycerol-phosphate shuttle) because the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD<sup>+</sup>. Instead of transferring the generated NADH, a malate dehydrogenase enzyme converts oxaloacetate to malate, which is translocated to the mitochondrial matrix. Another malate dehydrogenase-catalyzed reaction occurs in the opposite direction, producing oxaloacetate and NADH from the newly transported malate and the mitochondrion's interior store of NAD<sup>+</sup>. A transaminase converts the oxaloacetate to aspartate for transport back across the membrane and into the intermembrane space.<ref name="Lodish" /><!--will put the antiporter/full cycle in the shuttle article-->
In oxidative phosphorylation, the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub> through the electron transport chain releases the energy to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space. This pumping generates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric potential gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Flow of protons down this potential gradient&nbsp;– that is, from the intermembrane space to the matrix&nbsp;– yields ATP by ATP synthase.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Abrahams |first1J. |last2Leslie |first2A. |last3Lutter |first3R. |last4Walker |first4J. | title Structure at 2.8&nbsp;Å resolution of F1-ATPase from bovine heart mitochondria | journal Nature | volume 370 | issue 6491 | pages 621–628 | year 1994 |pmid8065448 | doi 10.1038/370621a0 |bibcode1994Natur.370..621A |s2cid4275221 }}</ref> Three ATP are produced per turn.
Although oxygen consumption appears fundamental for the maintenance of the proton motive force, in the event of oxygen shortage (hypoxia), intracellular acidosis (mediated by enhanced glycolytic rates and ATP hydrolysis), contributes to mitochondrial membrane potential and directly drives ATP synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid 30713504 | volume9, 1914 | titleAcidosis Maintains the Function of Brain Mitochondria in Hypoxia-Tolerant Triplefin Fish: A Strategy to Survive Acute Hypoxic Exposure? | pmc6346031 | dateJanuary 2019 | journalFront Physiol | doi10.3389/fphys.2018.01941 | last1 Devaux | first1 JBL | last2 Hedges | first2 CP | last3 Hickey | first3 AJR| page1941 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
Most of the ATP synthesized in the mitochondria will be used for cellular processes in the cytosol; thus it must be exported from its site of synthesis in the mitochondrial matrix. ATP outward movement is favored by the membrane's electrochemical potential because the cytosol has a relatively positive charge compared to the relatively negative matrix. For every ATP transported out, it costs 1 H<sup>+</sup>. Producing one ATP costs about 3 H<sup>+</sup>. Therefore, making and exporting one ATP requires 4H<sup>+.</sup> The inner membrane contains an antiporter, the ADP/ATP translocase, which is an integral membrane protein used to exchange newly synthesized ATP in the matrix for ADP in the intermembrane space.<ref name"Brandolin">{{cite journal |last1Dahout-Gonzalez |first1C. |last2Nury |first2H. |last3Trézéguet |first3V. |last4Lauquin |first4G. |last5Pebay-Peyroula |first5E. |last6Brandolin |first6G. | title Molecular, functional, and pathological aspects of the mitochondrial ADP/ATP carrier | journal Physiology | volume 21 | pages 242–249 | year 2006| pmid 16868313 | doi10.1152/physiol.00005.2006 | issue 4 }}</ref>RegulationThe citric acid cycle is regulated mainly by the availability of key substrates, particularly the ratio of NAD<sup>+</sup> to NADH and the concentrations of calcium, inorganic phosphate, ATP, ADP, and AMP. Citrate&nbsp;– the ion that gives its name to the cycle&nbsp;– is a feedback inhibitor of citrate synthase and also inhibits PFK, providing a direct link between the regulation of the citric acid cycle and glycolysis.<ref name"Voet" /> {{confusing|dateOctober 2024}}Beta oxidation
{{Main|Beta-oxidation}}
In the presence of air and various cofactors and enzymes, fatty acids are converted to acetyl-CoA. The pathway is called beta-oxidation. Each cycle of beta-oxidation shortens the fatty acid chain by two carbon atoms and produces one equivalent each of acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH<sub>2</sub>. The acetyl-CoA is metabolized by the citric acid cycle to generate ATP, while the NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub> are used by oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP. Dozens of ATP equivalents are generated by the beta-oxidation of a single long acyl chain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Ronnett |first1G. |last2Kim |first2E. |last3Landree |first3L. |last4Tu |first4Y. | title Fatty acid metabolism as a target for obesity treatment | journal Physiol. Behav. | volume 85 | issue 1 | pages 25–35 | year 2005 | pmid 15878185 | doi10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.04.014 |s2cid24865576 }}</ref>Regulation
In oxidative phosphorylation, the key control point is the reaction catalyzed by cytochrome c oxidase, which is regulated by the availability of its substrate&nbsp;– the reduced form of cytochrome c. The amount of reduced cytochrome c available is directly related to the amounts of other substrates:
:<math chem="">
\frac12 \ce{NADH} + \ce{cyt}\ \ce{c_{ox}} + \ce{ADP} + \ce{P_{i}} \rightleftharpoons
\frac12 \ce{NAD^+} + \ce{cyt}\ \ce{c_{red}} + \ce{ATP}
</math>
which directly implies this equation:
:<math>
\frac{[\mathrm{cyt~c_{red}}]}{[\mathrm{cyt~c_{ox}}]} = \left(\frac{[\mathrm{NADH}]}{[\mathrm{NAD}]^{+}}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(\frac{[\mathrm{ADP}] [\mathrm{P_i}]}{[\mathrm{ATP}]}\right)K_\mathrm{eq}
</math>
Thus, a high ratio of [NADH] to [NAD<sup>+</sup>] or a high ratio of [ADP] [P<sub>i</sub>] to [ATP] imply a high amount of reduced cytochrome c and a high level of cytochrome c oxidase activity.<ref name"Voet" /> An additional level of regulation is introduced by the transport rates of ATP and NADH between the mitochondrial matrix and the cytoplasm.<ref name"Brandolin" />
Ketosis
{{Main|Ketone bodies}}
Ketone bodies can be used as fuels, yielding 22 ATP and 2 GTP molecules per acetoacetate molecule when oxidized in the mitochondria. Ketone bodies are transported from the liver to other tissues, where acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate can be reconverted to acetyl-CoA to produce reducing equivalents (NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub>), via the citric acid cycle. Ketone bodies cannot be used as fuel by the liver, because the liver lacks the enzyme β-ketoacyl-CoA transferase, also called thiolase. Acetoacetate in low concentrations is taken up by the liver and undergoes detoxification through the methylglyoxal pathway which ends with lactate. Acetoacetate in high concentrations is absorbed by cells other than those in the liver and enters a different pathway via 1,2-propanediol. Though the pathway follows a different series of steps requiring ATP, 1,2-propanediol can be turned into pyruvate.<ref name"Environmental Protection Agency; TOXICOLOGICAL REVIEW OF ACETONE (CAS No. 67-64-1)">{{Cite web| urlhttp://www.epa.gov/iris/toxreviews/0128tr.pdf| titleIntegrated Risk Information System| date2013-03-15| access-date2019-02-01| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924074331/http://www.epa.gov/iris/toxreviews/0128tr.pdf| archive-date2015-09-24| url-statuslive}}</ref>
Production, anaerobic conditions
Fermentation is the metabolism of organic compounds in the absence of air. It involves substrate-level phosphorylation in the absence of a respiratory electron transport chain. The equation for the reaction of glucose to form lactic acid is:
: {{chem|C|6|H|12|O|6}} + 2&nbsp;ADP + 2&nbsp;P<sub>i</sub> → 2&nbsp;{{chem|CH|3|CH(OH)COOH}} + 2&nbsp;ATP + 2&nbsp;{{chem|H|2|O}}
Anaerobic respiration is respiration in the absence of {{chem|linkoxygen|O|2}}. Prokaryotes can utilize a variety of electron acceptors. These include nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide.ATP replenishment by nucleoside diphosphate kinasesATP can also be synthesized through several so-called "replenishment" reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDKs), which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high-energy phosphate donor, and the ATP:guanido-phosphotransferase family.{{citation needed|dateApril 2023}}
ATP production during photosynthesis
In plants, ATP is synthesized in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. The process is called photophosphorylation. The "machinery" is similar to that in mitochondria except that light energy is used to pump protons across a membrane to produce a proton-motive force. ATP synthase then ensues exactly as in oxidative phosphorylation.<ref>{{cite journal | last Allen | first J. | title Photosynthesis of ATP-electrons, proton pumps, rotors, and poise | journal Cell | volume 110 | issue 3 | pages 273–276 | year 2002 | pmid 12176312 | doi 10.1016/S0092-8674(02)00870-X | s2cid 1754660 | doi-access free }}</ref> Some of the ATP produced in the chloroplasts is consumed in the Calvin cycle, which produces triose sugars.
ATP recycling
The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1&nbsp;mol/L.<ref name"Fuhrman-1061">{{cite book |last1Fuhrman |first1Bradley P. |last2Zimmerman |first2Jerry J. |titlePediatric Critical Care |date2011 |publisherElsevier |isbn978-0-323-07307-3 |pages1061 |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323073073100746#s0025 |access-date16 May 2020}}</ref> The majority of ATP is recycled from ADP by the aforementioned processes. Thus, at any given time, the total amount of ATP + ADP remains fairly constant.
The energy used by human cells in an adult requires the hydrolysis of 100 to 150&nbsp;mol/L of ATP daily, which means a human will typically use their body weight worth of ATP over the course of the day.<ref name"Fuhrman">{{cite book |last1Fuhrman |first1Bradley P. |last2Zimmerman |first2Jerry J. |titlePediatric Critical Care |date2011 |publisherElsevier |isbn978-0-323-07307-3 |pages1058–1072 |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323073073100746#s0025 |access-date16 May 2020}}</ref> Each equivalent of ATP is recycled 1000–1500 times during a single day ({{nowrap|150 / 0.1 {{}} 1500}}),<ref name"Fuhrman-1061" /> at approximately 9×10<sup>20</sup> molecules/s.<ref name="Fuhrman-1061" />
of a decarboxylase enzyme from the bacterium Staphylococcus epidermidis ({{PDB|1G5Q}}) with a bound flavin mononucleotide cofactor]]
Biochemical functions
Intracellular signaling
ATP is involved in signal transduction by serving as substrate for kinases, enzymes that transfer phosphate groups. Kinases are the most common ATP-binding proteins. They share a small number of common folds.<ref nameScheeff>{{cite journal |last1Scheeff |first1E. |last2Bourne |first2P. | title Structural evolution of the protein kinase-like superfamily |pmc1261164 | doi 10.1371/journal.pcbi.0010049 |doi-accessfree | journal PLOS Comput. Biol. | volume 1 | issue 5 | pages e49 | year 2005 | pmid 16244704|bibcode2005PLSCB...1...49S }}</ref> Phosphorylation of a protein by a kinase can activate a cascade such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Mishra |first1N. |last2Tuteja |first2R. |last3Tuteja |first3N. | title Signaling through MAP kinase networks in plants | journal Arch. Biochem. Biophys. | volume 452 | issue 1 | pages 55–68 | year 2006 | pmid 16806044 | doi 10.1016/j.abb.2006.05.001 }}</ref>
ATP is also a substrate of adenylate cyclase, most commonly in G protein-coupled receptor signal transduction pathways and is transformed to second messenger, cyclic AMP, which is involved in triggering calcium signals by the release of calcium from intracellular stores.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Kamenetsky |first1M. |last2Middelhaufe |first2S. |last3Bank |first3E. |last4Levin |first4L. |last5Buck |first5J. |last6Steegborn |first6C. | title Molecular details of cAMP generation in mammalian cells: a tale of two systems | journal J. Mol. Biol. | volume 362 | issue 4 | pages 623–639 | year 2006 | pmid 16934836 | doi 10.1016/j.jmb.2006.07.045 | pmc 3662476}}</ref> This form of signal transduction is particularly important in brain function, although it is involved in the regulation of a multitude of other cellular processes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Hanoune |first1J. |last2Defer |first2N. | title Regulation and role of adenylyl cyclase isoforms | journal Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. | volume 41 | pages 145–174 | year 2001|issue1 | pmid 11264454 | doi 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.41.1.145 }}</ref>DNA and RNA synthesisATP is one of four monomers required in the synthesis of RNA. The process is promoted by RNA polymerases.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Joyce |first1C.&nbsp;M. |last2Steitz |first2T.&nbsp;A. |titlePolymerase structures and function: variations on a theme? |journalJ. Bacteriol. |volume177 |issue22 |pages6321–6329 |year1995 |pmid7592405 |pmc177480 |doi10.1128/jb.177.22.6321-6329.1995}}</ref> A similar process occurs in the formation of DNA, except that ATP is first converted to the deoxyribonucleotide dATP. Like many condensation reactions in nature, DNA replication and DNA transcription also consume ATP.
Amino acid activation in protein synthesis
{{main|Amino acid activation}}
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzymes consume ATP in the attachment tRNA to amino acids, forming aminoacyl-tRNA complexes. Aminoacyl transferase binds AMP-amino acid to tRNA. The coupling reaction proceeds in two steps:
# aa + ATP ⟶ aa-AMP + PP<sub>i</sub>
# aa-AMP + tRNA ⟶ aa-tRNA + AMP
The amino acid is coupled to the penultimate nucleotide at the 3′-end of the tRNA (the A in the sequence CCA) via an ester bond (roll over in illustration).
ATP binding cassette transporter
Transporting chemicals out of a cell against a gradient is often associated with ATP hydrolysis. Transport is mediated by ATP binding cassette transporters. The human genome encodes 48 ABC transporters, that are used for exporting drugs, lipids, and other compounds.<ref>{{cite journal|titleMammalian ABC transporters in health and disease|author1Borst, P. |author2Elferink, R. Oude|journalAnnual Review of Biochemistry|year2002|volume71|pages537–592|doi10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.102301.093055|pmid12045106|s2cid34707074 |urlhttps://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/3499814/42885_202387y.pdf|access-date2018-04-20|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180421032744/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/3499814/42885_202387y.pdf|archive-date2018-04-21|url-statuslive}}</ref>Extracellular signalling and neurotransmissionCells secrete ATP to communicate with other cells in a process called purinergic signalling. ATP serves as a neurotransmitter in many parts of the nervous system, modulates ciliary beating, affects vascular oxygen supply etc. ATP is either secreted directly across the cell membrane through channel proteins<ref name"RomanovLasher2018">{{cite journal|last1Romanov|first1Roman A.|last2Lasher|first2Robert S.|last3High|first3Brigit|last4Savidge|first4Logan E.|last5Lawson|first5Adam|last6Rogachevskaja|first6Olga A.|last7Zhao|first7Haitian|last8Rogachevsky|first8Vadim V.|last9Bystrova|first9Marina F.|last10Churbanov|first10Gleb D.|last11Adameyko|first11Igor|last12Harkany|first12Tibor|last13Yang|first13Ruibiao|last14Kidd|first14Grahame J.|last15Marambaud|first15Philippe|last16Kinnamon|first16John C.|last17Kolesnikov|first17Stanislav S.|last18Finger|first18Thomas E.|titleChemical synapses without synaptic vesicles: Purinergic neurotransmission through a CALHM1 channel-mitochondrial signaling complex|journalScience Signaling|volume11|issue529|year2018|pageseaao1815|issn1945-0877|doi10.1126/scisignal.aao1815|pmid29739879|pmc5966022}}</ref><ref name"Dahl2015">{{cite journal|last1Dahl|first1Gerhard|titleATP release through pannexon channels|journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume370|issue1672|year2015|pages20140191|issn0962-8436|doi10.1098/rstb.2014.0191|pmid26009770|pmc4455760}}</ref> or is pumped into vesicles<ref name"LarssonSawada2012">{{cite journal|last1Larsson|first1Max|last2Sawada|first2Keisuke|last3Morland|first3Cecilie|last4Hiasa|first4Miki|last5Ormel|first5Lasse|last6Moriyama|first6Yoshinori|last7Gundersen|first7Vidar|titleFunctional and Anatomical Identification of a Vesicular Transporter Mediating Neuronal ATP Release|journalCerebral Cortex|volume22|issue5|year2012|pages1203–1214|issn1460-2199|doi10.1093/cercor/bhr203|pmid21810784|doi-accessfree}}</ref> which then fuse with the membrane. Cells detect ATP using the purinergic receptor proteins P2X and P2Y.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Puchałowicz |first1Kamila |last2Tarnowski |first2Maciej |last3Baranowska-Bosiacka |first3Irena |last4Chlubek |first4Dariusz |last5Dziedziejko |first5Violetta |date2014-12-18 |titleP2X and P2Y Receptors—Role in the Pathophysiology of the Nervous System |journalInternational Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume15 |issue12 |pages23672–23704 |doi10.3390/ijms151223672 |doi-accessfree |issn1422-0067 |pmc4284787 |pmid25530618}}</ref> ATP has been shown to be a critically important signalling molecule for microglia - neuron interactions in the adult brain,<ref>{{cite journal | urlhttps://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aax6752 | doi10.1126/science.aax6752 | titleMicroglia monitor and protect neuronal function through specialized somatic purinergic junctions | date2020 | last1Csaba | first1Cserep | last2Balazs | first2Pósfai | journalScience | volume367 | issue6477 | pages528–537 | pmid 31831638 | bibcode2020Sci...367..528C }}</ref> as well as during brain development.<ref>{{cite journal | doi10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111369 | titleMicroglial control of neuronal development via somatic purinergic junctions | date2022 | last1Csaba | first1Cserep | last2Anett | first2Schwarcz D | journalCell Reports | volume40 | issue12 | pmid36130488 | pmc9513806 }}</ref> Furthermore, tissue-injury induced ATP-signalling is a major factor in rapid microglial phenotype changes.<ref>{{cite journal | doi 10.1038/s41467-024-49773-1 | titleMicroglia contribute to neuronal synchrony despite endogenous ATP-related phenotypic transformation in acute mouse brain slices | date2024 | last1Peter | first1Berki | last2Csaba | first2Cserep | last3Zsuzsanna | first3Környei | journalNature Communications | volume 15 | issue1 | page 5402 | pmid38926390 | pmc11208608 | bibcode2024NatCo..15.5402B }}</ref> Muscle contraction ATP fuels muscle contractions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Hultman |first1E. |last2Greenhaff |first2P. L. |date1991 |titleSkeletal muscle energy metabolism and fatigue during intense exercise in man |urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1842855/ |journalScience Progress |volume75 |issue298 Pt 3-4 |pages361–370 |issn0036-8504 |pmid1842855}}</ref> Muscle contractions are regulated by signaling pathways, although different muscle types being regulated by specific pathways and stimuli based on their particular function. However, in all muscle types, contraction is performed by the proteins actin and myosin.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal |last1Kuo |first1Ivana Y. |last2Ehrlich |first2Barbara E. |dateFebruary 2015 |titleSignaling in Muscle Contraction |journalCold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |languageen |volume7 |issue2 |pagesa006023 |doi10.1101/cshperspect.a006023 |issn1943-0264 |pmc4315934 |pmid25646377}}</ref>
ATP is initially bound to myosin. When ATPase hydrolyzes the bound ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate, myosin is positioned in a way that it can bind to actin. Myosin bound by ADP and P<sub>i</sub> forms cross-bridges with actin and the subsequent release of ADP and P<sub>i</sub> releases energy as the power stroke. The power stroke causes actin filament to slide past the myosin filament, shortening the muscle and causing a contraction. Another ATP molecule can then bind to myosin, releasing it from actin and allowing this process to repeat.<ref name":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date2018-07-16 |title38.17: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion - ATP and Muscle Contraction |urlhttps://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/38%3A_The_Musculoskeletal_System/38.17%3A_Muscle_Contraction_and_Locomotion_-_ATP_and_Muscle_Contraction |access-date2024-05-01 |websiteBiology LibreTexts |languageen}}</ref> Protein solubility ATP has recently been proposed to act as a biological hydrotrope<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Hyman|first1Anthony A.|last2Krishnan|first2Yamuna|last3Alberti|first3Simon|last4Wang|first4Jie|last5Saha|first5Shambaditya|last6Malinovska|first6Liliana|last7Patel|first7Avinash|date2017-05-19|titleATP as a biological hydrotrope|journalScience|languageen|volume356|issue6339|pages753–756|doi10.1126/science.aaf6846|issn0036-8075|pmid28522535|bibcode2017Sci...356..753P|s2cid24622983}}</ref> and has been shown to affect proteome-wide solubility.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Savitski|first1Mikhail M.|last2Bantscheff|first2Marcus|last3Huber|first3Wolfgang|last4Dominic Helm|last5Günthner|first5Ina|last6Werner|first6Thilo|last7Kurzawa|first7Nils|last8Sridharan|first8Sindhuja|date2019-03-11|titleProteome-wide solubility and thermal stability profiling reveals distinct regulatory roles for ATP|journalNature Communications|languageen|volume10|issue1|pages1155|doi10.1038/s41467-019-09107-y|pmid30858367|pmc6411743|bibcode2019NatCo..10.1155S|issn2041-1723}}</ref>
Abiogenic origins
Acetyl phosphate (AcP), a precursor to ATP, can readily be synthesized at modest yields from thioacetate in pH&nbsp;7 and 20&nbsp;°C and pH 8 and 50&nbsp;°C, although acetyl phosphate is less stable in warmer temperatures and alkaline conditions than in cooler and acidic to neutral conditions. It is unable to promote polymerization of ribonucleotides and amino acids and was only capable of phosphorylation of organic compounds. It was shown that it can promote aggregation and stabilization of AMP in the presence of Na<sup>+</sup>, aggregation of nucleotides could promote polymerization above 75&nbsp;°C in the absence of Na<sup>+</sup>. It is possible that polymerization promoted by AcP could occur at mineral surfaces.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Whicher |first1Alexandra |last2Camprubi |first2Eloi |last3Pinna |first3Silvana |last4Herschy |first4Barry |last5Lane |first5Nick |date2018-06-01 |titleAcetyl Phosphate as a Primordial Energy Currency at the Origin of Life |journalOrigins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |languageen |volume48 |issue2 |pages159–179 |doi10.1007/s11084-018-9555-8 |issn1573-0875 |pmc6061221 |pmid29502283|bibcode2018OLEB...48..159W }}</ref> It was shown that ADP can only be phosphorylated to ATP by AcP and other nucleoside triphosphates were not phosphorylated by AcP. This might explain why all lifeforms use ATP to drive biochemical reactions.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAncient chemistry may explain why living things use ATP as the universal energy currency: An early step in metabolic evolution set the stage for emergence of ATP as the universal energy carrier |urlhttps://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/10/221004151228.htm |access-date2023-08-27 |websiteScienceDaily |languageen}}</ref>ATP analoguesBiochemistry laboratories often use in vitro studies to explore ATP-dependent molecular processes. ATP analogs are also used in X-ray crystallography to determine a protein structure in complex with ATP, often together with other substrates.{{citation needed|dateApril 2023}}
Enzyme inhibitors of ATP-dependent enzymes such as kinases are needed to examine the binding sites and transition states involved in ATP-dependent reactions.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}
Most useful ATP analogs cannot be hydrolyzed as ATP would be; instead, they trap the enzyme in a structure closely related to the ATP-bound state. Adenosine 5′-(γ-thiotriphosphate) is an extremely common ATP analog in which one of the gamma-phosphate oxygens is replaced by a sulfur atom; this anion is hydrolyzed at a dramatically slower rate than ATP itself and functions as an inhibitor of ATP-dependent processes. In crystallographic studies, hydrolysis transition states are modeled by the bound vanadate ion.
Caution is warranted in interpreting the results of experiments using ATP analogs, since some enzymes can hydrolyze them at appreciable rates at high concentration.<ref nameResetar>{{cite journal |last1Resetar |first1A.&nbsp;M. |last2Chalovich |first2J.&nbsp;M. | year1995 | titleAdenosine 5′-(gamma-thiotriphosphate): an ATP analog that should be used with caution in muscle contraction studies | volume34 | issue49 | pages16039–16045 | pmid8519760 | doi 10.1021/bi00049a018 | journalBiochemistry}}</ref> Medical use ATP is used intravenously for some heart-related conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Pelleg|first1Amir|last2Kutalek|first2Steven P.|last3Flammang|first3Daniel|last4Benditt|first4David|dateFebruary 2012|titleATPace: injectable adenosine 5′-triphosphate|journalPurinergic Signalling|volume8|issueSuppl 1|pages57–60|doi10.1007/s11302-011-9268-1|issn1573-9538|pmc3265710|pmid22057692}}</ref>HistoryATP was discovered in 1929 by {{Interlanguage link|Karl Lohmann (biochemist)|ltKarl Lohmann|de|Karl Lohmann (Biochemiker)}}<ref>{{cite journal |lastLohmann |firstK. |titleÜber die Pyrophosphatfraktion im Muskel |trans-titleOn the pyrophosphate fraction in muscle |journalNaturwissenschaften |volume17 |issue31 |pages624–625 |dateAugust 1929 |doi10.1007/BF01506215 |bibcode1929NW.....17..624. |s2cid20328411 |languagede}}</ref> and Jendrassik<ref>{{cite journal| titleThe Determination of Phosphorus and the Discovery of Phosphocreatine and ATP: the Work of Fiske and SubbaRow| journalJournal of Biological Chemistry| volume277| issue32| pagese21| urlhttp://www.jbc.org/content/277/32/e21| year2002| last1Vaughan| first1Martha| last2Hill| first2Robert L.| last3Simoni| first3Robert D.| pmid12161449| access-date2017-10-24| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170808062708/http://www.jbc.org/content/277/32/e21| archive-date2017-08-08| url-statuslive}}</ref> and, independently, by Cyrus Fiske and Yellapragada Subba Rao of Harvard Medical School,<ref>{{cite journal |lastMaruyama |firstK. |titleThe discovery of adenosine triphosphate and the establishment of its structure |journalJ. Hist. Biol. |volume24 |issue1 |pages145–154 |dateMarch 1991 |doi10.1007/BF00130477 |s2cid=87425890 }}</ref> both teams competing against each other to find an assay for phosphorus.
It was proposed to be the intermediary between energy-yielding and energy-requiring reactions in cells by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941.<ref>{{cite journal |lastLipmann |firstF. |titleMetabolic generation and utilization of phosphate bond energy. |journalAdv. Enzymol. |volume1 |pages99–162 |year1941 |issn0196-7398}}</ref>
It was first synthesized in the laboratory by Alexander Todd in 1948,<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1997/illpres/history.html| workThe Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997| titleHistory: ATP first discovered in 1929| publisherNobel Foundation| access-date2010-05-26| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100123061355/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1997/illpres/history.html| archive-date2010-01-23| url-statuslive}}</ref> and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1957 partly for this work.
The 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Peter Dennis Mitchell for the discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.
The 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was divided, one half jointly to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker "for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)" and the other half to Jens C. Skou "for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na<sup>+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup> -ATPase."<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1997/|titleThe Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997|websiteNobel Prize |access-date21 January 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171024205633/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1997/|archive-date24 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{clear}}
See also
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* Adenosine-tetraphosphatase
* Adenosine methylene triphosphate
* ATPases
* ATP test
* Creatine
* Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
* Nucleotide exchange factor
* Phosphagen
{{colend}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.ebi.ac.uk/pdbe-srv/PDBeXplore/ligand/?ligand=ATP ATP bound to proteins] in the PDB
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160310134410/http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/biology/biochemistry/atp.html ScienceAid: Energy ATP and Exercise]
* [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=5957 PubChem entry for Adenosine Triphosphate]
* [http://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?cpd:C00002 KEGG entry for Adenosine Triphosphate]
{{Nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides}}
{{Enzyme cofactors}}
{{Neurotransmitters}}
{{Food science}}
{{Cellular respiration}}
{{MetabolismMap}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adenosine phosphate3}}
Category:Adenosine receptor agonists
Category:Cellular respiration
Category:Coenzymes
Category:Ergogenic aids
Category:Exercise physiology
Category:Neurotransmitters
Category:Nucleotides
Category:Phosphate esters
Category:Purinergic signalling
Category:Purines
Category:Substances discovered in the 1920s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.673232
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1802
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Ægir
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{{short description|One of various personifications of the sea or ocean in Norse mythology}}
{{Redirect|Aegir}}
, 1850, depicting Ægir and his nine wave daughters]]
Ægir (anglicised as Aegir; Old Norse 'sea'), Hlér (Old Norse 'sea'), or Gymir (Old Norse less clearly 'sea, engulfer'), is a jötunn and a personification of the sea in Norse mythology. In the Old Norse record, Ægir hosts the gods in his halls and is associated with brewing ale. Ægir is attested as married to a goddess, Rán, who also personifies the sea, and together the two produced daughters who personify waves, the Nine Daughters of Ægir and Rán, and Ægir's son is Snær, personified snow. Ægir may also be the father of the beautiful jötunn Gerðr, wife of the god Freyr, or these may be two separate figures who share the same name (see below and Gymir (father of Gerðr)).
One of Ægir's names, Hlér, is the namesake of the island Læsø (Old Norse Hlésey 'Hlér's island') and perhaps also Lejre in Denmark. Scholars have long analyzed Ægir's role in the Old Norse corpus, and the concept of the figure has had some influence in modern popular culture.
Names
The Old Norse name Ægir ('sea') may stem from a Proto-Germanic form *āg<sup>w</sup>i-jaz ('that of the river/water'),{{Sfn|Haudry|2017|pp29–30}} itself a derivative of the stem *ahwō- ('river'; cf. Gothic {{lang|got|aƕa}} 'body of water, river', Old English ēa 'stream', Old High German aha 'river').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p7}} Richard Cleasby and Guðbrandur Vigfússon saw his name as deriving from an ancient Indo-European root.<ref name"CLEASBYVIGFUSSON758">Cleasby, Vigfússon (1957:[http://web.ff.cuni.cz/cgi-bin/uaa_slovnik/gmc_search_v3?cmdviewthis&idcv:b0758:26 758] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170118034753/http://web.ff.cuni.cz/cgi-bin/uaa_slovnik/gmc_search_v3?cmdviewthis&idcv:b0758:26 |date2017-01-18 }}).</ref> Linguist Guus Kroonen argues that the Germanic stem *ahwō- is probably of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin, as it may be cognate with Latin aqua (via a common form *h₂ekʷ-eh₂-), and ultimately descend from the PIE root *h₂ep- ('water'; cf. Sanskrit áp- 'water', Tocharian āp- 'water, river').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p7}} Linguist Michiel de Vaan notes that the connection between Proto-Germanic *ahwō- and Old Norse Ægir remains uncertain, and that *ahwō- and aqua, if cognates, may also be loanwords from a non-Indo-European language.<ref>{{Cite book |lastde Vaan |firstMichiel |titleEtymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages |date2018 |publisherBrill |isbn978-90-04-16797-1}}</ref>
The name Ægir is identical to a noun for 'sea' in skaldic poetry, itself a base word in many kennings. For instance, a ship is described as "Ægir's horse" and the waves as the "daughters of Ægir".{{Sfn|Lindow|2002|p=47}}
Poetic kennings in both Hversu Noregr byggðist (How Norway Was Settled) and Skáldskaparmál (The Language of Poetry) treat Ægir and the sea-jötunn Hlér, who lives on the Hlésey ('Hlér island', modern Læsø), as the same figure.{{Sfn|de Vries|1970|p251}}{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p151}}{{Sfn|Lindow|2002|p=18}}
The meaning of the Old Norse name Gymir is unclear.{{Sfn|de Vries|1970|p197}}{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p127}} Proposed translations include 'the earthly' (from Old Norse gumi), 'the wintry one' (from gemla), or 'the protector', the 'engulfer' (from geyma).{{Sfn|de Vries|1970|p197}}{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p127}}{{Sfn|Orchard|1997|p70}} (For more on this topic, see discussion below) Attestations
and their Nine Daughters prepare a huge vat of ale. 19th-century Swedish book illustration of the Poetic Edda.]]
Ægir is attested in a variety of Old Norse sources.
Sonatorrek
Ægir and Rán receive mention in the poem Sonatorrek attributed to 10th century Icelandic skald Egill Skallagrímsson. In the poem, Egill laments the death of his son Böðvar, who drowned at sea during a storm. In one difficult stanza, the skald expresses the pain of losing his son by invoking the image of slaying the personified sea, personified as Ægir (Old Norse ǫlsmið[r] 'ale-smith') and Rán (Ægis man 'Ægir's wife'):
{|
|
:Veiztu um ϸá sǫk
:sverði of rækak,
:var ǫlsmið[r]
:allra tíma;
:hroða vágs brœðr
:ef vega mættak;
:fœra ek andvígr
:Ægis mani.{{Sfn|Einarsson|2003|p=149}}
|
:You know,
:if I took revenge with the sword
:for that offence,
:Ægir would be dead;
:if I could kill them,
:I would fight Ægir and Rán.<ref name="EINARSSON-2003">Einarsson (2004:149). Formatted for display.</ref>
|
|}
The skald later references Ægir by way of the kenning 'Hlér's fire' (Hlés viti), meaning gold.{{Sfn|Einarsson|2003|p85}}Poetic EddaIn the Poetic Edda, Ægir receives mention in the eddic poems Grímnismál, Hymiskviða, Lokasenna, and in the prose section of Helgakviða Hundingsbana I.{{Sfn|Larrington|2014|p324}} In Grímnismál, the disguised god Odin references Ægir's status as a renowned host among the gods:
:'Fleeting visions I have now revealed before the victory-gods's sons,
:now the wished-for protection will awaken;
:to the all the Æsir it will become known,
:on Ægir's benches,
:at Ægir's feast.'{{Sfn|Larrington|2014|pp=55, 290}}
In Hymiskviða, Ægir plays a major role. In the poem, the gods have become thirsty after a successful hunt, and are keen to celebrate with drink. They "shook the twigs and looked at the augury" and "found that at Ægir's was an ample choice of cauldrons". Odin goes to Ægir, who he finds sitting in good cheer, and tells him he shall "often prepare a feast for the Æsir". Referring to Ægir as a jötunn, the poem describes how, now annoyed, Ægir hatches a plan: He asks Thor to fetch a particular cauldron, and that with it he could brew ale for them all. The gods are unable to find a cauldron of a size big enough to meet Ægir's request until the god Týr recommends one he knows of far away, setting the stage for the events of the rest of the poem.{{Sfn|Larrington|2014|pp=74–75}}
According to the prose introduction to Lokasenna, "Ægir, who is also called Gymir", was hosting a feast "with the great cauldron which has just been told about", which many of the gods and elves attended. The prose introduction describes the feast as featuring gold that shimmers like fire light and ale that serves itself, and that "it was a great place of peace". In attendance also were Ægir's servers, Fimafeng and Eldir. The gods praise the excellence of their service and, hearing this, Loki murders Fimafeng, enraging the gods, who chase him out to the woods before returning to drink.{{Sfn|Larrington|2014|p=80}}
In the poem that follows the prose introduction (and in accompanying prose), Loki returns to the hall and greets Eldir: He says that before Eldir steps forward, he should first tell him what the gods are discussing in the hall. Eldir says that they're discussing weaponry and war, and having nothing good to say about Loki. Loki says that he will enter Ægir's halls and have a look at the feast, and with him bring quarrel and strife. Eldir notifies Loki that if he enters and causes trouble, he can expect them to return it to him. Loki enters the hall and the gods see him and become silent.{{Sfn|Larrington|2014|p=81}}
In Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, a great wave is referred to as "Ægir's terrible daughter".{{Sfn|Larrington|2014|p114}}Prose Edda
Ægir receives numerous mentions in the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, where he sits at a banquet and asks the skaldic god Bragi many questions, and Bragi responds with narratives about the gods. The section begins as follows:
{|
|
:<small>Anthony Faulkes translation (1987):</small>
:There was a person whose name was Ægir or Hler. He lived on an island which is now called Hlesey. He was very skilled in magic. He set out to visit Asgard, and when the Æsir became aware of his movements, he was given a great welcome, though many things had deceptive appearances.{{Sfn|Faulkes|1995|p=59}}
|
:<small>Andy Orchard translation (1997):</small>
There was a figure called Ægir or Hlér; he lived on an island, which is now called Hléysey. He was very crafty in magic. He set off to visit Ásgard, and when the Æsir realized he was coming, he was given a splen did welcome, although many things were not as they seemed;{{Sfn|Orchard|1997|p=1}}
|
:<small>J. Lindow translation (2002):</small>
:A man was named Ægir or Hlér; he lived on that island which is now called Hlér's Island. He had much magic knowledge. He made his way to Ásgard, but the æsir knew of his journey in advance. He was well received, but many things were done with illusions.{{Sfn|Lindow|2002|p=48}}
|
|}
Beyond this section of Skáldskaparmál, Ægir receives several other mentions in kennings. Section 25 provides examples for 'sea', including 'visitor of the gods', 'husband of Rán', 'father of Ægir's daughters', 'land of Rán and Ægir's daughters'. Kennings cited to skalds in this section include 'the storm-happy daughters of Ægir' meaning 'waves' (Svein) and a kenning in a fragment of a work by the 11th century Icelandic skald Hofgarða-Refr Gestsson, where Rán is referred to as 'Gymir's ... völva':
{{blockquote|
<small>Standardized Old Norse</small>
:Ok sem kvað Refr:
::Fœrir bjǫrn, þar er bára
::brestr, undinna festa
::opt í Ægis kjǫpta
::<nowiki>*</nowiki>ursǫl Gymis vǫlva.{{Sfn|Faulkes|1995|p=37}}
}}
{{blockquote|
<small>Anthony Faulkes translation</small>
:And as Ref said:
::Gymir's spray-cold spæ-wife often brings the twisted-rope-bear [ship] into Ægir's jaws [under the waves] where the wave breaks.<ref name"FAULKES-1995-91-140">{{harvnb|Faulkes|1995|p91}}. This stanza appears quoted a second time later in Skáldskaparmál, for which see {{harvnb|Faulkes|1995|p=140}}.</ref>
}}
The section's author comments that the stanza "[implies] that they are all the same, Ægir and Hler and Gymir.{{Sfn|Faulkes|1995|p=92}}
Chapter 33b of Skáldskaparmál discusses why skalds may refer to gold as "Ægir's fire". The section traces the kenning to a narrative surrounding Ægir, in which the jötunn employs "glowing gold" in the center of his hall to light it "like fire" (which the narrator compares to flaming swords in Valhalla). The section explains that "Ran is the name of Ægir's wife, and the names of their nine daughters are as was written above ... Then the Æsir discovered that Ran had a net in which she caught everyone that went to sea ... so this is the story of the origin of gold being called fire or light or brightness of Ægir, Ran or Ægir's daughters, and from such kennings the practice has now developed of calling gold fire of the sea and of all terms for it, since Ægir and Ran's names are also terms for the sea, and hence gold is now called fire of lakes or rivers and of all river-names."<ref name"FAULKES-1998-95">{{harvnb|Faulkes|1995|p95}}. The chapter continues with discussion regarding the development of these kennings and the concept of allegory.</ref>
In chapter 61 provides yet more kennings. Among them the author notes that "Ran, who, it is said, was Ægir's wife" and that "the daughters of Ægir and Ran are nine".{{Sfn|Faulkes|1995|p141}} In chapter 75, Ægir occurs in a list of jötnar.{{Sfn|Faulkes|1995|p156}}
Saga corpus
In what appears to be a Norwegian genealogical tradition, Ægir is portrayed as one of the three elements among the sea, the fire and the wind. The beginning of the Orkneyinga saga ('Saga of the Orkney Islanders') and Hversu Noregr byggdisk ('How Norway Was Settled') tell that the jötunn king Fornjót had three sons: Hlér ('sea'), whom he called Ægir, a second named Logi ('fire'), and a third called Kári ('wind').{{Sfn|Lindow|2002|p48}}Scholarly reception and interpretationBanquetsCarolyne Larrington says that Ægir's role in Hymiskviða "may reflect Scandinavian royal practices in which the king enforces his authority on his subordinates by visiting their homes and demanding to be feasted".{{Sfn|Larrington|2014|p74}} According to Andy Orchard, Ægir's role in Skáldskaparmál, where he attends a banquet rather than hosting it, could be a deliberate inversion of the traditional motif of Ægir as host.{{Sfn|Orchard|1997|p1}}GymirThe name Gymir may indicate that Ægir was understood as the father of the beautiful jötunn Gerðr; they may also have been two different figures sharing the same name (see Gymir, father of Gerðr). Both the prose introduction to Lokasenna and Skáldskaparmál state that Ægir is also known as Gymir, the father of the jötunn Gerðr.{{Sfn|Lindow|2002|p156}} Rudolf Simek argues that, if understood to be two different entities, this may stem from an erroneous interpretation of kennings in which different jötunn-names are used interchangeably.{{Sfn|Simek|1996|pp126–27}}Hlér, Læsø, Lejre, and Snow As highlighted above in Skáldskaparmál, the name of the island Læsø in Denmark references Hlér (Old Norse Hléysey 'Hlér's Island'). Simek speculates that Hlér may therefore have been seen as something of an ancestor of the island.{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p151}}
Two sources list the personified snow, Snær (Old Norse 'snow'), as Hlér's son. Book nine of Saxo Grammaticus's 12th century history of Denmark Gesta Danorum contains mention of a figure by the name of Lerus (from Old Norse Hlér) whose son is Snio (from Old Norse Snær 'Snow'). The Danish chronicle of Lejre, Chronicon Lethrense also connects the two, and the name Lejre may, like Læsø, derive from the jötunn.{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p151}}JötunnScholars have often discussed Ægir's role as host to the gods and his description as a jötunn. Anthony Faulkes observes that Ægir is "often described by modern writers as god of the sea" yet that he is nowhere described as a god in the Prose Edda and appears in a list of jötnar in Skáldskaparmál.{{Sfn|Faulkes|1995|p299}} According to John Lindow, since his wife Rán is listed among the Ásynjur (goddesses) in the same part of the Prose Edda, and since he had a close and friendly relationship with the Æsir (gods), Ægir's description as a jötunn appears questionable.{{Sfn|Lindow|2002|p47}} Andy Orchard argues on the contrary that Ægir's inclusion among the Æsir is probably a late development since his daughters are described as jötnar and some sources mention him as the descendant of the jötunn Fornjót.{{Sfn|Orchard|1997|p2}} According to Rudolf Simek, while attested as a jötunn, Ægir "has characteristics" of a sea god.{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p1}}Modern influenceÆgir has been the subject of a variety of art pieces. These include Nils Blommér's painting Näcken och Ägirs döttrar (1850), Johan Peter Molin's (d. 1874) fountain relief Ægir, and Emil Doepler's Ægir (1901).{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p2}}
Ægir is referenced in a variety of others ways in modern popular culture. For example, Shoto Todoroki from the Japanese anime "Boku no hero academia" has a move titled "Great Glacial Aegir". He is also the namesake of a Norwegian corvette produced in 1967 (Ægir),{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p2}} a coastal defense ship in the Imperial German Navy, and of an exoplanet, Epsilon Eridani b.<ref>{{Citation|lastCarroll|firstMichael|chapterZeroing in on Earth 2.0|date2017|titleEarths of Distant Suns|page79|publisherSpringer|languageen|doi10.1007/978-3-319-43964-8_5|isbn978-3-319-43963-1|quotePlanet name: AEgir {{!}} Original designation: Epsilon Eridani b}}</ref>
See also
{{Commons category|Ægir}}
* Ler (mythology), figure from Irish folklore
* Njörðr, Norse deity associated with the sea
* Trent Aegir, tidal bore on the River Trent
Notes
{{reflist}}
References
{{refbegin}}
*Cleasby, Richard, Guðbrandur Vigfússon (1957). An Icelandic-English Dictionary. 2nd ed. with supplement by William A. Craigie. Clarendon Press. Repr. 1975. {{ISBN|9780198631033}}
*{{Cite book|lastde Vries|firstJan|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiIIIAQAAIAAJ|titleAltgermanische Religionsgeschichte| year1970 | orig-year 1956|publisherWalter De Gruyter|volume1|languagede|author-link=Jan de Vries (linguist)}}
*{{Cite book|lastEinarsson|firstBjarni|urlhttp://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Egla/Egils_saga.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Egla/Egils_saga.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleEgils Saga|date2003|publisherViking Society for Northern Research|isbn978-0-903521-54-3|languageen|author-linkBjarni Einarsson}}
*{{Cite book|lastFaulkes|firstAnthony|titleEdda|publisherEveryman|year1995|isbn0-460-87616-3|orig-year1987|author-maskFaulkes, Anthony, trans.}}
*{{Cite book|lastHaudry|firstJean|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjaF-vgAACAAJ|titleLe feu dans la tradition indo-européenne|date2017|publisherArché|isbn978-88-7252-343-8|languagefr|author-linkJean Haudry}}
*{{Cite book|lastKroonen|firstGuus|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcgmFRAAACAAJ|titleEtymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic|date2013|publisherBrill|isbn978-90-04-18340-7|language=en}}
*{{Cite book|lastLarrington|firstCarolyne|url|titleThe Poetic Edda|date2014|publisherOxford World's Classics|isbn978-0-19-967534-0|languageen|author-linkCarolyne Larrington|editionrevised }}
*{{Cite book|lastLindow|firstJohn|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKlT7tv3eMSwC|titleNorse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs|date2002|publisherOxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-983969-8|languageen|author-linkJohn Lindow}}
*{{Cite book|lastOrchard|firstAndy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduIujQgAACAAJ|titleDictionary of Norse Myth and Legend|date1997|publisherCassell|isbn978-0-304-34520-5|languageen|author-linkAndy Orchard}}
*{{Cite book|lastSimek|firstRudolf|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMZ24QgAACAAJ|titleDictionary of Northern Mythology|date1996|publisherD.S. Brewer|isbn978-0-85991-513-7|languageen|author-linkRudolf Simek}}
{{refend}}
External links
* [https://myndir.uvic.ca/AgR01.html MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository)] Illustrations of Ægir from manuscripts and early print books.
{{Norse mythology}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aegir}}
Category:Jötnar
Category:Personifications in Norse mythology
Category:Norse gods
Category:Alcohol gods
Category:Deities of wine and beer
Category:Sea and river gods
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ægir
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.691421
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1805
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Antibiotic
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{{Short description|Antimicrobial substance active against bacteria}}
{{Redirect|Antibacterial}}
{{About|treatment of bacterial infection|anti-tumor antibiotics|Chemotherapy#Cytotoxic antibiotics}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{cs1 config |name-list-stylevanc |display-authors6}}
{{Infobox drug class
| Name = <!-- omit to use page name -->
| Image = Staphylococcus aureus (AB Test).jpg
| Alt | Caption Testing the susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to antibiotics by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method – antibiotics diffuse from antibiotic-containing disks and inhibit growth of S. aureus, resulting in a zone of inhibition.
| Pronounce | Synonyms
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| Use | ATC_prefix
| Mode_of_action | Mechanism_of_action
| Biological_target | Chemical_class
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| Consumer_Reports | medicinenet
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An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections.<ref name"NHSB">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Antibiotics-penicillins/Pages/Introduction.aspx |titleAntibiotics |publisherNHS |date5 June 2014 |access-date17 January 2015 |archive-date18 January 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150118023314/http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/antibiotics-penicillins/pages/introduction.aspx |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://ecdc.europa.eu/en/eaad/antibiotics/Pages/factsExperts.aspx |titleFactsheet for experts |publisherEuropean Centre for Disease Prevention and Control |access-date21 December 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141221183712/http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/eaad/antibiotics/Pages/factsExperts.aspx |archive-date21 December 2014 |url-statusdead }}</ref> They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity.<ref>For example, metronidazole: {{cite web|titleMetronidazole|urlhttps://www.drugs.com/monograph/metronidazole.html|publisherThe American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|access-date31 July 2015|archive-date6 September 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906002140/http://www.drugs.com/monograph/metronidazole.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameAntibioticandantiprotozal>{{cite book|titleChemical Analysis of Antibiotic Residues in Food.|date2012|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.|isbn978-1-4496-1459-1|pages[https://archive.org/details/antibioticssimpl0002gall/page/1 1–60]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/antibioticssimpl0002gall/page/1}}</ref> Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the ones which cause the common cold or influenza.<ref>{{Cite web|titleWhy antibiotics can't be used to treat your cold or flu|urlhttps://www.health.qld.gov.au/news-events/news/antibiotics-viruses-cold-flu|date6 May 2017|websitewww.health.qld.gov.au|languageen-AU|access-date13 May 2020|archive-date9 August 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200809150646/https://www.health.qld.gov.au/news-events/news/antibiotics-viruses-cold-flu|url-status=live}}</ref> Drugs which inhibit growth of viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals. Antibiotics are also not effective against fungi. Drugs which inhibit growth of fungi are called antifungal drugs.
Sometimes, the term antibiotic—literally "opposing life", from the Greek roots ἀντι anti, "against" and βίος bios, "life"—is broadly used to refer to any substance used against microbes, but in the usual medical usage, antibiotics (such as penicillin) are those produced naturally (by one microorganism fighting another), whereas non-antibiotic antibacterials (such as sulfonamides and antiseptics) are fully synthetic. However, both classes have the same effect of killing or preventing the growth of microorganisms, and both are included in antimicrobial chemotherapy. "Antibacterials" include bactericides, bacteriostatics, antibacterial soaps, and chemical disinfectants, whereas antibiotics are an important class of antibacterials used more specifically in medicine<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/about_issue/agents.shtml#1 |titleGeneral Background: Antibiotic Agents |workAlliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics |access-date21 December 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141214195917/http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/about_issue/agents.shtml#1 |archive-date14 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and sometimes in livestock feed.
Antibiotics have been used since ancient times. Many civilizations used topical application of moldy bread, with many references to its beneficial effects arising from ancient Egypt, Nubia, China, Serbia, Greece, and Rome.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors Gould K |date March 2016 |titleAntibiotics: from prehistory to the present day |journalJournal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy |volume71 |issue3 |pages572–575 |doi10.1093/jac/dkv484 |pmid26851273 |issn0305-7453| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> The first person to directly document the use of molds to treat infections was John Parkinson (1567–1650). Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s.<ref name"CALDERIN2007"/> Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) discovered modern day penicillin in 1928, the widespread use of which proved significantly beneficial during wartime. The first sulfonamide and the first systemically active antibacterial drug, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 or 1933 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany.<ref name"goodman"/><ref name"ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors Aminov RI | title A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future | journal Frontiers in Microbiology | volume 1 | pages 134 | year 2010 | pmid 21687759 | pmc 3109405 | doi 10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Bosch2008"/> However, the effectiveness and easy access to antibiotics have also led to their overuse<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Laxminarayan R, Duse A, Wattal C, Zaidi AK, Wertheim HF, Sumpradit N, Vlieghe E, Hara GL, Gould IM, Goossens H, Greko C, So AD, Bigdeli M, Tomson G, Woodhouse W, Ombaka E, Peralta AQ, Qamar FN, Mir F, Kariuki S, Bhutta ZA, Coates A, Bergstrom R, Wright GD, Brown ED, Cars O | title Antibiotic resistance-the need for global solutions | journal The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume 13 | issue 12 | pages 1057–98 | date December 2013 | pmid 24252483 | doi 10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70318-9 | url http://dspace.ucuenca.edu.ec/handle/123456789/22122 | hdl-access free | hdl 10161/8996 | s2cid 19489131 | access-date 25 August 2020 | archive-date 10 June 2020 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200610091542/http://dspace.ucuenca.edu.ec/handle/123456789/22122 | url-status live }}</ref> and some bacteria have evolved resistance to them.<ref name"NHSB" /><ref>{{cite web|vauthorsBrooks M|titlePublic Confused About Antibiotic Resistance, WHO Says|urlhttp://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/854564|websiteMedscape Multispeciality|access-date21 November 2015|date16 November 2015|archive-date20 November 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151120032454/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/854564|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Gould K | title Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day | journal The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume 71 | issue 3 | pages 572–5 | date March 2016 | pmid 26851273 | doi 10.1093/jac/dkv484 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title Antibiotics: Targets, Mechanisms and Resistance|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3SZrAAAAQBAJ|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|date 4 December 2013|isbn978-3-527-33305-9| vauthors Gualerzi CO, Brandi L, Fabbretti A, Pon CL |pages1}}</ref> Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a naturally occurring process, is driven largely by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials.<ref name"CDC About Antimicrobial Resistance">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/antimicrobial-resistance/about/|titleAbout Antimicrobial Resistance|websiteUS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date22 April 2024|access-date11 October 2024}}</ref><ref nameWHO10October2024/> Yet, at the same time, many people around the world do not have access to essential antimicrobials.<ref nameWHO10October2024>{{Cite web|titleBetter use of vaccines could reduce antibiotic use by 2.5 billion doses annually, says WHO|urlhttps://www.who.int/news/item/10-10-2024-better-use-of-vaccines-could-reduce-antibiotic-use-by-2.5-billion-doses-annually--says-who|websiteWorld Health Organization|date10 October 2024|access-date11 October 2024}}</ref> The World Health Organization has classified AMR as a widespread "serious threat [that] is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country".<ref nameWHO2014>{{cite book |urlhttp://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua1 |titleAntimicrobial resistance: global report on surveillance |publisherThe World Health Organization |dateApril 2014 |access-date13 June 2016 |isbn978-92-4-156474-8 |archive-date6 June 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160606181615/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua1 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Each year, nearly 5 million deaths are associated with AMR globally.<ref nameWHO10October2024/> Global deaths attributable to AMR numbered 1.27 million in 2019.<ref>{{cite journal | title Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis | language English | journal Lancet | volume 399 | issue 10325 | pages 629–655 | date February 2022 | pmid 35065702 | pmc 8841637 | doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0 | vauthors Murray CJ, Ikuta KS, Sharara F, Swetschinski L, Robles Aguilar G, Gray A, Han C, Bisignano C, Rao P, Wool E, Johnson SC, Browne AJ, Chipeta MG, Fell F, Hackett S, Haines-Woodhouse G, Kashef Hamadani BH, Kumaran EA, McManigal B, Achalapong S, Agarwal R, Akech S, Albertson S, Amuasi J, Andrews J, Aravkin A, Ashley E, Babin F, Bailey F, Baker S }}</ref>
Etymology
The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs.<ref name"CALDERIN2007" /><ref name"Saxena">{{cite book|titleApplied Microbiology|vauthorsSaxena S|publisherSpringer India|year2015|isbn978-81-322-2258-3|pages83–120|chapterChapter 8: Microbes in Production of Fine Chemicals (Antibiotics, Drugs, Vitamins, and Amino Acids)|doi10.1007/978-81-322-2259-0|s2cid36527513}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Foster W, Raoult A | title Early descriptions of antibiosis | journal The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners | volume 24 | issue 149 | pages 889–894 | date December 1974 | pmid 4618289 | pmc 2157443 }}</ref> Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis.<ref name"Saxena" /><ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsLandsberg H|year1949|titlePrelude to the discovery of penicillin|journalIsis|volume40|issue3|pages225–7|doi10.1086/349043|s2cid143223535}}</ref> These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1947.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Waksman SA | title What is an antibiotic or an antibiotic substance? | journal Mycologia | volume 39 | issue 5 | pages 565–569 | date 1947 | pmid 20264541 | doi = 10.1080/00275514.1947.12017635 }}</ref>
The term antibiotic was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution.<ref name"Saxena" /><ref name"Wakeman1947" /> This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria but that are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides. In current usage, the term "antibiotic" is applied to any medication that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth, regardless of whether that medication is produced by a microorganism or not.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://archive.org/details/antimicrobialdru0000scho|titleThe Antimicrobial Drugs|vauthorsScholar EM, Pratt WB|publisherOxford University Press, US|year2000|isbn978-0-19-512529-0|pages[https://archive.org/details/antimicrobialdru0000scho/page/3 3]|url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsDavies J, Davies D|dateSeptember 2010|titleOrigins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journalMicrobiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume74|issue3|pages417–33|doi10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc2937522|pmid20805405}}</ref>
The term "antibiotic" derives from anti + βιωτικός (biōtikos), "fit for life, lively",<ref>{{cite book|titleA Greek-English Lexicon|veditorsLiddell HG, Scott R|chapterβιωτικός|chapter-urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbiwtiko%2Fs|viaPerseus Project|access-date20 February 2021|archive-date25 April 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230425182154/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry%3Dbiwtiko/s|url-statuslive}}</ref> which comes from βίωσις (biōsis), "way of life",<ref>{{cite book|titleA Greek-English Lexicon|veditorsLiddell HG, Scott R|chapterβίωσις|chapter-urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbi%2Fwsis|viaPerseus Project|access-date20 February 2021|archive-date25 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225214659/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbi%2Fwsis|url-statuslive}}</ref> and that from βίος (bios), "life".<ref name"Antibiotics FAQ" /><ref>{{cite book|titleA Greek-English Lexicon|veditorsLiddell HG, Scott R|chapterβίος|chapter-urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbi%2Fos1|viaPerseus Project|access-date20 February 2021|archive-date27 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210227060426/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbi%2Fos1|url-statuslive}}</ref> The term "antibacterial" derives from Greek ἀντί (anti), "against"<ref>{{cite book|titleA Greek-English Lexicon|veditorsLiddell HG, Scott R|chapterἀντί|chapter-urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29nti%2F|viaPerseus Project|access-date20 February 2021|archive-date10 October 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121010011324/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0057:entrya)nti%2F|url-statuslive}}</ref> + βακτήριον (baktērion), diminutive of βακτηρία (baktēria), "staff, cane",<ref>{{cite book|titleA Greek-English Lexicon|veditorsLiddell HG, Scott R|chapterβακτηρία|chapter-urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbakthri%2Fa|viaPerseus Project|access-date20 February 2021|archive-date24 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224153634/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0057:entrybakthri/a|url-statuslive}}</ref> because the first bacteria to be discovered were rod-shaped.<ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/bacterium?qbacterial#bacterium__2 bacterial] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210827221846/https://languages.oup.com/#bacterium__2 |date27 August 2021 }}, on Oxford Dictionaries</ref>UsageMedical usesAntibiotics are used to treat or prevent bacterial infections,<ref nameAntibiotic>{{cite book|titleAntibiotics Simplified.|date2011|publisherJones & Bartlett Publishers|isbn978-1-4496-1459-1|pages15–17|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvIRgA57q414C&qAntibiotics|access-date28 April 2024|archive-date2 January 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240102114230/https://books.google.com/books?idvIRgA57q414C&qAntibiotics#vsnippet&qAntibiotics&ffalse|url-statuslive}}</ref> and sometimes protozoan infections. (Metronidazole is effective against a number of parasitic diseases). When an infection is suspected of being responsible for an illness but the responsible pathogen has not been identified, an empiric therapy is adopted.<ref name"General principles">{{cite journal | vauthors Leekha S, Terrell CL, Edson RS | title General principles of antimicrobial therapy | journal Mayo Clinic Proceedings | volume 86 | issue 2 | pages 156–67 | date February 2011 | pmid 21282489 | pmc 3031442 | doi 10.4065/mcp.2010.0639 }}</ref> This involves the administration of a broad-spectrum antibiotic based on the signs and symptoms presented and is initiated pending laboratory results that can take several days.<ref name"Antibiotic"/><ref name"General principles"/>
When the responsible pathogenic microorganism is already known or has been identified, definitive therapy can be started. This will usually involve the use of a narrow-spectrum antibiotic. The choice of antibiotic given will also be based on its cost. Identification is critically important as it can reduce the cost and toxicity of the antibiotic therapy and also reduce the possibility of the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.<ref name"General principles"/> To avoid surgery, antibiotics may be given for non-complicated acute appendicitis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Rollins KE, Varadhan KK, Neal KR, Lobo DN | title Antibiotics Versus Appendicectomy for the Treatment of Uncomplicated Acute Appendicitis: An Updated Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials | journal World Journal of Surgery | volume 40 | issue 10 | pages 2305–18 | date October 2016 | pmid 27199000 | doi 10.1007/s00268-016-3561-7 | s2cid = 4802473 }}</ref>
Antibiotics may be given as a preventive measure and this is usually limited to at-risk populations such as those with a weakened immune system (particularly in HIV cases to prevent pneumonia), those taking immunosuppressive drugs, cancer patients, and those having surgery.<ref nameAntibiotic/> Their use in surgical procedures is to help prevent infection of incisions. They have an important role in dental antibiotic prophylaxis where their use may prevent bacteremia and consequent infective endocarditis. Antibiotics are also used to prevent infection in cases of neutropenia particularly cancer-related.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Flowers CR, Seidenfeld J, Bow EJ, Karten C, Gleason C, Hawley DK, Kuderer NM, Langston AA, Marr KA, Rolston KV, Ramsey SD | title Antimicrobial prophylaxis and outpatient management of fever and neutropenia in adults treated for malignancy: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline | journal Journal of Clinical Oncology | volume 31 | issue 6 | pages 794–810 | date February 2013 | pmid 23319691 | doi 10.1200/JCO.2012.45.8661 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Bow EJ | title Infection in neutropenic patients with cancer | journal Critical Care Clinics | volume 29 | issue 3 | pages 411–41 | date July 2013 | pmid 23830647 | doi = 10.1016/j.ccc.2013.03.002 }}</ref>
The use of antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease is not supported by current scientific evidence, and may actually increase cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality and the occurrence of stroke.<ref name":4">{{cite journal | vauthors Sethi NJ, Safi S, Korang SK, Hróbjartsson A, Skoog M, Gluud C, Jakobsen JC | title Antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 2 | issue 5 | pages CD003610 | date February 2021 | pmid 33704780 | pmc 8094925 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD003610.pub4 | collaboration Cochrane Heart Group }}</ref>
Routes of administration
There are many different routes of administration for antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics are usually taken by mouth. In more severe cases, particularly deep-seated systemic infections, antibiotics can be given intravenously or by injection.<ref name"NHSB"/><ref name"General principles"/> Where the site of infection is easily accessed, antibiotics may be given topically in the form of eye drops onto the conjunctiva for conjunctivitis or ear drops for ear infections and acute cases of swimmer's ear. Topical use is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including acne and cellulitis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Pangilinan R, Tice A, Tillotson G | title Topical antibiotic treatment for uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections: review of the literature | journal Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy | volume 7 | issue 8 | pages 957–65 | date October 2009 | pmid 19803705 | doi 10.1586/eri.09.74 | s2cid 207217730 }}</ref> Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse.<ref name"Treating chronic wounds">{{cite journal | vauthors Lipsky BA, Hoey C | title Topical antimicrobial therapy for treating chronic wounds | journal Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume 49 | issue 10 | pages 1541–9 | date November 2009 | pmid 19842981 | doi 10.1086/644732 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce the risk of surgical site infections.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Heal CF, Banks JL, Lepper PD, Kontopantelis E, van Driel ML | title Topical antibiotics for preventing surgical site infection in wounds healing by primary intention | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 2016 | issue 11 | pages CD011426 | date November 2016 | pmid 27819748 | pmc 6465080 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD011426.pub2 }}</ref> However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local hypersensitivity reactions or contact dermatitis occurring.<ref name"Treating chronic wounds"/> It is recommended to administer antibiotics as soon as possible, especially in life-threatening infections. Many emergency departments stock antibiotics for this purpose.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Hung KK, Lam RP, Lo RS, Tenney JW, Yang ML, Tai MC, Graham CA | title Cross-sectional study on emergency department management of sepsis | journal Hong Kong Medical Journal Xianggang Yi Xue Za Zhi | volume 24 | issue 6 | pages 571–578 | date December 2018 | pmid 30429360 | doi 10.12809/hkmj177149 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>Global consumptionAntibiotic consumption varies widely between countries. The WHO report on surveillance of antibiotic consumption published in 2018 analysed 2015 data from 65 countries. As measured in defined daily doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day. Mongolia had the highest consumption with a rate of 64.4. Burundi had the lowest at 4.4. Amoxicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid were the most frequently consumed.<ref>{{cite news |titleUK antibiotic consumption twice that of the Netherlands, WHO report finds |urlhttps://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/20205732.article |access-date22 December 2018 |publisherPharmaceutical Journal |date14 November 2018 |archive-date22 December 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181222221210/https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/20205732.article |url-statusdead }}</ref>Side effectsAntibiotics are screened for any negative effects before their approval for clinical use, and are usually considered safe and well tolerated. However, some antibiotics have been associated with a wide extent of adverse side effects ranging from mild to very severe depending on the type of antibiotic used, the microbes targeted, and the individual patient.<ref name"pmid15993671"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Slama TG, Amin A, Brunton SA, File TM, Milkovich G, Rodvold KA, Sahm DF, Varon J, Weiland D | title A clinician's guide to the appropriate and accurate use of antibiotics: the Council for Appropriate and Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT) criteria | journal The American Journal of Medicine | volume 118 | issue 7A | pages 1S–6S | date July 2005 | pmid 15993671 | doi 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.05.007 | collaboration Council for Appropriate Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT) | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Side effects may reflect the pharmacological or toxicological properties of the antibiotic or may involve hypersensitivity or allergic reactions.<ref nameAntibioticandantiprotozal/> Adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis.<ref>{{cite web |titleAntibiotics – Side effects |websiteNHS Choices |publisherNational Health Service (NHS), UK |urlhttp://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Antibiotics-penicillins/Pages/Side-effects.aspx |date6 May 2014 |access-date6 February 2016 |archive-date7 February 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160207044627/http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Antibiotics-penicillins/Pages/Side-effects.aspx |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Common side effects of oral antibiotics include diarrhea, resulting from disruption of the species composition in the intestinal flora, resulting, for example, in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridioides difficile.<ref>{{cite web|titleAntibiotic-Associated Diarrhea – All you should know|access-date28 December 2014|urlhttp://www.bestnaturalremedies.net/antibiotic-associated-diarrhea|archive-date25 April 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150425102547/http://www.bestnaturalremedies.net/antibiotic-associated-diarrhea|url-statusdead}}</ref> Taking probiotics during the course of antibiotic treatment can help prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Rodgers B, Kirley K, Mounsey A | title PURLs: prescribing an antibiotic? Pair it with probiotics | journal The Journal of Family Practice | volume 62 | issue 3 | pages 148–50 | date March 2013 | pmid 23520586 | pmc 3601687 }}</ref> Antibacterials can also affect the vaginal flora, and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus Candida in the vulvo-vaginal area.<ref name"Pirotta and Garland"/> Additional side effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as the possibility of tendon damage from the administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Lewis T, Cook J | title Fluoroquinolones and tendinopathy: a guide for athletes and sports clinicians and a systematic review of the literature | journal Journal of Athletic Training | volume 49 | issue 3 | pages 422–7 | date 1 January 2014 | pmid 24762232 | pmc 4080593 | doi 10.4085/1062-6050-49.2.09 }}</ref>
Some antibiotics may also damage the mitochondrion, a bacteria-derived organelle found in eukaryotic, including human, cells.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Prezant |first1Toni R. |last2Agapian |first2John V. |last3Bohlman |first3M. Charlotte |last4Bu |first4Xiangdong |last5Öztas |first5Sitki |last6Qiu |first6Wei-Qin |last7Arnos |first7Kathleen S. |last8Cortopassi |first8Gino A. |last9Jaber |first9Lutfi |last10Rotter |first10Jerome I. |last11Shohat |first11Mordechai |last12Fischel-Ghodsian |first12Nathan |dateJuly 1993 |titleMitochondrial ribosomal RNA mutation associated with both antibiotic–induced and non–syndromic deafness |urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/ng0793-289 |journalNature Genetics |languageen |volume4 |issue3 |pages289–294 |doi10.1038/ng0793-289 |issn1546-1718}}</ref> Mitochondrial damage cause oxidative stress in cells and has been suggested as a mechanism for side effects from fluoroquinolones.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Marchant J | title When antibiotics turn toxic | journal Nature | volume 555 | issue 7697 | pages 431–433 | date March 2018 | pmid 29565407 | doi 10.1038/d41586-018-03267-5 | doi-access free | title-link doi | bibcode 2018Natur.555..431M }}</ref> They are also known to affect chloroplasts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Wang X, Ryu D, Houtkooper RH, Auwerx J | title Antibiotic use and abuse: a threat to mitochondria and chloroplasts with impact on research, health, and environment | journal BioEssays | volume 37 | issue 10 | pages 1045–53 | date October 2015 | pmid 26347282 | pmc 4698130 | doi 10.1002/bies.201500071 }}</ref>
Interactions
Birth control pills
There are few well-controlled studies on whether antibiotic use increases the risk of oral contraceptive failure.<ref name"OC effectiveness">{{cite journal | vauthors Anderson KC, Schwartz MD, Lieu SO | title Antibiotics and OC effectiveness | journal JAAPA | volume 26 | issue 1 | pages 11 | date January 2013 | pmid 23355994 | doi 10.1097/01720610-201301000-00002 }}</ref> The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do not interfere with birth control pills,<ref name"Weaver1999"/> such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%).<ref name"pmid10384856"/> Situations that may increase the risk of oral contraceptive failure include non-compliance (missing taking the pill), vomiting, or diarrhea. Gastrointestinal disorders or interpatient variability in oral contraceptive absorption affecting ethinylestradiol serum levels in the blood.<ref name"OC effectiveness"/> Women with menstrual irregularities may be at higher risk of failure and should be advised to use backup contraception during antibiotic treatment and for one week after its completion. If patient-specific risk factors for reduced oral contraceptive efficacy are suspected, backup contraception is recommended.<ref name"OC effectiveness"/>
In cases where antibiotics have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibiotic rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients.<ref name"Weaver1999"/> Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial.<ref name"pmid3155374"/><ref name"pmid2256523"/> Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibiotics that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives.<ref name"Weaver1999"/> More studies on the possible interactions between antibiotics and birth control pills (oral contraceptives) are required as well as careful assessment of patient-specific risk factors for potential oral contractive pill failure prior to dismissing the need for backup contraception.<ref name"OC effectiveness"/>AlcoholInteractions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy.<ref name"bmj"/><ref name"antibiotics-and-alcohol"/> While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side effects.<ref name"NHS"/> Therefore, potential risks of side effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Moore AA, Whiteman EJ, Ward KT | title Risks of combined alcohol/medication use in older adults | journal The American Journal of Geriatric Pharmacotherapy | volume 5 | issue 1 | pages 64–74 | date March 2007 | pmid 17608249 | pmc 4063202 | doi 10.1016/j.amjopharm.2007.03.006 }}</ref>
Antibiotics such as metronidazole, tinidazole, cephamandole, latamoxef, cefoperazone, cefmenoxime, and furazolidone, cause a disulfiram-like chemical reaction with alcohol by inhibiting its breakdown by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which may result in vomiting, nausea, and shortness of breath.<ref name"NHS"/> In addition, the efficacy of doxycycline and erythromycin succinate may be reduced by alcohol consumption.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors Stockley IH |year2002 |title Stockley's Drug Interactions |edition6th |location London |publisherPharmaceutical Press}}{{page needed|dateDecember 2013}}</ref> Other effects of alcohol on antibiotic activity include altered activity of the liver enzymes that break down the antibiotic compound.<ref name"Antibiotics FAQ"/>Pharmacodynamics
{{Main|Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics}}
The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial.<ref name"Pankey2004"/> The bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells.<ref name"Bactericidal action of daptomycin against stationary-phase and nondividing Staphylococcus aureus cells"/> These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection.<ref name"Pankey2004"/><ref>{{cite book |vauthorsPelczar MJ, Chan EC, Krieg NR |year2010 |contributionHost-Parasite Interaction; Nonspecific Host Resistance |titleMicrobiology Concepts and Applications |edition6th |publisherMcGraw-Hill |locationNew York |pages478–479}}</ref> Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration,<ref name"Rhee2004"/> in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial.<ref name"Pankey2004"/><ref name"Agar and broth dilution methods to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)of antimicrobial substances"/>
To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Dalhoff A, Ambrose PG, Mouton JW | title A long journey from minimum inhibitory concentration testing to clinically predictive breakpoints: deterministic and probabilistic approaches in deriving breakpoints | journal Infection | volume 37 | issue 4 | pages 296–305 | date August 2009 | pmid 19629383 | doi 10.1007/s15010-009-7108-9 | s2cid 20538901 }}</ref>
Combination therapy
In important infectious diseases, including tuberculosis, combination therapy (i.e., the concurrent application of two or more antibiotics) has been used to delay or prevent the emergence of resistance. In acute bacterial infections, antibiotics as part of combination therapy are prescribed for their synergistic effects to improve treatment outcome as the combined effect of both antibiotics is better than their individual effect.<ref name"Antagonism between bacteriostatic">{{cite journal | vauthors Ocampo PS, Lázár V, Papp B, Arnoldini M, Abel zur Wiesch P, Busa-Fekete R, Fekete G, Pál C, Ackermann M, Bonhoeffer S | title Antagonism between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics is prevalent | journal Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume 58 | issue 8 | pages 4573–82 | date August 2014 | pmid 24867991 | pmc 4135978 | doi 10.1128/AAC.02463-14 }}</ref><ref name"Bollenbach - interactions">{{cite journal | vauthors Bollenbach T | title Antimicrobial interactions: mechanisms and implications for drug discovery and resistance evolution | journal Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume 27 | pages 1–9 | date October 2015 | pmid 26042389 | doi 10.1016/j.mib.2015.05.008 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Fosfomycin has the highest number of synergistic combinations among antibiotics and is almost always used as a partner drug.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Antonello RM, Principe L, Maraolo AE, Viaggi V, Pol R, Fabbiani M, Montagnani F, Lovecchio A, Luzzati R, Di Bella S | title Fosfomycin as Partner Drug for Systemic Infection Management. A Systematic Review of Its Synergistic Properties from In Vitro and In Vivo Studies | journal Antibiotics | volume 9 | issue 8 | pages 500 | date August 2020 | pmid 32785114 | pmc 7460049 | doi 10.3390/antibiotics9080500 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections may be treated with a combination therapy of fusidic acid and rifampicin.<ref name"Antagonism between bacteriostatic"/> Antibiotics used in combination may also be antagonistic and the combined effects of the two antibiotics may be less than if one of the antibiotics was given as a monotherapy.<ref name"Antagonism between bacteriostatic"/> For example, chloramphenicol and tetracyclines are antagonists to penicillins. However, this can vary depending on the species of bacteria.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/antibiotic+antagonism |titleantagonism |access-date25 August 2014 |archive-date26 August 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140826115751/http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/antibiotic+antagonism |url-statuslive }}</ref> In general, combinations of a bacteriostatic antibiotic and bactericidal antibiotic are antagonistic.<ref name"Antagonism between bacteriostatic"/><ref name"Bollenbach - interactions"/>
In addition to combining one antibiotic with another, antibiotics are sometimes co-administered with resistance-modifying agents. For example, β-lactam antibiotics may be used in combination with β-lactamase inhibitors, such as clavulanic acid or sulbactam, when a patient is infected with a β-lactamase-producing strain of bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Drawz SM, Bonomo RA | title Three decades of beta-lactamase inhibitors | journal Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume 23 | issue 1 | pages 160–201 | date January 2010 | pmid 20065329 | pmc 2806661 | doi 10.1128/CMR.00037-09 }}</ref>
Classes
{{Main|List of antibiotics}}
<div class="skin-invert-image>
<gallery mode"packed" widths"360px" heights="280">
File:Antibiotics action.svg|Molecular targets of antibiotics on the bacteria cell
File:Protein synthesis inhibitors antibiotic.png|Protein synthesis inhibitors (antibiotics)
</gallery>
</div>
Antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes.<ref name"CALDERIN2007"/> Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities, killing the bacteria. Protein synthesis inhibitors (macrolides, lincosamides, and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic, inhibiting further growth (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides).<ref name"The importance of bactericidal drugs: future directions in infectious disease"/> Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as gram-negative or gram-positive, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year break in discovering classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibiotics were introduced to clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin).<ref>{{cite book |vauthorsCunha BA |title Antibiotic Essentials |year2009 |publisher Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn978-0-7637-7219-2 |page 180}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Srivastava A, Talaue M, Liu S, Degen D, Ebright RY, Sineva E, Chakraborty A, Druzhinin SY, Chatterjee S, Mukhopadhyay J, Ebright YW, Zozula A, Shen J, Sengupta S, Niedfeldt RR, Xin C, Kaneko T, Irschik H, Jansen R, Donadio S, Connell N, Ebright RH | title New target for inhibition of bacterial RNA polymerase: 'switch region' | journal Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume 14 | issue 5 | pages 532–43 | date October 2011 | pmid 21862392 | pmc 3196380 | doi 10.1016/j.mib.2011.07.030 }}</ref>
Production
{{Main|Production of antibiotics}}
With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds.<ref name"Nussbaum2006">{{cite journal | vauthors von Nussbaum F, Brands M, Hinzen B, Weigand S, Häbich D | title Antibacterial natural products in medicinal chemistry--exodus or revival? | journal Angewandte Chemie | volume 45 | issue 31 | pages 5072–129 | date August 2006 | pmid 16881035 | doi 10.1002/anie.200600350 }}</ref> These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis.<ref name"Nussbaum2006"/> Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 1000 daltons.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idav5SHPiHVcsC&qoral%20drug%20molecular%20weight%20distribution%20antibiotics&pgPA800 |titleAntibiotic Discovery and Development |vauthorsDougherty TJ, Pucci MJ |publisherSpringer |year2011 |page800 |isbn978-1-4614-1400-1 |access-date28 April 2024 |archive-date2 January 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240102114324/https://books.google.com/books?idav5SHPiHVcsC&qoral%20drug%20molecular%20weight%20distribution%20antibiotics&pgPA800#vsnippet&qoral%20drug%20molecular%20weight%20distribution%20antibiotics&ffalse |url-status=live }}</ref>
Since the first pioneering efforts of Howard Florey and Chain in 1939, the importance of antibiotics, including antibacterials, to medicine has led to intense research into producing antibacterials at large scales. Following screening of antibacterials against a wide range of bacteria, production of the active compounds is carried out using fermentation, usually in strongly aerobic conditions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fedorenko V, Genilloud O, Horbal L, Marcone GL, Marinelli F, Paitan Y, Ron EZ | title Antibacterial Discovery and Development: From Gene to Product and Back | journal BioMed Research International | volume 2015 | pages 591349 | date 2015 | pmid 26339625 | pmc 4538407 | doi 10.1155/2015/591349 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>Resistance
{{Main|Antimicrobial resistance}}
of a human neutrophil ingesting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)]]
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) is a naturally occurring process.<ref name"CDC About Antimicrobial Resistance"/> AMR is driven largely by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials.<ref nameWHO10October2024/> Yet, at the same time, many people around the world do not have access to essential antimicrobials.<ref nameWHO10October2024/> The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a common phenomenon mainly caused by the overuse/misuse. It represents a threat to health globally.<ref>{{Cite news |date26 March 2018 |titleCalls to rein in antibiotic use after study shows 65% increase worldwide |journalThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/mar/26/calls-to-rein-in-antibiotic-use-after-study-shows-65-increase-worldwide |url-statuslive |access-date28 March 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180408063812/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/mar/26/calls-to-rein-in-antibiotic-use-after-study-shows-65-increase-worldwide |archive-date8 April 2018 |vauthorsSample I}}</ref><ref name":1">{{Cite journal |last1Singh |first1Gagandeep |last2Rana |first2Anita |last3Smriti |date2024-05-28 |titleDecoding antimicrobial resistance: unraveling molecular mechanisms and targeted strategies |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s00203-024-03998-2 |journalArchives of Microbiology |languageen |volume206 |issue6 |pages280 |doi10.1007/s00203-024-03998-2 |issn1432-072X}}</ref> Each year, nearly 5 million deaths are associated with AMR globally.<ref name=WHO10October2024/>
Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug.<ref name"Balancing the drug-resistance equation" /> For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment.<ref name"Mutations of Bacteria from Virus Sensitivity to Virus Resistance" /> Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.<ref name="voanews.com" />
Resistance may take the form of biodegradation of pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethazine-degrading soil bacteria introduced to sulfamethazine through medicated pig feces.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Topp E, Chapman R, Devers-Lamrani M, Hartmann A, Marti R, Martin-Laurent F, Sabourin L, Scott A, Sumarah M | title Accelerated Biodegradation of Veterinary Antibiotics in Agricultural Soil following Long-Term Exposure, and Isolation of a Sulfamethazine-degrading sp | journal Journal of Environmental Quality | volume 42 | issue 1 | pages 173–8 | year 2013 | pmid 23673752 | doi 10.2134/jeq2012.0162 | url http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/abstract/?id27587000000610 | access-date 22 November 2013 | archive-date 12 December 2013 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131212161710/http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/abstract/?id27587000000610 | url-status live }}</ref>
The survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance,<ref name"Witte2004"/> but the growth of resistance to antibacterials also occurs through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal transfer is more likely to happen in locations of frequent antibiotic use.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors Dyer BD |titleA Field Guide To Bacteria|year2003|publisherCornell University Press|isbn978-0-8014-8854-2|chapterChapter 9, Pathogens|chapter-urlhttp://www.audible.com/pd/refsr_1_1?asinB002VA8L4Y&qid1305345229&sr1-1|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/fieldguidetobact0000dyer}}</ref>
Antibacterial resistance may impose a biological cost, thereby reducing fitness of resistant strains, which can limit the spread of antibacterial-resistant bacteria, for example, in the absence of antibacterial compounds. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and can aid the survival of these bacteria.<ref name="The biological cost of mutational antibiotic resistance: any practical conclusions?"/>
Paleontological data show that both antibiotics and antibiotic resistance are ancient compounds and mechanisms.<ref name"D'Costa2011"/> Useful antibiotic targets are those for which mutations negatively impact bacterial reproduction or viability.<ref name"Gladki2013"/>
Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains.<ref name"Alekshun2007"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Pawlowski AC, Wang W, Koteva K, Barton HA, McArthur AG, Wright GD | title A diverse intrinsic antibiotic resistome from a cave bacterium | journal Nature Communications | volume 7 | pages 13803 | date December 2016 | pmid 27929110 | pmc 5155152 | doi 10.1038/ncomms13803 | bibcode 2016NatCo...713803P }}</ref> For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA.<ref name"Alekshun2007"/> Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains.<ref name"Glycopeptide antibiotic resistance genes in glycopeptide-producing organisms"/><ref name"Multidrug Resistance in Bacteria"/> The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange.<ref name"Witte2004"/> For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes.<ref name"Witte2004"/><ref name"Baker2006"/> Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials.<ref name"Baker2006"/> Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound.<ref name="Baker2006"/>
Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were, for a while, well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090406170131/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2009/tuberculosis_drug_resistant_20090402/en/index.html "Health ministers to accelerate efforts against drug-resistant TB".] World Health Organization (WHO).</ref> For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials.<ref name"Are you ready for a world without antibiotics?"/> The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections."<ref name "Health Protection Report"/> On 26 May 2016, an E. coli "superbug" was identified in the United States resistant to colistin, "the last line of defence" antibiotic.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors McGann P, Snesrud E, Maybank R, Corey B, Ong AC, Clifford R, Hinkle M, Whitman T, Lesho E, Schaecher KE | title Escherichia coli Harboring mcr-1 and blaCTX-M on a Novel IncF Plasmid: First Report of mcr-1 in the United States | journal Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume 60 | issue 7 | pages 4420–1 | date July 2016 | pmid 27230792 | pmc 4914657 | doi 10.1128/AAC.01103-16 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dangerous-new-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-reach-u-s/|titleDangerous New Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Reach U.S.|vauthorsMoyer MW|websiteScientific American|date27 May 2016|access-date27 May 2016|archive-date28 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728063057/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dangerous-new-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-reach-u-s/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In recent years, even anaerobic bacteria, historically considered less concerning in terms of resistance, have demonstrated high rates of antibiotic resistance, particularly Bacteroides, for which resistance rates to penicillin have been reported to exceed 90%.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Di Bella S, Antonello RM, Sanson G, Maraolo AE, Giacobbe DR, Sepulcri C, Ambretti S, Aschbacher R, Bartolini L, Bernardo M, Bielli A, Busetti M, Carcione D, Camarlinghi G, Carretto E, Cassetti T, Chilleri C, De Rosa FG, Dodaro S, Gargiulo R, Greco F, Knezevich A, Intra J, Lupia T, Concialdi E, Bianco G, Luzzaro F, Mauri C, Morroni G, Mosca A, Pagani E, Parisio EM, Ucciferri C, Vismara C, Luzzati R, Principe L | title Anaerobic bloodstream infections in Italy (ITANAEROBY): A 5-year retrospective nationwide survey | journal Anaerobe | volume 75 | pages 102583 | date June 2022 | pmid 35568274 | doi 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102583 | hdl 11368/3020691 | s2cid 248736289 | hdl-access free }}</ref>Misuse
{{Main|Antibiotic misuse}}
Per The ICU Book, "The first rule of antibiotics is to try not to use them, and the second rule is try not to use too many of them."<ref name"Marino"/> Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, potential harm from antibiotics extends beyond selection of antimicrobial resistance and their overuse is associated with adverse effects for patients themselves, seen most clearly in critically ill patients in Intensive care units.<ref name":0">{{cite journal | vauthors Arulkumaran N, Routledge M, Schlebusch S, Lipman J, Conway Morris A | title Antimicrobial-associated harm in critical care: a narrative review | journal Intensive Care Medicine | volume 46 | issue 2 | pages 225–235 | date February 2020 | pmid 31996961 | pmc 7046486 | doi 10.1007/s00134-020-05929-3 }}</ref> Self-prescribing of antibiotics is an example of misuse.<ref name"Larson2007"/> Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections.<ref name"pmid15993671"/><ref name"Larson2007"/> The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s.<ref name"voanews.com"/><ref name"Hawkey2008"/> Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics.<ref name"Hawkey2008"/>
Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them".<ref name"pmid17467120"/> Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics.<ref name"pmid17509729"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Coxeter P, Del Mar CB, McGregor L, Beller EM, Hoffmann TC | title Interventions to facilitate shared decision making to address antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in primary care | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 11 | issue 11 | pages CD010907 | date November 2015 | pmid 26560888 | pmc 6464273 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD010907.pub2 }}</ref> The lack of rapid point of care diagnostic tests, particularly in resource-limited settings is considered one of the drivers of antibiotic misuse.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Mendelson M, Røttingen JA, Gopinathan U, Hamer DH, Wertheim H, Basnyat B, Butler C, Tomson G, Balasegaram M | title Maximising access to achieve appropriate human antimicrobial use in low-income and middle-income countries | journal Lancet | volume 387 | issue 10014 | pages 188–98 | date January 2016 | pmid 26603919 | doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00547-4 | s2cid 13904240 }}</ref>
Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics.<ref name"Larson2007"/> The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health, as well as other US agencies.<ref name"pharmguide"/> A non-governmental organization campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working.<ref name"Keep Antibiotics Working"/> In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Sabuncu E, David J, Bernède-Bauduin C, Pépin S, Leroy M, Boëlle PY, Watier L, Guillemot D | title Significant reduction of antibiotic use in the community after a nationwide campaign in France, 2002-2007 | journal PLOS Medicine | volume 6 | issue 6 | pages e1000084 | date June 2009 | pmid 19492093 | pmc 2683932 | doi 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000084 | df dmy | veditors Klugman KP | doi-access free | title-link = doi }}</ref>
The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the European Union has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.legaltext.ee/text/en/T80294.htm |titleRegulation (EC) No 1831/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090109031010/http://www.legaltext.ee/text/en/T80294.htm |archive-date9 January 2009 }}</ref> Moreover, several organizations (including the World Health Organization, the National Academy of Sciences, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration) have advocated restricting the amount of antibiotic use in food animal production.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://consumersunion.org/news/the-overuse-of-antibiotics-in-food-animals-threatens-public-health-2/ |access-date4 July 2016 |titleThe Overuse of Antibiotics in Food Animals Threatens Public Health |publisherConsumer Reports |archive-date28 June 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160628202247/http://consumersunion.org/news/the-overuse-of-antibiotics-in-food-animals-threatens-public-health-2/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>{{Unreliable medical source|dateJuly 2016}} However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742<ref name"USbill1"/> and H.R. 2562<ref name"USbill2"/>) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed.<ref name"USbill1"/><ref name"USbill2"/> These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association.<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.acpm.org/2003051H.pdf |access-date12 November 2008 |titleKee Antibiotics Working|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090325225525/http://www.acpm.org/2003051H.pdf |archive-date25 March 2009 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title The Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (S. 742/H.R. 2562) | publisher The Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy | url https://www.iatp.org/sites/default/files/421_2_72941.pdf | access-date 4 October 2020 | archive-date 30 October 2020 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20201030005409/https://www.iatp.org/sites/default/files/421_2_72941.pdf | url-status live }}</ref>
Despite pledges by food companies and restaurants to reduce or eliminate meat that comes from animals treated with antibiotics, the purchase of antibiotics for use on farm animals has been increasing every year.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/12/22/506599017/despite-pledges-to-cut-back-farms-are-still-using-antibiotics|titleDespite Pledges To Cut Back, Farms Are Still Using Antibiotics|newspaperNPR|date22 December 2016|vauthorsCharles D|access-date5 April 2018|archive-date26 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726054955/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/12/22/506599017/despite-pledges-to-cut-back-farms-are-still-using-antibiotics|url-status=live}}</ref>
There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations.<ref>{{cite news |titleFDA Told to Move on Antibiotic Use in Livestock |urlhttp://www.medpagetoday.com/PublicHealthPolicy/FDAGeneral/31792 |access-date24 March 2012 |newspaperMedPage Today |date23 March 2012 |vauthorsGever J |archive-date27 April 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427031956/https://www.medpagetoday.com/publichealthpolicy/fdageneral/31792 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Studies have shown that common misconceptions about the effectiveness and necessity of antibiotics to treat common mild illnesses contribute to their overuse.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://dailytargum.com//article/2021/02/rutgers-study-finds-antibiotic-overuse-is-caused-by-misconceptions-financial|titleRutgers study finds antibiotic overuse is caused by misconceptions, financial incentives|vauthorsBarnes S|websiteThe Daily Targum|access-date16 February 2021|archive-date6 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211206103329/https://dailytargum.com/article/2021/02/rutgers-study-finds-antibiotic-overuse-is-caused-by-misconceptions-financial|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Blaser MJ, Melby MK, Lock M, Nichter M | title Accounting for variation in and overuse of antibiotics among humans | journal BioEssays | volume 43 | issue 2 | pages e2000163 | date February 2021 | pmid 33410142 | doi 10.1002/bies.202000163 | url https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.202000163 | s2cid 230811912 | access-date 16 February 2021 | archive-date 16 February 2021 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210216152333/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.202000163 | url-status = live }}</ref>
Other forms of antibiotic-associated harm include anaphylaxis, drug toxicity most notably kidney and liver damage, and super-infections with resistant organisms. Antibiotics are also known to affect mitochondrial function,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Kalghatgi S, Spina CS, Costello JC, Liesa M, Morones-Ramirez JR, Slomovic S, Molina A, Shirihai OS, Collins JJ | title Bactericidal antibiotics induce mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damage in Mammalian cells | journal Science Translational Medicine | volume 5 | issue 192 | pages 192ra85 | date July 2013 | pmid 23825301 | pmc 3760005 | doi 10.1126/scitranslmed.3006055 }}</ref> and this may contribute to the bioenergetic failure of immune cells seen in sepsis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Singer M | title The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in sepsis-induced multi-organ failure | journal Virulence | volume 5 | issue 1 | pages 66–72 | date January 2014 | pmid 24185508 | pmc 3916385 | doi 10.4161/viru.26907 }}</ref> They also alter the microbiome of the gut, lungs, and skin,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Alagna L, Bandera A, Patruno A, Muscatello A, Citerio G, Gori A | title Microbiota in ICU, not only a gut problem | journal Intensive Care Medicine | volume 45 | issue 5 | pages 733–737 | date May 2019 | pmid 30671622 | doi 10.1007/s00134-018-05516-7 | s2cid 58949829 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> which may be associated with adverse effects such as Clostridioides difficile associated diarrhoea. Whilst antibiotics can clearly be lifesaving in patients with bacterial infections, their overuse, especially in patients where infections are hard to diagnose, can lead to harm via multiple mechanisms.<ref name":0" />History
{{For timeline|Timeline of antibiotics}}
Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2,000 years ago.<ref name"Considerations for Determining if a Natural Product Is an Effective Wound-Healing Agent"/> Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials to treat infections.<ref name"Early history of wound treatment"/><ref name"Moulds in ancient and more recent medicine"/> Nubian mummies studied in the 1990s were found to contain significant levels of tetracycline. The beer brewed at that time was conjectured to have been the source.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Armelagos, George | date 2000 | title Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians | journal Natural History | issue 5; May | pages 50–53 | url https://ay14-15.moodle.wisc.edu/prod/pluginfile.php/59948/mod_resource/content/0/Take_two_Beers.pdf | access-date 13 March 2017 }}{{Dead link|dateOctober 2022 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
The use of antibiotics in modern medicine began with the discovery of synthetic antibiotics derived from dyes.<ref name"CALDERIN2007"/><ref name"Limbird2004"/><ref name"Bosch2008"/><ref name"ReferenceB">{{cite journal | vauthors Williams KJ | title The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet | journal Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume 102 | issue 8 | pages 343–348 | date August 2009 | pmid 19679737 | pmc 2726818 | doi 10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036 }}</ref><ref name"goodman">{{cite book | vauthors Goodman LS, Gilman A |author-link1Louis S. Goodman |author-link2Alfred Gilman, Sr. |titleThe Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics |publisherMacmillan |locationNew York |year1941|title-linkThe Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics }}</ref> Various Essential oils have been shown to have anti-microbial properties.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Chouhan S, Sharma K, Guleria S | title Antimicrobial Activity of Some Essential Oils-Present Status and Future Perspectives | journal Medicines | volume 4 | issue 3 | pages 58 | date August 2017 | pmid 28930272 | pmc 5622393 | doi 10.3390/medicines4030058 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Along with this, the plants from which these oils have been derived can be used as niche anti-microbial agents.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Cowan MM | title Plant products as antimicrobial agents | journal Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume 12 | issue 4 | pages 564–582 | date October 1999 | pmid 10515903 | pmc 88925 | doi 10.1128/CMR.12.4.564 }}</ref>Synthetic antibiotics derived from dyesSynthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s.<ref name"CALDERIN2007"/> Ehrlich noted certain dyes would colour human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the first synthetic antibacterial organoarsenic compound salvarsan,<ref name"CALDERIN2007"/><ref name"Limbird2004"/><ref name="Bosch2008"/> now called arsphenamine.
and Sahachiro Hata ]]
This heralded the era of antibacterial treatment that was begun with the discovery of a series of arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics by both Alfred Bertheim and Ehrlich in 1907.<ref name"ReferenceB"/><ref name"goodman"/> Ehrlich and Bertheim had experimented with various chemicals derived from dyes to treat trypanosomiasis in mice and spirochaeta infection in rabbits. While their early compounds were too toxic, Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata, a Japanese bacteriologist working with Ehrlich in the quest for a drug to treat syphilis, achieved success with the 606th compound in their series of experiments. In 1910, Ehrlich and Hata announced their discovery, which they called drug "606", at the Congress for Internal Medicine at Wiesbaden.<ref name"jmvh.org">{{cite journal|vauthorsFrith J|titleArsenic – the "Poison of Kings" and the "Saviour of Syphilis"|journalJournal of Military and Veterans' Health|volume21|issue4|urlhttp://jmvh.org/article/arsenic-the-poison-of-kings-and-the-saviour-of-syphilis/|access-date31 January 2017|archive-date26 February 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170226102745/http://jmvh.org/article/arsenic-the-poison-of-kings-and-the-saviour-of-syphilis/|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Hoechst company began to market the compound toward the end of 1910 under the name Salvarsan, now known as arsphenamine.<ref name"jmvh.org"/> The drug was used to treat syphilis in the first half of the 20th century. In 1908, Ehrlich received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his contributions to immunology.<ref namenobel>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html|titleThe Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908|websiteNobelPrize.org|access-date13 June 2017|archive-date14 August 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180814214526/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> Hata was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 and for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 and 1913.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id3941|titleNomination Archive|dateApril 2020|websiteNobelPrize.org|access-date13 June 2017|archive-date26 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726053416/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id3941|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The first sulfonamide and the first systemically active antibacterial drug, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 or 1933 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany,<ref name"goodman"/><ref name"ReferenceA"/><ref name"Bosch2008"/> for which Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1939/press.html |titlePhysiology or Medicine 1939 – Presentation Speech |publisherNobel Foundation |access-date14 January 2015 |archive-date14 January 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150114032532/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1939/press.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Sulfanilamide, the active drug of Prontosil, was not patentable as it had already been in use in the dye industry for some years.<ref name"ReferenceA"/> Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Wright PM, Seiple IB, Myers AG | title The evolving role of chemical synthesis in antibacterial drug discovery | journal Angewandte Chemie | volume 53 | issue 34 | pages 8840–69 | date August 2014 | pmid 24990531 | pmc 4536949 | doi 10.1002/anie.201310843 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Aminov RI | title A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future | journal Frontiers in Microbiology | volume 1 | pages 134 | date 1 January 2010 | pmid 21687759 | pmc 3109405 | doi 10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
Penicillin and other natural antibiotics
{{See also|History of penicillin}}
, discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928]]
Observations about the growth of some microorganisms inhibiting the growth of other microorganisms have been reported since the late 19th century. These observations of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics".<ref name="Kingston2008"/>
In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mould Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of some types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Foster W, Raoult A | title Early descriptions of antibiosis | journal The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners | volume 24 | issue 149 | pages 889–94 | date December 1974 | pmid 4618289 | pmc 2157443 | quote the first scientific observations of the antagonistic actions of various micro-organisms were made ... by William Roberts of Manchester (1874) and John Tyndall of London (1876). }}</ref>
In 1895 Vincenzo Tiberio, Italian physician, published a paper on the antibacterial power of some extracts of mold.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthorsBucci R, Gallì P |date11 May 2012 |titlePublic Health History Corner Vincenzo Tiberio: a misunderstood researcher |urlhttp://ijphjournal.it/article/view/5688 |journalItalian Journal of Public Health |volume8 |issue4 |access-date30 September 2017 |archive-date20 September 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180920160850/https://ijphjournal.it/article/view/5688 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In 1897, doctoral student Ernest Duchesne submitted a dissertation, "{{lang|fr|Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes}}" (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes),<ref>{{cite book | vauthors Duchesne E | translator Witty M |titleDuchesne's Antagonism between molds and bacteria, an English Colloquial Translation| isbn 978-1-5498-1696-3|date23 September 2017 | publisher Independently Published }}</ref> the first known scholarly work to consider the therapeutic capabilities of moulds resulting from their anti-microbial activity. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and moulds engage in a perpetual battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by Penicillium glaucum when they were both grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated laboratory animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum, the animals did not contract typhoid. Duchesne's army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research.<ref name"Academic Press">{{cite book|vauthorsStraand J, Gradmann C, Simonsen GS, Lindbæk M|titleInternational Encyclopedia of Public Health: Antibiotic Development and Resistance|date2008|publisherAcademic Press|pages200|urlhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/page/Arsphenamine|access-date31 January 2017|archive-date4 October 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161004031024/http://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/page/Arsphenamine|url-statuslive}}</ref> Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics.<ref name"Academic Press"/>
In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming postulated the existence of penicillin, a molecule produced by certain moulds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a green mold, Penicillium rubens,<ref name"pmid32973216">{{cite journal |vauthorsPathak A, Nowell RW, Wilson CG, Ryan MJ, Barraclough TG|dateSeptember 2020 |titleComparative genomics of Alexander Fleming's original Penicillium isolate (IMI 15378) reveals sequence divergence of penicillin synthesis genes|journalScientific Reports|volume10 |issue1 |pagesArticle 15705 |doi10.1038/s41598-020-72584-5|pmid32973216|pmc7515868|bibcode2020NatSR..1015705P }}</ref> in one of his culture plates. He observed that the presence of the mould killed or prevented the growth of the bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Tan SY, Tatsumura Y | title Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin | journal Singapore Medical Journal | volume 56 | issue 7 | pages 366–7 | date July 2015 | pmid 26243971 | pmc 4520913 | doi 10.11622/smedj.2015105 }}</ref> Fleming postulated that the mould must secrete an antibacterial substance, which he named penicillin in 1928. Fleming believed that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterised some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists.<ref name"Fleming1929"/><ref name"Sykes2001"/>
Ernst Chain, Howard Florey and Edward Abraham succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was first proposed by Abraham in 1942<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthorsJones DS, Jones JH|date1 December 2014|titleSir Edward Penley Abraham CBE. 10 June 1913 – 9 May 1999|urlhttp://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/5.1|journalBiographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|languageen|volume60|pages5–22|doi10.1098/rsbm.2014.0002|issn0080-4606| doi-access free | title-link doi |access-date10 May 2017|archive-date26 November 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231126055623/http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/5.1|url-statuslive}}</ref> and then later confirmed by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. (see below) The development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety.<ref name"Use of Micro-organisms for therapeutic purposes"/> For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Chain and Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/ |access-date13 January 2018 |titleThe Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945 |publisherThe Nobel Prize Organization |archive-date23 May 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200523072137/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Florey credited René Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin.<ref nameEpps2006/> In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Dubos had reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from Bacillus brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II.<ref name"Epps2006"/> Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during World War II and limited access during the Cold War.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Capocci M | title Cold drugs. Circulation, production and intelligence of antibiotics in post-WWII years | journal Medicina Nei Secoli | volume 26 | issue 2 | pages 401–21 | date 1 January 2014 | pmid 26054208 }}</ref>
Late 20th century
During the mid-20th century, the number of new antibiotic substances introduced for medical use increased significantly. From 1935 to 1968, 12 new classes were launched. However, after this, the number of new classes dropped markedly, with only two new classes introduced between 1969 and 2003.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Conly J, Johnston B | title Where are all the new antibiotics? The new antibiotic paradox | journal The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases & Medical Microbiology | volume 16 | issue 3 | pages 159–60 | date May 2005 | pmid 18159536 | pmc 2095020 | doi 10.1155/2005/892058 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
Antibiotic pipeline
Both the WHO and the Infectious Disease Society of America report that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance.<ref name"WHO - analysis of pipeline">Antibacterial agents in clinical development: an analysis of the antibacterial clinical development pipeline, including tuberculosis. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017 (WHO/EMP/IAU/2017.12). Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Benjamin DK, Bradley J, Guidos RJ, Jones RN, Murray BE, Bonomo RA, Gilbert D | title 10 x '20 Progress--development of new drugs active against gram-negative bacilli: an update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America | journal Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume 56 | issue 12 | pages 1685–94 | date June 2013 | pmid 23599308 | pmc 3707426 | doi 10.1093/cid/cit152 }}</ref> The Infectious Disease Society of America report noted that the number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year had been declining and identified seven antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacilli currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials. However, these drugs did not address the entire spectrum of resistance of Gram-negative bacilli.<ref>{{cite news |titleDrug pipeline for worst superbugs 'on life support': report |vauthorsSteenhuysen J |urlhttp://in.reuters.com/article/us-antibiotics-superbugs-idINBRE93H05520130418 |workReuters |date18 April 2013 |access-date23 June 2013 |archive-date25 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151225054947/http://in.reuters.com/article/us-antibiotics-superbugs-idINBRE93H05520130418 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref nameIDSA2013>{{cite journal | vauthors Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Benjamin DK, Bradley J, Guidos RJ, Jones RN, Murray BE, Bonomo RA, Gilbert D | title 10 x '20 Progress--development of new drugs active against gram-negative bacilli: an update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America | journal Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume 56 | issue 12 | pages 1685–94 | date June 2013 | pmid 23599308 | pmc 3707426 | doi 10.1093/cid/cit152 | others Infectious Diseases Society of America }}</ref> According to the WHO fifty one new therapeutic entities - antibiotics (including combinations), are in phase 1–3 clinical trials as of May 2017.<ref name"WHO - analysis of pipeline"/> Antibiotics targeting multidrug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens remains a high priority.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Liu J, Bedell TA, West JG, Sorensen EJ | title Design and Synthesis of Molecular Scaffolds with Anti-infective Activity | journal Tetrahedron | volume 72 | issue 25 | pages 3579–3592 | date June 2016 | pmid 27284210 | pmc 4894353 | doi 10.1016/j.tet.2016.01.044 }}</ref><ref name"WHO - analysis of pipeline"/>
A few antibiotics have received marketing authorization in the last seven years. The cephalosporin ceftaroline and the lipoglycopeptides oritavancin and telavancin have been approved for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection and community-acquired bacterial pneumonia.<ref name"Fernandes, Martens">{{cite journal | vauthors Fernandes P, Martens E | title Antibiotics in late clinical development | journal Biochemical Pharmacology | volume 133 | pages 152–163 | date June 2017 | pmid 27687641 | doi 10.1016/j.bcp.2016.09.025 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> The lipoglycopeptide dalbavancin and the oxazolidinone tedizolid has also been approved for use for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection. The first in a new class of narrow-spectrum macrocyclic antibiotics, fidaxomicin, has been approved for the treatment of C. difficile colitis.<ref name"Fernandes, Martens"/> New cephalosporin-lactamase inhibitor combinations also approved include ceftazidime-avibactam and ceftolozane-avibactam for complicated urinary tract infection and intra-abdominal infection.<ref name="Fernandes, Martens"/>
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* Ceftolozane/tazobactam (CXA-201; CXA-101/tazobactam): Antipseudomonal cephalosporin/β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor). FDA approved on 19 December 2014.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2014/206829Orig1s000Approv.pdf|titleApproval Package for: application number: 206829Orig1s000|authorCenter for Drug Evaluation and Research|date19 December 2014|access-date=19 August 2024}}</ref>
* Ceftazidime/avibactam (ceftazidime/NXL104): antipseudomonal cephalosporin/β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).<ref name"pmid32152527">{{cite journal | vauthors Butler MS, Paterson DL | title Antibiotics in the clinical pipeline in October 2019 | journal The Journal of Antibiotics | volume 73 | issue 6 | pages 329–364 | date June 2020 | pmid 32152527 | pmc 7223789 | doi = 10.1038/s41429-020-0291-8 }}</ref> FDA approved on 25 February 2015.
* Ceftaroline/avibactam (CPT-avibactam; ceftaroline/NXL104): Anti-MRSA cephalosporin/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).{{cn|date=August 2024}}
* Cefiderocol: cephalosporin siderophore.<ref name="pmid32152527"/> FDA approved on 14 November 2019.
* Imipenem/relebactam: carbapenem/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).<ref name="pmid32152527"/> FDA approved on 16 July 2019.
* Meropenem/vaborbactam: carbapenem/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).<ref name="pmid32152527"/> FDA approved on 29 August 2017.
* Delafloxacin: quinolone (inhibitor of DNA synthesis).<ref name="pmid32152527"/> FDA approved on 19 June 2017.
* Plazomicin (ACHN-490): semi-synthetic aminoglycoside derivative (protein synthesis inhibitor).<ref name="pmid32152527"/> FDA approved 25 June 2018.
* Eravacycline (TP-434): synthetic tetracycline derivative (protein synthesis inhibitor targeting bacterial ribosomes).<ref name="pmid32152527"/> FDA approved on 27 August 2018.
* Omadacycline: semi-synthetic tetracycline derivative (protein synthesis inhibitor targeting bacterial ribosomes).<ref name="pmid32152527"/> FDA approved on 2 October 2018.
* Lefamulin: pleuromutilin antibiotic.<ref name="pmid32152527"/> FDA approved on 19 August 2019.
* Brilacidin (PMX-30063): peptide defense protein mimetic (cell membrane disruption). In phase 2.{{cn|date=August 2024}}
* Zosurabalpin (RG-6006): lipopolysaccharide transport inhibitor. In phase 1.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Zampaloni |first1C |last2Mattei |first2P |last3Bleicher |first3K |last4Winther |first4L |last5Thäte |first5C |last6Bucher |first6C |last7Adam |first7JM |last8Alanine |first8A |last9Amrein |first9KE |last10Baidin |first10V |last11Bieniossek |first11C |last12Bissantz |first12C |last13Boess |first13F |last14Cantrill |first14C |last15Clairfeuille |first15T |last16Dey |first16F |last17Di Giorgio |first17P |last18du Castel |first18P |last19Dylus |first19D |last20Dzygiel |first20P |last21Felici |first21A |last22García-Alcalde |first22F |last23Haldimann |first23A |last24Leipner |first24M |last25Leyn |first25S |last26Louvel |first26S |last27Misson |first27P |last28Osterman |first28A |last29Pahil |first29K |last30Rigo |first30S |last31Schäublin |first31A |last32Scharf |first32S |last33Schmitz |first33P |last34Stoll |first34T |last35Trauner |first35A |last36Zoffmann |first36S |last37Kahne |first37D |last38Young |first38JAT |last39Lobritz |first39MA |last40Bradley |first40KA |titleA novel antibiotic class targeting the lipopolysaccharide transporter. |journalNature |date3 January 2024 |volume625 |issue7995 |pages566–571 |doi10.1038/s41586-023-06873-0 |pmid38172634| doi-access free | title-link doi |pmc10794144 |bibcode2024Natur.625..566Z }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Pahil |first1KS |last2Gilman |first2MSA |last3Baidin |first3V |last4Clairfeuille |first4T |last5Mattei |first5P |last6Bieniossek |first6C |last7Dey |first7F |last8Muri |first8D |last9Baettig |first9R |last10Lobritz |first10M |last11Bradley |first11K |last12Kruse |first12AC |last13Kahne |first13D |titleA new antibiotic traps lipopolysaccharide in its intermembrane transporter. |journalNature |date3 January 2024 |volume625 |issue7995 |pages572–577 |doi10.1038/s41586-023-06799-7 |pmid38172635| doi-access free | title-link doi |pmc10794137 |bibcode2024Natur.625..572P }}</ref>}}
Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor.<ref name"IDSA2013"/> In the US, the Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act was introduced with the aim of fast tracking the drug development of antibiotics to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The CDC will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://assets.fiercemarkets.net/public/lifesciences/HR3742.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://assets.fiercemarkets.net/public/lifesciences/HR3742.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleAntibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment Act of 2013|publisherUS Congress|date12 December 2013}}</ref> According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible."<ref>{{cite news|vauthorsClarke T|titleU.S. Congress urged to pass bill to speed development of antibiotics|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-congress-antibiotics-idUSKBN0HE25W20140919|agencyReuters|access-date19 September 2014|newspaperReuters|date19 September 2014|archive-date9 December 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151209012151/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-congress-antibiotics-idUSKBN0HE25W20140919|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Replenishing the antibiotic pipeline and developing other new therapies
Because antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains continue to emerge and spread, there is a constant need to develop new antibacterial treatments. Current strategies include traditional chemistry-based approaches such as natural product-based drug discovery,<ref name"Natural Products">{{cite journal | vauthors Moloney MG | title Natural Products as a Source for Novel Antibiotics | journal Trends in Pharmacological Sciences | volume 37 | issue 8 | pages 689–701 | date August 2016 | pmid 27267698 | doi 10.1016/j.tips.2016.05.001 | s2cid 3537191 | url https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:53d851f3-3719-4ac3-aa5a-b70ac82e4115 | access-date 25 August 2020 | archive-date 27 July 2021 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210727100821/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:53d851f3-3719-4ac3-aa5a-b70ac82e4115 | url-status live }}</ref><ref name"pmid32529587">{{cite journal | vauthors Cushnie TP, Cushnie B, Echeverría J, Fowsantear W, Thammawat S, Dodgson JL, Law S, Clow SM | title Bioprospecting for Antibacterial Drugs: a Multidisciplinary Perspective on Natural Product Source Material, Bioassay Selection and Avoidable Pitfalls | journal Pharmaceutical Research | volume 37 | issue 7 | pages 125 | date June 2020 | pmid 32529587 | doi 10.1007/s11095-020-02849-1 | url https://zenodo.org/record/3909383 | s2cid 219590658 | access-date 17 September 2020 | archive-date 2 December 2020 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20201202010902/https://zenodo.org/record/3909383 | url-status live }}</ref> newer chemistry-based approaches such as drug design,<ref name"pmid32199982">{{cite journal | vauthors Mashalidis EH, Lee SY | title Structures of Bacterial MraY and Human GPT Provide Insights into Rational Antibiotic Design | journal Journal of Molecular Biology | volume 432 | issue 18 | pages 4946–4963 | date August 2020 | pmid 32199982 | doi 10.1016/j.jmb.2020.03.017 | pmc 8351759 }}</ref><ref name"pmid30360704">{{cite journal | vauthors Xia J, Feng B, Wen G, Xue W, Ma G, Zhang H, Wu S | title Bacterial Lipoprotein Biosynthetic Pathway as a Potential Target for Structure-based Design of Antibacterial Agents | journal Current Medicinal Chemistry | volume 27 | issue 7 | pages 1132–1150 | date July 2020 | pmid 30360704 | doi 10.2174/0929867325666181008143411 | s2cid 53097836 }}</ref> traditional biology-based approaches such as immunoglobulin therapy,<ref name"pmid31295426"/><ref name"pmid30683453"/> and experimental biology-based approaches such as phage therapy,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Abedon ST, Kuhl SJ, Blasdel BG, Kutter EM | title Phage treatment of human infections | journal Bacteriophage | volume 1 | issue 2 | pages 66–85 | date March 2011 | pmid 22334863 | pmc 3278644 | doi 10.4161/bact.1.2.15845 }}</ref><ref name"pmid26795692">{{cite journal | vauthors Czaplewski L, Bax R, Clokie M, Dawson M, Fairhead H, Fischetti VA, Foster S, Gilmore BF, Hancock RE, Harper D, Henderson IR, Hilpert K, Jones BV, Kadioglu A, Knowles D, Ólafsdóttir S, Payne D, Projan S, Shaunak S, Silverman J, Thomas CM, Trust TJ, Warn P, Rex JH | title Alternatives to antibiotics-a pipeline portfolio review | journal The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume 16 | issue 2 | pages 239–51 | date February 2016 | pmid 26795692 | doi 10.1016/S1473-3099(15)00466-1 | s2cid 21677232 | url http://eprints.brighton.ac.uk/14828/1/Alternatives%20to%20Antibiotics%20-%20a%20pipeline%20portfolio%20review.pdf | access-date 22 November 2018 | archive-date 17 August 2019 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190817222112/http://eprints.brighton.ac.uk/14828/1/Alternatives%20to%20Antibiotics%20-%20a%20pipeline%20portfolio%20review.pdf | url-status live }}</ref> fecal microbiota transplants,<ref name"pmid31295426"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Moayyedi P, Yuan Y, Baharith H, Ford AC | title Faecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials | journal The Medical Journal of Australia | volume 207 | issue 4 | pages 166–172 | date August 2017 | pmid 28814204 | doi 10.5694/mja17.00295 | s2cid 24780848 }}</ref> antisense RNA-based treatments,<ref name"pmid31295426"/><ref name"pmid30683453"/> and CRISPR-Cas9-based treatments.<ref name"pmid31295426"/><ref name"pmid30683453">{{cite journal | vauthors Ghosh C, Sarkar P, Issa R, Haldar J | title Alternatives to Conventional Antibiotics in the Era of Antimicrobial Resistance | journal Trends in Microbiology | volume 27 | issue 4 | pages 323–338 | date April 2019 | pmid 30683453 | doi 10.1016/j.tim.2018.12.010 | s2cid 59274650}}</ref><ref name"pmid32575913">{{cite journal | vauthors Vrancianu CO, Gheorghe I, Czobor IB, Chifiriuc MC | title Antibiotic Resistance Profiles, Molecular Mechanisms and Innovative Treatment Strategies of Acinetobacter baumannii | journal Microorganisms | volume 8 | issue 6 | pages Article 935 | date June 2020 | pmid 32575913 | pmc 7355832 | doi 10.3390/microorganisms8060935 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
Natural product-based antibiotic discovery
{{See also|Bioprospecting}}
{{multiple image|perrow 2|total_width275| image1 Streptomyces sp 01.png| image2 Acremonium falciforme PHIL 4167 lores.jpg| image3 Hydrastis.jpg| image4 Agelas tubulata cropped.jpg|footer Bacteria, fungi, plants, animals and other organisms are being screened in the search for new antibiotics.<ref name"pmid32529587"/>}}
Most of the antibiotics in current use are natural products or natural product derivatives,<ref name"pmid32529587"/><ref name"pmid31733401">{{cite journal | vauthors Hutchings MI, Truman AW, Wilkinson B | title Antibiotics: past, present and future | journal Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume 51 | pages 72–80 | date October 2019 | pmid 31733401 | doi 10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> and bacterial,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Holmes NA, Devine R, Qin Z, Seipke RF, Wilkinson B, Hutchings MI | title Complete genome sequence of Streptomyces formicae KY5, the formicamycin producer | journal Journal of Biotechnology | volume 265 | pages 116–118 | date January 2018 | pmid 29191667 | doi 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2017.11.011 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.hutchingslab.uk/papers.html|titleRecent Papers (2012-2015)|websitewww.hutchingslab.uk|access-date22 August 2022|archive-date2 October 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151002042551/http://www.hutchingslab.uk/papers.html|url-statususurped}}</ref> fungal,<ref name"Natural Products "/><ref name"pmid23978412">{{cite journal | vauthors Bills GF, Gloer JB, An Z | title Coprophilous fungi: antibiotic discovery and functions in an underexplored arena of microbial defensive mutualism | journal Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume 16 | issue 5 | pages 549–65 | date October 2013 | pmid 23978412 | doi 10.1016/j.mib.2013.08.001 }}</ref> plant<ref name"Kenny, Furey, Lucey">{{cite journal | vauthors Kenny CR, Furey A, Lucey B | title A post-antibiotic era looms: can plant natural product research fill the void? | journal British Journal of Biomedical Science | volume 72 | issue 4 | pages 191–200 | year 2015 | pmid 26738402 | doi 10.1080/09674845.2015.11665752 | s2cid 41282022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Al-Habib A, Al-Saleh E, Safer AM, Afzal M | title Bactericidal effect of grape seed extract on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) | journal The Journal of Toxicological Sciences | volume 35 | issue 3 | pages 357–64 | date June 2010 | pmid 20519844 | doi 10.2131/jts.35.357 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Smullen J, Koutsou GA, Foster HA, Zumbé A, Storey DM | title The antibacterial activity of plant extracts containing polyphenols against Streptococcus mutans | journal Caries Research | volume 41 | issue 5 | pages 342–9 | year 2007 | pmid 17713333 | doi 10.1159/000104791 | s2cid 44317367 }}</ref><ref name"Monte">{{cite journal | vauthors Monte J, Abreu AC, Borges A, Simões LC, Simões M | title Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Phytochemicals against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and Their Biofilms | journal Pathogens | volume 3 | issue 2 | pages 473–98 | date June 2014 | pmid 25437810 | pmc 4243457 | doi 10.3390/pathogens3020473 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> and animal<ref name"Natural Products"/><ref name"pmid27373625 ">{{cite journal | vauthors Tanaka N, Kusama T, Kashiwada Y, Kobayashi J | title Bromopyrrole Alkaloids from Okinawan Marine Sponges Agelas spp | journal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin | volume 64 | issue 7 | pages 691–4 | date April 2016 | pmid 27373625 | doi 10.1248/cpb.c16-00245 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> extracts are being screened in the search for new antibiotics. Organisms may be selected for testing based on ecological, ethnomedical, genomic, or historical rationales.<ref name"pmid32529587"/> Medicinal plants, for example, are screened on the basis that they are used by traditional healers to prevent or cure infection and may therefore contain antibacterial compounds.<ref name"cowen">{{cite journal | vauthors Cowan MM | title Plant products as antimicrobial agents | journal Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume 12 | issue 4 | pages 564–82 | date October 1999 | pmid 10515903 | pmc 88925 | doi 10.1128/CMR.12.4.564 }}</ref><ref name" Plants as sources"/> Also, soil bacteria are screened on the basis that, historically, they have been a very rich source of antibiotics (with 70 to 80% of antibiotics in current use derived from the actinomycetes).<ref name"pmid32529587"/><ref name"pmid27890726 ">{{cite journal | vauthors Mahajan GB, Balachandran L | title Sources of antibiotics: Hot springs | journal Biochemical Pharmacology | volume 134 | pages 35–41 | date June 2017 | pmid 27890726 | doi = 10.1016/j.bcp.2016.11.021 }}</ref>
In addition to screening natural products for direct antibacterial activity, they are sometimes screened for the ability to suppress antibiotic resistance and antibiotic tolerance.<ref name"Plants as sources">{{cite journal | vauthors Abreu AC, McBain AJ, Simões M | title Plants as sources of new antimicrobials and resistance-modifying agents | journal Natural Product Reports | volume 29 | issue 9 | pages 1007–21 | date September 2012 | pmid 22786554 | doi 10.1039/c2np20035j }}</ref><ref name"pmid21562562"/> For example, some secondary metabolites inhibit drug efflux pumps, thereby increasing the concentration of antibiotic able to reach its cellular target and decreasing bacterial resistance to the antibiotic.<ref name"Plants as sources"/><ref name"Efflux pump inhibitors">{{cite journal | vauthors Marquez B | title Bacterial efflux systems and efflux pumps inhibitors | journal Biochimie | volume 87 | issue 12 | pages 1137–47 | date December 2005 | pmid 15951096 | doi 10.1016/j.biochi.2005.04.012 }}</ref> Natural products known to inhibit bacterial efflux pumps include the alkaloid lysergol,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Cushnie TP, Cushnie B, Lamb AJ | title Alkaloids: an overview of their antibacterial, antibiotic-enhancing and antivirulence activities | journal International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents | volume 44 | issue 5 | pages 377–86 | date November 2014 | pmid 25130096 | doi 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2014.06.001 | s2cid 205171789 | url https://zenodo.org/record/1004771 | access-date 19 July 2019 | archive-date 18 August 2020 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200818103721/https://zenodo.org/record/1004771 | url-status live }}</ref> the carotenoids capsanthin and capsorubin,<ref name"pmid20645919">{{cite journal | vauthors Molnár J, Engi H, Hohmann J, Molnár P, Deli J, Wesolowska O, Michalak K, Wang Q | title Reversal of multidrug resistance by natural substances from plants | journal Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry | volume 10 | issue 17 | pages 1757–68 | year 2010 | pmid 20645919 | doi 10.2174/156802610792928103 }}</ref> and the flavonoids rotenone and chrysin.<ref name"pmid20645919" /> Other natural products, this time primary metabolites rather than secondary metabolites, have been shown to eradicate antibiotic tolerance. For example, glucose, mannitol, and fructose reduce antibiotic tolerance in Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, rendering them more susceptible to killing by aminoglycoside antibiotics.<ref name"pmid21562562">{{cite journal | vauthors Allison KR, Brynildsen MP, Collins JJ | title Metabolite-enabled eradication of bacterial persisters by aminoglycosides | journal Nature | volume 473 | issue 7346 | pages 216–20 | date May 2011 | pmid 21562562 | pmc 3145328 | doi 10.1038/nature10069 | bibcode 2011Natur.473..216A }}</ref>
Natural products may be screened for the ability to suppress bacterial virulence factors too. Virulence factors are molecules, cellular structures and regulatory systems that enable bacteria to evade the body's immune defenses (e.g. urease, staphyloxanthin), move towards, attach to, and/or invade human cells (e.g. type IV pili, adhesins, internalins), coordinate the activation of virulence genes (e.g. quorum sensing), and cause disease (e.g. exotoxins).<ref name"pmid31295426 ">{{cite journal | vauthors Theuretzbacher U, Piddock LJ | title Non-traditional Antibacterial Therapeutic Options and Challenges | journal Cell Host & Microbe | volume 26 | issue 1 | pages 61–72 | date July 2019 | pmid 31295426 | doi 10.1016/j.chom.2019.06.004 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Monte"/><ref name"pmid21514796">{{cite journal | vauthors Cushnie TP, Lamb AJ | title Recent advances in understanding the antibacterial properties of flavonoids | journal International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents | volume 38 | issue 2 | pages 99–107 | date August 2011 | pmid 21514796 | doi 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.02.014 | url https://zenodo.org/record/1003263 | access-date 19 July 2019 | archive-date 26 July 2020 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200726062743/https://zenodo.org/record/1003263 | url-status live }}</ref><ref name"pmid31410034"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Mok N, Chan SY, Liu SY, Chua SL | title Vanillin inhibits PqsR-mediated virulence in Pseudomonas aeruginosa | journal Food & Function | volume 11 | issue 7 | pages 6496–6508 | date July 2020 | pmid 32697213 | doi 10.1039/D0FO00046A | hdl 10397/88306 | s2cid 220699939 | hdl-access free }}</ref> Examples of natural products with antivirulence activity include the flavonoid epigallocatechin gallate (which inhibits listeriolysin O),<ref name"pmid21514796"/> the quinone tetrangomycin (which inhibits staphyloxanthin),<ref name"pmid31410034">{{cite journal | vauthors Xue L, Chen YY, Yan Z, Lu W, Wan D, Zhu H | title Staphyloxanthin: a potential target for antivirulence therapy | journal Infection and Drug Resistance | volume 12 | pages 2151–2160 | date July 2019 | pmid 31410034 | pmc 6647007 | doi 10.2147/IDR.S193649 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> and the sesquiterpene zerumbone (which inhibits Acinetobacter baumannii motility).<ref name"pmid32463353">{{cite journal | vauthors Kim HR, Shin DS, Jang HI, Eom YB | title Anti-biofilm and anti-virulence effects of zerumbone against Acinetobacter baumannii | journal Microbiology | volume 166 | issue 8 | pages 717–726 | date August 2020 | pmid 32463353 | doi 10.1099/mic.0.000930 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
Immunoglobulin therapy
{{Main|Monoclonal antibody therapy}}
Antibodies (anti-tetanus immunoglobulin) have been used in the treatment and prevention of tetanus since the 1910s,<ref>{{cite book| vauthors Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit PA |author-link2Walter Orenstein |author-link1Stanley Plotkin |author-link3Paul Offit|titleVaccines|date2012|publisherElsevier Health Sciences|isbn978-1-4557-0090-5|pages103, 757|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhoigDQ6vdDQC&pgPA103|languageen|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170109021821/https://books.google.ca/books?idhoigDQ6vdDQC&pgPA103|archive-date9 January 2017}}</ref> and this approach continues to be a useful way of controlling bacterial diseases. The monoclonal antibody bezlotoxumab, for example, has been approved by the US FDA and EMA for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection, and other monoclonal antibodies are in development (e.g. AR-301 for the adjunctive treatment of S. aureus ventilator-associated pneumonia). Antibody treatments act by binding to and neutralizing bacterial exotoxins and other virulence factors.<ref name"pmid31295426"/><ref name"pmid30683453"/>
Phage therapy
{{Main|Phage therapy}}
Phage therapy is under investigation as a method of treating antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Phage therapy involves infecting bacterial pathogens with viruses. Bacteriophages and their host ranges are extremely specific for certain bacteria, thus, unlike antibiotics, they do not disturb the host organism's intestinal microbiota.<ref name"Gill, Franco, Hancock"/> Bacteriophages, also known as phages, infect and kill bacteria primarily during lytic cycles.<ref name"Gill, Franco, Hancock"/><ref nameSulakvelidze>{{cite journal | vauthors Sulakvelidze A, Alavidze Z, Morris JG | title Bacteriophage therapy | journal Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume 45 | issue 3 | pages 649–59 | date March 2001 | pmid 11181338 | pmc 90351 | doi 10.1128/aac.45.3.649-659.2001 }}</ref> Phages insert their DNA into the bacterium, where it is transcribed and used to make new phages, after which the cell will lyse, releasing new phage that are able to infect and destroy further bacteria of the same strain.<ref nameSulakvelidze/> The high specificity of phage protects "good" bacteria from destruction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Dunne M, Rupf B, Tala M, Qabrati X, Ernst P, Shen Y, Sumrall E, Heeb L, Plückthun A, Loessner MJ, Kilcher S | title Reprogramming Bacteriophage Host Range through Structure-Guided Design of Chimeric Receptor Binding Proteins | journal Cell Reports | volume 29 | issue 5 | pages 1336–1350.e4 | date October 2019 | pmid 31665644 | s2cid 204967212 | doi 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.09.062 | doi-access free | title-link doi | hdl 20.500.11850/374453 | hdl-access free }}</ref>
Some disadvantages to the use of bacteriophages also exist, however. Bacteriophages may harbour virulence factors or toxic genes in their genomes and, prior to use, it may be prudent to identify genes with similarity to known virulence factors or toxins by genomic sequencing. In addition, the oral and IV administration of phages for the eradication of bacterial infections poses a much higher safety risk than topical application. Also, there is the additional concern of uncertain immune responses to these large antigenic cocktails.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
There are considerable regulatory hurdles that must be cleared for such therapies.<ref name"Gill, Franco, Hancock">{{cite journal | vauthors Gill EE, Franco OL, Hancock RE | title Antibiotic adjuvants: diverse strategies for controlling drug-resistant pathogens | journal Chemical Biology & Drug Design | volume 85 | issue 1 | pages 56–78 | date January 2015 | pmid 25393203 | pmc 4279029 | doi 10.1111/cbdd.12478 }}</ref> Despite numerous challenges, the use of bacteriophages as a replacement for antimicrobial agents against MDR pathogens that no longer respond to conventional antibiotics, remains an attractive option.<ref name"Gill, Franco, Hancock"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Opal SM | title Non-antibiotic treatments for bacterial diseases in an era of progressive antibiotic resistance | journal Critical Care | volume 20 | issue 1 | pages 397 | date December 2016 | pmid 27978847 | pmc 5159963 | doi 10.1186/s13054-016-1549-1 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
Fecal microbiota transplants
{{Main| Fecal microbiota transplant }}
Fecal microbiota transplants involve transferring the full intestinal microbiota from a healthy human donor (in the form of stool) to patients with C. difficile infection. Although this procedure has not been officially approved by the US FDA, its use is permitted under some conditions in patients with antibiotic-resistant C. difficile infection. Cure rates are around 90%, and work is underway to develop stool banks, standardized products, and methods of oral delivery.<ref name"pmid31295426"/> Fecal microbiota transplantation has also been used more recently for inflammatory bowel diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors D'Odorico I, Di Bella S, Monticelli J, Giacobbe DR, Boldock E, Luzzati R | title Role of fecal microbiota transplantation in inflammatory bowel disease | journal Journal of Digestive Diseases | volume 19 | issue 6 | pages 322–334 | date June 2018 | pmid 29696802 | doi 10.1111/1751-2980.12603 | s2cid 24461869 }}</ref> Antisense RNA-based treatments
{{See|Antisense RNA}}
Antisense RNA-based treatment (also known as gene silencing therapy) involves (a) identifying bacterial genes that encode essential proteins (e.g. the Pseudomonas aeruginosa genes acpP, lpxC, and rpsJ), (b) synthesizing single-stranded RNA that is complementary to the mRNA encoding these essential proteins, and (c) delivering the single-stranded RNA to the infection site using cell-penetrating peptides or liposomes. The antisense RNA then hybridizes with the bacterial mRNA and blocks its translation into the essential protein. Antisense RNA-based treatment has been shown to be effective in in vivo models of P. aeruginosa pneumonia.<ref name"pmid31295426"/><ref name"pmid30683453"/>
In addition to silencing essential bacterial genes, antisense RNA can be used to silence bacterial genes responsible for antibiotic resistance.<ref name"pmid31295426"/><ref name"pmid30683453"/> For example, antisense RNA has been developed that silences the S. aureus mecA gene (the gene that encodes modified penicillin-binding protein 2a and renders S. aureus strains methicillin-resistant). Antisense RNA targeting mecA mRNA has been shown to restore the susceptibility of methicillin-resistant staphylococci to oxacillin in both in vitro and in vivo studies.<ref name"pmid30683453"/> CRISPR-Cas9-based treatments In the early 2000s, a system was discovered that enables bacteria to defend themselves against invading viruses. The system, known as CRISPR-Cas9, consists of (a) an enzyme that destroys DNA (the nuclease Cas9) and (b) the DNA sequences of previously encountered viral invaders (CRISPR). These viral DNA sequences enable the nuclease to target foreign (viral) rather than self (bacterial) DNA.<ref name"pmid29358495">{{cite journal | vauthors Ishino Y, Krupovic M, Forterre P | title History of CRISPR-Cas from Encounter with a Mysterious Repeated Sequence to Genome Editing Technology | journal Journal of Bacteriology | volume 200 | issue 7 | pages e00580-17 | date April 2018 | pmid 29358495 | pmc 5847661 | doi 10.1128/JB.00580-17 }}</ref>
Although the function of CRISPR-Cas9 in nature is to protect bacteria, the DNA sequences in the CRISPR component of the system can be modified so that the Cas9 nuclease targets bacterial resistance genes or bacterial virulence genes instead of viral genes. The modified CRISPR-Cas9 system can then be administered to bacterial pathogens using plasmids or bacteriophages.<ref name"pmid31295426"/><ref name"pmid30683453"/> This approach has successfully been used to silence antibiotic resistance and reduce the virulence of enterohemorrhagic E. coli in an in vivo model of infection.<ref name"pmid30683453"/> Reducing the selection pressure for antibiotic resistance
{{Main|Antimicrobial resistance}}
In addition to developing new antibacterial treatments, it is important to reduce the selection pressure for the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), such as antibiotic resistance. Strategies to accomplish this include well-established infection control measures such as infrastructure improvement (e.g. less crowded housing),<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535289/ |title Household crowding |publisherWorld Health Organization |access-date 17 September 2020 |archive-date6 January 2021 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210106220730/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535289/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"pmid30545014">{{cite journal | vauthors Ali SH, Foster T, Hall NL | title The Relationship between Infectious Diseases and Housing Maintenance in Indigenous Australian Households | journal International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume 15 | issue 12 | pages Article 2827 | date December 2018 | pmid 30545014 | pmc 6313733 | doi 10.3390/ijerph15122827 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> better sanitation (e.g. safe drinking water and food),<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/facts2004/en/|title Water, sanitation and hygiene links to health|publisherWorld Health Organization|access-date 17 September 2020|archive-date7 September 2020|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200907205101/https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/facts2004/en/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"pmid21453872">{{cite journal | vauthors Curtis V, Schmidt W, Luby S, Florez R, Touré O, Biran A | title Hygiene: new hopes, new horizons | journal The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume 11 | issue 4 | pages 312–21 | date April 2011 | pmid 21453872 | pmc 7106354 | doi 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70224-3 }}</ref> better use of vaccines and vaccine development,<ref nameWHO10October2024/><ref name" pmid26795692"/> other approaches such as antibiotic stewardship,<ref name"pmid31836329">{{cite journal | vauthors Gentry EM, Kester S, Fischer K, Davidson LE, Passaretti CL | title Bugs and Drugs: Collaboration Between Infection Prevention and Antibiotic Stewardship | journal Infectious Disease Clinics of North America | volume 34 | issue 1 | pages 17–30 | date March 2020 | pmid 31836329 | doi 10.1016/j.idc.2019.10.001 | s2cid 209358146 }}</ref><ref name"pmid31585470">{{cite journal | vauthors Fierens J, Depuydt PO, De Waele JJ | title A Practical Approach to Clinical Antibiotic Stewardship in the ICU Patient with Severe Infection | journal Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine | volume 40 | issue 4 | pages 435–446 | date August 2019 | pmid 31585470 | doi 10.1055/s-0039-1693995 | s2cid 203720304 }}</ref> and experimental approaches such as the use of prebiotics and probiotics to prevent infection.<ref name"pmid32800382">{{cite journal | vauthors Newman AM, Arshad M | title The Role of Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics in Combating Multidrug-Resistant Organisms | journal Clinical Therapeutics | volume 42 | issue 9 | pages 1637–1648 | date September 2020 | pmid 32800382 | pmc 7904027 | doi 10.1016/j.clinthera.2020.06.011 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"pmid31083597">{{cite journal | vauthors Giordano M, Baldassarre ME, Palmieri V, Torres DD, Carbone V, Santangelo L, Gentile F, Panza R, Di Mauro F, Capozza M, Di Mauro A, Laforgia N | title Management of STEC Gastroenteritis: Is There a Role for Probiotics? | journal International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume 16 | issue 9 | pages Article 1649 | date May 2019 | pmid 31083597 | pmc 6539596 | doi 10.3390/ijerph16091649 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Jha R, Das R, Oak S, Mishra P | title Probiotics (Direct-Fed Microbials) in Poultry Nutrition and Their Effects on Nutrient Utilization, Growth and Laying Performance, and Gut Health: A Systematic Review | journal Animals | volume 10 | issue 10 | pages 1863 | date October 2020 | pmid 33066185 | pmc 7602066 | doi 10.3390/ani10101863 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Jha R, Mishra P | title Dietary fiber in poultry nutrition and their effects on nutrient utilization, performance, gut health, and on the environment: a review | journal Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology | volume 12 | issue 1 | pages 51 | date April 2021 | pmid 33866972 | pmc 8054369 | doi 10.1186/s40104-021-00576-0 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Antibiotic cycling, where antibiotics are alternated by clinicians to treat microbial diseases, is proposed, but recent studies revealed such strategies are ineffective against antibiotic resistance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Beckley AM, Wright ES | title Identification of antibiotic pairs that evade concurrent resistance via a retrospective analysis of antimicrobial susceptibility test results | language English | journal The Lancet. Microbe | volume 2 | issue 10 | pages e545–e554 | date October 2021 | pmid 34632433 | pmc 8496867 | doi 10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00118-X }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors Ma Y, Chua SL |date15 November 2021|titleNo collateral antibiotic sensitivity by alternating antibiotic pairs | journalThe Lancet Microbe|volume3|issue1 |pagese7|languageEnglish|doi10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00270-6|pmid35544116 |s2cid244147577|issn2666-5247| doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref> Vaccines Vaccines are an essential part of the response to reduce AMR as they prevent infections, reduce the use and overuse of antimicrobials, and slow the emergence and spread of drug-resistant pathogens.<ref nameWHO10October2024/> Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases.<ref>{{cite book |titleEmerging trends in antibacterial discovery: answering the call to arms |publisher Horizon Scientific Press |year2011 | vauthors Donald RG, Anderson AS | veditors Miller PF |chapter Current strategies for antibacterial vaccine development |page283}}</ref> See also {{Columns-list|colwidth30em|
* Anthelmintic
* Antifungal
* Antimalarial medication
* Antiprotozoal
* Antiviral drug
* Magic bullet (medicine)
* Prebiotic (nutrition)
* Probiotic
* List of antibiotics}}
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--><ref name"Baker2006">{{cite journal | vauthors Baker-Austin C, Wright MS, Stepanauskas R, McArthur JV | title Co-selection of antibiotic and metal resistance | journal Trends in Microbiology | volume 14 | issue 4 | pages 176–82 | date April 2006 | pmid 16537105 | doi 10.1016/j.tim.2006.02.006 }}</ref><ref name"Balancing the drug-resistance equation">{{cite journal | vauthors Levy SB | title Balancing the drug-resistance equation | journal Trends in Microbiology | volume 2 | issue 10 | pages 341–2 | date October 1994 | pmid 7850197 | doi 10.1016/0966-842X(94)90607-6 }}</ref><ref name"Bosch2008">{{cite journal | vauthors Bosch F, Rosich L | title The contributions of Paul Ehrlich to pharmacology: a tribute on the occasion of the centenary of his Nobel Prize | journal Pharmacology | volume 82 | issue 3 | pages 171–9 | year 2008 | pmid 18679046 | pmc 2790789 | doi 10.1159/000149583 }}</ref><ref name"CALDERIN2007">Calderon CB, Sabundayo BP (2007). Antimicrobial Classifications: Drugs for Bugs. In Schwalbe R, Steele-Moore L, Goodwin AC. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Protocols. CRC Press. Taylor & Frances group. {{ISBN|978-0-8247-4100-6}}</ref>
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--><ref name"Considerations for Determining if a Natural Product Is an Effective Wound-Healing Agent">{{cite journal | vauthors Lindblad WJ | title Considerations for determining if a natural product is an effective wound-healing agent | journal The International Journal of Lower Extremity Wounds | volume 7 | issue 2 | pages 75–81 | date June 2008 | pmid 18483011 | doi 10.1177/1534734608316028 | s2cid 5059255 }}</ref><ref name"D'Costa2011">{{cite journal | vauthors D'Costa VM, King CE, Kalan L, Morar M, Sung WW, Schwarz C, Froese D, Zazula G, Calmels F, Debruyne R, Golding GB, Poinar HN, Wright GD | title Antibiotic resistance is ancient | journal Nature | volume 477 | issue 7365 | pages 457–61 | date August 2011 | pmid 21881561 | doi 10.1038/nature10388 | s2cid 4415610 | bibcode = 2011Natur.477..457D }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"Dispersing biofilms with engineered enzymatic bacteriophage">{{cite journal |vauthorsLu TK, Collins JJ |titleDispersing biofilms with engineered enzymatic bacteriophage |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year2007 |pmid17592147 |pmc1899193 |doi10.1073/pnas.0704624104 |volume104 |issue27 |pages=11197–11202}}</ref>
--><ref name"Early history of wound treatment">{{cite journal | vauthors Forrest RD | title Early history of wound treatment | journal Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume 75 | issue 3 | pages 198–205 | date March 1982 | doi 10.1177/014107688207500310 | pmid 7040656 | pmc = 1437561 }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"Effects of iron chelators and iron overload on Salmonella infection">{{cite journal |vauthorsJones RL, Peterson CM, Grady RW, Kumbaraci T, Cerami A, Graziano JH |titleEffects of iron chelators and iron overload on Salmonella infection |journalNature |volume267 |pages63–65 |year1977 |doi10.1038/267063a0 |pmid323727 |issue5606}}</ref>
--><ref name"Epps2006">{{cite journal | vauthors Van Epps HL | title René Dubos: unearthing antibiotics | journal The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume 203 | issue 2 | pages 259 | date February 2006 | pmid 16528813 | pmc 2118194 | doi 10.1084/jem.2032fta }}</ref><ref name"Fleming1929">{{cite journal | vauthors Fleming A | title Classics in infectious diseases: on the antibacterial action of cultures of a penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae by Alexander Fleming, Reprinted from the British Journal of Experimental Pathology 10:226-236, 1929 | journal Reviews of Infectious Diseases | volume 2 | issue 1 | pages 129–39 | year 1980 | pmid 6994200 | pmc 2041430 | doi 10.1093/clinids/2.1.129 }}; Reprint of {{cite journal | vauthors Krylov AK | title [Gastroenterologic aspects of the clinical picture of internal diseases] | journal Terapevticheskii Arkhiv | volume 63 | issue 2 | pages 139–41 | year 929 | pmid 2048009 }}</ref><ref name"Gladki2013">{{cite journal | vauthors Gladki A, Kaczanowski S, Szczesny P, Zielenkiewicz P | title The evolutionary rate of antibacterial drug targets | journal BMC Bioinformatics | volume 14 | issue 1 | pages 36 | date February 2013 | pmid 23374913 | pmc 3598507 | doi 10.1186/1471-2105-14-36 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Glycopeptide antibiotic resistance genes in glycopeptide-producing organisms">{{cite journal | vauthors Marshall CG, Lessard IA, Park I, Wright GD | title Glycopeptide antibiotic resistance genes in glycopeptide-producing organisms | journal Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume 42 | issue 9 | pages 2215–20 | date September 1998 | pmid 9736537 | pmc 105782 | doi 10.1128/AAC.42.9.2215 }}</ref><ref name"Hawkey2008">{{cite journal | vauthors Hawkey PM | title The growing burden of antimicrobial resistance | journal The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume 62 | issue Supplement 1 | pages i1-9 | date September 2008 | pmid 18684701 | doi 10.1093/jac/dkn241 | citeseerx 10.1.1.629.3960 }}</ref><ref name"Health Protection Report">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hpa.org.uk/hpr/archives/2009/news2609.htm#ndm1 |archive-urlhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140714101848/http://www.hpa.org.uk/hpr/archives/2009/news2609.htm#ndm1 |url-statusdead |archive-date14 July 2014 |workHealth Protection Report |publisherHealth Protection Agency |date3 July 2009 |titleMulti-resistant hospital bacteria linked to India and Pakistan |access-date16 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name"Keep Antibiotics Working">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.keepantibioticsworking.com/new/index.cfm |titleKeep Antibiotics Working |publisherKeep Antibiotics Working |access-date21 May 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101024021714/http://www.keepantibioticsworking.com/new/index.cfm |archive-date24 October 2010 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"Kingston2008">{{cite journal | vauthors Kingston W | title Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics | journal Irish Journal of Medical Science | volume 177 | issue 2 | pages 87–92 | date June 2008 | pmid 18347757 | doi 10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x | s2cid 32847260 }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"Kutateladze2008">{{cite journal |vauthorsKutateladze M, Adamia R |titlePhage therapy experience at the Eliava Institute |journalMed Mal Infect |volume38 |issue8 |pages426–30 |dateAugust 2008 |pmid18687542 |doi10.1016/j.medmal.2008.06.023}}</ref>
--><ref name"Larson2007">{{cite journal | vauthors Larson E | title Community factors in the development of antibiotic resistance | journal Annual Review of Public Health | volume 28 | issue 1 | pages 435–47 | year 2007 | pmid 17094768 | doi 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144020 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Limbird2004">{{cite journal | vauthors Limbird LE | title The receptor concept: a continuing evolution | journal Molecular Interventions | volume 4 | issue 6 | pages 326–36 | date December 2004 | pmid 15616162 | doi 10.1124/mi.4.6.6 }}</ref><ref name"Marino">{{cite book | vauthors Marino PL |chapterAntimicrobial therapy |titleThe ICU book |publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins |locationHagerstown, MD |year2007 |page817 |isbn=978-0-7817-4802-5}}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"Mattey2008">{{cite journal |vauthorsMattey M, Spencer J |titleBacteriophage therapy—cooked goose or phoenix rising? |journalCurrent Opinion in Biotechnology |volume19 |issue6 |pages608–12 |dateDecember 2008 |pmid18926909 |doi10.1016/j.copbio.2008.09.001}}</ref>
-->
<!-- unused ref<ref name"Merril2003">{{cite journal |vauthorsMerril CR, Scholl D, Adhya SL |titleThe prospect for bacteriophage therapy in Western medicine |journalNature Reviews Drug Discovery |volume2 |issue6 |pages489–97 |dateJune 2003 |pmid12776223 |doi10.1038/nrd1111}}</ref>
--><ref name"Moulds in ancient and more recent medicine">{{cite journal |doi10.1016/S0269-915X(89)80010-2 |titleMoulds in ancient and more recent medicine |year1989 | vauthors Wainwright M |journalMycologist |volume3 |pages21–23 |issue1}}</ref><ref name"Multidrug Resistance in Bacteria">{{cite journal | vauthors Nikaido H | title Multidrug resistance in bacteria | journal Annual Review of Biochemistry | volume 78 | issue 1 | pages 119–46 | date February 2009 | pmid 19231985 | pmc 2839888 | doi 10.1146/annurev.biochem.78.082907.145923 }}</ref><ref name"Mutations of Bacteria from Virus Sensitivity to Virus Resistance">{{cite journal | vauthors Luria SE, Delbrück M | title Mutations of Bacteria from Virus Sensitivity to Virus Resistance | journal Genetics | volume 28 | issue 6 | pages 491–511 | date November 1943 | pmid 17247100 | pmc 1209226 | doi 10.1093/genetics/28.6.491 | url http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?viewlong&pmid17247100 | access-date 3 February 2009 | archive-date 11 September 2009 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090911085409/http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?viewlong&pmid17247100 | url-status live }}</ref><ref name"NHS">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/871.aspx |titleCan I drink alcohol while taking antibiotics? |access-date17 February 2008 |publisherNHS Direct (UK electronic health service) |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101024155841/http://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/871.aspx |archive-date24 October 2010 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Pankey2004">{{cite journal | vauthors Pankey GA, Sabath LD | title Clinical relevance of bacteriostatic versus bactericidal mechanisms of action in the treatment of Gram-positive bacterial infections | journal Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume 38 | issue 6 | pages 864–70 | date March 2004 | pmid 14999632 | doi 10.1086/381972 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"Sharma2002">{{cite journal| vauthors Sharma KK, Sangraula H, Mediratta PK |dateDecember 2002 |titleSome new concepts in antibacterial drug therapy |urlhttp://medind.nic.in/ibi/t02/i6/ibit02i6p390.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://medind.nic.in/ibi/t02/i6/ibit02i6p390.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |journalIndian Journal of Pharmacology |volume34 |issue6 |pages390–396 |formatPDF |access-date13 November 2008}}</ref>
-->
<!-- unused ref<ref name"Parfitt2005">{{cite journal | vauthors Parfitt T | title Georgia: an unlikely stronghold for bacteriophage therapy | journal Lancet | volume 365 | issue 9478 | pages 2166–2167 | year 2005 | pmid 15986542 | doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66759-1 }}</ref>
--><ref name"Pirotta and Garland">{{cite journal | vauthors Pirotta MV, Garland SM | title Genital Candida species detected in samples from women in Melbourne, Australia, before and after treatment with antibiotics | journal Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume 44 | issue 9 | pages 3213–7 | date September 2006 | pmid 16954250 | pmc 1594690 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.00218-06 }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"Retargeting R-type pyocins to generate novel bactericidal protein complexes">{{cite journal |vauthorsWilliams SR, Gebhart D, Martin DW, Scholl D |titleRetargeting R-type pyocins to generate novel bactericidal protein complexes |journalApplied and Environmental Microbiology |year2008 |doi10.1128/AEM.00141-08 |volume74 |issue12 |pages3868–3876 |pmid18441117 |pmc=2446544}}</ref>
--><ref name"Rhee2004">{{cite journal | vauthors Rhee KY, Gardiner DF | title Clinical relevance of bacteriostatic versus bactericidal activity in the treatment of gram-positive bacterial infections | journal Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume 39 | issue 5 | pages 755–6 | date September 2004 | pmid 15356797 | doi 10.1086/422881 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref><ref name"Sykes2001">{{cite journal | vauthors Sykes R | title Penicillin: from discovery to product | journal Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume 79 | issue 8 | pages 778–9 | year 2001 | pmid 11545336 | pmc 2566502 }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"The Bacteriophages">{{cite book |veditorsAbedon ST, Calendar RL |titleThe Bacteriophages |year2005}}</ref>
--><ref name"The biological cost of mutational antibiotic resistance: any practical conclusions?">{{cite journal | vauthors Andersson DI | title The biological cost of mutational antibiotic resistance: any practical conclusions? | journal Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume 9 | issue 5 | pages 461–5 | date October 2006 | pmid 16890008 | doi 10.1016/j.mib.2006.07.002 }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"The effect of synthetic iron chelators on bacterial growth in human serum">{{cite journal |vauthorsBrock JH, Liceaga J, Kontoghiorghes GJ |titleThe effect of synthetic iron chelators on bacterial growth in human serum |journalFEMS Microbiology Letters |volume47 |issue1 |pages55–60 |year2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1988.tb02490.x}}</ref>
--><ref name"The importance of bactericidal drugs: future directions in infectious disease">{{cite journal | vauthors Finberg RW, Moellering RC, Tally FP, Craig WA, Pankey GA, Dellinger EP, West MA, Joshi M, Linden PK, Rolston KV, Rotschafer JC, Rybak MJ | title The importance of bactericidal drugs: future directions in infectious disease | journal Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume 39 | issue 9 | pages 1314–20 | date November 2004 | pmid 15494908 | doi 10.1086/425009 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
<!--unused ref<ref name"Thiel2004">{{cite journal | vauthors Thiel K | title Old dogma, new tricks--21st Century phage therapy | journal Nature Biotechnology | volume 22 | issue 1 | pages 31–36 | date January 2004 | pmid 14704699 | doi 10.1038/nbt0104-31 }}</ref>
--><ref name"USbill1">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/s742|titlePreservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (2005 - S. 742)|websiteGovTrack.us|access-date15 April 2019|archive-date15 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190415050116/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/s742|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"USbill2">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr2562|titlePreservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (2005 - H.R. 2562)|websiteGovTrack.us|access-date15 April 2019|archive-date15 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190415050106/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr2562|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Use of Micro-organisms for therapeutic purposes">{{cite journal | vauthors Florey HW | title Use of Micro-organisms for Therapeutic Purposes | journal British Medical Journal | volume 2 | issue 4427 | pages 635–42 | date November 1945 | pmid 20786386 | pmc 2060276 | doi 10.1136/bmj.2.4427.635 }}</ref><ref name"Wakeman1947">{{cite journal | vauthors Waksman SA | title What is an antibiotic or an antibiotic substance? | journal Mycologia | volume 39 | issue 5 | pages 565–9 | year 1947 | pmid 20264541 | doi 10.2307/3755196 | jstor 3755196 }}</ref><ref name"Weaver1999">{{cite journal | vauthors Weaver K, Glasier A | title Interaction between broad-spectrum antibiotics and the combined oral contraceptive pill. A literature review | journal Contraception | volume 59 | issue 2 | pages 71–8 | date February 1999 | pmid 10361620 | doi 10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00009-8 }}</ref><ref name"Witte2004">{{cite journal | vauthors Witte W | title International dissemination of antibiotic resistant strains of bacterial pathogens | journal Infection, Genetics and Evolution | volume 4 | issue 3 | pages 187–91 | date September 2004 | pmid 15450197 | doi 10.1016/j.meegid.2003.12.005 | bibcode 2004InfGE...4..187W }}</ref><ref name"antibiotics-and-alcohol">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mayoclinic.com/health/antibiotics-and-alcohol/AN01802 |titleantibiotics-and-alcohol |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110612184811/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/antibiotics-and-alcohol/AN01802 |archive-date12 June 2011 |url-statuslive }}, Mayo Clinic</ref><ref name"bmj">{{cite journal |doi10.1136/bmj.a2885 |titleDo antibiotics and alcohol mix? The beliefs of genitourinary clinic attendees |year2008 |vauthors Lwanga J, Mears, Bingham JS, Bradbeer CS |journalBMJ |volume337 |pagesa2885|s2cid58765542 }}</ref><ref name"pharmguide">"[https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan/] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227034807/https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan/ |date27 December 2017 }}." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 12 March 2009.</ref><ref name"pmid10384856">{{cite journal | vauthors Weisberg E | title Interactions between oral contraceptives and antifungals/antibacterials. Is contraceptive failure the result? | journal Clinical Pharmacokinetics | volume 36 | issue 5 | pages 309–13 | date May 1999 | pmid 10384856 | doi 10.2165/00003088-199936050-00001 | s2cid 25187892 }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"pmid15777256">{{cite journal |vauthorsGillor O, Nigro LM, Riley MA |titleGenetically engineered bacteriocins and their potential as the next generation of antimicrobials |journalCurr. Pharm. Des. |volume11 |issue8 |pages1067–75 |year2005 |pmid15777256 |doi10.2174/1381612053381666}}</ref>
--><ref name"pmid15993671">{{cite journal | vauthors Slama TG, Amin A, Brunton SA, File TM, Milkovich G, Rodvold KA, Sahm DF, Varon J, Weiland D | title A clinician's guide to the appropriate and accurate use of antibiotics: the Council for Appropriate and Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT) criteria | journal The American Journal of Medicine | volume 118 | issue 7A | pages 1S–6S | date July 2005 | pmid 15993671 | doi 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.05.007 | doi-access free | title-link doi }}</ref>
<!-- unused ref<ref name"pmid17168847">{{cite journal | vauthors Kirkup BC | title Bacteriocins as oral and gastrointestinal antibiotics: theoretical considerations, applied research, and practical applications | journal Current Medicinal Chemistry | volume 13 | issue 27 | pages 3335–3350 | year 2006 | pmid 17168847 | doi 10.2174/092986706778773068 }}</ref>
--><ref name"pmid17467120">{{cite journal | vauthors Ong S, Nakase J, Moran GJ, Karras DJ, Kuehnert MJ, Talan DA | title Antibiotic use for emergency department patients with upper respiratory infections: prescribing practices, patient expectations, and patient satisfaction | journal Annals of Emergency Medicine | volume 50 | issue 3 | pages 213–20 | date September 2007 | pmid 17467120 | doi 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.03.026 }}</ref><ref name"pmid17509729">{{cite journal | vauthors Metlay JP, Camargo CA, MacKenzie T, McCulloch C, Maselli J, Levin SK, Kersey A, Gonzales R | title Cluster-randomized trial to improve antibiotic use for adults with acute respiratory infections treated in emergency departments | journal Annals of Emergency Medicine | volume 50 | issue 3 | pages 221–30 | date September 2007 | pmid 17509729 | doi 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.03.022 }}</ref><ref name"pmid2256523">{{cite journal | vauthors Orme ML, Back DJ | title Factors affecting the enterohepatic circulation of oral contraceptive steroids | journal American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume 163 | issue 6 Pt 2 | pages 2146–52 | date December 1990 | pmid 2256523 | doi 10.1016/0002-9378(90)90555-L | url http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+57-63-6 | url-status live | access-date 11 March 2009 | df dmy | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150713192148/http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+57-63-6 | archive-date 13 July 2015 }}</ref><ref name"pmid3155374">{{cite journal | vauthors Hassan T | title Pharmacologic considerations for patients taking oral contraceptives | journal Connecticut Dental Student Journal | volume 7 | pages 7–8 | date March 1987 | pmid 3155374 }}</ref>
<!--unused ref<ref name"pmid7768775">{{cite journal |vauthorsSoteriadou K, Papvassiliou P, Voyiatzaki C, Boelaert J |titleEffects of iron chelation on the in-vitro growth of leishmania promastigotes |journalThe Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy |volume35 |issue1 |pages23–29 |year1995 |pmid7768775 |doi10.1093/jac/35.1.23}}</ref>
--><ref name"voanews.com">{{cite news | vauthors Pearson C |titleAntibiotic Resistance Fast-Growing Problem Worldwide |date28 February 2007 |publisherVoice of America |url http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2007-02-28-voa33/405785.html |access-date29 December 2008 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081202191614/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-02/2007-02-28-voa33.cfm| archive-date2 December 2008 |url-status live}}</ref>
}}
Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors Gould K | title Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day | journal The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume 71 | issue 3 | pages 572–5 | date March 2016 | pmid 26851273 | doi 10.1093/jac/dkv484 | doi-access free | title-link = doi }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors Davies J, Davies D | title Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance | journal Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews | volume 74 | issue 3 | pages 417–33 | date September 2010 | pmid 20805405 | pmc 2937522 | doi 10.1128/MMBR.00016-10 }}
* {{cite web|titleAntibiotics: MedlinePlus|urlhttps://medlineplus.gov/antibiotics.html?PHPSESSID1550cb08d53a1c0c39064bf62aee6247|publishernih.gov|access-date19 July 2016|archive-date27 July 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160727195825/https://medlineplus.gov/antibiotics.html|url-statuslive}}
* {{cite web|titleWHO's first global report on antibiotic resistance reveals serious, worldwide threat to public health|urlhttps://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/amr-report/en/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140430150557/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/amr-report/en/|url-statusdead|archive-date30 April 2014|websiteWHO}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors Pugh R, Grant C, Cooke RP, Dempsey G | title Short-course versus prolonged-course antibiotic therapy for hospital-acquired pneumonia in critically ill adults | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue 8 | pages CD007577 | date August 2015 | volume 2015 | pmid 26301604 | pmc 7025798 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD007577.pub3 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors Giedraitienė A, Vitkauskienė A, Naginienė R, Pavilonis A | title Antibiotic resistance mechanisms of clinically important bacteria | journal Medicina | volume 47 | issue 3 | pages 137–46 | date 1 January 2011 | pmid 21822035 | doi 10.3390/medicina47030019 | doi-access free | title-link = doi }}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Commons category|Antibiotics}}
{{Scholia|topic}}
{{Library resources box |byno |onlinebooksno |othersyes lcheadingAntibiotics}}
{{Antibiotics social and layman issues}}
{{Antibiotics}}
{{Concepts in infectious disease}}
{{Portal bar | Medicine}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Anti-infective agents
.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.796504
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1806
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Arnold Schwarzenegger
|
{{Short description|Austrian and American bodybuilder, actor and politician (born 1947)}}
{{Redirect|Schwarzenegger|other people with the name|Schwarzenegger (surname)}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Arnold Schwarzenegger
| image = Arnold Schwarzenegger (33730956438) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Schwarzenegger in 2019
| order = 38th
| office = Governor of California
| lieutenant = {{Plainlist|
* Cruz Bustamante
* John Garamendi
* Mona Pasquil (acting)
* Abel Maldonado
}}
| term_start = November 17, 2003
| term_end = January 3, 2011
| predecessor = Gray Davis
| successor = Jerry Brown
| office1 = Chairman of the President's Council<br />on Physical Fitness and Sports
| president1 = {{Plainlist|
* George H. W. Bush
* Bill Clinton
}}
| term_start1 = January 22, 1990
| term_end1 = May 27, 1993
| predecessor1 = Dick Kazmaier
| successor1 = {{Plainlist|
* Florence Griffith Joyner (co-chair)
* Tom McMillen (co-chair)
}}
| birth_name = Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1947|7|30}}
| birth_place = Thal, Styria, Austria<!-- DO NOT LINK, see MOS:GEOLINK for further guidance --><!-- DO NOT ADD "Allied-occupied Austria", it refers to the period, not the actual name of the country at that time, in spite of Austria not being de facto sovereign then -->{{Efn|Austria was under Allied occupation at the time of Schwarzenegger's birth.}}
| death_date | death_place
| party = Republican
| spouse {{marriage|Maria Shriver|1986|2021|enddivorced}}
| children = 5, including Katherine, Patrick and Joseph Baena
| citizenship = {{Hlist|Austria|United States}}
| father = Gustav Schwarzenegger
| relatives = Chris Pratt (son-in-law)
| signature = Arnold Schwarzenegger Signature.svg
| occupation = {{Flatlist|
* Actor
* bodybuilder
* businessman
* politician
* author
}}
| website = {{Official URL}}
| education = {{Plainlist|
* Santa Monica College
* UCLA Extension
* University of Wisconsin–Superior (BBA)<ref>{{Cite web |lastFinkelmeyer |firstTodd |titleCampus Connection: Superior list of famous alumni? |urlhttps://captimes.com/news/local/education/campus_connection/campus-connection-superior-list-of-famous-alumni/article_13051f01-a8e0-5ab6-9af5-9b9ae15988be.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230125014713/https://captimes.com/news/local/education/campus_connection/campus-connection-superior-list-of-famous-alumni/article_13051f01-a8e0-5ab6-9af5-9b9ae15988be.html |archive-dateJanuary 25, 2023 |access-dateJanuary 25, 2023 |websiteThe Cap Times |dateNovember 11, 2009 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1Leeds |first1Jeff |last2Bates |first2James |dateAugust 22, 2003 |titleA degree of fame for each |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-22-et-bates22-story.html |access-dateJanuary 25, 2023 |websiteLos Angeles Times |languageen-US |archive-dateJanuary 25, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230125015457/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-22-et-bates22-story.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
}}
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Bodybuilding career}}
{{Infobox bodybuilder | embed = yes
|image = Arnold Schwarzenegger 1974.jpg
|caption = As entrant to the 1974 Mr. Olympia competition at Madison Square Garden
|nickname = The Austrian Oak
|height {{cvt|6|ft|2|in}}<ref name"ArnoldBio">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.bodybuilding.com/content/bodybuilders-arnold.html |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Pro Bodybuilding Profile |websiteBodybuilding.com |dateOctober 11, 2015 |access-dateJuly 5, 2019 |archive-dateJuly 5, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190705212606/https://www.bodybuilding.com/content/bodybuilders-arnold.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
|weight = {{Plainlist|
* {{convert|235|lb|kg|0}} (contest)<ref name="ArnoldBio"/>
* {{convert|260|lb|kg|0}} (off-season)}}<ref name="ArnoldBio"/>
|firstproshow = NABBA Mr. Universe
|firstproshowyear = 1968
|bestwin = IFBB Mr. Olympia
|bestwinyear = 1970–1975, 1980; seven times
|predecessor = Sergio Oliva ('69)<br />Frank Zane ('79)
|successor = Franco Columbu ('76, '81)
|yesorretiredyear = Retired 1980
|medaltemplates=
{{Medal|Sport| Men's bodybuilding}}
{{Medal|Country| {{flag|Austria}} }}
{{Medal|Competition|Mr Universe (amateur)}}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1967| }}
{{Medal|Competition|Mr Universe (pro)}}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1968| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1969| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1970| }}
{{Medal|Competition|Mr. Olympia}}
{{CompetitionRecordSecond| 1969| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1970| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1971| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1972| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1973| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1974| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1975| }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1980| }}
{{Medal|Sport| Powerlifting<ref name="gmv.com.au" />}}
{{Medal|Country| {{flag|Austria}} }}
{{Medal|Competition|International Powerlifting Championships}}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1966|+80&nbsp;kg }}
{{Medal|Competition|German Powerlifting Championships}}
{{CompetitionRecordSecond| 1967|+80&nbsp;kg }}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1968|+80&nbsp;kg }}
{{Medal|Competition|Graz-Paradise Keller Powerlifting Championships}}
{{CompetitionRecordSecond| 1967|+80&nbsp;kg }}
{{Medal|Sport| Men's weightlifting<ref name"gmv.com.au">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.gmv.com.au/default.asp?pageidHOME&templateCONTENT&sid283 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger's competitive bodybuilding history 1963–1966 |publisherGMV Productions |access-dateJuly 24, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120506061017/http://www.gmv.com.au/default.asp?pageidHOME&templateCONTENT&sid283 |archive-dateMay 6, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
{{Medal|Country| {{flag|Austria}} }}
{{Medal|Competition|Styrian Junior Weightlifting Championships}}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1964| }}
{{Medal|Competition|German Austrian Weightlifting Championships}}
{{CompetitionRecordFirst| 1965| }}
}}
{{collapsed infobox section end}}
| branch = Austrian Armed Forces
| serviceyears = 1965
| rank = Wehrmann
| unit = Belgier Barracks
}}
{{Arnold Schwarzenegger series}}
Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|w|ɔːr|t|s|ə|n|ɛ|ɡ|ər}} {{respell|SHWORT|sə|neg|ər}}, {{IPA|de-AT|ˈarnɔld ˈaːlɔʏs ˈʃvartsn̩ˌɛɡɐ|lang|de-at Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger.ogg}}}} (born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian and American actor, businessman, former politician, and former professional bodybuilder, known for his roles in high-profile action films. He served as the 38th governor of California from 2003 to 2011.<ref>{{Cite news |lastKennedy |firstRobert F. Jr. |dateMay 3, 2007 |titleThe 2007 TIME 100 |magazineTime |urlhttps://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/time100/article/0,28804,1595326_1615513_1615451,00.html |access-dateApril 1, 2022 |issn0040-781X |archive-dateApril 1, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220401081135/http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/time100/article/0,28804,1595326_1615513_1615451,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger began lifting weights at age 15 and won the Mr. Universe title aged 20, and subsequently the Mr. Olympia title seven times. He is tied with Phil Heath for the joint-second number of all-time Mr. Olympia wins, behind Ronnie Coleman and Lee Haney, who are joint-first with eight wins each. Nicknamed the "Austrian Oak" in his bodybuilding days, he is regarded as one of the greatest bodybuilders of all time.<ref>{{cite web |lastHeffernan |firstConor |urlhttps://physicalculturestudy.com/2016/08/11/who-is-the-best-bodybuilder-ever-an-in-depth-analysis/ |titleWho is the Best Bodybuilder Ever? An In-Depth Analysis |publisherPhysicalculturestudy.com |dateAugust 11, 2016 |access-dateMay 24, 2022 |archive-dateJuly 6, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220706161758/https://physicalculturestudy.com/2016/08/11/who-is-the-best-bodybuilder-ever-an-in-depth-analysis/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |lastRobson |firstDavid |urlhttp://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/greatest-olympia-winner-of-all-time.htm |titleWho Is The Greatest Mr. Olympia Winner Of All Time? A Critical Review Of Past Mr. Olympia Champions! |publisherBodybuilding.com |dateApril 10, 2015 |access-dateMay 24, 2022 |archive-dateNovember 30, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201130014943/https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/greatest-olympia-winner-of-all-time.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> He has written books and articles about bodybuilding, including the autobiographical Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder (1977) and The New Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding (1998).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/lift-heavy-to-build-muscle-like-arnold-schwarzenegger.html|titleLift Heavy To Build Muscle Like Arnold Schwarzenegger|authorGentilcore, Tony|publisherPowerlifting.com|dateMarch 2, 2018|access-dateMay 30, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180715093657/https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/lift-heavy-to-build-muscle-like-arnold-schwarzenegger.html|archive-dateJuly 15, 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2024-12-05 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger {{!}} Biography, Movies, Bodybuilding, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Arnold-Schwarzenegger |access-date2024-12-13 |websitewww.britannica.com |languageen}}</ref> The Arnold Sports Festival, the second-most prestigious bodybuilding event after Mr. Olympia, is named after him.<ref name":0">{{Cite web|urlhttps://muscleinsider.com/features/50-years-mr-olympia|title50 years of the Mr Olympia |websiteMuscle Insider |access-dateJanuary 30, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181006114723/https://muscleinsider.com/features/50-years-mr-olympia|archive-dateOctober 6, 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref> He appeared in the bodybuilding documentary Pumping Iron (1977), which set him on his way to a career in films.<ref>{{Cite web |date2021-11-14 |titlePumping Iron Goes Mainstream |urlhttps://www.sportshistoryweekly.com/stories/pumping-iron-bodybuilding-arnold-schwarzenegger-mr-olympia,1051 |access-date2024-12-13 |websiteSports History Weekly |language=en}}</ref>
After retiring from bodybuilding, Schwarzenegger gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood action star, with his breakthrough in the sword and sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian (1982),<ref>{{Cite web |lastHibberd |firstJames |dateMay 16, 2023 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Gets Candid on Career, Failures, Aging: 'My Plan Is to Live Forever' |urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-features/arnold-schwarzenegger-interview-netflix-fubar-terminator-conan-1235491977/ |access-dateMay 31, 2023 |websiteThe Hollywood Reporter |languageen-US |archive-dateMay 31, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230531011800/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-features/arnold-schwarzenegger-interview-netflix-fubar-terminator-conan-1235491977/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> a box-office success with a sequel in 1984.<ref name"katzfilm" /> After playing the title character in the science fiction film The Terminator (1984), he starred in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) and three other sequels. His other successful action films included Commando (1985), The Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), Total Recall (1990), and True Lies (1994), in addition to comedy films such as Twins (1988), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and Jingle All the Way (1996).<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/red-heat-1988 |titleRed Heat movie review & film summary (1988) |publisherRogerEbert.com |dateJune 17, 1988 |lastEbert |firstRoger |access-dateMarch 2, 2021 |archive-dateApril 11, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210411185311/https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/red-heat-1988 |url-statuslive }}</ref> At the height of his career, Schwarzenegger was known for his rivalry with Sylvester Stallone.<ref>{{Cite news |titleArnold Schwarzenegger says rivalry with Sylvester Stallone got 'out of control' |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-sylvester-stallone-feud-b2437255.html#:~:textAt%20the%20height%20of%20their,our%20DNA%20hated%20each%20other%E2%80%9D |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240301054101/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-sylvester-stallone-feud-b2437255.html#:~:textAt%20the%20height%20of%20their,our%20DNA%20hated%20each%20other%E2%80%9D |archive-dateMarch 1, 2024 |access-date2024-12-13 |workThe Independent |languageen-GB |url-statuslive }}</ref> He is the founder of the film production company Oak Productions.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last1Keslassy|first1Elsa|dateOctober 14, 2019|titleAlibaba's Youku Boards 'Stan Lee's Superhero Kindergarten' With Arnold Schwarzenegger|urlhttps://variety.com/2019/tv/global/alibaba-youku-stan-lees-superhero-kindergarten-arnold-schwarzenegger-mipcom-1203368897/|access-dateOctober 19, 2020|magazineVariety|archive-dateOctober 19, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201019192942/https://variety.com/2019/tv/global/alibaba-youku-stan-lees-superhero-kindergarten-arnold-schwarzenegger-mipcom-1203368897/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
As a registered member of the Republican Party, Schwarzenegger chaired the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports during most of the George H. W. Bush administration. In 2003, he was elected governor of California in a special recall election to replace Gray Davis, the governor at the time. He received 48.6 percent of the vote, 17 points ahead of the runner-up, Cruz Bustamante of the Democratic Party. He was sworn in on November 17 to serve the remainder of Davis' term, and was reelected in the 2006 gubernatorial election with an increased vote share of 55.9 percent to serve a full term.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/05/AR2007010501386.html |titleSchwarzenegger Sworn in for Second Term |agencyAssociated Press |access-dateApril 23, 2008 |lastKurtzman |firstLaura |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateJanuary 5, 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121104192701/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/05/AR2007010501386.html |archive-dateNovember 4, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2011 he reached his term limit as governor and returned to acting. Early life and education Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger was born in Thal on July 30, 1947,<ref name"lifeline">{{cite news |titleArnold Schwarzenegger: Biography |urlhttp://schwarzenegger.com/bio |workSchwarzenegger.com |access-dateDecember 31, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171231002431/http://schwarzenegger.com/bio |archive-dateDecember 31, 2017 |url-statuslive }}</ref> the second son of Gustav Schwarzenegger and his wife Aurelia (née Jadrny; 1922–1998). Gustav was the local chief of police, and after the Anschluss in 1938 joined the Nazi Party and in 1939 the Sturmabteilung (SA). In World War II, Gustav served as a military policeman in the invasions of Poland, France and the Soviet Union, including the siege of Leningrad, rising to the title of Hauptfeldwebel.<ref name"LAT">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-14-me-father14-story.html|titleAustrian Archives Reveal Nazi Military Role of Actor's Father|dateAugust 14, 2003|websiteLos Angeles Times|last1Tracy Wilkinson|last2Matt Lait|access-dateJanuary 11, 2021|archive-dateNovember 15, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191115034659/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-14-me-father14-story.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"nazi">{{cite news |titleArnie: 'I was abused as child' |dateAugust 4, 2004 |urlhttp://news.scotsman.com/arnoldschwarzenegger/Arnie-I-was-abused-as.2551492.jp |workThe Scotsman |locationEdinburgh |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100818225021/http://news.scotsman.com/arnoldschwarzenegger/Arnie-I-was-abused-as.2551492.jp |archive-dateAugust 18, 2010 |url-statuslive }}</ref> He was wounded in the Battle of Stalingrad,<ref>{{cite news |titleSurprised by Russia: 5 things that charmed Arnold Schwarzenegger in Moscow |urlhttps://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/327632-surprised-by-russia-schwarzenegger |workRussia Beyond |dateFebruary 20, 2018 |access-dateJuly 17, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180718030522/https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/327632-surprised-by-russia-schwarzenegger |archive-dateJuly 18, 2018 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and was discharged in 1943 following a bout of malaria. According to Holocaust scholar Michael Berenbaum, Gustav Schwarzenegger served "in theaters of the war where atrocities were committed. But there is no way to know from the documents whether he played a role."<ref name"LAT"/> Gustav's background received wide press attention during the 2003 California gubernatorial recall election in which Schwarzenegger was elected.<ref>{{cite news|dateAugust 24, 2003|titleRecords: Arnold's father was member of Nazi storm troops|workUSA Today|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/2003-08-24-arnold-father_x.htm|url-statuslive|access-dateAugust 24, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110522170405/http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/2003-08-24-arnold-father_x.htm|archive-date=May 22, 2011}}</ref>
Gustav married Aurelia on October 20, 1945; he was 38 and she was 23. According to Schwarzenegger, his parents were very strict: "Back then in Austria it was a very different world ... if we did something bad or we disobeyed our parents, the rod was not spared."<ref name"askarnold1" /> He grew up in a Catholic family.<ref name"tmas">{{cite book |lastAndrews |firstNigel |titleTrue Myths of Arnold Schwarzenegger |year2003 |publisherBloomsbury |isbn978-1-58234-465-2 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/truemythslifetim0000andr }}</ref> Gustav preferred his elder son, Meinhard, over Arnold.<ref name"governG2">{{cite news |firstXan |lastBrooks |titleThe Governator |dateAugust 8, 2003 |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2003/aug/08/usa.politicsandthearts |workThe Guardian |locationLondon |access-dateApril 19, 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130827055648/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2003/aug/08/usa.politicsandthearts |archive-dateAugust 27, 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref> His favoritism was "strong and blatant", which stemmed from unfounded suspicion that Arnold was not his biological child.<ref name"wl">{{cite book |lastLeigh |firstWendy |titleArnold: An Unauthorized Biography |year1990 |isbn978-0-7207-1997-0 |publisherPelham}}</ref> Schwarzenegger says that his earliest childhood memory is of climbing into his parents' bed during a bad thunder-and-lightning storm and cuddling between his mother and father.<ref>"[https://www.youtube.com/watch?vr66mhdALYtM/ Arnold Schwarzenegger Takes The Colbert Questionert] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240227092035/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vr66mhdALYtM/ |dateFebruary 27, 2024 }}"; segment on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert; aired February 26, 2024</ref> He has said, however, that his father had "no patience for listening or understanding your problems".<ref name"tmas" /> He had a good relationship with his mother, with whom he kept in touch until her death.<ref>{{cite web |titleArnold Schwarzenegger: Mr. Olympia&nbsp;– 1970–1975, 1980 |publisherBodyBuild.com |urlhttp://www.bodybuildbid.com/articles/mrolympia/arnold-schwarzenegger.html |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080421231324/http://www.bodybuildbid.com/articles/mrolympia/arnold-schwarzenegger.html |archive-dateApril 21, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
In an interview with Fortune in 2004, Schwarzenegger told how he suffered what "would now be called child abuse" at the hands of his father: "My hair was pulled. I was hit with belts. So was the kid next door. It was just the way it was. Many of the children I've seen were broken by their parents, which was the German-Austrian mentality. They didn't want to create an individual. It was all about conforming. I was one who did not conform, and whose will could not be broken. Therefore, I became a rebel. Every time I got hit, and every time someone said, 'You can't do this,' I said, 'This is not going to be for much longer because I'm going to move out of here. I want to be rich. I want to be somebody.{{'"}}<ref name="nazi" />
At school, Schwarzenegger was reportedly academically average but stood out for his "cheerful, good-humored, and exuberant" character.<ref name"tmas"/> He struggled with reading and was later diagnosed as being dyslexic.<ref>{{Cite web |titleI could tell you I am fantastic at... - Arnold Schwarzenegger |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/arnold/posts/i-could-tell-you-i-am-fantastic-at-everything-but-id-be-lyingi-just-finished-rec/841497540670647/ |access-dateAugust 12, 2023 |websitewww.facebook.com |languageen |archive-dateAugust 12, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230812132526/https://www.facebook.com/arnold/posts/i-could-tell-you-i-am-fantastic-at-everything-but-id-be-lyingi-just-finished-rec/841497540670647/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |dateAugust 7, 2023 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Shares How He Manages His Dyslexia |urlhttps://www.menshealth.com/health/a44752011/arnold-schwarzenegger-dyslexia-advice/ |access-dateJune 26, 2024 |websiteMen's Health |languageen-US}}</ref> Money was a problem in their household; Schwarzenegger recalled that one of the highlights of his youth was when the family bought a refrigerator.<ref name"wl" /> His father Gustav was an athlete, and wished for his sons to become champions in Bavarian curling.<ref>{{cite web|dateAugust 14, 2003|titleAustrian Archives Reveal Nazi Military Role of Actor's Father|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-14-me-father14-story.html|access-dateJanuary 11, 2021|websiteLos Angeles Times|archive-dateNovember 15, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191115034659/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-14-me-father14-story.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> Influenced by his father, Schwarzenegger played several sports as a boy.<ref name="tmas"/>
Schwarzenegger began weight training in 1960 when his football coach took his team to a local gym.<ref name"lifeline" /> At age 14, he chose bodybuilding over football as a career.<ref name"katzfilm">{{cite book |lastKatz |firstEphraim |titleFilm Encyclopedia |year2006 |publisherHarperCollins |isbn978-0-06-074214-0}}</ref><ref name"profilear">{{cite news |titleProfile: Arnold Schwarzenegger |dateAugust 31, 2004 |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3131155.stm |publisherBBC |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081101220131/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3131155.stm |archive-dateNovember 1, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> He later said, "I actually started weight training when I was 15, but I'd been participating in sports, like soccer, for years, so I felt that although I was slim, I was well-developed, at least enough so that I could start going to the gym and start Olympic lifting."<ref name"askarnold1" /> However, his official website biography claims that "at 14, he started an intensive training program with Dan Farmer, studied psychology at 15 (to learn more about the power of mind over body) and at 17, officially started his competitive career."<ref name"mrever">{{cite news |titleMr. Everything |urlhttp://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/athlete/mreverything/index.asp?secathlete&subsecmreverything |publisherSchwarzenegger.com |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080416234020/http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/athlete/mreverything/index.asp?secathlete&subsecmreverything |archive-dateApril 16, 2008 }}</ref> During a speech in 2001, he said, "My own plan formed when I was 14 years old. My father had wanted me to be a police officer like he was. My mother wanted me to go to trade school."<ref name"per">{{cite news |firstArnold |lastSchwarzenegger |titleArnold's "Perspectives" |dateOctober 3, 2001 |urlhttp://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/life/hiswords/words_en_sac_perspectives.asp?seclife&subsechiswords |publisherSchwarzenegger.com |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080523204808/http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/life/hiswords/words_en_sac_perspectives.asp%3Fsec%3Dlife%26subsec%3Dhiswords |archive-date=May 23, 2008 }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger took to visiting a gym in Graz, where he also frequented the local movie theaters to see films with bodybuilding idols such as Reg Park, Steve Reeves and Johnny Weissmuller.<ref name"askarnold1" /> When Reeves died in 2000, Schwarzenegger fondly remembered him: "As a teenager, I grew up with Steve Reeves. His remarkable accomplishments allowed me a sense of what was possible when others around me didn't always understand my dreams. Steve Reeves has been part of everything I've ever been fortunate enough to achieve." In 1961, Schwarzenegger met former Mr. Austria Kurt Marnul, who invited him to train at the gym in Graz.<ref name"lifeline" /> He was so dedicated as a youngster that he broke into the local gym on weekends to train even when it was closed. "It would make me sick to miss a workout... I knew I couldn't look at myself in the mirror the next morning if I didn't do it." When asked about his first cinema experience as a boy, he replied: "I was very young, but I remember my father taking me to the Austrian theaters and seeing some newsreels. The first real movie I saw, that I distinctly remember, was a John Wayne movie."<ref name"askarnold1">{{cite news |titleAsk Arnold |year2000 |urlhttp://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/news/askarnold/news_askarnold_eng_legacy_444.asp?secnews&subsecaskarnold |publisherSchwarzenegger.com |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080523203926/http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/news/askarnold/news_askarnold_eng_legacy_444.asp?secnews&subsecaskarnold |archive-dateMay 23, 2008 }}</ref> In Graz, he was mentored by Alfred Gerstl, who had Jewish ancestry and later became president of the Federal Council, and befriended his son Karl.<ref>{{cite web |authorTracy Wilkinson |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-sep-10-me-austria10-story.html |titleSchwarzenegger Is Still Their Hometown Hero |websiteLos Angeles Times |dateSeptember 10, 2003 |access-dateOctober 17, 2020 |archive-dateOctober 17, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201017195100/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-sep-10-me-austria10-story.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |authorSeth Rogovoy |urlhttps://forward.com/culture/451703/on-his-73rd-birthday-arnold-schwarzeneggers-secret-jewish-history/ |titleOn his 73rd birthday, Arnold Schwarzenegger's secret Jewish history |websiteForward |dateJuly 30, 2020 |access-dateOctober 17, 2020 |archive-dateOctober 20, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201020151109/https://forward.com/culture/451703/on-his-73rd-birthday-arnold-schwarzeneggers-secret-jewish-history/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger's brother, Meinhard, died in a car crash on May 20, 1971.<ref name"lifeline" /> He was driving drunk and died instantly. Schwarzenegger did not attend his funeral. Meinhard was engaged to Erika Knapp, and they had a three-year-old son named Patrick. Schwarzenegger paid for Patrick's education and helped him to move to the U.S.<ref name"wl"/> Schwarzenegger's father, Gustav, died of a stroke on December 13, 1972.<ref name"lifeline"/> In Pumping Iron, Schwarzenegger claimed that he did not attend his father's funeral because he was training for a bodybuilding contest. Later, he and the film's producer said this story was taken from another bodybuilder to show the extremes some would go to for their sport and to make Schwarzenegger's image colder to create controversy for the film.<ref>Interview in Pumping Iron&nbsp;– 25th Anniversary Edition DVD extras</ref> However, Barbara Baker, his first serious girlfriend, recalled that he informed her of his father's death without emotion and that he never spoke of his brother.<ref name"DT2">{{cite news |titleThe girl who can't escape Arnie |dateOctober 6, 2003 |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/3603696/The-girl-who-cant-escape-Arnie.html |workThe Daily Telegraph |locationLondon |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |firstOliver |lastPoole |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080410221914/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml%2Farts%2F2003%2F10%2F02%2Fbfarni02.xml&page1 |archive-dateApril 10, 2008 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Over time, he has given at least three versions of why he was absent from his father's funeral.<ref name"wl" />
Schwarzenegger served in the Austrian Army in 1965 to fulfill the one year of service required at the time of all 18-year-old Austrian males.<ref name"lifeline" /><ref name"mrever" /> During his army service, he won the Junior Mr. Europe contest.<ref name"profilear" /> He went AWOL during basic training so he could take part in the competition and then spent a week in military prison: "Participating in the competition meant so much to me that I didn't carefully think through the consequences." He entered another bodybuilding contest in Graz, at Steirerhof Hotel, where he placed second. He was voted "best-built man of Europe", which made him famous in bodybuilding circles. "The Mr. Universe title was my ticket to America—the land of opportunity, where I could become a star and get rich."<ref name"per" /> Schwarzenegger made his first plane trip in 1966, attending the NABBA Mr. Universe competition in London.<ref name"mrever" /> He placed second in the Mr. Universe competition, not having the muscle definition of American winner Chester Yorton.<ref name"mrever" />
Charles "Wag" Bennett, one of the judges at the 1966 competition, was impressed with Schwarzenegger and offered to coach him. As Schwarzenegger had little money, Bennett invited him to stay in his crowded family home above one of his two gyms in Forest Gate, London. Yorton's leg definition had been judged superior, and Schwarzenegger, under a training program devised by Bennett, concentrated on improving his. Staying in the East End of London helped Schwarzenegger improve his rudimentary English.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article4862637.ece |locationLondon |workThe Times |titleWag Bennett bodybuilder who helped Arnold Schwarzenegger |dateOctober 2, 2008 |firstLindsay |lastMcIntosh |access-dateOctober 3, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100525033754/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article4862637.ece |archive-dateMay 25, 2010 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>Staff, [http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/777625?viewsynopsis Arnold Schwarzenegger: Made in Britain] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100817080410/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/777625?viewsynopsis |dateAugust 17, 2010 }}, British Film Institute. Retrieved October 3, 2008. "Wag and Dianne Bennett, an East End couple who gave Arnie a home for three years,"</ref> Living with the Bennetts also changed him as a person: "Being with them made me so much more sophisticated. When you're the age I was then, you're always looking for approval, for love, for attention and also for guidance. At the time, I wasn't really aware of that. But now, looking back, I see that the Bennett family fulfilled all those needs. Especially my need to be the best in the world. To be recognized and to feel unique and special. They saw that I needed that care and attention and love."<ref name"Park">{{cite news |titleAn Austrian hick in London: Arnie's early years |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/terminator-genisys/arnold-schwarzenegger-early-life-bodybuilding/ |newspaperThe Telegraph |dateMarch 22, 2017 |access-dateApril 2, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180413024734/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/terminator-genisys/arnold-schwarzenegger-early-life-bodybuilding/ |archive-dateApril 13, 2018 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Also in 1966, at Bennett's home, Schwarzenegger had the opportunity to meet childhood idol Reg Park, who became his friend and mentor.<ref name"Park"/><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.regpark.net/ |titleA tribute by Arnold Schwarzenegger |publisherRegpark.net |access-dateApril 3, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110514083332/http://www.regpark.net/ |archive-dateMay 14, 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The training paid off and, in 1967, Schwarzenegger won the title for the first time, becoming the youngest ever Mr. Universe at age 20.<ref name"mrever" /> He would go on to win the title another three times.<ref name"profilear" /> He then returned to Munich, where he attended business school and worked at Rolf Putziger's gym, where he worked and trained from 1966 to 1968 before returning to London in 1968 to win his next Mr. Universe title.<ref name"mrever" /> He frequently told Roger C. Field, his English coach and friend in Munich at the time, "I'm going to become the greatest actor!"<ref namespiegelonline>{{cite news |urlhttp://einestages.spiegel.de/static/authoralbumbackground/371/mit_schwarzenegger_durch_schwabing.html |titleSummer of '68: Mit Schwarzenegger durch Schwabing |languagede |dateOctober 8, 2007 |newspaperDer Spiegel |access-dateMay 4, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131016062217/http://einestages.spiegel.de/static/authoralbumbackground/371/mit_schwarzenegger_durch_schwabing.html |archive-dateOctober 16, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger, who dreamed of moving to the US since age ten, and saw bodybuilding as his avenue of opportunity,<ref name"LAWarn">{{cite news |firstBill |lastBradley |titleMr. California |dateNovember 20, 2002 |urlhttp://www.laweekly.com/2002-11-28/news/mr-california/ |workLA Weekly |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100816085006/http://www.laweekly.com/2002-11-28/news/mr-california/ |archive-dateAugust 16, 2010 |url-statuslive }}</ref> realized his dream by moving to the US in October 1968 at age 21, speaking little English.<ref name"profilear" /><ref name"lifeline" /> There he trained at Gold's Gym in Venice, Los Angeles, California, under Joe Weider's supervision. From 1970 to 1974, one of Schwarzenegger's weight training partners was Ric Drasin, a professional wrestler who designed the original Gold's Gym logo in 1973.<ref>Jennings, Randy (October 21, 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20031225065902/http://www.thearnoldfans.com/news/archives/2003/october/617.htm "Ric Drasin: Arnold's lifting partner!"] The Arnold Fans Website. Retrieved December 16, 2009.</ref> Schwarzenegger also became good friends with professional wrestler Superstar Billy Graham. In 1970, at age 23, Schwarzenegger captured his first Mr. Olympia title in New York, and would go on to win the title seven times.<ref name"mrever" />
The immigration law firm Siskind & Susser has stated that Schwarzenegger may have been an illegal immigrant at some point in the late 1960s or early 1970s because of violations in the terms of his visa.<ref name"Possible Visa Violations">{{cite news |firstSiskind |lastBland |titleSchwarzenegger May Have Violated Terms Of Non-Immigrant Visa |dateSeptember 4, 2007 |urlhttp://www.visalaw.com/03sep4/15sep403.html |workVISALAW.COM |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080220094159/http://www.visalaw.com/03sep4/15sep403.html |archive-dateFebruary 20, 2008}}</ref> LA Weekly said in 2002 that Schwarzenegger was "the most famous US immigrant", who "overcame a thick Austrian accent and transcended the unlikely background of bodybuilding to become the biggest movie star in the world in the 1990s".<ref name="LAWarn" />
In 1977, Schwarzenegger's autobiography and weight-training guide, Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder, was a huge success.<ref name"lifeline" /> In 1977, he posed for the gay magazine After Dark.<ref>{{cite web |titleArnold Schwarzenegger A name to be reckoned with |urlhttp://www.rotten.com/library/bio/entertainers/actors/arnold-schwarzenegger/ |websiteRotten.com |access-dateApril 9, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131219083706/http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/entertainers/actors/arnold-schwarzenegger/ |archive-dateDecember 19, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Paslay |first1Christopher |titleThe Village Proposal: Education as a Shared Responsibility |dateSeptember 1, 2011 |publisherR&L Education |page146 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idg6rU59neX34C&qschwarzenegger%2B%2522after%2Bdark%2522&pgPA146 |access-dateApril 9, 2016 |isbn978-1-61048-061-1 |archive-dateDecember 21, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201221220848/https://books.google.com/books?idg6rU59neX34C&qschwarzenegger+%22after+dark%22&pgPA146 |url-statuslive }}</ref> After taking an assortment of courses at Santa Monica College in California (including English classes), as well as further upper division classes at the University of California, Los Angeles as part of UCLA's extension program, he accumulated enough credits to be "within striking distance" of graduation. In 1979, he enrolled in the University of Wisconsin–Superior as a distance education student, completing most of his coursework by correspondence and flying out to Superior to meet professors and take final exams. In May 1980, he formally graduated and earned his bachelor's degree in business administration and marketing. He received his United States citizenship in 1983.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/education/campus_connection/article_d8646d66-ce45-11de-ba14-001cc4c03286.html |workWisconsin State Journal |titleCampus Connection: Superior list of famous alumni? |dateNovember 11, 2009 |access-dateApril 11, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120907024535/http://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/education/campus_connection/article_d8646d66-ce45-11de-ba14-001cc4c03286.html |archive-dateSeptember 7, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> He received an honorary degree from Stockton University in 2023.<ref>{{Citation |titleBOARD OF TRUSTEES MEETING |urlhttps://stockton.edu/board-of-trustees/documents/BOT-OS-02-22-23.pdf |publisherStockton University |access-dateMarch 8, 2023 |archive-dateMarch 6, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230306175206/https://stockton.edu/board-of-trustees/documents/BOT-OS-02-22-23.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Bodybuilding career
Schwarzenegger is considered among the most important figures in the history of bodybuilding,<ref name=":0" /> and his legacy is commemorated in the Arnold Classic annual bodybuilding competition. He has remained a prominent face in bodybuilding long after his retirement, in part because of his ownership of gyms and fitness magazines. He has presided over numerous contests and awards shows.
For many years, he wrote a monthly column for the bodybuilding magazines Muscle & Fitness and Flex. Shortly after being elected governor, he was appointed the executive editor of both magazines, in a largely symbolic capacity. The magazines agreed to donate $250,000 a year to the Governor's various physical fitness initiatives. When the deal, including the contract that gave Schwarzenegger at least $1&nbsp;million a year, was made public in 2005, many criticized it as being a conflict of interest since the governor's office made decisions concerning regulation of dietary supplements in California.<ref name"megerian">Megerian, Chris. (March 1, 2013). [https://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-schwarzenegger-20130302,0,1141770.story "Schwarzenegger to be executive editor of magazines"]. {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130302141955/http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-schwarzenegger-20130302,0,1141770.story |dateMarch 2, 2013 }} Los Angeles Times.</ref> Consequently, Schwarzenegger relinquished the executive editor role in 2005.<ref name"megerian" /> American Media Inc., which owns Muscle & Fitness and Flex, announced in March 2013 that Schwarzenegger had accepted their renewed offer to be executive editor of the magazines.<ref name="megerian" />
One of the first competitions he won was the Junior Mr. Europe contest in 1965.<ref name"lifeline" /> He won Mr. Europe the following year, at age 19.<ref name"lifeline" /><ref name="mrever" /> He would go on to compete in many bodybuilding contests, and win most of them. His bodybuilding victories included five Mr. Universe wins (4&nbsp;– NABBA [England], 1&nbsp;– IFBB [USA]), and seven Mr. Olympia wins, a record which would stand until Lee Haney won his eighth consecutive Mr. Olympia title in 1991.
Schwarzenegger continues to work out. When asked about his personal training during the 2011 Arnold Classic he said that he was still working out a half an hour with weights every day.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vHPEVHihgmHc |titleAsk Arnold Training Seminar – Arnold Schwarzenegger Talks Bodybuilding Advice – Part 1 |viaYouTube |dateMarch 6, 2011 |access-dateOctober 9, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131220212802/http://www.youtube.com/watch?vHPEVHihgmHc |archive-dateDecember 20, 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Powerlifting/weightlifting
During Schwarzenegger's early years in bodybuilding, he also competed in several Olympic weightlifting and powerlifting contests. Schwarzenegger's first professional competition was in 1963<ref>{{cite web |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Pro Bodybuilding Profile |urlhttps://www.bodybuilding.com/content/bodybuilders-arnold.html |websiteBodybuilding.com |languageen |dateOctober 11, 2015 |access-dateJuly 5, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190705212606/https://www.bodybuilding.com/content/bodybuilders-arnold.html |archive-dateJuly 5, 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and he won two weightlifting contests in 1964 and 1965, as well as two powerlifting contests in 1966 and 1968.<ref name"gmv.com.au" />
In 1967, Schwarzenegger won the Munich stone-lifting contest, in which a stone weighing 508 German pounds (254&nbsp;kg / 560&nbsp;lb) is lifted between the legs while standing on two footrests.
Personal records
* Clean and press – {{convert|264|lb|kg|abbron}}<ref name"gmv.com.au" />
* Snatch – {{convert|243|lb|kg|abbron}}<ref name"gmv.com.au" />
* Clean and jerk – {{convert|298|lb|kg|abbron}}<ref name"gmv.com.au" />
* Squat – {{convert|545|lb|kg|abbron}}<ref name"gmv.com.au" />
* Bench press – {{convert|520|lb|kg|abbron}}<ref>{{cite web |last1Hyson |first1Sean |titleInterview With Arnold |urlhttp://www.seanhyson.com/blog/interview-with-arnold |websiteSean Hyson: Fitness Distilled |access-dateJuly 1, 2015 |dateSeptember 14, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130907071153/http://www.seanhyson.com/blog/interview-with-arnold |archive-dateSeptember 7, 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |peopleLetterman, David |dateJuly 1994 |titleDavid Letterman: Arnold Schwarzenegger interview |medium=Television production }}</ref>
* Deadlift – {{convert|683|lb|kg|abbron}}<ref name"gmv.com.au" />
Mr. Olympia
Schwarzenegger's goal was to become the greatest bodybuilder in the world, which meant becoming Mr. Olympia.<ref name"lifeline" /><ref name"mrever" /> His first attempt was in 1969, when he lost to three-time champion Sergio Oliva. However, Schwarzenegger came back in 1970 and won the competition, making him the youngest ever Mr. Olympia at the age of 23, a record he still holds to this day.<ref name="mrever" />
He continued his winning streak in the 1971–1974 competitions.<ref name"mrever" /> He also toured different countries selling vitamins, as in Helsinki, Finland in 1972, when he lived at the YMCA Hotel Hospiz (nowadays Hotel Arthur<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.hotelarthur.fi/en/hotel/history/|titleHistory|websiteHotel Arthur|access-dateOctober 29, 2020|archive-dateOctober 31, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201031222751/https://www.hotelarthur.fi/en/hotel/history/|url-statuslive}}</ref>) on Vuorikatu and presented vitamin pills at the Stockmann shopping center.<ref>{{cite book |lastSchwarzenegger |firstArnold |year2012 |titleTotal Recall |locationNew York |page141 |publisherSimon & Schuster |isbn978-1-84983-971-6}}</ref><ref>[https://www.mtvuutiset.fi/artikkeli/kuvat-schwarzenegger-pullisteli-lihaksiaan-70-luvulla-helsingissa/4318554#gs.jxapzf KUVAT: Schwarzenegger pullisteli lihaksiaan 70-luvulla Helsingissä] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210304191947/https://www.mtvuutiset.fi/artikkeli/kuvat-schwarzenegger-pullisteli-lihaksiaan-70-luvulla-helsingissa/4318554#gs.jxapzf |dateMarch 4, 2021 }} (in Finnish)</ref> In 1975, Schwarzenegger was once again in top form, and won the title for the sixth consecutive time,<ref name"mrever" /> beating Franco Columbu. After the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, Schwarzenegger announced his retirement from professional bodybuilding.<ref name"mrever" />
Months before the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, filmmakers George Butler and Robert Fiore persuaded Schwarzenegger to compete and film his training in the bodybuilding documentary called Pumping Iron. Schwarzenegger had only three months to prepare for the competition, after losing significant weight to appear in the film Stay Hungry with Jeff Bridges. Although significantly taller and heavier, Lou Ferrigno proved not to be a threat, and a lighter-than-usual Schwarzenegger convincingly won the 1975 Mr. Olympia.
Schwarzenegger came out of retirement, however, to compete in the 1980 Mr. Olympia.<ref name"lifeline" /> Schwarzenegger was training for his role in Conan, and he got into such good shape because of the running, horseback riding and sword training, that he decided he wanted to win the Mr. Olympia contest one last time. He kept this plan a secret in the event that a training accident would prevent his entry and cause him to lose face. Schwarzenegger had been hired to provide color commentary for network television when he announced at the eleventh hour that, while he was there, "Why not compete?" Schwarzenegger ended up winning the event with only seven weeks of preparation. Having been declared Mr. Olympia for a seventh time, Schwarzenegger then officially retired from competition. This victory (subject of the documentary The Comeback) was highly controversial, though, as fellow competitors and many observers felt that his lack of muscle mass (especially in his thighs) and subpar conditioning should have precluded him from winning against a very competitive lineup that year.<ref name":0" /><ref name1980MrOlympia>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.ironmanmagazine.com/the-1980-mr-olympia-controversy/|titleThe 1980 Mr. Olympia Controversy |workIron Man Magazine|lastHansen|firstJohn|dateDecember 27, 2011 |languageen-US|access-dateJanuary 30, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190131092902/https://www.ironmanmagazine.com/the-1980-mr-olympia-controversy/|archive-dateJanuary 31, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref> Mike Mentzer, in particular, felt cheated and withdrew from competitive bodybuilding after that contest.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.getbig.com/results/e-mroly.htm|titleMr. Olympia Contest Results|websitegetbig.com|access-dateJanuary 30, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170605130530/http://www.getbig.com/results/e-mroly.htm|archive-dateJune 5, 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name1980MrOlympia />
List of competitions
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+Arnold Schwarzenegger in bodybuilding competitions
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
! scope="col"|Year
! scope"col"| Competition<ref name"Arnold Titles Won">{{Cite book |titleArnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder – Arnold Schwarzenegger – Google Books |url{{GBurl|idUgzrogOX_gcC|p10}} |date1977 |access-dateOctober 11, 2016 |isbn978-1-4516-9711-7 |last1Schwarzenegger |first1Arnold |publisherSimon and Schuster }}{{Dead link|dateFebruary 2024 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
! scope="col"| Location
! scope="col"| Result and notes
|-
| 1965
! scope="row"| Junior Mr. Europe
| Germany || 1st
|-
| 1966
! scope="row"| Best Built Man of Europe
| Germany || 1st
|-
| 1966
! scope="row"| Mr. Europe
| Germany || 1st
|-
| 1966
! scope="row"|International Powerlifting Championship
| Germany || 1st
|-
| 1966
! scope="row"| NABBA Mr. Universe amateur
| London || 2nd to Chet Yorton
|-
| 1967
! scope="row"|NABBA Mr. Universe amateur
| London|| 1st
|-
| 1968
! scope="row"|NABBA Mr. Universe professional
| London|| 1st
|-
| 1968
! scope="row"|German Powerlifting Championship
| Germany || 1st
|-
| 1968
! scope="row"|IFBB Mr. International
| Mexico || 1st
|-
| 1968
! scope="row"|IFBB Mr. Universe
| Florida || 2nd to Frank Zane
|-
| 1969
! scope="row"|IFBB Mr. Universe amateur
| New York || 1st
|-
| 1969
! scope="row"|NABBA Mr. Universe professional
| London || 1st
|-
| 1969
! scope="row"|Mr. Olympia
| New York || 2nd to Sergio Oliva
|-
| 1970
! scope="row"|NABBA Mr. Universe professional
| London || 1st (defeated his idol Reg Park)
|-
| 1970
! scope="row"|AAU Mr. World
| Columbus, Ohio || 1st (defeated Sergio Oliva for the first time)
|-
| 1970
! scope="row"|Mr. Olympia
| New York || 1st
|-
| 1971
! scope="row"|Mr. Olympia
| Paris || 1st
|-
| 1972
! scope="row"|Mr. Olympia
| Essen, Germany || 1st
|-
| 1973
! scope="row"|Mr. Olympia
| New York || 1st
|-
| 1974
! scope="row"|Mr. Olympia
| New York || 1st
|-
| 1975
! scope="row"|Mr. Olympia
| Pretoria, South Africa || 1st (subject of the documentary Pumping Iron)
|-
| 1980
! scope="row"|Mr. Olympia
| Sydney || 1st (subject of the documentary The Comeback)
|}
Statistics
* Height: {{cvt|6|ft|2|in}}
* Contest weight: {{cvt|235|lb|kg}}—the lightest in 1980 Mr. Olympia: around {{cvt|225|lb|kg}}, the heaviest in 1974 Mr. Olympia: around {{cvt|250|lb|kg}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.getbig.com/boards/index.php?actiondlattach;topic249251.0;attach291526;image|titleImage|websiteGetbig.com|access-dateJanuary 13, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924110751/http://www.getbig.com/boards/index.php?actiondlattach;topic249251.0;attach291526;image|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Off-season weight: {{cvt|260|lb|kg|0}}
* Chest: {{cvt|57|in|cm}}
* Waist: {{cvt|33|in|cm}}
* Arms: {{cvt|22|in|cm}}
* Thighs: {{cvt|29.5|in|cm}}
* Calves: {{cvt|20|in|cm}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/bodybuilders-arnold.htm|titleArnold Schwarzenegger Pro Bodybuilding Profile|dateJuly 29, 2013|websiteBodybuilding.com|access-dateOctober 11, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011060933/http://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/bodybuilders-arnold.htm|archive-dateOctober 11, 2016|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Steroid use
Schwarzenegger has acknowledged using performance-enhancing anabolic steroids while they were legal, writing in 1977 that "steroids were helpful to me in maintaining muscle size while on a strict diet in preparation for a contest. I did not use them for muscle growth, but rather for muscle maintenance when cutting up."<ref>{{cite web |titleConan the Politician |publisherESPN |urlhttps://www.espn.com/columns/farrey_tom/1655597.html |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastFarrey |firstTom |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080329223151/http://espn.go.com/columns/farrey_tom/1655597.html |archive-dateMarch 29, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> He has called the drugs "tissue building".<ref name"Arnold Steroids">{{cite web |titleArnold & Steroids: Truth Revealed |publisherget2net |urlhttp://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20031008172601/http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm |archive-dateOctober 8, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastTheunissen |firstSteve }}</ref>
In 1999, Schwarzenegger sued Willi Heepe, a German doctor who publicly predicted his early death on the basis of a link between his steroid use and later heart problems. Since the doctor never examined him personally, Schwarzenegger collected a US$10,000 libel judgment against him in a German court.<ref>{{cite news |titleSchwarzenegger Wins German Lawsuit |urlhttp://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P1-24150868.html |url-accesssubscription |viaEncyclopedia.com |agencyUnited Press International |dateDecember 1, 1999 |access-dateDecember 6, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100418105938/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P1-24150868.html |archive-dateApril 18, 2010}}</ref> In 1999, Schwarzenegger also sued and settled with Globe, a U.S. tabloid which had made similar predictions about the bodybuilder's future health.<ref>{{cite news |titleArnie settles $50m libel case |workBBC News |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/574902.stm |dateDecember 22, 1999 |access-dateDecember 6, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110412023333/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/574902.stm |archive-dateApril 12, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Acting career {{Main|Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography}} 1970–1981: Early roles Schwarzenegger wanted to move from bodybuilding into acting, finally achieving it when he was chosen to play the title role in Hercules in New York (1970). Credited under the stage name "Arnold Strong", his accent in the film was so thick that his lines were dubbed after production.<ref name"profilear" /> His second film appearance was as a mob hitman in The Long Goodbye (1973), which was followed by a much more significant part in the film Stay Hungry (1976), for which he won the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actor. Schwarzenegger has discussed his early struggles in developing his acting career: "It was very difficult for me in the beginning&nbsp;– I was told by agents and casting people that my body was 'too weird', that I had a funny accent, and that my name was too long. You name it, and they told me I had to change it. Basically, everywhere I turned, I was told that I had no chance."<ref name="askarnold1" />
Schwarzenegger drew attention and boosted his profile in the bodybuilding film Pumping Iron (1977),<ref name"katzfilm" /><ref name"profilear" /> elements of which were dramatized. In 1991, he purchased the rights to the film, its outtakes, and associated still photography.<ref nameautogenerated2>{{cite web |titleThe Smoking Gun: Archive |publisherTheSmokingGun |urlhttp://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldpump1.html |access-dateMay 11, 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100427071904/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldpump1.html |archive-dateApril 27, 2010 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 1977, he made guest appearances in single episodes of the ABC sitcom The San Pedro Beach Bums and the ABC police procedural The Streets of San Francisco. Schwarzenegger auditioned for the title role of The Incredible Hulk, but did not win the role because of his height. Later, Lou Ferrigno got the part of Dr. David Banner's alter ego. Schwarzenegger appeared with Kirk Douglas and Ann-Margret in the 1979 comedy The Villain. In 1980, he starred in a biographical film of the 1950s actress Jayne Mansfield as Mansfield's husband, Mickey Hargitay.
1982–2003: Breakthrough and established action star
, presenting awards at the USA Weightlifting Hall of Fame in 2011 in Columbus, Ohio]]
Schwarzenegger's breakthrough film was the sword and sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, which was a box-office hit.<ref name"katzfilm" /> This was followed by a sequel, Conan the Destroyer, in 1984, although it was not as successful as its predecessor.<ref name"tessay">{{cite news |firstClark |lastCollis |titleEmpire Essay: The Terminator |urlhttps://www.empireonline.com/reviews/reviewcomplete.asp?FID132648 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927235924/http://www.empireonline.com/reviews/reviewcomplete.asp?FID132648 |archive-dateSeptember 27, 2007 |workEmpire |access-dateApril 18, 2008}}</ref> In 1983, Schwarzenegger starred in the promotional video Carnival in Rio.<ref>{{cite magazine | urlhttps://ew.com/article/1992/06/12/carnival-rio/ | titleCarnival in Rio | magazineEntertainment Weekly | firstSteve | lastDaly | dateJune 12, 1992 | access-dateJanuary 21, 2022 | archive-dateJanuary 21, 2022 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220121062453/https://ew.com/article/1992/06/12/carnival-rio/ | url-statuslive }}</ref> In 1984, he made his first appearance as the eponymous character in James Cameron's science fiction action film The Terminator.<ref name"katzfilm" /><ref name"profilear" /><ref name"fanleam" /> It has been called his acting career's signature role.<ref>{{cite web | url https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/schwarzenegger-s-back-as-terminator-2275459.html | titleSchwarzenegger's back as Terminator | work The Independent | dateApril 27, 2011 | access-date January 21, 2022 | archive-dateJanuary 21, 2022 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220121061722/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/schwarzenegger-s-back-as-terminator-2275459.html | url-statuslive }}</ref> Following this, Schwarzenegger made another sword and sorcery film, Red Sonja, in 1985.<ref name"tessay" /> During the 1980s, audiences had an appetite for action films, with both Schwarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone becoming international stars.<ref name="profilear" /> During the Schwarzenegger-Stallone rivalry they attacked each other in the press, and tried to surpass the other with more on-screen killings and larger weapons.{{r|pearson20171009}} Schwarzenegger's roles reflected his sense of humor, separating him from more serious action hero films. He made a number of successful action films in the 1980s, such as Commando (1985), Raw Deal (1986), The Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), and Red Heat (1988).
, with his catchphrase "I'll be back" written in]]
Twins (1988), a comedy with Danny DeVito, also proved successful. Total Recall (1990) netted Schwarzenegger $10&nbsp;million (equivalent to ${{inflation|US|10|1990|r1|fmtc}} million today) and 15% of the film's gross. A science fiction script, the film was based on the Philip K. Dick short story "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale". Kindergarten Cop (1990) reunited him with director Ivan Reitman, who directed him in Twins. Schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing, first with a 1990 episode of the TV series Tales from the Crypt, "The Switch",<ref>{{cite news |firstJerry |lastBuck |titleArnold Schwarzenegger directs |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1876&dat19900422&idxdIpAAAAIBAJ&pg5765,1660751 |newspaperSpartanburg Herald-Journal |agencyAssociated Press |dateApril 22, 1990 |access-dateOctober 19, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150903182833/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1876&dat19900422&idxdIpAAAAIBAJ&sjidMs4EAAAAIBAJ&pg5765,1660751 |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and then with the 1992 telemovie Christmas in Connecticut.<ref>{{cite news |firstJames |lastEndrst |title'Connecticut' could use more of Arnold's muscle |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1310&dat19920412&idm1ZWAAAAIBAJ&pg6719,2774672 |newspaperThe Register-Guard |dateApril 12, 1992 |access-dateOctober 19, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150903182833/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1310&dat19920412&idm1ZWAAAAIBAJ&sjidoesDAAAAIBAJ&pg6719,2774672 |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> He has not directed since.
Schwarzenegger's commercial peak was his return as the title character in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), which was the highest-grossing film of the year. Film critic Roger Ebert commented that "Schwarzenegger's genius as a movie star is to find roles that build on, rather than undermine, his physical and vocal characteristics."<ref>{{cite news| date July 3, 1991| work Chicago Sun-Times| title 'Terminator 2: Judgment Day' review by Roger Ebert| url http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID/19910703/REVIEWS/107030301/1023| lastEbert |firstRoger| access-date August 24, 2010| author-link Roger Ebert| url-statuslive| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110606140553/http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID%2F19910703%2FREVIEWS%2F107030301%2F1023| archive-date June 6, 2011}}</ref> In 1993, the National Association of Theatre Owners named him the "International Star of the Decade".<ref name"lifeline" /> His next film project, the 1993 self-aware action comedy spoof Last Action Hero, was released opposite Jurassic Park, and did not do well at the box office. His next film, the comedy drama True Lies (1994), was a popular spy film and saw Schwarzenegger reunited with James Cameron.
That same year, the comedy Junior was released, the last of Schwarzenegger's three collaborations with Ivan Reitman and again co-starring Danny DeVito. This film brought him his second Golden Globe nomination, this time for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. It was followed by the action thriller Eraser (1996), the Christmas comedy Jingle All The Way (1996), and the comic book-based Batman & Robin (1997), in which he played the supervillain Mr. Freeze. This was his final film before taking time to recuperate from a back injury. Following the critical failure of Batman & Robin, his film career and box office prominence went into decline. He returned with the supernatural thriller End of Days (1999), later followed by the action films The 6th Day (2000) and Collateral Damage (2002), both of which failed to do well at the box office. In 2003, he made his third appearance as the title character in Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, which went on to earn over $150&nbsp;million domestically (equivalent to ${{inflation|US|150|2003|r0|fmtc}} million today).<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?idterminator3.htm |titleTerminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003) |websiteBox Office Mojo |access-dateDecember 8, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131208093821/http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?idterminator3.htm |archive-dateDecember 8, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In tribute to Schwarzenegger in 2002, Forum Stadtpark, a local cultural association, proposed plans to build a {{convert|25|m|ft|adjmid|-tall|-1|spus}} Terminator statue in a park in central Graz. Schwarzenegger reportedly said he was flattered, but thought the money would be better spent on social projects and the Special Olympics.<ref>{{cite web |titleArnold wants 'Terminator' statue killed |publisherKilloggs |urlhttp://www.killoggs.com/news/?news609 |dateSeptember 27, 2002 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090223210646/http://www.killoggs.com/news/?news609 |archive-dateFebruary 23, 2009 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
2004–2010: Retirement
His film appearances after becoming Governor of California included a three-second cameo appearance in The Rundown and the 2004 remake of Around the World in 80 Days. In 2005, he appeared as himself in the film The Kid & I. He voiced Baron von Steuben in the ''Liberty's Kids episode "Valley Forge". He had been rumored to be appearing in Terminator Salvation as the original T-800; he denied his involvement,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://scifiwire.com/2009/03/arnold-confirms-but-downp.php |titleArnold downplays a Terminator Salvation cameo |publisherSCI FI Wire |access-dateMarch 11, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090313234133/http://scifiwire.com/2009/03/arnold-confirms-but-downp.php |archive-dateMarch 13, 2009 }}</ref> but he ultimately did appear briefly via his image being inserted into the movie from stock footage of the first Terminator'' film.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://movies.tvguide.com/Movie-News/Arnold-Schwarzenegger-Terminator-1005894.aspx |titleArnold Schwarzenegger (Virtually) Back in Terminator Salvation |workTV Guide |access-dateMay 8, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090520083012/http://movies.tvguide.com/Movie-News/Arnold-Schwarzenegger-Terminator-1005894.aspx |archive-dateMay 20, 2009 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.reelzchannel.com/person/176340/mcg |titleMcG Talks Terminator Salvation |publisherreelzchannel.com |access-dateMay 11, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090501190521/http://www.reelzchannel.com/person/176340/mcg |archive-dateMay 1, 2009 }}</ref> Schwarzenegger appeared in Sylvester Stallone's The Expendables (2010), where he made a cameo appearance. 2011–present: Return to acting In January 2011, just weeks after leaving office in California, Schwarzenegger announced that he was reading several new scripts for future films, one of them being the World War II action drama With Wings as Eagles, written by Randall Wallace, based on a true story.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.krone.at/Welt/Schwarzenegger_Ich_lese_gerade_drei_Drehbuecher-Krone-Interview-Story-240860 |titleSchwarzenegger: "Ich lese gerade drei Drehbücher" – "Krone"-Interview – Welt |publisherkrone.at |dateJanuary 16, 2011 |access-dateApril 3, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110119035212/http://www.krone.at/Welt/Schwarzenegger_Ich_lese_gerade_drei_Drehbuecher-Krone-Interview-Story-240860 |archive-dateJanuary 19, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thearnoldfans.com/news/1741.html |titleArnold's Big Comeback Film May Soar with "Wings"! Schwarzenegger is Considering 3 Movie Scripts! |publisherTheArnoldFans.com |dateJanuary 16, 2011 |access-dateApril 3, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110406131322/http://www.thearnoldfans.com/news/1741.html |archive-dateApril 6, 2011}}</ref>
On March 6, 2011, at the Arnold Seminar of the Arnold Classic, Schwarzenegger revealed that he was being considered for several films, including sequels to The Terminator and remakes of Predator and The Running Man, and that he was "packaging" a comic book character.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thearnoldfans.com/news/1767.html |titleTAFs Exclusive: 15 Scripts and 1 Superhero! TAFs Q&A with Arnold at the 2011 Arnold Classic! |publisherTheArnoldFans.com |dateMarch 6, 2011 |access-dateApril 3, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110421231211/http://www.thearnoldfans.com/news/1767.html |archive-dateApril 21, 2011}}</ref> The character was later revealed to be the Governator, star of the comic book and animated series of the same name. Schwarzenegger inspired the character and co-developed it with Stan Lee, who would have produced the series. Schwarzenegger would have voiced the Governator.<ref>{{cite magazine |urlhttps://ew.com/article/2011/03/30/arnold-schwarzenegger-the-governator-exclusive/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger is back as 'The Governator' |firstBenjamin |lastSvetkey |magazineEntertainment Weekly |access-dateDecember 29, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111019165010/http://popwatch.ew.com/2011/03/30/arnold-schwarzenegger-the-governator-exclusive/ |archive-dateOctober 19, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-governator-arnold-schwarzenegger_n_842921 |title'The Governator': Arnold Schwarzenegger Developing New Cartoon, Comic Book |workHuffPost |access-dateDecember 29, 2021|firstJordan |lastZakarin |dateMarch 31, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110903070342/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/31/the-governator-arnold-schwarzenegger_n_842921.html |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-12918406 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger to make superhero show |publisherBBC |dateMarch 31, 2011 |access-dateJune 20, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190218082309/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-12918406 |archive-dateFebruary 18, 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/03/arnold-schwarzenegger-teams-up-with-stan-lee-on-cartoon-series-the-governator.html |titleArnold Schwarzenegger teams with Stan Lee on 'The Governator' |firstMelissa |lastMaerz |workLos Angeles Times |dateMarch 31, 2011 |access-dateApril 10, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110404010256/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/03/arnold-schwarzenegger-teams-up-with-stan-lee-on-cartoon-series-the-governator.html |archive-dateApril 4, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
On May 20, 2011, Schwarzenegger's entertainment counsel announced that all film projects currently in development were being halted: "Schwarzenegger is focusing on personal matters and is not willing to commit to any production schedules or timelines."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20496056,00.html |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Halts All Acting Projects – Including Terminator |firstSara |lastHammel |workPeople |access-dateOctober 18, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110902054617/http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20496056,00.html |archive-dateSeptember 2, 2011 |url-statusdead }}</ref> On July 11, 2011, it was announced that Schwarzenegger was considering a comeback film, despite legal problems related to his divorce.<ref>{{cite magazine |lastFinke |firstNikki |urlhttps://deadline.com/2011/07/arnold-schwarzenegger-books-last-stand-western-will-test-his-post-scandal-popularity-130529/ |titleArnold Books 'Last Stand': Studio To Test Schwarzenegger's Post-Scandal Popularity – |magazineDeadline |access-dateOctober 9, 2011 |dateJuly 11, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111019084025/http://www.deadline.com/2011/07/arnold-schwarzenegger-books-last-stand-western-will-test-his-post-scandal-popularity/ |archive-dateOctober 19, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> He starred in The Expendables 2 (2012) as Trench Mauser,<ref>{{cite magazine |lastFleming |firstMike |title'Expendables 2' Sets Action Dream Trio: Arnold Schwarzenegger, Bruce Willis Join Sly Stallone |urlhttps://deadline.com/2011/09/expendables-2-sets-action-dream-trio-arnold-schwarzenegger-bruce-willis-join-sly-stallone-167448/ |magazineDeadline |access-dateOctober 18, 2011 |dateSeptember 6, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121020044920/http://www.deadline.com/2011/09/expendables-2-sets-action-dream-trio-arnold-schwarzenegger-bruce-willis-join-sly-stallone/ |archive-dateOctober 20, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and starred in The Last Stand (2013), his first leading role in 10 years, and Escape Plan (2013), his first co-starring role alongside Sylvester Stallone. He starred in Sabotage, released in March 2014, and returned as Trench Mauser in The Expendables 3, released in August 2014. He starred in the fifth Terminator film Terminator Genisys in 2015.<ref name"katzfilm" /><ref name"profilear" /><ref name"fanleam">{{cite book |lastLeamer |firstLaurence |titleFantastic: The life of Arnold Schwarzenegger |year2005 |publisherSt Martin's Press |isbn978-0-312-33338-6 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/fantasticlifeofa00leam }}</ref><ref>[https://screenrant.com/arnold-schwarzenegger-terminator-5/ Arnold Schwarzenegger Confirmed for 'Terminator 5'] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130807205307/http://screenrant.com/arnold-schwarzenegger-terminator-5/ |dateAugust 7, 2013 }}. Screenrant.com (January 22, 2013). Retrieved September 27, 2013.</ref> He then planned to reprise his role as Conan the Barbarian in The Legend of Conan,<ref name"abcnews.go.com">{{cite web |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/arnold-schwarzenegger-file-revised-divorce-papers-denying-spousal/story?id14142207 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger to File Revised Divorce Papers, Not Denying Spousal Support |workABC News |dateJuly 23, 2011 |access-dateOctober 9, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110723223016/http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/arnold-schwarzenegger-file-revised-divorce-papers-denying-spousal/story?id14142207 |archive-dateJuly 23, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>Fleming, Mike (October 25, 2012). "[https://deadline.com/2012/10/arnold-and-conan-the-barbarian-reunited-universal-reboots-action-franchise-with-schwarzenegger-359719/ Arnold And 'Conan The Barbarian' Reunited: Universal Reboots Action Franchise With Schwarzenegger] ." Deadline.com. Retrieved October 30, 2012.</ref> later renamed Conan the Conqueror.<ref name"ew.com Schwarzenegger Conan Sequel January 28, 2016">{{cite magazine |urlhttps://www.ew.com/article/2016/01/28/arnold-schwarzenegger-conan-sequel-title-plot |titleArnold Schwarzenegger reveals new title, plot details about Conan sequel (by Jonathan Dornbush) |dateJanuary 28, 2016 |magazineEntertainment Weekly |access-dateAugust 21, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160818062640/http://www.ew.com/article/2016/01/28/arnold-schwarzenegger-conan-sequel-title-plot |archive-dateAugust 18, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> However, in April 2017, producer Chris Morgan stated that Universal had dropped the project, although there was a possibility of a TV show. The story of the film was supposed to be set 30 years after the first, with some inspiration from Clint Eastwood's Unforgiven.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.slashfilm.com/arnold-schwarzeneggers-the-legend-of-conan-may-not-happen-after-all/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger's 'The Legend of Conan' May Not Happen After All |publisherslashfilm.com |dateApril 6, 2017 |access-dateApril 7, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170407061650/http://www.slashfilm.com/arnold-schwarzeneggers-the-legend-of-conan-may-not-happen-after-all/ |archive-dateApril 7, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In September 2015, the media announced that Schwarzenegger was to replace Donald Trump as host of The New Celebrity Apprentice.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://money.cnn.com/2015/09/14/media/arnold-schwarzenegger-apprentice-nbc/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger is the next host of NBC's 'Celebrity Apprentice' |authorBrian Stelter and Frank Pallotta |dateSeptember 14, 2015 |workCNNMoney |access-dateSeptember 14, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150916224406/https://money.cnn.com/2015/09/14/media/arnold-schwarzenegger-apprentice-nbc |archive-dateSeptember 16, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> This show, the 15th season of The Apprentice, aired during the 2016–2017 TV season. In the show, he used the phrases "you're terminated" and "get to the choppa", which are quotes from some of his famous roles (The Terminator and Predator, respectively), when firing the contestants.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-celebrity-apprentice-catchphrase-get-to-the-chopper-predator-a7506741.html|titleArnold Schwarzenegger has revealed his cheesy firing catchphrase for Celebrity Apprentice|dateJanuary 3, 2017|websiteThe Independent|languageen|access-dateDecember 13, 2019|archive-dateDecember 13, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191213203113/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-celebrity-apprentice-catchphrase-get-to-the-chopper-predator-a7506741.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/03/arts/television/schwarzenegger-celebrity-apprentice-donald-trump.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/03/arts/television/schwarzenegger-celebrity-apprentice-donald-trump.html |archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 |url-accesslimited|titleWith Schwarzenegger as Host, 'Celebrity Apprentice' Lacks Old Bite|lastHale|firstMike|dateJanuary 3, 2017|workThe New York Times|access-dateDecember 13, 2019|languageen-US|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In March 2017, following repeated criticisms from Trump, Schwarzenegger announced that he would not return for another season on the show. He also reacted to Trump's remarks in January 2017 via Instagram: "Hey, Donald, I have a great idea. Why don't we switch jobs? You take over TV because you're such an expert in ratings, and I take over your job, and then people can finally sleep comfortably again."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/2017/03/03/arnold-quits-apprentice-before-he-can-fired/98700892/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger leaves 'Apprentice,' Trump says he was fired |websiteUSA Today |access-dateMarch 13, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180412023719/https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/2017/03/03/arnold-quits-apprentice-before-he-can-fired/98700892/ |archive-dateApril 12, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In August 2016, his filming of action-comedy Killing Gunther was temporarily interrupted by bank robbers near the filming location in Surrey, British Columbia.<ref>{{cite news |titleRobber tries pulling bank heist during Schwarzenegger movie shoot |urlhttp://bc.ctvnews.ca/robber-tries-pulling-bank-heist-during-schwarzenegger-movie-shoot-1.3035508 |workCTV News Vancouver |dateAugust 19, 2016 |access-dateAugust 22, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160822164057/http://bc.ctvnews.ca/robber-tries-pulling-bank-heist-during-schwarzenegger-movie-shoot-1.3035508 |archive-dateAugust 22, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> The film was released in September 2017. He was announced to star and produce in a film about the ruins of Sanxingdui called The Guest of Sanxingdui as an ambassador.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cinemablend.com/news/1578850/arnold-schwarzenegger-making-a-3d-blockbuster-in-china-and-it-sounds-massive |titleArnold Schwarzenegger to play ambassador in The Guest of Sanxingdui |lastLibbey |firstDirk |dateOctober 28, 2016 |websiteCinemablend |access-dateOctober 28, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161029044745/http://www.cinemablend.com/news/1578850/arnold-schwarzenegger-making-a-3d-blockbuster-in-china-and-it-sounds-massive |archive-dateOctober 29, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
On February 6, 2018, Amazon Studios announced they were working with Schwarzenegger to develop a new series, Outrider, in which he will star and executive produce. The western-drama set in the Oklahoma Indian Territory in the late 19th century will follow a deputy (portrayed by Schwarzenegger) who is tasked with apprehending a legendary outlaw in the wilderness, but is forced to partner with a ruthless Federal Marshal to make sure justice is properly served. The series would have been Schwarzenegger's first major scripted TV role<ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://deadline.com/2018/02/arnold-schwarzenegger-outrider-western-event-series-amazon-development-1202278941/|titleArnold Schwarzenegger To Topline 'Outrider' Western TV Series In Works At Amazon|lastAndreeva|firstNellie|magazineDeadline|dateFebruary 6, 2018|access-dateFebruary 7, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180206211034/http://deadline.com/2018/02/arnold-schwarzenegger-outrider-western-event-series-amazon-development-1202278941/|archive-dateFebruary 6, 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref> but was never completed.
Schwarzenegger returned to the Terminator franchise with Terminator: Dark Fate, which was released on November 1, 2019. It was produced by the series' co-creator James Cameron, who directed him previously in the first two films in the series and in True Lies.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nme.com/news/film/james-cameron-terminator-6-will-sequel-terminator-2-2145507|titleJames Cameron: 'Terminator 6 will be a sequel to Terminator 2'|firstLarry|lastBartleet|dateSeptember 28, 2017|websiteNME|access-dateJanuary 13, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190301220535/https://www.nme.com/news/film/james-cameron-terminator-6-will-sequel-terminator-2-2145507|archive-dateMarch 1, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://screenrant.com/terminator-6-schwarzenegger-human-t-800-robot/|titleTerminator 6: Schwarzenegger Will Be the Human Basis for the T-800|dateAugust 10, 2017|websiteScreenRant|access-dateJanuary 13, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190204023052/https://screenrant.com/terminator-6-schwarzenegger-human-t-800-robot/|archive-dateFebruary 4, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref> It was shot in Almería, Hungary and the US.<ref>{{cite news |lastCárceles |firstMiguel |titleArnold Schwarzenegger rodará Terminator 6 en Almería |urlhttp://www.ideal.es/almeria/almeria/arnold-schwarzenegger-rodara-20180307211551-nt.html |dateMarch 7, 2018 |access-dateMay 30, 2018 |newspaperIdeal |languagees |publisherVocento |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612062314/http://www.ideal.es/almeria/almeria/arnold-schwarzenegger-rodara-20180307211551-nt.html |archive-dateJune 12, 2018 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Political career
{{Main|Governorship of Arnold Schwarzenegger}}
Early politics
meets with Schwarzenegger for the first time at the White House.]]
in 1984]]
Schwarzenegger has been a registered Republican for many years. When he was an actor, his political views were always well known as they contrasted with those of many other prominent Hollywood stars, who are generally considered to be a left-wing and Democratic-leaning community. At the 2004 Republican National Convention, Schwarzenegger gave a speech and explained that he was a Republican because he believed the Democrats of the 1960s sounded too much like Austrian socialists.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/31/gop.schwarzenegger.transcript/ |dateAugust 31, 2004 |titleSchwarzenegger: No country more welcoming than the USA |publisherCNN|access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080408110102/http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/31/gop.schwarzenegger.transcript/ |archive-dateApril 8, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
{{blockquote|I finally arrived here in 1968. What a special day it was. I remember I arrived here with empty pockets but full of dreams, full of determination, full of desire. The presidential campaign was in full swing. I remember watching the Nixon–Humphrey presidential race on TV. A friend of mine who spoke German and English translated for me. I heard Humphrey saying things that sounded like socialism, which I had just left.
But then I heard Nixon speak. He was talking about free enterprise, getting the government off your back, lowering the taxes and strengthening the military. Listening to Nixon speak sounded more like a breath of fresh air. I said to my friend, I said, "What party is he?" My friend said, "He's a Republican." I said, "Then I am a Republican." And I have been a Republican ever since.}}
In 1985, Schwarzenegger appeared in "Stop the Madness", an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration. He first came to wide public notice as a Republican during the 1988 presidential election, accompanying then–Vice President George H. W. Bush at a campaign rally.<ref name"Noonan">{{cite book |lastNoonan |firstPeggy |author-linkPeggy Noonan |titleWhat I Saw at the Revolution: A Political Life in the Reagan Era |publisherRandom House |dateOctober 14, 2003 |locationNew York |page384 |isbn978-0-8129-6989-4}}</ref>
Schwarzenegger famously introduced the first episode of the 1990 Milton Friedman hosted PBS series Free to Choose stating:
{{blockquote|I truly believe that the series has changed my life, and when you have such a powerful experience as that, I think you shouldn't keep it to yourself, so I wanted to share it with you. Being 'free to choose' for me means being free to make your own decisions, free to live your own life, pursue your own goals, chase your own rainbow without the government breathing down on your neck or standing on your shoes. For me that meant coming here to America, because I came from a socialistic country where the government controls the economy. It's a place where you can hear 18-year-old kids already talking about their pension. But me, I wanted more. I wanted to be the best. Individualism like that is incompatible with socialism. So I felt I had to come to America.<ref name"Financial Post, Foster, Jan. 25th, 2011">{{cite news |last1Foster |first1Peter |titlePeter Foster: Whatever happened to muscular capitalism? |urlhttps://financialpost.com/opinion/peter-foster-whatever-happened-to-muscular-capitalism |newspaperFinancial Post |dateJanuary 26, 2011 |access-dateNovember 15, 2022}}</ref><ref name"Hoover Institution, Schwarzenegger, 1990">{{cite web |last1Schwarzenegger |first1Arnold |titleA clip from episode Volume 1 of the 1990 Free to Choose television series |urlhttps://digitalcollections.hoover.org/objects/56646 |websitedigitalcollections.hoover.org |publisherHoover Institution: Library & Archives |access-dateNovember 15, 2022 |archive-dateNovember 15, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221115183645/https://digitalcollections.hoover.org/objects/56646 |url-statuslive }}</ref>}} Schwarzenegger goes on to tell of how he and his then wife Maria Shriver were in Palm Springs preparing to play a game of mixed doubles when Milton Friedman's famous show came on the television. Schwarzenegger recalls that while watching Friedman's Free to Choose, Schwarzenegger, "...recognized Friedman from the study of my own degree in economics, but I didn't know I was watching Free to Choose... it knocked me out. Dr. Friedman expressed, validated and explained everything I ever thought or experienced or observed about the way the economy works, and I guess I was really ready to hear it."<ref name"Hoover Institution, Schwarzenegger, 1990" /> Numerous critics state that Schwarzenegger strayed from much of Friedman's economic ways of thinking in later years, especially upon being elected Governor of California from 2003 through 2011.<ref name"Reason, Passatino, Feb. 9th, 2007">{{cite web |last1Passantino |first1George |titleSchwarzenegger Goes From Milton Friedman to Big Government |urlhttps://reason.org/commentary/schwarzenegger-goes-from-milto/ |workReason |dateFebruary 9, 2007 |access-dateNovember 15, 2022 |archive-dateNovember 15, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221115183648/https://reason.org/commentary/schwarzenegger-goes-from-milto/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1Meyerson |first1Harold |titleArnold Meets His Match |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2005/05/25/arnold-meets-his-match/6d87ac3e-eeed-441e-8cb0-393a85c368ae/ |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-dateNovember 15, 2022 |dateMay 25, 2005}}</ref>
Schwarzenegger's first political appointment was as chairman of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, on which he served from 1990 to 1993.<ref name="lifeline"/> He was nominated by the then-President Bush, who dubbed him "Conan the Republican". He later served as chairman for the California Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports under Governor Pete Wilson.
Between 1993 and 1994, Schwarzenegger was a Red Cross ambassador (a ceremonial role fulfilled by celebrities), recording several television and radio public service announcements to donate blood.
In an interview with Talk magazine in late 1999, Schwarzenegger was asked if he thought of running for office. He replied, "I think about it many times. The possibility is there because I feel it inside." The Hollywood Reporter claimed shortly after that Schwarzenegger sought to end speculation that he might run for governor of California. Following his initial comments, Schwarzenegger said, "I'm in show business&nbsp;– I am in the middle of my career. Why would I go away from that and jump into something else?"<ref>{{cite news |titleArnold cast as Governor? |dateOctober 4, 1999 |urlhttp://www.schwarzenegger.com/news.asp?id90 |publisherSchwarzenegger.com |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080523203946/http://www.schwarzenegger.com/news.asp%3Fid%3D90 |archive-dateMay 23, 2008 }}</ref>
Governor of California
{{Main|Governorship of Arnold Schwarzenegger}}
{{redirect|Governator|the song|American Idiot}}
Schwarzenegger announced his candidacy in the 2003 California recall election for Governor of California on the August 6, 2003, episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno.<ref name"profilear" /> Schwarzenegger had the most name recognition in a crowded field of candidates, but he had never held public office and his political views were unknown to most Californians. His candidacy immediately became national and international news, with media outlets dubbing him the "Governator" (referring to The Terminator movies, see above) and "The Running Man" (the name of another one of his films), and calling the recall election "Total Recall" (another movie starring Schwarzenegger). Schwarzenegger declined to participate in several debates with other recall replacement candidates, and appeared in only one debate on September 24, 2003.<ref name"FirstDebate">{{cite news |lastGrey |firstBarry |titleFirst debate in California recall election: Snapshot of a political system in crisis |dateNovember 6, 2003 |urlhttp://www.wsws.org/articles/2003/sep2003/cali-s06.shtml |publisherwsws.org |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080508191758/http://www.wsws.org/articles/2003/sep2003/cali-s06.shtml |archive-dateMay 8, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
meets with Schwarzenegger after his successful election to the California Governorship.]]
On October 7, 2003, the recall election resulted in Governor Gray Davis being removed from office with 55.4% of the Yes vote in favor of a recall. Schwarzenegger was elected Governor of California under the second question on the ballot with 48.6% of the vote to choose a successor to Davis. Schwarzenegger defeated Democrat Cruz Bustamante, fellow Republican Tom McClintock, and others. His nearest rival, Bustamante, received 31% of the vote. In total, Schwarzenegger won the election by about 1.3&nbsp;million votes. Under the regulations of the California Constitution, no runoff election was required. Schwarzenegger was the second foreign-born governor of California after Irish-born Governor John G. Downey in 1862.
Schwarzenegger is a moderate Republican.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/us/california-today-arnold-schwarzenegger-republican-party.html|titleCalifornia Today: Schwarzenegger's Republican Manifesto|access-dateJuly 28, 2018|languageen|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180728071358/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/us/california-today-arnold-schwarzenegger-republican-party.html|archive-dateJuly 28, 2018|url-statuslive|workThe New York Times|dateMarch 22, 2018 |last1Nagourney |first1Adam |last2Fuller |first2Thomas }}</ref> He says he is fiscally conservative and socially liberal.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/03/schwarzenegger-kasich-promote-moderate-gop-in-california.html|titleSchwarzenegger, Kasich Are Going to Try to Pull the California GOP to the Middle|lastKilgore|firstEd|workIntelligencer|access-dateDecember 29, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180728071127/http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2018/03/schwarzenegger-kasich-promote-moderate-gop-in-california.html|archive-dateJuly 28, 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref> On the issue of abortion, he describes himself as pro-choice, but supports parental notification for minors and a ban on partial-birth abortion.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/08/27/schwarzenegger.views/index.html|publisherCNN|titleSchwarzenegger on abortion, gays, environment|dateAugust 28, 2003|access-dateJuly 28, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170916190026/http://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/08/27/schwarzenegger.views/index.html|archive-dateSeptember 16, 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref> He has supported gay rights, such as domestic partnerships, and he performed a same-sex marriage as governor.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/arnold-schwarzenegger-married-gay-couples-same-sex-marriage-republican-governor-california_n_1927215|titleArnold Schwarzenegger Married Two Gay Couples As Republican Governor Of California|lastSieczkowski|firstCavan|dateSeptember 30, 2012|workHuffPost|access-dateDecember 29, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160417064827/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/09/30/arnold-schwarzenegger-married-gay-couples-same-sex-marriage-republican-governor-california_n_1927215.html|archive-dateApril 17, 2016|url-statuslive}}</ref> However, Schwarzenegger vetoed bills that would have legalized same-sex marriage in California in 2005 and 2007.<ref>{{cite news |lastBuchanan |firstWyatt |dateSeptember 13, 2005 |urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/SAN-FRANCISCO-Gay-rights-advocates-still-trying-2608851.php |titleGay rights advocates still trying to change Schwarzenegger's mind |newspaperSan Francisco Chronicle |access-dateDecember 29, 2021 |archive-dateDecember 29, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211229202404/https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/SAN-FRANCISCO-Gay-rights-advocates-still-trying-2608851.php |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/07-08/bill/asm/ab_0001-0050/ab_43_vt_20071012.html|titleAB 43 Assembly Bill - Veto|websiteleginfo.ca.gov|access-dateJanuary 23, 2021|archive-dateJanuary 11, 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120111151709/http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/07-08/bill/asm/ab_0001-0050/ab_43_vt_20071012.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> He additionally vetoed two bills that would have implemented a single-payer health care system in California in 2006<ref name"ncbi34">{{Cite journal |lastKorcok |firstMilan |dateOctober 10, 2006 |titleSchwarzenegger vetoes single-payer bill |journalCanadian Medical Association Journal |volume175 |issue8 |page860 |doi10.1503/cmaj.061200 |pmid17030932 |pmc1586096 |issn0820-3946 }}</ref><ref name"caassembly19">{{Cite web|urlhttps://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billStatusClient.xhtml?bill_id200520060SB840|titleBill Status|websiteleginfo.legislature.ca.gov|access-dateApril 9, 2021|archive-dateJune 14, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210614235141/https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billStatusClient.xhtml?bill_id200520060SB840|url-statuslive}}</ref> and 2008,<ref name"veto2008">{{Cite web |lastRojas |firstAurelio |dateSeptember 30, 2008 |titleGov. Schwarzenegger again vetoes single payer bill |urlhttp://www.pnhp.org/news/2008/october/gov_schwarzenegger_.php |access-dateApril 9, 2021 |websitePhysicians for a National Health Program |archive-dateMay 13, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210513132112/http://www.pnhp.org/news/2008/october/gov_schwarzenegger_.php |url-status=live }}</ref> respectively.
Schwarzenegger was entrenched in what he considered to be his mandate in cleaning up political gridlock. Building on a catchphrase from the sketch "Hans and Franz" from Saturday Night Live (which partly parodied his bodybuilding career), Schwarzenegger called the Democratic State politicians "girlie men".<ref name"SFGirlieMen">{{cite news |titleSchwarzenegger deems opponents 'girlie-men' |dateJuly 18, 2004 |urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file/chronicle/archive/2004/07/18/MNGH57NKAF1.DTL |workThe San Francisco Chronicle |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |firstPeter |lastNicholas |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080504060359/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2004%2F07%2F18%2FMNGH57NKAF1.DTL |archive-dateMay 4, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger's early victories included repealing an unpopular increase in the vehicle registration fee as well as preventing driver's licenses from being given out to illegal immigrants, but later he began to feel the backlash when powerful state unions began to oppose his various initiatives. Key among his reckoning with political realities was a special election he called in November 2005, in which four ballot measures he sponsored were defeated. Schwarzenegger accepted personal responsibility for the defeats and vowed to continue to seek consensus for the people of California. He later commented that "no one could win if the opposition raised 160&nbsp;million dollars to defeat you". The U.S. Supreme Court later found the public employee unions' use of compulsory fundraising during the campaign had been illegal in Knox v. Service Employees International Union, Local 1000.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.scotusblog.com/2012/06/opinion-analysis-knox-knocks-unions-on-mid-year-assessment-for-non-members/ |titleOpinion analysis: Knox knocks unions on mid-year assessment for non-members |workSCOTUSblog |dateJune 25, 2012 |access-dateApril 18, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150415065401/http://www.scotusblog.com/2012/06/opinion-analysis-knox-knocks-unions-on-mid-year-assessment-for-non-members/ |archive-dateApril 15, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
and Cisco CEO John Chambers]]
Schwarzenegger, against the advice of fellow Republican strategists, appointed a Democrat, Susan Kennedy, as his Chief of Staff. He gradually moved towards a more politically moderate position, determined to build a winning legacy with only a short time to go until the next gubernatorial election.
Schwarzenegger ran for re-election against Democrat Phil Angelides, the California State Treasurer, in the 2006 elections, held on November 7, 2006. Despite a poor year nationally for the Republican party, Schwarzenegger won re-election with 56.0% of the vote compared with 38.9% for Angelides, a margin of well over 1 million votes.<ref>{{cite web |titleGeneral Election&nbsp;– Governor |publisherCalifornia Secretary of State |urlhttp://vote.ss.ca.gov/Returns/gov/00.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070219111658/http://vote.ss.ca.gov/Returns/gov/00.htm |archive-dateFebruary 19, 2007 |access-dateApril 18, 2008}}</ref> Around this time, many commentators saw Schwarzenegger as moving away from the right and towards the center of the political spectrum. After hearing a speech by Schwarzenegger at the 2006 Martin Luther King Jr. Day breakfast, in which Schwarzenegger said, in part "How wrong I was when I said everyone has an equal opportunity to make it in America ... the state of California does not provide [equal] education for all of our children", San Francisco mayor and future governor of California Gavin Newsom said: "He's becoming a Democrat ... He's running back, not even to the center. I would say center-left."<ref>{{cite news|url https://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/New-Schwarzenegger-gets-surprisingly-warm-2543455.php|title 'New' Schwarzenegger gets surprisingly warm welcome / His talk at King Day breakfast has a Democratic sound|last Marinucci|first Carla|date January 17, 2006|work San Francisco Chronicle|access-date June 30, 2019|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190630050329/https://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/New-Schwarzenegger-gets-surprisingly-warm-2543455.php|archive-date June 30, 2019|url-status live}}</ref>
Some speculated that Schwarzenegger might run for the United States Senate in 2010, as his governorship would be term-limited by that time. Such rumors turned out to be false.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/22/AR2006122201476.html |titleSchwarzenegger Remakes Himself as Environmentalist |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-dateJuly 13, 2008 |firstJohn |lastPomfret |dateDecember 23, 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081010215332/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/22/AR2006122201476.html |archive-dateOctober 10, 2008 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file/c/a/2009/03/22/MNJH16KC5G.DTL |titlePredictions for Schwarzenegger's Next Big Role |authorMarinucci, Carla |dateMarch 22, 2009 |access-dateMarch 23, 2009 |workSan Francisco Chronicle |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090326025246/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file%2Fc%2Fa%2F2009%2F03%2F22%2FMNJH16KC5G.DTL |archive-dateMarch 26, 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>
behind him, President George W. Bush comments on wildfires and firefighting efforts in California, October 2007.]]
Wendy Leigh, who wrote an unofficial biography on Schwarzenegger, claims he plotted his political rise from an early age using the movie business and bodybuilding as the means to escape a depressing home.<ref name"governG2" /> Leigh portrays Schwarzenegger as obsessed with power and quotes him as saying, "I wanted to be part of the small percentage of people who were leaders, not the large mass of followers. I think it is because I saw leaders use 100% of their potential&nbsp;– I was always fascinated by people in control of other people."<ref name"governG2" /> Schwarzenegger has said that it was never his intention to enter politics, but he says, "I married into a political family. You get together with them and you hear about policy, about reaching out to help people. I was exposed to the idea of being a public servant and Eunice and Sargent Shriver became my heroes."<ref name="LAWarn" /> Eunice Kennedy Shriver was the sister of John F. Kennedy, and mother-in-law to Schwarzenegger; Sargent Shriver is husband to Eunice and father-in-law to Schwarzenegger.
Schwarzenegger cannot run for U.S. president as he is not a natural-born citizen of the United States. Schwarzenegger is a dual Austrian and United States citizen.<ref name"DamageAustria">{{cite news |titleBBC News: Schwarzenegger 'damages Austria' |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4198633.stm |workBBC News |dateJanuary 22, 2005 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |quoteHe said Mr Schwarzenegger, who has dual nationality... |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080408114325/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4198633.stm |archive-dateApril 8, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> He has held Austrian citizenship since birth and U.S. citizenship since becoming naturalized in 1983. Being Austrian and thus European, he was able to win the 2007 European Voice campaigner of the year award for taking action against climate change with the California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 and plans to introduce an emissions trading scheme with other US states and possibly with the EU.<ref name"EV50">{{cite web |titleSchwarzenegger wins European Voice campaigner of the year award |publisherEuropean Voice |urlhttp://www.europeanvoice.com/page/the-evawards-europeans-of-the-year/784.aspx |dateNovember 27, 2007 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080919214944/http://www.europeanvoice.com/page/the-evawards-europeans-of-the-year/784.aspx |archive-dateSeptember 19, 2008 }}</ref>
in San Diego, July 2010]]
Because of his personal wealth from his acting career, Schwarzenegger did not accept his governor's salary of $175,000 per year.<ref name"Taxformsre">{{cite web |lastNelson |firstSoraya |titleNews: Schwarzenegger releases tax returns |publisherOCRegister.com |urlhttp://www.ocregister.com/ocregister/news/atoz/article_1102616.php |dateApril 15, 2006 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080413151328/http://www.ocregister.com/ocregister/news/atoz/article_1102616.php |archive-dateApril 13, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Schwarzenegger's endorsement in the Republican primaries of the 2008 presidential election was highly sought; despite being good friends with candidates Rudy Giuliani and Senator John McCain, Schwarzenegger remained neutral throughout 2007 and early 2008. Giuliani dropped out of the presidential race on January 30, 2008, largely because of a poor showing in Florida, and endorsed McCain. Later that night, Schwarzenegger was in the audience at a Republican debate at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in California. The following day, he endorsed McCain, joking, "It's Rudy's fault!" (in reference to his friendships with both candidates and that he could not make up his mind). Schwarzenegger's endorsement was thought to be a boost for Senator McCain's campaign; both spoke about their concerns for the environment and economy.<ref>{{cite web |workThe Baltimore Sun |urlhttp://weblogs.baltimoresun.com/news/politics/blog/2008/01/arnold_opens_flood_of_mccain_e.html |titleArnold opens 'flood' of McCain endorsements |access-dateMay 7, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080307072727/http://weblogs.baltimoresun.com/news/politics/blog/2008/01/arnold_opens_flood_of_mccain_e.html |archive-dateMarch 7, 2008 }}</ref>
In its April 2010 report, Progressive ethics watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington named Schwarzenegger one of 11 "worst governors" in the United States because of various ethics issues throughout Schwarzenegger's term as governor.<ref>{{cite news |lastVogel |firstEd |titleGibbons named on list of worst governors |newspaperLas Vegas Review-Journal |dateApril 21, 2010 |urlhttp://www.lvrj.com/news/gibbons-named-on-list-of-worst-governors-91723774.html |access-dateMay 5, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100424192548/http://www.lvrj.com/news/gibbons-named-on-list-of-worst-governors-91723774.html |archive-dateApril 24, 2010 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleCrew's Worst Governors |publisherCitizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington |urlhttp://www.citizensforethics.org/worstgovernors#Gibbons |access-dateMay 5, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100424212401/http://www.citizensforethics.org/worstgovernors#Gibbons |archive-dateApril 24, 2010 }}</ref>
Governor Schwarzenegger played a significant role in opposing Proposition 66, a proposed amendment of the Californian Three Strikes Law, in November 2004. This amendment would have required the third felony to be either violent or serious to mandate a 25-years-to-life sentence. In the last week before the ballot, Schwarzenegger launched an intense campaign<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v7F6PBldQxZc |titleTV-commercial of Arnold Schwarzenegger against Proposition 66 |viaYouTube |dateApril 7, 2008 |access-dateMarch 8, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100328232600/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v7F6PBldQxZc |archive-dateMarch 28, 2010 |url-statuslive }}</ref> against Proposition 66.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-nov-01-me-campaign1-story.html |first1Megan |last1Garvey |first2Robert |last2Salladay |titleProp. 66 in Tough Fight |workLos Angeles Times |dateNovember 1, 2004 |access-dateMarch 8, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100123000753/http://articles.latimes.com/2004/nov/01/local/me-campaign1 |archive-dateJanuary 23, 2010 |url-statuslive}}</ref> He stated that "it would release 26,000 dangerous criminals and rapists".<ref namenpr>{{cite web |lastJaffe |firstIna |titleTwo Torn Families Show Flip Side Of 3 Strikes Law |urlhttps://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId114219922 |publisherNPR |dateOctober 28, 2009 |access-dateMarch 4, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170303152234/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId114219922 |archive-dateMarch 3, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Although he began his tenure as governor with record high approval ratings (as high as 65% in May 2004),<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/Schwarzenegger-a-big-hit-with-voters-polls-2755624.php Schwarzenegger a big hit with voters, polls report / Soaring popularity cuts across party, geographical lines] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180102144704/http://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/Schwarzenegger-a-big-hit-with-voters-polls-2755624.php |dateJanuary 2, 2018 }}; San Francisco Chronicle; May 27, 2004</ref> he left office with a near-record low 23%,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2011/01/03/132445643/no-hollywood-ending-to-schwarzeneggers-term|titleNo Hollywood Ending To Schwarzenegger's Term|workNPR|firstIna|lastJaffe|dateJanuary 3, 2011|access-dateJune 16, 2023|archive-dateJune 16, 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230616161118/https://www.npr.org/2011/01/03/132445643/no-hollywood-ending-to-schwarzeneggers-term|url-statuslive}}</ref> only one percent higher than that of Gray Davis, his predecessor, when he was recalled in October 2003.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/blogs/politi-cal/story/2010-03-22/approval-for-schwarzenegger-legislature-at-record-lows |titleApproval for Schwarzenegger, Legislature at record lows |workLos Angeles Times |dateMarch 22, 2010 |access-dateJune 16, 2023 |archive-dateJune 17, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230617010604/https://www.latimes.com/archives/blogs/politi-cal/story/2010-03-22/approval-for-schwarzenegger-legislature-at-record-lows |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Death of Luis Santos
{{Main|Death of Luis Santos}}
In May 2010, Esteban Núñez pleaded guilty to voluntary manslaughter and was sentenced to 16 years in prison for the death of Luis Santos. Núñez is the son of Fabian Núñez, then California Assembly Speaker of the House and a close friend and staunch political ally of then governor Schwarzenegger.<ref name"thereporter1">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thereporter.com/article/zz/20120908/NEWS/120907396 |titleJudge: Former Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger's sentence cutting of Esteban Nunez was legal |dateMarch 10, 2006 |publisherThereporter.com |access-dateOctober 12, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011223803/http://www.thereporter.com/article/zz/20120908/NEWS/120907396 |archive-dateOctober 11, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.dailynews.com/article/ZZ/20110105/NEWS/110108106 |titleDan Walters: Schwarzenegger leaves a foul stench |publisherDailynews.com |dateMay 7, 2013 |access-dateOctober 12, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161013105720/http://www.dailynews.com/article/ZZ/20110105/NEWS/110108106 |archive-dateOctober 13, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"nydailynews1">{{cite news |lastDillon |firstNancy |urlhttp://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/calif-pol-son-killed-college-student-prison-article-1.2596545 |titleCalif. pol's son who killed college student out of prison |newspaperDaily News|locationNew York |dateApril 11, 2016 |access-dateOctober 12, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011060905/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/calif-pol-son-killed-college-student-prison-article-1.2596545 |archive-dateOctober 11, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author-link1Christopher Goffard |lastGoffard |firstChristopher |urlhttp://graphics.latimes.com/nunez-santos-part-2/ |titleOn the eve of a murder trial, a deal is struck. But will it stick? |workLos Angeles Times |dateDecember 23, 2014 |access-dateOctober 12, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160905151052/http://graphics.latimes.com/nunez-santos-part-2/ |archive-dateSeptember 5, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
As a personal favor to "a friend", just hours before he left office, and as one of his last official acts, Schwarzenegger commuted Núñez's sentence by more than half, to seven years.<ref name"nydailynews1"/><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/04/us/04pardon.html |titleSchwarzenegger Commutes Sentence of Politician's Son |firstIan |lastLovett |dateJanuary 3, 2011 |access-dateMarch 13, 2017 |newspaperThe New York Times |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170730204846/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/04/us/04pardon.html |archive-dateJuly 30, 2017 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite web |lastLah |firstKyung |urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2015/07/07/us/arnold-schwarzenegger-clemency/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger's last act as governor follows him |publisherCNN |dateJuly 8, 2015 |access-dateOctober 12, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011142512/http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/07/us/arnold-schwarzenegger-clemency/ |archive-dateOctober 11, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> He believed that Núñez's sentence was "excessive" in comparison with the same prison term imposed on Ryan Jett, the man who fatally stabbed Santos.<ref>{{Cite news |lastDobuzinskis |firstAlex |dateJanuary 4, 2011 |titleSchwarzenegger criticized after commuting Nunez sentence |languageen |workReuters |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-schwarzenegger-commutation-idUSTRE7030DC20110104 |access-dateJune 8, 2022 |archive-dateJune 8, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220608215014/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-schwarzenegger-commutation-idUSTRE7030DC20110104 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Against protocol, Schwarzenegger did not inform Santos' family or the San Diego County prosecutors about the commutation. They learned about it in a call from a reporter.<ref name"autogenerated1"/>
The Santos family, along with the San Diego district attorney, sued to stop the commutation, claiming that it violated Marsy's Law. In September 2012, Sacramento County superior court judge Lloyd Connelly stated, "Based on the evidentiary records before this court involving this case, there was an abuse of discretion... This was a distasteful commutation. It was repugnant to the bulk of the citizenry of this state." However, Connelly ruled that Schwarzenegger remained within his executive powers as governor.<ref name"thereporter1"/> Subsequently, as a direct result of the way the commutation was handled, Governor Jerry Brown signed a bipartisan bill that allows offenders' victims and their families to be notified at least 10 days before any commutations.<ref>{{cite web |lastMcGreevy |firstPatrick |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2011-oct-04-la-me-brown-legislation-20111004-story.html |titleGov. Jerry Brown signs notification bill on reducing sentences |workLos Angeles Times |dateOctober 4, 2011 |access-dateOctober 12, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011223323/http://articles.latimes.com/2011/oct/04/local/la-me-brown-legislation-20111004 |archive-dateOctober 11, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Núñez was released from prison after serving less than six years.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-esteban-nunez-released-from-prison-20160410-story.html |titleEsteban Nuñez is released from prison after his sentence was drastically reduced by Schwarzenegger |workLos Angeles Times |agencyAssociated Press |dateApril 10, 2016 |access-dateMarch 4, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161012035352/http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-esteban-nunez-released-from-prison-20160410-story.html |archive-dateOctober 12, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Allegations of sexual misconduct
protesting against Schwarzenegger]]
During his initial campaign for governor in 2003, allegations of sexual and personal misconduct were raised against Schwarzenegger.<ref name"grope1">{{cite news |titleSex scandal draws Arnie apology |dateMarch 10, 2004 |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3159122.stm |publisherBBC |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071218154557/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3159122.stm |archive-dateDecember 18, 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Within the last five days before the election, news reports appeared in the Los Angeles Times recounting decades-old allegations of sexual misconduct from six individual women.<ref name"behaving badly">{{cite news |titleSchwarzenegger sorry for behaving 'badly' toward women |publisherCNN|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/10/02/recall.schwarzenegger/index.html |dateOctober 3, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080408110108/http://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/10/02/recall.schwarzenegger/index.html |archive-dateApril 8, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"grope1" /> Schwarzenegger responded to the allegations in 2004 admitting that he has "behaved badly sometimes" and apologized, but also stated that "a lot of [what] you see in the stories is not true".<ref>{{cite web|url https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/oct/03/usa.filmnews|titleSchwarzenegger admits behaving badly after groping claims|website The Guardian|dateOctober 3, 2003|access-date January 11, 2021|archive-dateJanuary 12, 2021|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210112230648/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/oct/03/usa.filmnews|url-statuslive}}</ref> One of the women who came forward was British television personality Anna Richardson, who settled a libel lawsuit in August 2006 against Schwarzenegger; his top aide, Sean Walsh; and his publicist, Sheryl Main.<ref name"AR">{{cite news |titleSchwarzenegger libel 'settled' |dateAugust 26, 2006 |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/5288194.stm |publisherBBC |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070909074501/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/5288194.stm |archive-dateSeptember 9, 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref> A joint statement read: "The parties are content to put this matter behind them and are pleased that this legal dispute has now been settled."<ref name"AR" /><ref name"AR2">{{cite news |titleUK judge allows Arnie libel case |dateMarch 23, 2005 |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/4375679.stm |publisherBBC |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070821025435/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/4375679.stm |archive-dateAugust 21, 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2023, Schwarzenegger revisited the issue while promoting his new three-part biographical documentary on Netflix called Arnold. Schwarzenegger stated that he was "totally wrong".<ref>{{Cite news |firstCatherine |lastShoard |dateJune 6, 2023 |title'Forget all the excuses': Arnold Schwarzenegger expresses regret over groping claims |languageen-GB |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2023/jun/06/arnold-schwarzenegger-expresses-regret-over-groping-claims |access-dateJune 6, 2023 |archive-dateJune 6, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230606134207/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2023/jun/06/arnold-schwarzenegger-expresses-regret-over-groping-claims |url-statuslive }}</ref> Marijuana use During this time a 1977 interview in adult magazine Oui gained attention, in which Schwarzenegger discussed using substances such as marijuana.<ref>{{cite web |titleSchwarzenegger's Sex Talk |publisherThe Smoking Gun |urlhttp://www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/celebrity/schwarzeneggers-sex-talk |access-dateJuly 23, 2012 |dateMay 18, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120704170517/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/celebrity/schwarzeneggers-sex-talk |archive-dateJuly 4, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger is shown smoking a marijuana joint after winning Mr. Olympia in 1975 in the documentary film Pumping Iron (1977). In an interview with GQ magazine in October 2007, Schwarzenegger said, "[Marijuana] is not a drug. It's a leaf. My drug was pumping iron, trust me."<ref name"Cannabis">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-oct-29-me-arnold29-story.html |titleGovernor says marijuana is not a drug, 'it's a leaf' |dateOctober 29, 2007 |workLos Angeles Times |access-dateOctober 7, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081220144632/http://articles.latimes.com/2007/oct/29/local/me-arnold29 |archive-dateDecember 20, 2008 |url-statuslive }}</ref> His spokesperson later said the comment was meant to be a joke.<ref name"Cannabis" /> Citizenship Schwarzenegger became a naturalized U.S. citizen on September 17, 1983.<ref>{{cite news |agencyUnited Press International |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/09/17/us/actor-becomes-us-citizen.html |titleActor Becomes U.S. Citizen |workThe New York Times |dateSeptember 17, 1983 |access-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150122051700/http://www.nytimes.com/1983/09/17/us/actor-becomes-us-citizen.html |archive-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Shortly before he gained his citizenship, he asked the Austrian authorities for the right to keep his Austrian citizenship, as Austria does not usually allow dual citizenship. His request was granted, and he retained his Austrian citizenship.<ref>Leamer, p. 199-200</ref>
In 2005, Peter Pilz, a member of the Austrian Parliament from the Austrian Green Party, unsuccessfully advocated for Parliament to revoke Schwarzenegger's Austrian citizenship under Article 33 of the Austrian Citizenship Act, which states: "A citizen, who is in the public service of a foreign country, shall be deprived of his citizenship if he heavily damages the reputation or the interests of the Austrian Republic.". Pilz felt that Schwarzenegger's decision not to intervene in the executions of Donald Beardslee and Stanley Williams had done so.<ref name"DamageAustria" /> The death penalty in Austria had been abolished in 1968. Environmental record On September 27, 2006, Schwarzenegger signed the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, creating the nation's first cap on greenhouse gas emissions. The law set new regulations on the amount of emissions utilities, refineries, and manufacturing plants are allowed to release into the atmosphere. Schwarzenegger also signed a second global warming bill that prohibits large utilities and corporations in California from making long-term contracts with suppliers who do not meet the state's greenhouse gas emission standards. The two bills are part of a plan to reduce California's emissions by 25 percent to 1990s levels by 2020. In 2005, Schwarzenegger issued an executive order calling to reduce greenhouse gases to 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/27/AR2006092700174.html |access-dateMay 15, 2008 |newspaperThe Washington Post |titleSchwarzenegger Signs Global Warming Bill |firstSamantha |lastYoung |dateSeptember 27, 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121105054329/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/27/AR2006092700174.html |archive-dateNovember 5, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger signed another executive order on October 17, 2006, allowing California to work with the Northeast's Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative. They plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by issuing a limited amount of carbon credits to each power plant in participating states. Any power plants that exceed emissions for the number of carbon credits will have to purchase more credits to cover the difference. The plan took effect in 2009.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct17/0,4670,GlobalWarmingSchwarzenegger,00.html |access-dateMay 15, 2008 |publisherFox News |titleCal Joins Northeast Global Warming Fight |firstKaren |lastMatthews |dateOctober 17, 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525191041/http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Oct17/0,4670,GlobalWarmingSchwarzenegger,00.html |archive-dateMay 25, 2017 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In addition to using his political power to fight global warming, the governor has taken steps at his home to reduce his personal carbon footprint. Schwarzenegger has adapted one of his Hummers to run on hydrogen and another to run on biofuels. He has also installed solar panels to heat his home.<ref>[https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/04/02/8403410/index.htm "The Governator's green agenda"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131106005149/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/04/02/8403410/index.htm |dateNovember 6, 2013 }} Fortune. March 23, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2008.</ref>
In respect for his contribution to the direction of the US motor industry, Schwarzenegger was invited to open the 2009 SAE World Congress in Detroit on April 20, 2009.<ref>[http://www.sae.org/servlets/pressRoom?OBJECT_TYPEPressReleases&PAGEshowRelease&RELEASE_ID970 "SAE 2009 World Congress Special Opening Ceremonies to Feature Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160403143304/http://www.sae.org/servlets/pressRoom?OBJECT_TYPEPressReleases&PAGEshowRelease&RELEASE_ID970 |dateApril 3, 2016 }} SAE. March 10, 2009. Retrieved April 6, 2009.</ref>
In 2011, Schwarzenegger founded the R20 Regions of Climate Action to develop a sustainable, low-carbon economy.<ref>{{cite web |workThe Global Journal |urlhttp://theglobaljournal.net/article/view/410/ |titleA New Obsession |access-dateMay 3, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120501054335/http://theglobaljournal.net/article/view/410/ |archive-dateMay 1, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2017, he joined French President Emmanuel Macron in calling for the adoption of a Global Pact for the Environment.<ref>{{Cite web|dateJune 24, 2017|titleMacron, Schwarzenegger back global pact on environment|urlhttps://www.france24.com/en/20170624-macron-launches-global-environment-pact-paris|access-dateSeptember 24, 2020|publisherFrance 24|languageen|archive-dateNovember 12, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201112010719/http://www.france24.com/en/20170624-macron-launches-global-environment-pact-paris|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2017, Schwarzenegger launched the Austrian World Summit,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.ctvnews.ca/climate-and-environment/schwarzenegger-climate-activists-should-focus-on-pollution-1.5493128|titleSchwarzenegger: Climate activists should focus on pollution|dateJuly 2021|access-dateDecember 13, 2021|archive-dateDecember 13, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211213142303/https://www.ctvnews.ca/climate-and-environment/schwarzenegger-climate-activists-should-focus-on-pollution-1.5493128|url-statuslive}}</ref> an international climate conference that is held annually in Vienna, Austria. The Austrian World Summit is organized by the Schwarzenegger Climate Initiative and aims is to bring together representatives from politics, civil society and business to create a broad alliance for climate protection and to identify concrete solutions to the climate crisis. Electoral history {{Election box begin no change|title2003 California gubernatorial recall election}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change|
|party = California Republican Party
|candidate = Arnold Schwarzenegger
|votes = 4,206,284
|percentage = 48.6
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
|party = Democratic Party (United States)
|candidate = Cruz Bustamante
|votes = 2,724,874
|percentage = 31.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
|party = Republican Party (United States)
|candidate = Tom McClintock
|votes = 1,161,287
|percentage = 13.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
|party = Green Party of the United States
|candidate = Peter Camejo
|votes = 242,247
|percentage = 2.8
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}
{{Election box begin no change|title=2006 California gubernatorial election}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change|
|party = California Republican Party
|candidate = Arnold Schwarzenegger (incumbent)
|votes = 4,850,157
|percentage = 55.9
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change|
|party = California Democratic Party
|candidate = Phil Angelides
|votes = 3,376,732
|percentage = 38.9
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change|
|party = Green Party of California
|candidate = Peter Camejo
|votes = 205,995
|percentage = 2.4
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change|
|party = Libertarian Party of California
|candidate = Art Olivier
|votes = 114,329
|percentage = 1.3
}}
{{Election box end}}
Presidential ambitions
Presidential aspirations by the Austrian-born Schwarzenegger would be blocked by a constitutional hurdle; Article II, Section I, Clause V, prevents individuals who are not natural-born citizens of the United States from assuming the office. The Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment in 2003 was widely accredited as the "Amend for Arnold" bill, which would have added an amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing his run. In 2004, the "Amend for Arnold" campaign was launched, featuring a website and TV advertising promotion.<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/Amend-for-Arnold-campaign-launched-Web-site-2635267.php "'Amend for Arnold' campaign launched / Web site, TV spot promote change to Constitution"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525192620/http://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/Amend-for-Arnold-campaign-launched-Web-site-2635267.php |dateMay 25, 2017 }}, John Wildermuth. San Francisco Chronicle. November 18, 2004. Retrieved February 8, 2017</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-arnold-amendment/|title The 'Arnold Amendment'|dateOctober 24, 2003|publisher CBS News|access-dateJanuary 21, 2020|archive-date October 23, 2017|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20171023050026/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-arnold-amendment/|url-status live}}</ref>
In June 2007, Schwarzenegger was featured on the cover of Time magazine with Michael Bloomberg, and subsequently, the two joked about a presidential ticket together.<ref>[http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2007/06/19/bloomberg-schwarzenegger-ponder-presidential-ticket/ "Bloomberg, Schwarzenegger ponder presidential ticket"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170211075312/http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2007/06/19/bloomberg-schwarzenegger-ponder-presidential-ticket/ |dateFebruary 11, 2017 }}, CNN. June 19, 2007. Retrieved February 8, 2017</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/my-conversation-with-mich_b_97778|title My Conversation with Michael Bloomberg and Arnold Schwarzenegger|websiteHuffpost|date April 21, 2008|access-dateJanuary 10, 2021|archive-date January 12, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210112081335/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/my-conversation-with-mich_b_97778|url-status live}}</ref>
Business career
Schwarzenegger has also enjoyed a highly successful business career.<ref name"governG2"/><ref name"LAWarn"/> Following his move to the United States, Schwarzenegger became a "prolific goal setter" and would write his objectives at the start of the year on index cards, like starting a mail order business or buying a new car&nbsp;– and succeed in doing so.<ref name"DT2"/> As a result of his early business and investment success, Schwarzenegger became a millionaire by the age of 25, well before making a name for himself in Hollywood. His path to financial independence came as a result of his success as a proactive businessman and investor involved with a series of lucrative business ventures and real estate investments.<ref>{{Cite web |lastElkins |firstKathleen |titleThe way Arnold Schwarzenegger made his first million had nothing to do with acting |dateFebruary 6, 2017 |urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2017/02/06/the-way-arnold-schwarzenegger-made-his-first-million.html |access-dateNovember 14, 2022 |publisherCNBC |languageen |archive-dateNovember 14, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221114112331/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/02/06/the-way-arnold-schwarzenegger-made-his-first-million.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Early ventures
In 1968, Schwarzenegger and fellow bodybuilder Franco Columbu started a bricklaying business. The business flourished thanks to the pair's marketing savvy and an increased demand following the 1971 San Fernando earthquake.<ref name"Millionaire Magazine">{{cite web |titleReal Life Action Hero |workMillionaire Magazine |urlhttp://www.millionaire.com/interviews_schwarzenegger.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20041212192915/http://www.millionaire.com/interviews_schwarzenegger.htm |archive-dateDecember 12, 2004 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastMorgan |firstKay }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title"Working" Out |publisherSchwarzenegger.com |urlhttp://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/life/didyouknow/life_didyouknow_eng_legacy_257.asp?seclife&subsecdidyouknow |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080523204758/http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/life/didyouknow/life_didyouknow_eng_legacy_257.asp%3Fsec%3Dlife%26subsec%3Ddidyouknow |archive-dateMay 23, 2008 }}</ref> When signs of profitability emerged as business began to pick up, Schwarzenegger and Columbu rolled over the profits from their bricklaying venture to go on and start their own mail-order business that sold bodybuilding and fitness-related equipment and instructional tapes.<ref name"lifeline" /><ref name"Millionaire Magazine" /> Investments Schwarzenegger transferred profits from the mail-order business and his bodybuilding-competition winnings by rolling the proceeds into his first real estate investment: an apartment building he purchased for $10,000. Schwarzenegger made millions of dollars by investing in a variety of real estate holding companies both within the United States and around the world.<ref>{{cite news |titleSchwarzenegger reveals pumped-up finances |workSan Francisco Chronicle |urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f/chronicle/archive/2003/08/10/ARNOLD.TMP |dateAugust 10, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastWilliams |firstLance |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080318192048/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2003%2F08%2F10%2FARNOLD.TMP |archive-dateMarch 18, 2008 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleThe Best Salesman in America? |publisherSelling Power |urlhttps://www.sellingpower.com/2010/02/02/6660/the-best-salesman-in-america |access-dateDecember 29, 2021 |lastFleschner |firstMalcolm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080224112746/http://www.sellingpower.com/article/display.asp?aidSP4182687 |archive-dateFebruary 24, 2008}}</ref> Schwarzenegger and fellow Hollywood veteran actor and industry adversary Sylvester Stallone brought their long-storied industry rivalry to an end by both investing in the Planet Hollywood<ref name"pearson20171009">{{Cite web |lastPearson |firstBen |dateOctober 9, 2017 |titleSchwarzenegger Orchestrated a Legendary Hollywood Troll |urlhttps://www.slashfilm.com/arnold-schwarzenegger-beyond-fest/ |access-dateJuly 27, 2020 |website/Film |languageen-US |archive-dateJuly 27, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200727050548/https://www.slashfilm.com/arnold-schwarzenegger-beyond-fest/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> chain of international theme restaurants (modeled after the Hard Rock Cafe) along with Bruce Willis and Demi Moore. However, Schwarzenegger severed his financial ties with the chain in early 2000.<ref name"planetbbc">{{cite news |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/619317.stm |titleArnie's Planet Hollywood split |publisherBBC |dateJanuary 26, 2000 |access-dateApril 1, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120531075351/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/619317.stm |archive-dateMay 31, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-jan-26-fi-57832-story.html |titleIt's Hasta la Vista, Planet Hollywood |firstPaul |lastLieberman |workLos Angeles Times |dateJanuary 26, 2000 |access-dateApril 1, 2012 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120514174355/http://articles.latimes.com/2000/jan/26/business/fi-57832 |archive-dateMay 14, 2012 }}</ref> Schwarzenegger remarked that the restaurant did not achieve the success that he had hoped for, claiming he wanted to focus his attention on "new US global business ventures" and his then-burgeoning acting career.<ref name"planetbbc" />
Schwarzenegger also made a private commercial real estate investment in the Easton Town Center, a shopping mall based in Columbus, Ohio.<ref>{{cite news |last1Cieply |first1Michael |last2Cohn |first2Gary |last3Eller |first3Claudia |last4Vincent |first4Roger |dateAugust 10, 2003 |titleSchwarzenegger Built a Vast Business Empire |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-10-me-arnoldbiz10-story.html |workLos Angeles Times |access-dateFebruary 22, 2023 |archive-dateFebruary 23, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230223073105/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-10-me-arnoldbiz10-story.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> He has talked about some of the mentors who have helped him over the years in business: "I couldn't have learned about business without a parade of teachers guiding me... from Milton Friedman to Donald Trump... and now, Les Wexner and Warren Buffett. I even learned a thing or two from Planet Hollywood, such as when to get out! And I did!"<ref name"per" /> He has significant equity ownership in Dimensional Fund Advisors, an Austin-based investment firm.<ref name"DoggedPath">{{cite news |lastWeinraub |firstBernard |titleSchwarzenegger's Next Goal On Dogged, Ambitious Path |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/17/us/schwarzenegger-s-next-goal-on-dogged-ambitious-path.html |dateAugust 17, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080530084234/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9B06E5D81230F934A2575BC0A9659C8B63 |archive-dateMay 30, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Schwarzenegger is also the owner of Arnold's Sports Festival, a sports and fitness festival which he started in 1989 and is held annually in Columbus, Ohio. It is a festival that hosts thousands of international health and fitness professionals which has also expanded into a three-day expo. He also owns a film production company called Oak Productions, Inc. and Fitness Publications, a joint book publishing venture partnered with Simon & Schuster.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://ca.finance.yahoo.com/news/7-self-made-immigrant-millionaires.html?ptBureoF4GVB?date10410705&page3 |title7 self-made immigrant millionaires |publisherYahoo Canada |dateNovember 9, 2012 |access-dateNovember 17, 2012 |authorAndrea N. Browne |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131030052654/http://ca.finance.yahoo.com/news/7-self-made-immigrant-millionaires.html?ptBureoF4GVB%3Fdate%3D10410705&page3 |archive-dateOctober 30, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2018, Schwarzenegger partnered with basketball player LeBron James to establish Ladder, a company that developed nutritional supplements to help athletes with severe cramps. The pair sold Ladder to Openfit for an undisclosed amount in 2020 after reporting more than $4&nbsp;million in sales for that year.<ref>{{Cite web |lastYoung |firstJabari |dateDecember 2, 2020 |titleLeBron James, Arnold Schwarzenegger's Sports Nutrition Company Sells to Fitness Platform Openfit |urlhttps://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/business/money-report/lebron-james-arnold-schwarzeneggers-sports-nutrition-company-sells-to-fitness-platform-openfit/2475117/ |access-dateFebruary 7, 2021 |websiteNBC Los Angeles |languageen-US |archive-dateFebruary 10, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210210184950/https://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/business/money-report/lebron-james-arnold-schwarzeneggers-sports-nutrition-company-sells-to-fitness-platform-openfit/2475117/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Restaurant In 1992, Schwarzenegger and his wife opened a restaurant in Santa Monica called Schatzi On Main. Schatzi literally means "little treasure", and colloquially "honey" or "darling" in German. In 1998, he sold his restaurant.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe foundation for taxpayer and consumer rights is in the wrong in its junk fax lawsuit where it falsely blames Arnold Schwarzenegger for faxes sent to promote a restaurant he doesn't own |publisherSchwarzenegger.com |urlhttp://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/news/uptotheminute/news_uptotheminute_eng_legacy_16.asp?secnews&subsecuptotheminute |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080523204836/http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/news/uptotheminute/news_uptotheminute_eng_legacy_16.asp%3Fsec%3Dnews%26subsec%3Duptotheminute |archive-dateMay 23, 2008 }}</ref> Wealth
{{See also|List of richest American politicians}}
In 2024, Forbes estimated that Schwarzenegger was a billionaire.<ref>{{Cite news | urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/jemimamcevoy/2024/05/30/how-arnold-schwarzenegger-became-a-billionaire/ | titleHow Arnold Schwarzenegger Became A Billionaire | workForbes | dateMay 30, 2024 | url-access=subscription}}</ref>
In June 1997, Schwarzenegger spent $38&nbsp;million on a private Gulfstream jet.<ref>{{cite book |lastFleming |firstCharles |titleHigh concept: Don Simpson and the Hollywood Culture of Excess |publisherBloomsbury |year1999 |isbn978-0-7475-4262-9 |title-link=High concept: Don Simpson and the Hollywood Culture of Excess }}</ref>
Regarding his private fortune, Schwarzenegger once quipped: "Money doesn't make you happy. I now have $50&nbsp;million, but I was just as happy when I had $48&nbsp;million."<ref name=governG2/>
In 2003, Schwarzenegger's net worth was conservatively estimated at $100&nbsp;million to $200&nbsp;million.<ref name"100million">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/Schwarzenegger-worth-100-million-experts-say-2561106.php |lastWilliams |firstLance |titleSchwarzenegger worth $100&nbsp;million, experts say |dateAugust 17, 2003 |workSan Francisco Chronicle |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080328121715/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file%2Fc%2Fa%2F2003%2F08%2F17%2FTAXES.TMP |archive-dateMarch 28, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>
After separating from his wife, Maria Shriver, in 2011, it was estimated that his net worth had been approximately $400&nbsp;million, and even as high as $800&nbsp;million, based on tax returns he filed in 2006.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://extratv.com/2011/05/10/arnold-and-marias-surprise-split-how-much-is-at-stake-in-divorce/ |titleArnold and Maria's Surprise Split: How Much is at Stake in Divorce? | workExtra |dateMay 10, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110905045222/http://extratv.warnerbros.com/2011/05/arnold_and_marias_surprise_split_how_much_is_at_stake_in_divorce.php |archive-dateSeptember 5, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Commercial advertisements Schwarzenegger has also appeared in a series of commercials for the Machine Zone game Mobile Strike as a military commander and spokesman.<ref>{{cite news |last1Takahashi |first1Dean |titleArnold Schwarzenegger stars in Machine Zone's modern warfare game Mobile Strike (updated) |urlhttps://venturebeat.com/2015/11/11/arnold-schwarzenegger-is-the-star-of-machine-zones-new-mobile-strike-modern-warfare-game/ |access-dateOctober 17, 2016 |workVentureBeat |dateNovember 11, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151113022946/http://venturebeat.com/2015/11/11/arnold-schwarzenegger-is-the-star-of-machine-zones-new-mobile-strike-modern-warfare-game/ |archive-dateNovember 13, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Personal life Early relationships In 1969, Schwarzenegger met Barbara Outland (later Barbara Outland Baker), an English teacher with whom he lived until 1974.<ref name"arniememoir">{{cite news |titleArnie's ex-girlfriend pens memoir |dateSeptember 9, 2003 |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/showbiz/3092740.stm |publisherBBC |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080422031941/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/showbiz/3092740.stm |archive-dateApril 22, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The couple first met six to eight months after his arrival in the U.S. Their first date was watching the first Apollo Moon landing on television.<ref name"DT2" /> They shared an apartment in Santa Monica, California, for three and a half years, and having little money, they would visit the beach all day or have barbecues in the back yard.<ref name"DT2" /> Although Baker claims that when she first met Schwarzenegger, he had "little understanding of polite society" and she found him a turn-off, she says, "He's as much a self-made man as it's possible to be—he never got encouragement from his parents, his family, his brother. He just had this huge determination to prove himself, and that was very attractive ... I'll go to my grave knowing Arnold loved me."<ref name"DT2" /> Schwarzenegger said of Baker in his 1977 memoir, "Basically it came down to this: she was a well-balanced woman who wanted an ordinary, solid life, and I was not a well-balanced man, and hated the very idea of ordinary life."<ref name"arniememoir" /> Baker has described Schwarzenegger as a "joyful personality, totally charismatic, adventurous, and athletic" but claims that towards the end of the relationship he became "insufferable—classically conceited—the world revolved around him".<ref nameautogenerated3>{{cite news |titleActor's old flame says he's a great guy |dateSeptember 15, 2003|urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f/c/a/2003/09/15/MN272943.DTL |workThe San Francisco Chronicle |access-dateApril 19, 2007 |firstLance |lastWilliams |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120526031215/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f%2Fc%2Fa%2F2003%2F09%2F15%2FMN272943.DTL |archive-dateMay 26, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Baker published her memoir in 2006, Arnold and Me: In the Shadow of the Austrian Oak.<ref name"bakes">{{cite news |firstCatherine |lastElsworth |titleArnie puts his weight behind ex-lover's tell-all memoir |dateSeptember 14, 2006 |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1528857/Arnie-puts-his-weight-behind-ex-lover%27s-tell-all-memoir.html |workThe Daily Telegraph |locationLondon |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080610113917/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1528857/Arnie-puts-his-weight-behind-ex-lover%27s-tell-all-memoir.html |archive-dateJune 10, 2008 }}</ref> Although Baker painted an unflattering portrait of her former lover at times, Schwarzenegger actually contributed to the tell-all book with a foreword, and also met with Baker for three hours.<ref name"bakes" /> Baker claims that she only learned of his being unfaithful after they split, and talks of a turbulent and passionate love life.<ref name"bakes" /> Schwarzenegger has made it clear that their respective recollection of events can differ.<ref name="bakes" />
Schwarzenegger met his next lover, Beverly Hills hairdresser's assistant Sue Moray, on Venice Beach in July 1977. According to Moray, the couple led an open relationship: "We were faithful when we were both in LA... but when he was out of town, we were free to do whatever we wanted."<ref name="wl" />
Schwarzenegger met television journalist Maria Shriver, niece of President John F. Kennedy, at the Robert F. Kennedy Tennis Tournament in August 1977. He went on to have a relationship with both Moray and Shriver until August 1978 when Moray (who knew of his relationship with Shriver) issued an ultimatum.<ref name"wl" /> Marriage and family
at the 2007 Special Olympics in Shanghai]]
On April 26, 1986, Schwarzenegger married Shriver in Hyannis, Massachusetts.<ref name"MariaOwings">{{cite news |titleMaria Owings Shriver Wed To Arnold Schwarzenegger |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/27/style/maria-owings-shriver-wed-to-arnold-schwarzenegger.html |dateApril 27, 1986 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080528091553/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9A0DE3DF103DF934A15757C0A960948260 |archive-dateMay 28, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> They have four children: Katherine (* 1989), Christina (* 1991), Patrick (* 1993) and Christopher (* 1997).<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://people.com/parents/all-about-arnold-schwarzenegger-children/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger's 5 Kids: Everything to Know |dateDecember 13, 2023 |access-dateMarch 16, 2024 |websitePeople |firstSophie |lastDodd |archive-dateDecember 13, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231213183215/https://people.com/parents/all-about-arnold-schwarzenegger-children/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9D0CE0DD1E3DF937A15754C0A967958260 |titleChronicle |workThe New York Times |dateJuly 24, 1991 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |firstEric |lastPace |archive-dateNovember 18, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201118154155/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/24/style/chronicle-482791.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/21/style/chronicle-924193.html |titleChronicle |workThe New York Times |dateSeptember 21, 1993 |access-dateDecember 29, 2021 |firstNadine |lastBrozan |archive-dateNovember 18, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201118154133/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/21/style/chronicle-924193.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleArnold Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver's Children Face Trauma, Say Experts |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Health/arnold-schwarzenegger-love-child-emotional-911-maria-shriver/story?id13630130 |websiteABC News |access-dateFebruary 9, 2019 |languageen |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190209232244/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/arnold-schwarzenegger-love-child-emotional-911-maria-shriver/story?id13630130 |archive-dateFebruary 9, 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref> All of their children were born in Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/30/nyregion/chronicle-367451.html |titleChronicle |workThe New York Times |dateSeptember 30, 1997 |access-dateDecember 29, 2021 |firstNadine |lastBrozan |archive-dateNovember 18, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201118154133/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/30/nyregion/chronicle-367451.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> The family lived in an {{convert|11000|sqft|m2|adjon}} home in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, California,<ref>{{cite news |titleNext Stop&nbsp;– Governor's Mansion? |workForbes |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/2003/06/27/cx_bs_0627movers.html |dateJune 27, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastSchiffman |firstBetsy |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080411195942/http://www.forbes.com/2003/06/27/cx_bs_0627movers.html |archive-dateApril 11, 2008 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleThe Mind Behind the Muscles |magazineTime |urlhttp://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,474589,00.html |dateAugust 10, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastLacayo |firstRichard |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930044742/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,474589,00.html |archive-dateSeptember 30, 2007 }}</ref> with vacation homes in Sun Valley, Idaho, and Hyannis Port, Massachusetts.<ref name"CatchingUp">{{cite web |titleCatching Up With Maria Shriver |workSacramento Magazine |urlhttp://www.sacmag.com/media/Sacramento-Magazine/May-2004/Catching-Up-With-Maria-Shriver/ |dateMay 2004 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastDunteman |firstDayna |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080421233026/http://www.sacmag.com/media/Sacramento-Magazine/May-2004/Catching-Up-With-Maria-Shriver/ |archive-dateApril 21, 2008 }}</ref> They attended St. Monica's Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite web |titleMaria Shriver Ends Her Silence On Husband's Campaign |publisherNBC |urlhttp://www.knbc.com/politics/2463270/detail.html |dateSeptember 8, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 }}{{Dead link|dateJune 2020 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> Divorce
at Edwards Air Force Base in December 2002]]
On May 9, 2011, Shriver and Schwarzenegger ended their relationship after 25 years of marriage with Shriver moving out of their Brentwood mansion.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-mew-arnold-maria-separate-20010510,0,2542211.story |titleArnold Schwarzenegger, Maria Shriver announce separation |workLos Angeles Times |dateMay 9, 2011 |authorMark Z. Barabak |access-dateMay 10, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110513232123/http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-mew-arnold-maria-separate-20010510,0,2542211.story |archive-dateMay 13, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/arnold-schwarzenegger-and-wife-of-25-years-maria-shriver-say-theyre-separating/2011/05/10/AF16qwdG_story.html |titleArnold Schwarzenegger and wife of 25 years, Maria Shriver, say they're separating |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateMay 10, 2011 |agencyAssociated Press |firstSteve |lastHendrix |access-dateAugust 24, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170715143420/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/arnold-schwarzenegger-and-wife-of-25-years-maria-shriver-say-theyre-separating/2011/05/10/AF16qwdG_story.html |archive-dateJuly 15, 2017 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-schwarzenegger-idUSTRE7490PP20110510 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger, wife Maria Shriver separate |workReuters |dateMay 10, 2011 |authorDan Whitcomb |access-dateJune 30, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924152934/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/10/us-schwarzenegger-idUSTRE7490PP20110510 |archive-dateSeptember 24, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Pursuant to the divorce judgment, Schwarzenegger kept the Brentwood home, while Shriver purchased a new home nearby so that the children could travel between their parents' homes. They shared custody of the two youngest children.<ref>{{cite news |lastReich |firstAshley |titleSchwarzenegger–Shriver Divorce: Settlement Decides Who Gets House, Kids |urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/schwarzenegger-shriver-divorce_n_893470 |workHuffPost |dateJuly 8, 2011 |access-dateDecember 29, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110710045526/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/08/schwarzenegger-shriver-divorce_n_893470.html |archive-dateJuly 10, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger came under fire after the initial petition did not include spousal support and a reimbursement of attorney's fees.<ref name"abcnews.go.com" /> However, he claims this was not intentional and that he signed the initial documents without having properly read them.<ref name"abcnews.go.com" /> He filed amended divorce papers remedying this.<ref name"abcnews.go.com" /><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://latimesblogs.latimes.com/gossip/2011/07/christopher-schwarzenegger-maria-shriver-arnold.html |workLos Angeles Times |titleMinistry of Gossip |access-dateOctober 18, 2011 |dateJuly 27, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121104182734/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/gossip/2011/07/christopher-schwarzenegger-maria-shriver-arnold.html |archive-dateNovember 4, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger and Shriver finalized their divorce in 2021, ten years after separating.<ref name"AD">{{cite news | urlhttps://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/arnold-schwarzenegger-and-maria-shriver-are-house-hunting-for-their-kids | workArchitectural digest | titleArnold Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver are house-hunting for their kids | lastchen | firstjoyce | access-dateJune 1, 2017 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170602021319/http://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/arnold-schwarzenegger-and-maria-shriver-are-house-hunting-for-their-kids | archive-dateJune 2, 2017 | url-status=live }}</ref>
In June 2022, a jury ruled that Maria Shriver was entitled to half of her ex-husband's post-divorce savings that he earned from 1986 to 2011, including a pension.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/maria-shriver-arnold-schwarzenegger-divorce-settlement-details/|titleMaria Shriver Entitled to Half of Arnold Schwarzenegger's Retirement Money After Finalizing Divorce|websiteUs Weekly|dateJune 22, 2022|access-dateJune 27, 2022|archive-dateJune 27, 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220627083335/https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/maria-shriver-arnold-schwarzenegger-divorce-settlement-details/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
On May 16, 2011, the Los Angeles Times revealed that Schwarzenegger had fathered a son, Joseph, more than 14 years earlier with an employee in their household, Mildred Patricia "Patty" Baena.<ref name"son">{{cite news |urlhttp://www.nydailynews.com/gossip/2011/05/17/2011-05-17_mildred_baena_50_identified_as_mother_of_arnold_schwarzeneggers_love_child_tmz_r.html |titleMildred 'Patty' Baena, 50, identified as the mother of Arnold Schwarzenegger's out of wedlock child: reports |firstNancy |lastDillon |workDaily News |locationNew York |access-dateOctober 18, 2011 |dateMay 17, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110521072834/http://www.nydailynews.com/gossip/2011/05/17/2011-05-17_mildred_baena_50_identified_as_mother_of_arnold_schwarzeneggers_love_child_tmz_r.html |archive-dateMay 21, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.foxnews.com/politics/2011/05/17/report-schwarzenegger-fathered-child-household-employee |titleSchwarzenegger Fathered Child with Household Staff Member |publisherFox |dateMay 17, 2011 |access-dateMay 17, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110518140201/http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2011/05/17/report-schwarzenegger-fathered-child-household-employee/ |archive-dateMay 18, 2011 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ibtimes.com/articles/147401/20110518/mildred-patricia-baena-mother-of-arnold-schwarzenegger-s-out-of-wedlock-child-revealed-photos.htm |titleMildred Patricia Baena, Mother of Arnold Schwarzenegger's Out of Wedlock Child Revealed (PHOTOS) |workInternational Business Times |access-dateOctober 18, 2011 |dateMay 18, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110903055900/http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/147401/20110518/mildred-patricia-baena-mother-of-arnold-schwarzenegger-s-out-of-wedlock-child-revealed-photos.htm |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> "After leaving the governor's office I told my wife about this event, which occurred over a decade ago," Schwarzenegger said to the Times. In the statement, Schwarzenegger did not mention that he had confessed to his wife only after she had confronted him with the information, which she had done after confirming with the housekeeper what she had suspected about the child.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/people/how-maria-found-out-arnies-wife-reportedly-confronted-lover-about-child-20110520-1evji.html |titleHow Maria found out: Arnie's wife reportedly confronted lover about child |workThe Sydney Morning Herald |dateMay 20, 2011 |access-dateMay 20, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110522152717/http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/people/how-maria-found-out-arnies-wife-reportedly-confronted-lover-about-child-20110520-1evji.html |archive-dateMay 22, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Baena is of Guatemalan origin. She was employed by the family for 20 years and retired in January 2011.<ref name"split2">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-me-0517-arnold-20110517,0,312678.story |titleSchwarzenegger fathered a with child his mistress, longtime member of the household staff |workLos Angeles Times |first1Mark Z. |last1Barabak |first2Victoria |last2Kim |dateMay 17, 2011 |access-dateMay 17, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110519084305/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-me-0517-arnold-20110517,0,312678.story |archive-dateMay 19, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> The pregnant Baena was working in the home while Shriver was pregnant with the youngest of the couple's four children.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/18/us/18schwarzenegger.html |titleSchwarzenegger Whispers Become an Admission |workThe New York Times |first1Adam |last1Nagourney |first2Jennifer |last2Steinhauer |dateMay 17, 2011 |access-dateFebruary 5, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161207163912/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/18/us/18schwarzenegger.html |archive-dateDecember 7, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Baena's son with Schwarzenegger was born five days after Shriver gave birth.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-0518-cnn-arnold-child,0,7850501.story |titleSchwarzenegger's son with housekeeper born days after Shriver gave birth |workChicago Tribune |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110617053809/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-0518-cnn-arnold-child,0,7850501.story |archive-dateJune 17, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2011/US/05/18/california.schwarzenegger/index.html |titleArnold Schwarzenegger's two sons born days apart |firstAlan |lastDuke |publisherCNN|dateMay 19, 2011 |access-dateMay 19, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110518220615/http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/05/18/california.schwarzenegger/index.html |archive-dateMay 18, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger said that it took seven or eight years before he found out that he had fathered a child with his housekeeper. It was not until the boy "started looking like [him] ... that [he] put things together".<ref>[https://people.com/celebrity/arnold-schwarzenegger-on-60-minutes-how-he-found-out-he-had-another-son/ Arnold Schwarzenegger: The Boy 'Started Looking Like Me'] People, October 1, 2012</ref> Schwarzenegger has taken financial responsibility for the child "from the start and continued to provide support".<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/43057177 |titleSchwarzenegger: I fathered a secret child |publisherNBC News |dateMay 17, 2011 |access-dateOctober 9, 2011 |archive-dateDecember 22, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222211237/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/43057177 |url-statusdead }}</ref> KNX 1070 radio reported that, in 2010, he bought a new four-bedroom house with a pool for Baena and their son in Bakersfield, California.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2011/05/18/schwarzenegger-reportedly-bought-housekeeper-4-bedroom-home |titleSchwarzenegger Reportedly Fired Housekeeper 4 Weeks Ago |publisherCBS |access-dateOctober 18, 2011 |dateMay 18, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110814031518/http://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2011/05/18/schwarzenegger-reportedly-bought-housekeeper-4-bedroom-home/ |archive-dateAugust 14, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Baena separated from her husband, Rogelio, a few months after Joseph's birth. She filed for divorce in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/248741/Ex-husband-of-Schwarzenegger-mistress-speaks-out |titleExhusband of Schwarzenegger's mistress speaks out |workDaily Express |dateMay 25, 2011 |access-dateOctober 9, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120111181259/http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/248741/Ex-husband-of-Schwarzenegger-mistress-speaks-out |archive-dateJanuary 11, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Rogelio said that the child's birth certificate was falsified and that he planned to sue Schwarzenegger for engaging in conspiracy to falsify a public document, a serious crime in California.<ref>{{Cite news |dateMay 29, 2011 |titleEx-husband of Arnie's lover plans to sue |languageen-AU |workABC News |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-05-30/ex-husband-of-arnies-lover-plans-to-sue/2736790 |access-dateJuly 2, 2023 |archive-dateJuly 2, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230702071744/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-05-30/ex-husband-of-arnies-lover-plans-to-sue/2736790 |url-status=live }}</ref>
When asked in January 2014, "Of all the things you are famous for ... which are you least proud of?" Schwarzenegger replied, "I'm least proud of the mistakes I made that caused my family pain and split us up."<ref name"ama20140121">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/1vshw2/iamarnold_ama_20/ |titleIamArnold. AMA 2.0. |publisherReddit |access-dateJanuary 21, 2014 |authorSchwarzenegger, Arnold |dateJanuary 21, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140122024028/http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/1vshw2/iamarnold_ama_20/ |archive-dateJanuary 22, 2014 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>[https://site.people.com/?p2585145&preview_id2585145]{{Dead link|dateMarch 2021|botInternetArchiveBot|fix-attemptedyes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/brigitte-nielsen-arnold-schwarzeneggers-saucy-22364336|titleArnold Schwarzenegger 'tried every sex act' with Brigitte Nielsen in saucy fling|firstTamara|lastDavison|dateJuly 16, 2020|websitemirror|access-dateMarch 25, 2021|archive-dateJune 25, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210625130720/https://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/brigitte-nielsen-arnold-schwarzeneggers-saucy-22364336|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/arnold-schwarzenegger-affair-brigitte-nielsen-maria-shriver-memoir_n_1925688|titleArnold Schwarzenegger Admits To Affair With Brigitte Nielsen|firstCavan|lastSieczkowski|dateSeptember 29, 2012|websiteHuffPost|access-dateMarch 25, 2021|archive-dateJune 24, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210624042922/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/arnold-schwarzenegger-affair-brigitte-nielsen-maria-shriver-memoir_n_1925688|url-statuslive}}</ref> Accidents, injuries, and other health problems Health problems Schwarzenegger was born with a bicuspid aortic valve, an aortic valve with only two leaflets, where a normal aortic valve has three.<ref>{{cite news |titleSurgery Leaves Star Undimmed |urlhttp://www.thefreelibrary.com/NEWS+LITE+:+SURGERY+LEAVES+STAR+UNDIMMED-a083864140 |workThe Free Library |publisherFarlex |dateApril 18, 1997 |access-dateJuly 29, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121024054528/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/NEWS+LITE+:+SURGERY+LEAVES+STAR+UNDIMMED-a083864140 |archive-dateOctober 24, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Surgery">{{cite web |lastStarnes |firstDr. Vaughn A. |titleRenowned Cardiac Surgeon Proclaims Medical "Facts" In Article "Represent No Facts At All" |dateMarch 8, 2001 |urlhttp://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/news/uptotheminute/news_uptotheminute_eng_legacy_18.asp?secnews&subsecuptotheminute |access-dateMarch 3, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080523203941/http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/news/uptotheminute/news_uptotheminute_eng_legacy_18.asp%3Fsec%3Dnews%26subsec%3Duptotheminute |archive-dateMay 23, 2008 }}</ref> He opted in 1997 for a replacement heart valve made from his own pulmonary valve, which itself was replaced with a cadaveric pulmonic valve, in a Ross procedure; medical experts predicted he would require pulmonic heart valve replacement surgery within the next two to eight years because his valve would progressively degrade. Schwarzenegger apparently opted against a mechanical valve, the only permanent solution available at the time of his surgery, because it would have sharply limited his physical activity and capacity to exercise.<ref name"ElectHeart">{{cite news |titleSchwarzenegger Has Elective Heart Surgery |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/18/us/schwarzenegger-has-elective-heart-surgery.html |dateApril 18, 1997 |access-dateDecember 29, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080530084553/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9C04E6D9113FF93BA25757C0A961958260 |archive-dateMay 30, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>
On March 29, 2018, Schwarzenegger underwent emergency open-heart surgery for replacement of his replacement pulmonic valve.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://news.sky.com/story/arnold-schwarzenegger-undergoes-emergency-open-heart-surgery-11310002 |title'I'm back': Arnold Schwarzenegger in stable condition after heart surgery |publisherSky News |dateMarch 30, 2018 |access-dateMarch 30, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180330161050/https://news.sky.com/story/arnold-schwarzenegger-undergoes-emergency-open-heart-surgery-11310002 |archive-dateMarch 30, 2018 |url-statuslive }}</ref> He said about his recovery: "I underwent open-heart surgery this spring, I had to use a walker. I had to do breathing exercises five times a day to retrain my lungs. I was frustrated and angry, and in my worst moments, I couldn't see the way back to my old self."<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2018/12/11/opinions/arnold-schwarzenegger-fitness-takes-work-dont-give-up/index.html|titleSchwarzenegger: How I fought my way back to fitness|lastSchwarzenegger|firstArnold|dateDecember 12, 2018|publisherCNN|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181212161636/https://edition.cnn.com/2018/12/11/opinions/arnold-schwarzenegger-fitness-takes-work-dont-give-up/index.html|archive-dateDecember 12, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2020, 23 years after his first surgery, Schwarzenegger underwent a surgery for a new aortic valve.<ref>{{Cite magazine |first1Janet W. |last1Lee |last2McNary |first2Dave|dateOctober 24, 2020|titleArnold Schwarzenegger in 'Fantastic' Condition Following Heart Surgery|urlhttps://variety.com/2020/film/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-heart-surgery-2-1234814637/|access-dateNovember 18, 2021|magazineVariety|languageen-US|archive-dateNovember 18, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211118201500/https://variety.com/2020/film/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-heart-surgery-2-1234814637/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Accidents and injuries On December 9, 2001, he broke six ribs and was hospitalized for four days after a motorcycle crash in Los Angeles.<ref name"MotorAccident">{{cite news |agencyAssociated Press |titleSchwarzenegger, son get in motorcycle accident |workUSA Today |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-09-schwarzenegger-accident_x.htm |dateJanuary 9, 2006 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080414021558/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-09-schwarzenegger-accident_x.htm |archive-dateApril 14, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger saved a drowning man in 2004 while on vacation in Hawaii by swimming out and bringing him back to shore.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/2004-04-10-arnold-swimmer_x.htm |titleSchwarzenegger helped swimmer in Maui, according to his office |workUSA Today |dateApril 12, 2004 |access-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160318034452/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/2004-04-10-arnold-swimmer_x.htm |archive-dateMarch 18, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
On January 8, 2006, while Schwarzenegger was riding his Harley-Davidson motorcycle in Los Angeles with his son Patrick in the sidecar, another driver backed into the street he was riding on, causing him and his son to collide with the car at a low speed. While his son and the other driver were unharmed, Schwarzenegger sustained an injury to his lip requiring 15 stitches. "No citations were issued", said Officer Jason Lee, a Los Angeles Police Department spokesman.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna10811025 |titleNo Charges Against Schwarzenegger |dateJanuary 12, 2006 |publisherNBC News |access-dateJuly 13, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131106010926/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/10811025/ |archive-dateNovember 6, 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger did not obtain his motorcycle license until July 3, 2006.<ref>{{cite news |lastNavarro |firstMireya |titleSchwarzenegger Finally Gets a License |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/07/us/07arnold.html |access-dateFebruary 2, 2011 |newspaperThe New York Times |dateJuly 7, 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130212235616/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/07/us/07arnold.html |archive-dateFebruary 12, 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger tripped over his ski pole and broke his right femur while skiing in Sun Valley, Idaho, with his family on December 23, 2006.<ref>{{cite news |agencyAssociated Press |titleCalif. Gov. Schwarzenegger Breaks Leg in Skiing Accident in Idaho |publisherFox News |urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/story/calif-gov-schwarzenegger-breaks-leg-in-skiing-accident-in-idaho |dateDecember 24, 2006 |access-dateDecember 29, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080414041257/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,238562,00.html |archive-dateApril 14, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> On December 26, he underwent a 90-minute operation in which cables and screws were used to wire the broken bone back together. He was released from St. Johns Hospital and Health Center on December 30, 2006.<ref>{{cite news |titleSchwarzenegger cleared to resume duties after surgery |workLos Angeles Times |dateDecember 26, 2006}}</ref>
Schwarzenegger's private jet made an emergency landing at Van Nuys Airport on June 19, 2009, after the pilot reported smoke coming from the cockpit, according to a statement released by his press secretary. No one was harmed in the incident.<ref>{{cite news |firstNicole |lastSanta Cruz |titleGovernor's plane makes emergency landing in Van Nuys |dateJune 19, 2009 |workLos Angeles Times |urlhttp://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2009/06/governors-plane-makes-emergency-landing-in-van-nuys.html |access-dateJune 20, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090623225503/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2009/06/governors-plane-makes-emergency-landing-in-van-nuys.html |archive-dateJune 23, 2009 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
On May 18, 2019, while on a visit to South Africa, Schwarzenegger was attacked and dropkicked from behind by an unknown malefactor while giving autographs to his fans at one of the local schools. Despite the surprise and unprovoked nature of the attack, he reportedly suffered no injuries and continued to interact with fans. The attacker was apprehended and Schwarzenegger declined to press charges against him.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48322307|titleSchwarzenegger 'will not press charges' over South Africa attack|publisherBBC|dateMay 19, 2019|access-dateMay 19, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190519001508/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48322307|archive-dateMay 19, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/arts-entertainment/2019/05/18/im-just-glad-idiot-didnt-interrupt-my-snapchat-schwarzenegger-says-after-guy-drop-kicks-him/|titleArnold Schwarzenegger unhurt after taking a flying kick in the back from a 'mischievous fan'|newspaperThe Washington Post|firstOrion|lastDonovan-Smith|dateMay 19, 2019|access-dateMay 19, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190518205517/https://www.washingtonpost.com/arts-entertainment/2019/05/18/im-just-glad-idiot-didnt-interrupt-my-snapchat-schwarzenegger-says-after-guy-drop-kicks-him/|archive-dateMay 18, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/arnold-schwarzenegger-charges-assault-arnold-sports-africa|titleArnold Schwarzenegger won't press charges against attacker|lastSager|firstJessica|dateMay 19, 2019|publisherFox News|languageen-US|access-dateMay 20, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190520120044/https://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/arnold-schwarzenegger-charges-assault-arnold-sports-africa|archive-dateMay 20, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
Schwarzenegger was involved in a multi-vehicle collision on the afternoon of Friday, January 21, 2022. Schwarzenegger was driving a black GMC Yukon SUV near the intersections of Sunset Boulevard and Allenford Avenue in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, when his vehicle collided with a red Toyota Prius. The driver of the Prius was transported to the hospital for injuries sustained to her head. Schwarzenegger was uninjured.<ref>{{Cite web|url https://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2022/01/22/arnold-schwarzenegger-involved-in-car-crash-on-sunset-boulevard/|title Arnold Schwarzenegger Involved in Car Crash on Sunset Boulevard That Sent 1 to Hospital|date January 22, 2022|work losangeles.cbslocal.com|access-date January 22, 2022|archive-date January 22, 2022|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220122150850/https://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2022/01/22/arnold-schwarzenegger-involved-in-car-crash-on-sunset-boulevard/|url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url https://www.tmz.com/2022/01/21/arnold-schwarzenegger-car-accident-prius-suv-injuries/ |title Arnold Schwarzenegger Involved in Bad Car Accident with Injuries |work tmz.com |date January 22, 2022 |access-date January 22, 2022 |archive-date January 22, 2022 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220122013943/https://www.tmz.com/2022/01/21/arnold-schwarzenegger-car-accident-prius-suv-injuries/ |url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url https://abc7.com/arnold-schwarzenegger-car-crash-brentwood-sunset-boulevard/11496858/|title Arnold Schwarzenegger involved in multi-car crash in Brentwood, LAPD says|date January 22, 2022|work abc7.com|access-date January 22, 2022|archive-date January 22, 2022|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220122022324/https://abc7.com/arnold-schwarzenegger-car-crash-brentwood-sunset-boulevard/11496858/|url-status live}}</ref>
Height
Schwarzenegger's official height of {{cvt|6|ft|2|in}} has been brought into question by several articles. During his bodybuilding days in the late 1960s, it was claimed that he measured {{cvt|6|ft|1.5|in}}. However, in 1988, both the Daily Mail and Time Out magazine mentioned that Schwarzenegger appeared noticeably shorter.<ref name"Andrews, N page 157">Andrews, N: True Myths: The Life and Times of Arnold Schwarzenegger, page 157. Bloomsbury, 2003</ref> Prior to running for governor, Schwarzenegger's height was once again questioned in an article by the Chicago Reader.<ref>{{cite web |titlePoor Recall |workChicago Reader |urlhttp://www.chicagoreader.com/hottype/2003/030919_1.html |dateSeptember 23, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastMiner |firstMichael |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080423133904/http://www.chicagoreader.com/hottype/2003/030919_1.html |archive-dateApril 23, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> As governor, Schwarzenegger engaged in a light-hearted exchange with Assemblyman Herb Wesson over their heights. At one point, Wesson made an unsuccessful attempt to, in his own words, "settle this once and for all and find out how tall he is" by using a tailor's tape measure on the Governor.<ref>{{cite news |titleIncoming governor's mantra: 'Action' |workSan Francisco Chronicle |urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file/c/a/2003/10/23/MNG2C2HG8R1.DTL |dateOctober 23, 2003 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastSalladay |firstRobert |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080328131723/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file%2Fc%2Fa%2F2003%2F10%2F23%2FMNG2C2HG8R1.DTL |archive-dateMarch 28, 2008 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger retaliated by placing a pillow stitched with the words "Need a lift?" on the {{convert|5|ft|5|in|adjon|spellin}} Wesson's chair before a negotiating session in his office.<ref>{{cite web |titleSchwarzenegger Blinked |publisherNational Conference of State Legislators |urlhttps://www.ncsl.org/programs/pubs/slmag/2004/04SLDec_Schwarzenegger.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070604204415/https://www.ncsl.org/programs/pubs/slmag/2004/04SLDec_Schwarzenegger.pdf|archive-dateJune 4, 2007 |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastWeintraub |firstDaniel }}</ref> Democrat Bob Mulholland also claimed Schwarzenegger was {{cvt|5|ft|10|in}} and that he wore risers in his boots.<ref name"Arnoldwatch.org">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.arnoldwatch.org/articles/articles_000488.php3 |titleThe Governator II: At first it seemed like a bad joke |publisherArnoldwatch.org |dateOctober 7, 2004 |access-dateMarch 8, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525190758/http://www.arnoldwatch.org/articles/articles_000488.php3 |archive-dateMay 25, 2017 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 1999, ''Men's Health'' magazine stated his height was {{cvt|5|ft|10|in}}.<ref name"fiveten">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/campaigns/wh2000/stories/tall080399.htm |titleThe Shrinking Field |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateAugust 3, 1999 |access-dateJuly 23, 2012 |authorMathews, Jay |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121103200448/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/campaigns/wh2000/stories/tall080399.htm |archive-dateNovember 3, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Autobiography
Schwarzenegger's autobiography, Total Recall, was released in October 2012. He devotes one chapter called "The Secret" to his extramarital affair. The majority of his book is about his successes in the three major chapters in his life: bodybuilder, actor, and Governor of California.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://abc7.com/archive/8829291/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger talks scandal, new book with '60 Minutes' |publisherAbclocal.go.com |dateSeptember 28, 2012 |access-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131106004755/http://abclocal.go.com/kabc/story?sectionnews%2Fnational_world&id8829291 |archive-dateNovember 6, 2013 }}</ref> Schwarzenegger released a second book in 2023 titled Be Useful: Seven Tools for Life, which features life advice and again touches on his life experiences.
Vehicles
Growing up during Allied-occupied Austria, Schwarzenegger commonly saw heavy military vehicles such as tanks as a child.<ref>{{cite web |titleArnold Schwarzenegger: My army tank mistake | dateSeptember 14, 2016 |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vLyw6mJhb090 |viaYouTube |languageen |access-dateMay 29, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190626192439/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vLyw6mJhb090 |archive-dateJune 26, 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref> As a result, he paid $20,000 to bring his Austrian Army M47 Patton tank (331) to the United States,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/26/arnold-schwarzenegger-gives-kids-rides-in-his-old-war-tank.html|titleArnold Schwarzenegger paid $20,000 to ship his old tank to the US and now uses it to help kids|publisherCNBC|dateJuly 26, 2018|access-dateOctober 19, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190821234116/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/26/arnold-schwarzenegger-gives-kids-rides-in-his-old-war-tank.html|archive-dateAugust 21, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref> which he previously operated during his mandatory service in 1965. However, he later obtained his vehicle in 1991/2,<ref name"yahoo">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/bp/arnold-schwarzenegger-takes-own-personal-tank-spin-000359471.html?guce_referreraHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnLw&guce_referrer_sigAQAAALoKyAD8BfAszlUAjxNz_uk2llg7ejHjx-wQ89VcnbTIeM53qfabjtlwM8rkuhFeUN2dnZLXkxfJvpk5qh8d9mqvI4VmbJc7YQVcOUMV1kNVY7LyXl0Q7YN6Jr_-UAWC8lkqZROH4JdW_axEr9P-s7jBKa2Ctrd4epa-aMwZZg-4|titleArnold Schwarzenegger takes his own personal tank out for a spin|websiteyahoo!|dateJanuary 5, 2013|access-dateOctober 19, 2019|archive-dateJuly 26, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726101112/https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/bp/arnold-schwarzenegger-takes-own-personal-tank-spin-000359471.html?guce_referreraHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnLw&guce_referrer_sigAQAAALoKyAD8BfAszlUAjxNz_uk2llg7ejHjx-wQ89VcnbTIeM53qfabjtlwM8rkuhFeUN2dnZLXkxfJvpk5qh8d9mqvI4VmbJc7YQVcOUMV1kNVY7LyXl0Q7YN6Jr_-UAWC8lkqZROH4JdW_axEr9P-s7jBKa2Ctrd4epa-aMwZZg-4|url-statuslive}}</ref> during his tenure as the Chairmen of the President's Council on Sports, Fitness, and Nutrition,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v6njdZO_sCcI&listRD6njdZO_sCcI&start_radio1&t277|titleArnold Schwarzenegger Crushes Things with Tanks|websiteThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon – YouTube|dateMarch 25, 2014|access-dateOctober 19, 2019|archive-dateDecember 21, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201221205820/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v6njdZO_sCcI&listRD6njdZO_sCcI&start_radio1&t277|url-statuslive}}</ref> and now uses it to support his charity.<ref name"yahoo"/> His first car ever was an Opel Kadett in 1969 after serving in the Austrian army, then he rode a Harley-Davidson Fat Boy in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.driving.co.uk/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-and-his-m47-patton-tank-i-really-like-crushing-things/|titleArnold Schwarzenegger and his tank: "I like crushing things"|websitedriving.co.uk|dateMarch 28, 2014|access-dateOctober 19, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181102083537/https://www.driving.co.uk/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-and-his-m47-patton-tank-i-really-like-crushing-things/|archive-dateNovember 2, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
Moreover, he came to develop an interest in large vehicles and became the first civilian in the U.S. to purchase a Humvee. He was so enamored by the vehicle that he lobbied the Humvee's manufacturer, AM General, to produce a street-legal, civilian version, which they did in 1992; the first two Hummer H1s they sold were also purchased by Schwarzenegger. In 2010, he had one regular and three running on non-fossil power sources; one for hydrogen, one for vegetable oil, and one for biodiesel.<ref>{{cite news |titleThe Hummer and Schwarzenegger: They probably won't be back |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateFebruary 28, 2010 |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603248.html |access-dateOctober 4, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151102212601/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603248.html |archive-dateNovember 2, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger was in the news in 2014 for buying a rare Bugatti Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse. He was spotted and filmed in 2015 in his car, painted silver with bright aluminium forged wheels. His Bugatti has its interior adorned in dark brown leather.<ref>{{cite web |titleTerminator acelera no seu Bugatti Veyron |urlhttp://www.maismotores.net/2015/08/terminator-acelera-no-seu-bugatti-veyron/ |access-dateAugust 11, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150812001907/http://www.maismotores.net/2015/08/terminator-acelera-no-seu-bugatti-veyron/ |archive-dateAugust 12, 2015 |url-statususurped }}</ref> In 2017, Schwarzenegger acquired a Mercedes G-Class modified for all-electric drive.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://electrek.co/2017/01/23/arnold-schwarzenegger-all-electric-mercedes-g-class-kreisel-electric/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger will now drive a new custom all-electric Mercedes G-Class made by Kreisel Electric |firstFred |lastLambert |dateJanuary 23, 2017 |workElectrek |access-dateJanuary 23, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170201102212/https://electrek.co/2017/01/23/arnold-schwarzenegger-all-electric-mercedes-g-class-kreisel-electric/ |archive-dateFebruary 1, 2017 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The Hummers that Schwarzenegger bought in 1992 are so large—each weighs {{convert|6300|lb|kg|abbron}} and is {{convert|7|ft|m}} wide—that they are classified as large trucks, and U.S. fuel economy regulations do not apply to them. During the gubernatorial recall campaign, he announced that he would convert one of his Hummers to burn hydrogen. The conversion was reported to have cost about $21,000. After the election, he signed an executive order to jump-start the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the California Hydrogen Highway Network, and gained a United States Department of Energy grant to help pay for its projected US$91,000,000 cost.<ref>{{cite web |titleThanks to Arnold, California, to Pave the Hydrogen Highway |publisherBMW World |urlhttp://www.usautoparts.net/bmw/hydrogen/schwarzenegger.htm |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080316051803/http://www.usautoparts.net/bmw/hydrogen/schwarzenegger.htm |archive-dateMarch 16, 2008 }}</ref> California took delivery of the first H2H (Hydrogen Hummer) in October 2004.<ref>{{cite web |titleHUMMER H2H Hydrogen Powered Experimental Vehicle |publisherAbout.com |urlhttp://trucks.about.com/od/hybridcar/a/hummer_h2h.htm |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |lastWickell |firstDale |workAbout.com Autos |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110525024014/http://trucks.about.com/od/hybridcar/a/hummer_h2h.htm |archive-dateMay 25, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Public image and legacy
at the Arnold Sports Festival, 2013]]
in Kuwait in 2016]]
Schwarzenegger was nicknamed the "Austrian Oak" in his bodybuilding days, "Arnie" or "Schwarzy" during his acting career,<ref>{{Cite magazine|urlhttps://time.com/4779796/arnold-schwarzenegger-university-of-houston-uh-commencement-graduation/|titleArnold Schwarzenegger at University of Houston Commencement: 'None of Us Can Make It Alone'|magazineTime|dateMay 15, 2017|access-dateMarch 2, 2021|archive-dateMarch 3, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210303053846/https://time.com/4779796/arnold-schwarzenegger-university-of-houston-uh-commencement-graduation/|url-statuslive}}</ref> and "the Governator" (a portmanteau of "Governor" and "Terminator") during his political career. He married Maria Shriver, a niece of the former U.S. president John F. Kennedy, in 1986. They separated in 2011 after he admitted to having fathered a child with their housemaid in 1997; their divorce was finalized in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |titleArnold Schwarzenegger and Maria Shriver Officially Divorced |urlhttps://www.tmz.com/2021/12/28/arnold-schwarzenegger-maria-shriver-divorced-money-prenup/ |websiteTMZ |access-dateDecember 29, 2021 |dateDecember 28, 2021 |archive-dateDecember 29, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211229000710/https://www.tmz.com/2021/12/28/arnold-schwarzenegger-maria-shriver-divorced-money-prenup/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger has been involved with the Special Olympics for many years after they were founded in 1968 by his later mother-in-law Eunice Kennedy Shriver.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/2006/05/04/cx_me_0505featslide_8.html |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Charity: Special Olympics, After-School All-Stars |access-dateMarch 22, 2012 |workForbes |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110828123849/http://www.forbes.com/2006/05/04/cx_me_0505featslide_8.html |archive-dateAugust 28, 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2007, Schwarzenegger was the official spokesperson for the Special Olympics held in Shanghai, China.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.looktothestars.org/celebrity/12-arnold-schwarzenegger |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Charity Work, Events and Causes |access-dateMarch 22, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120113203057/http://www.looktothestars.org/celebrity/12-arnold-schwarzenegger |archive-dateJanuary 13, 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger believes that quality school opportunities should be made available to children who might not normally be able to access them.<ref nameasas>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.afterschoolallstars.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?cenJJKMNpFmG&b854711&ct1126543 |titleBoard of Directors |access-dateMarch 22, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120315162614/http://www.afterschoolallstars.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?cenJJKMNpFmG&b854711&ct1126543 |archive-dateMarch 15, 2012 }}</ref> In 1995, he founded the Inner City Games Foundation (ICG) which provides cultural, educational and community enrichment programming to youth. ICG is active in 15 cities around the country and serves over 250,000 children in over 400 schools countrywide.<ref nameasas /> He has also been involved with After-School All-Stars and founded the Los Angeles branch in 2002.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.la-allstars.org/index.php/about-joomla |titleAfter-School All-Stars, Los Angeles |access-dateMarch 22, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120305070742/http://www.la-allstars.org/index.php/about-joomla |archive-date=March 5, 2012 }}</ref> ASAS is an after school program provider, educating youth about health, fitness and nutrition.
On February 12, 2010, Schwarzenegger took part in the Vancouver Olympic Torch relay. He handed off the flame to the next runner, Sebastian Coe.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://olympics.thestar.com/2010/article/764519--how-vancouver-almost-lost-the-2010-olympics |titleHow Vancouver almost lost the 2010 Olympics&nbsp; – Vancouver 2010 Olympics |workToronto Star |dateFebruary 12, 2010 |access-dateMarch 8, 2010 |locationToronto |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100215071318/http://olympics.thestar.com/2010/article/764519--how-vancouver-almost-lost-the-2010-olympics |archive-dateFebruary 15, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger had a collection of Marxist busts, which he requested from Russian friends during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, as they were being destroyed. In 2011, he revealed that his wife had requested their removal, but he kept the one of Vladimir Lenin present, since "he was the first".<ref>[http://www.newshub.co.nz/entertainment/schwarzenegger-gives-up-soviet-statue-collection-2011040412 "Schwarzenegger gives up Soviet statue collection"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170211141704/http://www.newshub.co.nz/entertainment/schwarzenegger-gives-up-soviet-statue-collection-2011040412 |dateFebruary 11, 2017 }}, WENN. NewsHub. March 4, 2011. Retrieved February 8, 2017</ref> In 2015, he said he kept the Lenin bust to "show losers".<ref>[https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/features/the-unkillable-arnold-schwarzenegger-20150507 "The Unkillable Arnold Schwarzenegger"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170819103931/http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/features/the-unkillable-arnold-schwarzenegger-20150507 |dateAugust 19, 2017 }}, Jonah Weiner. Rolling Stone. May 7, 2015. Retrieved February 8, 2017</ref>
Schwarzenegger is a supporter of Israel, and has participated in a Los Angeles pro-Israel rally<ref>{{cite web |titleGovernor Arnold Schwarzenegger at L.A.'s Pro-Israel rally | dateJune 19, 2010 |via YouTube|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vhqjZzgvz1-A |access-dateDecember 28, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140216184232/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vhqjZzgvz1-A |archive-dateFebruary 16, 2014 |url-statuslive }}</ref> among other similar events.<ref name"ynetnews">{{cite news |lastBenhorin |firstYitzhak |titleSchwarzenegger: I love Israel |urlhttp://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4067508,00.html |access-dateDecember 28, 2013 |newspaperYnet |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203162324/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4067508,00.html |archive-dateDecember 3, 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2004, Schwarzenegger visited Israel to break ground on Simon Wiesenthal Center's Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem, and to lay a wreath at the Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial, he also met with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and President Moshe Katsav.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.haaretz.com/1.4828736 |titleSchwarzenegger, in Israel, Pays Tribute to Holocaust Victims |websiteHaaretz |dateApril 30, 2004 |access-dateOctober 17, 2020 |archive-dateOctober 17, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201017100237/https://www.haaretz.com/1.4828736 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2011, at the Independence Day celebration hosted by the Israeli Consulate General in Los Angeles, Schwarzenegger said: "I love Israel. When I became governor, Israel was the first country that I visited. When I had the chance to sign a bill calling on California pension funds to divest their money from companies that do business with Iran, I immediately signed that bill", then he added, "I knew that we could not send money to these crazy dictators who hate us and threaten Israel any time they have a bad day."<ref name="ynetnews"/>
in September 2017]]
Schwarzenegger supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq.<ref>{{cite news |titleSchwarzenegger rejects California vote on Iraq war |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-usa-california/schwarzenegger-rejects-california-vote-on-iraq-war-idUSN1146037520070912 |workReuters |dateSeptember 12, 2007 |access-dateJuly 17, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180717154053/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-usa-california/schwarzenegger-rejects-california-vote-on-iraq-war-idUSN1146037520070912 |archive-dateJuly 17, 2018 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger also expressed support for the 2011 military intervention in Libya.<ref>{{cite news |titleArnold Schwarzenegger rallies to defence of David Cameron on Libya |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/wintour-and-watt/2011/mar/30/davidcameron-arnold-schwarzenegger |workThe Guardian |dateMarch 30, 2011 |access-dateJuly 17, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180717154111/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/wintour-and-watt/2011/mar/30/davidcameron-arnold-schwarzenegger |archive-dateJuly 17, 2018 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2014, Schwarzenegger released a video message in support of the Euromaidan protests against Ukraine's pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych.<ref>{{cite news |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Releases Message Supporting Ukrainian Protestors (VIDEO) |urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/video-arnold-schwarzenegger-supports-ukrainian-674402 |workThe Hollywood Reporter |dateJanuary 27, 2014 |access-dateAugust 26, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190826112134/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/video-arnold-schwarzenegger-supports-ukrainian-674402 |archive-dateAugust 26, 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2022, Schwarzenegger released another video message condemning the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Schwarzenegger's Twitter account is one of the 22 accounts that the president of Russia's Twitter account follows.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/17/world/europe/arnold-schwarzenegger-video-putin.html |titleWhy Arnold Schwarzenegger taped an impassioned video to Russia, telling Putin: 'Stop this war.' |firstShawn |lastHubler |dateMarch 17, 2022 |websiteThe New York Times |access-dateMarch 20, 2022 |archive-dateMarch 17, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220317192516/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/17/world/europe/arnold-schwarzenegger-video-putin.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Schwarzenegger, who played football as a boy, grew up watching Bayern Munich and Sturm Graz.<ref name"bbc19"/> He also expressed his admiration of Jürgen Klopp's Liverpool in October 2019.<ref name"bbc19">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/sport/football/50160816|titlePremier League predictions: Lawro v 'Terminator: Dark Fate' star Arnold Schwarzenegger|websiteBBC Sport|dateOctober 26, 2019|access-dateOctober 26, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191027012627/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/50160816|archive-dateOctober 27, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Schwarzenegger inspired many actors to become action heroes, including Dwayne Johnson,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/jul/14/lets-rock-why-dwayne-johnson-is-the-new-schwarzenegger|titleLet's rock! Why Dwayne Johnson is the new Schwarzenegger|workThe Guardian|dateJuly 14, 2018|access-dateJanuary 5, 2021|archive-dateJuly 14, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180714073224/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/jul/14/lets-rock-why-dwayne-johnson-is-the-new-schwarzenegger|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://hypebeast.com/2017/7/dwayne-the-rock-johnson-arnold-schwarzenegger-comparison|titleDwayne 'The Rock' Johnson Is This Generation's Much-Needed Arnold Schwarzenegger|workHypebeast|dateJuly 11, 2017|access-dateJanuary 5, 2021|archive-dateNovember 23, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181123153315/https://hypebeast.com/2017/7/dwayne-the-rock-johnson-arnold-schwarzenegger-comparison|url-statuslive}}</ref> Matt McColm,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1454&dat19961130&idFWhSAAAAIBAJ&pg6818,6314399|titleMovie Trends / What's happened to all the shoot-'em-up films? Who's the next Sly or Jean-Claude?|workLos Angeles Times|access-dateJanuary 5, 2021|archive-dateNovember 12, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201112012357/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1454&dat19961130&idFWhSAAAAIBAJ&pg6818,6314399|url-statuslive}}</ref> Christian Boeving,<ref name"mvroom">{{cite web|urlhttp://moviesroom.pl/ranking-gwiazdy-kina-akcji-ktore-zgasly-predzej-niz-rozblysly/|titleRanking. Gwiazdy kina akcji, które zgasły prędzej niż rozbłysły|firstAlbert|lastNowicki|workMovies Room|languagepl|dateDecember 6, 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160114231508/http://moviesroom.pl/ranking-gwiazdy-kina-akcji-ktore-zgasly-predzej-niz-rozblysly/|access-dateJanuary 5, 2021|archive-dateJanuary 14, 2016}}</ref> Vidyut Jamwal,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/vidyut-jamwal-wants-to-be-the-indian-arnold-schwarzenegger-631217|titleVidyut Jamwal wants to be the Indian Arnold Schwarzenegger|workNDTV Movies|dateJanuary 18, 2013|access-dateJanuary 5, 2021|archive-dateSeptember 13, 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150913183941/https://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/vidyut-jamwal-wants-to-be-the-indian-arnold-schwarzenegger-631217|url-statuslive}}</ref> and Daniel Greene.<ref name"mvroom"/> Boeving's character in the 2003 action film When Eagles Strike was based on Schwarzenegger's image from the late 1980s: mostly on Major "Dutch" Schaefer from Predator (1987) and Colonel John Matrix from Commando (1985).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt0369795/trivia?ref_tt_ql_2|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20200317145122/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0369795/trivia?ref_tt_ql_2|archive-dateMarch 17, 2020|titleOperation Balikatan (2003) − Trivia − IMDb|publisherIMDb. Amazon|access-dateJanuary 5, 2021}}</ref> Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy In 2012, Schwarzenegger helped to found the Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy, which is a part of the USC Price School of Public Policy at the University of Southern California.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.schwarzenegger.com/issues/post/usc-schwarzenegger-institute-for-state-and-global-policy |titleUSC Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy &#124; Politics & Issues – Arnold Schwarzenegger |publisherSchwarzenegger.com |access-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150122051826/http://www.schwarzenegger.com/issues/post/usc-schwarzenegger-institute-for-state-and-global-policy |archive-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> The institute's mission is to "[advance] post-partisanship, where leaders put people over political parties and work together to find the best ideas and solutions to benefit the people they serve" and to "seek to influence public policy and public debate in finding solutions to the serious challenges we face".<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://schwarzenegger.usc.edu/about-the-institute/mission |titleAbout the Institute &#124; USC Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy |publisherSchwarzenegger.usc.edu |access-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150122053351/http://schwarzenegger.usc.edu/about-the-institute/mission |archive-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Schwarzenegger serves as chairman of the institute.<ref name"schwarzenegger.usc.edu">{{cite web |urlhttp://schwarzenegger.usc.edu/about-the-institute/about-the-institute-leadership |titleLeadership &#124; USC Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy |publisherSchwarzenegger.usc.edu |access-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150122053059/http://schwarzenegger.usc.edu/about-the-institute/about-the-institute-leadership |archive-dateJanuary 22, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Statue of Arnold Schwarzenegger
{{main|Statue of Arnold Schwarzenegger}}
An {{convert|8|ft|m|adjmid|-tall}}, {{convert|800|lb|kg|abbron|0|}} bronze sculpture of Schwarzenegger performing his signature 'twisted double biceps pose' designed by sculptor Ralph Crawford<ref>{{cite web |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Statue, Columbus - The tribute to the iconic strongman stands outside the Greater Columbus Convention Center |urlhttps://www.ohiomagazine.com/ohio-life/article/arnold-schwarzenegger-statue-columbus |websiteOhiomagazine.com |authorFRANCES KILLEA |dateMarch 5, 2019 |access-dateMay 1, 2023 |archive-dateMay 26, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220526112531/https://www.ohiomagazine.com/ohio-life/article/arnold-schwarzenegger-statue-columbus |url-statuslive }}</ref> is located outside the Greater Columbus Convention Center Columbus, Ohio, which is the venue of the annual Arnold Sports Festival.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203753704577255310284584738|titleHello, Columbus: Arnold Schwarzenegger Is Back, Bigger Than Ever in Ohio|lastAudi|firstTamara|date2012-03-03|workWall Street Journal|access-date2019-02-28|languageen-US|issn0099-9660|archive-date2019-02-28|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190228130327/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203753704577255310284584738|url-statuslive}}</ref> 2016 presidential election For the 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries, Schwarzenegger endorsed fellow Republican John Kasich.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.unionleader.com/Arnold_Schwarzenegger_calls_Kasich_The_Terminator |titleSchwarzenegger calls Kasich the 'Terminator' |workNew Hampshire Union Leader |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160215071504/http://www.unionleader.com/Arnold_Schwarzenegger_calls_Kasich_The_Terminator%26source%3DRSS |archive-dateFebruary 15, 2016 }}</ref> However, he announced in October that he would not vote for the Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump in that year's United States presidential election, with this being the first time he did not vote for the Republican candidate since becoming a citizen in 1983.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttp://people.com/politics/arnold-schwarzenegger-will-not-be-voting-for-donald-trump-choose-your-country-over-your-party/ |titleArnold Schwarzenegger Will Not Be Voting For Donald Trump |dateOctober 8, 2016 |newspaperPeople |languageen-US |access-dateOctober 9, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161009104158/http://people.com/politics/arnold-schwarzenegger-will-not-be-voting-for-donald-trump-choose-your-country-over-your-party/ |archive-dateOctober 9, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-09/robert-de-niro-says-he-would-like-to-punch-trump/7916292 |title'I want to punch him': De Niro launches scathing attack on Trump |dateOctober 9, 2016 |newspaperABC News |languageen-AU |access-dateOctober 9, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161009083618/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-09/robert-de-niro-says-he-would-like-to-punch-trump/7916292 |archive-dateOctober 9, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |urlhttp://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-john-mccain-wont-vote-for-donald-trump-w444040 |titleSchwarzenegger, McCain, More Drop Support of Trump |newspaperUs Weekly |access-dateOctober 9, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161009104008/http://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/arnold-schwarzenegger-john-mccain-wont-vote-for-donald-trump-w444040 |archive-dateOctober 9, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Post-2016 activismIn 2017, Schwarzenegger condemned white supremacists who were seen carrying Nazi and Confederate flags by calling their heroes "losers".<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/arnold-schwarzenegger-trump-the-united-states-no-place-for-nazi-flags-2017-8|titleArnold Schwarzenegger to white supremacists: 'Your heroes are losers'|websiteBusiness Insider|dateAugust 18, 2017|access-dateOctober 26, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191026142949/https://www.businessinsider.com/arnold-schwarzenegger-trump-the-united-states-no-place-for-nazi-flags-2017-8|archive-dateOctober 26, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
Following the January 6 United States Capitol attack by supporters of President Donald Trump, Schwarzenegger posted a video address on social media in which he likened the insurrection to Nazi Germany's Kristallnacht, which he described as "a night of rampage against the Jews carried out [by] the Nazi equivalent of the Proud Boys." He spoke of his father's alcoholism, domestic violence, and abuse, and how it was typical of other former Nazis and collaborators in the post-war era; and described Trump as "a failed leader. He will go down in history as the worst president ever."<ref nameriotvideo>{{Cite tweet|lastSchwarzenegger|firstArnold|userSchwarzenegger |number1348249481284874240|dateJanuary 10, 2021 |title(Video) My message to my fellow Americans and friends around the world following this week's attack on the Capitol}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |titleSchwarzenegger rebukes Trump and compares Capitol riot to Kristallnacht |lastPengelly |firstMartin |workThe Guardian |dateJanuary 10, 2021 |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jan/10/capitol-riot-schwarzenegger-rebukes-trump-kristallnacht |access-dateJanuary 10, 2021 |archive-dateJanuary 11, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210111174640/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jan/10/capitol-riot-schwarzenegger-rebukes-trump-kristallnacht |url-status=live }}</ref>
In late March 2021, Schwarzenegger was interviewed by Politico about the upcoming recall election in California in which he said that "it's pretty much the same atmosphere today as it was then,"<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.politico.com/news/2021/03/31/arnold-schwarzenegger-newsom-california-recall-478575|titleArnold Schwarzenegger has a warning for Gavin Newsom|dateMarch 31, 2021|workPolitico|lastMarinucci|firstCarla|access-dateApril 1, 2021|archive-dateApril 1, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210401163517/https://www.politico.com/news/2021/03/31/arnold-schwarzenegger-newsom-california-recall-478575|url-statuslive}}</ref> and when he was asked about Newsom's claim of this being a "Republican recall" he responded that "this recall effort is sparked by ordinary folks," and that this was not a power grab by Republicans.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/politics/arnold-schwarzenegger-newsom-recall-governor-republican|titleNewsom recall effort is sparked by 'ordinary people,' not Republican 'power grab': Arnold Schwarzenegger|dateMarch 31, 2021|publisherFox News|lastFordham|firstEvie|access-dateApril 1, 2021|archive-dateApril 1, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210401055727/https://www.foxnews.com/politics/arnold-schwarzenegger-newsom-recall-governor-republican|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2021/04/01/former-california-gov-schwarzenegger-warns-newsom-to-take-looming-recall-election-seriously/|titleFormer California Gov. Schwarzenegger Warns Newsom To Take Looming Recall Election Seriously|dateApril 1, 2021|websitesacramento.cbslocal.com|publisherCBS Sacramento|lastHaefeli|firstLaura|access-dateApril 1, 2021|archive-dateApril 1, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210401170558/https://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2021/04/01/former-california-gov-schwarzenegger-warns-newsom-to-take-looming-recall-election-seriously/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Schwarzenegger has spoken out about COVID-19, urging Americans to wear masks and practice social distancing. In August 2021, he said: "There is a virus here. It kills people and the only way we prevent it is: get vaccinated, wear masks, do social distancing, washing your hands all the time, and not just to think about, 'Well my freedom is being kind of disturbed here.' No, screw your freedom."<ref>{{Cite web|url https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2021/08/12/arnold-schwarzenegger-anti-maskers-screw-your-freedom/8106562002/|title 'Screw your freedom': Arnold Schwarzenegger calls anti-maskers 'schmucks' in powerful rant|website USA Today|access-date February 18, 2022|archive-date February 18, 2022|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220218215937/https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2021/08/12/arnold-schwarzenegger-anti-maskers-screw-your-freedom/8106562002/|url-status = live}}</ref>
On January 17, 2024, Schwarzenegger was detained by German authorities after failing to claim an item to customs agents after landing in Munich. A spokesperson for the customs agency said that Schwarzenegger would face criminal tax proceedings because he failed to declare an item that originated in a country that is not a part of the European Union. The item in question was a watch manufactured by Audemars Piguet, a Swiss company. A spokesperson for Schwarzenegger said that he was never asked to fill out a declaration form and he was compliant with officials upon his detainment. Schwarzenegger was held for three hours and was released after pre-paying potential taxes. The watch was subsequently auctioned off at a dinner in Kitzbühel to raise funds for the Schwarzenegger Climate Initiative the next day, fetching €270,000.<ref>{{Cite news |authorElizabeth Wagmeister |author2Chris Stern |author3Jorge Engels |dateJanuary 17, 2024 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger held at Munich airport after failing to declare expensive watch |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2024/01/17/europe/arnold-schwarzenegger-munich-airport-watch-intl/index.html |access-dateJanuary 20, 2024 |workCNN |languageen |archive-dateJanuary 20, 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240120141355/https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/17/europe/arnold-schwarzenegger-munich-airport-watch-intl/index.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastOgunbayo |firstMorayo |dateJanuary 19, 2024 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger's undeclared watch fetches $294K at climate auction |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2024/01/19/entertainment/arnold-schwarzeneggers-undeclared-watch-fetches-usd294k-at-climate-auction/index.html |access-dateJanuary 20, 2024 |websiteCNN |languageen |archive-dateJanuary 20, 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240120141355/https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/19/entertainment/arnold-schwarzeneggers-undeclared-watch-fetches-usd294k-at-climate-auction/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
On October 30, 2024, Schwarzenegger endorsed Kamala Harris for president.<ref>{{cite web | lastTasolides | firstJustin | titleFormer Republican California Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger endorses Harris | websiteSpectrum News NY1 | dateOctober 30, 2024 | urlhttps://ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/news/2024/10/30/arnold-schwarzenegger-endorses-harris-walz-republican-trump | access-dateOctober 30, 2024}}</ref>Diet, health, and climate changeAt a 2015 security conference, Schwarzenegger called climate change the issue of our time,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/schwarzenegger-climate-change-the-issue-our-time |titleSchwarzenegger: Climate change is 'the issue of our time' |year2015 |publisherMSNBC |access-dateFebruary 8, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160203180454/http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/schwarzenegger-climate-change-the-issue-our-time |archive-dateFebruary 3, 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and urged politicians to stop treating it as a political issue.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/schwarzenegger-on-climate-change-2015-12|titleArnold Schwarzenegger: Republicans need to stop treating climate change like a political issue|websiteBusiness Insider|dateDecember 9, 2015|access-dateOctober 26, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191026151428/https://www.businessinsider.com/schwarzenegger-on-climate-change-2015-12|archive-dateOctober 26, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref> Next, in 2016, he collaborated on a campaign by WildAid, starring in the PSA, "Less Meat, Less Heat,"<ref nameless2>{{cite web
|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vc3q-7ish6vk
|title='Less Meat Less Heat' starring Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger
|access-date=November 26, 2023
|last|first
|date=2016
|work=WildAid
|archive-date=November 26, 2023
|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231126171842/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vc3q-7ish6vk
|url-status=live
}}</ref> that encourages people to eat less meat as a means of combating climate change.<ref name=less>{{cite web
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/jun/23/arnold-schwarzenegger-james-cameron-eat-less-meat-china
|title=Arnold Schwarzenegger and James Cameron urge people to eat less meat
|access-date=November 26, 2023
|last=Shoard
|first=Catherine
|date=June 23, 2016
|work=The Guardian
|archive-date=November 26, 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126174149/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/jun/23/arnold-schwarzenegger-james-cameron-eat-less-meat-china
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
He appeared in, and was one of 12 executive producers along with, James Cameron, Pamela Anderson, Steve Bellamy, Rip Esselstyn, Jackie Chan, and Brendan Brazier for the 2018 documentary The Game Changers. This film explores the rise of plant-based diets in professional sports.<ref name=nytgc>{{cite web
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/1506838/2020/01/03/tuf-champ-james-wilks-finds-second-life-and-controversy-as-plant-based-diet-advocate/
|title=‘TUF’ champ James Wilks finds second life — and controversy — as plant-based-diet advocate
|access-date=2025-01-18
|last=Dundas
|first=Chad
|date=2020-01-03
|publisher=New York Times
}}</ref><ref name"variety-8mar2018">{{cite news |last1Lodge |first1Guy |titleFilm Review: 'The Game Changers' |urlhttps://variety.com/2018/film/reviews/the-game-changers-review-1202721601/ |access-dateSeptember 29, 2019 |workVariety |dateMarch 8, 2018}}</ref>
In February 2022, he said that he has "been about 80% plant-based for the past five years of my life".<ref name=eightypercent>{{cite web
|url=https://people.com/health/arnold-schwarzenegger-has-been-80-plant-based-for-5-years-feels-healthier-and-younger-overall/
|title=Arnold Schwarzenegger Has Been 80% Plant-Based for 5 Years, Feels 'Healthier and Younger Overall'
|access-date=November 26, 2023
|last=Maziotta
|first=Julie
|date=February 24, 2022
|work=People Magazine
}}</ref> He also says that while he occasionally still consumes smaller amounts of animal products, following a mostly plant-based diet is better for his "overall-health," and that James Cameron helped him to understand that it is better for the environment.<ref nameeightypercent/> Filmography
{{Main|Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography}}
Schwarzenegger has appeared in over 40 films, and has also ventured into directing and producing. He began his acting career primarily with small roles in film and television starting in 1969. In the 1980s, he became his primary character in two&nbsp;film franchises: as Conan in the Conan series and as The Terminator in the Terminator series.
Schwarzenegger has received several awards and nominations for his work in films. In Stay Hungry, one of his early roles, he won a Golden Globe Award for Best Acting Debut in a Motion Picture. He has also been nominated for various awards for his roles in Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Junior, and True Lies. According to Box Office Mojo, a box office revenue tracking website, films in which Schwarzenegger has acted have grossed a total of more than $1.7&nbsp;billion within the United States, with an average of $67&nbsp;million per film and total $4.0&nbsp;billion worldwide.<ref name"BOXMOJO">{{cite news |dateAugust 24, 2023 |titleArnold Schwarzenegger |publisher |urlhttps://arnoldschwarzeneggers.com/ |access-dateAugust 24, 2023}}</ref> According to The Numbers, another box office revenue tracking website, films in which Schwarzenegger has acted have total grossed around $4.5&nbsp;billion worldwide.<ref name"TheNumbers">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.the-numbers.com/person/128750401-Arnold-Schwarzenegger|titleArnold Schwarzenegger|publisherThe Numbers|access-dateFebruary 20, 2014}}</ref> Awards and honors
{{Main|List of awards and nominations received by Arnold Schwarzenegger}}
Bodybuilding
* Seven-time Mr. Olympia winner
* Four-time Mr. Universe winner
* 1969 World Amateur Bodybuilding Champion
* September 18, 2024, honorary doctorate from the Hertie School in Berlin for his achievements in the field of governance and climate action<ref>{{cite web | titleArnold Schwarzenegger receives honorary doctorate in Berlin for commitment to climate action | websiteAP News | dateSeptember 18, 2024 | urlhttps://apnews.com/video/arnold-schwarzenegger-berlin-california-5deee0b66f9c45c9a8da171292e96414 | access-date=September 24, 2024}}</ref>
Entertainment
* 1977 Golden Globe Award winner
* 2012 Inkpot Award<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.comic-con.org/awards/inkpot|titleInkpot Award|dateDecember 6, 2012|websiteComic-Con International: San Diego}}</ref>
* 2014 Primetime Emmy Award winner for producing the documentary series Years of Living Dangerously<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.emmys.com/bios/arnold-schwarzenegger|titleArnold Schwarzenegger {{pipe}} Emmy Awards|publisherAcademy of Television Arts & Sciences|access-dateJanuary 24, 2023}}</ref>
Halls of Fame
*International Sports Hall of Fame (class of 2012)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ishof.net/#!bio-arnold-schwarzenegger.csui |titleInternational Sports Hall of Fame |access-dateMarch 13, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228033534/http://www.ishof.net/#!bio-arnold-schwarzenegger.csui |archive-dateFebruary 28, 2017 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* WWE Hall of Fame (class of 2015)<ref>{{Citation|titleWWE Hall of Fame 2015, every inductee!|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v2bfIn_ykLy0|languageen|access-dateJanuary 27, 2020|archive-dateDecember 21, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201221205216/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v2bfIn_ykLy0}}</ref><ref name="WWE HOF" />
*Medal for Humanitary Merit of the Austrian Albert Schweitzer Society (2011)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.oeasg.org/ReportCanUSA.htm|titleReportCanada-USA|websiteoeasg.org|access-dateJuly 29, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180916022554/http://www.oeasg.org/ReportCanUSA.htm|archive-dateSeptember 16, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
State/local
*Public art mural portrait "Arnold Schwarzenegger" (2012) by Jonas Never, Venice, Los Angeles<ref name"Calif Geog">{{cite journal |last1Salim |first1Zia |titleThe Contours of Creativity: Public Art, Cultural Landscapes, and Urban Space in Venice, California |journalThe California Geographer/The California Geographical Society |year2019 |volume58 |urlhttp://scholarworks.csun.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.3/211188/CAGeo58-42-79-Salim.pdf?sequence1 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201109172255/http://scholarworks.csun.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.3/211188/CAGeo58-42-79-Salim.pdf?sequence1 |url-statusdead |archive-dateNovember 9, 2020 |access-dateSeptember 22, 2020 }}</ref>
* Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy (part of the USC Price School of Public Policy at the University of Southern California) named in his honor.<ref name="schwarzenegger.usc.edu" />
* Arnold's Run ski trail at Sun Valley Resort named in his honor.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mtexpress.com/2001/01-12-05/01-12-05arnoldsrun.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20011207105112/http://www.mtexpress.com/2001/01-12-05/01-12-05arnoldsrun.htm |archive-dateDecember 7, 2001 |titleAnd … here's Arnold's Run |access-date=July 13, 2008 }}</ref> The trail is categorized as a black diamond, or most difficult, for its terrain.
International
* Grand Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria in Gold (1993)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.bildarchivaustria.at/Pages/ImageDetail.aspx?p_iBildID15217485|titleÖsterreichische Nationalbibliothek – Goldenes Ehrenzeichen für Arnold Schwarzenegger|websitebildarchivaustria.at|access-dateJuly 29, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170927113219/http://www.bildarchivaustria.at/Pages/ImageDetail.aspx?p_iBildID15217485|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Cavalier (2011) and Commander (2017) of the French Legion of Honor<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.salon.com/2011/05/19/lyons_male_species/|titleA bad week for the males of our species|dateMay 19, 2011|websiteSalon|languageen|access-dateSeptember 18, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191102183101/https://www.salon.com/2011/05/19/lyons_male_species/|archive-dateNovember 2, 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://people.com/movies/arnold-schwarzenegger-awarded-for-environmental-work/|titleArnold Schwarzenegger Receives France's Highest Honor for his Environmental Work|websitePeople|languageen|access-dateSeptember 18, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180331164736/http://people.com/movies/arnold-schwarzenegger-awarded-for-environmental-work/|archive-dateMarch 31, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Honorary Ring of the Federal State of Styria (Austria, June 2017)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.meinbezirk.at/steiermark/c-leute/arnold-schwarzenegger-erhielt-ehrenring-des-landes-steiermark_a2166212|titleArnold Schwarzenegger erhielt Ehrenring des Landes Steiermark|lastWutti|firstKerstin|dateJune 22, 2017 |publishermeinbezirk.at|languagede|access-dateJuly 29, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190729105511/https://www.meinbezirk.at/steiermark/c-leute/arnold-schwarzenegger-erhielt-ehrenring-des-landes-steiermark_a2166212|archive-dateJuly 29, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
* "A Day for Arnold" on July 30, 2007, in Thal, Austria. For his 60th birthday, the mayor sent Schwarzenegger the enameled address sign (Thal 145) of the house where Schwarzenegger was born, declaring "This belongs to him. No one here will ever be assigned that number again".<ref name"WWE HOF">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.wwe.com/superstars/arnold-schwarzenegger |titleSchwarzenegger's WWE HOF bio |publisherWWE |access-dateJanuary 28, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150211010752/http://www.wwe.com/superstars/arnold-schwarzenegger |archive-dateFebruary 11, 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleStrudel, schnitzel shower Schwarzenegger at 60th birthday bash |workUSA Today |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2007-07-30-schwarzenegger_N.htm |access-dateApril 18, 2008 |agencyAssociated Press |dateJuly 30, 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110705114202/http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2007-07-30-schwarzenegger_N.htm |archive-dateJuly 5, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* "Honor et Gloria" White Cross (No.179) – 2023; Ukrainian non-state decoration bestowed by the VGO "Kraina" (NGO) at the request of Mr Anatoliy Ostapenko (member of the Verkhovna Rada)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://vto-orden.com.ua/catalog/award/bilij-hrest-chest-ta-slava |titleБілий хрест "HONOR ET GLORIA" |publishervto-orden.com.ua |access-dateSeptember 1, 2023 |languageuk }}</ref> Books * {{cite book |lastSchwarzenegger |firstArnold |year1977 |titleArnold: Developing a Mr. Universe Physique |publisherSchwarzenegger |oclc=6457784}}
* {{cite book |lastSchwarzenegger |firstArnold |author2Douglas Kent Hall |year1977 |titleArnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder |urlhttps://archive.org/details/arnoldeducationo00schw |url-accessregistration |locationNew York |publisherSimon & Schuster |isbn978-0-671-22879-8|author2-link=Douglas Kent Hall }}
* {{cite book |lastSchwarzenegger |firstArnold |author2Douglas Kent Hall |year1979 |titleArnold's Bodyshaping for Women |urlhttps://archive.org/details/arnoldsbodyshapi00schw |url-accessregistration |locationNew York |publisherSimon & Schuster |isbn978-0-671-24301-2|author2-link=Douglas Kent Hall }}
* {{cite book |lastSchwarzenegger |firstArnold |author2Bill Dobbins |year1981 |titleArnold's Bodybuilding for Men |urlhttps://archive.org/details/arnoldsbodybuild00schw |url-accessregistration |locationNew York |publisherSimon & Schuster |isbn978-0-671-25613-5|author2-link=Bill Dobbins }}
* {{cite book |lastSchwarzenegger |firstArnold |author2Bill Dobbins |year1998 |titleThe New Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding |editionRev. |locationNew York |publisherSimon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-84374-2}}
* {{cite book |lastSchwarzenegger |firstArnold |year2012 |titleTotal Recall |locationNew York |publisherSimon & Schuster |isbn978-1-84983-971-6 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/totalrecallmyunb0000schw |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |lastSchwarzenegger |firstArnold |year2023 |titleBe Useful: Seven Tools for Life |locationLondon |publisherPenguin Books |isbn978-0-59365-595-5 }} See also
{{Portal|Biography|Austria|California|United States}}
* List of United States governors born outside the United States
References
Footnotes
{{Notelist}}
Citations
<!-- {{scroll box}} should not be used in main article space, as it renders any content obscured within the template unprintable, according to a June 2007 discussion. -->
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* {{cite book |lastAndrews |firstNigel |titleTrue Myths: The Life and Times of Arnold Schwarzenegger: From Pumping Iron to Governor of California |year2003 |editionrev. |publisherBloomsbury |locationNew York |isbn978-1-58234-465-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/truemythslifetim0000andr }}
* {{cite AV media |titleArnold Schwarzenegger: Hollywood Hero |dateNovember 11, 1999 |mediumTelevision production (special) |peopleBaker, Todd (director)}}
* {{cite book |lastBlitz |firstMichael |author2Louise Krasniewicz |titleWhy Arnold Matters: The Rise of a Cultural Icon |year2004 |publisherBasic Books |locationNew York |isbn978-0-465-03752-0}}
* {{cite book |lastBorowitz |firstAndy |author-linkAndy Borowitz |titleGovernor Arnold: A Photodiary of His First 100 Days in Office |year2004 |publisherSimon & Schuster |locationNew York |isbn978-0-7432-6266-8}}
* {{cite book |lastBrandon |firstKaren |titleArnold Schwarzenegger |year2004 |publisherLucent Books |locationSan Diego |isbn978-1-59018-539-1 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/arnoldschwarzene00bran }}
* {{cite book |lastSaunders |firstDave |title"Arnie": Schwarzenegger and the Movies |year2008 |publisherI. B. Tauris |locationLondon}}
* {{cite book |lastSexton |firstColleen A. |titleArnold Schwarzenegger |year2005 |publisherLerner Publications |locationMinneapolis |isbn978-0-8225-1634-7 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/arnoldschwarzene0000sext }}
* {{cite book |lastZannos |firstSusan |titleArnold Schwarzenegger |year2000 |publisherMitchell Lane |locationChilds, Md. |isbn978-1-883845-95-7 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/arnoldschwarzene00zann }}
External links
{{Sister project links|voyno|Arnold Schwarzenegger|wiktno|bno|sArnold Schwarzenegger|vno|authoryes|d=Q2685}}
* {{Official website}}
* [https://arnieslife.com/Arnold Schwarzenegger Museum]
* {{WWE superstar|arnold-schwarzenegger}}
* {{C-SPAN}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{TCMDb name}}
* {{British pathe|vc7Iaz_r2t-g&listPLF6DFF20B9F98951B|dSchwarzenegger competing in Mr. Universe|year1969}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-gov}}
{{s-bef|rows2|beforeDick Kazmaier}}
{{s-ttl|rows2|titleChair of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports|years=1990–1993}}
{{s-aft|afterFlorence Griffith Joyner|asCo-Chair}}
|-
{{s-aft|afterTom McMillen|asCo-Chair}}
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{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=Bill Simon}}
{{s-ttl|titleRepublican nominee for Governor of California|years2003, 2006}}
{{s-aft|after=Meg Whitman}}
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{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=Gray Davis}}
{{s-ttl|titleGovernor of California|years2003–2011}}
{{s-aft|after=Jerry Brown}}
|-
{{s-prec|usa}}
{{s-bef|rows2|beforeGray Davis|as=former Governor}}
{{s-ttl|titleOrder of precedence of the United States|yearswithin California}}
{{s-aft|afterMike Castle|asformer Governor}}
|-
{{s-ttl|titleOrder of precedence of the United States|yearsoutside California}}
{{s-aft|afterArne Carlson|asformer Governor}}
{{s-end}}
{{Arnold Schwarzenegger|state=expanded}}
{{Navboxes
| title = Awards for Arnold Schwarzenegger
| list =
{{Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year Actor}}
{{Inkpot Award 2010s}}
{{The Life Career Award}}
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}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Schwarzenegger, Arnold}}
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Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States
Category:New Star of the Year (Actor) Golden Globe winners
Category:People from Graz-Umgebung District
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger
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1807
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ASA
|
{{About|the initialism or acronym "ASA"|the word |Asa (disambiguation){{!}}Asa}}
{{wiktionary|ASA|Asa|asa|-asa}}
ASA as an abbreviation or initialism may refer to:
{{TOC right}}
Biology and medicine
* Accessible surface area of a biomolecule, accessible to a solvent
* Acetylsalicylic acid, aspirin
* Advanced surface ablation, refractive eye surgery
* Anterior spinal artery, the blood vessel which supplies the anterior portion of the spinal cord
* Antisperm antibodies, antibodies against sperm antigens
* Argininosuccinic aciduria, a disorder of the urea cycle
* ASA physical status classification system, rating of patients undergoing anesthesia
Education and research
* African Studies Association of the United Kingdom
* African Studies Association
*Alandica Shipping Academy, Åland Islands, Finland
* Albany Students' Association, at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
* Alexander-Smith Academy, in Houston, Texas
* Alpha Sigma Alpha, U.S. national sorority
* American Society for Aesthetics, philosophical organization
* American Student Assistance, national non-profit organization
* American Studies Association
* Arizona School for the Arts
* Armenian Sisters Academy
* Association of Social Anthropologists
* Astronomical Society of Australia
* Austrian Studies Association
Organizations
* Acoustical Society of America, international scientific society
* Advertising Standards Authority (disambiguation), advertising regulators in several countries
* American Scientific Affiliation, an organization of Christians in science
* American Society of Agronomy
* American Society of Anesthesiologists
* American Society of Appraisers
*American Sociological Association
* American Staffing Association
* American Standards Association, a former name of the American National Standards Institute
* American Statistical Association
* American Synesthesia Association
* Americans for Safe Access, marijuana law reform group
* Association for Social Advancement, microfinance institution, Bangladesh
* Association for the Study of Abortion
* Association of Scouts of Azerbaijan
* Association of Southeast Asia
* Australian Submarine Agency
* Australian Society of Authors
* Australian Space Agency
* Austrian Service Abroad
* Autism Society of America
* United States Army Security Agency
Sports
* Agremiação Sportiva Arapiraquense, Brazilian soccer club
* Alliance Sport Alsace, French basketball club
* Amateur Softball Association, former name of the governing body now known as USA Softball
* Amateur Swimming Association, former name of Swim England
* American Sailing Association
* American Samoa, IOC country code
* American Speed Association, motorsports sanctioning body
* American Sportscasters Association
* Arizona Soccer Association
* Athletics South Africa, the national governing body for the sport of athletics in South Africa
* Atlético Sport Aviação, Angolan multisports club
* United States Adult Soccer Association
Transportation
* ASA (automobile), Italian marque of automobiles (Autocostruzioni Società per Azioni)
* ASA Aluminium Body, Argentinian manufacturer of replicas of sports cars
* Aeropuertos y Servicios Auxiliares, Mexican airport operator
* African Safari Airways, airline company based in East Africa
* Air services agreement, bilateral agreement to allow international commercial air transport services between signatories
* Atlantic Southeast Airlines, in Atlanta area, Georgia
* Airline Superintendents Association, of Trinidad & Tobago
* Airservices Australia, air traffic management and related services provider for Australia
* The International Civil Aviation Organization's code for Alaska Airlines
Other
* ASA ("American Standards Association") a measure of film speed in photography, later replaced by the ISO standard
* Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate, a thermoplastic used for 3D printing and in the auto industry
* Adaptive simulated annealing, optimization algorithm
* Cisco ASA (Adaptive Security Appliances)
* Allied States of America, a fictional American nation in the television show Jericho
* Allmennaksjeselskap, the designation for a Norwegian public limited company
* Anti-Soviet agitation, a criminal offense in the Soviet Union
* ASA carriage control characters, a system used for controlling mainframe line printers
* Assistant state's attorney, a title for attorneys working in the state's attorney's office in the United States
* As-salamu alaykum, a greeting in Arabic that means "peace be upon you"
* Auditory scene analysis, a proposed model for the basis of auditory perception
See also
* Åsa (disambiguation)
{{disambiguation}}
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASA
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.955082
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1810
|
Actium
|
thumb|300px|A map showing the Battle of Actium.
Actium or Aktion () was a town on a promontory in ancient Acarnania at the entrance of the Ambraciot Gulf, off which Octavian gained his celebrated victory, the Battle of Actium, over Antony and Cleopatra, on September 2, 31 BCE.
History
thumb|Battle of Actium by Laureys a Castro, 1672. Note anachronisms.
Actium belonged originally to the Corinthian colonists of Anactorium, who probably founded the sanctuary of Apollo Actius. This temple was of great antiquity. In the 3rd century BCE it fell to the Acarnanians, who subsequently held their religious summits there.
There was also an ancient festival named Actia, celebrated here in honour of the god. Augustus after his victory enlarged the temple, and revived the ancient festival, which was henceforth celebrated once in five years (πενταετηρίς, ludi quinquennales), with musical and gymnastic contests, and horse races.
We learn from a Greek inscription found on the site of Actium, and which is probably prior to the time of Augustus, that the chief priest of the temple was called Ἱεραπόλος, and that his name was employed in official documents, like that of the first Archon at Athens, to mark the date. Strabo says that the temple was situated on an eminence, and that below was a plain with a grove of trees, and a dock-yard; and in another passage he describes the harbour as situated outside of the gulf.
On the opposite coast of Epirus, Augustus founded the city of Nicopolis in honour of his victory. After the foundation of Nicopolis, a few buildings sprang up around the temple, and it served as a kind of suburb to Nicopolis.
Archaeology
On October 8, 1980, the Greek Ministry of Transport and Communications reported that shipwrecks from the Battle of Actium had been located at Actium near the entrance to the Ambracan Gulf.
In Summer 2009, archaeologists discovered the ruins of the Temple of Apollo and found two statue heads, one of Apollo, one of Artemis (Diana).
See also
Battle of Actium
List of ancient Greek cities
Preveza the nearest modern town, connected by a 1.5 km long tunnel
References
External links
Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Greece
Category:Archaeological sites in Western Greece
Category:Corinthian colonies
Category:Former populated places in Greece
Category:Roman towns and cities in Greece
Category:Populated places in ancient Acarnania
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actium
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2025-04-05T18:25:47.961531
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1812
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Amway
|
{{short description|American multi-level marketing company (1959– )}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Lead too short|date=July 2024}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Amway Corp.
| logo = Amway (logo).svg
| image = Ada Michigan Amway HQ DSCN9720.JPG
| image_size | image_caption Headquarters in Ada, Michigan
| type = Private
| founder = {{plainlist|
* Richard DeVos
* Jay Van Andel
}}
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = {{plainlist|
* Steve Van Andel (co-chairman)
* Doug DeVos (co-chairman)
* Milind Pant (CEO)
}}
| industry = Multi-level marketing
| products = {{hlist |Cleaning agents |skin care |personal care |cosmetics |dietary supplements |protein supplements |beverages |cookware | water purifiers |air purifiers }}
| brands = Amway Home, Glister, G&H, Nutrilite, Artistry, AmwayQueen, eSpring, Atmosphere, XS Energy
| revenue US$ 8.1&nbsp;billion (2022)<ref name"sales">{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/companies/amway/?sh3e36d67ec415 |titleAmway |websiteForbes |access-dateJanuary 25, 2023 |archive-dateJanuary 25, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230125154502/https://www.forbes.com/companies/amway/?sh3e36d67ec415 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| operating_income | net_income
| num_employees 15,000+<ref name"sales" />
| parent = Alticor
| foundation = {{Start date and age|1959|11|09}}
| location = Ada, Michigan, United States
| homepage = {{Official URL}}
}}
Amway Corp. (short for "American Way") is an American multi-level marketing (MLM) company that sells health, beauty, and home care products.<ref name"Xardel">{{Cite book|last Xardel |firstDominique |author-link Dominique Xardel|titleThe Direct Selling Revolution. Understanding the Growth of the Amway Corporation |publisherBlackwell Publishing |year1993 |isbn 978-0-631-19229-9|pages1–4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.amway.com/en/General/About-Amway-10725.aspx |titleAbout Amway – Global Leader in Direct Selling |publisherAmway.com |dateJune 23, 2011 |access-dateJuly 9, 2011| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090418042628/http://www.amway.com/en/general/about-amway-10725.aspx| archive-dateApril 18, 2009| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.thetimes100.co.uk/case-study--meeting-global-responsibilities-by-caring-for-communities--11-172-2.php |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071220203230/http://www.thetimes100.co.uk/case-study--meeting-global-responsibilities-by-caring-for-communities--11-172-2.php |url-statusdead |archive-dateDecember 20, 2007 |titleThe Times 100 Business Case Studies: Amway – Direct selling and supply chain |dateFebruary 22, 2008 |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 }}</ref> The company was founded in 1959 by Jay Van Andel and Richard DeVos and is based in Ada, Michigan.<ref>{{cite web|titleAmway Corp—Company Profile and News—Bloomberg Markets|websiteBloomberg|access-dateSeptember 2, 2019|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/6382Z:US|archive-dateSeptember 2, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190902164523/https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/6382Z:US|url-statuslive}}</ref> Amway and its sister companies under Alticor reported sales of $8.9 billion in 2019.<ref name"sales"/> It is the largest multi-level marketing company in the world by revenue.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/multi-level-marketing.asp |titleWhat Is an MLM? How Multilevel Marketing Works |access-dateJanuary 25, 2023 |archive-dateFebruary 18, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230218035338/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/multi-level-marketing.asp |url-statuslive }}</ref> It conducts business through a number of affiliated companies in more than a hundred countries and territories.
Amway has been investigated in various countries and by institutions such as the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) for alleged pyramid scheme practices. The company has paid tens of millions of dollars to settle these suits.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.ftc.gov/public-statements/1998/05/pyramid-schemes |titlePyramid Schemes |workFederal Trade Commission |access-dateJuly 19, 2015 |dateMay 13, 1998 |archive-dateDecember 16, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131216053839/http://www.ftc.gov/public-statements/1998/05/pyramid-schemes |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"classaction" /><ref name"ibtimes" /><ref name"Kerala raids" /><ref name"Sanandakumar">{{cite news|lastSanandakumar|firstS|titleAmway India Chairman William S Pinckney, two Directors granted bail|urlhttp://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/amway-india-chairman-william-s-pinckney-two-directors-granted-bail/articleshow/20314744.cms|access-dateMay 28, 2014|workThe Economic Times|dateMay 29, 2013|archive-dateDecember 17, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161217180913/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/amway-india-chairman-william-s-pinckney-two-directors-granted-bail/articleshow/20314744.cms|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|firstRoger |lastAdler |urlhttps://www.law.com/almID/1202428760677/ |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20110607231937/http://www.law.com/jsp/ihc/PubArticleIHC.jsp?id1202428760677 |url-statuslive |archive-dateJune 7, 2011 |titleAmway GC Lives the Dream |publisherLaw.com |dateMarch 4, 2009 |access-dateDecember 29, 2018}}</ref> In 1983, Amway admitted to defrauding the Canadian government of customs duties and taxes by falsely undervaluing goods it imported into the country over a period of 15 years; it had to pay a fine.<ref>{{Cite news |lastMartin |firstDouglas |dateNovember 11, 1983 |titleAmway admits fraud |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/11/business/amway-admits-fraud.html |workThe New York Times}}</ref> Between 2007 and 2008, Amway was found guilty of illegal business practices in India, a ruling upheld by the Supreme Court of India and followed in 2021 by India's Enforcement Directorate attaching company and bank assets, and labeling Amway's business model a "pyramid fraud" and its product offerings a "masquerade".<ref>{{Cite news |dateMay 27, 2014 |titleAndhra Police arrest Amway India CEO, act evokes condemnation |workBusiness Standard}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastwww.ETRetail.com |titleAmway guilty of misbranding, asked not to sell two products - ET Retail |urlhttps://retail.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/food-entertainment/personal-care-pet-supplies-liquor/amway-guilty-of-misbranding-asked-not-to-sell-two-products/61563037 |access-date2024-04-07 |websiteETRetail.com |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2022-04-21 |titleHere's how some of the other big countries deal with Amway |urlhttps://www.cnbctv18.com/business/companies/heres-how-some-of-the-other-big-countries-deal-with-amway-13226322.htm/ |access-date2024-04-07 |websiteCNBCTV18 |languageen}}</ref>
History
Founding
Jay Van Andel and Richard DeVos had been friends since school days and business partners in various endeavors, including a hamburger stand, an air charter service, and a sailing business. In 1949, they were introduced to the Nutrilite Products Corporation<ref>A California-based direct sales company founded by Carl Rehnborg, the developer of the first multivitamin marketed in the United States</ref> by Van Andel's second cousin Neil Maaskant. DeVos and Van Andel signed up to become distributors for Nutrilite food supplements in August.<ref name"Conn">{{cite book |lastConn |firstCharles Paul |titleThe Possible Dream: A Candid Look At Amway |author-linkCharles Paul Conn |publisherRevell |year1977 |isbn0-8007-0857-1}}</ref>{{page needed|dateSeptember 2010}} They sold their first box the next day for $19.50, but lost interest for the next two weeks. They traveled to Chicago to attend a Nutrilite seminar soon afterward, at the urging of Maaskant, who had become their sponsor. They watched promotional filmstrips and listened to talks by company representatives and successful distributors, then they decided to pursue the Nutrilite business. They sold their second box of supplements on their return trip to Michigan, and rapidly proceeded to develop the business further.<ref name"Conn" />{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
Earlier in 1949, DeVos and Van Andel had formed the Ja-Ri Corporation (abbreviated from their respective first names) to import wooden goods from South American countries. After the Chicago seminar, they turned Ja-Ri into a Nutrilite distributorship instead.<ref>{{cite book |lastVan Andel |firstJay |titleAn Enterprising Life |author-linkJay Van Andel |publisherHarperCollins |year1998 |isbn0-88730-997-6 |pages37–39}}</ref> In addition to profits on each product sold, Nutrilite offered commissions on sales made by new distributors introduced to the company by existing distributors—a system known as multi-level marketing or network marketing. By 1958, DeVos and Van Andel had built an organization of more than 5,000 distributors. However, they and some of their top distributors formed the American Way Association, or Amway, in April 1959 in response to concerns about the stability of Nutrilite and in order to represent the distributors and look for additional products to market.<ref>{{cite book |lastRobinson |firstJames W. |titleEmpire of Freedom: The Amway Story and What It Means to You |publisherPrima Publishing |year1997 |isbn0-7615-1088-5 |page=11}}</ref>
Their first product was called Frisk, an organic cleaner developed by a scientist in Ohio. DeVos and Van Andel bought the rights to manufacture and distribute Frisk, and later changed the name to LOC (Liquid Organic Cleaner).<ref>{{cite video |titleProfiles of the American Dream: Rich DeVos and Jay Van Andel and the Remarkable Beginnings of Amway |mediumDocumentary |publisherPremiere Films |date1997}}</ref> They subsequently formed the Amway Sales Corporation to procure and inventory products and to handle sales and marketing plans, and the Amway Services Corporation to handle insurance and other benefits for distributors.<ref>Bill Hybels interview with Rich DeVos at the {{ill|Willow Creek Association|ltWillow Creek Association's|no|Willow Creek Norge}} Global Leadership Summit in 2000</ref> In 1960, they purchased a 50% share in Atco Manufacturing Company in Detroit, the original manufacturers of LOC, and changed its name to Amway Manufacturing Corporation.<ref>{{cite book |lastVan Andel|firstJay |titleAn Enterprising Life |author-linkJay Van Andel |publisherHarperCollins |year1998 |isbn0-88730-997-6 |pages58–60}}</ref> In 1964, the Amway Sales Corporation, Amway Services Corporation, and Amway Manufacturing Corporation merged to form the Amway Corporation.<ref name"MLMLAW">From MLM Law Library: [http://www.mlmlaw.com/library/cases/mlm/ftc/amway.htm FTC Final Order from May 8, 1979 (93 F.T.C. 618)] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081015182742/http://www.mlmlaw.com/library/cases/mlm/ftc/amway.htm |dateOctober 15, 2008}}.</ref>
Amway bought a controlling interest in Nutrilite in 1972<ref>{{cite news|titleAhead of Its Time Health Care: Nutrilite founder worked on the first food supplements in the 1920s; the company is now owned by Amway |firstAnne |lastMichaud |newspaperOrange County Register |pageC01 |dateDecember 29, 1994}}</ref> and full ownership in 1994.
International expansion
Amway expanded to Australia in 1971, to parts of Europe in 1973, to parts of Asia in 1974, to Japan in 1979, to Latin America in 1985, to Thailand in 1987, to China in 1995,<ref>{{cite web|title安利在华小心翼翼自我洗白 中国区业绩已连续3年下滑|urlhttp://finance.sina.com.cn/chanjing/gsnews/2018-01-26/doc-ifyqyesy2164667.shtml |websitefinance.sina.com.cn |dateJanuary 26, 2018 |access-date2018-05-26 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20180526060610/http://finance.sina.com.cn/chanjing/gsnews/2018-01-26/doc-ifyqyesy2164667.shtml |archive-dateMay 26, 2018 |languagezh-cn |url-statuslive |dfmdy-all}}</ref> to Africa in 1997, to India and Scandinavia in 1998, to Ukraine in 2003, to Russia in 2005,<ref>{{cite news|author<!--not stated-->|collaborationBusiness Journal Staff|titleAlticor Opens 'Amway Russia'|newspaperGrand Rapids Business Journal|locationGrand Rapids, MI|publisherGemini Media, LLC|agencyADA|date21 March 2005|urlhttps://grbj.com/uncategorized/alticor-opens-amway-russia/|access-dateJanuary 17, 2023|archive-dateDecember 12, 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221212092418/https://grbj.com/uncategorized/alticor-opens-amway-russia/|url-statuslive}}</ref> and to Vietnam in 2008.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.grbj.com/articles/73124 |titleAmway Corp is World Trader of the Year again |firstPete |lastDaly |dateApril 29, 2011 |websiteGrand Rapids Business Journal |access-dateSeptember 16, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140219114654/http://www.grbj.com/articles/73124 |archive-dateFebruary 19, 2014 |url-statusdead |url-accesslimited}}</ref>
In 2014, a Russian loyalty card program called "Alfa-Amway" was created when Amway joined with Alfa-Bank.<ref nameFilkins2018.10.15>{{cite magazine |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/10/15/was-there-a-connection-between-a-russian-bank-and-the-trump-campaign |url-accesssubscription |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181012025116/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/10/15/was-there-a-connection-between-a-russian-bank-and-the-trump-campaign |archive-dateOctober 12, 2018 |titleWas There a Connection Between a Russian Bank and the Trump Campaign? A team of computer scientists sifted through records of unusual Web traffic in search of answers |firstDexter |lastFilkins |author-linkDexter Filkins |dateOctober 8, 2018 |magazineThe New Yorker |access-date12 October 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
Amway was ranked by Forbes as the 42nd-largest privately held company in the United States in 2018,<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/companies/amway/?listlargest-private-companies |titleAmway on the Forbes America's Largest Private Companies List |dateOctober 24, 2018 |workForbes |access-dateSeptember 16, 2019 |archive-dateMarch 29, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190329121717/https://www.forbes.com/companies/amway/?listlargest-private-companies |url-statuslive }}</ref> and as the number one largest company on the Direct Selling News Global 100 list in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.directsellingnews.com/global-100/ |titleDSN Global 100 |websiteDirect Selling News |access-dateDecember 29, 2018 |dfmdy-all |archive-dateDecember 5, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181205193811/https://www.directsellingnews.com/global-100/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Quixtar
{{main|Amway Global}}
The founders of the Amway corporation established a new holding company in 1999, named Alticor, and launched three new companies: a sister (and separate) Internet-focused company named Quixtar, Access Business Group, and Pyxis Innovations. Pyxis, later replaced by Fulton Innovation, pursued research and development and Access Business Group handled manufacturing and logistics for Amway, Quixtar, and third-party clients.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID2007706130458 |titleAmway marque to be revived; Quixtar label scrapped |newspaperThe Detroit News |access-date=July 9, 2011}}</ref>
The main difference was that each "Independent Business Owner" (IBO) could order directly from Amway on the Internet, rather than from their upline "direct distributor", and have products shipped directly to their home. The Amway name continued being used in the rest of the world. Virtually all Amway distributors in North America switched to Quixtar, prompting Alticor to close Amway North America after 2001. In June 2007, it was announced that the Quixtar brand would be phased out over an eighteen– to twenty-four–month period in favor of a unified Amway brand (Amway Global) worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/2009/08/21/image-overhaul-rebranding-cmo-network-rebranding.html#d0f7b33788fa |titleCompanies Seek A Fresh Start With New Names |lastCoster |firstHelen |date21 August 2009 |websiteForbes |access-date2020-02-20 |archive-dateMarch 9, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210309210042/https://www.forbes.com/2009/08/21/image-overhaul-rebranding-cmo-network-rebranding.html#d0f7b33788fa |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Global markets
According to the Amway website, {{as of|2011|lcy}} the company operated in over 100 countries and territories, organized into regional markets: the Americas, Europe, greater China, Japan and Korea, and SE Asia/Australia. Amway's top ten markets are China, Korea, the United States, Japan, Thailand, Taiwan, India, Russia, Malaysia and Italy.<ref name"sales"/>
In 2008, Alticor announced that two-thirds of the company's 58 markets reported sales increases, including strong growth in the China, Russia, Ukraine and India markets.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS173002+05-Feb-2009+PRN20090205 |titleAmway Parent hits 50th year running recording 15% sales growth |workReuters |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |dateFebruary 5, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090511084835/http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS173002+05-Feb-2009+PRN20090205 |archive-dateMay 11, 2009 |url-statusdead |dfmdy-all}}</ref>Amway Australia* See Amway AustraliaAmway ChinaAmway China launched in 1995. In 1998, after abuses of illegal pyramid schemes led to riots, the Chinese government enacted a ban on all direct selling companies, including Amway.<ref>"Chinese officials ban direct marketing", April 22, 1998 Associated Press, The Associated Press</ref> After the negotiations, some companies like Amway, Avon, and Mary Kay continued to operate through a network of retail stores promoted by an independent sales force.<ref>{{cite news |titleAmway, Once Barred in China, Now Finds Business is Booming |firstLeslie |lastChang |dateMarch 12, 2003 |workThe Wall Street Journal |url-accesssubscription |urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB104743545419760000 |access-dateDecember 27, 2019 |archive-dateDecember 27, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191227025239/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB104743545419760000 |url-statuslive }}</ref> China introduced new direct selling laws in December 2005, and in December 2006, Amway was one of the first companies to receive a license to resume direct sales. However, the law forbids teachers, doctors, and civil servants from becoming direct sales agents for the company and, unlike in the United States, salespeople in China are ineligible to receive commissions from sales made by the distributors they recruit.
In 2006, Amway China had a reported 180,000 sales representatives, 140 stores, and $2&nbsp;billion in annual sales.<ref>[http://www.mlive.com/business/kzgazette/index.ssf?/base/business-3/116693763565130.xml&coll7 "Amway, Mary Kay get long-awaited direct-selling licenses in China"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930154752/http://www.mlive.com/business/kzgazette/index.ssf?%2Fbase%2Fbusiness-3%2F116693763565130.xml&coll7 |dateSeptember 30, 2007 }} Rob Kirkbride, December 24, 2006, Kalamazoo Gazette</ref> In 2007, Amway Greater China and South-east Asia Chief Executive Eva Cheng was ranked no. 88 by Forbes magazine in its list of the World's Most Powerful Women.<ref name"ForbesWomen">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/11/biz_powerwomen08_Eva-Cheng_34MT.html |titleForbes' The 100 Most Powerful Women; No.88 Eva Cheng |workForbes |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |dateAugust 27, 2008 |archive-dateAugust 5, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110805010429/http://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/11/biz_powerwomen08_Eva-Cheng_34MT.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2008, China was Amway's largest market, reporting 28% growth and sales of 17&nbsp;billion yuan (US$2.5 billion).<ref nameLevinD>{{cite news|lastLevin |firstDan |titleAmway's China Redux |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/global/2009/0907/companies-sales-amway-china-redux.html |access-date17 January 2023 |newspaperForbes |dateAugust 27, 2009 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090829074138/http://www.forbes.com/global/2009/0907/companies-sales-amway-china-redux.html |archive-dateAugust 29, 2009}}</ref> According to a report in Bloomberg Businessweek in April 2010, Amway had 237 retail shops in China, 160,000 direct sales agents, and $3&nbsp;billion in revenue.<ref nameEinhornB>{{cite news|lastEinhorn|firstBruce|titleWhy Amway and China are a Good Fit|urlhttp://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_16/b4174064710167.htm|access-dateJune 16, 2011|newspaperBusinessweek|dateApril 8, 2010| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110606102312/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_16/b4174064710167.htm| archive-date June 6, 2011 | url-statusdead}}</ref> Since then, Amway has been continuing to expand in China, even as the government has been imposing greater restrictions on the company,<ref>{{Cite news|last1Mcmorrow|first1Ryan|last2Myers|first2Steven Lee|date2018-01-08|titleAmway Made China a Billion-Dollar Market. Now It Faces a Crackdown.|languageen-US|workThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/08/business/amway-china.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/08/business/amway-china.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited|access-date2021-10-26|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and launched a WeChat mini-program in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAmway ramps up campaign to increase influence in China|urlhttps://www.shine.cn/biz/company/2110216723/|access-date2021-10-26|websiteSHINE|languageen|archive-dateOctober 26, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211026211238/https://www.shine.cn/biz/company/2110216723/|url-statuslive}}</ref>Brands
Amway's product line grew from LOC, with the laundry detergent SA8 added in 1960, and later the hair care product Satinique (1965) and the cosmetics line Artistry (1968).
In 2018, nutrition and wellness products were 52% of total sales, and beauty and personal care products were 26% of total sales.<ref name"sales"/>Household cleanersAmway is best known in North America for its original multi-purpose cleaning product LOC, SA8 laundry detergent, and Dish Drops dishwashing liquid.{{Citation needed|dateAugust 2023}} Consumer Reports conducted blind testing of detergents in 2010 and ranked versions of Amway's Legacy of Clean detergents 9th and 18th of 20 detergents tested. Consumer Reports program manager Pat Slaven recommended against buying the products because consumers can "go to the grocery store and get something that performs a whole lot better for a whole lot less money".<ref nameOdonnell2011>{{cite news |lastO'Donnell |firstJayne|titleMultilevel marketing or 'pyramid?' Sales people find it hard to earn much |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/retail/2011-02-07-multilevelmarketing03_CV_N.htm |newspaperUSA Today |dateFebruary 10, 2011 |access-dateNovember 17, 2015 |archive-dateFebruary 13, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110213043508/http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/retail/2011-02-07-multilevelmarketing03_cv_n.htm|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref nameOdonnell2011B>{{cite news|lastO'Donnell|first Jayne|titleSome Multilevel Salespeople Ask: What Profits?|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/MONEY/usaedition/2011-02-07-multilevelmarketing03_CV_U.htm|access-dateMay 17, 2011|newspaperUSA Today|dateFebruary 7, 2011}}</ref>Health and beautyAmway's health and beauty brands include Artistry, Satinique, Hymm, Body Series, Glister, Moiskin (South America),<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.amway.com.br/ |titleAmway do Brasil |publisherAmway.com.br |access-dateJuly 9, 2011| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110706150728/http://www.amway.com.br/| archive-dateJuly 6, 2011 | url-status live}}</ref> Nutrilite, Nutriway (Scandinavia and Australia/New Zealand), Attitude (India), eSpring, Atmosphere and iCook as well as XL and XS Energy drinks. Other Amway brands that were discontinued or replaced include Tolsom, Eddie Funkhouser New York, or beautycycle (Eastern Europe).
Artistry
{{Main|Artistry (cosmetics)}}
Amway's Artistry products include skin care, cosmetics, and anti-aging creams and serums. In 2011, Artistry brand reached sales of $2.8 billion.<ref name"grbj-20120227" />Nutrilite
{{Main|Nutrilite}}
Amway's largest-selling brand is the Nutrilite range of health supplements (marketed as Nutriway in some countries), and in 2008 Nutrilite sales exceeded $3 billion globally.<ref>{{cite web|authore-point SA |urlhttp://www.amway.ua/cms/visitor_news_new/Newsroom?news_id10819 |titleNutrilite passes $3&nbsp;billion mark in annual sales |publisherAmway.ua |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110903233610/http://www.amway.ua/cms/visitor_news_new/Newsroom?news_id10819 |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2011 |dfmdy }}</ref> In 2001, NSF International issued its first five dietary supplement certifications to Nutrilite.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.nsf.org/business/newsroom/soe01-3/dietary.html |titleNSF International Announces Dietary Supplements Certification Program |dateDecember 14, 2008 |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081214123716/http://www.nsf.org/business/newsroom/soe01-3/dietary.html |archive-dateDecember 14, 2008 }}</ref>
In 2011, Nutrilite brand of vitamins and dietary supplements led Amway's sales, totaling almost $4.7 billion.<ref name"grbj-20120227">{{cite news|last1Daly|first1Pete|titleAmway grew in almost all regions in 2011|urlhttp://www.grbj.com/articles/73925|access-date25 March 2016|websiteGrand Rapids Business Journal|date27 February 2012|url-accesslimited|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160404193530/http://www.grbj.com/articles/73925|archive-dateApril 4, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> According to Euromonitor International, in 2014, Nutrilite was the world's No. 1 selling vitamins and dietary supplements brand.<ref name"euromonitor-amway-claims">{{cite web|titleAmway Claims|urlhttp://www.euromonitor.com/amway-claims|websitewww.euromonitor.com|access-date26 March 2016|archive-dateJanuary 12, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210112010419/https://www.euromonitor.com/amway-claims|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2015, it was reported that according to Euromonitor International, Amway was the largest vitamin and dietary supplement vendor in China, with 11% of a market that generated 100 billion yuan ($15.6 billion) in annual sales.<ref name"twsj-20150818">{{cite news|last1Loretta|first1Chao|titleAmway's Made in America Strategy Scores with Asian Customers|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/amways-made-in-america-strategy-scores-with-asian-customers-1439912608|access-date25 March 2016|newspaperThe Wall Street Journal|date18 August 2015|archive-dateMarch 9, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210309205129/https://www.wsj.com/articles/amways-made-in-america-strategy-scores-with-asian-customers-1439912608|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2015, it was reported that according to China Confidential consumer brands survey, Amway Nutrilite was the most popular vitamin and dietary supplement brand in China.<ref name"ft-20150514">{{cite news|last1Plowright|first1Matthew|titleChina's vitamin market harder to crack for western companies|urlhttp://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/f1c82b58-fa2c-11e4-b432-00144feab7de.html#axzz42wLkveBF|access-date25 March 2016|newspaperFinancial Times|date14 May 2015|archive-dateAugust 8, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160808035042/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/f1c82b58-fa2c-11e4-b432-00144feab7de.html#axzz42wLkveBF|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In January 2009, Amway announced a voluntary recall of Nutrilite and XS Energy Bars after learning that they had possibly been manufactured with Salmonella-contaminated ingredients from Peanut Corporation of America. The company indicated that it had not received any reports of illness in connection with the products.<ref nameNutriliterecall1>{{cite web| title Amway Global Announces Nationwide Recall Of XS® Energy Bar Chocolate Nut Roll And Expansion Of Nutrilite® Energy Bars Recall Because Of Possible Health Risk| publisher US Food and Drug Administration| date February 4, 2009| url https://www.fda.gov/Safety/Recalls/ArchiveRecalls/2009/ucm128349.htm| access-date May 13, 2011| archive-date August 20, 2011| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110820101307/http://www.fda.gov/Safety/Recalls/ArchiveRecalls/2009/ucm128349.htm| url-status = live}}</ref>
In 2012, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), accused Amway of making unsubstantiated and illegal claims about Nutrilite Fruits & Vegetables 2GO Twist Tubes and threatened to launch a class action lawsuit against the company unless it took remedial action.<ref name"CSPI_022812">{{cite web|titleAmway Makes Illegal Deceptive Claims for its Nutrilite Twist Tubes|urlhttp://www.cspinet.org/new/201202281.html|publisherCenter for Science in the Public Interest|access-dateMarch 25, 2016|dateFebruary 28, 2012|archive-dateJune 16, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160616095129/http://www.cspinet.org/new/201202281.html|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"UPI_022812">{{cite news|titleGroup alleges Amway deception|urlhttp://www.upi.com/Health_News/2012/02/28/Group-alleges-Amway-deception/73941330487788/|access-dateMarch 25, 2016|publisherUnited Press International|dateFebruary 28, 2012|archive-dateFebruary 25, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225063405/https://www.upi.com/Health_News/2012/02/28/Group-alleges-Amway-deception/73941330487788/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Amway responded that the claims made about the products were properly substantiated and that they did not plan to change the product's labeling but nevertheless would review the statements that CSPI has questioned.<ref>{{cite web|titleCSPI Threatens Amway with Lawsuit|urlhttp://www.nutraceuticalsworld.com/contents/view_online-exclusives/2012-04-05/cspi-threatens-amway-with-lawsuit|dateApril 5, 2012|access-dateMarch 25, 2016|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226001035/https://www.nutraceuticalsworld.com/contents/view_online-exclusives/2012-04-05/cspi-threatens-amway-with-lawsuit|url-statuslive}}</ref> CSPI later reported that Amway had agreed to changing product labels by the end of 2014.<ref>{{cite web|titleLitigation Project – Current Docket|urlhttps://www.cspinet.org/litigation/current.html|publisherCenter for Science in the Public Interest|access-date26 March 2016|archive-dateJune 21, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160621085543/http://www.cspinet.org/litigation/current.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>
eSpring
Amway's eSpring water filter was introduced in 2000. According to Amway, it was the first system to combine a carbon block filter and ultraviolet light with electronic-monitoring technology in the filter cartridge and it became the first home system to achieve certification for ANSI/NSF Standards 42, 53, and 55.<ref name"espring-water-filtration-award">{{cite news|last1Dewey|first1Charlsie|titleAmway wins Asia-Pacific award for water filtration|urlhttp://www.grbj.com/articles/81224-amway-wins-asia-pacific-award-for-water-filtration|access-date24 March 2016|websiteGrand Rapids Business Journal|date8 December 2014|url-accesslimited|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160318055605/http://www.grbj.com/articles/81224-amway-wins-asia-pacific-award-for-water-filtration|archive-dateMarch 18, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"frost-and-sullivan-2011">{{cite web|titleFrost & Sullivan Names Amway 2011 Water Filtration Company of the Year For Promoting Water Quality Standards in the Asia Pacific Region|urlhttp://www.frost.com/prod/servlet/press-release.pag?docid247398565|websitewww.frost.com|access-date24 March 2016|archive-dateApril 9, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160409091919/http://www.frost.com/prod/servlet/press-release.pag?docid247398565|url-statuslive}}</ref> According to Amway, eSpring was the first water treatment system to receive certification for all fifteen NSF/ANSI 401 contaminants which include pharmaceuticals, pesticides and herbicides.<ref name"espring-water-filtration-award" /><ref nameespring-philippine-daily-inquirer>{{cite news|titleAmway's eSpring Receives Water Filtration Award|urlhttp://www.pressreader.com/philippines/philippine-daily-inquirer/20160105/282102045652591|access-dateMarch 23, 2016|newspaperPhilippine Daily Inquirer|dateJanuary 5, 2016|archive-dateApril 7, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160407035926/http://www.pressreader.com/philippines/philippine-daily-inquirer/20160105/282102045652591|url-statuslive}}</ref> The company also claims that, in addition to these 15 contaminants, eSpring is certified for more than 145 potential contaminants, including lead and mercury.<ref name="espring-water-filtration-award" />
eSpring was the first commercial product which employed Fulton Innovation's eCoupled wireless power induction technology. Companies licensing this technology include Visteon, Herman Miller, Motorola and Mobility Electronics.<ref name"fulton-partnerships">{{cite news|last1Schoonmaker|first1Daniel|titleAlticor Cuts Wires|urlhttp://www.grbj.com/articles/67017|access-date24 March 2016|websiteGrand Rapids Business Journal|date8 January 2007|url-accesslimited|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160404005601/http://www.grbj.com/articles/67017|archive-dateApril 4, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> Fulton was a founding member of the Wireless Power Consortium which developed the Qi (inductive power standard).<ref>{{cite web|last1Stevens|first1Tim|titleFulton Innovation blows our minds with eCoupled wireless Tesla, inductive cereal boxes (video)|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2011/01/06/fulton-innovation-blows-our-minds-with-ecoupled-wireless-tesla/|websiteengadget|dateJanuary 7, 2011 |publisherAol, inc|access-dateMarch 25, 2016|archive-dateApril 26, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160426165549/http://www.engadget.com/2011/01/06/fulton-innovation-blows-our-minds-with-ecoupled-wireless-tesla/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2007 eSpring was ranked fifth out of 27 brands in a comparison of water filters by Consumer Reports.<ref name"CR_052707">{{cite web|titleMost (& Least) Reliable Brands|urlhttp://www.consumerreports.org/|publisherConsumer Reports|dateMay 27, 2007|access-dateFebruary 24, 2009|archive-dateSeptember 5, 2008|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080905122344/http://consumerreports.org/|url-statuslive}}</ref>XSOn January 14, 2015, Amway announced that it had acquired XS Energy, a California-based brand of energy drinks and snacks. The XS Energy brand has been sold as an Amway product since 2003. As of January 2015, it has been distributed in 38 countries, generating annual sales of $150 million.<ref name"amway-xs-acquisition-1">{{cite news|last1Martinez|first1Shandra|titleAmway buys California-based energy drink and snack company|urlhttp://www.mlive.com/business/west-michigan/index.ssf/2015/01/amway_buys_california-based_en.html|access-date24 March 2016|publishermlive.com|date14 January 2015|archive-dateApril 4, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160404201546/http://www.mlive.com/business/west-michigan/index.ssf/2015/01/amway_buys_california-based_en.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"amway-xs-acquisition-2">{{cite news|titleAmway acquires energy drink|urlhttp://mibiz.com/item/22139-amway-acquires-energy-drink|access-date24 March 2016|publishermibiz.com|date14 January 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150709221637/http://mibiz.com/item/22139-amway-acquires-energy-drink|archive-dateJuly 9, 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"amway-xs-acquisition-3">{{cite news|last1Dewey|first1Charlsie|titleAmway acquires energy drink maker|urlhttp://www.grbj.com/articles/81479-amway-acquires-energy-drink-maker|access-date24 March 2016|websiteGrand Rapids Business Journal|date14 January 2015|url-accesslimited|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160404011635/http://www.grbj.com/articles/81479-amway-acquires-energy-drink-maker|archive-dateApril 4, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
According to Euromonitor International, the XS Energy was the first exclusively sugar-free energy drink brand sold globally.<ref name"euromonitor-amway-claims" />Ditto DeliveryDitto Delivery is Alticor's automatic, monthly replenishment program that fills orders based on customers' predetermined needs. As of May 2001, Ditto Delivery accounted for 30% of Quixtar's North American sales.<ref nameforbes2001>{{cite news |lastBannan |firstKaren J. |titleAmway.com |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/best/2001/0625/040.html |access-dateMay 17, 2011 |workForbes |dateJune 25, 2001 |archive-dateMarch 9, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210309205447/https://www.forbes.com/best/2001/0625/040.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Business model
Amway combines direct selling with a multi-level marketing strategy. Amway distributors, referred to as "independent business owners" (IBOs), may market products directly to potential customers and may also sponsor and mentor other people to become IBOs. IBOs may earn income both from the retail markup on any products they sell personally, plus a performance bonus based on the sales volume they and their downline (IBOs they have sponsored) have generated.<ref name"Xardel"/> People may also register as IBOs to buy products at discounted prices. Harvard Business School, which described Amway as "one of the most profitable direct selling companies in the world", noted that Amway founders Van Andel and DeVos "accomplished their success through the use of an elaborate pyramid-like distribution system in which independent distributors of Amway products received a percentage of the merchandise they sold and also a percentage of the merchandise sold by recruited distributors".<ref name"HarvardBS">{{cite news |titleAmerican Business Leaders of the Twentieth Century – Richard M. DeVos, Amway Corporation |urlhttp://www.hbs.edu/leadership/database/leaders/richard_m_devos.html |access-dateMay 17, 2011 |newspaperHarvard Business School |year2011 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160308220607/http://www.hbs.edu/leadership/database/leaders/richard_m_devos.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Sports sponsorships
]]
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Amway sponsored racing driver Scott Brayton in the CART IndyCar championship.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.orlandosentinel.com/1993/05/28/amway-still-rolling/|titleAmway Still Rolling|dateMay 28, 1993|accessdateFebruary 11, 2024|websiteorlandosentinel.com|publisherOrlando Sentinel}}</ref>
In December 2006, Alticor secured the naming rights for the Orlando Magic's home basketball arena in Orlando, Florida. The Orlando Magic is owned by the DeVos family. The arena, formerly known as the TD Waterhouse Centre, was renamed the Amway Arena. Its successor, the Amway Center, was opened in 2010, and the older arena was demolished in 2012 and held the naming rights until December 2023 when Kia bought the rights.<ref>[http://www.wesh.com/news/30141458/detail.html "Amway Arena To Be Imploded"] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120214094203/http://www.wesh.com/news/30141458/detail.html |dateFebruary 14, 2012}} WESH.com Orlando</ref>
In 2009, Amway Global signed a three-year deal with the San Jose Earthquakes Major League Soccer team to become the jersey sponsor.<ref>{{cite web |titleSan Jose lands jersey sponsor deal with Amway |urlhttp://www.espnfc.us/story/613516/san-jose-lands-jersey-sponsor-deal-with-amway |websiteESPN FC |access-date1 November 2016 |archive-dateApril 7, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200407173331/http://www.espnfc.us/story/613516/san-jose-lands-jersey-sponsor-deal-with-amway |url-status=live }}</ref>
In March 2009, Amway Global signed a multi-year deal to become the presenting partner of the Los Angeles Sol of Women's Professional Soccer.<ref>{{cite web |lastLos Angeles Sol |titleAmway Global becomes Los Angeles Sol presenting sponsor |urlhttp://www.womensprosoccer.com/la/news/press_releases/090305-amway-global |access-dateMarch 5, 2009 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090509085225/http://www.womensprosoccer.com/la/news/press_releases/090305-amway-global |archive-date=May 9, 2009}}</ref> The deal, however, would last only one year, as the Sol folded in 2010.
In 2011, Amway signed a three-year deal to be the presenting sponsor of the National Hockey League's Detroit Red Wings.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mlive.com/redwings/index.ssf/2011/09/red_wings_sign_multi-year_deal.html |titleRed Wings sign multi-year deal with Amway as its presenting sponsor |lastKhan |firstAnsar |dateSeptember 2, 2011 |publisherBooth Newspapers |access-dateSeptember 2, 2011 |archive-dateNovember 16, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181116173508/https://www.mlive.com/redwings/index.ssf/2011/09/red_wings_sign_multi-year_deal.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Politics and culture
Political contributions
In the 1990s, the Amway organization was a major contributor to the Republican Party (GOP) and to the election campaigns of various GOP candidates. Amway and its sales force contributed a substantial amount (up to half) of the total funds ($669,525) for the 1994 political campaign of Republican congresswoman and Amway distributor Sue Myrick (N.C.).<ref nameburstein>{{cite web |titleShe Did it Amway |authorRachel Burstein |magazineMother Jones |dateSeptember–October 1996 |urlhttp://motherjones.com/politics/1996/09/she-did-it-amway |access-dateMay 11, 2011 |archive-dateFebruary 11, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210211054535/https://www.motherjones.com/politics/1996/09/she-did-it-amway/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> According to two reports by Mother Jones magazine, Amway distributor Dexter Yager "used the company's extensive voice-mail system to rally hundreds of Amway distributors into giving a total of $295,871" to Myrick's campaign.<ref nameburstein/><ref namezibrowski>{{cite web |titleTough sell |authorJohn Zibrowski, Jenna Ziman |magazineMother Jones |dateNovember–December 1998 |urlhttp://motherjones.com/politics/1998/11/tough-sell |access-dateMay 11, 2011 |archive-dateFebruary 24, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224060459/https://www.motherjones.com/politics/1998/11/tough-sell/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> According to a campaign staffer quoted by the magazine, Myrick had appeared regularly on the Amway circuit, speaking at hundreds of rallies and selling $5 and $10 audiotapes.<ref nameburstein/> Following the 1994 election, Myrick maintained "close ties to Amway and Yager", and raised $100,000 from Amway sources, "most notably through fundraisers at the homes of big distributors", in the 1997–98 election cycle.<ref name=zibrowski/>
In October 1994, Amway gave the biggest corporate contribution recorded to that date to a political party for a single election, $2.5&nbsp;million to the Republican National Committee (RNC), and was the number one corporate political donor in the United States.<ref nameburstein/> In the 2004 election cycle, the organization contributed a total of $4 million to a conservative 527 group, Progress for America.<ref>From opensecrets.org: [http://www.opensecrets.org/527s/527cmtedetail.asp?ein201170395&cycle2004&format&tnameProgress+for+America Progress for America – Top Contributors, 2004 Cycle] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060818110238/http://www.opensecrets.org/527s/527cmtedetail.asp?ein201170395&cycle2004&format&tnameProgress+for+America |date=August 18, 2006}}</ref>
In July 1996, Amway co-founder Richard DeVos was honored at a $3&nbsp;million fundraiser for the Republican Party, and a week later, it was reported that Amway had tried to donate $1.3&nbsp;million to pay for Republican "infomercials" and televising of the GOP convention on Pat Robertson's Family Channel, but backed off when Democrats criticized the donation as a ploy to avoid campaign-finance restrictions.<ref nameburstein/><ref namevlasic>{{cite news |lastVlasic |firstBill |titleAmway II: The Kids Take Over |workBusinessWeek |dateFebruary 16, 1998 |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/1998-02-15/amway-ii-the-kids-take-over |access-dateDecember 29, 2018 |archive-dateDecember 30, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181230181029/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/1998-02-15/amway-ii-the-kids-take-over |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In April 1997, Richard DeVos and his wife, Helen, gave $1&nbsp;million to the RNC,<ref namezibrowski/><ref namevlasic/> which, at the time, was the second-largest soft-money donation ever, behind Amway's 1994 gift of $2.5&nbsp;million to the RNC.<ref namezibrowski/> In July 1997, Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott and House Speaker Newt Gingrich slipped a last-minute provision into a hotly contested compromise tax bill that granted Amway and four other companies a tax break on their Asian branches that totaled $19&nbsp;million.<ref namezibrowski/>
In a column published in the Fort Worth Star-Telegram newspaper in August 1997,<ref nameIvins>{{cite news|lastIvins|firstMolly|titleCongress distributes a tax break to Amway|newspaperFort Worth Star-Telegram|dateAugust 7, 1997}}</ref> reporter Molly Ivins wrote that Amway had "its own caucus in Congress...Five Republican House members are also Amway distributors: Reps. Sue Myrick of North Carolina, Jon Christensen of Nebraska, Dick Chrysler of Michigan, Richard Pombo of California, and John Ensign of Nevada. Their informal caucus meets several times a year with Amway bigwigs to discuss policy matters affecting the company, including China's trade status."<ref nameMediaTransparency1>{{cite web|lastBerkowitz|firstBill|titleAmway's GOPyramid Scheme|urlhttp://old.mediatransparency.org/story.php?storyID4|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110311210455/http://old.mediatransparency.org/story.php?storyID4|url-statusdead|archive-dateMarch 11, 2011|dateFebruary 16, 1998|publisherMedia Transparency|access-date=May 17, 2011}}</ref>
A 1998 analysis of campaign contributions conducted by Businessweek found that Amway, along with the founding families and some top distributors, had donated at least $7&nbsp;million to GOP causes in the preceding decade.<ref namevlasic/> Political candidates who received campaign funding from Amway in 1998 included Representatives Bill Redmond (R–N.M.), Heather Wilson (R–N.M.), and Jon Christensen (R–Neb).<ref namezibrowski/>
According to a report by the Center for Public Integrity, in the 2004 election cycle, members of the Van Andel and DeVos families were the second, third and fifth largest donors to the Republican party.<ref nameMediaTransparency2>{{cite web |lastHoule |firstDana |titleBush Authoritarianism: Blackwater+AmwayGOP, Pt. 3 |urlhttp://www.dailykos.com/story/2007/10/21/400840/-Bush-Authoritarianism:-Blackwater+AmwayGOP,-Pt-3 |dateOctober 21, 2007 |publisherDaily Kos |access-dateMay 17, 2011 |archive-dateJanuary 19, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170119042303/http://www.dailykos.com/story/2007/10/21/400840/-Bush-Authoritarianism:-Blackwater+AmwayGOP,-Pt-3 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Dick DeVos, son of Amway founder Richard DeVos and past president of the company, served as Finance Chairman of the Republican National Committee,<ref name"Richard and Helen DeVos Foundation">{{cite web |urlhttp://old.mediatransparency.org/funderprofile.php?funderID17 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110311210315/http://old.mediatransparency.org/funderprofile.php?funderID17 |url-statusdead |archive-dateMarch 11, 2011 |titleRichard and Helen DeVos Foundation |publisherOld.mediatransparency.org |access-dateJuly 9, 2011}}</ref> and his wife Betsy DeVos served as chair of the Michigan Republican Party from 1996 to 2000 and 2003 to 2005.<ref nameScahill>{{cite book |lastJeremy Scahill |titleBlackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army |year2007 |publisherNation Books |isbn978-1-56858-394-5 |page[https://archive.org/details/blackwater00scah/page/72 72] |title-linkBlackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army}}</ref>
In May 2005, Dick DeVos ran against incumbent Governor Jennifer Granholm in Michigan's 2006 gubernatorial election. DeVos was defeated by Granholm, who won 56% of the popular vote to his 42%.<ref name"Michigan Department of State">{{cite news |lastState of Michigan |firstDepartment of State |author2Terry Lynn Land |author3Secretary of State |title2006 Michigan Gubernatorial General Election |workGovernor 4 Year Term (1) Position |dateMay 10, 2007 |urlhttp://miboecfr.nictusa.com/election/results/06GEN/02000000.html |access-dateNovember 9, 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071111144945/http://miboecfr.nictusa.com/election/results/06GEN/02000000.html |archive-dateNovember 11, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
In August 2012, gay rights activist Fred Karger began a movement to boycott Amway in protest of the contribution from a private foundation of Amway President Doug DeVos to the National Organization for Marriage, a political organization which opposes legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.rawstory.com/rs/2012/08/02/amway-faces-boycott-over-donation-to-anti-gay-group/ |titleAmway faces boycott over donation to anti-gay group |access-dateAugust 3, 2012 |archive-dateNovember 5, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131105211641/http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2012/08/02/amway-faces-boycott-over-donation-to-anti-gay-group/ |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Betsy DeVos was United States Secretary of Education from 2017 to 2021 under the first Trump administration.<ref>{{cite news|titleHow Education Secretary Betsy DeVos Will Be Remembered|lastTurner|firstCorey|workNPR|dateNovember 19, 2020|accessdateNovember 7, 2024|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2020/11/19/936225974/the-legacy-of-education-secretary-betsy-devos}}</ref>ReligionSeveral sources have commented on the promotion of Christian conservative ideology within the Amway organization.<ref namezibrowski/><ref namebutterfield>{{cite book |titleAmway: The Cult of Free Enterprise |authorStephen Butterfield |publisherSouth End Press |year1985 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/amwaycultoffreee00butt |url-accessregistration |at[https://archive.org/details/amwaycultoffreee00butt/page/185 185] pages |isbn9780896082533}}</ref><ref namehenein>{{cite web |titleThe Revenge of the Amdroids |authorMaryam Henein |newspaperPhiladelphia City Paper |dateNovember 28 – December 5, 1997 |urlhttp://archives.citypaper.net/articles/112896/article009.shtml |access-dateMay 11, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130414080932/http://archives.citypaper.net/articles/112896/article009.shtml |archive-dateApril 14, 2013 |dfmdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleDo You know these godfathers? You should |authorZina Klapper |workMother Jones |dateFebruary–March 1981 |page33–M |urlhttp://motherjones.com/ |access-dateMay 10, 2011 |archive-dateMarch 12, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210312000510/https://www.motherjones.com/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Mother Jones magazine described the Amway distributor force as "heavily influenced by the company's dual themes of Christian morality and free enterprise" and operating "like a private political army".<ref namezibrowski/> In The Cult of Free Enterprise, Stephen Butterfield, who spent time in the Yager group within Amway, wrote "[Amway] sells a marketing and motivational system, a cause, a way of life, in a fervid emotional atmosphere of rallies and political religious revivalism."<ref namebutterfield/> Philadelphia City Paper correspondent Maryam Henein stated that "The language used in motivational tools for Amway frequently echoes or directly quotes the Bible, with the unstated assumption of a shared Christian perspective."<ref name=henein/>
Businessweek correspondents Bill Vlasic and Beth Regan characterized the founding families of Amway as "fervently conservative, fervently Christian, and hugely influential in the Republican Party", noting that "Rich DeVos charged up the troops with a message of Christian beliefs and rock-ribbed conservatism."<ref name=vlasic/>
High-ranking Amway leaders such as Richard DeVos and Dexter Yager were owners and members of the board of Gospel Films, a producer of movies and books geared toward conservative Christians, as well as co-owners (along with Salem Communications) of a right-wing, Christian nonprofit called Gospel Communications International.<ref namezibrowski/><ref namehenein/><ref namewilliams>{{cite book | title How to Be Like Rich DeVos: Succeeding with Integrity in Business and Life | publisher HCI | year 2004 | url https://books.google.com/books?id4-ggPcMN-skC | isbn 9780757301582 }}{{Dead link|dateFebruary 2023 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref><ref namehkdsa>{{cite web| title Asian Symposium on Direct Selling 2007: Speakers Bios—Doug DeVos| publisher Direct Selling Association of Hong Kong| url http://www.hkdsa.org.hk/symposium/2007/speakerbio/DougDeVos.htm| access-date May 11, 2011| archive-date March 24, 2012| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120324121455/http://www.hkdsa.org.hk/symposium/2007/speakerbio/DougDeVos.htm| url-status dead}}</ref><ref namecalvin>{{cite web| title Gospel Communications International/Billy Zeoli Scholarship in Christian Media and Communication| author Calvin College| year 2011| url http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/scholarships/| access-date May 11, 2011| author-link Calvin College| archive-date July 5, 2011| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110705202946/http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/scholarships/| url-status dead}}</ref> Yager, interviewed on 60 Minutes in 1983, admitted that he promotes Christianity through his Amway group, but stated that this might not be the case in other Amway groups.<ref name"60 minutes">{{cite episode |titleSoap and Hope |series60 Minutes |creditsPresenter:Mike Wallace |networkCBS. Year 1983 }}</ref>{{request quotation|dateMarch 2016}}
''Rolling Stone's'' Bob Moser reported that former Amway CEO and co-founder Richard DeVos is connected with the Dominionist political movement in the United States. Moser states that DeVos was a supporter of the late D. James Kennedy, giving more than $5&nbsp;million to Kennedy's Coral Ridge Ministries.<ref>[https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/7235393/the_crusaders/ "The Crusaders"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080318185336/http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/7235393/the_crusaders/ |dateMarch 18, 2008 }} Bob Moser, April 7, 2005, Rolling Stone</ref><ref nameReligionDispatches>{{cite news |lastBerkowitz|firstBill |titleWorse Than Madoff: Amway Launches Domestic Revival |urlhttps://religiondispatches.org/worse-than-madoff-amway-launches-domestic-revival/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304060953/http://religiondispatches.org/worse-than-madoff-amway-launches-domestic-revival/ |archive-dateMarch 4, 2016 |access-dateNovember 29, 2024 |newspaperReligion Dispatches |dateJune 18, 2009}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref nameAlbionMonitor>{{cite news|lastBerkowitz|firstBill|titleAmway Shoots For Comeback, Despite Right-Wing Ties of Founders|urlhttp://www.albionmonitor.com/0901a/copyright/amwaycomeback.html|access-dateMay 17, 2011|newspaperAlbion Monitor|dateJanuary 30, 2009|archive-dateApril 13, 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120413042613/http://www.albionmonitor.com/0901a/copyright/amwaycomeback.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> DeVos was also a founding member and two-time president of the Council for National Policy, a right-wing Christian organization.<ref nameZirin>{{cite book|lastDave Zirin|titleBad Sports: How Owners Are Ruining the Games We Love|year2010|publisherSimon & Schuster|isbn978-1-4165-5475-2|page[https://archive.org/details/badsportshowowne0000ziri/page/91 91]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/badsportshowowne0000ziri/page/91}}</ref>
Sociologist David G. Bromley calls Amway a "quasi-religious corporation" having sectarian characteristics.<ref name"bromley-quasi-religious"/><ref>Transformative movements and quasi-religious corporations: the case of Amway, by David G. Bromley. In Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations, edited by Nicholas Jay Demerath, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt and Rhys H. Williams, pages 349–363. Oxford University Press, 1998</ref> Bromley and Anson Shupe view Amway as preaching the gospel of prosperity.<ref>''Rebottling the Elixir: The Gospel of Prosperity in America's Religioeconomic Corporations, by David G. Bromley and Anson Shupe. In In Gods we trust: new patterns of religious pluralism in America, edited by Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, pages 233–254. Transaction Publishers, 1990</ref> Patralekha Bhattacharya and Krishna Kumar Mehta, reasoned that although some critics have referred to organizations such as Amway as "cults" and have speculated that they engage in "mind control", there are other explanations that could account for the behavior of distributors. Namely, continued involvement of distributors despite minimal economic return may result from social satisfaction compensating for diminished economic satisfaction.<ref name"bhattacharye-mehta">Socialization in network marketing organizations: is it cult behavior? by Patralekha Bhattacharya and Krishna Kumar Mehta, Journal of Socio-Economics. 29(4):361–374.</ref>
Chamber of commerce
Amway co-founder Jay Van Andel (in 1980), and later his son Steve Van Andel (in 2001), were elected by the board of directors of the United States Chamber of Commerce to be the chairman of the private American lobbying organization.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.uschamber.com/about/board/steve-van-andel |titleSteve Van Andel |publisherU.S. Chamber of Commerce |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131208080305/http://www.uschamber.com/about/board/steve-van-andel |archive-dateDecember 8, 2013 |dfmdy }}</ref>
Accreditation program
In 2006, Amway (then Quixtar in North America) introduced its Professional Development Accreditation Program in response to concerns surrounding business support materials (BSM), including books, tapes and meetings.<ref>{{cite web|titleQuixtar Professional Development Accreditation Program |urlhttp://www.quixtaraccreditation.com/ |websiteQuixtar Accreditation |publisherQuixtar, Inc. |access-date26 March 2016 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060821223815/http://www.quixtaraccreditation.com/ |archive-dateAugust 21, 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1Dornan|first1Beth|titleA short history of BSMs (business support materials)|urlhttp://www.amwayinsider.com/2006/09/01/a-short-history-of-bsms-business-support-materials/|websiteAmway Insider|publisherAmway|access-date26 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160406235333/http://www.amwayinsider.com/2006/09/01/a-short-history-of-bsms-business-support-materials/|archive-dateApril 6, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> In 2010 this was superseded by its Accreditation Plus'' program to ensure that all BSM content is consistent with Amway's quality assurance standards, which approved providers of BSM must abide by.<ref>{{cite web|last1Droog|first1Cindy|titleA+|urlhttp://www.amwayinsider.com/2011/02/15/a/|websiteAmway Insider|publisherAmway|access-date26 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160407041111/http://www.amwayinsider.com/2011/02/15/a/|archive-dateApril 7, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleIBOAI Milestones|urlhttp://www.iboai.com/your-iboai-board/iboai-history/iboai-milestones|websiteIBOAI – Your Voice|publisherIBOAI|access-date26 March 2016|archive-dateMarch 25, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160325034650/http://iboai.com/your-iboai-board/iboai-history/iboai-milestones|url-statuslive}}</ref> The quality assurance standards state that<ref>{{cite web|titleQuality Assurance Standards for Business Support Materials (BSM)|urlhttp://www.amway.in/store/amway/en/INR/static-pages/amwayPdfLink/QAS|websiteAmway india|publisherAmway|access-date26 March 2016|archive-dateApril 23, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160423065109/http://www.amway.in/store/amway/en/INR/static-pages/amwayPdfLink/QAS|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleUKRAINIAN BSM (BUSINESS SUPPORT MATERIAL) QUALITY ASSURANCE STANDARDS|urlhttps://www.amway.ua/_fileserver/item/11768/BSM_QAS_EN.pdf|websiteAmway|access-date26 March 2016|archive-dateApril 7, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160407204146/https://www.amway.ua/_fileserver/item/11768/BSM_QAS_EN.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleQuality Assurance Standards|urlhttp://www.amway.com/lcl/en/ResourceCenterDocuments/Distributor/ops-amw-fact-d-en--QualityAssuranceStandards.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.amway.com/lcl/en/ResourceCenterDocuments/Distributor/ops-amw-fact-d-en--QualityAssuranceStandards.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|websiteAmway|access-date26 March 2016}}{{subscription required}}</ref>
* Promoting political causes or other issues of a personal nature in the Amway Business environment is not permitted
* Spiritual references are not allowed as the message or focus and presenters may not use the stage as a platform to promote religious and/or personal social beliefs
* Endorsement or denouncement of specific candidates, political parties, and/or issues, unless specifically related to the operation of an Amway Business is not allowed.
Pyramid scheme allegations
Robert Carroll, of the ''Skeptic's Dictionary'', has described Amway as a "legal pyramid scheme", and has said that the quasi-religious devotion of its affiliates is used by the company to conceal poor performance rates by distributors.<ref>{{cite web|last1Carroll|first1Robert Todd|author-link1Robert Todd Carroll|titleAmway|urlhttp://skepdic.com/amway.html|websiteSkeptic's Dictionary|access-dateFebruary 24, 2015|dateJuly 9, 2014|archive-dateFebruary 11, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210211045440/http://www.skepdic.com/amway.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>FTC investigation
{{Main|In re Amway Corp.}}
In a 1979 ruling,<ref name"MLMLAW"/><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ftc.gov/speeches/other/dvimf16.htm#N_19_ |titlePyramid Schemes |publisherFtc.gov |dateJune 25, 2007 |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090108201509/http://www1.ftc.gov/speeches/other/dvimf16.htm#N_19_ |archive-dateJanuary 8, 2009 |url-statusdead }}</ref> the Federal Trade Commission found that Amway did not fit the definition of a pyramid scheme because (a) distributors were not paid to recruit people, (b) it did not require distributors to buy a large stock of unmoving inventory, (c) distributors were required to maintain retail sales (at least 10 per month), and (d) the company and all distributors were required to accept returns of excess inventory from down-level distributors.<ref nameEisenberg>{{cite news|lastEisenberg|firstRichard|titleThe Mess Called Multi-Level Marketing With celebrities setting the bait, hundreds of pyramid-style sales companies are raking in millions, often taking in the gullible|urlhttp://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid2767|access-dateMay 17, 2011|newspaperCNN Money |date June 1, 1987| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110605140212/http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid2767| archive-dateJune 5, 2011 | url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.ftc.gov/public-statements/1998/05/pyramid-schemes|titlePyramid Schemes|lastValentine|firstDebra A.|dateMay 13, 1998|websitewww.ftc.gov|publisherFederal Trade Commission|access-date2016-03-15|archive-dateDecember 16, 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131216053839/http://www.ftc.gov/public-statements/1998/05/pyramid-schemes|url-status=live}}</ref>
The FTC did, however, find Amway "guilty of price-fixing and making exaggerated income claims";<ref nameWharton>{{cite news|titleAmway: Selling the Dream of Financial Freedom|urlhttp://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid2767|access-dateMay 17, 2011|newspaperWharton School of the University of Pennsylvania|dateMay 5, 2011| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110605140212/http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid2767| archive-date June 5, 2011 | url-statuslive}}</ref> the company was ordered to stop retail price fixing and allocating customers among distributors and was prohibited from misrepresenting the amount of profit, earnings or sales its distributors are likely to achieve with the business. Amway was ordered to accompany any such statements with the actual averages per distributor, pointing out that more than half of the distributors do not make any money, with the average distributor making less than $100 per month. The order was violated with a 1986 ad campaign, resulting in a $100,000 fine.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.casewatch.net/ftc/news/1986/amway.shtml |titleAmway Corp. To Pay $100,000 Civil Penalty, Settling FTC Charges |dateAugust 27, 2006 |publisherCasewatch.net |access-dateJuly 9, 2011| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200220184559/https://www.casewatch.net/ftc/news/1986/amway.shtml| archive-date February 20, 2020 | url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameManes>{{cite news|lastManes|firstBilly|titleLook Who's Knockin|urlhttp://www2.orlandoweekly.com/news/story.asp?id11267|access-dateMay 17, 2011|newspaperOrlando Weekly|dateJanuary 18, 2007|archive-dateJuly 25, 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110725163501/http://www2.orlandoweekly.com/news/story.asp?id11267|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Studies of independent consumer watchdog agencies have shown that between 990 and 999 of 1000 participants in MLMs that use Amway-type pay plans in fact lose money.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mlm-thetruth.com/mlms-evaluated-4-red-flags-product-based-pyramid-scheme/mlms-4-red-flags-product-based-pyramid-scheme-d/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170214183654/http://www.mlm-thetruth.com/mlms-evaluated-4-red-flags-product-based-pyramid-scheme/mlms-4-red-flags-product-based-pyramid-scheme-d/|url-statusdead|archive-date2017-02-14|titleMLMs with 4 red flags: A-D|websitewww.mlm-thetruth.com}}</ref><ref nameforever>[https://books.google.com/books?id00bkiZGR8zkC Amway Forever: The Amazing Story of a Global Business Phenomenon] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221112100552/https://books.google.com/books?id00bkiZGR8zkC&sourcegbs_navlinks_s |dateNovember 12, 2022 }}, p. 178</ref> According to The Skeptic's Dictionary, "In the United States, the Federal Trade Commission requires Amway to label its products with the message that 54% of Amway recruits make nothing and the rest earn on average $65 a month."<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://skepdic.com/amway.html|titleAmway. Quiztar, TEAM, Team of Destiny, Network 21 - The Skeptic's Dictionary - Skepdic.com|websiteskepdic.com|access-dateFebruary 24, 2015|archive-dateFebruary 11, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210211045440/http://www.skepdic.com/amway.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>Amway IndiaIn September 2006, following a public complaint, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana state police (CID) initiated raids and seizures against Amway distributors in the state, and submitted a petition against them, claiming the company violated the Prize Chits and Money Circulation Schemes (Banning) Act.<ref name"Ban on Amway Chits, Schemes">{{cite news|urlhttp://www.hindu.com/2008/09/17/stories/2008091754250400.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080919154837/http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/17/stories/2008091754250400.htm |url-statusdead |archive-dateSeptember 19, 2008 |titleBan on Amway Chits, Schemes |locationIndia |dateSeptember 17, 2008 |workThe Hindu |access-dateJuly 9, 2011}}</ref> They shut down all corporate offices associated with the Amway organization including the offices of some Amway distributors. The enforcement said that the business model of the company is illegal.<ref name"ibtimes">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.ibtimes.co.in/articles/20061213/amway-mlm-business-model.htm |titleAmway in hot water in Hyderabad over "business model" controversy |lastSaha |firstArijit |dateDecember 13, 2006 |publisherIB Times |access-dateJanuary 17, 2010 }}{{dead link|dateJune 2016|botmedic}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/hyderabad-police-shuts-down-amway-offices_242899.html |titleHyderabad Police shuts down Amway offices |publisherMoneycontrol.com |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |archive-dateJanuary 21, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160121011254/http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/hyderabad-police-shuts-down-amway-offices_242899.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) had notified the police that Amway in India may be violating certain laws regarding a "money circulation scheme" and the IB Times article writes that "some say ... Amway is really more about making money from recruiting people to become distributors, as opposed to selling products".<ref name"ibtimes"/> In 2008, the state government of Andhra Pradesh enacted a ban on Amway media advertisements.<ref name="Ban on Amway Chits, Schemes"/>
On August 6, 2011, Kerala Police sealed the offices of Amway at Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi, Kottayam, Thrissur, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram following complaints.<ref name"Kerala raids">{{cite news|urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/Amway-offices-raided-at-nine-places/Article1-730172.aspx |titleAmway offices raided at nine places |workHindustan Times |locationIndia |dateAugust 6, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110929144059/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Amway-offices-raided-at-nine-places/Article1-730172.aspx |archive-dateSeptember 29, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mathrubhumi.com/english/story.php?id112554 |titlePolice raid at Amway offices |publisherMathrubhumi English |date2011-08-06 |access-date2013-05-27 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131105211544/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/english/story.php?id112554 |archive-dateNovember 5, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article481246.ece |titleStatewide raids on Amway offices |workThe New Indian Express |date2011-08-07 |access-date2013-05-27 |archive-dateApril 20, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160420230724/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article481246.ece |url-statusdead }}</ref> In November 2012, the Economic Offences Wing of Kerala Police conducted searches at the offices of Amway at Kozhikode, Thrissur and Kannur as part of its crackdown on money chain activities and closed down the firm's warehouses at these centres. Products valued at 21.4 million rupees (about US$400,000 at the time) were also seized.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/searches-conducted-on-amway-offices/article4084066.ece |titleSearches conducted on Amway offices |newspaperThe Hindu |date2012-11-10 |access-date2013-05-27 |archive-dateMarch 5, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210305163049/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/searches-conducted-on-amway-offices/article4084066.ece |url-statuslive }}</ref> Later, Area manager of Amway, P. M. Rajkumar, who was arrested following searches was remanded in judicial custody for 14 days.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/amway-accused-in-judicial-custody/article4087090.ece |titleAmway: accused in judicial custody |newspaperThe Hindu |date2012-11-11 |access-date2013-05-27 |archive-dateFebruary 26, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226222410/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/amway-accused-in-judicial-custody/article4087090.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
On May 27, 2013, Crime Branch officials of Kerala Police arrested William S. Pinckney, Managing Director & CEO of Amway India Enterprises along with two other directors of the company from Kozhikode. The three were arrested on charges of running a pyramid scheme.<ref name"Sanandakumar"/><ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.mathrubhumi.com/business/news_articles/amway-ceo-pinkni-scott-and-two-directors-arrested-363981.html |titleAmway India CEO William Scott Pinckney arrested Mathrubhumi Business |newspaperMathrubhumi |access-date2013-05-27 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130607182618/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/business/news_articles/amway-ceo-pinkni-scott-and-two-directors-arrested-363981.html |archive-dateJune 7, 2013 |dfmdy }}</ref> They were granted bail the next day and the business was unaffected. On June 8, 2013, Kozhikode Court lifted the freeze on Amway offices in Kerala.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.deccanchronicle.com/130608/news-current-affairs/article/kozhikode-court-lifts-freeze-amway-offices |titleKozhikode Court lifts freeze on Amway offices Deccan Chronicle |newspaperDeccan Chronicle |access-date2013-06-08 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130613141113/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/130608/news-current-affairs/article/kozhikode-court-lifts-freeze-amway-offices |archive-dateJune 13, 2013 }}</ref> On May 26, 2014, Pinckney was arrested by Andhra Pradesh police on the basis of a consumer complaint that alleged unethical circulation of money by Amway. He was subsequently arrested in other criminal cases registered against him in the state on allegations of financial irregularities by the company.<ref name"HT_072816"/> Pinckney was jailed for two months until being released on bail.<ref name"HT_072816">{{cite news|titleAmway India CEO William Pinckney released on bail|urlhttp://www.livemint.com/Companies/ljtM8Ram1OJQsudUebpfsI/Amway-India-MD-CEO-Pinckney-released-on-bail.html|access-dateMarch 23, 2016|workHindustan Times|dateJuly 28, 2014|archive-dateMarch 12, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160312092547/http://www.livemint.com/Companies/ljtM8Ram1OJQsudUebpfsI/Amway-India-MD-CEO-Pinckney-released-on-bail.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"ET_072916">{{cite news|titleAmway India MD & CEO William Pinckney released on bail|urlhttp://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-07-29/news/52186688_1_two-company-directors-prize-chits-amway|access-dateMarch 23, 2016|workThe Economic Times|dateJul 29, 2014|archive-dateApril 4, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160404233051/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-07-29/news/52186688_1_two-company-directors-prize-chits-amway|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"HBL_072814">{{cite news|titleAmway India MD & CEO William Pinckney released on bail|urlhttp://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/amway-india-ceo-william-s-pinckney-released-on-bail/article6257866.ece|access-dateMarch 23, 2016|workThe Hindu Business Line|date=Jul 28, 2014}}</ref>
In 2017, a Chandigarh court framed charges, under Section 420 of the Indian Penal Code and the Prize Chits and Money Circulation Scheme (Banning) Act, against two directors of Amway India, William Scot Pinckney and Prithvai Raj Bijlani. This was based on a cheating case filed by eight complainants in 2002, following which the Economic Offences Wing had filed chargesheet in 2012. A revision plea moved by the two Amway officials against the framed charges was dismissed in 2018.<ref>{{cite news | title Charges framed against two Amway directors | newspaper The Tribune | url https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/charges-framed-against-two-amway-directors-349309 | access-dateAugust 20, 2024 | location India }}{{void|Fabrickator|comment|original url: http://www.tribuneindia.com/mobi/news/chandigarh/courts/charges-framed-against-two-amway-directors/349309.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title Chandigarh Court junks revision plea of two Amway officials in 2002 cheating case | newspaper The Indian Express | url http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/2002-cheating-case-chandigarh-court-junks-revision-plea-of-two-amway-officials-5259012 | access-date July 24, 2018 | archive-date July 24, 2018 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180724153903/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/2002-cheating-case-chandigarh-court-junks-revision-plea-of-two-amway-officials-5259012/ | url-status live }}</ref>
In April 2022, the Enforcement Directorate attached both movable and immovable assets of Amway India worth {{INRconvert|757|c|0|lk}} including the firm's factory in Dindigul along with bank accounts under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA).<ref>{{cite news |titleED attaches Amway India's assets worth Rs 757 crore in alleged MLM scam |urlhttps://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/ed-attaches-amway-indias-assets-worth-rs-757-crore-in-alleged-money-laundering-case-8373671.html |access-date18 April 2022 |workMoneycontrol |date18 April 2022 |languageen |archive-dateApril 18, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220418115659/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/ed-attaches-amway-indias-assets-worth-rs-757-crore-in-alleged-money-laundering-case-8373671.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>U.S. class action settlementOn November 3, 2010, Amway announced that it had agreed to pay $56&nbsp;million—$34&nbsp;million in cash and $22&nbsp;million in products—to settle a class action that had been filed in Federal District Court in California in 2007.<ref nameclassaction>{{cite news |firstChris |lastKnape |urlhttp://www.mlive.com/business/west-michigan/index.ssf/2010/11/amway_agrees_to_pay_56_million.html |titleAmway agrees to pay $56 million, settle case alleging it operates a 'pyramid scheme' |dateNovember 3, 2010 |websiteMLive |access-dateSeptember 2, 2019 |archive-dateFebruary 1, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190201131018/https://www.mlive.com/business/west-michigan/index.ssf/2010/11/amway_agrees_to_pay_56_million.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> The class action, which had been brought against Quixtar and several of its top-level distributors, alleged fraud, racketeering, and that the defendants operated as an illegal pyramid scheme.
Amway, while noting that the settlement is not an admission of wrongdoing or liability, acknowledged that it had made changes to its business operations as a result of the lawsuit. The settlement is subject to approval by the court, which was expected in early 2011.<ref nameclassaction/> The economic value of the settlement, including the changes Amway made to its business model, totals $100&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mlive.com/business/west-michigan/index.ssf/2010/11/lawyers_say_their_20_million_p.html |title"Lawyers say their $20 million payment is fair for $100 million settlement in Amway pyramid scheme lawsuit", Grand Rapids Press (November 4, 2010) |publisherMlive.com |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |dateNovember 4, 2010 |archive-dateJune 17, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180617043359/http://www.mlive.com/business/west-michigan/index.ssf/2010/11/lawyers_say_their_20_million_p.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>Lobbying for deregulationThe DeVoses supported an amendment to the US House of Representatives' omnibus Financial Services and General Government Appropriations bill for fiscal year 2018 by US Representative John Moolenaar that would have limited the ability of the FTC to investigate whether MLMs are pyramid schemes.<ref name"Kosman2017">{{cite news|last1Kosman|first1John|titleDeVos' family seeks deregulation of Amway so it can beat Herbalife|urlhttps://nypost.com/2017/09/18/devos-family-seeks-deregulation-of-amway-so-it-can-beat-herbalife/|access-date6 May 2018|workNew York Post|date18 September 2017|archive-dateMay 7, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180507085838/https://nypost.com/2017/09/18/devos-family-seeks-deregulation-of-amway-so-it-can-beat-herbalife/|url-statuslive}}</ref> The amendment would have barred the Treasury Department, the Justice Department, the Small Business Administration, the Securities and Exchange Commission, the FTC, or any other agencies from using any monies to take enforcement actions against pyramid operations for the fiscal year.<ref name"Gingerich2017">{{cite news|last1Gingerich|first1Jon|titlePyramid Scheme Protection Law Pits Legal Group Against Multilevel Marketers|urlhttp://www.odwyerpr.com/story/public/9601/2017-10-20/pyramid-scheme-protection-law-pits-legal-group-against-multilevel-marketers.html|access-date6 May 2018|workO'Dwyer's: The Inside News of PR & Marketing Communications|date20 October 2017|archive-dateMay 7, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180507085633/http://www.odwyerpr.com/story/public/9601/2017-10-20/pyramid-scheme-protection-law-pits-legal-group-against-multilevel-marketers.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> It also adopted provisions from H.R. 3409, the so-called "Anti-Pyramid Scheme Promotion Act of 2016",<ref name"NCL2018">{{cite news|last1NCL Communications|titlePublic interest groups' letter to Congress in opposition of Moolenaar pyramid scheme rider|urlhttp://www.nclnet.org/congress_moolenaar_letter|access-date6 May 2018|publisherNational Consumers League|dateMarch 2018|archive-dateMay 7, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180507153302/http://www.nclnet.org/congress_moolenaar_letter|url-statuslive}}</ref> which would blur the lines between legitimate MLM activity and pyramid schemes established under the original 1979 FTC case by deeming sales made to people inside the company as sales to an "ultimate user," thus erasing the key distinction made in the ruling between sales to actual consumers of a product and sales made to members of the MLM network as part of recruitment of members or to qualify for commissions.<ref name"Gingerich2017" /><ref name"NCL2018" /><ref name"VanderNatTINA">{{cite web|last1Vander Nat|first1Peter|titleWhy This Anti-Pyramid Scheme Bill is Outrageously Wrong for Consumers|urlhttps://www.truthinadvertising.org/why-hr-5230-is-wrong/|publisherTruth in Advertising (TINA.org)|access-date6 May 2018|dateMay 23, 2016|archive-dateMay 7, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180507091118/https://www.truthinadvertising.org/why-hr-5230-is-wrong/|url-statuslive}}</ref> The amendment was opposed by a coalition of consumer interest groups including Consumer Action, the Consumer Federation of America, Consumers Union (the publisher of Consumer Reports magazine), Consumer Watchdog, the National Consumers League, and the United States Public Interest Research Group (US PIRG),<ref name"NCL2018" /> as well as Truth in Advertising (TINA.org) in its original incarnation.<ref name"VanderNatTINA" />
Other legal actions
Canadian tax fraud case
In 1982, Amway co-founders, Richard M. DeVos and Jay Van Andel, along with Amway's executive vice president for corporate services, William J. Discher Jr., were indicted in Canada on several criminal charges, including allegations that they underreported the value of goods brought into the country and had defrauded the Canadian government of more than $28 million from 1965 to 1980.<ref name"NYT_111183">{{cite news|last1Martin|first1Douglas|titleAmway admits fraud|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/11/business/amway-admits-fraud.html|access-dateMarch 12, 2016|workThe New York Times|dateNovember 11, 1983|archive-dateMarch 13, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160313035555/http://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/11/business/amway-admits-fraud.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Ledger_031216">{{cite news|titleAmway Pleads Guilty to Fraud|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idwSUVAAAAIBAJ&sjidmvsDAAAAIBAJ&pg4697,3984825&hlen|newspaperLakeland Ledger|dateNovember 11, 1983}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=CanadaTax>{{Cite news
| title = Amway of Canada Drops Tax Appeal
| work = The New York Times
| agency = Reuters
| date = February 7, 1984
| url https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9D04E3D81039F932A15750C0A962948260
| access-date = July 5, 2007
| archive-date = October 13, 2007
| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071013174529/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9D04E3D81039F932A15750C0A962948260
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
| title = Amway, Canada Reach Settlement In Customs Dispute
| work = The Wall Street Journal
| date = September 25, 1989
| url https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/wsj/access/860493942.html?dids860493942:860493942&FMTABS&FMTSABS:AI&dateSep+25%2C+1989&authorJOHN+URQUHART+Staff+Reporter+of+THE+WALL+STREET+JOURNAL&pubWall+Street+Journal++(1889-Current+file)&edition&startpageC17&typehistoric&desc=Amway%2C+Canada+Reach+Settlement+In+Customs+Dispute
| access-date = June 4, 2008
| archive-date = November 19, 2010
| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20101119205207/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/wsj/access/860493942.html?dids860493942:860493942&FMTABS&FMTSABS:AI&dateSep+25%2C+1989&authorJOHN+URQUHART+Staff+Reporter+of+THE+WALL+STREET+JOURNAL&pubWall+Street+Journal++(1889-Current+file)&edition&startpageC17&typehistoric&desc=Amway%2C+Canada+Reach+Settlement+In+Customs+Dispute
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> The charges were dropped in 1983 after Amway and its Canadian subsidiary pleaded guilty to criminal customs fraud charges.<ref name"The New York Times 1983 v854">{{cite web | titleBUSINESS PEOPLE; Haig to Advise Amway On Foreign Operations | websiteThe New York Times | dateDecember 12, 1983 | urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/12/12/business/business-people-haig-to-advise-amway-on-foreign-operations.html | access-dateApril 2, 2024}}</ref> The companies paid a fine of $25&nbsp;million CAD, the largest fine ever imposed in Canada at the time.<ref name"NYT_111183" /> In 1989, the company settled the outstanding customs duties for $45 million CAD.<ref name"LATimes_1989">{{cite web | authorTimes Wire Services | titleP. M. BRIEFING : Amway Pays $38-Million to Canada | websiteLos Angeles Times | dateSeptember 22, 1989 | urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-09-22-fi-888-story.html | access-dateApril 2, 2024}}</ref>
RIAA lawsuit
The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), as part of its anti-piracy efforts, sued Amway and several distributors in 1996, alleging that copyrighted music was used on "highly profitable" training videotapes.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9D06E4D61339F932A15751C0A960958260 |titleRecord Labels Sue Amway over its videos |workThe New York Times |dateFebruary 21, 1996 |access-dateJuly 9, 2011}}</ref> Amway denied wrongdoing, blaming the case on a misunderstanding by distributors, and settled the case out of court for $9&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-19783607.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131208073245/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-19783607.html |url-statusdead |archive-dateDecember 8, 2013 |titleAmway pays $9&nbsp;million to settle copyright infringement suit |publisherHighbeam.com |access-dateJuly 9, 2011}}</ref>Amway UKIn 2007, Amway's operations were halted in the United Kingdom and Ireland following a yearlong investigation by the UK Department of Trade and Industry, which moved to have Amway banned on the basis that the company had employed deceptive marketing, presented inflated earnings estimates, and lured distributors into buying bogus "motivation and training" tools.<ref name"FT_031116">{{cite news|titlePyramid scam alert|volume42|urlhttp://www.sundaytimes.lk/070722/FinancialTimes/ft319.html|access-dateMarch 11, 2016|issue8|newspaperFinancial Times|dateJuly 22, 2007|archive-dateMarch 3, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303220545/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/070722/FinancialTimes/ft319.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|titleUK threatens to ban Amway|firstLee|lastLupo|workThe Muskegon Chronicle|locationGrand Rapids|dateJuly 1, 2007|urlhttp://blog.mlive.com/chronicle/2007/07/united_kingdom_investigates_am.html|access-dateApril 2, 2010|archive-dateDecember 25, 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111225102446/http://blog.mlive.com/chronicle/2007/07/united_kingdom_investigates_am.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2008, a UK judge dismissed government claims against Amway's operations, saying major reforms in the prior year (which included banning non-Amway-approved motivational events and materials) had fixed company faults that favoured selling training materials over products and misrepresented earnings. However, the judge also expressed his belief that Amway allowed "misrepresentations" of its business by independent sellers in years past and failed to act decisively against the misrepresentations.<ref name"MLive_031116">{{cite news|last1Knape|first1Chris|titleU.K. judge dismisses claims against Amway|urlhttp://blog.mlive.com/grpress/2008/05/uk_dismisses_claims_against_am.html|access-dateMarch 11, 2016|publisherMLive Media Group|dateMay 14, 2008|archive-dateMarch 12, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160312070752/http://blog.mlive.com/grpress/2008/05/uk_dismisses_claims_against_am.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Welcome to Life (Poland)
In 1997, Amway Poland and Network TwentyOne separately sued the makers of a Polish film, Welcome to Life ({{langx|pl|Witajcie w życiu}}), for defamation and copyright violations. Henryk Dederko (the director) and producer were later acquitted on the charge of disseminating false information.<ref name"wiadomosci.wp.pl">{{cite web |urlhttp://wiadomosci.wp.pl/kat,1345,title,Przerazajacy-film-o-praniu-mozgow-nie-w-Warszawie,wid,11589486,wiadomosc.html |title"Przerażający film o praniu mózgów" – nie w Warszawie – Wiadomości – WP.PL |publisherWiadomosci.wp.pl |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150705164006/http://wiadomosci.wp.pl/kat,1345,title,Przerazajacy-film-o-praniu-mozgow-nie-w-Warszawie,wid,11589486,wiadomosc.html |archive-dateJuly 5, 2015 |url-statusdead |dfmdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|titleBan on Film Has Poland Debating Censorship|firstJane|lastPerlez|workThe New York Times|locationWarsaw|dateJune 14, 1998|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/14/world/ban-on-film-has-poland-debating-censorship.html?pagewanted1|access-dateFebruary 5, 2017|archive-dateFebruary 18, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170218075014/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/14/world/ban-on-film-has-poland-debating-censorship.html?pagewanted1|url-statuslive}}</ref> The film, banned for 12 years, was one of the highly anticipated movies of 2009's Warsaw Film Festival and was dubbed by the promoters as a "scary movie about brainwashing"<ref name"wiadomosci.wp.pl"/> It was said to depict hard-sell "pep rallies", and to include statements from distributors that meetings had a similar tone to meetings of the Communist Party before it lost power in Poland. Methods of recruitment that confusingly resembled those of a sect were also described.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.plejada.pl/2,24876,news,1,1,witajcie-w-zyciu-film-o-amwayu-wycofany-z-wff,artykul.html |title"Witajcie w życiu", film o Amwayu wycofany z WFF – Film – Plejada – Sprawdź, co słychać w show-biznesie |publisherPlejada.pl |dateOctober 13, 2009 |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110722134910/http://www.plejada.pl/2%2C24876%2Cnews%2C1%2C1%2Cwitajcie-w-zyciu-film-o-amwayu-wycofany-z-wff%2Cartykul.html |archive-dateJuly 22, 2011 |url-statusdead |dfmdy }}</ref> A bestseller on the local video black market, the film was banned while the suit proceeded.<ref>{{cite news|titleBan on Film Has Poland Debating Censorship|firstJane|lastPerlez|workThe New York Times|locationWarsaw|dateJune 14, 1998|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/14/world/ban-on-film-has-poland-debating-censorship.html?pagewanted1|access-dateFebruary 5, 2017|archive-dateFebruary 18, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170218075014/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/14/world/ban-on-film-has-poland-debating-censorship.html?pagewanted1|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2001 a regional court ruled in favor of Network 21; however, in 2004 the Warsaw Regional Court dismissed Amway's civil lawsuit. On appeal Amway won the case and the producers were ordered to pay a fine to a children's charity and publish a public apology.<ref name"AmwayWins">{{Cite news|titleAmway wygrał z Dederką (Amway wins against Dederko)|workMoney.pl|dateDecember 10, 2001|urlhttp://www.money.pl/gospodarka/wiadomosci/artykul/quot;amwayquot;;wygral;z;dederka,244,0,50676.html|access-dateApril 2, 2010|archive-dateNovember 11, 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101111190737/http://www.money.pl/gospodarka/wiadomosci/artykul/quot;amwayquot;;wygral;z;dederka,244,0,50676.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|titleWitajcie w życiu wciąż półkownikiem |workWProst |urlhttp://www.wprost.pl/ar/?O82534&C71 |locationWarsaw |dateOctober 10, 2005 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090618134824/http://www.wprost.pl/ar/?O82534&C71 |archive-dateJune 18, 2009 |dfmdy }}</ref> {{as of|2009}} the film was still banned due to an ongoing case brought by "private individuals" ridiculed in the film.<ref>{{cite web|authore-point SA |urlhttp://www.amway.pl/news?news_id11226&back_uri/ |titleAmway (pl) – OŚWIADCZENIE |publisherAmway.pl |dateOctober 13, 2009 |access-dateJuly 9, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110903233612/http://www.amway.pl/news?news_id11226&back_uri%2F |archive-dateSeptember 3, 2011 |dfmdy }}</ref>
On December 18, 2012, the court ruled that film can be screened, but the makers have to remove "untrue information", as the screen near the end of the movie stated that 30% of company income is generated by sales of training materials and that the vast majority of its profits are shared only by the tiny fraction of top distributors.<ref>{{cite web |authorAndrzej Biernat, poseł PO o zachowaniu Jarosława Gowina |urlhttp://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114871,13073248,Koniec_procesu_ws__Amway__TVP_moze_pokazac_film__ale.html#BoxWiadTxt?lokalewroclaw |titleWiadomości – Gazeta.pl |languagepl |publisherWiadomosci.gazeta.pl |access-date2013-05-27 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121221084513/http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114871,13073248,Koniec_procesu_ws__Amway__TVP_moze_pokazac_film__ale.html#BoxWiadTxt?lokalewroclaw |archive-dateDecember 21, 2012 |url-statusdead |dfmdy-all }}</ref> This is not the only court case, so the film is still banned on other grounds.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114883,13074755,Rezyser_filmu_o_Amwayu_szczerze_o_wyroku__Nikt_nic.html|titleReżyser filmu o Amwayu szczerze o wyroku: Nikt nic nie rozumie, czyli 'Witajcie w życiu' [WYWIAD]|languagepl|publisherWiadomosci.gazeta.pl|date2012-12-18|access-date2013-05-27|archive-dateDecember 21, 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121221093235/http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114883,13074755,Rezyser_filmu_o_Amwayu_szczerze_o_wyroku__Nikt_nic.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>Dr. Phil and Shape UpIn March 2004, TV personality Phil McGraw (a.k.a. Dr. Phil) pulled his "Shape Up" line of supplements off the market in the face of an investigation by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC). The supplements were manufactured by CSA Nutraceuticals, a subsidiary of Alticor's Access Business Group.<ref nameDembling>{{cite book|authorSophia Dembling|author2 Lisa Gutierrez|titleThe Making of Dr. Phil: The Straight-Talking True Story of Everyone's Favorite Therapist|year2003|publisherJohn Wiley and Sons|isbn0471696595|page181}}</ref> The FTC later dropped the probe, but in October 2005 a class-action lawsuit was filed against McGraw by several people who used the products and claimed that the supplements, which cost $120 per month, did not stimulate weight loss.<ref name"ctv">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051007/drphil_classaction_051007/20051007/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051013055352/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051007/drphil_classaction_051007/20051007 |url-statusdead |archive-dateOctober 13, 2005 |titleClass-action status sought in Dr. Phil diet suit |access-dateOctober 21, 2007 |publisherCTV Globe Media |year2005 |author<!-- CTV.ca News Staff --> }}</ref> In September 2006, a $10.5&nbsp;million settlement was reached, in which Alticor agreed to provide $4.5&nbsp;million in cash and $6&nbsp;million in Nutrilite products to disgruntled users of Shape Up.<ref name"usaap">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-09-26-dr-phil-diet_x.htm|titleSettlement reached on Dr. Phil diet plan|access-dateOctober 21, 2007|workUSA Today|agencyAssociated Press|dateSeptember 26, 2006|archive-dateMay 24, 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100524052857/http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-09-26-dr-phil-diet_x.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleSETTLEMENT AGREEMENT AND RELEASE |urlhttps://www.casewatch.net/civil/drphil/settlement.pdf |access-date11 October 2022 |websiteCasewatch |archive-dateAugust 5, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180805234056/https://casewatch.net/civil/drphil/settlement.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www2.metrotimes.com/editorial/story.asp?id9791 |titleNews+Views: Slimming the Amway |newspaperMetro Times Detroit|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071010082818/http://www2.metrotimes.com/editorial/story.asp?id9791|archive-date10 October 2007|access-date5 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | urlhttp://articles.cnn.com/2005-10-04/justice/dr.phil_1_low-calorie-diet-dieters-class-action?_sPM:LAW | archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120707234202/http://articles.cnn.com/2005-10-04/justice/dr.phil_1_low-calorie-diet-dieters-class-action?_sPM:LAW | url-statusdead | archive-dateJuly 7, 2012 | publisherCNN | titleCalifornia judge gives tentative OK to Toyota class-action suit | dateNovember 19, 2010 }}</ref>Procter & GambleSome Amway distributors distributed an urban legend that the (old) Procter & Gamble service mark was in fact a Satanic symbol or that the CEO of P&G is himself a practicing Satanist. (In some variants of the story, it is also claimed that the CEO of Procter & Gamble donated "satanic tithes" to the Church of Satan.)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.snopes.com/business/alliance/procter.asp |titleUrban Legends Reference Pages: Procter and Gamble and Satanism Rumor |websiteSnopes.com |dateAugust 12, 1999 |access-dateJuly 9, 2011}}</ref> Procter & Gamble alleged that several Amway distributors were behind a resurgence of the story in the 1990s and sued several independent Amway distributors and the company for defamation and slander.<ref>{{cite court |litigantsProcter & Gamble v. Amway |vol280 |reporterF.3d |opinion519 |courtFifth Circuit Court of Appeals |dateJuly 19, 2004 |urlhttps://caselaw.findlaw.com/data2/circs/5th/0320202pv2.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://caselaw.findlaw.com/data2/circs/5th/0320202pv2.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-dateDecember 29, 2008}}</ref> The distributors had used Amway's Amvox voice messaging service to send the rumor to their downline distributors in April 1995.<ref name"DN031907">{{cite news |last1Geoffrey |first1Fattah |titleAmway distributors face $19 million judgment in suit |urlhttps://www.deseret.com/2007/3/20/20008309/amway-distributors-face-19-million-judgment-in-suit |access-dateDecember 5, 2019 |publisherDeseret News |dateMarch 19, 2007 |archive-dateDecember 6, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191206005802/https://www.deseret.com/2007/3/20/20008309/amway-distributors-face-19-million-judgment-in-suit |url-statuslive }}</ref> By 2003, after more than a decade of lawsuits in multiple states, all allegations against Amway and Amway distributors had been dismissed. In October 2005, a Utah appeals court reversed part of the decision dismissing the case against the four Amway distributors, and remanded it to the lower court for further proceedings.<ref>[http://www.kscourts.org/CA10/cases/2005/10/03-4234.htm 03-4234 – Procter & Gamble Co. V. Haugen – October 19, 2005<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080704193135/http://www.kscourts.org/CA10/cases/2005/10/03-4234.htm |dateJuly 4, 2008 }}</ref> In the lawsuit against the four former Amway distributors, Procter & Gamble was awarded $19.25 million by a U.S. District Court jury in Salt Lake City on March 20, 2007.<ref>{{Cite news
|title = Procter & Gamble Awarded $19.25&nbsp;Million in Satanism Lawsuit
|work = Fox News
|date = March 20, 2007
|url = https://www.foxnews.com/story/procter-gamble-awarded-19-25-million-in-satanism-lawsuit
|access-date = December 29, 2018
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181230182621/https://www.foxnews.com/story/procter-gamble-awarded-19-25-million-in-satanism-lawsuit
|archive-date = 2018-12-30
|url-status = dead
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
| last = Kirdahy
| first = Matthew
| title = The Devil Didn't Make Them Do It
| work=Forbes.com
| date = March 22, 2007
| url = https://www.forbes.com/facesinthenews/2007/03/22/procter-gamble-faces-markets-equity-cx_mk_0320autofacescan02.html
| access-date July 5, 2007 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070703004639/http://www.forbes.com/facesinthenews/2007/03/22/procter-gamble-faces-markets-equity-cx_mk_0320autofacescan02.html| archive-dateJuly 3, 2007 | url-status dead}}</ref> On November 24, 2008, the case was officially settled.<ref>{{Cite news
|title = P&G Satanic Rumors Case Settles After Marathon Battle
|work = onpointnews.com
|date = December 16, 2008
|url = http://www.onpointnews.com/081216.asp
|access-date = December 18, 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081221214945/http://www.onpointnews.com/081216.asp
|archive-date = December 21, 2008
|url-status = dead
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> "It's hard to imagine they'd pursue it this long, especially after all the retractions we put out," said distributor Randy Haugen, a 53-year-old Ogden, Utah, businessman who maintained P&G was never able to show how it was harmed by the rumors. "We are stunned. All of us."<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/procter-gamble-wins-satanic-civil-suit/|titleProcter & Gamble Wins Satanic Civil Suit|websitewww.cbsnews.com|dateMarch 20, 2007 |languageen-US|access-date2019-04-09|archive-dateFebruary 28, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200228220724/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/procter-gamble-wins-satanic-civil-suit/|url-statuslive}}</ref>Regulatory violations in VietnamIn January 2017, the Vietnam Ministry of Industry and Trade determined that Amway Vietnam had violated federal regulations by engaging in unauthorized multi-level marketing.<ref name"VNN_011716">{{cite news|titleAmway found violating multiple regulations on multi-level marketing|urlhttp://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/171344/amway-found-violating-multiple-regulations-on-multi-level-marketing.html|access-dateJanuary 19, 2017|publisherVietnamNet Bridge|dateJanuary 17, 2017|refVNN_011716|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170118163124/http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/171344/amway-found-violating-multiple-regulations-on-multi-level-marketing.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>Other issuesCultismSome Amway distributor groups have been accused of using "cult-like" tactics to attract new distributors and keep them involved and committed.<ref namebutterfield/><ref name"samways">{{cite book |lastSamways |firstLouise |date1994 |titleDangerous Persuaders |locationRingwood, Vic., Australia |publisherPenguin |isbn9780140235531 |ol1159413M |oclc31288848 |lccn94137444}}</ref><ref name"hidden-persuaders">"Hidden persuaders", by Tony Thompson. Time Out, June 22–29, 1994</ref><ref name"forbes-positive-inspiration">The power of positive inspiration by Paul Klebnikov. Forbes, December 9, 1991</ref> Allegations include resemblance to a Big Brother organization with a paranoid attitude toward insiders critical of the organization,<ref name"forbes-positive-inspiration"/> seminars and rallies resembling religious revival meetings,<ref name"butterfield"/><ref name"forbes-positive-inspiration"/> and enormous involvement of distributors despite minimal incomes.<ref name"butterfield"/><ref name"hidden-persuaders"/><ref name"forbes-positive-inspiration"/> An examination of the 1979–1980 tax records in the state of Wisconsin showed that the Direct Distributors reported a net loss of $918 on average.<ref name"bromley-quasi-religious">Quasi religious corporations: A new integration of religion and capitalism? by David G. Bromley. In Religion and the Transformations of Capitalism: Comparative Approaches, edited by Richard H. Roberts, pages 135–160. Routledge, 1995</ref><ref name"hidden-persuaders"/>Dateline NBCIn 2004, Dateline NBC featured a critical report based on a yearlong undercover investigation of business practices of Quixtar.<ref name"DATELINE">{{Cite news
| last = Hansen
| first = Chris
| author-link = Chris Hansen
| title = In pursuit of the almighty dollar
| work = Dateline NBC
| publisher = NBC News
| date = May 7, 2004
| url = http://www.nbcnews.com/id/4375477
| access-date = July 5, 2007
| archive-date = February 6, 2013
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130206084807/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/4375477
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> The report noted that the average distributor makes only about $1,400 per year and that many of the "high level distributors singing the praises of Quixtar" are actually "making most of their money by selling motivational books, tapes and seminars; not Quixtar's cosmetics, soaps, and electronics":
<blockquote>In fact, about twenty high level distributors are part of an exclusive club; one that those hundreds of thousands of other distributors don't get to join. For years only a privileged few, including Bill Britt, have run hugely profitable businesses selling all those books, tapes and seminars; things the rank and file distributors can't sell themselves but, are told over and over again, they need to buy in order to succeed.</blockquote>
The program said that a Quixtar recruiter featured in the report made misleading and inconsistent statements about Quixtar earnings during a recruitment meeting and had an outstanding arrest warrant for cocaine possession from the mid-90s.<ref nameDATELINE/>See also
{{Portal|Companies}}
* List of multi-level marketing companies
* Morrison v. Amway Corp.
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
Books
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* ''American Victory: The Real Story of Today's Amway, published April 1997 by Chapel & Croft Publishing; {{ISBN|0-9645171-6-7}}
* Amway: The Cult of Free Enterprise, published December 1, 1985, by South End Press; {{ISBN|0-9648795-1-4}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id00bkiZGR8zkC Amway Forever: The Amazing Story of a Global Business Phenomenon] ({{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221112100552/https://books.google.com/books?id00bkiZGR8zkC&sourcegbs_navlinks_s |date=November 12, 2022 }}), published August 2011 by John Wiley & Sons; {{ISBN|978-0-470-48821-8}}
* Amway: The True Story of the Company That Transformed the Lives of Millions, published September 1, 1999, by Berkley Publishing Group; {{ISBN|0-425-17040-3}}
* An Enterprising Life, published 1998 by HarperCollins; {{ISBN|0-88730-997-6}}
* An Uncommon Freedom: The Amway Experience and Why It Grows, published 1982 by Revell; {{ISBN|978-0800713058}}
* Commitment to excellence: The Remarkable Amway Story, published 1986 by Benjamin; {{ISBN|0-87502-136-0}}
* Compassionate Capitalism: People Helping People Help Themselves, published September 1994 by Penguin Books; {{ISBN|0-452-27051-0}}
* Empire of Freedom: The Amway Story and What It Means to You, published September 3, 1997, by Prima Lifestyles; {{ISBN|0-7615-1088-5}}
* How to Be Like Rich DeVos: Succeeding with Integrity in Business and Life, published 2004 by Health Communications, Inc; {{ISBN|0-7573-0158-4}}
* [https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaceca4s6qyrpaa7gc5pnyz7bkp4nv4nrjveio3hwpffzlelc76qskxy?filename=merchants-of-deception-eric-scheibeler-2004--annas-archive--libgenrs-nf-2791991.pdf Merchants of Deception: An Insider's Chilling Look at the Worldwide, Multi-Billion Dollar Conspiracy of Lies That Is Amway and Its Motivational Organizations], published 2009 by BookSurge Publishing; {{ISBN|978-1-4392-4715-0}}
* [https://archive.org/details/firstelevengrowt0000litt/mode/2up The First Eleven: The Growth of Amway in Britain Through the Lives of Its Local Heroes], published 1984 by AM Publishing; {{ISBN|0-9509593-0-8}}
* Promises to Keep: The Amway Phenomenon and How It Works, published 1986 by Berkley Books; {{ISBN|0-425-09856-7}}
* The Direct Selling Revolution: Understanding the Growth of the Amway Corporation, published 1993 by WileyBlackwell; {{ISBN|978-0-631-19229-9}}
* The Possible Dream: A Candid Look At Amway, published 1977 by Revell; {{ISBN|0-8007-0857-1}}
* Profiles of the American Dream: Rich DeVos and Jay Van Andel and the Remarkable Beginnings of Amway'', 1997 by Premiere Films
{{Refend}}
External links
{{Commons category|Amway Corporate}}
* {{Official website}}
{{Multi-level marketing}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:1959 establishments in Michigan
Category:Companies based in Kent County, Michigan
Category:Multi-level marketing companies
Category:Privately held companies based in Michigan
Category:Privately held companies of the United States
Category:Retail companies established in 1959
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amway
|
2025-04-05T18:25:48.016075
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1814
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Adam Smith
|
{{Short description|Scottish economist and philosopher (1723–1790)}}
{{About|the Scottish economist and philosopher|other people named Adam Smith}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| image = File:Adam Smith The Muir portrait.jpg
| caption = Posthumous Muir portrait, {{circa|1800}}
| alt = A portrait of Adam Smith
| name = Adam Smith
| honorific_suffix {{post-nominals|countryGBR|size=100%|FRS|FRSE|FRSA}}
| signature = Adam Smith signature 1783.svg
| birth_date {{OldStyleDateNY|{{c.|lkno|16 June}}|{{c.|lkno|5 June}}}} 1723<ref name"baptism" />
| birth_place = Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland, Great Britain
| death_date {{death date and age|dfyes|1790|7|17|1723|6|16}}
| death_place = Edinburgh, Scotland
| school_tradition | region Western philosophy
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
* University of Glasgow
* Balliol College, Oxford}}
| notable_works = {{plainlist|
* The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759)
* The Wealth of Nations (1776)
}}
| main_interests = Political philosophy, ethics, economics
| notable_ideas = {{plainlist|
* Classical economics
* Free market
* Division of labour
* Absolute advantage
* Invisible hand
}}
|era=Early modern period}}
{{Economics sidebar|sp=uk|economists}}
Adam Smith (baptised {{OldStyleDateNY|16 June |5 June}} 1723<ref name"baptism">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/smith_adam.shtml|titleAdam Smith (1723–1790)|websiteBBC|quoteAdam Smith's exact date of birth is unknown, but he was baptised on 5 June 1723.|access-date20 December 2019|archive-date15 March 2007|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070315183615/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/smith_adam.shtml|url-statuslive}}</ref> – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish{{Efn|Smith was described as a North Briton and Scot.<ref>{{cite book|lastWilliams|firstGwydion M.|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHh-3AAAAIAAJ|titleAdam Smith, Wealth Without Nations|date2000|publisherAthol Books|isbn978-0-85034-084-6|locationLondon|pages59|languageen|access-date24 August 2020|archive-date19 July 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210719200518/https://books.google.com/books?idHh-3AAAAIAAJ|url-statuslive}}</ref>|namenote|group}} economist and philosopher who was a pioneer in the thinking of political economy and key figure during the Scottish Enlightenment.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/enlightenment/features_enlightenment_enlightenment.shtml|titleBBC – History – Scottish History|websitewww.bbc.co.uk|access-date20 December 2019|archive-date10 April 2001|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010410205432/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/enlightenment/features_enlightenment_enlightenment.shtml|url-statuslive}}</ref> Seen by some as the "father of economics"<ref name"AS1">—{{cite journal |last1Brown |first1Vivienne |date5 December 2008 |titleMere Inventions of the Imagination': A Survey of Recent Literature on Adam Smith |urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/economics-and-philosophy/article/mere-inventions-of-the-imagination-a-survey-of-recent-literature-on-adam-smith/E82D64B07E411991C03510FC1BD3E040 |journalCambridge University Press |volume13 |issue2 |pages281–312 |doi10.1017/S0266267100004521 |s2cid145093382 |access-date20 July 2020 |archive-date21 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200721213848/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/economics-and-philosophy/article/mere-inventions-of-the-imagination-a-survey-of-recent-literature-on-adam-smith/E82D64B07E411991C03510FC1BD3E040 |url-statuslive | issn0266-2671 }}<br />—{{cite book |lastBerry |firstChristopher J. |date2018 |titleAdam Smith Very Short Introductions Series |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idirRwDwAAQBAJ&qAdam+Smith++Father+of+economics |publisherOxford University Press |page101 |isbn978-0-19-878445-6 |access-date3 October 2020 |archive-date19 July 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210719200529/https://books.google.com/books?idirRwDwAAQBAJ&qAdam+Smith++Father+of+economics |url-statuslive }}<br />—{{cite web|urlhttps://www.investopedia.com/updates/adam-smith-economics/|titleAdam Smith: The Father of Economics|lastSharma|firstRakesh|websiteInvestopedia|access-date20 February 2019|archive-date10 September 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160910173425/https://www.investopedia.com/updates/adam-smith-economics/|url-statuslive}}</ref> or the "father of capitalism",<ref name"AS2">—{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3csvsfb|titleAdam Smith: Father of Capitalism|websitewww.bbc.co.uk|access-date20 February 2019|archive-date20 November 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171120102114/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3csvsfb|url-statuslive}}<br />—{{cite journal |last1Bassiry |first1G. R. |last2Jones|first2Marc |date1993 |titleAdam Smith and the ethics of contemporary capitalism |journalJournal of Business Ethics |volume 12 |issue1026 |pages621–627 |doi10.1007/BF01845899|s2cid51746709 }}<br />—{{cite journal |last1Newbert |first1Scott L.|date30 November 2017 |titleLessons on social enterprise from the father of capitalism: A dialectical analysis of Adam Smith |journalAcademy of Management Journal |volume2016 |issue1 |page12046|doi10.5465/ambpp.2016.12046abstract |issn2151-6561}}<br />—{{cite book |lastRasmussen |firstDennis C. |year2017 |titleThe Infidel and the Professor: David Hume, Adam Smith, and the Friendship That Shaped Modern Thought |publisherPrinceton University Press |page12 |isbn978-1-4008-8846-7}}</ref> he wrote two classic works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). The latter, often abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work that treats economics as a comprehensive system and an academic discipline. Smith refuses to explain the distribution of wealth and power in terms of God's will and instead appeals to natural, political, social, economic, legal, environmental and technological factors and the interactions among them. Among other economic theories, the work introduced Smith's idea of absolute advantage.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/economics/what-is-absolute-advantage/|titleAbsolute Advantage – Ability to Produce More than Anyone Else|websiteCorporate Finance Institute|languageen-US|access-date20 February 2019|archive-date20 February 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190220181649/https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/economics/what-is-absolute-advantage/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was one of the first students to benefit from scholarships set up by fellow Scot John Snell. After graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at the University of Edinburgh,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/s/adamsmith.html|titleAdam Smith: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland|websitewww.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk|access-date30 July 2019|archive-date22 July 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190722094727/https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/s/adamsmith.html|url-status=live}}</ref> leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow, teaching moral philosophy and during this time, wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day.
As a reaction to the common policy of protecting national markets and merchants through minimizing imports and maximizing exports, what came to be known as mercantilism, Smith laid the foundations of classical free market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of division of labour and expounded upon how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by writers such as Horace Walpole.<ref>{{cite news |last1John |first1McMurray |titleCapitalism's 'Founding Father' Often Quoted, Frequently Misconstrued |urlhttps://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/capitalisms-founding-father-often-quoted-frequently-misconstrued/ |newspaperInvestor's Business Daily |date19 March 2017 |access-date31 May 2019 |archive-date19 July 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210719200521/https://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/capitalisms-founding-father-often-quoted-frequently-misconstrued/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Biography
Early life
Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in Fife, Scotland. His father, Adam Smith senior, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet (senior solicitor), advocate and prosecutor (judge advocate) and also served as comptroller of the customs in Kirkcaldy.<ref name"rae 1895 1">{{harvnb|Rae|1895|p1}}</ref> Smith's mother was born Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry, also in Fife; she married Smith's father in 1720. Two months before Smith was born, his father died, leaving his mother a widow.<ref>{{harvnb|Bussing-Burks|2003|pp38–39}}</ref> The date of Smith's baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was <!-- 5 June is OS; 5 June is NS. -->5 June 1723<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p12}}</ref> and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth,<ref name="rae 1895 1"/> which is unknown.
Although few events in Smith's early childhood are known, the Scottish journalist John Rae, Smith's biographer, recorded that Smith was abducted by Romani at the age of three and released when others went to rescue him.{{efn|In Life of Adam Smith, Rae writes: "In his fourth year, while on a visit to his grandfather's house at Strathendry on the banks of the Leven, [Smith] was stolen by a passing band of gypsies, and for a time could not be found. But presently a gentleman arrived who had met a Romani woman a few miles down the road carrying a child that was crying piteously. Scouts were immediately dispatched in the direction indicated, and they came upon the woman in Leslie wood. As soon as she saw them she threw her burden down and escaped, and the child was brought back to his mother. [Smith] would have made, I fear, a poor gypsy."<ref name"rae 1895 5" />}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://fife-placenames.glasgow.ac.uk/placename/?id1451|titleFife Place-name Data :: Strathenry|websitefife-placenames.glasgow.ac.uk|access-date11 November 2020|archive-date19 July 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210719200533/https://fife-placenames.glasgow.ac.uk/placename/?id1451|url-statuslive}}</ref> Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 39">{{harvnb|Bussing-Burks|2003|p39}}</ref> He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period"<ref name"rae 1895 5">{{harvnb|Rae|1895|p5}}</ref>—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, and writing.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 39"/>Formal educationSmith entered the University of Glasgow at age 14 and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 39"/> Here he developed his passion for the philosophical concepts of reason, civilian liberties, and free speech. In 1740, he was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p=22}}</ref>
Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, which he found intellectually stifling.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 41">{{harvnb|Bussing-Burks|2003|p41}}</ref> In Book V, Chapter II of The Wealth of Nations, he wrote: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once discovered him reading a copy of David Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it.<ref name"rae 1895 5" /><ref name"rae 1895 24">{{harvnb|Rae|1895|p24}}</ref><ref name"Buchholz 1999 12">{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|p12}}</ref> According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework."<ref>{{cite book |titleIntroductory Economics |publisherNew Age Publishers |isbn81-224-1830-9 |page4|year 2006 }}</ref> Nevertheless, he took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library.<ref name"rae 1895 22">{{harvnb|Rae|1895|p22}}</ref> When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters.<ref name"rae 1895 24–25">{{harvnb|Rae|1895|pp24–25}}</ref> Near the end of his time there, he began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 42">{{harvnb|Bussing-Burks|2003|p42}}</ref> He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 42" /><ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p29}}</ref>
In Book V of The Wealth of Nations, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at English universities, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished men of letters could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the Church of England.<ref name"Buchholz 1999 12" />Teaching careerSmith began delivering public lectures in 1748 at the University of Edinburgh,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.biography.com/scholar/adam-smith|titleAdam Smith|websiteBiography|languageen-us|access-date30 July 2019|archive-date19 July 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210719200521/https://www.biography.com/scholar/adam-smith|url-statuslive}}</ref> sponsored by the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh under the patronage of Lord Kames.<ref name"rae 1895 30">{{harvnb|Rae|1895|p30}}</ref> His lecture topics included rhetoric and belles-lettres,<ref>Smith, A. ([1762] 1985). Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres [1762]. vol. IV of the Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1984). Retrieved 16 February 2012</ref> and later the subject of "the progress of opulence". On this latter topic, he first expounded his economic philosophy of "the obvious and simple system of natural liberty". While Smith was not adept at public speaking, his lectures met with success.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 43">{{harvnb|Bussing-Burks|2003|p=43}}</ref>
In 1750, Smith met the philosopher David Hume, who was his senior by more than a decade. In their writings covering history, politics, philosophy, economics, and religion, Smith and Hume shared closer intellectual and personal bonds than with other important figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titleSmith, Adam (bap. 1723, d. 1790) |encyclopediaDictionary of National Biography |publisherOxford University Press |dateSeptember 2004 |author=Winch, Donald}}</ref>
In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses, and in 1752, he was elected a member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, having been introduced to the society by Lord Kames. When the head of Moral Philosophy in Glasgow died the next year, Smith took over the position.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 43" /> He worked as an academic for the next 13 years, which he characterised as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honorable period [of his life]".<ref name"rae 1895 42">{{harvnb|Rae|1895|p=42}}</ref>
Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human morality depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. Smith defined "mutual sympathy" as the basis of moral sentiments. He based his explanation, not on a special "moral sense" as the Third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, nor on utility as Hume did, but on mutual sympathy, a term best captured in modern parlance by the 20th-century concept of empathy, the capacity to recognise feelings that are being experienced by another being.<ref>{{cite book |last1Fleischacker |first1Samuel |titleBeing Me Being You: Adam Smith and Empathy |date2019 |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |locationChicago |isbn9780226661896 |urlhttps://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/B/bo43987952.html}}</ref>
, one of the leaders of the physiocratic school of thought|alt=A drawing of a man sitting down]]
Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith became so popular that many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|p15}}</ref> At this time, Smith began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p67}}</ref> For example, Smith lectured that the cause of increase in national wealth is labour, rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver, which is the basis for mercantilism, the economic theory that dominated Western European economic policies at the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|p=13}}</ref>
In 1762, the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/archives/exhibitions/smith/photogallery/honorarydegree/|titleMyGlasgow – Archive Services – Exhibitions – Adam Smith in Glasgow – Photo Gallery – Honorary degree|websiteUniversity of Glasgow|access-date6 November 2018|archive-date6 November 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181106132237/https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/archives/exhibitions/smith/photogallery/honorarydegree/|url-statuslive}}</ref> At the end of 1763, he obtained an offer from British chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend—who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume—to tutor his stepson, Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch as preparation for a career in international politics. Smith resigned from his professorship in 1764 to take the tutoring position. He subsequently attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students because he had resigned partway through the term, but his students refused.<ref name"Buchholz 1999 16">{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|p16}}</ref>Tutoring, travels, European intellectualsSmith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Scott, during which time he educated Scott on a variety of subjects. He was paid £300 per year (plus expenses) along with a £300 per year pension; roughly twice his former income as a teacher.<ref name"Buchholz 1999 16" /> Smith first travelled as a tutor to Toulouse, France, where he stayed for a year and a half. According to his own account, he found Toulouse to be somewhat boring, having written to Hume that he "had begun to write a book to pass away the time".<ref name"Buchholz 1999 16" /> After touring the south of France, the group moved to Geneva, where Smith met with the philosopher Voltaire.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|pp16–17}}</ref>
was a friend and contemporary of Smith's.|alt=Philosopher David Hume, painting]]
From Geneva, the party moved to Paris. Here, Smith met American publisher and diplomat Benjamin Franklin, who a few years later would lead the opposition in the American colonies against four British resolutions from Charles Townshend (in history known as the Townshend Acts), which threatened American colonial self-government and imposed revenue duties on a number of items necessary to the colonies. Smith discovered the Physiocracy school founded by François Quesnay and discussed with their intellectuals.<ref name"Buchholz 17">{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|p17}}</ref> Physiocrats were opposed to mercantilism, the dominating economic theory of the time, illustrated in their motto Laissez faire et laissez passer, le monde va de lui même! (Let do and let pass, the world goes on by itself!).
The wealth of France had been virtually depleted by Louis&nbsp;XIV{{efn|During the reign of Louis&nbsp;XIV, the population shrunk by 4 million and agricultural productivity was reduced by one-third while the taxes had increased. Cusminsky, Rosa, de Cendrero, 1967, Los Fisiócratas, Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina, p. 6}} and Louis&nbsp;XV in ruinous wars,{{efn|1701–1714 War of the Spanish Succession, 1688–1697 War of the Grand Alliance, 1672–1678 Franco-Dutch War, 1667–1668 War of Devolution, 1618–1648 Thirty Years' War}} and was further exhausted in aiding the American revolutionary soldiers, against the British. Given that the British economy of the day yielded an income distribution that stood in contrast to that which existed in France, Smith concluded that "with all its imperfections, [the Physiocratic school] is perhaps the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy."<ref>Smith, A., 1976, The Wealth of Nations edited by R.&nbsp;H. Campbell and A.&nbsp;S. Skinner, The Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol. 2b, p. 678.</ref> The distinction between productive versus unproductive labour—the physiocratic classe steril—was a predominant issue in the development and understanding of what would become classical economic theory.
Later years
In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|p18}}</ref> Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next decade to writing his magnum opus.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p90}}</ref> There, he befriended Henry Moyes, a young blind man who showed precocious aptitude. Smith secured the patronage of David Hume and Thomas Reid in the young man's education.<ref>Dr James Currie to Thomas Creevey, 24 February 1793, Lpool RO, Currie MS 920 CUR</ref> In May 1767, Smith was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London,<ref>Smith was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 21 May 1767, but was not admitted until 27 May 1773. See {{cite book |title The Correspondence of Adam Smith |editor1 Mossner, Ernest Campbell |editor1-linkErnest Campbell Mossner |editor2 Ross, Ian Simpson |editor2-link Ian Simpson Ross |place Indianapolis |publisher Liberty Fund |year 1987 |edition 2nd |url https://archive.org/details/correspondenceof0000smit_e1l8/page/n5/mode/2up?viewtheater |url-access registration |isbn0198285701 |via Internet Archive |page[https://archive.org/details/correspondenceof0000smit_e1l8/page/131/mode/2up?viewtheater 131]}}; {{cite book |authorRoss, Ian Simpson |author-link Ian Simpson Ross |titleThe Life of Adam Smith |place Oxford |publisherClarendon Press |year 2010 |edition2nd |isbn 978-0199550036 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeofadamsmith0000ross_l0d1_2ndedition/page/n5/mode/2up?viewtheater |url-accessregistration |page [https://archive.org/details/lifeofadamsmith0000ross_l0d1_2ndedition/page/266/mode/2up?viewtheater 266] |via Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p89}}</ref> and was elected a member of the Literary Club in 1775. The Wealth of Nations was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out its first edition in only six months.<ref name"Buchholz 19">{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|p=19}}</ref>
In 1778, Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother (who died in 1784)<ref>{{cite book|last1Durant|first1Will|last2Durant|first2Ariel|titleThe Story of Civilization: Rousseau and Revolution|year 1967|publisherMJF Books|isbn1567310214|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/storyofcivilizat00dura_3}}</ref> in Panmure House in Edinburgh's Canongate.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p128}}</ref> Five years later, as a member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh when it received its royal charter, he automatically became one of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p133}}</ref> From 1787 to 1789, he occupied the honorary position of Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p137}}</ref>Death.|altA plaque of Smith]]
Smith died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness. His body was buried in the Canongate Kirkyard.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p145}}</ref> On his deathbed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more.<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 53">{{harvnb|Bussing-Burks|2003|p=53}}</ref>
Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist Joseph Black and the pioneering geologist James Hutton.<ref name"buchan 2006 25">{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p25}}</ref> Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication.<ref name"buchan 2006 88">{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p88}}</ref> He mentioned an early unpublished History of Astronomy as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as Essays on Philosophical Subjects.<ref name="buchan 2006 25"/>
Smith's library went by his will to David Douglas, Lord Reston (son of his cousin Colonel Robert Douglas of Strathendry, Fife), who lived with Smith.{{sfn|Bonar|1894|pxiv}} It was eventually divided between his two surviving children, Cecilia Margaret (Mrs.&nbsp;Cunningham) and David Anne (Mrs.&nbsp;Bannerman). On the death in 1878 of her husband, the Reverend W.&nbsp;B. Cunningham of Prestonpans, Mrs.&nbsp;Cunningham sold some of the books. The remainder passed to her son, Professor Robert Oliver Cunningham of Queen's College, Belfast, who presented a part to the library of Queen's College. After his death, the remaining books were sold. On the death of Mrs. Bannerman in 1879, her portion of the library went intact to the New College (of the Free Church) in Edinburgh and the collection was transferred to the University of Edinburgh Main Library in 1972.Personality and beliefsCharacter, 1790|altA drawing of a man standing up, with one hand holding a cane and the other pointing at a book]]
Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published articles. His personal papers were destroyed after his death, per his request.<ref name"buchan 2006 88" /> He never married,<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p11}}</ref> and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before him.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p=134}}</ref>
Smith was described by several of his contemporaries and biographers as comically absent-minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait, and a smile of "inexpressible benignity".<ref>{{harvnb|Rae|1895|p262}}</ref> He was known to talk to himself,<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 53" /> a habit that began during his childhood when he would smile in rapt conversation with invisible companions.<ref name"skousen 2001 32">{{harvnb|Skousen|2001|p32}}</ref> He also had occasional spells of imaginary illness,<ref name"Bussing-Burks 2003 53" /> and he is reported to have had books and papers placed in tall stacks in his study.<ref name"skousen 2001 32" /> According to one story, Smith took Charles Townshend on a tour of a tanning factory, and while discussing free trade, Smith walked into a huge tanning pit from which he needed help to escape.<ref name"Buchholz 14">{{harvnb|Buchholz|1999|p14}}</ref> He is also said to have put bread and butter into a teapot, drunk the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he had ever had. According to another account, Smith distractedly went out walking in his nightgown and ended up {{convert|15|mi|km}} outside of town, before nearby church bells brought him back to reality.<ref name"skousen 2001 32" /><ref name"Buchholz 14" />
James Boswell, who was a student of Smith's at Glasgow University, and later knew him at the Literary Club, says that Smith thought that speaking about his ideas in conversation might reduce the sale of his books, so his conversation was unimpressive. According to Boswell, he once told Sir Joshua Reynolds, that "he made it a rule when in company never to talk of what he understood".<ref>Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, 1780.</ref>
Smith has been alternatively described as someone who "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment" and one whose "countenance was manly and agreeable".<ref name"Buchholz 1999 12" /><ref>{{harvnb|Ross|2010|p330}}</ref> Smith is said to have acknowledged his looks at one point, saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books."<ref name"Buchholz 1999 12" /> Smith rarely sat for portraits,<ref>{{cite book |lastStewart |firstDugald |titleThe Works of Adam Smith: With An Account of His Life and Writings |publisherHenry G. Bohn |locationLondon |year1853 |pagelxix |oclc3226570 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFbYCAAAAYAAJ |no-pptrue |access-date13 May 2020 |archive-date13 June 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200613114606/https://books.google.com/books?idFbYCAAAAYAAJ |url-statuslive }}</ref> so almost all depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory. The best-known portraits of Smith are the profile by James Tassie and two etchings by John Kay.<ref>{{harvnb|Rae|1895|pp376–377}}</ref> The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th-century reprints of The Wealth of Nations were based largely on Tassie's medallion.<ref>{{harvnb|Bonar|1894|pxxi}}</ref>Religious viewsConsiderable scholarly debate has occurred about the nature of Smith's religious views. His father had shown a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the Church of Scotland,<ref>{{harvnb|Ross|1995|p15}}</ref> and the fact that he received the Snell Exhibition suggests that he may have gone to Oxford with the intention of pursuing a career in the Church of England.<ref>{{cite journal|date24 July 1790|titleTimes obituary of Adam Smith|urlhttp://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Times/1790/Obituary/Adam_Smith|journalThe Times|access-date24 October 2012|archive-date10 May 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130510035102/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Times/1790/Obituary/Adam_Smith|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Anglo-American economist Ronald Coase challenged the view that Smith was a deist, based on the fact that Smith's writings never explicitly invoke God as an explanation of the harmonies of the natural or the human worlds.<ref name"Coase">{{harvnb|Coase|1976|pp529–546}}</ref> According to Coase, though Smith does sometimes refer to the "Great Architect of the Universe", later scholars such as Jacob Viner have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God",<ref name"Coase-God">{{harvnb|Coase|1976|p538}}</ref> a belief for which Coase finds little evidence in passages such as the one in the Wealth of Nations in which Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature", such as "the generation, the life, growth, and dissolution of plants and animals", has led men to "enquire into their causes", and that "superstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods. Philosophy afterwards endeavoured to account for them, from more familiar causes, or from such as mankind were better acquainted with than the agency of the gods".<ref name"Coase-God" /> Some authors argue that Smith's social and economic philosophy is inherently theological and that his entire model of social order is logically dependent on the notion of God's action in nature.<ref name"hidden theology">{{cite journal |last1Hill |first1L. |doi10.1080/713765225 |titleThe hidden theology of Adam Smith |journalThe European Journal of the History of Economic Thought |volume8 |pages1–29 |year2001 |s2cid154571991 }}</ref> Brendan Long argues that Smith was a theist,<ref>{{Citation |lastLong |firstBrendan |editor-first1Vivienne |editor-last1Brown |titleAdam Smith's natural theology of society |date2006 |urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203966365-10/adam-smith-natural-theology-society-brendan-long |workThe Adam Smith Review |volume2 |publisherRoutledge |doi10.4324/9780203966365 |isbn978-0-203-96636-5 |access-date31 May 2022}}</ref> whereas according to professor Gavin Kennedy, Smith was "in some sense" a Christian.<ref>{{cite journal |lastKennedy |firstGavin |date2011 |titleThe Hidden Adam Smith In His Alleged Theology |urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-history-of-economic-thought/article/abs/hidden-adam-smith-in-his-alleged-theology/5A697C438BD0D7C1716C0E5CD85BF475 |journalJournal of the History of Economic Thought |languageen |volume33 |issue3 |pages385–402 |doi10.1017/S1053837211000204 |s2cid154779976 |issn=1469-9656}}</ref>
Smith was also a close friend of David Hume, who, despite debate about his religious views in modern scholarship, was commonly characterised in his own time as an atheist.<ref name"hume on religion">{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-religion/ |titleHume on Religion |encyclopediaStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date26 May 2008 |archive-date15 September 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180915103209/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-religion/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The publication in 1777 of Smith's letter to William Strahan, in which he described Hume's courage in the face of death in spite of his irreligiosity, attracted considerable controversy.<ref>{{cite journal |authorEric Schliesser |year2003 |journalHume Studies |volume29 |issue2 |pages327–362 |titleThe Obituary of a Vain Philosopher: Adam Smith's Reflections on Hume's Life |doi10.1353/hms.2003.a383343 |s2cid170901056 |urlhttp://www.humesociety.org/hs/issues/v29n2/schliesser/schliesser-v29n2.pdf |access-date27 May 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120607171230/http://www.humesociety.org/hs/issues/v29n2/schliesser/schliesser-v29n2.pdf |archive-date7 June 2012 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Published works
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
{{Main|The Theory of Moral Sentiments}}
In 1759, Smith published his first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, sold by co-publishers Andrew Millar of London and Alexander Kincaid of Edinburgh.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk/|titleAndrew Millar Project, University of Edinburgh|websitemillar-project.ed.ac.uk|access-date3 June 2016|archive-date8 June 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160608092547/http://www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Smith continued making extensive revisions to the book until his death.{{efn|The 6 editions of The Theory of Moral Sentiments were published in 1759, 1761, 1767, 1774, 1781, and 1790, respectively.<ref>{{cite book|titleAdam Smith, Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence Vol. 1 The Theory of Moral Sentiments [1759]}}</ref>}} Although The Wealth of Nations is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, Smith himself is believed to have considered The Theory of Moral Sentiments to be a superior work.<ref>{{harvnb|Rae|1895}}</ref>
In the work, Smith critically examines the moral thinking of his time, and suggests that conscience arises from dynamic and interactive social relationships through which people seek "mutual sympathy of sentiments."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/item_single.php?item_id37&itembiography |titleBiography of Smith |access-date14 May 2008 |publisherLiberal Democrat History Group |year1997 |authorFalkner, Robert |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080611110312/http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/item_single.php?item_id37&itembiography |archive-date11 June 2008 |url-statusdead}}</ref> His goal in writing the work was to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgment, given that people begin life with no moral sentiments at all. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy, in which the act of observing others and seeing the judgments they form of both others and oneself makes people aware of themselves and how others perceive their behaviour. The feedback received by an individual from perceiving (or imagining) others' judgment creates an incentive to achieve "mutual sympathy of sentiments" with them and leads people to develop habits, and then principles, of behaviour, which come to constitute one's conscience.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002|pxv}}</ref>
Some scholars have perceived a conflict between The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations; the former emphasises sympathy for others, while the latter focuses on the role of self-interest.<ref>{{harvnb|Viner|1991|p250}}</ref> In recent years, however, some scholars<ref>Wight, Jonathan B. Saving Adam Smith. Upper Saddle River: Prentic-Hall, Inc., 2002.</ref><ref>Robbins, Lionel. A History of Economic Thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998.</ref><ref>Brue, Stanley L., and Randy R. Grant. The Evolution of Economic Thought. Mason: Thomson Higher Education, 2007.</ref> of Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists. They contend that in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathise with their sentiments. Rather than viewing The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations as presenting incompatible views of human nature, some Smith scholars regard the works as emphasising different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. In the first part – The Theory of Moral Sentiments – he laid down the foundation of his vision of humanity and society. In the second – The Wealth of Nations – he elaborated on the virtue of prudence, which for him meant the relations between people in the private sphere of the economy. It was his plan to further elaborate on the virtue of justice in the third book.<ref name"The Theory of Moral Sentiments">{{cite web |last1Van Schie |first1Patrick |titleThe Theory of Moral Sentiments |urlhttps://liberalforum.eu/publication/liberal-read-no-17-empathy-as-a-pillar-of-liberalism/ |websiteEuropean Liberal Forum |access-date2 August 2022}}</ref> Otteson argues that both books are Newtonian in their methodology and deploy a similar "market model" for explaining the creation and development of large-scale human social orders, including morality, economics, as well as language.<ref>Otteson, James R. 2002, ''Adam Smith's Marketplace of Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.</ref> Ekelund and Hebert offer a differing view, observing that self-interest is present in both works and that "in the former, sympathy is the moral faculty that holds self-interest in check, whereas in the latter, competition is the economic faculty that restrains self-interest."<ref>Ekelund, R. & Hebert, R. 2007, A History of Economic Theory and Method 5th ed. Waveland Press, United States, p. 105.</ref>
The Wealth of Nations''
{{Main|The Wealth of Nations}}
Disagreement exists between classical and neoclassical economists about the central message of Smith's most influential work: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). Neoclassical economists emphasise Smith's invisible hand,<ref>Smith, A., 1976, The Wealth of Nations edited by R.&nbsp;H. Campbell and A.&nbsp;S. Skinner, The Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol. 2a, p. 456.</ref> a concept mentioned in the middle of his work – Book&nbsp;IV, Chapter&nbsp;II – and classical economists believe that Smith stated his programme for promoting the "wealth of nations" in the first sentences, which attributes the growth of wealth and prosperity to the division of labour. He elaborated on the virtue of prudence, which for him meant the relations between people in the private sphere of the economy. He planned to further elaborate on the virtue of justice in the third book.<ref name="The Theory of Moral Sentiments"/>
Smith used the term "the invisible hand" in "History of Astronomy"<ref>Smith, A., 1980, The Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol. 3, p. 49, edited by W.&nbsp;P.&nbsp;D. Wightman and J.&nbsp;C. Bryce, Oxford: Clarendon Press.</ref> referring to "the invisible hand of Jupiter", and once in each of his The Theory of Moral Sentiments<ref>Smith, A., 1976, The Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol. 1, pp. 184–185, edited by D.&nbsp;D. Raphael and A.&nbsp;L. Macfie, Oxford: Clarendon Press.</ref> (1759) and The Wealth of Nations<ref>Smith, A., 1976, The Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol. 2a, p. 456, edited by R.&nbsp;H. Cambell and A.&nbsp;S. Skinner, Oxford: Clarendon Press.</ref> (1776). This last statement about "an invisible hand" has been interpreted in numerous ways.
where Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations|alt=A brown building]]
<blockquote>As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it.</blockquote>
Those who regard that statement as Smith's central message also quote frequently Smith's dictum:<ref>Smith, A., 1976, The Glasgow edition, vol. 2a, pp. 26–27.</ref>
<blockquote>It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.</blockquote>However, in The Theory of Moral Sentiments he had a more sceptical approach to self-interest as driver of behaviour:<blockquote>How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it.</blockquote>
In relation to Mandeville's contention that "Private Vices ... may be turned into Public Benefits",<ref>Mandeville, B., 1724, The Fable of the Bees, London: Tonson.</ref> Smith's belief that when an individual pursues his self-interest under conditions of justice, he unintentionally promotes the good of society. Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and warned of their "conspiracy against the public or in some other contrivance to raise prices."<ref>Smith, A., 1976, The Glasgow edition, vol. 2a, pp. 145, 158.</ref> Again and again, Smith warned of the collusive nature of business interests, which may form cabals or monopolies, fixing the highest price "which can be squeezed out of the buyers."<ref>Smith, A., 1976, The Glasgow edition, vol. 2a, p. 79.</ref> Smith also warned that a business-dominated political system would allow a conspiracy of businesses and industry against consumers, with the former scheming to influence politics and legislation. Smith states that the interest of manufacturers and merchants "in any particular branch of trade or manufactures, is always in some respects different from, and even opposite to, that of the public ... The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous but with the most suspicious attention."<ref>{{cite magazine |lastGopnik |firstAdam |titleMarket Man |magazineThe New Yorker |date10 October 2010 |issue18 October 2010 |page82 |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2010/10/18/101018crbo_books_gopnik |access-date27 April 2011 |archive-date5 March 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110305185415/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2010/10/18/101018crbo_books_gopnik |url-statuslive }}</ref> Thus Smith's chief worry seems to be when business is given special protections or privileges from government; by contrast, in the absence of such special political favours, he believed that business activities were generally beneficial to the whole society:
<blockquote>It is the great multiplication of the production of all the different arts, in consequence of the division of labour, which occasions, in a well-governed society, that universal opulence which extends itself to the lowest ranks of the people. Every workman has a great quantity of his own work to dispose of beyond what he himself has occasion for; and every other workman being exactly in the same situation, he is enabled to exchange a great quantity of his own goods for a great quantity, or, what comes to the same thing, for the price of a great quantity of theirs. He supplies them abundantly with what they have occasion for, and they accommodate him as amply with what he has occasion for, and a general plenty diffuses itself through all the different ranks of society. (The Wealth of Nations, I.i.10)</blockquote>
The neoclassical interest in Smith's statement about "an invisible hand" originates in the possibility of seeing it as a precursor of neoclassical economics and its concept of general equilibrium; Samuelson's "Economics" refers six times to Smith's "invisible hand". To emphasise this connection, Samuelson<ref>Samuelson, P.&nbsp;A./Nordhaus, William&nbsp;D., 1989, Economics, 13th ed., N.Y. et al.: McGraw-Hill, p. 825.</ref> quotes Smith's "invisible hand" statement substituting "general interest" for "public interest". Samuelson<ref>Samuelson, P.&nbsp;A./Nordhaus, William&nbsp;D., 1989, idem, p. 825.</ref> concludes: "Smith was unable to prove the essence of his invisible-hand doctrine. Indeed, until the 1940s, no one knew how to prove, even to state properly, the kernel of truth in this proposition about perfectly competitive market."
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Conversely, classical economists see in Smith's first sentences his programme to promote "The Wealth of Nations". Using the physiocratical concept of the economy as a circular process, to secure growth the inputs of Period 2 must exceed the inputs of Period 1. Therefore, those outputs of Period 1 which are not used or usable as inputs of Period 2 are regarded as unproductive labour, as they do not contribute to growth. This is what Smith had heard in France from, among others, François Quesnay, whose ideas Smith was so impressed by that he might have dedicated The Wealth of Nations to him had he not died beforehand.<ref>{{harvnb|Buchan|2006|p80}}</ref><ref>Stewart, D., 1799, Essays on Philosophical Subjects, to which is prefixed An Account of the Life and Writings of the Author by Dugald Stewart, F.R.S.E., Basil; from the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Read by Mr. Stewart, 21 January, and 18 March 1793; in: The Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, 1982, vol. 3, pp. 304 ff.</ref> To this French insight that unproductive labour should be reduced to use labour more productively, Smith added his own proposal, that productive labour should be made even more productive by deepening the division of labour.<ref>{{cite journal|lastBertholet|firstAuguste|date2021|titleConstant, Sismondi et la Pologne|urlhttps://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html|journalAnnales Benjamin Constant|volume46|pages=80–81}}</ref> Smith argued that deepening the division of labour under competition leads to greater productivity, which leads to lower prices and thus an increasing standard of living—"general plenty" and "universal opulence"—for all. Extended markets and increased production lead to the continuous reorganisation of production and the invention of new ways of producing, which in turn lead to further increased production, lower prices, and improved standards of living. Smith's central message is, therefore, that under dynamic competition, a growth machine secures "The Wealth of Nations". Smith's argument predicted Britain's evolution as the workshop of the world, underselling and outproducing all its competitors. The opening sentences of the "Wealth of Nations" summarise this policy:
<blockquote>The annual labour of every nation is the fund which originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniences of life which it annually consumes ... . [T]his produce ... bears a greater or smaller proportion to the number of those who are to consume it ... .[B]ut this proportion must in every nation be regulated by two different circumstances;
* first, by the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which its labour is generally applied; and,
* secondly, by the proportion between the number of those who are employed in useful labour, and that of those who are not so employed [emphasis added].<ref>Smith, A., 1976, vol. 2a, p. 10, idem</ref></blockquote>
However, Smith added that the "abundance or scantiness of this supply too seems to depend more upon the former of those two circumstances than upon the latter."<ref>Smith, A., 1976, vol. 1, p. 10, para. 4</ref>
In The Wealth of Nations, Smith states four maxims of taxation: (1) equality (people must contribute to the support of the government in proportion to their abilities), (2) certainty (the time, manner, and quantity of tax imposed must be certain, transparent, and not arbitrary), (3) convenience for taxpayers, and (4) economy in tax collection.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |lastLin |firstShuanglin |titleChina's Public Finance: Reforms, Challenges, and Options |publisherCambridge University Press |year2022 |isbn978-1-009-09902-8 |edition |locationNew York, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page2}} According to Smith, "It is not very unreasonable that the rich should contribute to the public expense, not only in proportion to their revenue, but something more in that proportion".<ref name":0" />{{Rp|page98}}
Smith wrote that a government is duty-bound to provide public services that "support the whole of society" like provide public education, transportation, national defense, a justice system, public safety, and public infrastructure to support commerce.<ref name":0" />{{Rp|page163}}
Other works
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Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects, a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics, probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. Lectures on Jurisprudence were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of The Wealth of Nations, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Smith. Other works, including some published posthumously, include Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896); and Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795).<ref>The Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, 1982, 6 volumes</ref>
Legacy
In economics and moral philosophy
The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in the moralising tradition of Hogarth and Swift, as a discussion at the University of Winchester suggests.<ref>{{cite web |access-date11 February 2010 |urlhttp://journalism.winchester.ac.uk/?page343 |titleAdam Smith – Jonathan Swift |publisherUniversity of Winchester |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091128233435/http://journalism.winchester.ac.uk/?page343 |archive-date28 November 2009}}</ref> In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time.<ref name"100 Best Scottish Books, Adam Smith">[http://www.list.co.uk/articles/100-best-scottish-books/adam-smith/ 100 Best Scottish Books, Adam Smith] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131020113357/http://www.list.co.uk/articles/100-best-scottish-books/adam-smith/ |date20 October 2013 }} Retrieved 31 January 2012</ref>
In light of the arguments put forward by Smith and other economic theorists in Britain, academic belief in mercantilism began to decline in Britain in the late 18th century. During the Industrial Revolution, Britain embraced free trade and Smith's laissez-faire economics, and via the British Empire, used its power to spread a broadly liberal economic model around the world, characterised by open markets, and relatively barrier-free domestic and international trade.<ref>L.Seabrooke (2006). "Global Standards of Market Civilization". p. 192. Taylor & Francis 2006</ref>
George Stigler attributes to Smith "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics". It is that, under competition, owners of resources (for example labour, land, and capital) will use them most profitably, resulting in an equal rate of return in equilibrium for all uses, adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training, trust, hardship, and unemployment.<ref>Stigler, George&nbsp;J. (1976). "The Successes and Failures of Professor Smith," Journal of Political Economy, 84(6), [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1831274 pp. 1199]–1213 [1202]. Also published as Selected Papers, No. 50 [https://google.com/scholar?qcache:hs0XwYbafSgJ:scholar.google.com/&hlen&as_sdt80000000000000 (PDF)]{{dead link|dateJune 2017 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}, Graduate School of Business, University of Chicago.</ref>
Paul Samuelson finds in Smith's pluralist use of supply and demand as applied to wages, rents, and profit a valid and valuable anticipation of the general equilibrium modelling of Walras a century later. Smith's allowance for wage increases in the short and intermediate term from capital accumulation and invention contrasted with Malthus, Ricardo, and Karl Marx in their propounding a rigid subsistence–wage theory of labour supply.<ref>Samuelson, Paul A. (1977). "A Modern Theorist's Vindication of Adam Smith," American Economic Review, 67(1), [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1815879 p. 42.] Reprinted in J.C. Wood, ed., Adam Smith: Critical Assessments, pp. 498–509. [https://books.google.com/books?idB8FY8mo5zX4C&pgPA498GBS_ATB Preview.] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150319073244/http://books.google.com/books?idB8FY8mo5zX4C&printsecfind&pgPA498gbs_atb |date=19 March 2015 }}</ref>
Joseph Schumpeter criticised Smith for a lack of technical rigour, yet he argued that this enabled Smith's writings to appeal to wider audiences: "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along."<ref>{{cite book |titleSchumpeter History of Economic Analysis |locationNew York |publisherOxford University Press |page185}}</ref>
Classical economists presented competing theories to those of Smith, termed the "labour theory of value". Later Marxian economics descending from classical economics also use Smith's labour theories, in part. The first volume of Karl Marx's major work, Das Kapital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital.<ref name="Roemer">Roemer, J.E. (1987). "Marxian Value Analysis". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, 383.</ref><ref>Mandel, Ernest (1987). "Marx, Karl Heinrich", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics v. 3, pp. 372, 376.</ref> The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labour that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern contention of neoclassical economics, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing.
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The body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" or "marginalism" formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term "economics" was popularised by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier, broader term "political economy" used by Smith.<ref>{{cite book |author1Marshall, Alfred |author2Marshall, Mary Paley |year1879 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNLcJAAAAIAAJ&pgPA1 |titleThe Economics of Industry |page2 |publisherMacmillan |isbn978-1855065475 |access-date13 May 2020 |archive-date13 June 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200613110634/https://books.google.com/books?idNLcJAAAAIAAJ&pgPA1 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |authorJevons, W. Stanley |year1879 |edition2nd |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaYcBAAAAQAAJ&pgPR3 |titleThe Theory of Political Economy |pagexiv |access-date13 May 2020 |archive-date13 June 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200613103855/https://books.google.com/books?idaYcBAAAAQAAJ&pgPR3 |url-statuslive }}</ref> This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences.<ref name="Clark">Clark, B. (1998). Political-economy: A comparative approach, 2nd ed., Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 32.</ref> Neoclassical economics systematised supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the labour theory of value of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.<ref>Campus, Antonietta (1987). "Marginalist Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 320</ref>
The bicentennial anniversary of the publication of The Wealth of Nations was celebrated in 1976, resulting in increased interest for The Theory of Moral Sentiments and his other works throughout academia. After 1976, Smith was more likely to be represented as the author of both The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and thereby as the founder of a moral philosophy and the science of economics. His homo economicus or "economic man" was also more often represented as a moral person. Additionally, economists David Levy and Sandra Peart in "The Secret History of the Dismal Science" point to his opposition to hierarchy and beliefs in inequality, including racial inequality, and provide additional support for those who point to Smith's opposition to slavery, colonialism, and empire. Emphasised also are Smith's statements of the need for high wages for the poor, and the efforts to keep wages low. In The "Vanity of the Philosopher: From Equality to Hierarchy in Postclassical Economics", Peart and Levy also cite Smith's view that a common street porter was not intellectually inferior to a philosopher,<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1977|loc§Book I, Chapter 2}}</ref> and point to the need for greater appreciation of the public views in discussions of science and other subjects now considered to be technical. They also cite Smith's opposition to the often expressed view that science is superior to common sense.<ref>"The Vanity of the Philosopher: From Equality to Hierarchy" in Postclassical Economics [http://www.wfu.edu/~hammond/review%20of%20Peart&Levy,%20final.pdf] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121004085614/http://www.wfu.edu/~hammond/review%20of%20Peart%26Levy%2C%20final.pdf|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.wfu.edu/~hammond/review%20of%20Peart%26Levy%2C%20final.pdf|archive-date9 October 2022|url-statuslive|date4 October 2012}}</ref>
Smith also explained the relationship between growth of private property and civil government:
<blockquote>Men may live together in society with some tolerable degree of security, though there is no civil magistrate to protect them from the injustice of those passions. But avarice and ambition in the rich, in the poor the hatred of labour and the love of present ease and enjoyment, are the passions which prompt to invade property, passions much more steady in their operation, and much more universal in their influence. Wherever there is great property there is great inequality. For one very rich man there must be at least five hundred poor, and the affluence of the few supposes the indigence of the many. The affluence of the rich excites the indignation of the poor, who are often both driven by want, and prompted by envy, to invade his possessions. It is only under the shelter of the civil magistrate that the owner of that valuable property, which is acquired by the labour of many years, or perhaps of many successive generations, can sleep a single night in security. He is at all times surrounded by unknown enemies, whom, though he never provoked, he can never appease, and from whose injustice he can be protected only by the powerful arm of the civil magistrate continually held up to chastise it. The acquisition of valuable and extensive property, therefore, necessarily requires the establishment of civil government. Where there is no property, or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days' labour, civil government is not so necessary. Civil government supposes a certain subordination. But as the necessity of civil government gradually grows up with the acquisition of valuable property, so the principal causes which naturally introduce subordination gradually grow up with the growth of that valuable property. (...) Men of inferior wealth combine to defend those of superior wealth in the possession of their property, in order that men of superior wealth may combine to defend them in the possession of theirs. All the inferior shepherds and herdsmen feel that the security of their own herds and flocks depends upon the security of those of the great shepherd or herdsman; that the maintenance of their lesser authority depends upon that of his greater authority, and that upon their subordination to him depends his power of keeping their inferiors in subordination to them. They constitute a sort of little nobility, who feel themselves interested to defend the property and to support the authority of their own little sovereign in order that he may be able to defend their property and to support their authority. Civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property, is in reality instituted for the defence of the rich against the poor, or of those who have some property against those who have none at all.<ref>The Wealth of Nations, Book 5, Chapter 1, Part 2</ref></blockquote>
In British imperial debates
Smith opposed empire. He challenged ideas that colonies were key to British prosperity and power. He rejected that other cultures, such as China and India, were culturally and developmentally inferior to Europe. While he favoured "commercial society", he did not support radical social change and the imposition of commercial society on other societies. He proposed that colonies be given independence or that full political rights be extended to colonial subjects.<ref>{{cite book |lastPitts |firstJennifer |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idszeU8olEDewC |titleA Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France |date2005 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn978-1-4008-2663-6 |pages39–58 |languageen}}</ref>
Smith's chapter on colonies, in turn, would help shape British imperial debates from the mid-19th century onward. The Wealth of Nations would become an ambiguous text regarding the imperial question. In his chapter on colonies, Smith pondered how to solve the crisis developing across the Atlantic among the empire's 13 American colonies. He offered two different proposals for easing tensions. The first proposal called for giving the colonies their independence, and by thus parting on a friendly basis, Britain would be able to develop and maintain a free-trade relationship with them, and possibly even an informal military alliance. Smith's second proposal called for a theoretical imperial federation that would bring the colonies and the metropole closer together through an imperial parliamentary system and imperial free trade.<ref>E.A. Benians, 'Adam Smith's project of an empire', Cambridge Historical Journal 1 (1925): 249–283</ref>
Smith's most prominent disciple in 19th-century Britain, peace advocate Richard Cobden, preferred the first proposal. Cobden would lead the Anti-Corn Law League in overturning the Corn Laws in 1846, shifting Britain to a policy of free trade and empire "on the cheap" for decades to come. This hands-off approach toward the British Empire would become known as Cobdenism or the Manchester School.<ref>Anthony Howe, Free trade and liberal England, 1846–1946 (Oxford, 1997)</ref> By the turn of the century, however, advocates of Smith's second proposal such as Joseph Shield Nicholson would become ever more vocal in opposing Cobdenism, calling instead for imperial federation.<ref>J. Shield Nicholson, A project of empire: a critical study of the economics of imperialism, with special reference to the ideas of Adam Smith (London, 1909)</ref> As Marc-William Palen notes: "On the one hand, Adam Smith's late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Cobdenite adherents used his theories to argue for gradual imperial devolution and empire 'on the cheap'. On the other, various proponents of imperial federation throughout the British World sought to use Smith's theories to overturn the predominant Cobdenite hands-off imperial approach and instead, with a firm grip, bring the empire closer than ever before."<ref>Marc-William Palen, [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPageonline&aid9159669&fileIdS0018246X13000101 "Adam Smith as Advocate of Empire, c. 1870–1932,"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150522065644/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPageonline&aid9159669&fileIdS0018246X13000101 |date22 May 2015 }} Historical Journal 57: 1 (March 2014): 179–198.</ref> Smith's ideas thus played an important part in subsequent debates over the British Empire.
Portraits, monuments, and banknotes
's High Street, erected through private donations organised by the Adam Smith Institute]]
Smith has been commemorated in the UK on banknotes printed by two different banks; his portrait has appeared since 1981 on the £50 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank in Scotland,<ref name"clydesdale">{{cite web|urlhttp://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP209-50Pounds-1981-donatedowl_f.jpg |titleClydesdale 50 Pounds, 1981 |publisherRon Wise's Banknoteworld |access-date15 October 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081030185820/http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP209-50Pounds-1981-donatedowl_f.jpg |archive-date30 October 2008 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"scotbanks">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.scotbanks.org.uk/banknotes_current_clydesdale_bank.php |titleCurrent Banknotes : Clydesdale Bank |publisherThe Committee of Scottish Clearing Bankers |access-date15 October 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081003071439/http://www.scotbanks.org.uk/banknotes_current_clydesdale_bank.php |archive-date3 October 2008 |url-statusdead }}</ref> and in March 2007 Smith's image also appeared on the new series of £20 notes issued by the Bank of England, making him the first Scotsman to feature on an English banknote.<ref name"bbc1">{{cite news |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6096938.stm |titleSmith replaces Elgar on £20 note |access-date14 May 2008 |publisherBBC |date29 October 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070324062831/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6096938.stm |archive-date24 March 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>
, 6 Burlington Gardens]]
Between 1867 and 1870, a statue of Smith was built into the outside wall of 6 Burlington Gardens, then the headquarters of the University of London (now home to the Royal Academy of Arts).<ref>{{cite news |titleMid-Georgian Portraits Catalogue — Adam Smith (1723-1790), Political economist |urlhttps://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/personExtended/mp04140/adam-smith?tabiconography |access-date13 February 2025 |publisherNational Portrait Gallery}}</ref> A large-scale memorial of Smith by Alexander Stoddart was unveiled on 4 July 2008 in Edinburgh. It is a {{convert|10|ft|adjon}}-tall bronze sculpture and it stands above the Royal Mile outside St&nbsp;Giles' Cathedral in Parliament Square, near the Mercat cross.<ref>{{cite news |titleAdam Smith sculpture to tower over Royal Mile |date26 September 2007 |workEdinburgh Evening News |authorBlackley, Michael}}</ref> Sculptor Jim Sanborn has created multiple pieces which feature Smith's work. At Central Connecticut State University is Circulating Capital, a tall cylinder which features an extract from The Wealth of Nations on the lower half, and on the upper half, some of the same text, but represented in binary code.<ref>{{cite news |titleCCSU welcomes a new kid on the block |date13 March 2001 |authorFillo, Maryellen |workThe Hartford Courant}}</ref> At the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, outside the Belk College of Business Administration, is ''Adam Smith's Spinning Top''.<ref>{{cite news |titlePiece at UNCC is a puzzle for Charlotte, artist says |date20 May 1997 |authorKelley, Pam |workThe Charlotte Observer}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleArtist sheds new light on sculpture |date1 June 1997 |authorShaw-Eagle, Joanna |workThe Washington Times}}</ref> Another Smith sculpture is at Cleveland State University.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sculpturecenter.org/oosi/sculpture.asp?SID1055 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050205065104/http://www.sculpturecenter.org/oosi/sculpture.asp?SID1055 |archive-date5 February 2005 |titleAdam Smith's Spinning Top |publisherOhio Outdoor Sculpture Inventory |access-date24 May 2008}}</ref> Smith also appears as the narrator in the 2013 play The Low Road, centred on a proponent on laissez-faire economics in the late 18th century, but dealing obliquely with the 2007–2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession; he was portrayed by Bill Paterson in the premiere production at the Royal Court Theatre in London.<ref>{{cite web|authorPaul Taylor |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/theatre-dance/reviews/the-low-road-royal-court-london-8553085.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/theatre-dance/reviews/the-low-road-royal-court-london-8553085.html |archive-date18 June 2022 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |titleThe Low Road, Royal Court, London - Reviews - Theatre & Dance |newspaperThe Independent |date28 March 2013 |accessdate13 February 2025}}</ref>
A bust of Smith is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. Five paving stones, displaying quotations from Smith's works, were unveiled in December 2023 in the High Street, Glasgow. The stones were commissioned by the University of Glasgow to mark the 300th anniversary of Smith's birth.<ref>{{cite news |last1Wilson |first1Caroline |titleUniversity of Glasgow honours famous graduate at historic site |urlhttps://www.heraldscotland.com/news/23964936.adam-smith-memorial-unveiled-university-glasgow/ |access-date5 December 2023 |workThe Herald |date4 December 2023 |page11 |languageen}}</ref>Panmure HouseAdam Smith resided at Panmure House from 1778 to 1790. In 2008, the house was purchased by the Edinburgh Business School at Heriot-Watt University and funds were raised for its restoration.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe restoration of Panmure House |urlhttp://www.adamsmith.org/blog/misc/the-restoration-of-panmure-house |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120122103606/http://www.adamsmith.org/blog/misc/the-restoration-of-panmure-house |archive-date22 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleAdam Smith's Home Gets Business School Revival |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/video/adam-smith-s-home-gets-business-school-revival-byl368j8Sii~TiQiBHwEyw.html |workBloomberg |access-date5 March 2017 |archive-date24 June 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130624012444/http://www.bloomberg.com/video/adam-smith-s-home-gets-business-school-revival-byl368j8Sii~TiQiBHwEyw.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2018 it was formally opened as a study centre in Smith's honour.<ref>{{cite web |last1Stephen |first1Phyllis |titlePanmure House reopened for the people |urlhttps://theedinburghreporter.co.uk/2018/12/panmure-house-reopened-for-the-people/ |websiteThe Edinburgh Reporter |access-date5 December 2023 |date9 December 2018}}</ref>
As a symbol of free-market economics
Smith has been celebrated by advocates of free-market policies as the founder of free-market economics, a view reflected in the naming of bodies such as the Adam Smith Institute in London, multiple entities known as the "Adam Smith Society", including an historical Italian organisation,<ref name"urlThe Adam Smith Society">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.adamsmith.it/presentazione.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070721032612/http://www.adamsmith.it/presentazione.html |archive-date21 July 2007 |titleThe Adam Smith Society |access-date24 May 2008 |publisherThe Adam Smith Society}}</ref> and the U.S.-based Adam Smith Society,<ref name"Bloomberg">{{cite news|last1Choi|first1Amy|titleDefying Skeptics, Some Business Schools Double Down on Capitalism|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-03-04/defying-skeptics-some-business-schools-double-down-on-capitalism|access-date24 February 2015|publisherBloomberg Business News|date4 March 2014|archive-date26 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150226101310/http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-03-04/defying-skeptics-some-business-schools-double-down-on-capitalism|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Who We Are">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.adamsmithsociety.com/html/our-history.html|titleWho We Are: The Adam Smith Society|dateApril 2016|access-date2 February 2019|archive-date9 February 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190209232453/https://www.adamsmithsociety.com/html/our-history.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the Australian Adam Smith Club,<ref name"urlThe Australian Adam Smith Club">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.adamsmithclub.org/ |titleThe Australian Adam Smith Club |access-date12 October 2008 |publisherAdam Smith Club |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100509212046/http://www.adamsmithclub.org/ |archive-date9 May 2010 |url-statusdead }}</ref> and in terms such as the Adam Smith necktie.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications_papers/pub_display.cfm?id3748 |titleInterview with Milton Friedman |lastLevy |firstDavid |dateJune 1992 |publisherFederal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis |access-date1 September 2008 |archive-date3 September 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090903222048/http://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications_papers/pub_display.cfm?id3748 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Former US Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan argues that, while Smith did not coin the term laissez-faire, "it was left to Adam Smith to identify the more-general set of principles that brought conceptual clarity to the seeming chaos of market transactions." Greenspan continues that The Wealth of Nations was "one of the great achievements in human intellectual history."<ref name"urlFRB: Speech, Greenspan – Adam Smith – 6 February 2005">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/speeches/2005/20050206/default.htm |titleFRB: Speech, Greenspan – Adam Smith – 6 February 2005 |access-date31 May 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512080427/http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/speeches/2005/20050206/default.htm |archive-date12 May 2008 |url-statusdead }}</ref> P.J. O'Rourke describes Smith as the "founder of free market economics."<ref name"urlAdam Smith: Web Junkie – Forbes.com">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/free_forbes/2007/0507/086.html |titleAdam Smith: Web Junkie |workForbes |access-date10 June 2008 |date5 July 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080520232632/http://www.forbes.com/free_forbes/2007/0507/086.html |archive-date20 May 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman believed in 1976, 200 years after the publishing of The Wealth of Nations, that the work of Adam Smith was, "...far more immediately relevant today than he was at the Centennial of The Wealth of Nations in 1876."<ref>{{cite web |titleFrom 1976: Adam Smith's Relevance for 1976 |urlhttps://www.chicagobooth.edu/review/adam-smiths-relevance-1976 |access-date24 August 2023 |websiteThe University of Chicago Booth School of Business |language=en}}</ref>
Other writers have argued that Smith's support for laissez-faire (which in French means leave alone) has been overstated. Herbert Stein wrote that the people who "wear an Adam Smith necktie" do it to "make a statement of their devotion to the idea of free markets and limited government", and that this misrepresents Smith's ideas. Stein writes that Smith "was not pure or doctrinaire about this idea. He viewed government intervention in the market with great skepticism...yet he was prepared to accept or propose qualifications to that policy in the specific cases where he judged that their net effect would be beneficial and would not undermine the basically free character of the system. He did not wear the Adam Smith necktie." In Stein's reading, The Wealth of Nations could justify the Food and Drug Administration, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, mandatory employer health benefits, environmentalism, and "discriminatory taxation to deter improper or luxurious behavior".<ref>{{cite journal |authorStein, Herbert |date6 April 1994 |titleBoard of Contributors: Remembering Adam Smith |journalThe Wall Street Journal Asia |page=A14}}</ref>
Similarly, Vivienne Brown stated in The Economic Journal that in the 20th-century United States, Reaganomics supporters, The Wall Street Journal, and other similar sources have spread among the general public a partial and misleading vision of Smith, portraying him as an "extreme dogmatic defender of laissez-faire capitalism and supply-side economics".<ref name"Brown93">{{cite journal |authorBrown, Vivienne |dateJanuary 1993 |journalThe Economic Journal |volume103 |issue416 |pages230–232 |doi10.2307/2234351 |titleUntitled review of 'Capitalism as a Moral System: Adam Smith's Critique of the Free Market Economy' and 'Adam Smith and his Legacy for Modern Capitalism' |last2Pack |first2Spencer J. |last3Werhane |first3Patricia H. |jstor2234351}}</ref> In fact, The Wealth of Nations includes the following statement on the payment of taxes:
<blockquote>The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state.<ref name"Smith 1977 locbk. V, ch. 2">{{harvnb|Smith|1977|loc=bk. V, ch. 2}}</ref></blockquote>
Some commentators have argued that Smith's works show support for a progressive, not flat, income tax and that he specifically named taxes that he thought should be required by the state, among them luxury-goods taxes and tax on rent.<ref>{{cite magazine |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2010/10/18/101018crbo_books_gopnik |titleMarket Man |date18 October 2010 |magazineThe New Yorker |access-date20 February 2020 |archive-date28 May 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140528113724/http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2010/10/18/101018crbo_books_gopnik |url-statuslive }}</ref> Yet Smith argued for the "impossibility of taxing the people, in proportion to their economic revenue, by any capitation".<ref>The Wealth of Nations, V.ii.k.1</ref> Smith argued that taxes should principally go toward protecting "justice" and "certain publick institutions" that were necessary for the benefit of all of society, which could not be adequately provided by private enterprise.<ref>The Wealth of Nations, IV.ix.51</ref>
Additionally, Smith outlined the proper expenses of the government in The Wealth of Nations, Book V, Ch. I. Included in his requirements of a government is to enforce contracts and provide justice system, grant patents and copy rights, provide public goods such as infrastructure, provide national defence, and regulate banking. The role of the government was to provide goods "of such a nature that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual" such as roads, bridges, canals, and harbours. He also encouraged invention and new ideas through his patent enforcement and support of infant industry monopolies. He supported partial public subsidies for elementary education, and he believed that competition among religious institutions would provide general benefit to the society. In such cases, Smith argued for local rather than centralised control: "Even those publick works which are of such a nature that they cannot afford any revenue for maintaining themselves ... are always better maintained by a local or provincial revenue, under the management of a local and provincial administration, than by the general revenue of the state" (Wealth of Nations, V.i.d.18). Finally, he outlined how the government should support the dignity of the monarch or chief magistrate, such that they are equal or above the public in fashion. He further stated that monarchs should be provided for in a greater fashion than magistrates of a republic because "we naturally expect more splendor in the court of a king than in the mansion-house of a doge".<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1977|loc=bk. V}}</ref> In addition, he allowed that in some specific circumstances, retaliatory tariffs may be beneficial:
<blockquote>The recovery of a great foreign market will generally more than compensate the transitory inconvenience of paying dearer during a short time for some sorts of goods.<ref>Smith, A., 1976, The Glasgow edition, vol. 2a, p. 468.</ref></blockquote>
However, he added that in general, a retaliatory tariff "seems a bad method of compensating the injury done to certain classes of our people, to do another injury ourselves, not only to those classes, but to almost all the other classes of them".<ref>The Wealth of Nations, IV.ii.39</ref>
Economic historians such as Jacob Viner regard Smith as a strong advocate of free markets and limited government (what Smith called "natural liberty"), but not as a dogmatic supporter of laissez-faire.<ref name"Viner 1927">{{cite journal |authorViner, Jacob |dateApril 1927 |journalThe Journal of Political Economy |volume35 |issue2 |pages198–232 |doi10.1086/253837 |titleAdam Smith and Laissez-faire |jstor1823421|s2cid=154539413 }}</ref>
Economist Daniel Klein believes using the term "free-market economics" or "free-market economist" to identify the ideas of Smith is too general and slightly misleading. Klein offers six characteristics central to the identity of Smith's economic thought and argues that a new name is needed to give a more accurate depiction of the "Smithian" identity.<ref>{{cite journal |authorKlein, Daniel B. |year2008 |titleToward a Public and Professional Identity for Our Economics |journalEcon Journal Watch |volume5 |issue3 |pages358–372 |urlhttp://econjwatch.org/articles/toward-a-public-and-professional-identity-for-our-economics |access-date10 February 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131228231445/http://econjwatch.org/articles/toward-a-public-and-professional-identity-for-our-economics |archive-date28 December 2013 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorKlein, Daniel B. |year2009 |titleDesperately Seeking Smithians: Responses to the Questionnaire about Building an Identity |journalEcon Journal Watch |volume6 |issue1 |pages113–180 |urlhttp://econjwatch.org/articles/desperately-seeking-smithians-responses-to-the-questionnaire-about-building-an-identity |access-date10 February 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131228232751/http://econjwatch.org/articles/desperately-seeking-smithians-responses-to-the-questionnaire-about-building-an-identity |archive-date28 December 2013 |url-statusdead }}</ref> Economist David Ricardo set straight some of the misunderstandings about Smith's thoughts on free market. Many continue to fall victim to the thinking that Smith was a free-market economist without exception, though he was not. Ricardo pointed out that Smith was in support of helping infant industries. Smith believed that the government should subsidise newly formed industry, but he did fear that when the infant industry grew into adulthood, it would be unwilling to surrender the government help.<ref name"New Ideas From Dead Economists">Buchholz, Todd (December 1990). pp. 38–39.</ref> Smith also supported tariffs on imported goods to counteract an internal tax on the same good. Smith also fell to pressure in supporting some tariffs in support for national defence.<ref name"New Ideas From Dead Economists"/>
Some have also claimed, Emma Rothschild among them, that Smith would have supported a minimum wage,<ref>Martin, Christopher. "Adam Smith and Liberal Economics: Reading the Minimum Wage Debate of 1795–96," Econ Journal Watch 8(2): 110–125, May 2011 [http://econjwatch.org/articles/adam-smith-and-liberal-economics-reading-the-minimum-wage-debate-of-1795-96] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131228230820/http://econjwatch.org/articles/adam-smith-and-liberal-economics-reading-the-minimum-wage-debate-of-1795-96|date28 December 2013}}</ref> although no direct textual evidence supports the claim. Indeed, Smith wrote:
<blockquote>The price of labour, it must be observed, cannot be ascertained very accurately anywhere, different prices being often paid at the same place and for the same sort of labour, not only according to the different abilities of the workmen, but according to the easiness or hardness of the masters. Where wages are not regulated by law, all that we can pretend to determine is what are the most usual; and experience seems to show that law can never regulate them properly, though it has often pretended to do so. (The Wealth of Nations, Book 1, Chapter 8)</blockquote>
However, Smith also noted, to the contrary, the existence of an imbalanced, inequality of bargaining power:<ref>A Smith, Wealth of Nations (1776) Book I, ch 8</ref>
<blockquote>A landlord, a farmer, a master manufacturer, a merchant, though they did not employ a single workman, could generally live a year or two upon the stocks which they have already acquired. Many workmen could not subsist a week, few could subsist a month, and scarce any a year without employment. In the long run, the workman may be as necessary to his master as his master is to him, but the necessity is not so immediate.</blockquote>
See also
{{Portal|Economics|Liberalism|Libertarianism|Philosophy|Politics}}
* Critique of political economy
* Organizational capital
* List of abolitionist forerunners
* List of Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts
* People on Scottish banknotes
* ''Adam Smith's America''
* Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
References
Informational notes
{{notelist}}
Citations
{{Reflist|refs}}Bibliography* {{cite journal|doi10.1017/S1474691300001062|titleII. Adam Smith's Project of an Empire|year1925|last1Benians|first1E. A.|journalCambridge Historical Journal|volume1|issue3|pages249–283}}
* {{cite book |titleA Catalogue of the Library of Adam Smith | editor1-last Bonar | editor1-first James |editor-link James Bonar (civil servant) |publisherMacmillan |locationLondon |year1894 |oclc2320634 |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/catalogueoflibr00smit#page/n5/mode/2up |viaInternet Archive}}
* {{cite book |titleThe Authentic Adam Smith: His Life and Ideas |firstJames |lastBuchan |publisherW.W. Norton & Company |year2006 |isbn0-393-06121-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/authenticadamsmi0000buch }}
* {{cite book |titleNew Ideas from Dead Economists: An Introduction to Modern Economic Thought |firstTodd |lastBuchholz |publisherPenguin Books |year1999 |isbn0-14-028313-7 }}
* {{cite book |lastBussing-Burks |firstMarie |titleInfluential Economists |publisherThe Oliver Press |locationMinneapolis |year2003 |isbn1-881508-72-2 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/influentialecono00buss }}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith |lastCampbell |firstR.H. |author2Skinner, Andrew S. |publisherRoutledge |year1985 |isbn=0-7099-3473-4}}
* {{cite journal |lastCoase |firstR.H. |author-linkRonald Coase |journalThe Journal of Law and Economics |volume19 |issue3 |titleAdam Smith's View of Man |dateOctober 1976 |pages529–546 |doi10.1086/466886 |s2cid=145363933 }}
* Helbroner, Robert L. The Essential Adam Smith. {{ISBN|0-393-95530-3}}
* {{cite book|first1J. Shield|last1Nicholson|titleA project of empire;a critical study of the economics of imperialism, with special reference to the ideas of Adam Smith.|date1909|publisherMacmillan and co., limited|hdl2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t4th8nc9p}}
* Otteson, James R. (2002). ''Adam Smith's Marketplace of Life.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-01656-8}}
* {{cite journal|doi10.1017/S0018246X13000101|titleAdam Smith as Advocate of Empire, c. 1870–1932|year2014|last1Palen|first1Marc-William|journalThe Historical Journal|volume57|pages179–198|s2cid159524069|urlhttps://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd2e/a9ae55694f0531f6a2b240e41b86786cb19d.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200218132205/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd2e/a9ae55694f0531f6a2b240e41b86786cb19d.pdf|url-statusdead|archive-date=18 February 2020}}
* {{cite book |author-linkJohn Rae (biographer) |firstJohn |lastRae |titleLife of Adam Smith |publisherMacmillan |year1895 |locationLondon & New York |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/lifeofadamsmith00raejuoft#page/n3/mode/2up |isbn0-7222-2658-6 |access-date 14 May 2018 |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |author-linkIan Simpson Ross |titleThe Life of Adam Smith |firstIan Simpson |lastRoss |publisherOxford University Press |year1995 |isbn=0-19-828821-2 }}
* {{cite book |titleThe Life of Adam Smith |edition2nd |firstIan Simpson |lastRoss |publisherOxford University Press |year2010 }}
* {{cite book |firstMark |lastSkousen |author-linkMark Skousen |titleThe Making of Modern Economics: The Lives and Ideas of Great Thinkers |publisherM.E. Sharpe |year2001 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnsnl3hHPuowC |isbn=0-7656-0480-9 }}
* {{cite book |titleAn Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations |firstAdam |lastSmith |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |orig-date1776 |year1977 |isbn=0-226-76374-9 }}
* {{cite book |titleThe Theory of Moral Sentiments |editorD.D. Raphael and A.L. Macfie |firstAdam |lastSmith |publisherLiberty Fund |orig-date1759 |year1982 |isbn0-86597-012-2}}
* {{cite book |lastSmith |firstAdam |titleThe Theory of Moral Sentiments |editorKnud Haakonssen |publisherCambridge University Press |orig-date1759 |year2002 |isbn0-521-59847-8 |urlhttp://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn0-521-59847-8 }}
* {{cite journal |titleThe Two Faces of Adam Smith |firstVernon L. |lastSmith |s2cid154002759 |journalSouthern Economic Journal |pages2–19 |volume65 |issue1 |dateJuly 1998 |doi10.2307/1061349|jstor=1061349 }}
* {{cite book |titleA Critical Bibliography of Adam Smith |lastTribe |firstKeith |author2Mizuta, Hiroshi |publisherPickering & Chatto |year2002 |isbn=978-1-85196-741-4}}
* {{cite book |titleEssays on the Intellectual History of Economics |editorDouglas A. Irwin |firstJacob |lastViner |publisherPrinceton University Press |locationPrinceton, NJ |isbn0-691-04266-7 |year1991 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/essaysonintellec0056vine }}Further reading
{{SBDEL poster|Smith, Adam}}
{{Library resources box|byyes|aboutyes}}
* {{cite journal |last1Boettke |first1Peter J. |titleWhy Read Adam Smith Today? |journalSSRN Electronic Journal |date2024 |doi10.2139/ssrn.4741993 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith – A Primer |authorButler, Eamonn |publisherInstitute of Economic Affairs |date2007 |isbn978-0-255-36608-3 |urlhttp://www.iea.org.uk/publications/research/adam-smith-a-primer}}
* {{cite journal |titleCulture & Political Economy: Adam Smith & Alfred Marshall |journalTabur |year2012 |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/2305457|last1Cook|first1Simon J.}}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith's Wealth of Nations: New Interdisciplinary Essays |authorCopley, Stephen |publisherManchester University Press |date1995 |isbn=0-7190-3943-6 }}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith and the Wealth of Nations: 1776–1976 |authorGlahe, F. |publisherUniversity Press of Colorado |date 1977 |isbn=0-87081-082-0 }}
* {{cite book |titleThe Cambridge Companion to Adam Smith |authorHaakonssen, Knud |author-linkKnud Haakonssen |publisherCambridge University Press |date2006 |isbn0-521-77924-3 }}
* {{cite book |lastHamowy |firstRonald |author-linkRonald Hamowy |titleThe Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapterSmith, Adam (1723–1790) |chapter-url https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n287.xml|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyxNgXs3TkJYC |year2008 |publisherSage; Cato Institute |locationThousand Oaks, CA |doi10.4135/9781412965811.n287 |isbn978-1412965804 |oclc750831024 |lccn2008009151 |pages470–472 }}
* Hardwick, D. and Marsh, L. (2014). [http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137320681 Propriety and Prosperity: New Studies on the Philosophy of Adam Smith]. Palgrave Macmillan
* {{cite book |titleEconomics of Adam Smith |urlhttps://archive.org/details/economicsofadams0000holl |url-accessregistration |authorHollander, Samuel |publisherUniversity of Toronto Press |date 1973 |isbn0-8020-6302-0|author-linkSamuel Hollander }}
{{external media| float right| video1 [https://www.c-span.org/video/?524494-1/qa-glory-liu-adam-smiths-america Q&A interview with Glory Liu on ''Adam Smith's America'', December 4, 2022], C-SPAN}}
* {{cite book |last1Liu |first1Glory M. |titleAdam Smith's America: How a Scottish Philosopher Became an Icon of American Capitalism |date2022 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn978-0691240879 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idj9hyEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith, Radical and Egalitarian: An Interpretation for the 21st Century|url http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Adam-Smith-radical-and-egalitarian.php|authorMcLean, Iain|publisherEdinburgh University Press |year2006 |isbn0-7486-2352-3}}
* {{cite book |titleAfter Adam Smith: A Century of Transformation in Politics and Political Economy |author1Milgate, Murray |author2Stimson, Shannon. |name-list-styleamp |publisherPrinceton University Press |date 2009 |isbn=978-0-691-14037-7 }}
* Mullen, Roger, Smith, Craig, and Mochrie, Robbie (eds.) (2023), Adam Smith: The Kirkcaldy Papers, Adam Smith Global Foundation, Kirkcaldy, {{isbn|9781399963497}}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith in His Time and Ours |authorMuller, Jerry Z. |publisherPrinceton University Press |date1995 |isbn=0-691-00161-8}}
{{external media| float right| video1 [https://www.c-span.org/video/?451666-1/adam-smith Presentation by Jesse Norman on Adam Smith: What He Thought, and Why It Matters, September 19, 2018], C-SPAN}}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith: What He Thought, and Why It Matters |authorNorman, Jesse |publisherAllen Lane |year2018 |author-link=Jesse Norman }}
* {{cite book |titleOn The Wealth of Nations |authorO'Rourke, P.J. |publisherGrove/Atlantic Inc. |date2006 |isbn0-87113-949-9 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/onwealthofnation00orou }}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith's Marketplace of Life |firstJames |lastOtteson |publisherCambridge University Press |year2002 |isbn0-521-01656-8}}
* {{cite book |titleAdam Smith |firstJames |lastOtteson |publisherBloomsbury |year2013 |isbn978-1-4411-9013-0}}
* Phillipson, Nicholas (2010). Adam Smith: An Enlightened Life, Yale University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-300-16927-0}}, 352 pages; scholarly biography
* Pichet, Éric (2004). [https://www.amazon.fr/dp/2843720400 Adam Smith, je connais !], French biography. {{ISBN|978-2843720406}}
* Vianello, F. (1999). "Social accounting in Adam Smith", in: Mongiovi, G. and Petri F. (eds.), Value, Distribution and capital. Essays in honour of Pierangelo Garegnani, London: Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-14277-6}}.
* {{cite ODNB |id25767 |titleSmith, Adam |orig-year2004 |year2007 |lastWinch |firstDonald}}
* Wolloch, N. (2015). "Symposium on Jack Russell Weinstein's Adam Smith's Pluralism: Rationality, Education and the Moral Sentiments". [http://cosmosandtaxis.org/back-issues/ct-23/ Cosmos + Taxis]
* [http://imperialglobalexeter.com/2014/03/12/adam-smith-and-empire-a-new-talking-empire-podcast/ "Adam Smith and Empire: A New Talking Empire Podcast,"] Imperial & Global Forum, 12 March 2014.
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.065399
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1822
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Antoine Lavoisier
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{{short description|French nobleman and chemist (1743–1794)}}
{{Redirect|Lavoisier}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
| image = David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier (cropped)2.jpg
| caption = Detail from Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his Wife by Jacques-Louis David
| birth_date {{birth date|dfyes|1743|8|26}}
| birth_place = Paris, France
| death_date {{death date and age|dfyes|1794|5|8|1743|8|26}}
| death_place = Paris, France
| death_cause = Execution by guillotine
| resting_place = Catacombs of Paris
| alma_mater = Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris
| notable_students = Éleuthère Irénée du Pont
| known_for = {{unbulleted list
| Acids and bases | Combustion
| Calorimetry | Carbon cycle |Elemental analysis | Gasometer |Identified oxygen |Identified hydrogen | Redox reactions | Stoichiometry | Law of conservation of mass | Thermochemistry
}}
| fields = Biologist, chemist
| signature = Antoine Lavoisier Signature.svg
| spouse = {{marriage|Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier|1771}}
}}
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ({{IPAc-en|l|ə|ˈ|v|w|ɑː|z|i|eɪ}} {{respell|lə|VWAH|zee|ay}};<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Lavoisier,+Antoine+Laurent |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210423180950/https://www.lexico.com/definition/lavoisier,_antoine_laurent?st |url-statusdead |archive-date2021-04-23 |titleLavoisier, Antoine Laurent |dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary |publisherOxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/lavoisier|titleLavoisier|workCollins English Dictionary|publisherHarperCollins|access-date30 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Lavoisier|access-date30 July 2019}}</ref> {{IPA|fr|ɑ̃twan lɔʁɑ̃ də lavwazje|lang}}; 26 August 1743{{spaced ndash}}8 May 1794),<ref namecnrs>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/dossiers/doslavoisier/contenu/alternative/alter2_textes.html Lavoisier, le parcours d'un scientifique révolutionnaire] CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique)</ref> also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution, was a French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology.<ref name"Schwinger">{{cite book
|last=Schwinger
|first=Julian
|author-link=Julian Schwinger
|title=Einstein's Legacy
|year=1986
|publisher=Scientific American Library
|location=New York
|isbn=978-0-7167-5011-6
|page=[https://archive.org/details/einsteinslegacyu00schw/page/93 93]
|url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinslegacyu00schw/page/93
}}</ref>
It is generally accepted that Lavoisier's great accomplishments in chemistry stem largely from his changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion. He named oxygen (1778), recognizing it as an element, and also recognized hydrogen as an element (1783), opposing the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He predicted the existence of silicon (1787)<ref>In his table of the elements, Lavoisier listed five "salifiable earths" (i.e., ores that could be made to react with acids to produce salts (salis salt, in Latin)): chaux (calcium oxide), magnésie (magnesia, magnesium oxide), baryte (barium sulfate), alumine (alumina, aluminium oxide), and silice (silica, silicon dioxide). About these "elements", Lavoisier speculates: "We are probably only acquainted as yet with a part of the metallic substances existing in nature, as all those which have a stronger affinity to oxygen than carbon possesses, are incapable, hitherto, of being reduced to a metallic state, and consequently, being only presented to our observation under the form of oxyds, are confounded with earths. It is extremely probable that barytes, which we have just now arranged with earths, is in this situation; for in many experiments it exhibits properties nearly approaching to those of metallic bodies. It is even possible that all the substances we call earths may be only metallic oxyds, irreducible by any hitherto known process." – from p. 218 of: Lavoisier with Robert Kerr, trans., Elements of Chemistry, ..., 4th ed. (Edinburgh, Scotland: William Creech, 1799). (The original passage appears in: Lavoisier, Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, ... (Paris, France: Cuchet, 1789), vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?idhZch3yOrayUC&pg=PA174 p. 174].)</ref> and discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same. His wife and laboratory assistant, Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier, became a renowned chemist in her own right.
Lavoisier was a powerful member of a number of aristocratic councils, and an administrator of the Ferme générale. The Ferme générale was one of the most hated components of the Ancien Régime because of the profits it took at the expense of the state, the secrecy of the terms of its contracts, and the violence of its armed agents.<ref>{{cite book | last Schama | first Simon | author-link Simon Schama | title Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution | publisher Alfred A Knopf| year 1989 | page73| title-link Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution }}</ref> All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At the height of the French Revolution, he was charged with tax fraud and selling adulterated tobacco, and was guillotined despite appeals to spare his life in recognition of his contributions to science. A year and a half later, he was exonerated by the French government.
Biography
'' in Paris]]
Early life and education
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born to a wealthy family of the nobility in Paris on 26 August 1743. The son of an attorney at the Parlement of Paris, he inherited a large fortune at the age of five upon the death of his mother.<ref>{{Cite CE1913|wstitleAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier}}</ref> Lavoisier began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris (also known as the Collège Mazarin) in Paris in 1754 at the age of 11. In his last two years (1760–1761) at the school, his scientific interests were aroused, and he studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. In the philosophy class he came under the tutelage of Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician and observational astronomer who imbued the young Lavoisier with an interest in meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which never left him. Lavoisier entered the school of law, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1763 and a licentiate in 1764. Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced as a lawyer. However, he continued his scientific education in his spare time.Early scientific workLavoisier's education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the time, and he was fascinated by Pierre Macquer's dictionary of chemistry. He attended lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry were largely influenced by Étienne Condillac, a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. In collaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. In 1764 he read his first paper to the French Academy of Sciences, France's most elite scientific society, on the chemical and physical properties of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and in 1766 he was awarded a gold medal by the King for an essay on the problems of urban street lighting.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitleLavoisier, Antoine Laurent |volume16 |page295}}</ref> In 1768 Lavoisier received a provisional appointment to the Academy of Sciences.<ref name"Yount">{{cite book|last1Yount|first1Lisa|titleAntoine Lavoisier : founder of modern chemistry|date2008|publisherEnslow Publishers|locationBerkeley Heights, NJ|isbn978-0-7660-3011-4|page[https://archive.org/details/antoinelavoisier0000youn/page/115 115]|urlhttps://archive.org/details/antoinelavoisier0000youn|url-accessregistration|access-date25 July 2016}}</ref> In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France.
Lavoisier as a social reformer
Research benefitting the public good
While Lavoisier is commonly known for his contributions to the sciences, he also dedicated a significant portion of his fortune and work toward benefitting the public.<ref name"Supplement">{{cite book|last1Duveen|first1Dennis I.|titleSupplement to a bibliography of the works of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794|date1965|publisherDawsons|locationLondon}}</ref><ref name"Bibliographic">{{cite book|last1McKie|first1Douglas|titleBibliographic Details Antoine Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, by Douglas McKie ... With an introduction by F.G. Donnan|date1935|publisherV. Gollancz ltd.|locationLondon}}</ref><ref name"Bibliographic P">{{cite book|titleBibliographic Details Lavoisier in perspective / edited by Marco Beretta.|date2005|publisherDeutsches Museum|locationMunich}}</ref><ref name"Lavoisier in the year one">{{cite book|last1Bell|first1Madison Smart|titleLavoisier in the year one|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lavoisierinyearo00madi|url-accessregistration|date2005|publisherW.W. Norton|locationNew York}}</ref> Lavoisier was a humanitarian—he cared deeply about the people in his country and often concerned himself with improving the livelihood of the population by agriculture, industry, and the sciences.<ref name"Bibliographic"/> The first instance of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted an essay on improving urban street lighting to the French Academy of Sciences.<ref name"Bibliographic"/><ref name"Bibliographic P"/><ref name"Lavoisier in the year one"/>
Three years later in 1768, he focused on a new project to design an aqueduct. The goal was to bring water from the river Yvette into Paris so that the citizens could have clean drinking water. But, since the construction never commenced, he instead turned his focus to purifying the water from the Seine. This was the project that interested Lavoisier in the chemistry of water and public sanitation duties.<ref name="Lavoisier in the year one"/>
Additionally, he was interested in air quality and spent some time studying the health risks associated with gunpowder's effect on the air.<ref name"Bibliographic P"/> In 1772, he performed a study on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after it had been damaged by fire, in a way that would allow proper ventilation and clean air throughout.<ref name"Lavoisier in the year one"/>
At the time, the prisons in Paris were known to be largely unlivable and the prisoners' treatment inhumane.<ref name"Supplement"/> Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780 (and again in 1791) on the hygiene in prisons and had made suggestions to improve living conditions, suggestions which were largely ignored.<ref name"Supplement"/><ref name="Lavoisier in the year one"/>
Once a part of the academy, Lavoisier also held his own competitions to push the direction of research towards bettering the public and his own work.<ref name"Bibliographic P"/>Sponsorship of the sciencesLavoisier had a vision of public education having roots in "scientific sociability" and philanthropy.<ref name"Bibliographic P"/>
Lavoisier gained a vast majority of his income through buying stock in the General Farm, which allowed him to work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed him to contribute financially to better the community.<ref name"Lavoisier in the year one"/> (It would also contribute to his demise during the Reign of Terror many years later.<ref name"Antoine Lavoisier">{{cite book|last1McKie|first1Douglas|titleAntoine Lavoisier: scientist, economist, social reformer.|urlhttps://archive.org/details/antoinelavoisier00mcki|url-accessregistration|date1952|publisherSchuman|locationNew York}}</ref>)
It was very difficult to secure public funding for the sciences at the time, and additionally not very financially profitable for the average scientist, so Lavoisier used his wealth to open a very expensive and sophisticated laboratory in France so that aspiring scientists could study without the barriers of securing funding for their research.<ref name"Supplement"/><ref name"Lavoisier in the year one"/>
He also pushed for public education in the sciences. He founded two organizations, {{interlanguage link|Lycée|fr|Lycée Lavoisier|vertical-alignsup}} and Musée des Arts et Métiers, which were created to serve as educational tools for the public. Funded by the wealthy and noble, the Lycée regularly taught courses to the public beginning in 1793.<ref name"Bibliographic P"/>
Ferme générale and marriage
At the age of 26, around the time he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, Lavoisier bought a share in the Ferme générale, a tax farming financial company which advanced the estimated tax revenue to the royal government in return for the right to collect the taxes. On behalf of the Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned the building of a wall around Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting goods into and out of the city.<ref>Citizens, Simon Schama. Penguin 1989 p. 236</ref> His participation in the collection of its taxes did not help his reputation when the Reign of Terror began in France, as taxes and poor government reform were the primary motivators during the French Revolution.
Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic position when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter of a senior member of the Ferme générale.<ref namecnrs /> She was to play an important part in Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated English documents for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she assisted him in the laboratory and created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues for their scientific works. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry.<ref>{{cite journal |lastEagle |firstCassandra T. |author2Jennifer Sloan |titleMarie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry |journalThe Chemical Educator |year1998 |volume3 |issue5 |pages1–18 |doi10.1007/s00897980249a|citeseerx10.1.1.472.7513 |s2cid=97557390}}</ref>
A portrait of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed artist Jacques-Louis David. Completed in 1788 on the eve of the Revolution, the painting was denied a customary public display at the Paris Salon for fear that it might inflame anti-aristocratic passions.<ref nameDonovan>{{Cite book |titleAntoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and Revolution |lastDonovan |firstArthur |year1996 |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge |isbn978-0-521-56672-8 |page273 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0-fOasz2GUMC&pgPA273 }}</ref>
For three years following his entry into the Ferme générale, Lavoisier's scientific activity diminished somewhat, for much of his time was taken up with official Ferme générale business. He did, however, present one important memoir to the Academy of Sciences during this period, on the supposed conversion of water into earth by evaporation. By a very precise quantitative experiment, Lavoisier showed that the "earthy" sediment produced after long-continued reflux heating of water in a glass vessel was not due to a conversion of the water into earth but rather to the gradual disintegration of the inside of the glass vessel produced by the boiling water. He also attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to help the peasants.
Adulteration of tobacco
The Farmers General held a monopoly of the production, import and sale of tobacco in France, and the taxes they levied on tobacco brought revenues of 30 million livres a year. This revenue began to fall because of a growing black market in tobacco that was smuggled and adulterated, most commonly with ash and water. Lavoisier devised a method of checking whether ash had been mixed in with tobacco: "When a spirit of vitriol, aqua fortis or some other acid solution is poured on ash, there is an immediate very intense effervescent reaction, accompanied by an easily detected noise."
Lavoisier also noticed that the addition of a small amount of ash improved the flavour of tobacco. Of one vendor selling adulterated goods, he wrote "His tobacco enjoys a very good reputation in the province... the very small proportion of ash that is added gives it a particularly pungent flavour that consumers look for. Perhaps the Farm could gain some advantage by adding a bit of this liquid mixture when the tobacco is fabricated." Lavoisier also found that while adding a lot of water to bulk the tobacco up would cause it to ferment and smell bad, the addition of a very small amount improved the product.
Thereafter the factories of the Farmers General added, as he recommended, a consistent 6.3% of water by volume to the tobacco they processed.<ref name"Poirier1998">{{cite book|authorJean-Pierre Poirier|titleLavoisier: Chemist, Biologist, Economist|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lavoisierchemist00jean|url-accessregistration|year1998|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press|isbn978-0-8122-1649-3|pages[https://archive.org/details/lavoisierchemist00jean/page/24 24]–26}}</ref> To allow for this addition, the Farmers General delivered to retailers seventeen ounces of tobacco while only charging for sixteen.<ref name"Aykroyd2014">{{cite book|authorW.R. Aykroyd|titleThree Philosophers: Lavoisier, Priestley and Cavendish|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbia0BQAAQBAJ&pgPA168|date12 May 2014|publisherElsevier Science|isbn978-1-4831-9445-5|pages=168–170}}</ref> To ensure that only these authorised amounts were added, and to exclude the black market, Lavoisier saw to it that a watertight system of checks, accounts, supervision and testing made it very difficult for retailers to source contraband tobacco or to improve their profits by bulking it up.
He was energetic and rigorous in implementing this, and the systems he introduced were deeply unpopular with the tobacco retailers across the country. This unpopularity was to have consequences for him during the French Revolution.<ref name"Donovan1996">{{cite book|authorArthur Donovan|titleAntoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration and Revolution|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0-fOasz2GUMC&pgPA123|date11 April 1996|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-56672-8|pages123–125}}</ref>
Royal Commission on Agriculture
Lavoisier urged the establishment of a Royal Commission on Agriculture. He then served as its Secretary and spent considerable sums of his own money in order to improve the agricultural yields in the Sologne, an area where farmland was of poor quality. The humidity of the region often led to a blight of the rye harvest, causing outbreaks of ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented a report to the Commission detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm to introduce new crops and types of livestock. His conclusion was that despite the possibilities of agricultural reforms, the tax system left tenant farmers with so little that it was unrealistic to expect them to change their traditional practices.<ref>Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 313</ref>
Gunpowder Commission
(right) and mentor Antoine Lavoisier]]
Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst of a very busy schedule of public and private duties, especially in connection with the Ferme Générale. There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of Sciences to investigate specific problems on order of the royal government. Lavoisier, whose organizing skills were outstanding, frequently landed the task of writing up such official reports. In 1775 he was made one of four commissioners of gunpowder appointed to replace a private company, similar to the Ferme Générale, which had proved unsatisfactory in supplying France with its munitions requirements. As a result of his efforts, both the quantity and quality of French gunpowder greatly improved, and it became a source of revenue for the government. His appointment to the Gunpowder Commission brought one great benefit to Lavoisier's scientific career as well. As a commissioner, he enjoyed both a house and a laboratory in the Royal Arsenal. Here he lived and worked between 1775 and 1792.
Lavoisier was a formative influence in the formation of the Du Pont gunpowder business because he trained Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, its founder, on gunpowder-making in France; the latter said that the Du Pont gunpowder mills "would never have been started but for his kindness to me."<ref name"Dutton_1942">{{Citation |lastDutton |firstWilliam S. |year1942 |titleDu Pont: One Hundred and Forty Years |publisherCharles Scribner's Sons |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWEtZAAAAYAAJ |lccn42011897 |postscript.}}</ref>{{rp|40}}
During the Revolution
In June 1791, Lavoisier made a loan of 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours to buy a printing works so that du Pont could publish a newspaper, La Correspondance Patriotique. The plan was for this to include both reports of debates in the National Constituent Assembly as well as papers from the Academy of Sciences.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Jacques Legrand, Longman 1989, p. 216 {{ISBN|0-582-05194-0}}</ref> The revolution quickly disrupted the elder du Pont's first newspaper, but his son E.I. du Pont soon launched Le Republicain and published Lavoisier's latest chemistry texts.<ref name="Dutton_1942"/>{{rp|15}}
Lavoisier also chaired the commission set up to establish a uniform system of weights and measures<ref>Companion to the French Revolution, John Paxton, Facts on File Publications 1988, p. 120</ref><ref name"French Revolution p.193">A Cultural History of the French Revolution, Emmet Kennedy, Yale University Press 1989, p. 193</ref> which in March 1791 recommended the adoption of the metric system.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Jacques Legrand, Longman 1989, p. 204 {{ISBN|0-582-05194-0}}</ref> The new system of weights and measures was adopted by the Convention on 1 August 1793.<ref name"French Revolution p.356">Chronicle of the French Revolution, Jacques Legrand, Longman 1989, p. 356 {{ISBN|0-582-05194-0}}</ref> Lavoisier was one of the 27 Farmers General who, by order of the convention, were all to be detained. Although temporarily going into hiding, on 30 November 1793 he handed himself into the Port Royal convent for questioning. He claimed he had not operated on this commission for many years, having instead devoted himself to science.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Jacques Legrand, Longman 1989 {{ISBN|0-582-05194-0}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}</ref>
Lavoisier himself was removed from the commission on weights and measures on 23 December 1793, together with mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace and several other members, for political reasons.<ref name="French Revolution p.193" />
One of his last major works was a proposal to the National Convention for the reform of French education. He also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-born scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, helping to exempt them from a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Lagrange.html
|title=Joseph-Louis Lagrange
|access-date=20 April 2006
|last=O'Connor
|first=J.J.
|author2=Robertson, E.F.
|date=26 September 2006
|quoteIn September 1793 a law was passed ordering the arrest of all foreigners born in enemy countries and all their property to be confiscated. Lavoisier intervened on behalf of Lagrange, who certainly fell under the terms of the law. On 8 May 1794, after a trial that lasted less than a day, a revolutionary tribunal condemned Lavoisier and 27 others to death. Lagrange said on the death of Lavoisier, who was guillotined on the afternoon of the day of his trial: "It took only a moment to cause this head to fall and a hundred years will not suffice to produce its like".| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20060502072418/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Lagrange.html| archive-date2 May 2006 | url-status live}}</ref>
Final days and execution
, {{Circa|1853}}, among culture heroes in the Louvre's Cour Napoléon]]
As the French Revolution gained momentum, attacks mounted on the deeply unpopular Ferme générale, and it was eventually abolished in March 1791.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 202 {{ISBN|0-582-05194-0}}</ref> In 1792 Lavoisier was forced to resign from his post on the Gunpowder Commission and to move from his house and laboratory at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the learned societies, including the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed at the request of Abbé Grégoire.<ref name="French Revolution p.356" />
On 24 November 1793, the arrest of all the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier and the other Farmers General faced nine accusations of defrauding the state of money owed to it, and of adding water to tobacco before selling it. Lavoisier drafted their defense, refuting the financial accusations, reminding the court of how they had maintained a consistently high quality of tobacco. The court, however, was inclined to believe that by condemning them and seizing the goods of the Farmers General, it would recover huge sums for the state.<ref name"Aykroyd2014" /> Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined on 8 May 1794 in Paris, at the age of 50, along with his 27 co-defendants.<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.app.com/viewart/20130508/NJNEWS18/305080042/Today-History |title Today in History: 1794: Antoine Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, is executed on the guillotine during France's Reign of Terror |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130615102227/http://www.app.com/viewart/20130508/NJNEWS18/305080042/Today-History |archive-date15 June 2013 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
According to popular legend, the appeal to spare his life, in order that he could continue his experiments, was cut short by the judge, Coffinhal: ''"La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni de chimistes; le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu."'' ("The Republic needs neither scholars nor chemists; the course of justice cannot be delayed.")<ref>Commenting on this quotation, Denis Duveen, an English expert on Lavoiser and a collector of his works, wrote that "it is pretty certain that it was never uttered". For Duveen's evidence, see the following: {{cite journal |doi10.1021/ed031p60 |authorDuveen, Denis I. |titleAntoine Laurent Lavoisier and the French Revolution |journalJournal of Chemical Education |volume31 |dateFebruary 1954 |issue2 |pages60–65|bibcode = 1954JChEd..31...60D }}.</ref> The judge Coffinhal himself would be executed less than three months later, in the wake of the Thermidorian reaction.
Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: ''"Il ne leur a fallu qu'un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une semblable."'' ("It took them only an instant to cut off this head, and a hundred years might not suffice to reproduce its like.")<ref>{{cite wikisource |titleŒuvres de Lagrange |wslinkNotice_sur_la_vie_et_les_ouvrages_de_M._le_Comte_J.-L._Lagrange |wslanguagefr |lastDelambre |firstJean-Baptiste |author-linkJean-Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre |year1867 |publisherGauthier-Villars |pages15–57 |no-ppy}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastGuerlac |firstHenry |titleAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier – Chemist and Revolutionary |publisherCharles Scribner's Sons |year1973 |locationNew York |page130}}</ref>ExonerationA year and a half after his execution, Lavoisier was completely exonerated by the French government. During the White Terror, his belongings were delivered to his widow. A brief note was included, reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted".<ref>[http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/ishm/vesalius/VESx2000x06x02x105x113.pdf (In French) M.-A. Paulze, épouse et collaboratrice de Lavoisier, Vesalius, VI, 2, 105–113, 2000], p. 110. (PDF)</ref> Blinking experiment An apocryphal<ref name":2">{{Cite web |date1998-06-12 |titleDoes the head remain briefly conscious after decapitation (revisited)? |urlhttps://www.straightdope.com/21342318/does-the-head-remain-briefly-conscious-after-decapitation-revisited |access-date2024-04-23 |websiteThe Straight Dope}}</ref> story exists regarding Lavoisier's execution in which the scientist blinked his eyes to demonstrate that the head retained some consciousness after being severed.<ref name":3">{{Cite journal |lastJensen |firstWilliam B. |dateMay 2004 |titleDid Lavoisier Blink? |urlhttps://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed081p629 |journalJournal of Chemical Education |volume81 |issue5 |pages629 |doi10.1021/ed081p629 |bibcode2004JChEd..81..629J |issn0021-9584}}</ref> Some variants of the story include Joseph-Louis Lagrange as being the scientist to observe and record Lavoisier's blinking. This story was not recorded in contemporary accounts of Lavoisier's death, and the execution site was too removed from the public for Lagrange to have viewed Lavoisier's alleged experiment. The story likely originated in a 1990s Discovery Channel documentary about guillotines and then subsequently spread online, becoming what one source describes as an urban legend.<ref name":3" /><ref name":2" />
Contributions to chemistry
Oxygen theory of combustion
experiment. Engraving by Mme Lavoisier in the 1780s taken from Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary treatise on chemistry)]]
Contrary to prevailing thought at the time, Lavoisier theorized that common air, or one of its components, combines with substances when they are burned.<ref name":1">{{Cite book|lastGuerlac |firstHenry |date2019 |titleLavoisier—the Crucial Year: The Background and Origin of His First Experiments on Combustion in 1772 |urlhttps://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/62166 |publisherCornell University Press |doi10.7298/GX84-1A09|hdl20.500.12657/62166 |isbn978-1-5017-4664-2 }}</ref> He demonstrated this through experiment.<ref name=":1" />
During late 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention to the phenomenon of combustion, the topic on which he was to make his most significant contribution to science. He reported the results of his first experiments on combustion in a note to the Academy on 20 October, in which he reported that when phosphorus burned, it combined with a large quantity of air to produce acid spirit of phosphorus, and that the phosphorus increased in weight on burning. In a second sealed note deposited with the academy a few weeks later (1 November) Lavoisier extended his observations and conclusions to the burning of sulfur and went on to add that "what is observed in the combustion of sulfur and phosphorus may well take place in the case of all substances that gain in weight by combustion and calcination: and I am persuaded that the increase in weight of metallic calces is due to the same cause."{{Citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}Joseph Black's "fixed air"During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review thoroughly the literature on air, particularly "fixed air," and to repeat many of the experiments of other workers in the field. He published an account of this review in 1774 in a book entitled Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). In the course of this review, he made his first full study of the work of Joseph Black, the Scottish chemist who had carried out a series of classic quantitative experiments on the mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown that the difference between a mild alkali, for example, chalk (CaCO<sub>3</sub>), and the caustic form, for example, quicklime (CaO), lay in the fact that the former contained "fixed air," not common air fixed in the chalk, but a distinct chemical species, now understood to be carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>), which was a constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier recognized that Black's fixed air was identical with the air evolved when metal calces were reduced with charcoal and even suggested that the air which combined with metals on calcination and increased the weight might be Black's fixed air, that is, CO<sub>2</sub>.{{Citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
Joseph Priestley
{{Main|Joseph Priestley}}
, an English chemist known for isolating oxygen, which he termed "dephlogisticated air"]]
In the spring of 1774, Lavoisier carried out experiments on the calcination of tin and lead in sealed vessels, the results of which conclusively confirmed that the increase in weight of metals in combustion was due to combination with air. But the question remained about whether it was in combination with common atmospheric air or with only a part of atmospheric air. In October the English chemist Joseph Priestley visited Paris, where he met Lavoisier and told him of the air which he had produced by heating the red calx of mercury with a burning glass and which had supported combustion with extreme vigor. Priestley at this time was unsure of the nature of this gas, but he felt that it was an especially pure form of common air. Lavoisier carried out his own research on this peculiar substance. The result was his memoir On the Nature of the Principle Which Combines with Metals during Their Calcination and Increases Their Weight, read to the Academy on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). In the original memoir, Lavoisier showed that the mercury calx was a true metallic calx in that it could be reduced with charcoal, giving off Black's fixed air in the process.<ref name"in French">Lavoisier, Antoine (1777) [http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?langfr&typetext&bddlavosier&tableLavoisier&bookId26&typeofbookDesMemoires&pageOrder1&facsimileoff&searchno "Mémoire sur la combustion en général"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130617155750/http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?langfr&typetext&bddlavosier&tableLavoisier&bookId26&typeofbookDesMemoires&pageOrder1&facsimileoff&searchno |date17 June 2013 }} ("On Combustion in General"). Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences. [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/lavoisier1.html English translation]</ref> When reduced without charcoal, it gave off an air which supported respiration and combustion in an enhanced way. He concluded that this was just a pure form of common air and that it was the air itself "undivided, without alteration, without decomposition" which combined with metals on calcination.{{Citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}
After returning from Paris, Priestley took up once again his investigation of the air from mercury calx. His results now showed that this air was not just an especially pure form of common air but was "five or six times better than common air, for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and ... every other use of common air". He called the air dephlogisticated air, as he thought it was common air deprived of its phlogiston. Since it was therefore in a state to absorb a much greater quantity of phlogiston given off by burning bodies and respiring animals, the greatly enhanced combustion of substances and the greater ease of breathing in this air were explained.{{Citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}Pioneer of stoichiometryLavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical experiments. He carefully weighed the reactants and products of a chemical reaction in a sealed glass vessel so that no gases could escape, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry.<ref>Petrucci R.H., Harwood W.S. and Herring F.G., General Chemistry (8th ed. Prentice-Hall 2002), p. 34</ref> In 1774, he showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. Thus, for instance, if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged if gaseous reactants and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of conservation of mass. In France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from a statement in his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie: "Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments; others whose ideas pre-date the work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810).<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?searchtypekeyword&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0EJ128341&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0kw&_pageLabelRecordDetails&objectId0900019b8005c793&accnoEJ128341&_nflsfalse| title An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass}}</ref>
Chemical nomenclature
Lavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted a new program for the reforms of chemical nomenclature to the academy in 1787, for there was virtually no rational system of chemical nomenclature at this time. This work, titled Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature, 1787), introduced a new system which was tied inextricably to Lavoisier's new oxygen theory of chemistry.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Duveen|first1Denis|last2Klickstein|first2Herbert|dateSep 1954|titleThe Introduction of Lavoisier's Chemical Nomenclature into America|journalThe History of Science Society|volume45|issue=3}}</ref>
The classical elements of earth, air, fire, and water were discarded, and instead some 33 substances which could not be decomposed into simpler substances by any known chemical means were provisionally listed as elements.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://archive.org/details/traitlmentairede01lavo/page/192/mode/2up|titleTraité élémentaire de chimie : Présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes ; avec figures |year1789 |publisherA Paris, Chez Cuchet, libraire, rue et Hôtel Serpente }}</ref><ref name"HollemanWiberg2001">{{cite book|last1Holleman|first1A. F.|last2Wiberg|first2Egon|last3Wiberg|first3Nils|titleInorganic Chemistry|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMtth5g59dEIC&pgPA17|year2001|publisherAcademic Press|isbn978-0-12-352651-9|page=17}}</ref> The elements included light; caloric (matter of heat); the principles of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet unknown "radicals" of muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), boric acid, and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides of yet unknown metals such as magnesia, baria, and strontia); three alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals" of 19 organic acids.
The acids, regarded in the new system as compounds of various elements with oxygen, were given names which indicated the element involved together with the degree of oxygenation of that element, for example sulfuric and sulfurous acids, phosphoric and phosphorous acids, nitric and nitrous acids, the "ic" termination indicating acids with a higher proportion of oxygen than those with the "ous" ending.
Similarly, salts of the "ic" acids were given the terminal letters "ate," as in copper sulfate, whereas the salts of the "ous" acids terminated with the suffix "ite," as in copper sulfite.
The total effect of the new nomenclature can be gauged by comparing the new name "copper sulfate" with the old term "vitriol of Venus." Lavoisier's new nomenclature spread throughout Europe and to the United States and became common use in the field of chemistry. This marked the beginning of the anti-phlogistic approach to the field.{{Citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}Chemical revolution and oppositionLavoisier is commonly cited as a central contributor to the chemical revolution. His precise measurements and meticulous keeping of balance sheets throughout his experiment were vital to the widespread acceptance of the law of conservation of mass. His introduction of new terminology, a binomial system modeled after that of Linnaeus, also helps to mark the dramatic changes in the field which are referred to generally as the chemical revolution. Lavoisier encountered much opposition in trying to change the field, especially from British phlogistic scientists. Joseph Priestley, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, and William Nicholson, among others, argued that quantification of substances did not imply conservation of mass.<ref name":0">{{cite journal|authorGolinski, Jan |titlePrecision instruments and the demonstrative order of proof in Lavoisier's chemistry|urlhttps://paperzz.com/doc/8733716/precision-instruments-and-the-demonstrative-order-of-proo...|journal Osiris|year1994|pages30–47|jstor301997|volume9|doi10.1086/368728|s2cid95978870}}</ref> Rather than reporting factual evidence, opposition claimed Lavoisier was misinterpreting the implications of his research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Jean Baptiste Biot, wrote of Lavoisier's methodology, "one felt the necessity of linking accuracy in experiments to rigor of reasoning."<ref name=":0" /> His opposition argued that precision in experimentation did not imply precision in inferences and reasoning. Despite opposition, Lavoisier continued to use precise instrumentation to convince other chemists of his conclusions, often results to five to eight decimal places. Nicholson, who estimated that only three of these decimal places were meaningful, stated:
{{blockquote|If it be denied that these results are pretended to be true in the last figures, I must beg leave to observe, that these long rows of figures, which in some instances extend to a thousand times the nicety of experiment, serve only to exhibit a parade which true science has no need of: and, more than this, that when the real degree of accuracy in experiments is thus hidden from our contemplation, we are somewhat disposed to doubt whether the exactitude scrupuleuse of the experiments be indeed such as to render the proofs ''de l'ordre demonstratif.<ref>Kirwan, Essay on Phlogiston'', viii, xi.</ref>}}
Notable works
, Paris]]
Easter memoir
The "official" version of Lavoisier's Easter Memoir appeared in 1778. In the intervening period, Lavoisier had ample time to repeat some of Priestley's latest experiments and perform some new ones of his own. In addition to studying Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he studied more thoroughly the residual air after metals had been calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration and that approximately five volumes of this air added to one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Common air was then a mixture of two distinct chemical species with quite different properties. Thus when the revised version of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier no longer stated that the principle which combined with metals on calcination was just common air but "nothing else than the healthiest and purest part of the air" or the "eminently respirable part of the air". The same year he coined the name oxygen for this constituent of the air, from the Greek words meaning "acid former".<ref name"in French" /><ref>Lavoisier, Antoine (1778) [http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?langfr&typetext&bddlavosier&tableLavoisier&bookId31&typeofbookDes&pageOrder1&facsimileoff&searchno "Considérations générales sur la nature des acides"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130617161431/http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?langfr&typetext&bddlavosier&tableLavoisier&bookId31&typeofbookDes&pageOrder1&facsimileoff&searchno |date17 June 2013 }} ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids"). Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences. lavoisier.cnrs.fr</ref> He was struck by the fact that the combustion products of such nonmetals as sulfur, phosphorus, charcoal, and nitrogen were acidic. He held that all acids contained oxygen and that oxygen was therefore the acidifying principle.Dismantling phlogiston theory
{{further|Phlogiston theory}}
Lavoisier's chemical research between 1772 and 1778 was largely concerned with developing his own new theory of combustion. In 1783 he read to the academy his paper entitled Réflexions sur le phlogistique (Reflections on Phlogiston), a full-scale attack on the current phlogiston theory of combustion. That year Lavoisier also began a series of experiments on the composition of water which were to prove an important capstone to his combustion theory and win many converts to it. Many investigators had been experimenting with the combination of Henry Cavendish's inflammable air, now known as hydrogen, with "dephlogisticated air" (air in the process of combustion, now known to be oxygen) by electrically sparking mixtures of the gases. All of the researchers noted Cavendish's production of pure water by burning hydrogen in oxygen, but they interpreted the reaction in varying ways within the framework of phlogiston theory. Lavoisier learned of Cavendish's experiment in June 1783 via Charles Blagden (before the results were published in 1784), and immediately recognized water as the oxide of a "hydrogenerative" gas.<ref>{{cite book |lastGillispie |firstCharles Coulston |author-link1Charles Coulston Gillispie |titleThe Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas |year1960 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn0-691-02350-6 |page[https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char/page/228 228] |url=https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char/page/228 }}</ref>
In cooperation with Laplace, Lavoisier synthesized water by burning jets of hydrogen and oxygen in a bell jar over mercury. The quantitative results were good enough to support the contention that water was not an element, as had been thought for over 2,000 years, but a compound of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen. The interpretation of water as a compound explained the inflammable air generated from dissolving metals in acids (hydrogen produced when water decomposes) and the reduction of calces by inflammable air (a combination of gas from calx with oxygen to form water).<ref name=":0" />
Despite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic approach remained unaccepted by many other chemists. Lavoisier labored to provide definitive proof of the composition of water, attempting to use this in support of his theory. Working with Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through a red-hot iron gun barrel, allowing the oxygen to form an oxide with the iron and the hydrogen to emerge from the end of the pipe. He submitted his findings of the composition of water to the Académie des Sciences in April 1784, reporting his figures to eight decimal places.<ref name":0" /> Opposition responded to this further experimentation by stating that Lavoisier continued to draw the incorrect conclusions and that his experiment demonstrated the displacement of phlogiston from iron by the combination of water with the metal. Lavoisier developed a new apparatus which used a pneumatic trough, a set of balances, a thermometer, and a barometer, all calibrated carefully. Thirty savants were invited to witness the decomposition and synthesis of water using this apparatus, convincing many who attended of the correctness of Lavoisier's theories. This demonstration established water as a compound of oxygen and hydrogen with great certainty for those who viewed it. The dissemination of the experiment, however, proved subpar, as it lacked the details to properly display the amount of precision taken in the measurements. The paper ended with a hasty statement that the experiment was "more than sufficient to lay hold of the certainty of the proposition" of the composition of water and stated that the methods used in the experiment would unite chemistry with the other physical sciences and advance discoveries.<ref>Lavoisier and Meusnier, "Développement" (cit. n. 27), pp. 205–209; cf. Holmes, Lavoisier (cn. 8), p. 237.</ref>Elementary Treatise of Chemistry
Trading Card, 1929]]
Lavoisier employed the new nomenclature in his Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry), published in 1789. This work represents the synthesis of Lavoisier's contribution to chemistry and can be considered the first modern textbook on the subject. The core of the work was the oxygen theory, and the work became a most effective vehicle for the transmission of the new doctrines. It presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the law of conservation of mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston. This text clarified the concept of an element as a substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis and presented Lavoisier's theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements. It remains a classic in the history of science. While many leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, demand for Traité élémentaire as a textbook in Edinburgh was sufficient to merit translation into English within about a year of its French publication.<ref>See the "Advertisement," p. vi of Kerr's translation, and pp. xxvi–xxvii, xxviii of Douglas McKie's introduction to the Dover edition.</ref> In any event, the Traité élémentaire was sufficiently sound to convince the next generation.
Physiological work
The relationship between combustion and respiration had long been recognized from the essential role which air played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost obliged, therefore, to extend his new theory of combustion to include the area of respiration physiology. His first memoirs on this topic were read to the Academy of Sciences in 1777, but his most significant contribution to this field was made in the winter of 1782–1783 in association with Laplace. The result of this work was published in a memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Laplace designed an ice calorimeter apparatus for measuring the amount of heat given off during combustion or respiration. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted to maintain a constant temperature of {{nowrap|0&nbsp;°C}} around an inner shell filled with ice. By measuring the quantity of carbon dioxide and heat produced by confining a live guinea pig in this apparatus, and by comparing the amount of heat produced when sufficient carbon was burned in the ice calorimeter to produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they concluded that respiration was, in fact, a slow combustion process. Lavoisier stated, "la respiration est donc une combustion," that is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning.<ref>[http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/5/899S Is a Calorie a Calorie?] American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 79, No. 5, 899S–906S, May 2004</ref>
This continuous slow combustion, which they supposed took place in the lungs, enabled the living animal to maintain its body temperature above that of its surroundings, thus accounting for the puzzling phenomenon of animal heat. Lavoisier continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in cooperation with Armand Seguin. They designed an ambitious set of experiments to study the whole process of body metabolism and respiration using Seguin as a human guinea pig in the experiments. Their work was only partially completed and published because of the Revolution's disruption, but Lavoisier's pioneering work in this field inspired similar research on physiological processes for generations.
Legacy
1866]]
Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous).
Lavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.
Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he discovered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.
He was also responsible for the construction of the gasometer, an expensive instrument he used at his demonstrations. While he used his gasometer exclusively for these, he also created smaller, cheaper, more practical gasometers that worked with a sufficient degree of precision that more chemists could recreate.<ref>{{Cite book|title Transforming Matter|last Levere|first Trevor|publisher The Johns Hopkins University Press|year 2001|isbn 978-0-8018-6610-4|location Maryland|pages 72–73}}</ref>
Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century.<ref>Gillespie, Charles C. (1996), Foreword to Lavoisier by Jean-Pierre Poirier, University of Pennsylvania Press, English Edition.</ref>
Following his death, a collection comprising most of his scientific manuscripts and instruments was established by his relatives at the Château de la Canière in Puy-de-Dôme.<ref name"gbooks">{{cite book |last1Beretta |first1Marco |titleThe Arsenal of Eighteenth-Century Chemistry:The Laboratories of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) |date8 June 2022 |publisherKoninklijke Brill |isbn9789004511217 |page107 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idg0B0EAAAQBAJ&dqCh%C3%A2teau+de+la+Cani%C3%A8re&pgPA107 |access-date24 December 2023 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231224175858/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Arsenal_of_Eighteenth_Century_Chemis/g0B0EAAAQBAJ?hlen&gbpv1&dqCh%C3%A2teau+de+la+Cani%C3%A8re&pgPA107&printsecfrontcover |archive-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>
Mount Lavoisier in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.<ref>{{LINZ|id3751 |nameMount Lavoisier |access-date21 August 2022}}</ref>Awards and honoursDuring his lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded a gold medal by the King of France for his work on urban street lighting (1766), and was appointed to the French Academy of Sciences (1768).<ref name"Yount" /> He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1775.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAPS Member History|urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creatorAntoine+lavoisier&title&subject&subdiv&mem&year&year-max&dead&keyword&smodeadvanced|access-date2021-05-28|websitesearch.amphilsoc.org}}</ref>
Lavoisier's work was recognized as an International Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France and the Société Chimique de France in 1999.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://portal.acs.org/portal/PublicWebSite/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/lavoisier/index.htm |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130223052254/http://portal.acs.org/portal/PublicWebSite/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/lavoisier/index.htm |url-statusdead |archive-date23 February 2013 |titleAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier: The Chemical Revolution |publisherAmerican Chemical Society |workNational Historic Chemical Landmarks |access-date25 March 2013 }}</ref> Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's Louis 1788 publication entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, published with colleagues Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy,<ref namepublication>{{cite book|last1Guyton de Morveau|first1Louis Bernard|last2Lavoisier|first2Antoine Laurent|last3Berthollet|first3Claude-Louis|last4Fourcroy|first4Antoine-François de|titleMéthode de Nomenclature Chimique|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_0MMPAAAAQAAJ_2|date1787|publisherChez Cuchet (Sous le Privilége de l’Académie des Sciences)|locationParis, France}}</ref> was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.<ref name"Award">{{cite web|title 2015 Awardees|urlhttp://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/CCB-2015_Awardees.php|websiteAmerican Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry|publisherUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Chemical Sciences|date2015|access-date1 July 2016}}</ref><ref name"Breakthrough">{{cite web|titleCitation for Chemical Breakthrough Award|urlhttp://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/Citations/2015-Guyton%20de%20Morveau%20Lavoisier%20plaque.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/Citations/2015-Guyton%20de%20Morveau%20Lavoisier%20plaque.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|websiteAmerican Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry|publisherUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Chemical Sciences|date2015|access-date=1 July 2016}}</ref>
A number of Lavoisier Medals have been named and given in Lavoisier's honour, by organizations including the Société chimique de France, the International Society for Biological Calorimetry, and the DuPont company<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.societechimiquedefrance.fr/Medaille-Lavoisier.html?langfr|titleSociété Chimique de France|websitesocietechimiquedefrance.fr|access-date2019-03-28|archive-date29 March 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190329025132/http://www.societechimiquedefrance.fr/Medaille-Lavoisier.html?langfr|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://biocalorimetry.ucoz.org/index/0-23|titleInternational Society for Biological Calorimetry (ISBC) – About ISBC_|websitebiocalorimetry.ucoz.org|access-date2019-03-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.dupont.com/corporate-functions/our-approach/innovation-excellence/science/scientists-engineers/awards-and-recognition/articles/lavoisier-medalists-OLD.html|titleThe Lavoisier Medal honors exceptional scientists and engineers {{!}} DuPont USA|lastworkflow-process-service|websitedupont.com|access-date2019-03-28}}</ref> He is also commemorated by the Franklin-Lavoisier Prize, marking the friendship of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and Benjamin Franklin. The prize, which includes a medal, is given jointly by the Fondation de la Maison de la Chimie in Paris, France and the Science History Institute in Philadelphia, PA, USA.<ref name"LABORATOIRE">{{cite web |titleLe Prix Franklin–Lavoiser2018 a été décerné au Comité Lavoisier |urlhttps://www.gazettelabo.fr/breves/breves.php?id7667 |websiteLa Gazette du Laboratoire |access-date15 January 2019|date2018-06-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleFranklin-Lavoisier Prize |urlhttps://www.sciencehistory.org/franklin-lavoisier-prize |publisherScience History Institute |access-date26 March 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200326131521/https://www.sciencehistory.org/franklin-lavoisier-prize |archive-date26 March 2020 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Selected writings
. Page from Udagawa Yōan's 1840 Seimi Kaisō]]
* Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). ([https://archive.org/details/opusculesphysiq00goog Second edition, 1801])
* ''L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse, publié par ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
* Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la subsistence des bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785 (Instruction on the means of compensating for the food shortage with fodder, and of increasing the subsistence of cattle, Supplement to the instruction on the means of providing for the food shortage with fodder, published by order of King on 31 May 1785).
* (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721021630/http://imgbase-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/displayimage.php?album692&pos3 Méthode de nomenclature chimique]'' (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
* (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, and Sage) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-bM5AAAAcAAJ Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs.] (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)
* [http://isnature.org/Files/Lavoisier1789-Traite_elementaire_de_chimie.htm Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes] (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, presented in a new order and alongside modern discoveries) also [https://web.archive.org/web/20100109164241/http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail-fr-text-lavosier-Lavoisier-89-6.html here]
* (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "[http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?langfr&typetext&bddlavosier&tableLavoisier&typeofbookDesMemoires&bookId38&pageChapterM%E9moire%20sur%20la%20chaleur&pageOrder1&facsimileoff&searchno&num&nav1 Mémoire sur la chaleur]," Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences (1780), pp.&nbsp;355–408.
* [http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?langfr&typetext&bddlavosier&tableLavoisier&typeofbookDesMemoires&bookId65&pageChapterPremier%20m%E9moire%20contenant%20les%20exp%E9riences%20faites%20sur%20la%20chaleur,%20pendant%20l%27hiver%20de%201783%20%E0%201784,%20par%20P.S.%20de%20Laplace%20et%20A.L.%20%20Lavoisier&pageOrder1&facsimileoff&searchno&num&nav1 Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace & A. K. Lavoisier] (1792)
* Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie, de la Société d'Arcueil (1805: posthumous)
In translation
* [https://archive.org/details/essaysphysicala00lavogoog Essays Physical and Chemical] (London: for Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1970) translation by Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques et chimiques
* The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, and approved by the Royal Academy of Sciences'' (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos<ref>See Denis I. Duveen and Herbert S. Klickstein, "[https://www.jstor.org/pss/1917020 The "American" Edition of Lavoisier's ''L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse]," The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series 13:4 (October 1956), 493–498.</ref> of L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse
* (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir on Heat: Read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, 28 June 1783, by Messrs. Lavoisier & De La Place of the same Academy. (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans. by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire sur la chaleur
* [https://archive.org/details/essaysoneffects00henrgoog Essays, on the Effects Produced by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To An Investigation Of The Constitution Of Acids]'', trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these essays:
# "Experiments on the Respiration of Animals, and on the Changes effected on the Air in passing through their Lungs." (Read to the Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)
# "On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospheric Air and in Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to the Académie des Sciences, 1777)
# "On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."
# "On the Existence of Air in the Nitrous Acid, and on the Means of decomposing and recomposing that Acid."
# "On the Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."
# "Experiments on the Combustion of Alum with Phlogistic Substances, and on the Changes effected on Air in which the Pyrophorus was burned."
# "On the Vitriolisation of Martial Pyrites."
# "General Considerations on the Nature of Acids, and on the Principles of which they are composed."
# "On the Combination of the Matter of Fire with Evaporable Fluids; and on the Formation of Elastic Aëriform Fluids."
* "Reflections on Phlogiston", translation by Nicholas W. Best of "Réflexions sur le phlogistique, pour servir de suite à la théorie de la combustion et de la calcination" (read to the Académie Royale des Sciences over two nights, 28 June and 13 July 1783). Published in two parts:
# {{cite journal|doi10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5|titleLavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" I: Against phlogiston theory|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/12373360|journalFoundations of Chemistry|volume17|issue2|pages361–378|year2015|last1Best|first1Nicholas W.|s2cid=170422925}}
# {{cite journal|doi10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x|titleLavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" II: On the nature of heat|journalFoundations of Chemistry|volume18|issue1|pages3–13|year2016|last1Best|first1Nicholas W.|s2cid94677080}}
* Method of chymical nomenclature: proposed by Messrs. De Moreau, Lavoisier, Bertholet, and De Fourcroy (1788) [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/nomenclature.html Dictionary]
* Elements of Chemistry, in a New Systematic Order, Containing All the Modern Discoveries (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1790; New York: Dover, 1965) translation by Robert Kerr of Traité élémentaire de chimie. {{ISBN|978-0-486-64624-4}} (Dover).
** [https://archive.org/details/elementschemist00kerrgoog 1799 edition]
** 1802 edition: [https://archive.org/details/elementschemist01lavogoog volume 1], [https://archive.org/details/elementschemist00lavogoog volume 2]
** [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b21000856.r=lavoisier.langEN Some illustrations] from 1793 edition
** [http://othmerlib.sciencehistory.org/record=b1034183~S2 Some more illustrations] from the Science History Institute
** [http://othmerlib.sciencehistory.org/record=b1034193~S2 More illustrations] (from Collected Works) from the Science History Institute
<gallery>
File:Lavoisier-1.jpg|1790 copy of "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Order Containing All the Modern Discoveries"
File:Lavoisier-2.jpg|Title page to "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Order Containing All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)
File:Lavoisier-3.jpg|Preface to "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Order Containing All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)
File:Lavoisier-4.jpg|First page of "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Order Containing All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)
</gallery>
See also
* Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
Notes
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Bailly, J.-S., "Secret Report on Mesmerism or Animal Magnetism", International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp.&nbsp;364–368. {{doi|10.1080/00207140208410110}}
* {{cite book |authorBerthelot, M. |titleLa révolution chimique: Lavoisier |urlhttps://archive.org/details/larvolutionchim00bertgoog |locationParis |publisherAlcan |year1890}}
* Catalogue of Printed Works by and Memorabilia of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794... Exhibited at the Grolier Club (New York, 1952).
* {{cite book |authorDaumas, M. |titleLavoisier, théoricien et expérimentateur |locationParis |publisherPresses Universitaires de France |year=1955}}
* {{cite book |authorDonovan, Arthur |titleAntoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and Revolution |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge, England |year=1993}}
* Duveen, D.I. and H.S. Klickstein, A Bibliography of the Works of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794 (London, 1954)
* Franklin, B., Majault, M.J., Le Roy, J.B., Sallin, C.L., Bailly, J.-S., d'Arcet, J., de Bory, G., Guillotin, J.-I. & Lavoisier, A., "Report of The Commissioners charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism", International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Vol.50, No.4, (October 2002), pp.&nbsp;332–363. {{doi|10.1080/00207140208410109}}
* {{cite book |authorGrey, Vivian |titleThe Chemist Who Lost His Head: The Story of Antoine Lavoisier |urlhttps://archive.org/details/chemistwholosthi00grey |url-accessregistration |publisherCoward, McCann & Geoghegan, Inc. |year1982|isbn=9780698205598 }}
* {{cite book |authorGuerlac, Henry |titleLavoisier – The Crucial Year |urlhttps://archive.org/details/lavoisierthecruc00guer |url-accessregistration |publisherCornell University Press |locationIthaca, New York |year=1961}}
* {{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier}}
* {{cite book |authorHolmes, Frederic Lawrence |titleLavoisier and the Chemistry of Life |publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Press |locationMadison, Wisconsin |year=1985}}
* {{cite book |authorHolmes, Frederic Lawrence |titleAntoine Lavoisier – The Next Crucial Year, or the Sources of his Quantitative Method in Chemistry |publisherPrinceton University Press |year1998}}
* {{cite book |authorJackson, Joe |titleA World on Fire: A Heretic, An Aristocrat and the Race to Discover Oxygen |publisherViking |year2005}}
* {{cite journal |lastJohnson|first Horton A. |titleRevolutionary Instruments, Lavoisier's Tools as Objets d'Art |journalChemical Heritage Magazine|year2008 |volume26 |pages30–35|issue 1|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/revolutionary-instruments-lavoisiers-tools-as-objets-dart}}
* {{cite book |authorKelly, Jack |titleGunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics |publisherBasic Books |year2004 |isbn978-0-465-03718-6 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/gunpowderalchemy00jack }}
* {{cite book |authorMcKie, Douglas |titleAntoine Lavoisier: The Father of Modern Chemistry |publisherJ. B. Lippincott & Co.|locationPhiladelphia |year=1935}}
* {{cite book |authorMcKie, Douglas |titleAntoine Lavoisier: Scientist, Economist, Social Reformer |urlhttps://archive.org/details/antoinelavoisier00mcki |url-accessregistration |publisherHenry Schuman |locationNew York |year=1952}}
* {{cite book |authorPoirier, Jean-Pierre |titleLavoisier |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |year1996 |edition=English}}
* {{cite book |authorRiedman, Sarah R. |titleAntoine Lavoisier: Scientist and Citizen |publisherAbelard-Schuman |year1967}}
* {{cite book |authorScerri, Eric|titleThe Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance |urlhttps://archive.org/details/periodictableits0000scer|url-accessregistration|publisherOxford University Press |year2007|isbn=978-0-19-530573-9 }}
* {{cite book |authorSmartt Bell, Madison|titleLavoisier in the Year One: The Birth of a New Science in an Age of Revolution |urlhttps://archive.org/details/lavoisierinyearo00madi|url-accessregistration|publisherAtlas Books, W.W. Norton |year2005}}
{{div col end}}
External links
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier|Antoine Lavoisier}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{Library resources box|byyes|onlinebooksbyyes|viaf=2495579}}
* Archives: [http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Lavoisier/Lavoisier2/archives_Lavoisier_oeuvre.htm Fonds Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier], Le Comité Lavoisier, Académie des sciences
* [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lavoisier/ Panopticon Lavoisier] a virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier
* [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lavoisier/main.asp Bibliography] at Panopticon Lavoisier
* [http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ Les Œuvres de Lavoisier]
;About his work
* [https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?hlen&ieUTF8&msa0&msid103015796427039682952.00046ac5940f4335f749d&ll48.8528,2.366459&spn0.007427,0.016372&z=16 Location of Lavoisier's laboratory in Paris]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20071115.shtml Radio 4 program on the discovery of oxygen] by the BBC
* [http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/matter/faq/who-defined-compounds.shtml Who was the first to classify materials as "compounds"?] – Fred Senese
* [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/collections/lavoisier.html Cornell University's Lavoisier collection]
;His writings
* {{Gutenberg author |id34823| nameAntoine Lavoisier}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier}}
* [http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr/ Les Œuvres de Lavoisier] (The Complete Works of Lavoisier) edited by Pietro Corsi (Oxford University) and Patrice Bret (CNRS) {{in lang|fr}}
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?ArianeWireIndexindex&q%22Oeuvres+de+Lavoisier%22&p1&langen Oeuvres de Lavoisier] (Works of Lavoisier) at Gallica BnF in six volumes. {{in lang|fr}}
* [http://www.worldcat.org/wcidentities/lccn-n50-39793 WorldCat author page]
* Title page, woodcuts, and copperplate engravings by Madame Lavoisier from a 1789 first edition of [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/v979v4270 Traité élémentaire de chimie] (all images freely available for download in a variety of formats from Science History Institute Digital Collections at [https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042542/https://digital.sciencehistory.org/ digital.sciencehistory.org]).
{{Age of Enlightenment}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Lavoisier, Antoine}}
Category:1743 births
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Category:Scientists from Paris
Category:University of Paris alumni
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Category:18th-century French writers
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Category:French biologists
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Category:Fellows of the Royal Society
Category:Discoverers of chemical elements
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Category:Executed scientists
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Category:18th-century French nobility
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.120610
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1825
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Hermann Kolbe
|
{{Short description|German chemist (1818–1884)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Hermann Kolbe
| image = Hermann Kolbe2.jpg
| caption = Kolbe, c. 1860
| birth_name = Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe
| birth_date {{Birth date|1818|9|27|dfy}}
| birth_place = Elliehausen, Kingdom of Hanover
| nationality = German
| death_date {{death date and age|1884|11|25|1818|9|27|dfy}}
| death_place = Leipzig, Kingdom of Saxony, German Empire
| field = Chemist
| work_institutions = University of Marburg<br/>University of Leipzig
| alma_mater = University of Marburg
| doctoral_advisor = Robert Bunsen<br/> Friedrich Wöhler
| doctoral_students = Peter Griess<br/> Aleksandr Mikhailovich Zaitsev<br/> Theodor Curtius<br/> Ernst Otto Beckmann<br/> Carl Graebe<br/> Oscar Loew<br/> Constantin Fahlberg<br/> Nikolai Menshutkin<br/> Vladimir Markovnikov<br/> Jacob Volhard<br/> Ludwig Mond<br/> Alexander Crum Brown<br/> Maxwell Simpson<br/> Frederick Guthrie [Note, not primary advisor for all in this list]
| known_for = Kolbe electrolysis,<br/> Kolbe–Schmitt reaction<br/> Kolbe nitrile synthesis
| prizes = Davy Medal {{small|(1884)}}<br>ForMemRS {{small|(1877)}}
| footnotes =
}}
Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe (27 September 1818 – 25 November 1884<ref name"Britannica bio"/>) was a German chemist and academic, and a major contributor to the birth of modern organic chemistry. He was a professor at Marburg and Leipzig. Kolbe was the first to apply the term synthesis in a chemical context, and contributed to the philosophical demise of vitalism through synthesis of the organic substance acetic acid from carbon disulfide, and also contributed to the development of structural theory. This was done via modifications to the idea of "radicals" and accurate prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols, and to the emerging array of organic reactions through his Kolbe electrolysis of carboxylate salts, the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction in the preparation of aspirin and the Kolbe nitrile synthesis. After studies with Wöhler and Bunsen, Kolbe was involved with the early internationalization of chemistry through work in London (with Frankland). He was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and won the Royal Society of London's Davy Medal in the year of his death. Despite these accomplishments and his training important members of the next generation of chemists (including Zaitsev, Curtius, Beckmann, Graebe, Markovnikov, and others), Kolbe is best remembered for editing the Journal für Praktische Chemie for more than a decade, in which his vituperative essays on Kekulé's structure of benzene, van't Hoff's theory on the origin of chirality and Baeyer's reforms of nomenclature were personally critical and linguistically violent. Kolbe died of a heart attack in Leipzig at age 66, six years after the death of his wife, Charlotte.LifeKolbe was born in Elliehausen, near Göttingen, Kingdom of Hanover (Germany) as the eldest son of a Protestant pastor. At the age of 13, he entered the Göttingen Gymnasium, residing at the home of one of the professors. He obtained the leaving certificate (the Abitur) six years later. He had become passionate about the study of chemistry, matriculating at the University of Göttingen in the spring of 1838 in order to study with the famous chemist Friedrich Wöhler.<ref name"Britannica bio">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Hermann-Kolbe |titleHermann Kolbe – German chemist |authorAlan J. Rocke|access-date28 July 2016}}</ref>
In 1842, he became an assistant to Robert Bunsen at the Philipps-Universität Marburg. He took his doctoral degree in 1843 at the same university. A new opportunity arose in 1845, when he became assistant to Lyon Playfair at the new Museum of Economic Geology in London and a close friend of Edward Frankland. From 1847, he was engaged in editing the Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie (Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry) edited by Justus von Liebig, Wöhler, and Johann Christian Poggendorff, and he also wrote an important textbook. In 1851, Kolbe succeeded Bunsen as professor of chemistry at Marburg and, in 1865, he was called to the Universität Leipzig. In 1864, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.<ref>{{cite book|lastRocke |firstAlan J. |titleThe Quiet Revolution: Hermann Kolbe and the Science of Organic Chemistry |locationBerkeley |date1993 |isbn978-0-520-08110-9}}</ref> He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1874.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAPS Member History|urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?year1874;smodeadvanced;startDoc1|access-date5 May 2021|website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref>
In 1853, he married Charlotte, the daughter of General-Major Wilhelm von Bardeleben. His wife died in 1876 after 23 years of happy marriage. They had four children.
Work in chemical research
As late as the 1840s, and despite Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea in 1828, some chemists still believed in the doctrine of vitalism, according to which a special life-force was necessary to create "organic" (i.e., in its original meaning, biologically derived) compounds. Kolbe promoted the idea that organic compounds could be derived from substances clearly sourced from outside this "organic" context, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. (Hence, while by modern definitions, he was converting one organic molecule to another, by the parlance of his era, he was converting "inorganic"—anorganisch—substances into "organic" ones only thought accessible through vital processes.) He validated his theory by converting carbon disulfide (CS<sub>2</sub>) to acetic acid ({{Chem2|CH3COOH}}) in several steps (1843–45). Kolbe also introduced a modified idea of structural radicals, so contributing to the development of structural theory. A dramatic success came when his theoretical prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols was confirmed by the synthesis of the first of these classes of organic molecules. Kolbe was the first person to use the word synthesis in its present-day meaning,<ref>Kolbe wrote the word "synthesis" describing his project to transform carbon disulfide into acetic acid. See: {{cite journal|last1Kolbe|first1H.|titleBeiträge zur Kenntniß der gepaarten Verbindungen|journalAnnalen der Chemie und Pharmacie|date1845|volume54|issue2|pages145–188|urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?iduiug.30112025847093;view1up;seq161|trans-titleContributions to [our] knowledge of paired compounds|languagede|doi10.1002/jlac.18450540202}} From pp. 145–146: "Im Gegensatz zu den bis jetzt bekannten gepaarten organischen Säuren, welche durch Zersetzung organischer Materien von meist complicierter Zusammensetzung unter Einwirkung kräftiger Agentien und unter Verhältnissen entstanden sind, welche eine mehrfache Auslegung der Zersetzungserscheinungen gestatten, werden diejenigen, welche den Gegenstand der nachstehenden Betrachtungen ausmachen, durch Synthese aus Körpern von möglichst einfacher Zusammensetzung gebildet, so daß sie uns über ihre Constitution kaum im Zweifel lassen, und können deshalb gewissermaßen als Prototypen jener Körperreihe angesehen werden." (In contrast to the paired organic acids known until now, which have been formed by the decomposition of organic matter of the most complicated composition during the reaction of strong agencies and under conditions that admit multiple interpretations of decomposition phenomena, those [compounds] that constitute the object of the following observations are formed by synthesis from substances of the simplest possible composition, so that they leave us hardly in doubt about their constitution, and thus can be viewed in a way as prototypes of those series of substances.)</ref> and contributed a number of new chemical reactions.<ref name"Britannica bio" />
In particular, Kolbe developed procedures for the electrolysis of the salts of fatty and other carboxylic acids (Kolbe electrolysis)<ref>{{cite journal|titleUntersuchungen über die Elektrolyse organischer Verbindungen |authorHermann Kolbe |journalAnnalen der Chemie und Pharmacie |year1849 |volume69 |issue3 |pages257–372 |doi10.1002/jlac.18490690302 |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1427016}}</ref>{{primary source inline|dateJuly 2014}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Lindsey|first1Alan|last2Jeskey|first2Harold|date1957|titleThe Kolbe Schmitt Reaction|journalChem Rev|volume57|issue4|pages583–620|doi10.1021/cr50016a001}}</ref> and prepared salicylic acid, a building block of aspirin in a process called Kolbe synthesis or Kolbe-Schmitt reaction.<ref>{{cite journal |titleUeber Synthese der Salicylsäure |authorHermann Kolbe |journalAnnalen der Chemie und Pharmacie |year1860 |volume113 |issue1 |pages125–127 |doi10.1002/jlac.18601130120 |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1427141}}</ref><ref name"Kolbe-Schmitt Reaction">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.organic-chemistry.org/namedreactions/kolbe-schmitt-reaction.shtm|titleKolbe-Schmitt Reaction|access-date28 July 2016}}</ref> His method for the synthesis of nitriles is called the Kolbe nitrile synthesis,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id4TBWg3dIyKQC&qkolbe+nitrile%25&pgPA537 Electrochemical Dictionary]</ref> and with Edward Frankland he found that nitriles can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids.<ref name"Kolbe Nitrile Synthesis">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.organic-chemistry.org/namedreactions/kolbe-nitrile-synthesis.shtm|titleKolbe Nitrile Synthesis|access-date=28 July 2016}}</ref>
In addition to his own bench research and scholarly and editorial work, Kolbe oversaw student research at Leipzig and especially at Marburg; students spending time under his tutelage included Peter Griess, Aleksandr Mikhailovich Zaitsev (known for Zaitsev's rule predicting the product composition of elimination reactions), Theodor Curtius (discoverer of diazo compounds, hydrazines, and the Curtius rearrangement), Ernst Otto Beckmann (discoverer of the Beckmann rearrangement), Carl Graebe (discoverer of alizarin), Oscar Loew, Constantin Fahlberg, Nikolai Menshutkin, Vladimir Markovnikov (first to describe carbocycles smaller and larger than cyclohexane, and known for Markovnikov's rule describing addition reactions to alkenes), Jacob Volhard, Ludwig Mond, Alexander Crum Brown (first to describe the double bond of ethylene), Maxwell Simpson, and Frederick Guthrie.<ref name"worldofchemicals.com">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.worldofchemicals.com/495/chemistry-articles/adolph-wilhelm-hermann-kolbe-developer-of-kolbe-synthesis.html |titleAdolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe – developer of Kolbe synthesis |access-date28 July 2016 |date11 June 2015 |archive-date19 August 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160819135758/http://www.worldofchemicals.com/495/chemistry-articles/adolph-wilhelm-hermann-kolbe-developer-of-kolbe-synthesis.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Work as journal editor
Besides his work for periodicals he wrote numerous books<ref name"goodreads">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.goodreads.com/author/list/4504758.Hermann_Kolbe |titleBooks by Hermann Kolbe |access-date28 July 2016}}</ref>
Kolbe served for more than a decade as what, in modern terms, would be understood the senior editor of the Journal für Praktische Chemie (Journal of practical chemistry, from 1870 to 1884), Kolbe was sometimes so severely critical of the work of others, especially after about 1874, that some wondered whether he might have been suffering a mental illness. He was intolerant of what he regarded as loose speculation parading as theory, and sought through his writings to save his beloved science of chemistry from what he regarded as the scourge of modern structural theory.<ref name="Britannica bio" />
His rejection of structural chemistry, especially the theories of the structure of benzene by August Kekulé, the theory of the asymmetric carbon atom by J.H. van't Hoff, and the reform of chemical nomenclature by Adolf von Baeyer, was expressed in his vituperative articles in the Journal für Praktische Chemie. Some translated quotes illustrate his manner of articulating the deep conflict between his interpretation of chemistry and that of the structural chemists: <blockquote>«...Baeyer is an excellent experimentor, but he is only an empiricist, lacking sense and capability, and his interpretations of his experiments show particular deficiency in his familiarity with the principles of true science...»<ref name"Britannica bio" /><ref>{{cite journal |titleBegründung meiner Urtheile über Ad. Baeyer's wissenschaftliche Qualification |authorHermann Kolbe |journalJournal für Praktische Chemie |volume26 |issue1 |year1882 |pages308–323 |doi10.1002/prac.18820260121 |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1427894}}</ref></blockquote>The violence of his language worked to limit his posthumous reputation.<ref name"Today In Science History">{{cite web|urlhttp://sciencenotes.org/today-science-history-september-27-adolph-wilhelm-hermann-kolbe/ |titleToday In Science History – September 27 – Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe|access-date28 July 2016|date27 September 2014}}</ref>Publications* {{Cite book|titleUntersuchungen über die Elektrolyse organischer Verbindungen|volume|publisherLivingstone|locationEdinburgh|year1947|languageen|urlhttps://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid7863532}}Sources* {{cite book |authorRocke, Alan J. |titleThe Quiet Revolution: Hermann Kolbe and the Science of Organic Chemistry |year1993 |publisherUniversity of California Press |isbn978-0-520-08110-9}}
* {{cite journal |titleZur Erinnerung an Hermann Kolbe |authorvon Meyer, E. |journalJournal für Praktische Chemie |volume30 |issue1 |year1884 |pages417–467 |doi10.1002/prac.18850300143 |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1427902 }}Notes and references<references />Further reading
* Kurzes Lehrbuch der Chemie . 1.Anorganische Chemie . Vieweg, Braunschweig 2. verb. Aufl. 1884 [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-7908 Digital edition] by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1615-4169/issues Wiley online library: Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis, ultimate descendant of the Journal für Praktische Chemie], accessed 2 July 2014.
* Journal für Praktische Chemie, the article on the original German journal and its descendants, German Wikipedia, accessed 2 July 2014.
External links
* [http://www.mjlphd.net/translations.html Translations] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201018004942/https://www.mjlphd.net/translations.html |date18 October 2020 }} English Translation of Kolbe's seminal 1860 German article in Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. English title: "On the syntheses of salicylic acid"; German title "Ueber Synthese der Salicylsäure".
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kolbe, Hermann}}
Category:19th-century German chemists
Category:1818 births
Category:1884 deaths
Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society
Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Category:Academic staff of Leipzig University
Category:University of Göttingen alumni
Category:University of Marburg alumni
Category:Academic staff of the University of Marburg
Category:Scientists from Göttingen
Category:People from the Kingdom of Hanover
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Kolbe
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.133089
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1826
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April 18
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{{About||the 1985 Indian film|April 18 (film)}}
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 796 &ndash; King Æthelred I of Northumbria is murdered in Corbridge by a group led by his ealdormen, Ealdred and Wada. The patrician Osbald is crowned, but abdicates within 27 days.<ref>{{cite book |last1Kirby |first1D. P. |titleThe Earliest English Kings |date2000 |publisherPsychology Press |isbn978-0-415-24210-3 |page131 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFzhk_DvzqSkC&pgPA131 |language=en}}</ref>
*1428 &ndash; Peace of Ferrara between Republic of Venice, Duchy of Milan, Republic of Florence and House of Gonzaga: ending of the second campaign of the Wars in Lombardy fought until the Treaty of Lodi in 1454, which will then guarantee the conditions for the development of the Italian Renaissance.<ref>{{cite book |authorNiccolò Machiavelli|title History of Florence, Book IV}}</ref>
*1506 &ndash; The cornerstone of the current St. Peter's Basilica is laid.
*1518 &ndash; Bona Sforza is crowned as queen consort of Poland.
*1521 &ndash; Trial of Martin Luther begins its second day during the assembly of the Diet of Worms. He refuses to recant his teachings despite the risk of excommunication.
1601–1900
*1689 &ndash; Bostonians rise up in rebellion against Sir Edmund Andros.
*1738 &ndash; Real Academia de la Historia ("Royal Academy of History") is founded in Madrid.
*1775 &ndash; American Revolution: The British Army advances up the Charles River in Massachusetts to destroy supplies of American militias, while Paul Revere and other riders rapidly warn the countryside.<ref>{{cite book|lastFischer|firstDavid Hackett|author-linkDavid Hackett Fischer|date 1994|titlePaul Revere's Ride|urlhttps://www.google.com/books/edition/Paul_Revere_s_Ride/knC-kTFI9_gC?hlen&gbpv0|publisherOxford University Press|isbn9780195088472}}</ref>
*1783 &ndash; Three-Fifths Compromise: The first instance of black slaves in the United States of America being counted as three fifths of persons (for the purpose of taxation), in a resolution of the Congress of the Confederation. This was later adopted in the 1787 Constitution.<ref>Story, Joseph (1833) Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States, [https://lonang.com/library/reference/story-commentaries-us-constitution/sto-309/ §641 (Book 3, Chapter 9)]</ref>
*1831 &ndash; The University of Alabama is founded in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
*1847 &ndash; American victory at the battle of Cerro Gordo opens the way for invasion of Mexico.
*1857 &ndash; "The Spirits Book" by Allan Kardec is published, marking the birth of Spiritualism in France.
*1864 &ndash; Battle of Dybbøl: A Prussian-Austrian army defeats Denmark and gains control of Schleswig. Denmark surrenders the province in the following peace settlement.
*1897 &ndash; The Greco-Turkish War is declared between Greece and the Ottoman Empire.
*1899 &ndash; The St. Andrew's Ambulance Association is granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria.
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; The 7.5 {{M|w}} Guatemala earthquake shakes Guatemala with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), killing between 800 and 2,000.
*1906 &ndash; The 7.9 {{M|w}}earthquake and fire destroy much of San Francisco, California, killing more than 3,000 people, making one of the worst natural disasters in American history.
*1909 &ndash; Joan of Arc is beatified in Rome.
*1912 &ndash; The Cunard liner {{RMS|Carpathia|}} brings 705 survivors from the {{RMS|Titanic|}} to New York City.
*1915 &ndash; World War I: French pilot Roland Garros is shot down and glides to a landing on the German side of the lines.
*1916 &ndash; World War I: During a mine warfare in high altitude on the Dolomites, the Italian troops conquer the Col di Lana held by the Austrian army.<ref>{{cite book |authorThompson, Mark|title The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915-1919|publisherFaber & Faber|year 2009}}</ref>
*1930 &ndash; A fire kills 118 people at a wooden church in the small Romanian town of Costești, most of them schoolchildren, after starting during Good Friday services.<ref>{{cite news |dateApril 19, 1930 |title144 Die; Fire and Panic End Easter Mass |newspaperChicago Daily Tribune |page1}}</ref>
*1939 &ndash; Robert Menzies, who became Australia's longest-serving prime minister, is elected as leader of the United Australia Party after the death of Prime Minister Joseph Lyons.<ref>{{cite book |firstAllan |lastMartin |titleRobert Menzies: A Life |volume1 (1894–1943) |year1993 |publisherMelbourne University Press |isbn0522844421 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/robertmenzieslif0000mart}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; World War II: The Doolittle Raid on Japan: Tokyo, Yokohama, Kobe and Nagoya are bombed.
* 1942 &ndash; Pierre Laval becomes Prime Minister of Vichy France.
*1943 &ndash; World War II: Operation Vengeance, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto is killed when his aircraft is shot down by U.S. fighters over Bougainville Island.
*1945 &ndash; World War II: Over 1,000 bombers attack the small island of Heligoland, Germany.
* 1945 &ndash; Italian resistance movement: In Turin, despite the harsh repressive measures adopted by Nazi-fascists, a great pre-insurrectional strike begins.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.museotorino.it/view/s/106f6b047b754312865548f408f24d38 |title18 aprile 1945: lo sciopero pre-insurrezionale |websiteMuseo Torino |languageit}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; The International Court of Justice holds its inaugural meeting in The Hague, Netherlands.
*1946 &ndash; Jackie Robinson makes his regular season debut for the Montreal Royals of the International League, to make them the first integrated modern professional baseball team.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://baseballhalloffame.ca/42-a-story-of-baseballs-integration/| title42: A Story of Baseball's Integration| publisher=Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; The Operation Big Bang, the largest non-nuclear man-made explosion to that time, destroys bunkers and military installations on the North Sea island of Heligoland, Germany.<ref name"SpiegelHelgoland">{{cite news| date 13 April 2007| url http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/zeitgeschichte/0,1518,477076,00.html| titleDer Tag, an dem Helgoland der Megabombe trotzte| workDer Spiegel| languagede}}</ref>
*1949 &ndash; The Republic of Ireland Act comes into force, declaring Éire to be a republic and severing Ireland{{'s}} "association" with the Commonwealth of Nations.<ref>{{cite book|lastBiletz|firstFrank A.|chapterRepublic of Ireland Act (1948)|titleHistorical Dictionary of Ireland|locationLanham, Md.|publisherScarecrow Press|date2014|isbn9780810850774|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrb8eAgAAQBAJ|pages380–381|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|lastMansergh|firstNicholas|titleSurvey of British Commonwealth Affairs: Problems of Wartime Cooperation and Post-War Change, 1939-1592|locationLondon|publisherRoutledge|date2013|isbn9780203041901|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddZKAAAAAQBAJ|page287}}</ref>
*1954 &ndash; Gamal Abdel Nasser seizes power in Egypt.
*1955 &ndash; Twenty-nine nations meet at Bandung, Indonesia, for the first Asian-African Conference.
*1972 &ndash; East African Airways Flight 720 crashes during a rejected takeoff from Addis Ababa Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, killing 43.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident Vickers Super VC10-1154 5X-UVA Addis Ababa-Bole Airport (ADD) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19720418-1 |access-date2022-04-17 |websiteaviation-safety.net |publisherAviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; The Republic of Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) comes into being, with Canaan Banana as the country's first President. The Zimbabwean dollar replaces the Rhodesian dollar as the official currency.
* 1980 &ndash; The town of Elmore City, Oklahoma holds its first dance in the town's history.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://tulsaworld.com/life-entertainment/local/movies-tv/footloose-at-40-heres-the-story-of-oklahoma-town-that-inspired-iconic-movie/article_0887f08c-c114-11ee-b715-8f2960a79e1d.html|title'Footloose' at 40: Here's the story of Oklahoma town that inspired iconic movie|firstJimmie Tramel Tulsa|lastWorld|date15 February 2024|websiteTulsa World|accessdate=19 February 2024}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; The United States launches Operation Praying Mantis against Iranian naval forces in the largest naval battle since World War II.
* 1988 &ndash; In Israel John Demjanjuk is sentenced to death for war crimes committed in World War II, although the verdict is later overturned.<ref>{{cite book |titleIsrael 50 |year1997 |isbn965-474-005-2|last1שיף |first1יהודה |publisherאלפא תקשורת }}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; King Mswati III of Swaziland announces that his country's name will change to Eswatini.<ref>{{Cite news |date2018-04-19 |titleSwaziland king changes the country's name |workBBC News |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-43821512 |access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref>
* 2018 &ndash; Anti-government protests start in Nicaragua.<ref>{{Cite news |lastSemple |firstKirk |date2018-04-20 |titleLas protestas ciudadanas sacuden a Nicaragua |workThe New York Times |languageSpanish |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/es/2018/04/20/espanol/america-latina/nicaragua-protestas-pensiones-seguridad-social.html |access-date2023-04-18}}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; A redacted version of the Mueller report is released to the United States Congress and the public.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/18/us/politics/mueller-report-released-live.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/18/us/politics/mueller-report-released-live.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited|titleWhat We Know So Far From the Mueller Report|lastBaker|firstPeter|date2019-04-19|workThe New York Times|access-date2019-05-22|languageen-US|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
* 359 &ndash; Gratian, Roman emperor (d. 383)
* 588 &ndash; K'an II, Mayan ruler (d. 658)
* 812 &ndash; Al-Wathiq, Abbasid caliph (d. 847)
*1446 &ndash; Ippolita Maria Sforza, Italian noble (d. 1484)
*1480 &ndash; Lucrezia Borgia, daughter of Pope Alexander VI (d. 1519)
*1503 &ndash; Henry II of Navarre (d. 1555)
*1534 &ndash; William Harrison, English clergyman (d. 1593)
*1580 &ndash; Thomas Middleton, English Jacobean playwright and poet (d. 1627)
*1590 &ndash; Ahmed I, Ottoman Emperor (d. 1617)<ref>{{cite web |titleAhmed I {{!}} Reign, Succession, Dynasty {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Ahmed-I |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date9 August 2023 |languageen}}</ref>1601–1900
*1605 &ndash; Giacomo Carissimi, Italian priest and composer (d. 1674)
*1666 &ndash; Jean-Féry Rebel, French violinist and composer (d. 1747)
*1740 &ndash; Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet, English banker and politician (d. 1810)
*1759 &ndash; Jacques Widerkehr, French cellist and composer (d. 1823)
*1771 &ndash; Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg (d. 1820)
*1772 &ndash; David Ricardo, British economist and politician (d. 1823)
*1794 &ndash; William Debenham, English founder of Debenhams (d. 1863)
*1813 &ndash; James McCune Smith, African-American physician, apothecary, abolitionist, and author (d. 1865)
*1819 &ndash; Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, Cuban lawyer and activist (d. 1874)
* 1819 &ndash; Franz von Suppé, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1895)
*1838 &ndash; Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, French chemist and academic (d. 1912)
*1854 &ndash; Ludwig Levy, German architect (d. 1907)
*1857 &ndash; Clarence Darrow, American lawyer (d. 1938)
*1858 &ndash; Dhondo Keshav Karve, Indian educator and activist, Bharat Ratna Awardee (d. 1962)
* 1858 &ndash; Alexander Shirvanzade, Armenian playwright and author (d. 1935)
*1863 &ndash; Count Leopold Berchtold, Austrian-Hungarian politician and diplomat, Joint Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary (d. 1942)
* 1863 &ndash; Linton Hope, English sailor and architect (d. 1920)
* 1863 &ndash; Siegfried Bettmann, founder of the Triumph Motorcycle Company and Mayor of Coventry (d. 1955)
*1864 &ndash; Richard Harding Davis, American journalist and author (d. 1916)
*1874 &ndash; Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić, Croatian author and poet (d. 1938)
*1877 &ndash; Vicente Sotto, Filipino lawyer and politician (d. 1950)
*1879 &ndash; Korneli Kekelidze, Georgian philologist and scholar (d. 1962)
*1880 &ndash; Sam Crawford, American baseball player, coach, and umpire (d. 1968)
*1882 &ndash; Isaac Babalola Akinyele, Nigerian ruler (d. 1964)
* 1882 &ndash; Leopold Stokowski, English conductor (d. 1977)
*1883 &ndash; Aleksanteri Aava, Finnish poet (d. 1956)<ref>[http://tenkaset.fi/galleria/merkkihenkilot/aava/aava.htm Runoilija Aleksanteri Aava (1883–1956)] (in Finnish)</ref>
*1884 &ndash; Jaan Anvelt, Estonian educator and politician (d. 1937)
*1889 &ndash; Jessie Street, Australian activist (d. 1970)<ref>{{cite book |last1Radi |first1Heather |titleStreet, Lady Jessie Mary (1889–1970) |chapterLady Jessie Mary Street (1889–1970) |urlhttp://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/street-lady-jessie-mary-11789 |websiteAustralian Dictionary of Biography |publisherNational Centre of Biography, Australian National University |access-date9 February 2020}}</ref>
*1892 &ndash; Eugene Houdry, French-American mechanical engineer and inventor (d. 1962)
*1897 &ndash; Ardito Desio, Italian geologist and cartographer (d. 2001)
*1898 &ndash; Patrick Hennessy, Irish soldier and businessman (d. 1981)
*1900 &ndash; Bertha Isaacs, Bahamian teacher, tennis player, politician and women's rights activist (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite web|ref{{harvid|Womens Suffrage Bahamas|2012}}|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|titleAlbertha Isaacs|urlhttp://www.womensuffragebahamas.com/history/suffrage-women/albertha-isaacs/|websiteWomens Suffrage Bahamas|access-date3 February 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160515194411/http://www.womensuffragebahamas.com/history/suffrage-women/albertha-isaacs/|archive-date15 May 2016|locationNassau, The Bahamas|date2012|url-statusdead}}</ref>1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Al Lewis, American songwriter (d. 1967)
* 1901 &ndash; László Németh, Hungarian dentist, author, and playwright (d. 1975)
*1902 &ndash; Waldemar Hammenhög, Swedish author (d. 1972)
* 1902 &ndash; Giuseppe Pella, Italian politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1981)
*1904 &ndash; Pigmeat Markham, African-American comedian, singer, and dancer (d. 1981)
*1905 &ndash; Sydney Halter, Canadian lawyer and businessman (d. 1990)
* 1905 &ndash; George H. Hitchings, American physician and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
*1907 &ndash; Miklós Rózsa, Hungarian-American composer and conductor (d. 1995)
*1911 &ndash; Maurice Goldhaber, Ukrainian-American physicist and academic (d. 2011)
*1914 &ndash; Claire Martin, Canadian author (d. 2014)
*1915 &ndash; Joy Davidman, Polish-Ukrainian American poet and author (d. 1960)
*1916 &ndash; Carl Burgos, American illustrator (d. 1984)
*1918 &ndash; Gabriel Axel, Danish-French actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)
* 1918 &ndash; André Bazin, French critic and theorist (d. 1958)
* 1918 &ndash; Shinobu Hashimoto, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018)
* 1918 &ndash; Clifton Hillegass, American publisher, founded CliffsNotes (d. 2001)
* 1918 &ndash; Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (d. 2004)
*1919 &ndash; Virginia O'Brien, American actress and singer (d. 2001)
* 1919 &ndash; Esther Afua Ocloo, Ghanaian entrepreneur and pioneer of microlending (d. 2002)
*1920 &ndash; John F. Wiley, American football player and coach (d. 2013)
*1921 &ndash; Jean Richard, French actor and singer (d. 2001)
*1922 &ndash; Barbara Hale, American actress (d. 2017)
*1924 &ndash; Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)
*1925 &ndash; Marcus Schmuck, Austrian mountaineer and author (d. 2005)
*1926 &ndash; Doug Insole, English cricketer (d. 2017)
*1927 &ndash; Samuel P. Huntington, American political scientist, author, and academic (d. 2008)
* 1927 &ndash; Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Polish journalist and politician, Prime Minister of Poland (d. 2013)
*1928 &ndash; Karl Josef Becker, German cardinal and theologian (d. 2015)
* 1928 &ndash; Otto Piene, German sculptor and academic (d. 2014)
*1929 &ndash; Peter Hordern, English soldier and politician (d. 2024)
*1930 &ndash; Clive Revill, New Zealand actor and singer (d. 2025)
*1931 &ndash; Bill Miles, American director and producer (d. 2013)
*1934 &ndash; James Drury, American actor (d. 2020)
* 1934 &ndash; George Shirley, African-American tenor and educator
*1935 &ndash; Costas Ferris, Egyptian-Greek actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1936 &ndash; Roger Graef, American-English criminologist, director, and producer (d. 2022)
* 1936 &ndash; Vladimir Hütt, Estonian physicist and philosopher (d. 1997)
*1937 &ndash; Keiko Abe, Japanese marimba player and composer<ref>{{cite book |titleAbe, Keiko |urlhttps://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000044618 |websiteGrove Music Online |year2001 |doi10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.44618 |isbn978-1-56159-263-0 |access-date4 February 2022 |languageen |last1Edwards |first1J. Michele }}</ref>
* 1937 &ndash; Jan Kaplický, Czech architect, designed the Selfridges Building (d. 2009)
*1939 &ndash; Glen Hardin, American pianist and arranger
* 1939 &ndash; Thomas J. Moyer, American lawyer and judge (d. 2010)
*1940 &ndash; Joseph L. Goldstein, American biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1940 &ndash; Mike Vickers, English guitarist, saxophonist, and songwriter
*1941 &ndash; Michael D. Higgins, Irish sociologist and politician, 9th President of Ireland<ref>{{cite web |titleThe President Michael D Higgins |urlhttps://president.ie/en/the-president/michael-d-higgins |websiteOffice of the President of Ireland |publisherÁras an Uachtaráin |access-date22 July 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Michael Beloff, English lawyer and academic
* 1942 &ndash; Robert Christgau, American journalist and critic
* 1942 &ndash; Jochen Rindt, German-Austrian racing driver (d. 1970)
*1944 &ndash; Kathy Acker, American author and poet (d. 1997)
* 1944 &ndash; Philip Jackson, Scottish sculptor and photographer
*1945 &ndash; Bernard Arcand, Canadian anthropologist and author (d. 2009)
*1946 &ndash; Hayley Mills, English actress<ref name"bell">{{cite book |last1Bell |first1Mary Hayley |titleWhat Shall We Do Tomorrow? |date1968 |publisherCassell & Co. LTD. |pages=180–182}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Moses Blah, Liberian general and politician, 23rd President of Liberia (d. 2013)
* 1947 &ndash; Jerzy Stuhr, Polish actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1947 &ndash; James Woods, American actor and producer
*1948 &ndash; Régis Wargnier, French director, producer, and screenwriter
*1950 &ndash; Grigory Sokolov, Russian pianist and composer
*1953 &ndash; Rick Moranis, Canadian-American actor, comedian, singer and screenwriter
*1954 &ndash; Robert Greenberg, American pianist and composer
*1956 &ndash; Eric Roberts, American actor<ref name":0">{{Cite web|titleCelebrity birthdays for the week of April 18–24|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory/celebrity-birthdays-week-april-18-24-77018325|access-date2021-06-03|websiteABC News|languageen}}</ref>
*1958 &ndash; Gabi Delgado-López, Spanish-German singer, co-founder of D.A.F. (d. 2020)
* 1958 &ndash; Malcolm Marshall, Barbadian cricketer and coach (d. 1999)
*1959 &ndash; Susan Faludi, American journalist, author and feminist<ref>{{cite web |titleSusan Faludi |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/explore/100women/profiles/susan-faludi |websiteBritannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers |access-date26 July 2021 |languageen |date25 March 2020}}</ref>
* 1960 &ndash; Yelena Zhupiyeva-Vyazova, Ukrainian runner
*1961 &ndash; Jane Leeves, English actress and dancer
* 1961 &ndash; John Podhoretz, American journalist and author
*1962 &ndash; Jeff Dunham, American ventriloquist and comedian<ref>{{cite web |titleBefore he was a Comedy Central & Netflix star, Jeff Dunham was a Baylor Bear |urlhttps://www2.baylor.edu/baylorproud/2022/04/before-he-was-a-comedy-central-netflix-star-jeff-dunham-was-a-baylor-bear/ |publisherBaylor University |access-date6 April 2023 |date=15 April 2022}}</ref>
*1963 &ndash; Eric McCormack, Canadian-American actor<ref name=":0" />
* 1963 &ndash; Conan O'Brien, American television host, comedian, and podcaster<ref name":1">{{Cite web|lastRose|firstMike|dateApril 18, 2021|titleToday's famous birthdays list for April 18, 2021 includes celebrities David Tennant, America Ferrera|urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2021/04/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-april-18-2021-includes-celebrities-david-tennant-america-ferrera.html|url-statuslive|access-dateJune 3, 2021|websiteCleveland|languageen|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210418110101/https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2021/04/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-april-18-2021-includes-celebrities-david-tennant-america-ferrera.html |archive-date2021-04-18 }}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; Niall Ferguson, Scottish historian and academic
*1967 &ndash; Maria Bello, American actress<ref>{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for April 18: Britt Robertson, Maria Bello |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2020/04/18/Famous-birthdays-for-April-18-Britt-Robertson-Maria-Bello/8781586912884/ |publisherUPI |access-date6 April 2023 |date=18 April 2020}}</ref>
*1969 &ndash; Keith DeCandido, American author
*1970 &ndash; Saad Hariri, Saudi Arabian-Lebanese businessman and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of Lebanon
* 1970 &ndash; Willie Roaf, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleWillie Roaf |urlhttps://www.profootballhof.com/players/willie-roaf/ |publisherPro Football Hall of Fame |access-date6 April 2023}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; David Tennant, Scottish actor
*1972 &ndash; Rosa Clemente, American journalist and activist
* 1972 &ndash; Eli Roth, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1973 &ndash; Derrick Brooks, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleDerrick Brooks |urlhttps://www.profootballhof.com/players/derrick-brooks/ |publisherPro Football Hall of Fame |access-date6 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1973 &ndash; Haile Gebrselassie, Ethiopian runner
*1974 &ndash; Edgar Wright, English filmmaker<ref>{{cite web |titleSimon Pegg Celebrates Edgar Wright's Birthday In Today's Twitter-Wood |urlhttps://www.mtv.com/news/e3dyvx/simon-pegg-celebrates-edgar-wrights-birthday-in-todays-twitter-wood |publisherMTV |access-date6 April 2023 |date18 April 2012}}{{dead link|dateJune 2024|botmedic}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref>
*1976 &ndash; Melissa Joan Hart, American actress<ref>{{cite web |last1Ryan |first1Lidia |titleMelissa Joan Hart through the years |urlhttps://www.ctpost.com/entertainment/slideshow/Melissa-Joan-Hart-through-the-years-128185.php |publisherConnecticut Post |access-date6 April 2023 |date15 April 2016 |archive-date6 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230406215501/https://www.ctpost.com/entertainment/slideshow/Melissa-Joan-Hart-through-the-years-128185.php |url-statusdead }}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Kourtney Kardashian, American television personality<ref>{{cite web |last1Rice |first1Nicholas |titleKourtney Kardashian Celebrates 43rd Birthday with Blended Family Trip to Disneyland: 'Grateful' |urlhttps://people.com/parents/kourtney-kardashian-celebrates-43rd-birthday-with-blended-family-disneyland-trip/ |publisherPeople |access-date6 April 2023 |date=21 April 2022}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Audrey Tang, Taiwanese Minister of Digital Affairs and programmer
*1983 &ndash; Miguel Cabrera, Venezuelan baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleMiguel Cabrera |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/miguel-cabrera-408234 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date6 April 2023}}</ref>
*1984 &ndash; America Ferrera, American actress<ref>{{cite web |last1Avila |first1Pamela |titleAmerica Ferrera Is Overwhelmed With Love After Husband Throws Her Surprise Zoom Party For Her B-Day |urlhttps://www.eonline.com/news/1142522/america-ferrera-is-overwhelmed-with-love-after-husband-throws-her-surprise-zoom-party-for-her-b-day |publisherE! |access-date6 April 2023 |date=19 April 2020}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Łukasz Fabiański, Polish footballer<ref>{{cite news |titleLukasz Fabianski: Overview |urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/3309/Lukasz-Fabianski/overview |publisherPremier League |accessdate26 March 2020}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Tina Bru, Norwegian politician<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleTina Bru |firstVibeke |lastLauritsen |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date11 January 2024 |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Tina_Bru |languageno|access-date17 March 2024}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Vanessa Kirby, English actress<ref>{{cite web |last1Wally |first1Maxine |titleHow Vanessa Kirby Became Red Carpet Fashion Royalty |urlhttps://www.wmagazine.com/fashion/vanessa-kirby-red-carpet-fashion |publisherW |access-date6 April 2023 |date=16 April 2021}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Jessica Jung, South Korean-American singer, songwriter, actress, author, fashion designer and businesswoman<ref>{{Cite web |titleJessica Sooyoun Jung, Born 04/18/1989 in California {{!}} CaliforniaBirthIndex.org |urlhttps://www.californiabirthindex.org/birth/jessica_sooyoun_jung_born_1989_19263553 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180828042457/https://www.californiabirthindex.org/birth/jessica_sooyoun_jung_born_1989_19263553 |archive-date2018-08-28 |access-date2022-12-31 |website=California Birth Index}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Alia Shawkat, American actress<ref>{{cite web |last1Armecin |first1Catherine |titleAlia Shawkat Spent Birthday With Brad Pitt? Actress Spotted Biking Away From Gated Community |urlhttps://www.ibtimes.com/alia-shawkat-spent-birthday-brad-pitt-actress-spotted-biking-away-gated-community-2961225 |workInternational Business Times |access-date6 April 2023 |date=19 April 2020}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Wojciech Szczęsny, Polish footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleWojciech Szczęsny: Overview |urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/3543/Wojciech-Szczesny/overview |publisherPremier League |access-date25 February 2020}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Chloe Bennet, American actress<ref>{{cite web |last1Jayson |first1Jay |titleHappy Birthday! Chloe Bennet Turns 24 Today |urlhttps://comicbook.com/marvel/news/happy-birthday-chloe-bennet-turns-24-today/ |publisherComicBook.com |access-date6 April 2023 |date=18 April 2016}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Mika Zibanejad, Swedish ice hockey player<ref>{{Cite web |titleMika Zibanejad |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/rangers/player/mika-zibanejad-8476459 |access-date11 April 2024 |publisherNational Hockey League}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Aminé, American singer-songwriter<ref>{{cite web |titleAminé |urlhttps://music.apple.com/md/artist/amin%C3%A9/1097595072 |websiteApple Music |access-dateApril 18, 2024}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Divock Origi, Belgian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleDivock Origi |urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/10465/Divock-Origi/overview |publisherPremier League |access-date25 October 2023}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Ski Mask the Slump God, American rapper<ref>{{cite web |titleSKI MASK THE SLUMP GOD |urlhttps://thevogue.com/artists/ski-mask-the-slump-god/ |websitethevogue.com |access-dateApril 18, 2024 |archive-dateApril 18, 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240418175124/https://thevogue.com/artists/ski-mask-the-slump-god/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; PinkPantheress, English singer, songwriter, and record producer<ref>{{Cite web |titlePinkPantheress |urlhttps://genius.com/artists/Pinkpantheress |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240410041051/https://genius.com/artists/Pinkpantheress |archive-date10 April 2024 |access-date11 April 2024 |website=Genius}}</ref>
<!--Do not add your own name or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*727 &ndash; Agallianos Kontoskeles, Byzantine commander and rebel leader
* 850 &ndash; Perfectus, Spanish monk and martyr<ref>{{cite book|authorArchibald Ross Lewis|titleThe Islamic world and the West, A.D. 622-1492|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJ69mAAAAMAAJ|year1970|publisherWiley|isbn978-0-471-53200-2|page13}}</ref>
* 909 &ndash; Dionysius II, Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch
* 943 &ndash; Fujiwara no Atsutada, Japanese nobleman and poet (b. 906)
* 963 &ndash; Stephen Lekapenos, co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire<ref>{{cite book|lastRunciman|firstSteven|author-linkSteven Runciman|titleThe Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign: A Study of Tenth-Century Byzantium|locationCambridge, United Kingdom|publisherCambridge University Press|year1988|orig-year1929|isbn0-521-35722-5|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXHVzWN6gqxQC|page236}}</ref>
*1161 &ndash; Theobald of Bec, French-English archbishop (b. 1090)
*1176 &ndash; Galdino della Sala, Italian archdeacon and saint
*1430 &ndash; John III, Count of Nassau-Siegen, German count<ref>{{cite book |lastDek |firstA.W.E. |date1970 |titleGenealogie van het Vorstenhuis Nassau |languagenl |locationZaltbommel |publisherEuropese Bibliotheek |page214 }}</ref>
*1552 &ndash; John Leland, English poet and historian (b. 1502)<ref>{{cite book|author1John Leland|author2John Chandler|titleJohn Leland's Itinerary: Travels in Tudor England|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idykEXAQAAMAAJ|year1993|publisherSutton Pub.|isbn978-0-7509-1751-3|page=xvi}}</ref>
*1555 &ndash; Polydore Vergil, English historian (b. 1470)<ref>{{cite book|authorDenys Hay|titlePolydore Vergil: Renaissance Historian and Man of Letters|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-HliAAAAMAAJ|year1952|publisherAt the Clarendon Press}}</ref>
*1556 &ndash; Luigi Alamanni, Italian poet and politician (b. 1495)
*1567 &ndash; Wilhelm von Grumbach, German adventurer (b. 1503)
*1587 &ndash; John Foxe, English historian and author (b. 1516)<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitleFoxe, John|volume10|pages770–771}}</ref>1601–1900
*1636 &ndash; Julius Caesar, English judge and politician (b. 1557)
*1650 &ndash; Simonds d'Ewes, English lawyer and politician (b. 1602)
*1674 &ndash; John Graunt, English demographer and statistician (b. 1620)
*1689 &ndash; George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, Welsh judge and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1648)
*1732 &ndash; Louis Feuillée, French astronomer, geographer, and botanist (b. 1660)
*1742 &ndash; Arvid Horn, Swedish general and politician (b. 1664)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|lastGrauers |firstSven |encyclopedia Svenskt biografiskt lexikon|date1920|publisher National Archives of Sweden|locationStockholm |languagesv|volume19 |page378 |urlhttps://sok.riksarkivet.se/sbl/Presentation.aspx?id13807 |titleArvid Bernhard Horn |access-date= May 1, 2018}}</ref>
*1763 &ndash; Marie-Josephte Corriveau, Canadian murderer (b. 1733)
*1794 &ndash; Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, English lawyer, judge, and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1714)
*1796 &ndash; Johan Wilcke, Swedish physicist and academic (b. 1732)
*1802 &ndash; Erasmus Darwin, English physician and botanist (b. 1731)
*1832 &ndash; Jeanne-Elisabeth Chaudet, French painter (b. 1761)
*1859 &ndash; Tatya Tope, Indian general (b. 1814)
*1864 &ndash; Juris Alunāns, Latvian philologist and linguist (b. 1832)
*1873 &ndash; Justus von Liebig, German chemist and academic (b. 1803)
*1890 &ndash; Paweł Bryliński, Polish sculptor (b. 1814)<ref>{{cite web |titleBrylinski Pawel |urlhttps://www.astro.com/astro-databank/Brylinski,_Pawel |websiteAstro-Databank |date27 June 2016 |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>
*1898 &ndash; Gustave Moreau, French painter and academic (b. 1826)
1901–present
*1906 &ndash; Luis Martín, Spanish religious leader, 24th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus (b. 1846)
*1912 &ndash; Martha Ripley, American physician (b. 1843)<ref>{{cite book |last1Ogilvie |first1Marilyn Bailey |last2Harvey |first2Joy Dorothy |author-linkMarilyn Bailey Ogilvie |author-link2Joy Harvey|titleThe Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: L-Z |date2000 |publisherTaylor & Francis |isbn978-0-415-92040-7 |page1102 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLTSYePZvSXYC&pgPA1102 |language=en}}</ref>
*1917 &ndash; Vladimir Serbsky, Russian psychiatrist and academic (b. 1858)
*1923 &ndash; Savina Petrilli, Italian religious leader (b. 1851)<ref>{{cite web |titleBl. Savina Petrilli |urlhttps://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id5757 |websiteCatholic Online |access-date29 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleSavina Petrilli, Beata |urlhttp://es.catholic.net/op/articulos/35985/savina-petrilli-beata.html |websiteCatholic.net |publisherCatholic.net Inc |access-date29 October 2018 |languagees}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1Catholic News Service |titleBlessed Savina Petrilli |urlhttp://stcloudvisitor.org/blessed-savina-petrilli/ |websiteThe Visitor |access-date29 October 2018 |languageen |date18 April 2017 }}{{Dead link|dateJune 2020 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; Milton Brown, American singer and bandleader (b. 1903)
* 1936 &ndash; Ottorino Respighi, Italian composer and conductor (b. 1879)
*1938 &ndash; George Bryant, American archer (b. 1878)
*1942 &ndash; Aleksander Mitt, Estonian speed skater (b. 1903)
* 1942 &ndash; Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, American heiress, sculptor and art collector, founded the Whitney Museum of American Art (b. 1875)
*1943 &ndash; Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese admiral (b. 1884)
*1945 &ndash; John Ambrose Fleming, English physicist and engineer, invented the vacuum tube (b. 1849)
* 1945 &ndash; Ernie Pyle, American journalist and soldier (b. 1900)
*1947 &ndash; Jozef Tiso, Slovak priest and politician, President of Slovakia (b. 1887)
*1951 &ndash; Óscar Carmona, Portuguese field marshal and politician, 11th President of Portugal (b. 1869)
*1955 &ndash; Albert Einstein, German-American physicist, engineer, and academic (b. 1879)
*1958 &ndash; Maurice Gamelin, Belgian-French general (b. 1872)
*1963 &ndash; Meyer Jacobstein, American academic and politician (b. 1880)
*1964 &ndash; Ben Hecht, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1894)
*1965 &ndash; Guillermo González Camarena, Mexican engineer (b. 1917)
*1974 &ndash; Marcel Pagnol, French author, playwright, and director (b. 1895)
*1988 &ndash; Oktay Rıfat Horozcu, Turkish poet and playwright (b. 1914)
*1995 &ndash; Arturo Frondizi, Argentinian lawyer and politician, 32nd President of Argentina (b. 1908)
*2002 &ndash; Thor Heyerdahl, Norwegian ethnographer and explorer (b. 1914)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Thor-Heyerdahl |titleThor Heyerdahl |publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica |locationEdinburgh |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Kamisese Mara, Fijian politician, 2nd President of Fiji (b. 1920)
*2008 &ndash; Germaine Tillion, French ethnologist and anthropologist (b. 1907)
*2012 &ndash; Dick Clark, American television host and producer, founded Dick Clark Productions (b. 1929)
* 2012 &ndash; René Lépine, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1929)
* 2012 &ndash; Robert O. Ragland, American musician (b. 1931)<ref>{{Cite web|lastBarnes|firstMike|date2012-04-23|titleRobert O. Ragland, Prolific Film Composer, Dies at 80|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/robert-o-ragland-film-composer-315022/|url-statuslive|access-date2021-07-24|websiteThe Hollywood Reporter|languageen-US|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210716153332/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/robert-o-ragland-film-composer-315022/ |archive-date=2021-07-16 }}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; K. D. Wentworth, American author (b. 1951)
*2013 &ndash; Goran Švob, Croatian philosopher and author (b. 1947)
* 2013 &ndash; Anne Williams, English activist (b. 1951)
*2014 &ndash; Guru Dhanapal, Indian director and producer (b. 1959)
* 2014 &ndash; Sanford Jay Frank, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1954)
* 2014 &ndash; Brian Priestman, English conductor and academic (b. 1927)
*2019 &ndash; Lyra McKee, Irish journalist (b. 1990)<ref>{{cite web |titleObituary: Lyra McKee, journalist who wrote about the troubles in her native Northern Ireland |urlhttps://www.heraldscotland.com/opinion/17588275.obituary-lyra-mckee-journalist-wrote-troubles-native-northern-ireland/ |websiteHeraldScotland |date21 April 2019 |access-date24 October 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Harrison Birtwistle, British composer (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/apr/18/sir-harrison-birtwistle-obituary|titleSir Harrison Birtwistle obituary|workThe Guardian|date18 April 2022 |access-date=18 April 2022}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Crandell Addington, American Hall of Fame poker player. (death announced on this date) (b. 1938)<ref>{{Cite web |lastConneller |firstPhilip |date2024-04-19 |titlePoker Legend Crandell Addington Dies, Age 85 |urlhttps://www.casino.org/news/poker-legend-crandell-addington-dies-age-85/ |access-date2024-04-19 |websiteCasino.org |languageen-US}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Dickey Betts, American guitarist, singer, songwriter and composer (b. 1943)<ref>{{Cite news |lastVeltman |firstChloe |dateApril 18, 2024 |titleDickey Betts, founding member of the Allman Brothers Band, dies at 80 |urlhttps://www.npr.org/2024/04/18/1245591933/dickey-betts-dead-the-allman-brothers-band-ramblin-man |access-dateApril 18, 2024 |work=NPR}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Mandisa, American gospel singer (b. 1976)<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-04-19 |titleMandisa, 'American Idol' singer and Grammy winner, dies at 47 |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/pop-culture-news/mandisa-american-idol-singer-grammy-winner-dies-47-rcna148561 |access-date2024-04-19 |websiteNBC News |languageen}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
**Apollonius the Apologist
**Corebus
**Cyril VI of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church)
**Eleutherius and Antia
**Galdino della Sala
**Molaise of Leighlin
**Perfectus
**April 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Army Day (Iran)
*Coma Patients' Day (Poland)
*Friend's Day (Brazil)
*Independence Day (Zimbabwe)
*International Day For Monuments and Sites
*Invention Day (Japan)
*Victory over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of the Ice (Russia; Julian Calendar)
*World Amateur Radio Day<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.iaru.org/on-the-air/world-amateur-radio-day/|titleWorld Amateur Radio Day|websiteiaru.org}}</ref>References{{Reflist}}External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day18}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/18 Historical Events on April 18]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_18
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.168537
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1827
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April 23
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{{This date in recent years}}
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Events
Pre-1600
*215 BC &ndash; A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at Lake Trasimene.
*599 &ndash; Maya king Uneh Chan of Calakmul attacks rival city-state Palenque in southern Mexico, defeating queen Yohl Ik'nal and sacking the city.
*711 &ndash; Dagobert III succeeds his father King Childebert III as King of the Franks.
*1014 &ndash; Battle of Clontarf: High King of Ireland Brian Boru defeats Viking invaders, but is killed in battle.
*1016 &ndash; Edmund Ironside succeeds his father Æthelred the Unready as King of England.<ref>{{cite web |titleEdmund II {{!}} king of England |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Edmund-II |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date23 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1343 &ndash; St. George's Night Uprising commences in the Duchy of Estonia.
*1348 &ndash; The founding of the Order of the Garter by King Edward III is announced on St. George's Day.
*1500 &ndash; Portuguese explorer Pedro Alvarez Cabral reaches new coastline (Brazil).<ref>{{cite book|firstClifton|lastDaniel|titleChronicle of America|publisherChronicle publication|year1989|page20|isbn=0-13-133745-9}}</ref>
*1516 &ndash; The Munich Reinheitsgebot (regarding the ingredients of beer) takes effect in all of Bavaria.
*1521 &ndash; Battle of Villalar: King Charles I of Spain defeats the Comuneros.
1601–1900
*1635 &ndash; The first public school in the United States, the Boston Latin School, is founded.
*1655 &ndash; The Siege of Santo Domingo begins during the Anglo-Spanish War, and fails seven days later.
*1660 &ndash; Treaty of Oliva is established between Sweden and Poland.
*1661 &ndash; King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland is crowned in Westminster Abbey.<ref>{{Cite web |lastPepys |firstSamuel |author-linkSamuel Pepys |titlePepys Diary 1661 Charles II Coronation |urlhttp://www.pepys.info/coronation.html |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200727154448/http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html |archive-dateJuly 27, 2020 |website=Samuel Pepys}}</ref>
*1724 &ndash; Johann Sebastian Bach leads the first performance of his cantata Du Hirte Israel, höre, BWV 104, illustrating the topic of the Good Shepherd in pastoral music.<ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Dürr
| first1 = Alfred
| author1-link = Alfred Dürr
| last2 = Jones
| first2 = Richard D. P.
| author2-link = Richard D. P. Jones
| chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idm9JuwslMcq4C&pg=PA298
| chapter = 1.25 Second Sunday after Easter (Misericordias Domini)
| title = The Cantatas of J. S. Bach: With Their Librettos in German-English Parallel Text
| location = Oxford
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| date = 2006
| pages = 298–299
| isbn = 978-0-19-969628-4
}}</ref>
*1815 &ndash; The Second Serbian Uprising: A second phase of the national revolution of the Serbs against the Ottoman Empire, erupts shortly after the annexation of the country to the Ottoman Empire.
*1879 &ndash; Fire burns down the second main building and dome of the University of Notre Dame, which prompts the construction of the third, and current, Main Building with its golden dome.
*1891 &ndash; Chilean Civil War: The ironclad Blanco Encalada is sunk at Caldera Bay by torpedo boats.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.armada.cl/prontus_armada/site/artic/20090716/pags/20090716194359.html |titleBlanco Encalada, fragata blindada (1º). |publisherArmada de Chile |access-date2009-10-27 |languagees |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091203093344/http://www.armada.cl/prontus_armada/site/artic/20090716/pags/20090716194359.html |archive-date3 December 2009 |dfdmy-all }}</ref><ref>Stem, Robert. Destroyer Battles: Epics of Naval Close Combat, p.22. Seaforth Publishing, 2008. {{ISBN|1473813565}}. ([https://books.google.com/books?idlv_RAwAAQBAJ&dqAlmirante+Lynch&pgPA22 online])</ref>
1901–present
* 1909 &ndash; In Portugal, a magnitude 6.0 earthquake strikes near Lisbon, killing at least 60 people and injuring 75.<ref name"NGDC">{{citation|titleSignificant Earthquake Database|urlhttps://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/2864|authorNational Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS)|publisherNational Geophysical Data Center, NOAA|doi10.7289/V5TD9V7K|year 1972|type Data Set}}</ref>
*1918 &ndash; World War I: The British Royal Navy makes a raid in an attempt to neutralise the Belgian port of Bruges-Zeebrugge.
*1919 &ndash; The Estonian Constituent Assembly is held in Estonia, which marks the birth of the Estonian Parliament, the Riigikogu.<ref>[https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/history-riigikogu/constituent-assembly/ Constituent Assembly – Riigikogu]</ref>
*1920 &ndash; The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM) is founded in Ankara. The assembly denounces the government of Sultan Mehmed VI and announces the preparation of a temporary constitution.
*1927 &ndash; Cardiff City defeat Arsenal in the FA Cup Final, the only time it has been won by a team not based in England.
*1935 &ndash; The Polish Constitution of 1935 is adopted.
*1940 &ndash; The Rhythm Club fire at a dance hall in Natchez, Mississippi, kills 198 people.
*1941 &ndash; World War II: The Greek government and King George II evacuate Athens before the invading Wehrmacht.
*1942 &ndash; World War II: Baedeker Blitz: German bombers hit Exeter, Bath and York in retaliation for the British raid on Lübeck.
*1945 &ndash; World War II: Adolf Hitler's designated successor, Hermann Göring, sends him a telegram asking permission to take leadership of Nazi Germany. Martin Bormann and Joseph Goebbels advise Göring that the telegram is treasonous.
*1946 &ndash; Manuel Roxas is elected the last President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines.
*1949 &ndash; Chinese Civil War: Establishment of the People's Liberation Army Navy.
*1951 &ndash; Cold War: American journalist William N. Oatis is arrested for espionage by the Communist government of Czechoslovakia.
*1961 &ndash; Algiers putsch by French generals.
*1966 &ndash; Aeroflot Flight 2723 crashes into the Caspian Sea off the Absheron Peninsula, killing 33 people.<ref>{{cite web |titleКатастрофа Ил-14 Азербайджанского УГА над Каспийским морем южнее Баку |trans-titleAccident Il-14 Caspian Sea south of Baku |urlhttp://airdisaster.ru/database.php?id687 |websiteairdisaster.ru |languageru}}</ref>
*1967 &ndash; Soviet space program: Soyuz 1 (Russian: Союз 1, Union 1) a crewed spaceflight carrying cosmonaut Colonel Vladimir Komarov is launched into orbit.
*1968 &ndash; Vietnam War: Student protesters at Columbia University in New York City take over administration buildings and shut down the university.
*1971 &ndash; Bangladesh Liberation War: The Pakistan Army and Razakars massacre approximately 3,000 Hindu emigrants in the Jathibhanga area of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
*1979 &ndash; SAETA Flight 011 crashes in Pastaza Province, Ecuador, killing all 57 people on board. The wreckage was not discovered until 1984.<ref name"TSM">{{cite web |titleAccident Vickers 785D Viscount HC-AVP |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19790423-1 |access-date5 November 2022 |websiteAviation Safety Network |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221105101700/https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19790423-1 |archive-date 5 November 2022 }}</ref>
* 1979 – Blair Peach, a British activist, was fatally injured after being knocked unconscious during an Anti-Nazi League demonstration against a National Front election meeting in Southall, London.<ref>{{Cite news |lastChaudhary |firstVivek |date2019-04-21 |titleForty years on, Southall demands justice for killing of Blair Peach |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/apr/21/southall-demands-justice-killing-of-blair-peach-1979 |access-date2024-04-23 |workThe Observer |languageen-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Coca-Cola changes its formula and releases New Coke. The response is overwhelmingly negative, and the original formula is back on the market in less than three months.
*1990 &ndash; Namibia becomes the 160th member of the United Nations and the 50th member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
*1993 &ndash; Eritreans vote overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a United Nations-monitored referendum.
* 1993 &ndash; Sri Lankan politician Lalith Athulathmudali is assassinated while addressing a gathering, approximately four weeks ahead of the Provincial Council elections for the Western Province.
*1999 &ndash; NATO bombs the headquarters of Radio Television of Serbia, as part of their aerial campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
*2005 &ndash; The first YouTube video, titled "Me at the zoo", was published by co-founder Jawed Karim.<ref>{{Cite magazine|urlhttps://time.com/3833222/first-youtube-video/|titleThis Is the First Ever YouTube Video|magazineTime|access-date2017-04-22}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; At least 111 people are killed and 233 injured as violence breaks out in Hawija, Iraq.<ref>{{Cite web |lastGriffis |firstMargaret |date2013-04-24 |titleProtest Clashes and Random Attacks Leave 111 Killed, 233 Wounded Across Iraq |urlhttps://original.antiwar.com/updates/2013/04/23/protest-clashes-and-random-attacks-leave-111-killed-233-wounded-across-iraq/ |access-date2024-04-23 |websiteAntiwar.com |languageen-US}}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; A vehicle-ramming attack kills 11 people and injures 15 in Toronto. A 25-year-old suspect, Alek Minassian, is arrested.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-43875321|titleToronto van attack: Suspect quizzed after 10 pedestrians killed|date24 April 2018|websiteBBC|access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; The April 2019 Hpakant jade mine collapse in Myanmar kills four miners and two rescuers, with at least 50 others missing and presumed dead.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/myanmar-jade-mine-accident-mudslide-miners-buried-kachin-state/|title54 miners missing and feared dead after mudslide at Myanmar jade mine|date2019-04-23|websiteCBS News|access-date=2019-04-24}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; The 2024 Lumut mid-air collision in Malaysia kills 10 people while rehearsing for the 90th anniversary of the Royal Malaysian Navy.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2024/04/23/two-copters-crash-during-training-in-lumut|titleTwo copters crash during training in Lumut|date23 April 2024|websiteThe Star|access-date24 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/04/23/10-confirmed-dead-in-helicopter-crash/|title10 confirmed dead in Lumut helicopter crash|date23 April 2024|websiteFree Malaysia Today|access-date24 April 2024}}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
*1141 (probable)<ref>{{cite book|author1Scotland. Sovereigns, etc|author2Scotland|titleRegesta Regum Scottorum, 1153-1424: The acts of Malcolm IV, King of Scots|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAEqJAAAAMAAJ|year1960|publisherUniversity Press|page3|isbn=9780852243954}}</ref> &ndash; Malcolm IV of Scotland (d. 1165)
*1185 &ndash; Afonso II of Portugal (d. 1223)<ref>{{cite book|authorGeorge Long|titleThe Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge--|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSmEoAAAAYAAJ&pgPA73|year1843|publisherLongman, Brown, Green, and Longmans|pages73}}</ref>
*1408 &ndash; John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford (d. 1462)<ref>{{cite book|titleThe Register of Americans of Prominent Descent|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQjRnAAAAMAAJ|year1982|publisherMorten Publishing Company|page69}}</ref>
*1420 &ndash; George of Poděbrady, King of Bohemia (d. 1471)
*1464 &ndash; Joan of France, Duchess of Berry (d. 1505)
* 1464 &ndash; Robert Fayrfax, English Renaissance composer (d. 1521)
*1484 &ndash; Julius Caesar Scaliger, Italian physician and scholar (d. 1558)
*1500 &ndash; Alexander Ales, Scottish theologian and academic (d. 1565)
* 1500 &ndash; Johann Stumpf, Swiss writer (d. 1576)
*1512 &ndash; Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel, Chancellor of the University of Oxford (d. 1580)
*1516 &ndash; Georg Fabricius, German poet, historian, and archaeologist (d. 1571)
*1564 &ndash; William Shakespeare, English playwright and poet (d. 1616)<ref>{{cite web |titleFolger Shakespeare Library|urlhttps://www.folger.edu/explore/shakespeares-life/ |websiteFolger_Shakespeare_Library |access-date15 April 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
*1598 &ndash; Maarten Tromp, Dutch admiral (d. 1653)
1601–1900
*1621 &ndash; William Penn, English admiral and politician (d. 1670)
*1628 &ndash; Johannes Hudde, Dutch mathematician and politician (d. 1704)
*1661 &ndash; Issachar Berend Lehmann, German-Jewish banker, merchant and diplomat (d. 1730)
*1715 &ndash; Johann Friedrich Doles, German composer and conductor (d. 1797)
*1720 &ndash; Vilna Gaon, Lithuanian rabbi and author (d. 1797)
*1744 &ndash; Princess Charlotte Amalie Wilhelmine of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Plön (d. 1770)
*1748 &ndash; Félix Vicq-d'Azyr, French physician and anatomist (d. 1794)
*1791 &ndash; James Buchanan, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 15th President of the United States (d. 1868)
*1792 &ndash; Thomas Romney Robinson, Irish astronomer and physicist (d. 1882)
*1794 &ndash; Wei Yuan, Chinese scholar and author (d. 1856)
*1805 &ndash; Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz, German philosopher and academic (d. 1879)
*1812 &ndash; Frederick Whitaker, English-New Zealand lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1891)
*1813 &ndash; Stephen A. Douglas, American educator and politician, 7th Illinois Secretary of State (d. 1861)
* 1813 &ndash; Frédéric Ozanam, Italian-French historian and scholar (d. 1853)
*1818 &ndash; James Anthony Froude, English historian, novelist, biographer and editor (d. 1894)
*1819 &ndash; Edward Stafford, Scottish-New Zealand educator and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1901)
*1853 &ndash; Winthrop M. Crane, American businessman and politician, 40th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1920)
*1856 &ndash; Granville Woods, American inventor and engineer (d. 1910)
*1857 &ndash; Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer (d. 1919)
*1858 &ndash; Max Planck, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1947)
*1860 &ndash; Justinian Oxenham, Australian public servant (d. 1932)
*1861 &ndash; Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, English field marshal and diplomat, British High Commissioner in Egypt (d. 1936)
* 1861 &ndash; John Peltz, American baseball player and manager (d. 1906)
*1865 &ndash; Ali-Agha Shikhlinski, Russian-Azerbaijani general (d. 1943)
*1867 &ndash; Johannes Fibiger, Danish physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1928)
*1876 &ndash; Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, German historian and author (d. 1925)
*1880 &ndash; Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (d. 1942)
*1882 &ndash; Albert Coates, English composer and conductor (d. 1953)
*1888 &ndash; Georges Vanier, Canadian general and politician, 19th Governor General of Canada (d. 1967)
*1889 &ndash; Karel Doorman, Dutch admiral (d. 1942)
*1893 &ndash; Frank Borzage, American actor and director (d. 1952)
*1895 &ndash; Ngaio Marsh, New Zealand author and director (d. 1982)<ref>{{cite book|author1Mary S. Weinkauf|author2Mary Wickizer Burgess|titleMurder Most Poetic: The Mystery Novels of Ngaio Marsh|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3smq-moXoTQC&pgPA8|date1 January 1996|publisherWildside Press LLC|isbn978-0-89370-297-7|pages8}}</ref>
*1897 &ndash; Folke Jansson, Swedish athlete (d. 1965)
* 1897 &ndash; Lester B. Pearson, Canadian historian and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Canada, Nobel Peace Prize laureate (d. 1972)
*1898 &ndash; Lucius D. Clay, American general (d. 1978)
*1899 &ndash; Bertil Ohlin, Swedish economist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)
* 1899 &ndash; Minoru Shirota, Japanese physician and microbiologist, invented Yakult (d. 1982)
*1900 &ndash; Jim Bottomley, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1959)<ref>{{cite web |titleJim Bottomley |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/jim-bottomley/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date20 March 2021}}</ref>
* 1900 &ndash; Joseph Green, Polish-American actor and director (d. 1996)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; E. B. Ford, English biologist and geneticist (d. 1988)
*1902 &ndash; Halldór Laxness, Icelandic author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
*1903 &ndash; Guy Simonds, English-Canadian general (d. 1974)
*1904 &ndash; Clifford Bricker, Canadian long-distance runner (d. 1980)
* 1904 &ndash; Louis Muhlstock, Polish-Canadian painter (d. 2001)
* 1904 &ndash; Duncan Renaldo, American actor (d. 1985)
*1907 &ndash; Lee Miller, American model and photographer (d. 1977)
* 1907 &ndash; Fritz Wotruba, Austrian sculptor, designed the Wotruba Church (d. 1975)
*1908 &ndash; Myron Waldman, American animator and director (d. 2006)
*1910 &ndash; Sheila Scott Macintyre, Scottish mathematician (d. 1960)<ref>{{cite book | firstFlorence D. | lastFasanelli | chapterSheila Scott Macintyre | editor-last1Grinstein | editor-first1Louise S. | editor-last2Campbell | editor-first2Paul J. | titleWomen of Mathematics: a Biobibliographic Sourcebook | placeNew York | publisherGreenwood Press | year1987 | isbn978-0-3132-4849-8 | page[https://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/140 140] | chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/140 }}</ref>
* 1910 &ndash; Simone Simon, French actress (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite book|author1Anne Commire|author2Deborah Klezmer|titleWomen in World History: Schu-Sui|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjUAOAQAAMAAJ|year2002|publisherYorkin Publications|isbn978-0-7876-4073-6|page=352}}</ref>
*1911 &ndash; Ronald Neame, English-American director, cinematographer, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2010)
*1913 &ndash; Diosa Costello, Puerto Rican-American entertainer, producer, and club owner (d. 2013)
*1915 &ndash; Arnold Alexander Hall, English engineer, academic, and businessman (d. 2000)
*1916 &ndash; Ivo Lola Ribar, Yugoslav communist politician, military leader, and People's Hero of Yugoslavia (d. 1943)<ref>{{cite web |titleRibar Ivo Lola |urlhttps://graves.mf.uni-lj.si/graves/2564/ivo-lola-ribar |access-date=2 April 2024}}</ref>
*1916 &ndash; Yiannis Moralis, Greek painter and educator (d. 2009)
* 1916 &ndash; Sinah Estelle Kelley, American chemist (d. 1982)
*1917 &ndash; Dorian Leigh, American model (d. 2008)
* 1917 &ndash; Tony Lupien, American baseball player and coach (d. 2004)
*1918 &ndash; Maurice Druon, French author and screenwriter (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite book|titleNew Times|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idG_FVAAAAYAAJ|dateJanuary 1996|publisherNew Times Publishing House|pageliv}}</ref>
*1919 &ndash; Oleg Penkovsky, Russian colonel (d. 1963)
*1920 &ndash; Eric Grant Yarrow, 3rd Baronet, English businessman (d. 2018)
*1921 &ndash; Judy Agnew, Second Lady of the United States (d. 2012)<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/28/us/judy-agnew-wife-of-vice-president-dies-at-91.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120628182743/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/28/us/judy-agnew-wife-of-vice-president-dies-at-91.html |archive-date2012-06-28 |url-accesslimited|titleJudy Agnew, Wife of Vice President, Dies at 91|lastMartin|firstDouglas|date2012-06-27|workThe New York Times|access-date2019-10-12|languageen-US|issn0362-4331}}</ref>
* 1921 &ndash; Cleto Bellucci, Italian archbishop (d. 2013)
* 1921 &ndash; Janet Blair, American actress and singer (d. 2007)
* 1921 &ndash; Warren Spahn, American baseball player and coach (d. 2003)
*1923 &ndash; Dolph Briscoe, American lieutenant and politician, 41st Governor of Texas (d. 2010)
* 1923 &ndash; Avram Davidson, American soldier and author (d. 1993)
*1924 &ndash; Chuck Harmon, American baseball player and scout (d. 2019)
* 1924 &ndash; Bobby Rosengarden, American drummer and bandleader (d. 2007)
*1926 &ndash; J.P. Donleavy, American-Irish novelist and playwright (d. 2017)
* 1926 &ndash; Rifaat el-Mahgoub, Egyptian politician (d. 1990)
*1928 &ndash; Shirley Temple, American actress, singer, dancer, and diplomat (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite book|authorJudith A. Leavitt|titleAmerican Women Managers and Administrators: A Selective Biographical Dictionary|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJk_uzzu36rgC&pgPA27|year1985|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group|isbn978-0-313-23748-5|pages=27}}</ref>
*1929 &ndash; George Steiner, French-American philosopher, author, and critic (d. 2020)<ref nameLehmann-Haupt>{{cite news |last1Lehmann-Haupt |first1Christopher |last2Grimes |first2William |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/03/books/george-steiner-dead.html |titleGeorge Steiner, Prodigious Literary Critic, Dies at 90 |newspaperThe New York Times |dateFebruary 3, 2020 |access-dateFebruary 4, 2020}}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; Halston, American fashion designer (d. 1990)
* 1932 &ndash; Jim Fixx, American runner and author (d. 1984)
*1933 &ndash; Annie Easley, American computer scientist, mathematician, and engineer (d. 2011)
*1934 &ndash; George Canseco, Filipino composer and producer (d. 2004)
*1936 &ndash; Roy Orbison, American singer-songwriter (d. 1988)
*1937 &ndash; Victoria Glendinning, English author and critic
* 1937 &ndash; David Mills, English cricketer (d. 2013)
* 1937 &ndash; Barry Shepherd, Australian cricketer (d. 2001)
*1939 &ndash; Jorge Fons, Mexican director and screenwriter (d. 2022)
* 1939 &ndash; Bill Hagerty, English journalist
* 1939 &ndash; Lee Majors, American actor
* 1939 &ndash; Ray Peterson, American pop singer (d. 2005)
*1940 &ndash; Michael Copps, American academic and politician
* 1940 &ndash; Dale Houston, American singer-songwriter (d. 2007)
* 1940 &ndash; Michael Kadosh, Israeli footballer and manager (d. 2014)
*1941 &ndash; Jacqueline Boyer, French singer and actress
* 1941 &ndash; Arie den Hartog, Dutch road bicycle racer (d. 2018)
* 1941 &ndash; Paavo Lipponen, Finnish journalist and politician, 38th Prime Minister of Finland
* 1941 &ndash; Michael Lynne, American film producer, co-founded New Line Cinema (d. 2019)
* 1941 &ndash; Ed Stewart, English radio and television host (d. 2016)
* 1941 &ndash; Ray Tomlinson, American computer programmer and engineer (d. 2016)
*1942 &ndash; Sandra Dee, American model and actress (d. 2005)
*1943 &ndash; Gail Goodrich, American basketball player and coach
* 1943 &ndash; Tony Esposito, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2021)
* 1943 &ndash; Frans Koppelaar, Dutch painter
* 1943 &ndash; Hervé Villechaize, French actor (d. 1993)
*1944 &ndash; Jean-François Stévenin, French actor and director (d. 2021)
*1946 &ndash; Blair Brown, American actress
* 1946 &ndash; Carlton Sherwood, American soldier and journalist (d. 2014)
*1947 &ndash; Robert Burgess, English sociologist and academic (d. 2022)
* 1947 &ndash; Glenn Cornick, English bass player (d. 2014)
* 1947 &ndash; Bernadette Devlin McAliskey, Irish civil rights leader and politician
*1948 &ndash; Pascal Quignard, French author and screenwriter
* 1948 &ndash; Serge Thériault, Canadian actor
*1949 &ndash; Paul Collier, English economist and academic
* 1949 &ndash; David Cross, English violinist
* 1949 &ndash; John Miles, British rock singer, songwriter, and guitarist (d. 2021)
*1950 &ndash; Rowley Leigh, English chef and journalist
* 1950 &ndash; Barbara McIlvaine Smith, Sac and Fox Nation Native American politician
*1951 &ndash; Martin Bayerle, American treasure hunter
*1952 &ndash; Narada Michael Walden, American singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer
*1953 &ndash; James Russo, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1954 &ndash; Stephen Dalton, English air marshal
* 1954 &ndash; Michael Moore, American director, producer, and activist
*1955 &ndash; Judy Davis, Australian actress
* 1955 &ndash; Tony Miles, English chess player (d. 2001)
* 1955 &ndash; Urmas Ott, Estonian journalist and author (d. 2008)
* 1955 &ndash; Serge Vohor, Vanuatuan politician, 4th Prime Minister of Vanuatu (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |dateNovember 23, 2024 |titleVanuatu mourns four-time PM Serge Vohor |urlhttps://www.dailypost.vu/news/vanuatu-mourns-four-time-pm-serge-vohor/article_0487f3e1-112c-5755-bc7c-383d615028c6.html |access-dateNovember 25, 2024 |websiteVanuatu Daily Post |languageen}}</ref>
*1957 &ndash; Neville Brody, English graphic designer, typographer, and art director
* 1957 &ndash; Jan Hooks, American actress and comedian (d. 2014)
*1958 &ndash; Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson, Icelandic composer and producer
* 1958 &ndash; Ryan Walter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
*1959 &ndash; Unity Dow, Botswanan judge, author, and rights activist<ref>{{Cite book|titleDictionary of African biography|date2012|publisherOxford University Press|othersAkyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku., Gates, Henry Louis, Jr.|isbn9780195382075|locationOxford|pages248|oclc706025122}}</ref>
*1960 &ndash; Valerie Bertinelli, American actress
* 1960 &ndash; Steve Clark, English guitarist and songwriter (d. 1991)
* 1960 &ndash; Barry Douglas, Irish pianist and conductor
* 1960 &ndash; Léo Jaime, Brazilian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor
* 1960 &ndash; Claude Julien, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
*1961 &ndash; George Lopez, American comedian, actor, and talk show host
* 1961 &ndash; Pierluigi Martini, Italian race car driver
*1962 &ndash; John Hannah, Scottish actor and producer
* 1962 &ndash; Shaun Spiers, English businessman and politician
*1963 &ndash; Paul Belmondo, French race car driver
* 1963 &ndash; Robby Naish, American windsurfer
*1964 &ndash; Gianandrea Noseda, Italian pianist and conductor
*1965 &ndash; Leni Robredo, Filipina human rights lawyer, 14th Vice President of the Philippines
*1966 &ndash; Jörg Deisinger, German bass player
* 1966 &ndash; Matt Freeman, American bass player
* 1966 &ndash; Lembit Oll, Estonian chess Grandmaster (d. 1999)
*1967 &ndash; Rhéal Cormier, Canadian baseball player (d. 2021)
* 1967 &ndash; Melina Kanakaredes, American actress
*1968 &ndash; Bas Haring, Dutch philosopher, writer, television presenter and professor.
* 1968 &ndash; Ken McRae, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1968 &ndash; Timothy McVeigh, American terrorist, Oklahoma City bombing co-perpetrator (d. 2001)
*1969 &ndash; Martín López-Zubero, American-Spanish swimmer and coach
* 1969 &ndash; Yelena Shushunova, Russian gymnast (d. 2018)
*1970 &ndash; Egemen Bağış, Turkish politician, 1st Minister of European Union Affairs
* 1970 &ndash; Dennis Culp, American singer-songwriter and trombonist
* 1970 &ndash; Andrew Gee, Australian rugby league player and manager
* 1970 &ndash; Hans Välimäki, Finnish chef and author
* 1970 &ndash; Tayfur Havutçu, Turkish international footballer and manager
*1971 &ndash; Uli Herzner, German-American fashion designer
*1972 &ndash; Pierre Labrie, Canadian poet and playwright
* 1972 &ndash; Peter Dench, English photographer and journalist
* 1972 &ndash; Amira Medunjanin, Bosnian singer
*1973 &ndash; Patrick Poulin, Canadian ice hockey player
*1974 &ndash; Carlos Dengler, American bass player
* 1974 &ndash; Michael Kerr, New Zealand-German rugby player
*1975 &ndash; Bobby Shaw, American football player
*1976 &ndash; Gabriel Damon, American actor<ref>{{cite news | newspaperThe Vancouver Sun | dateMarch 5, 1993 | page80 | titleShedding some light on Judith Light}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; Aaron Dessner, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer
*1977 &ndash; John Cena, American professional wrestler and actor
* 1977 &ndash; Andruw Jones, Curaçaoan baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleAndruw Jones |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/andruw-jones-116662 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date30 October 2022}}</ref>
* 1977 &ndash; David Kidwell, New Zealand rugby league player and coach
* 1977 &ndash; Willie Mitchell, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1977 &ndash; John Oliver, English comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter
* 1977 &ndash; Kal Penn, Indian-American actor
* 1977 &ndash; Bram Schmitz, Dutch cyclist
* 1977 &ndash; Lee Young-pyo, South Korean international footballer<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sporting-heroes.net/football/tottenham-hotspur-fc/lee-young-pyo-8265/premiership-appearances_a16128/|titleLee Young-pyo |publishersporting-heroes.net |access-date9 April 2020}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Gezahegne Abera, Ethiopian runner
*1979 &ndash; Barry Hawkins, English snooker player
* 1979 &ndash; Jaime King, American actress and model
* 1979 &ndash; Joanna Krupa, Polish-American model and television personality
* 1979 &ndash; Samppa Lajunen, Finnish skier
*1980 &ndash; Nicole den Dulk, Dutch Paralympic equestrian<ref>{{cite web |titleNicole den Dulk data |urlhttps://data.fei.org/Person/Detail.aspx?personFeiID10084938 |websiteFEI.org |access-date=2 August 2020}}</ref>
*1982 &ndash; Kyle Beckerman, American footballer<ref>Tony Hendroyono. [https://books.google.com/books?idlJar1SiWOf4C&dqkyle+beckerman+april+23+1982&pg=PA120 Fifa World Cup 2010: Laga Akbar Tim Sepak Bola Dunia]</ref>
* 1982 &ndash; Tony Sunshine, American singer-songwriter
*1983 &ndash; Leon Andreasen, Danish international footballer<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id40360|titleLeon Andreasen |publishersoccerbase.com |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Daniela Hantuchová, Slovak tennis player
* 1983 &ndash; Ian Henderson, English rugby league player
*1984 &ndash; Alexandra Kosteniuk, Russian chess player
* 1984 &ndash; Moose, American professional wrestler and football player<ref>{{cite web |titleQuinn Ojinnaka |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/9725/quinn-ojinnaka |publisherESPN |access-date12 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Jesse Lee Soffer, American actor
*1985 &ndash; Angel Locsin, Filipino actress, producer, and fashion designer
*1986 &ndash; Sven Kramer, Dutch speed skater
* 1986 &ndash; Alysia Montaño, American runner
* 1986 &ndash; Rafael Fernandes, Brazilian baseball player
*1987 &ndash; Michael Arroyo, Ecuadorian footballer
* 1987 &ndash; John Boye, Ghanaian footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Emily Fox, American basketball player
*1988 &ndash; Victor Anichebe, Nigerian footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Sandra Borch, Norwegian politician<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleSandra Borch |first1Vibeke |last1Lauritsen |first2Knut Are |last2Tvedt |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date15 March 2024 |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Sandra_Borch |languageno|access-date17 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Alistair Brownlee, English triathlete
* 1988 &ndash; Signe Ronka, Canadian figure skater
* 1988 &ndash; Lenka Wienerová, Slovak tennis player
*1989 &ndash; Nicole Vaidišová, Czech tennis player
*1990 &ndash; Rui Fonte, Portuguese footballer<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id50545|titleRui Fonte |publishersoccerbase.com |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1990 &ndash; Dev Patel, English actor
*1991 &ndash; Britt Baker, American professional wrestler<ref>{{cite web |titleDr. Britt Baker |date14 November 2021 |urlhttps://www.fite.tv/fighter/dr-britt-baker/8945/ |publisherFITE |access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Nathan Baker, English footballer
* 1991 &ndash; Caleb Johnson, American singer-songwriter
* 1991 &ndash; Paul Vaughan, Australian-Italian rugby league player
*1994 &ndash; Patrick Olsen, Danish footballer
* 1994 &ndash; Song Kang, South Korean actor
*1995 &ndash; Gigi Hadid, American fashion model and television personality
* 1995 &ndash; Jamie Hayter, English professional wrestler<ref>{{cite web |last1Lee |first1Joseph |titleVarious News: Randy Orton Dances To Bianca Belair's Theme, Today's Wrestling Birthdays Include John Cena, First Look At Rikishi In WWE 2K22 |urlhttps://411mania.com/wrestling/various-news-randy-orton-dances-to-bianca-belairs-theme-todays-wrestling-birthdays-include-john-cena-first-look-at-rikishi-in-wwe-2k22/ |publisher411Mania |access-date12 April 2023 |date=23 April 2022}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Carolina Alves, Brazilian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleCarolina Alves {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/319305/carolina-alves |access-date2022-10-19 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Zach Apple, American swimmer<ref>{{cite web|titleNational Team Bios|urlhttps://www.usaswimming.org/meet-the-team/national-team-bios?personid7f2405d5-ddca-4c11-b114-f3f8127c31e5|publisherUSA Swimming|access-date29 April 2020|archive-date28 December 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191228101757/https://www.usaswimming.org/meet-the-team/national-team-bios?personid7f2405d5-ddca-4c11-b114-f3f8127c31e5|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Son Chaeyoung, South Korean rapper and singer-songwriter<ref>{{Cite web|titleTWICE|urlhttp://twice.jype.com/|access-date2020-11-05|websitetwice.jype.com|language=ko}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Chloe Kim, American snowboarder<ref>{{cite web |titleChloe Kim |date25 February 2023 |urlhttps://www.teamusa.com/profiles/chloe-kim |publisherUnited States Olympic & Paralympic Committee |access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Lee Jeno, South Korean rapper, vocalist and dancer<ref>{{Cite web |lastKProfiles |date2018-08-09 |titleJeno (NCT) Profile and Facts (Updated!) |urlhttps://kprofiles.com/jeno-nct-profile-facts/ |access-date2024-01-14 |websiteKpop Profiles |language=en-US}}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; Prince Louis of Wales
<!--Please do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*AD 303 &ndash; Saint George, Roman soldier and martyr<ref namestgeorge>{{cite web |last1Arasteh |first1Amira |last2Daly |first2Hannah |titleSt George's Day 2022: How the dragon-slayer became the patron saint of England |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2022/04/23/happy-st-georges-day-2022-who-saint-how-celebrate-england/ |websiteThe Telegraph |access-date23 April 2022 |date23 April 2022}}</ref>
*711 &ndash; Childebert III, Frankish king (b. 670)
* 725 &ndash; Wihtred of Kent<ref>{{cite book |last1Cheney |first1Christopher Robert |last2Jones |first2Michael |titleA Handbook of Dates: For Students of British History |date6 April 2000 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-77845-9 |page23 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9_Fakx-flCkC&pgPA23 |language=en}}</ref>
* 871 &ndash; Æthelred of Wessex (b. 837)
* 915 &ndash; Yang Shihou, Chinese general
* 944 &ndash; Wichmann the Elder, Saxon nobleman
* 990 &ndash; Ekkehard II, Swiss monk and abbot<ref name"ekk">{{cite book |last1Charles |first1Herbermann |title"Ekkehard". Catholic Encyclopedia. |date1913 |publisherNew York: Robert Appleton Company}}</ref>
* 997 &ndash; Adalbert of Prague, Czech bishop, missionary, and saint (b. 956)
*1014 &ndash; Brian Boru, Irish king (b. 941)
*1014 &ndash; Domnall mac Eimín, Mormaer of Mar
*1016 &ndash; Æthelred the Unready, English son of Edgar the Peaceful (b. 968)
*1124 &ndash; Alexander I of Scotland (b. 1078)
*1151 &ndash; Adeliza of Louvain (b. 1103)
*1170 &ndash; Minamoto no Tametomo, Japanese samurai (b. 1139)
*1196 &ndash; Béla III of Hungary (b. {{circa|1148}})
*1200 &ndash; Zhu Xi, Chinese philosopher (b. 1130)
*1217 &ndash; Inge II of Norway (b. 1185)
*1262 &ndash; Aegidius of Assisi, companion of Saint Francis of Assisi
*1307 &ndash; Joan of Acre (b. 1272)
*1400 &ndash; Aubrey de Vere, 10th Earl of Oxford, English politician and nobleman (b. c. 1338)
*1407 &ndash; Olivier de Clisson, French soldier (b. 1326)
*1501 &ndash; Domenico della Rovere, Catholic cardinal (b. 1442)
*1554 &ndash; Gaspara Stampa, Italian poet (b. 1523)
1601–1900
*1605 &ndash; Boris Godunov, Russian ruler (b. 1551)
*1616 &ndash; William Shakespeare, English playwright and poet (b. 1564)<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Death of Shakespeare |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/story/400th-anniversary-of-shakespeares-death |websiteBritannica |access-date23 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1616 &ndash; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish writer and historian (b. 1539)<ref>{{cite web |titleHomenaje al Inca Garcilaso (1539-1616) en su cuarto centenario |dateJune 16, 2016 |urlhttps://www.rae.es/noticia/homenaje-al-inca-garcilaso-1539-1616-en-su-cuarto-centenario |websiteRAE Energy |access-date26 April 2023 |languagees |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210619010319/https://www.rae.es/noticia/homenaje-al-inca-garcilaso-1539-1616-en-su-cuarto-centenario |archive-date= Jun 19, 2021 }}</ref>
<!---Note:Cervantes has been removed because he almost certainly did not die on April 23; see Miguel de Cervantes for further information--->
*1625 &ndash; Maurice, Prince of Orange (b. 1567)
*1695 &ndash; Henry Vaughan, Welsh poet and author (b. 1621)
*1702 &ndash; Margaret Fell, English religious leader, founded the Religious Society of Friends (b. 1614)
*1781 &ndash; James Abercrombie, Scottish general and politician (b. 1706)
*1784 &ndash; Solomon I of Imereti (b. 1735)
*1792 &ndash; Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, German theologian and author (b. 1741)
*1794 &ndash; Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French lawyer and politician (b. 1721)
*1827 &ndash; Georgios Karaiskakis, Greek general (b. 1780)
*1839 &ndash; Jacques Félix Emmanuel Hamelin, French admiral and explorer (b. 1768)
*1850 &ndash; William Wordsworth, English poet and author (b. 1770)
*1865 &ndash; Silas Soule, American soldier and whistleblower of the Sand Creek Massacre (b. 1838)<ref>{{cite web|titleThe Life of Silas Soule - Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site |urlhttps://www.nps.gov/sand/learn/historyculture/the-life-of-silas-soule.htm|websiteNational Park Service|publisherU.S. Department of the Interior|access-date14 July 2017|archive-date16 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170716071009/https://www.nps.gov/sand/learn/historyculture/the-life-of-silas-soule.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref>
*1889 &ndash; Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly, French author and critic (b. 1808)
*1895 &ndash; Carl Ludwig, German physician and physiologist (b. 1815)
1901–present
*1905 &ndash; Gédéon Ouimet, Canadian politician, 2nd Premier of Quebec (b. 1823)
*1907 &ndash; Alferd Packer, American prospector (b. 1842)
*1915 &ndash; Rupert Brooke, English poet (b. 1887)
*1936 &ndash; Teresa de la Parra, French-Venezuelan author (b. 1889)
*1951 &ndash; Jules Berry, French actor and director (b. 1883)
* 1951 &ndash; Charles G. Dawes, American banker and politician, 30th Vice President of the United States, Nobel Peace Prize laureate (b. 1865)
*1959 &ndash; Bak Jungyang, Korean politician (b. 1872)
*1965 &ndash; George Adamski, Polish-American ufologist and author (b. 1891)
*1966 &ndash; George Ohsawa, Japanese founder of the Macrobiotic diet (b. 1893)
*1981 &ndash; Josep Pla, Catalan journalist and author (b. 1897)
*1983 &ndash; Buster Crabbe, American swimmer and actor (b. 1908)
*1984 &ndash; Red Garland, American pianist (b. 1923)
*1985 &ndash; Sam Ervin, American lawyer and politician (b. 1896)
* 1985 &ndash; Frank Farrell, Australian rugby league player and policeman (b. 1916)
*1986 &ndash; Harold Arlen, American composer (b. 1905)
* 1986 &ndash; Jim Laker, English international cricketer and sportscaster; holder of world record for most wickets taken in a match (b. 1922){{sfn|Hill|1998|p=1}}
* 1986 &ndash; Otto Preminger, Ukrainian-American actor, director, and producer (b. 1906)
*1990 &ndash; Paulette Goddard, American actress (b. 1910)
*1991 &ndash; Johnny Thunders, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1952)
*1992 &ndash; Satyajit Ray, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921)
* 1992 &ndash; Tanka Prasad Acharya, Nepalese politician, 27th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1912)
*1993 &ndash; Cesar Chavez, American activist, co-founded the United Farm Workers (b. 1927)
*1995 &ndash; Douglas Lloyd Campbell, Canadian farmer and politician, 13th Premier of Manitoba (b. 1895)
* 1995 &ndash; Howard Cosell, American lawyer and journalist (b. 1918)
* 1995 &ndash; Riho Lahi, Estonian journalist (b. 1904)
* 1995 &ndash; John C. Stennis, American lawyer and politician (b. 1904)
*1996 &ndash; Jean Victor Allard, Canadian general (b. 1913)
* 1996 &ndash; P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (b. 1899)
*1997 &ndash; Denis Compton, English cricketer and footballer (b. 1918)
*1998 &ndash; Konstantinos Karamanlis, Greek lawyer and politician, 172nd Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1907)
* 1998 &ndash; James Earl Ray, American assassin of Martin Luther King Jr. (b. 1928)
* 1998 &ndash; Thanassis Skordalos, Greek singer-songwriter and lyra player (b. 1920)
*2003 &ndash; Fernand Fonssagrives, French-American photographer (b. 1910)
*2004 &ndash; Herman Veenstra, Dutch water polo player (b. 1911)
*2005 &ndash; Joh Bjelke-Petersen, New Zealand-Australian politician, 31st Premier of Queensland (b. 1911)
* 2005 &ndash; Robert Farnon, Canadian-English trumpet player, composer and conductor (b. 1917)
* 2005 &ndash; Al Grassby, Australian journalist and politician (b. 1928)
* 2005 &ndash; John Mills, English actor (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite web |titleJohn Mills |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba03e6cbb |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160511175742/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba03e6cbb |url-statusdead |archive-dateMay 11, 2016 |websiteBFI |access-date23 April 2022 |languageen}}</ref>
* 2005 &ndash; Romano Scarpa, Italian author and illustrator (b. 1927)
* 2005 &ndash; Earl Wilson, American baseball player, coach and educator (b. 1934)
* 2006 &ndash; Phil Walden, American record producer and manager, co-founder of Capricorn Records (b. 1940)
*2007 &ndash; Paul Erdman, Canadian-American economist and author (b. 1932)
* 2007 &ndash; David Halberstam, American journalist, historian and author (b. 1934)
* 2007 &ndash; Peter Randall, English sergeant (b. 1930)
* 2007 &ndash; Boris Yeltsin, Russian politician, 1st President of Russia (b. 1931)
*2010 &ndash; Peter Porter, Australian-born British poet (b. 1929)
*2011 &ndash; James Casey, English comedian, radio scriptwriter and producer (b. 1922)
* 2011 &ndash; Tom King, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1943)
* 2011 &ndash; Geoffrey Russell, 4th Baron Ampthill, English businessman and politician (b. 1921)
* 2011 &ndash; Max van der Stoel, Dutch politician and Minister of State (b. 1924)
* 2011 &ndash; John Sullivan, English screenwriter and producer (b. 1946)
*2012 &ndash; Lillemor Arvidsson, Swedish trade union leader and politician, 34th Governor of Gotland (b. 1943)
* 2012 &ndash; Billy Bryans, Canadian drummer, songwriter and producer (b. 1947)
* 2012 &ndash; Chris Ethridge, American bass player and songwriter (b. 1947)
* 2012 &ndash; Raymond Thorsteinsson, Canadian geologist and paleontologist (b. 1921)
* 2012 &ndash; LeRoy T. Walker, American football player and coach (b. 1918)
*2013 &ndash; Bob Brozman, American guitarist (b. 1954)
* 2013 &ndash; Robert W. Edgar, American educator and politician (b. 1943)
* 2013 &ndash; Tony Grealish, English footballer (b. 1956)
* 2013 &ndash; Antonio Maccanico, Italian banker and politician (b. 1924)
* 2013 &ndash; Frank W. J. Olver, English-American mathematician and academic (b. 1924)
* 2013 &ndash; Kathryn Wasserman Davis, American philanthropist and scholar (b. 1907)
*2014 &ndash; Benjamín Brea, Spanish-Venezuelan saxophonist, clarinet player, and conductor (b. 1946)
* 2014 &ndash; Michael Glawogger, Austrian director, screenwriter, and cinematographer (b. 1959)
* 2014 &ndash; Jaap Havekotte, Dutch speed skater and producer of ice skates (b. 1912)
* 2014 &ndash; Connie Marrero, Cuban baseball player and coach (b. 1911)
* 2014 &ndash; F. Michael Rogers, American general (b. 1921)
* 2014 &ndash; Mark Shand, English conservationist and author (b. 1951)
* 2014 &ndash; Patric Standford, English composer and educator (b. 1939)
*2015 &ndash; Richard Corliss, American journalist and critic (b. 1944)
* 2015 &ndash; Ray Jackson, Australian activist (b. 1941)
* 2015 &ndash; Pierre Claude Nolin, Canadian lawyer and politician, Speaker of the Canadian Senate (b. 1950)
* 2015 &ndash; Jim Steffen, American football player (b. 1936)
* 2015 &ndash; Francis Tsai, American author and illustrator (b. 1967)
*2016 &ndash; Inge King, German-born Australian sculptor (b. 1915)
* 2016 &ndash; Banharn Silpa-archa, Thai politician, Prime Minister from 1995 to 1996 (b. 1932)
*2019 &ndash; Charity Sunshine Tillemann-Dick, American soprano singer and presenter (b. 1983)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/opera-singer-who-received-two-double-lung-transplants-dies-at-35-charity-tillemann-dick/|titleOpera singer who received two double lung transplants has died at 35|date2019-04-24|websiteCBS News}}</ref>
* 2019 &ndash; Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (b. 1921)<ref>{{Cite web|titleGrand Duke Jean passes away|urlhttps://delano.lu/article/delano_grand-duke-jean-passes-away|access-date2021-11-24|websitedelano.lu|language=en}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Dan Kaminsky, American internet security researcher (b. 1979)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://heavy.com/news/dan-kaminsky-cause-of-death/|titleDan Kaminsky's Sudden Death Wasn't Related to COVID-19 Vaccine: Family|date2021-04-25|websiteHeavy.com}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Orrin Hatch, American politician, President pro tempore of the United States Senate (b. 1934)<ref>{{Cite news |lastBrown |firstMichael |dateApril 23, 2022 |titleOrrin G. Hatch, longest-serving Republican in Senate history, dies at 88 |newspaperThe Washington Post |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/orrin-g-hatch-longest-serving-republican-in-senate-history-dies-at-88/2022/04/23/df938ada-0483-11e9-b5df-5d3874f1ac36_story.html}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Frank Field, British politician (b. 1942)<ref>{{Cite news |lastDugan |firstEmily |date2024-04-24 |titleTributes paid to Frank Field, former Labour minister, who has died aged 81 |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2024/apr/24/frank-field-former-labour-minister-and-anti-poverty-campaigner-dies-aged-81 |access-date2024-04-26 |workThe Guardian |languageen-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Helen Vendler, American Literary Critic (b. 1933)<ref>{{Cite web |lastMarquard |firstBryan |dateApril 23, 2024 |titleHelen Vendler, a towering presence in poetry criticism, has died - The Boston Globe |urlhttps://www.bostonglobe.com/2024/04/23/metro/helen-vendler-towering-presence-poetry-criticism-dies-90/ |access-dateApril 26, 2024 |websiteBostonGlobe.com |languageen-US}}</ref>
<!--Please do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
**Adalbert of Prague<ref>{{cite book |last1Cooper |first1J. C. |titleDictionary of Christianity |date2013 |locationAbingdon, Oxon |isbn9781315074047 |page=2}}</ref>
**Felix, Fortunatus, and Achilleus
**Saint George<ref name=stgeorge />
**Blessed Giles of Assisi
**Gerard of Toul
**Ibar of Beggerin (Meath)
**Toyohiko Kagawa (Episcopal and Lutheran Church)
**St George's Day (England) and its related observances:<ref name=stgeorge />
***La Diada de Sant Jordi (Catalonia, Spain)
**April 23 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Canada Book Day (Canada)
*Castile and León Day (Castile and León)
*International Pixel-Stained Technopeasant Day
*Khongjom Day (Manipur)
*National Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey and Northern Cyprus)
*Navy Day (China)
*World Book Day<ref>{{cite web |titleWorld Book and Copyright Day |urlhttps://en.unesco.org/commemorations/worldbookday |websiteUNESCO |access-date24 October 2021 |languageen |date29 April 2021}}</ref>
*UN English Language Day (United Nations)<ref>{{cite web |titleEnglish Language Day |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/observances/english-language-day |websiteUnited Nations |access-date23 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*UN Spanish Language Day (United Nations)<ref name"UNNews">{{citation|urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/|titleUN International Days}}. Retrieved 2019-04-09.</ref> References {{Reflist}}Bibliography* {{cite book |lastHill |firstAlan |author-linkAlan Hill (author) |titleJim Laker: A Biography |publisherAndre Deutsch Ltd |locationLondon |date1998 |isbn978-02-33050-43-0}}External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/23 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day23}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/23 Historical Events on April 23]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_23
|
2025-04-05T18:25:48.205871
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1828
|
Amitabh Bachchan
|
{{Short description|Indian actor (born 1942)}}
{{pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox actor
| module {{Infobox officeholder | embed yes
| constituency = Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh
| office = Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha
| primeminister = Rajiv Gandhi
| predecessor = Janeshwar Mishra
| successor = V. P. Singh
| term_start = 31 December 1984
| term_end = July 1987
|| party Indian National Congress (1984–1987)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.deccanherald.com/amp/content/535211/unlike-amitabh-wont-quit-politics.html |titleUnlike Amitabh, I won't quit politics: Shatru |date18 March 2016 |access-date13 September 2022 |archive-date13 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220913083855/https://www.deccanherald.com/amp/content/535211/unlike-amitabh-wont-quit-politics.html |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| urlhttps://www.news18.com/photogallery/movies/urmila-to-amitabh-celebs-who-joined-and-then-quit-politics-in-a-short-span-2304979.html| titleUrmila to Amitabh: Celebs Who Joined and Then Quit Politics in a Short Span| date14 May 2023| access-date14 May 2023| archive-date1 December 2020| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201201015311/https://www.news18.com/photogallery/movies/urmila-to-amitabh-celebs-who-joined-and-then-quit-politics-in-a-short-span-2304979.html| url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
| name = Amitabh Bachchan
| image = Indian actor Amitabh Bachchan.jpg
| caption = Bachchan in 2018
| birth_name Amitabh Srivastava<ref name"N18Kbc">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.news18.com/news/movies/in-latest-episode-of-kbc-amitabh-bachchan-reveals-he-was-never-named-inquilab-2959868.html |titleIn Latest Episode of KBC, Amitabh Bachchan Reveals He was Never Named Inquilab |access-date26 July 2021 |date13 October 2020 |archive-date26 July 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210726074040/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/in-latest-episode-of-kbc-amitabh-bachchan-reveals-he-was-never-named-inquilab-2959868.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| birth_date {{birth date and age|dfy|1942|10|11}}
| birth_place = Allahabad, United Provinces, British India (present-day Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India)
| other_names = {{hlist|Angry Young Man|Mahanayak|Shahenshah|Big B}}
| alma_mater Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi<ref>{{cite news|titleAlumni meet at Kirori Mal College|urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/delhi/Alumni-meet-at-Kirori-Mal-College/articleshow/5615636.cms|newspaperThe Times of India|date26 February 2010|access-date23 May 2014|archive-date10 July 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190710211112/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/delhi/Alumni-meet-at-Kirori-Mal-College/articleshow/5615636.cms|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/metro/delhi/other-news/delhi-university-kirori-mal-college-hostel-amitabh-bachchan-bsc-read-here-du-history/articleshow/92466073.cms | titleकिरोड़ीमल कॉलेज हॉस्टल का कमरा नंबर-66, दीवार पर टंगी बिग बी की तस्वीर... डीयू का इतिहास |access-date13 September 2022 | archive-date13 September 2022 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220913073040/https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/metro/delhi/other-news/delhi-university-kirori-mal-college-hostel-amitabh-bachchan-bsc-read-here-du-history/articleshow/92466073.cms | url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/10-bollywood-stars-who-passed-out-from-du-306417-2016-02-17%26ved%3D2ahUKEwj44Nm1nZH6AhXQR2wGHeFIDLk4ChAWegQIBRAB%26usg%3DAOvVaw2ArnWWIc3N2qbnMjlQUjGe | title10 bollywood celebrities who graduated from DU | date17 February 2016 | access-date13 September 2022 | archive-date13 September 2022 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220913073053/https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/10-bollywood-stars-who-passed-out-from-du-306417-2016-02-17%26ved%3D2ahUKEwj44Nm1nZH6AhXQR2wGHeFIDLk4ChAWegQIBRAB%26usg%3DAOvVaw2ArnWWIc3N2qbnMjlQUjGe | url-statuslive }}</ref>
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|film producer|television presenter}}
| years_active = 1969–present
| known_for | works Full list
| spouse = {{marriage|Jaya Bhaduri|1973}}
| children = {{ubl|Shweta Bachchan Nanda|Abhishek Bachchan}}
| father = Harivansh Rai Bachchan
| mother = Teji Bachchan
| relatives = {{ubl|Aishwarya Rai Bachchan (daughter-in-law)|Nikhil Nanda (son-in-law)}}
| family = See Bachchan family
| awards = Full list
| honours = {{plainlist|
* Padma Shri (1984)
* Padma Bhushan (2001)
* Legion of Honour (2007)
* Padma Vibhushan (2015)
* Dadasaheb Phalke Award (2018)
}}
| website = [http://srbachchan.tumblr.com/ Official blog]
| signature = Amitabhbachchanji signature.svg
}}
Amitabh Bachchan{{efn|{{IPA|hi|əmɪˈt̪ɑːbʱ ˈbətːʃən|pron|audioAmitabh_Bachchan.ogg}}}}<!--per WP:INDICSCRIPT Article lead should not contain regional or Indic language script--> ({{né|Srivastava}};<ref name"N18Kbc" /> 11 October 1942<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-interview-with-amitabh-bachchan-on-70th-birthday/20121007.htm |titleAmitabh Bachchan: No resolutions for my birthday |lastDedhia |firstSonil |date7 October 2012 |websiteRediff |access-date9 October 2019 |quoteOn October 2, the superstar took time out to give interviews to the media, as celebrations for his 70th birthday on October 11[, 2012,] started picking up |archive-date9 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191009072531/https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-interview-with-amitabh-bachchan-on-70th-birthday/20121007.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref>) is an Indian actor who works in Hindi cinema. He is often considered one of the greatest, most accomplished and commercially successful actors in the history of Indian cinema.<ref name"AB1">* {{cite news |titleAmitabh Bachchan: Meet the biggest movie star in the world |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/amitabh-bachchan-the-biggest-film-star-in-the-world-10034826.html/ |newspaperThe Independent |access-date9 February 2015 |date9 February 2015 |archive-date10 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150210093650/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/amitabh-bachchan-the-biggest-film-star-in-the-world-10034826.html |url-statusdead}}
* {{cite web |titleWhy Amitabh Bachchan is more than a superstar |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-19893525 |publisherBBC News |access-date11 October 2012 |date11 October 2012 |archive-date14 October 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121014013931/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-19893525 |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite news |lastWajihuddin |firstMohammed |titleEgypt's Amitabh Bachchan mania |urlhttp://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-12-02/india/27839664_1_bachchan-fan-mania-indians |access-date22 November 2011 |newspaperThe Times of India |date2 December 2005 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130501071157/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-12-02/india/27839664_1_bachchan-fan-mania-indians |archive-date1 May 2013 |url-statusdead}}
* {{cite news |lastJatras |firstTodd |titleIndia's Celebrity Film Stars |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/2001/03/09/0309bollywood.html |workForbes |access-date22 November 2011 |date9 March 2001 |archive-date20 February 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170220031815/http://www.forbes.com/2001/03/09/0309bollywood.html |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite web |titleBachchan Receives Lifetime Achievement Award at DIFF |urlhttp://www.khaleejtimes.com/displayarticle.asp?xfiledata/newsmakers/2009/November/newsmakers_November64.xml&sectionnewsmakers&col|workKhaleej Times |access-date24 November 2011 |date25 November 2009 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130602182846/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/displayarticle.asp?xfiledata%2Fnewsmakers%2F2009%2FNovember%2Fnewsmakers_November64.xml&sectionnewsmakers&col|archive-date2 June 2013}}</ref> With a cinematic career spanning over five decades, he has played in over 200 films. Bachchan is often hailed as the Shahenshah of Bollywood, Sadi Ke Mahanayak (translated as "Greatest actor of the century" in Hindi), Star of the Millennium, or simply Big B.<ref name"AB4">* {{cite web |titleAmitabh Bachchan at 73: An ode to the undisputed 'Shahenshah' of Bollywood |urlhttp://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-at-72-an-ode-to-the-undisputed-shahenshah-of-bollywood/ |workThe Indian Express |access-date11 October 2015 |date11 October 2015 |archive-date28 October 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151028155451/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-at-72-an-ode-to-the-undisputed-shahenshah-of-bollywood/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |titleRajinikanth reveres Amitabh Bachchan as the 'Emperor of Indian Cinema'! |urlhttps://www.indiaglitz.com/rajinikanth-reveres-amitabh-bachchan-as-the-emperor-of-indian-cinema-hindi-news-144373.html/ |websiteIndiaGlitz.com |access-date10 October 2015 |date10 October 2015 |archive-date6 May 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160506041550/http://www.indiaglitz.com/rajinikanth-reveres-amitabh-bachchan-as-the-emperor-of-indian-cinema-hindi-news-144373.html |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite news |titleDelhi's date with Big B at Adda on Friday |urlhttp://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/print/delhis-date-with-big-b-at-adda-on-friday/ |newspaperThe Independent |access-date27 September 2012 |date27 September 2012 |archive-date4 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304133104/http://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/print/delhis-date-with-big-b-at-adda-on-friday/ |url-statuslive}}</ref> His dominance in the Indian film industry during the 1970s–80s led the French director François Truffaut to describe it as a "one-man industry".<ref>{{cite web |last|date1 November 2017 |titleAmitabh Bachchan: The Man and The Legend |urlhttps://diplomacybeyond.com/amitabh-bachchan-man-legend/ |url-statuslive |access-date24 October 2021 |websiteDiplomacy & Beyond |languageen-US |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211024164542/https://diplomacybeyond.com/amitabh-bachchan-man-legend/ |archive-date24 October 2021}}</ref> He is a recipient of several accolades including six National Film Awards and sixteen Filmfare Awards.
Amitabh Bachchan was born in 1942 in Allahabad (now Prayagraj) to the Hindi poet Harivansh Rai Bachchan and his wife, the social activist Teji Bachchan. He was educated at Sherwood College, Nainital, and Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi. His film career started in 1969 as a voice narrator in Mrinal Sen's film Bhuvan Shome. He first gained popularity in the early-1970s for films, such as Anand, Zanjeer and Roti Kapada Aur Makaan, and achieved greater stardom in later years, being dubbed India's "Angry Young Man" for several of his on-screen roles in Hindi films.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://ianslife.in/entertainment/kbc-13-big-b-shares-what-anand-did-him|titleOn 'KBC 13', Big B shares what 'Anand' did for him|date29 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|titleRevisiting Prakash Mehra's Zanjeer: The film that made Amitabh Bachchan|urlhttp://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/revisiting-prakash-mehra-zanjeer-the-film-that-made-amitabh-bachchan-4714064/|workThe Indian Express|date20 June 2017}}</ref> He consistently starred in top–grossing Indian films from the mid-1970s to the 1980s, such as Deewaar, Sholay, Kabhi Kabhie, Hera Pheri, Amar Akbar Anthony, Parvarish, Kasme Vaade, Don, Trishul, Muqaddar Ka Sikandar, Suhaag, Dostana, Naseeb, Laawaris, Namak Halaal, Andhaa Kaanoon, Coolie, Sharaabi and Mard,<ref namebo25y>{{cite web|urlhttps://filminformation.com/featured/flashback-13-october-2023-from-our-issue-dated-17th-october-1998/|titleBlockbusters Of Twenty-Five Years (1973–1997)|date13 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.wionews.com/opinions-blogs/amitabh-bachchan-legend-and-legacy-523953|titleAmitabh Bachchan: Legend and Legacy|date10 October 2022}}</ref> as well as some of his most acclaimed performances, include Namak Haraam, Abhimaan, Majboor, Mili, Chupke Chupke, Do Anjaane, Kaala Patthar, Shaan, Silsila, Yaarana, Kaalia, Shakti, Aakhree Raasta, Shahenshah and Agneepath.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://m.filmfare.com/features/10-must-watch-amitabh-bachchan-movies-44148.html|title10 Must-Watch Amitabh Bachchan Movies|date10 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/amitabh-bachchan-never-got-typecast-courtesy-hrishikesh-mukherjee-s-cinema-news-229025|titleAmitabh Bachchan Never Got Typecast, Courtesy Hrishikesh Mukherjee's Cinema|date11 October 2022}}</ref> After taking a break from acting in the 1990s, his resurgence was marked in 2000 with Mohabbatein.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid712|titleMohabbatein – Movie}}</ref> Since then he starred in several successful and acclaimed films like Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham, Aankhen, Baghban, Khakee, Black, Bunty Aur Babli, Sarkar, Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna, Bhoothnath, Cheeni Kum, Paa, Piku, Pink, Badla, Brahmāstra: Part One – Shiva and Kalki 2898 AD.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://news.yahoo.com/amitabh-bachchan-50-best-roles-114114366.html|title50 Definitive Amitabh Bachchan Performances|date11 October 2019}}</ref> For Piku, he won his fourth National Film Award for Best Actor, making him the only actor to do so. Bachchan also made an appearance in a Hollywood film, The Great Gatsby (2013), in which he played a non-Indian Jewish character.<ref>{{cite web |lastRapoza |firstKenneth |date24 April 2013 |titleMeet The Great Gatsby's New Indian Gangster |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2013/04/24/the-indian-actor-behind-the-great-gatsby/#77b5eb9d7aef|workForbes|access-date15 December 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160822181418/https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2013/04/24/the-indian-actor-behind-the-great-gatsby/#77b5eb9d7aef|archive-date=22 August 2016}}</ref>
Bachchan has won numerous accolades in his career, including record four National Film Awards in Best Actor category and many awards at international film festivals and award ceremonies. He has won sixteen Filmfare Awards and is the most nominated performer in any major acting category at Filmfare with 34 nominations in Best Actor and 42 nominations overall. The Government of India honoured him with the Padma Shri in 1984, the Padma Bhushan in 2001, the Padma Vibhushan in 2015, and India's highest award in the field of cinema, the Dadasaheb Phalke Award in 2018 for his contributions to the arts. The Government of France honoured him with its highest civilian honour, Officer of the Legion of Honour, in 2007 for his exceptional career in the world of cinema and beyond.
In addition to acting, Bachchan has worked as a playback singer, film producer, and television presenter. He has hosted several seasons of the game show Kaun Banega Crorepati, India's version of the game show franchise, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. He also entered politics for a time in the 1980s. Bachchan has also been involved in several humanitarian works and he is a leading brand endorser in India. Beyond the Indian subcontinent, he acquired a large overseas following of the South Asian diaspora, as well as others, in markets including Africa (South Africa, Eastern Africa, and Mauritius), the Middle East (especially Egypt and the UAE), the United Kingdom, Russia, Central Asia, the Caribbean (Guyana, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago), Oceania (Fiji, Australia, and New Zealand), Canada and the United States.<ref name"AB2">* {{cite book |lastWillis |firstAndrew |titleFilm Stars: Hollywood and Beyond |date2004 |publisherManchester University Press |isbn978-0-7190-5645-1 |page4 |url{{Google books|_2ZXBaDJ6DUC |pagesPA4 |keywords|text |plainurl=yes}}}}
* {{cite news |titleAs more satellite TV networks target Asia, the picture is one of confusion and uncertainty |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19930930-as-more-satellite-tv-networks-target-asia-the-picture-is-one-of-confusion-and-uncertainty-811618-1993-09-30 |workIndia Today |date30 September 1993 |access-date22 December 2018 |archive-date22 December 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181222130920/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19930930-as-more-satellite-tv-networks-target-asia-the-picture-is-one-of-confusion-and-uncertainty-811618-1993-09-30 |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite news |last1Sinanan |first1Anil |titleThe Bachchans in TNT: it's dynamite! |urlhttps://www.thetimes.com/sunday-times-rich-list/profile/article/the-bachchans-in-tnt-its-dynamite-fpkjvxrkw8k |access-date7 April 2020 |workThe Times |date23 July 2008 |archive-date7 April 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200407030832/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-bachchans-in-tnt-its-dynamite-fpkjvxrkw8k |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite news |titleIndia's biggest superstar Amitabh Bachchan has no interest in celebrating his 77th birthday |urlhttps://www.pressreader.com/fiji/the-fiji-times/20191013/282522955227391 |access-date7 April 2020 |viaPressReader |date13 October 2019 |archive-date7 April 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200407030832/https://www.pressreader.com/fiji/the-fiji-times/20191013/282522955227391 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Bachchan was voted the "greatest star of stage or screen" in the BBC Your Millennium online poll in 1999.<ref name"BBC News">{{cite news |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/381017.stm |titleENTERTAINMENT &#124; Bollywood star tops the poll |publisherBBC News |date1 July 1999 |access-date2 October 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100910010951/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/381017.stm |archive-date10 September 2010 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In October 2003, Time magazine dubbed Bachchan the "Star of the Millennium".<ref name"Perry">{{cite magazine |urlhttp://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501031027/int_bachchan.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20031023004122/http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501031027/int_bachchan.html |url-statusdead |archive-date23 October 2003 |magazineTime |titleThe Legend |date27 October 2003 |firstAlex |lastPerry}}</ref> Early life and family
{{further|Bachchan family}}
Bachchan was born on 11 October 1942 in Allahabad (now Prayagraj) to Hindi poet Harivansh Rai Bachchan and social activist Teji Bachchan.<ref>{{cite news |lastMasih |firstArchana |date9 October 2012 |titleTake a tour of Amitabh's home in Allahabad |urlhttp://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-take-a-tour-of-amitabhs-home-in-allahabad/20121009.htm |workRediff.com |access-date14 February 2014 |archive-date24 December 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181224222316/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-take-a-tour-of-amitabhs-home-in-allahabad/20121009.htm%20 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Harivansh Rai Bachchan was an Awadhi Hindu Kayastha,<ref>{{cite news |lastBhattacharya |firstSreemita |titleI am proud of my surname: Amitabh Bachchan |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/I-am-proud-of-my-surname-Amitabh-Bachchan/articleshow/9393354.cms |access-date3 March 2021 |workThe Times of India |date28 July 2011 |archive-date13 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191013050650/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/I-am-proud-of-my-surname-Amitabh-Bachchan/articleshow/9393354.cms |url-statuslive}}</ref> who was fluent in Awadhi,<ref name"sikh">{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN5Z9_ysSgW8C |titleBollywood Cinema: Temples of Desire |lastMishra |firstVijay |date2002 |page131 |publisherPsychology Press |isbn978-0-415-93014-7}}</ref> Hindi and Urdu.<ref name"West-Pavlov">{{cite book |lastWest-Pavlov |firstRussell |titleThe Global South and Literature |date2018 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-1-108-24631-6 |page167 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyMdJDwAAQBAJ&pgPA167}}</ref> Harivansh's ancestors came from a village called Babupatti, in the Raniganj tehsil, in the Pratapgarh district, in the present-day state of Uttar Pradesh, in India.<ref>{{cite web |titleJaya inaugurates library in memory of Harivansh Rai Bachchan |websiteOneIndia.com |publisherGreynium Information Technologies Pvt. Ltd |urlhttp://www.oneindia.com/2006/03/05/jaya-inaugurates-library-in-memory-of-harivansh-rai-bachchan-1141626344.html |access-date18 November 2015 |date6 March 2006 |archive-date19 November 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151119051930/http://www.oneindia.com/2006/03/05/jaya-inaugurates-library-in-memory-of-harivansh-rai-bachchan-1141626344.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> Teji Bachchan was a Punjabi Sikh Khatri from Lyallpur, Punjab, British India (present-day Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan).<ref name"sikh" /><ref>{{cite news |titleAmitabh Bachchan remembers 'most beautiful woman' mother on her birthday |urlhttps://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/amitabh-bachchan-remembers-most-beautiful-woman-mother-on-her-birthday/articleshow/40115335.cms |access-date3 March 2021 |workThe Economic Times |date12 August 2014 |archive-date29 April 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220429032403/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/amitabh-bachchan-remembers-most-beautiful-woman-mother-on-her-birthday/articleshow/40115335.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref> Bachchan has a younger brother, Ajitabh, who is five years younger than him.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaWquGT2c6DkC&pgPA327 |page327 |titleIn the Afternoon of Time: An Autobiography |authorHarivansh Rai Bachchan |publisherPenguin Books India |year2001 |isbn0-14-027663-7}}</ref>
Bachchan's parents were initially going to name him Inquilaab (Hindustani for "Revolution"), inspired by the phrase Inquilab Zindabad ("Long live the revolution") popularly used during the Indian independence struggle; the name Amitabh was suggested to his father by poet Sumitranandan Pant.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/did-you-know-/Amitabh-was-initially-named-Inquilaab/articleshow/15889267.cms |titleAmitabh was initially named Inquilaab |workThe Times of India |date28 August 2012 |access-date19 May 2017 |archive-date13 August 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170813134240/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/did-you-know-/Amitabh-was-initially-named-Inquilaab/articleshow/15889267.cms |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"N18Kbc" /> Although his surname was Srivastava, Amitabh's father, who opposed the caste system, had adopted the pen name Bachchan ("child-like" in colloquial Hindi), under which he published all of his works.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/I-am-proud-of-my-surname-Amitabh-Bachchan/articleshow/9393354.cms |date28 July 2011 |access-date26 July 2017 |titleI am proud of my surname Amitabh Bachchan |archive-date30 August 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180830194021/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/I-am-proud-of-my-surname-Amitabh-Bachchan/articleshow/9393354.cms |url-statuslive}}</ref> When his father was looking to get him admitted to a school, he and Bachchan's mother decided the family's name should be Bachchan instead of Shrivastava.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://gulfnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-got-his-surname-bacause-of-caste-system-1.65525580 |titleAmitabh Bachchan got his surname bacause of caste system |websitegulfnews.com |date30 July 2019 |access-date22 September 2020 |archive-date2 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201002091321/https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-got-his-surname-bacause-of-caste-system-1.65525580 |url-statuslive}}</ref> It is with this last name that Amitabh debuted in films and used for all other practical purposes, Bachchan has become the surname for all of his immediate family.<ref>{{cite book |titleIn The Afternoon Time |lastBachchan |firstHarivansh Rai |publisherViking Pr |year1998 |isbn978-0-670-88158-1}}</ref> Bachchan's father died in 2003, and his mother in 2007.<ref>{{cite web |titleTeji Bachchan passes away |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id2078579f-853d-48ae-b826-eeee479169e2&ParentIDd5c75cbf-62a5-49eb-a016-0cf71383854b&&HeadlineBig+B's+mother+Teji+Bachchan+is+no+more |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071225061509/http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id2078579f-853d-48ae-b826-eeee479169e2&ParentIDd5c75cbf-62a5-49eb-a016-0cf71383854b&&HeadlineBig+B%27s+mother+Teji+Bachchan+is+no+more |url-statusdead |archive-date25 December 2007 |workHindustan Times |authorKhan, Alifiya |access-date10 February 2011}}</ref>
Bachchan's secondary education was at Boys' High School & College in Allahabad and Sherwood College in Nainital. He attended Kirori Mal College at the University of Delhi in Delhi.<ref>{{cite news|titleAmitabh Bachchan's journey to the top|urlhttp://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/Amitabh+Bachchan%27s+journey+to+the+top/1/65773.html|newspaperIndia Today|date10 October 2009|access-date23 May 2014|archive-date11 October 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201011115047/https://www.indiatoday.in/headlines-today-top-stories/story/amitabh-bachchans-journey-to-the-top-58283-2009-10-10|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleBachchan@77 – 'Big B was a boxer when he was Chhota B' |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/bachchan-77-big-b-was-a-boxer-when-he-was-chhota-b/story-IhMWG9vPh7cq2DMZV6sR0N.html |workHindustan Times |date11 October 2019 |access-date4 January 2020 |archive-date25 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191225021631/https://m.hindustantimes.com/cities/bachchan-77-big-b-was-a-boxer-when-he-was-chhota-b/story-IhMWG9vPh7cq2DMZV6sR0N_amp.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> He graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from Kirori Mal College in 1962.<ref>{{cite web |titleकिरोड़ीमल कॉलेज हॉस्टल का कमरा नंबर-66, दीवार पर टंगी बिग बी की तस्वीर... डीयू का इतिहास |urlhttps://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/metro/delhi/other-news/delhi-university-kirori-mal-college-hostel-amitabh-bachchan-bsc-read-here-du-history/articleshow/92466073.cms |access-date13 September 2022 |websiteNavbharat Times |languagehi |archive-date13 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220913073040/https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/metro/delhi/other-news/delhi-university-kirori-mal-college-hostel-amitabh-bachchan-bsc-read-here-du-history/articleshow/92466073.cms |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date2 September 2022 |titleKBC 14: जब BSc लेकर पछताए थे अमिताभ बच्चन, नहीं याद रहते थे त्रिकोणमिति के फॉर्मूले, सुनाया मजेदार किस्सा |urlhttps://www.aajtak.in/entertainment/television/story/amitabh-bachchan-took-bsc-difficult-to-learn-trigonometry-formula-kbc-14-komal-gupta-50-lakh-tmovk-1529627-2022-09-02 |access-date13 September 2022 |websiteAaj Tak |languagehi |archive-date12 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220912232412/https://www.aajtak.in/entertainment/television/story/amitabh-bachchan-took-bsc-difficult-to-learn-trigonometry-formula-kbc-14-komal-gupta-50-lakh-tmovk-1529627-2022-09-02 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title10 bollywood celebrities who graduated from DU |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/10-bollywood-stars-who-passed-out-from-du-306417-2016-02-17 |access-date13 September 2022 |websiteIndia Today |date17 February 2016 |archive-date13 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220913115932/https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/10-bollywood-stars-who-passed-out-from-du-306417-2016-02-17 |url-statuslive}}</ref> When Bachchan finished his studies, his father approached Prithviraj Kapoor, the founder of Prithvi Theatre and patriarch of the Kapoor acting family, to see if there was an opening for him, but Kapoor offered no encouragement.<ref name page412>{{cite book |page312 |titleIn the Afternoon of Time: An Autobiography |authorHarivansh Rai Bachchan |publisherPenguin Books India |year2001 |url{{GBurl|idaWquGT2c6DkC|p312}} |isbn0-14-027663-7}}</ref> Bachchan was a friend of Rajiv Gandhi and Sanjay Gandhi, before he became an actor. He used to spend time with them when he was a resident in New Delhi. Bachchan's family were very close to the Nehru-Gandhi family of politicians. When Sonia Gandhi first came to India from Italy before her marriage, Bachchan had received her at the Palam International Airport on 13 January 1968. She spent 48 days at Bachchan's house with his parents before her wedding to Rajiv.<ref>{{cite web |lastKidwai |firstRasheed |date11 October 2018 |titleAmitabh Bachchan, Rajiv Gandhi and a tale of two families |urlhttps://news.abplive.com/blog/amitabh-bachchan-rajiv-gandhi-and-a-tale-of-two-families-766548 |access-date13 September 2022 |websitenews.abplive.com |archive-date13 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220913081231/https://news.abplive.com/blog/amitabh-bachchan-rajiv-gandhi-and-a-tale-of-two-families-766548 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In the late 1960s, Bachchan applied to be a newsreader for All India Radio in Delhi, but "failed the audition".<ref name"page412" /><ref>{{cite news |titleWhen Ameen Sayani refused audition to Amitabh Bachchan thrice, asked him to take appointment: 'I would have been on streets' |urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/when-ameen-sayani-refused-audition-to-amitabh-bachchan-thrice-asked-him-to-take-appointment-9172743/ |workThe Indian Express |date21 February 2024 |access-date26 March 2024}}</ref> He became a business executive for Bird & Company in Kolkata (Calcutta),<ref name"page412" /> {{When|dateSeptember 2022}} and worked in theatre before starting his film career.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Amitabh-Bachchan |encyclopediabritannica.com |titleAmitabh Bachchan |access-date16 December 2020 |archive-date14 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210214212940/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amitabh-Bachchan |url-statuslive}}</ref> It is thought that his mother might have had some influence on his choice of career, for she always insisted that he should "take centre stage".<ref>{{cite book |page9 |titleMy Life: Amitabh Bachchan |author<!-- not stated --> |publisherGeneral Press |urlhttps://www.amazon.de/dp/B07ZFMJ34R |date22 October 2019 |isbn978-9389440737 }}</ref>{{According to whom|dateSeptember 2022}} Acting career {{further|Amitabh Bachchan filmography}} Early career (1969–1972) Bachchan made his film debut in 1969, as a voice narrator in Mrinal Sen's National Award–winning film Bhuvan Shome.<ref>{{cite news |authorSuresh Kohli |urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article3428922.ece |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130205112700/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article3428922.ece |url-statusdead |archive-date5 February 2013 |titleArts / Cinema: Bhuvan Shome (1969) |workThe Hindu |date17 May 2012 |access-date11 December 2012 |locationChennai, India}}</ref> His first acting role was as one of the seven protagonists in the film Saat Hindustani,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://scroll.in/reel/852519/before-stardom-amitabh-bachchans-drudge-years-are-a-study-in-perseverance-and-persona-building |titleBefore stardom: Amitabh Bachchan's drudge years are a study in perseverance and persona building |firstNandini |lastRamnath |websiteScroll.in |date8 October 2017 |access-date20 December 2019 |archive-date21 August 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190821085713/https://scroll.in/reel/852519/before-stardom-amitabh-bachchans-drudge-years-are-a-study-in-perseverance-and-persona-building |url-statuslive}}</ref> directed by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and featuring Utpal Dutt, Anwar Ali (brother of comedian Mehmood), Madhu and Jalal Agha.<ref>{{cite news |authorAvijit Ghosh |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Big-Bs-debut-film-hit-the-screens-40-yrs-ago-today/articleshow/5206070.cms |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130615185810/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-07/india/28085479_1_amitabh-bachchan-saat-hindustani-malayalam-actor |url-statuslive |archive-date15 June 2013 |titleBig B's debut film hit the screens 40 yrs ago, today |access-date11 December 2012 |workThe Times of India |date7 November 2009}}</ref><ref name"First national award">{{cite web |urlhttp://in.rediff.com/movies/2007/aug/09amitabh.htm |titleI felt I did a good job in Black |workRediff.com |date9 August 2007 |access-date24 March 2012 |archive-date25 May 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110525045308/http://in.rediff.com/movies/2007/aug/09amitabh.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref> Anand (1971) followed, in which Bachchan starred alongside Rajesh Khanna. His role as a doctor with a cynical view of life garnered Bachchan his first Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor. He then played his first antagonist role as an infatuated lover-turned-murderer in Parwana (1971). Following Parwana were several films, including Reshma Aur Shera (1971). During this time, he made a guest appearance in the film Guddi which starred his future wife Jaya Bhaduri. He narrated part of the film Bawarchi.<ref>{{cite book |lastRammesh |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idazlpDwAAQBAJ&pgPT141 |titleHuman Cinema: The Films of Hrishikesh Mukherjee |date17 August 2018 |publisherNotion Press |isbn978-1-64324-955-1}}</ref> In 1972, he made an appearance in the road action comedy Bombay to Goa directed by S. Ramanathan which was moderately successful.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat178&catNameMTk3Mg|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121012163932/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat178&catNameMTk3Mg|archive-date12 October 2012 |titleBox Office 1972 |publisherBox Office India |date12 October 2012 |access-date21 July 2018}}</ref> Many of Bachchan's films during this early period did not do well.<ref nameiconic1>{{cite web |title80 iconic performances 1/10 |urlhttp://www.filmfare.com/details.php?id950 |date1 June 2010 |access-date29 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120118035457/http://www.filmfare.com/details.php?id950 |archive-date18 January 2012}}</ref> His only film with Mala Sinha, Sanjog (1972) was also a box office failure.<ref>{{cite news |last1Lokapally |first1Vijay |titleSanjog (1972) |urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/Sanjog-1972/article16926488.ece |access-date14 March 2020 |workThe Hindu |date22 December 2016 |archive-date24 December 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181224230427/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/Sanjog-1972/article16926488.ece |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Rise to prominence (1973–1974)
Bachchan was struggling, seen as a "failed newcomer" who, by the age of 30, had only two successes (as a lead in Bombay to Goa and a supporting role in Anand).<ref>{{cite news |titleRajesh Khanna didn't charge a penny for Anand; earned 10 times his remuneration through distribution: Historian Dilip Thakur |urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/rajesh-khanna-didnt-charge-a-penny-for-anand-earned-10-times-his-remuneration-through-distribution-9544282/ |workThe Indian Express |date1 September 2024 |access-date21 December 2024}}</ref> Bachchan was then discovered by screenwriter duo Salim–Javed, consisting of Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar.<ref name"indianexpress2">{{cite news |titleRevisiting Prakash Mehra's Zanjeer: The film that made Amitabh Bachchan |urlhttp://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/revisiting-prakash-mehra-zanjeer-the-film-that-made-amitabh-bachchan-4714064/ |workThe Indian Express |date20 June 2017 |access-date24 November 2017 |archive-date1 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201033352/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/revisiting-prakash-mehra-zanjeer-the-film-that-made-amitabh-bachchan-4714064/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Salim Khan wrote the story, screenplay and script of Zanjeer (1973), and conceived the "angry young man" persona of the lead role. Javed Akhtar came on board as co-writer,<ref name"timesofindia">{{cite news |titleWhy Salim Khan was angry with Amitabh Bachchan |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Why-Salim-Khan-was-angry-with-Amitabh-Bachchan/articleshow/27245793.cms |workThe Times of India |date13 December 2013 |access-date27 November 2017 |archive-date2 January 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180102180945/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Why-Salim-Khan-was-angry-with-Amitabh-Bachchan/articleshow/27245793.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref> and Prakash Mehra, who saw the script as potentially groundbreaking, as the film's director. However, they were struggling to find an actor for the lead "angry young man" role; it was turned down by several actors, owing to it going against the "romantic hero" image dominant in the industry at the time.<ref name"indianexpress2" /> Salim-Javed "saw his talent, which most makers didn't. He was exceptional, a genius actor who was in films that weren't good."<ref name"hindustantimes">{{cite news |titleDeewaar was the perfect script: Amitabh Bachchan on 42 years of the cult film |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/deewaar-was-the-perfect-script-amitabh-bachchan-on-42-years-of-the-cult-film/story-x2hy87zQ0ebVlsVMV59U2I.html |workHindustan Times |date29 January 2017 |access-date24 November 2017 |archive-date1 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201030549/http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/deewaar-was-the-perfect-script-amitabh-bachchan-on-42-years-of-the-cult-film/story-x2hy87zQ0ebVlsVMV59U2I.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> According to Salim Khan, they "strongly felt that Amitabh was the ideal casting for Zanjeer".<ref name"indianexpress2" /> Salim Khan introduced Bachchan to Prakash Mehra,<ref name"timesofindia" /> and Salim-Javed insisted that Bachchan be cast for the role.<ref name"indianexpress2" />
Zanjeer was a crime film with violent action,<ref name"indianexpress2" /> in sharp contrast to the romantically themed films that had generally preceded it, and it established Amitabh in a new persona—the "angry young man" of Bollywood.<ref nameangryyoungman>{{cite news |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1945451.stm |titleFilm legend promotes Bollywood |publisherBBC News |date23 April 2002 |access-date15 January 2010 |archive-date24 March 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120324060409/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1945451.stm |url-statuslive}}</ref> He earned his first Filmfare Award nomination for Best Actor, with Filmfare later considering this one of the most iconic performances in Bollywood history.<ref nameiconic1 /> The film was a blockbuster and one of the highest-grossing films of that year, breaking Bachchan's dry spell at the box office and making him a star.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.tribuneindia.com/news/features/zanjeer50-film-that-ushered-in-the-angry-young-man-532575/|title'Zanjeer'@50: Film that ushered in the angry young man|date6 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleTop Actors |urlhttp://www.boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageNametop_actors |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080219165002/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageNametop_actors |archive-date19 February 2008 |access-date24 April 2020 |workBox Office India}}</ref> It was the first of many collaborations between Salim-Javed and Amitabh; the duo wrote many of their subsequent scripts with Bachchan in mind for the lead role, and insisted on him being cast for their later films.<ref name"hindustantimes" /> Salim Khan also introduced Bachchan to director Manmohan Desai with whom he formed a long and successful association, alongside Prakash Mehra and Yash Chopra.<ref name="timesofindia" />
Eventually, Bachchan became one of the most successful leading men of the film industry. His portrayal of the wronged hero fighting a crooked system and circumstances of deprivation in films like Zanjeer, Deewaar, Trishul, Kaala Patthar and Shakti resonated with the masses of the time, especially the youth who harboured a simmering discontent owing to social ills such as poverty, hunger, unemployment, corruption, social inequality and the brutal excesses of The Emergency. This led to Bachchan being dubbed as the "angry young man", a journalistic catchphrase that became a metaphor for the dormant rage, frustration, restlessness, sense of rebellion and anti-establishment disposition of an entire generation, prevalent in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/10614647 |titleThe 'Angry Young Man' of 'Zanjeer': From Osborne to Bachchan |firstMaanvi |lastNarcisa |websiteAcademia |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date4 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230404051610/https://www.academia.edu/10614647 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-19893525 |titleWhy Amitabh Bachchan is more than a superstar |date11 October 2012 |access-date21 July 2018 |publisherBBC |archive-date25 September 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180925035704/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-19893525 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/281116060 |titleWriting the Angry Young Man: Salim-Javed's screenplays for Amitabh Bachchan |firstClaus |lastTieber |date21 August 2015 |access-date21 July 2018 |viaResearchGate |archive-date11 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201011115044/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281116060_Writing_the_Angry_Young_Man_Salim-Javed%27s_screenplays_for_Amitabh_Bachchan |url-status=live }}</ref>
The year 1973 was also when he married Jaya, and around this time they appeared in several films together: not only Zanjeer but also subsequent films such as Abhimaan, which was released around the same time after their wedding and was also successful at the box office.<ref>{{cite news|access-date24 March 2023|titleAbhimaan: A Bollywood marital drama that's relevant even after 50 years|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-64813501|newspaperBBC News|date16 March 2023}}</ref> Later, he played the role of Vikram, once again along with Rajesh Khanna, in the film Namak Haraam, a social drama directed by Hrishikesh Mukherjee and addressing themes of friendship.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe common man's film maker |urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2013/aug/27/the-common-mans-film-maker-510849.html |access-date16 January 2021 |websiteThe New Indian Express |date27 August 2013 |archive-date2 March 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200302043833/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2013/aug/27/The-common-mans-film-maker-510849.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> The film proved to be a superhit and Bachchan won his second Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe common man's film maker |urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2013/aug/27/the-common-mans-film-maker-510849.html |access-date16 January 2021 |websiteThe New Indian Express |date27 August 2013 |archive-date2 March 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200302043833/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2013/aug/27/The-common-mans-film-maker-510849.html |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/movie-awards/filmfare-awards-winners/bollywood/1974/101 |titleFilmfare Awards Winners 1974: Complete list of winners of Filmfare Awards 1974 |websiteThe Times of India |access-date2 April 2020 |archive-date11 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201011115045/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/movie-awards/filmfare-awards-winners/bollywood/1974/101 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The flow of successes continued for Bachchan in 1974.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/celebrities/manoj-kumar-recalls-special-memories-of-life-with-amitabh-bachchan-in-roti-kapda-aur-makaan-715676|titleManoj Kumar recalls 'special memories of life' with Amitabh Bachchan in 'Roti, Kapda Aur Makaan'|date30 June 2021}}</ref> He began the year with a guest appearance in Dulal Guha's blockbuster social drama film Dost.<ref>{{Cite web |titleRewind – Greatest Indian Film Sholay Is 43 Years Old |urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid4183|publisherBox Office India}}</ref> After this, he starred in Aravind Sen's drama film Kasauti and Narendra Bedi's crime thriller Benaam, both of which ended up as moderate commercial successes. Bachchan's next release was Manoj Kumar's fourth directional venture Roti Kapada Aur Makaan.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjcLihj0Yzi0C&pgPA12 |titleIndia of My Dreams |isbn9788171886890 |access-date25 January 2022 |last1Kumar |first1Surendra |last2Kapur |first2Pradeep Kumar |year2008|publisherAcademic Foundation}}</ref> The film opened to excellent response all over the country, eventually taking top spot at the box office that year and emerging an All Time Blockbuster as well as Bachchan's biggest upto that point of time.<ref name"SK"/> Before the end of year, he delivered a hit in Ravi Tandon's crime thriller Majboor.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/majboor|titleMajboor (1974)|websiteRotten Tomatoes}}</ref> Written by Salim-Javed, it also had Pran and Parveen Babi in the lead.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/majboor-1974/article5071757.ece|titleMajboor (1974)|newspaperThe Hindu |date29 August 2013 }}</ref> Superstardom (1975–1988) In 1975, Bachchan starred in a variety of film genres, from the comedy Chupke Chupke and the crime drama Faraar to the romantic drama Mili.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/hrishikesh-mukherjee-chupke-chupke-subtle-antidote-to-angry-young-man-era-7915586/|titleHrishikesh Mukherjee's Chupke Chupke was the subtle antidote to the 'angry young man' era; a balance we have forgotten today|date14 May 2022}}</ref> This was also the year in which he starred in two films regarded as important in Hindi cinema history, both written by Salim-Javed, who again insisted on casting Bachchan.<ref name"hindustantimes" /> The first was Deewaar, directed by Yash Chopra, where he worked with Shashi Kapoor, Nirupa Roy, Parveen Babi, and Neetu Singh. The film emerged a blockbuster at the box office and earned him another Filmfare nomination for Best Actor.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid8751|titleJigra v Vicky Vidya Ka Woh Wala Video: First Week Circuit Comparison|date20 October 2024}}</ref> Indiatimes ranks Deewaar among the Top 25 Must See Bollywood Films.<ref name"mustsee" /> The other, released on 15 August 1975, was Sholay, which became the highest-grossing film ever in India at the time,<ref nameboxoffice>{{cite web |titleSholay |urlhttp://www.ibosnetwork.com/asp/filmbodetails.asp?idSholay |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120630155123/http://www.ibosnetwork.com/asp/filmbodetails.asp?idSholay |url-statusdead |archive-date30 June 2012 |publisherInternational Business Overview Standard |access-date6 December 2007}}</ref> in which Bachchan played the role of Jaidev. Deewaar and Sholay are often credited with exalting Bachchan to the heights of superstardom, two years after he became a star with Zanjeer, and consolidating his domination of the industry throughout the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.uiowa.edu/~incinema/sholay.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150102025542/http://www.uiowa.edu/~incinema/sholay.html |archive-date2 January 2015 |titleTop Actor |date2 January 2015 |access-date3 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageNametop_actors |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029191201/http://boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageNametop_actors |archive-date29 October 2013 |titleBox Office 1983 |publisherBox Office India |date29 October 2013 |access-date21 July 2018}}</ref> In 1999, BBC India declared Sholay the "Film of the Millennium" and, like Deewaar, it has been cited by Indiatimes Movies as among the Top 25 Must See Bollywood Films.<ref name"mustsee">{{cite news |authorKanwar, Rachna |title25 Must See Bollywood Movies |date3 October 2005 |urlhttp://movies.indiatimes.com/Special_Features/25_Must_See_Bollywood_Movies/articleshow/msid-1250837,curpg-10.cms |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071015033756/http://movies.indiatimes.com/Special_Features/25_Must_See_Bollywood_Movies/articleshow/msid-1250837%2Ccurpg-10.cms |url-statusdead |archive-date15 October 2007 |publisherIndiatimes movies |access-date=6 December 2007}}</ref> In that same year, the judges of the 50th annual Filmfare Awards awarded it with the special distinction award called the Filmfare Best Film of 50 Years.
starrer Sholay (1975) recorded an estimated {{INR}}15-18 crore footfalls, making it the highest grossing Indian film in terms of audience attendance to date.<ref>{{Cite web |lastTeam |firstIndicine |date15 August 2015 |titleAskIndicine: Live QnA starts at 4:30PM |urlhttps://www.indicine.com/movies/bollywood/askindicine-live-qna-starts-at-430pm/ |access-date9 September 2024 |language=en-US}}</ref>]]
In 1976, he was cast by Yash Chopra in the romantic musical Kabhi Kabhie.<ref>{{cite news|titleYash Chopra King of Romance|urlhttp://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?keywordbollywood&ID282619&subcatg&nid282619|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130129171228/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?keywordbollywood&ID282619&subcatg&nid282619|url-statusdead|archive-date29 January 2013|access-date28 October 2012|newspaperNDTV|date22 October 2012}}</ref> Bachchan starred as a young poet, Amit Malhotra, who falls deeply in love with a beautiful young girl named Pooja (Rakhee Gulzar) who ends up marrying someone else (Shashi Kapoor). The film was notable for portraying Bachchan as a romantic hero, a far cry from his "angry young man" roles like Zanjeer and Deewaar. Despite its heavy theme, Kabhi Kabhie went on to become a superhit.<ref>{{Cite news|titleRewind - Sixty Years Of Dharmendra|urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid6104|workBox Office India|languageen|date24 November 2020|archive-date12 July 2023|access-date12 July 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230712182139/https://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid6104|url-statuslive}}</ref> Its soundtrack composed by Khayyam and lyrics written by Sahir Ludhianvi dominated the year-end annual list of Binaca Geetmala and was one of the best-selling Hindi film albums of the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|titleMusic Hits 1970-1979|urlhttp://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat282&catNameMTk3MC0xOTc5|publisherBox Office India|date5 February 2010| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100205042855/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat282&catNameMTk3MC0xOTc5 | archive-date5 February 2010 }}</ref> Bachchan was again nominated for the Filmfare Best Actor Award for his role in the film. That same year, he played a double role in another hit Adalat as father and son. In 1977, he won his first Filmfare Best Actor Award for his performance in Amar Akbar Anthony, in which he played the third lead opposite Vinod Khanna and Rishi Kapoor as Anthony Gonsalves. The film was the highest-grossing film of that year. His other major hits that year include Parvarish and Khoon Pasina.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/recentpost/flashback-1977-trade-informa-2531|titleFlashback 1977 - Trade Guide Classification|date8 August 2024}}</ref>
He once again resumed double roles in films such as Kasme Vaade (1978) as Amit and Shankar and Don (1978) playing the characters of Don, a leader of an underworld gang and his look-alike Vijay. His performance won him his second Filmfare Best Actor Award. He also gave towering performances in Yash Chopra's Trishul and Prakash Mehra's Muqaddar Ka Sikandar both of which earned him further Filmfare Best Actor nominations. 1978 is arguably considered his most successful year at the box office since all of his six releases in the same year, namely Muqaddar Ka Sikandar, Trishul, Don, Kasme Vaade, Ganga Ki Saugandh and Besharam were box office successes, with the former three being the consecutive highest-grossing films of the year, a rare feat in Hindi cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |date12 October 2012 |titleBoxofficeindia.com |urlhttp://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat184&catNameMTk3OA |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121012163917/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat184&catNameMTk3OA|archive-date12 October 2012 |access-date14 May 2023 |websiteBoxOfficeIndia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://m.rediff.com/movies/2000/oct/11box.htm |titlerediff.com, Movies: The Towering Inferno: Amitabh Bachchan |workRediff.com |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041241/http://m.rediff.com/movies/2000/oct/11box.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 1979, Bachchan starred in Suhaag which was the highest-earning film of that year.<ref name"SK">{{citation|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid3464|titleShashi Kapoor Passes Away|publisherBox Office India|date5 December 2017}}</ref> In the same year, he also enjoyed critical acclaim and commercial success with films like Jurmana, Mr. Natwarlal and Kaala Patthar.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.boxofficeindia.com/npages.php?pageshownews&articleid5005&nCat|titleLegendary Director Yash Chopra Passes Away|date22 October 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131121054713/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/npages.php?pageshownews&articleid5005&nCat |archive-date21 November 2013 }}</ref> He was required to use his singing voice for the first time in a song from the film Mr. Natwarlal in which he starred with Rekha. Bachchan's performance in the film saw him nominated for both the Filmfare Award for Best Actor and the Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer. He also received a Best Actor nomination for Kaala Patthar and then went on to be nominated again in 1980 for the Raj Khosla directed superhit film Dostana, in which he starred opposite Shatrughan Sinha and Zeenat Aman.<ref name"Diwali">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid4407 |titleThe Biggest Diwali BLOCKBUSTERS Of All Time |publisher boxofficeindia.com |date7 November 2018 |access-date7 November 2018}}</ref> His other releases of 1980, Do Aur Do Paanch and Shaan underperformed with the latter ending its run with average numbers owing to huge costs, but Vijay Anand's Ram Balram alongside Dharmendra was a box office hit.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid4467|title2.0 - Among The Biggest Films Ever Made In India|date27 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.news18.com/movies/when-zeenat-aman-and-rekha-signed-their-only-collaboration-to-date-8597010.html|titleWhen Zeenat Aman And Rekha Signed Their Only Collaboration To Date|date29 September 2023|websiteNews18}}</ref>
This changed in 1981 with back-to-back huge blockbusters in Naseeb and Laawaris, both of which were among the top 5 highest-grossing films of 1981.<ref>{{cite web |titleRewind - Forty Years Of Historic Blockbuster KRANTI |urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid6155 |access-date13 February 2021 |publisher=boxofficeindia.com}}</ref>
Bachchan also had two hits, Yaarana and Kaalia and a moderately successful venture Barsaat Ki Ek Raat the same year and received praise for his performance in Yash Chopra's romantic drama Silsila, which attracted considerable attention from the media when it was in production due to its casting. Although the film did not do well commercially, it gained cult status in later years and is considered one of Chopra's best works ever.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid5792|titleAkshay Kumar Has A Historic Year|date8 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema//article59817441.ece |titleYash, he can! |lastUdasi |firstHarshikaa |date3 October 2012 |workThe Hindu |access-date26 March 2022 |archive-date26 March 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220326091209/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema//article59817441.ece |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Sunday">{{Cite magazine |urlhttps://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.22939/page/n495/mode/2up?qSilsila&viewtheater |titleThe making of Silsila |date16 August 1981 |magazineSunday |pages44–45 |volume9 |issue9 |access-date=26 March 2022 }}</ref>
In 1982, he played double roles in the musical Satte Pe Satta and action drama Desh Premee which succeeded at the box office along with highly successful ventures like action comedy Namak Halaal, action drama Khud-Daar and the critically acclaimed films Shakti and Bemisal.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid5659|titleTop Comedy Nett Grossers - Housefull 4 Tops|date28 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleFrom the India Today archives (1984) - Bollywood's big budget survivors|urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/from-the-india-today-archives-1984-bollywood-s-big-budget-survivors-1994476-2022-08-30|date30 August 2022}}</ref> On 26 July 1982, while filming a fight scene with co-actor Puneet Issar for Coolie, Bachchan had a near-fatal intestinal injury.<ref name"Coolie fight scene">{{cite web |workRediff.com |titleBachchan injured whilst shooting scene |urlhttp://www.rediff.com/entertai/2001/oct/11amit.htm |access-date11 March 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070304103635/http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2001/oct/11amit.htm |archive-date4 March 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Bachchan was performing his stunts in the film and one scene required him to fall onto a table and then on the ground. However, as he jumped towards the table, the corner of the table struck his abdomen, resulting in a splenic rupture from which he lost a significant amount of blood. He required an emergency splenectomy and remained critically ill in the hospital for many months, at times close to death. There were long queues of well-wishing fans outside the hospital where he was recuperating; the public response included prayers in places of worship and offers to sacrifice limbs to save him.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Entertainment/Amitabh-Bachchan-no-longer-excited-about-birthdays/Article1-463669.aspx |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130616100713/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Entertainment/Amitabh-Bachchan-no-longer-excited-about-birthdays/Article1-463669.aspx |url-statusdead |archive-date16 June 2013 |titleAmitabh Bachchan no longer excited about birthdays |workHindustan Times |date10 October 2009 |access-date11 December 2012}}</ref> Nevertheless, he resumed filming later that year after a long period of recuperation. The director, Manmohan Desai, altered the ending of Coolie: Bachchan's character was originally intended to have been killed off; but, after the change of script, the character lived in the end. Desai felt it would have been inappropriate for the man who had just fended off death in real life to be killed on screen. The footage of the fight scene is frozen at the critical moment, and a caption appears onscreen marking it as the instant of the actor's injury.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?SectionMovies&ID250266&subcatg&keywordBollywood&nid250266 |title30 years after the Coolie accident: Big B's "second birthday" |publisherMovies.ndtv.com |date2 August 2012 |access-date11 December 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130129170555/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?SectionMovies&ID250266&subcatg&keywordBollywood&nid250266 |archive-date29 January 2013}}</ref> The film was released in 1983, and partly due to the huge publicity of Bachchan's accident, it emerged an All Time Blockbuster and top-grossing film of the year.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid3904|titleInfinity War Dominates – 102 Not Out Slow Start|date4 May 2018}}</ref> He then played a triple role in S. Ramanathan's action drama Mahaan, which proved to be a flop.<ref name"TG1983"/> Other releases that year, Nastik and Pukar were average fares, but Andhaa Kaanoon (in which he had a small role) was a blockbuster.<ref name"TG1983">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/Trade-Guide-1983-Classification.jpg|titleTrade Guide Classification (1983)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid4612 |title2018 Has High Number Of Blockbusters |date9 January 2019 |access-date16 January 2024 |archive-date16 January 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240116170928/https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid4612 |url-statuslive}}</ref> During a stint in politics from 1984 to 1987, five of his completed films were released, out of which four emerged major successes, these were - Manmohan Desai's action film Mard (1985), which proved to be a massive blockbuster, followed by superhits, Sharaabi (1984) and Geraftaar (1985) and a hit film Aakhree Raasta (1986).<ref name"Diwali"/><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/Film-Information-1984-Classifica.jpg|titleTrade Guide Classification (1984)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/TG-Classifications-1986-1.jpg|titleTrade Guide Classification (1986)}}</ref> After his stint in politics ended, Bachchan returned to films in 1988, playing the title role in Tinnu Anand's vigilante action film Shahenshah, which opened to bumper response all over the nation and emerged a huge hit as well as the second highest-grossing film of the year.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/TG-1988-Classifications-Page1.jpg|titleTrade Guide Classification (1988)}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |firstSimran |lastBhargava |titleAmitabh Bachchan makes spectacular come-back with Shahenshah |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/films/story/19880315-amitabh-bachchan-makes-spectacular-come-back-with-shahenshah-797041-1988-03-15 |access-date17 August 2020 |workIndia Today |date15 March 1988}}</ref>
Health issues
He was later diagnosed with Myasthenia gravis. The illness weakened him both mentally and physically. At this time he became pessimistic, expressing concern with how a new film would be received, and stating before every release, "Yeh film to flop hogi!" ("This film will flop").<ref name"Myasthenia Gravis">{{cite web |publishermouthshut.com |titleReviews on: To Be or Not To Be Amitabh Bachchan |authorMohamed, Khalid |urlhttp://www.mouthshut.com/review/To_Be_or_Not_To_Be_Amitabh_Bachchan_-_Khalid_Mohamed-72513-1.html |access-date11 March 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050901155545/http://www.mouthshut.com/review/To_Be_or_Not_To_Be_Amitabh_Bachchan_-_Khalid_Mohamed-72513-1.html |archive-date1 September 2005 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Career fluctuations, sabbatical, business ventures and acting comeback (1989–1999) After the success of his comeback film however, Bachchan's star power began to wane as his subsequent releases like Gangaa Jamunaa Saraswati (1988), Jaadugar, Toofan and Main Azaad Hoon (all released in 1989) did not do well commercially.<ref>{{cite news |title'A simple man who narrated great stories' |urlhttps://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/a-simple-man-who-narrated-great-stories/cid/625140 |access-date26 November 2020 |publisherThe Telegraph (Kolkata) |date19 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.filmcompanion.in/ampstories/web-stories/7-biggest-flops-of-amitabh-bachchan|title7 Biggest Flops Of Amitabh Bachchan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.mensxp.com/entertainment/bollywood/143885-director-tinnu-anand-main-azaad-hoon-javed-akhtar-copied-hollywood-film-amitabh-bachchan.html|titleTinnu Anand says Javed Akhtar lied & copied 2 Hollywood films as Amitabh's Main Azaad Hoon|date7 September 2023}}</ref> He did gain success during this period with superhits in K.C. Bokadia's crime drama film Aaj Ka Arjun (1990) and Mukul Anand's masala film Hum (1991), but this momentum was short-lived and his string of box office failures continued with Ajooba, Indrajeet and Akayla.<ref name"SRK"/><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/TG-1991-Classifications-P1.jpg|titleTrade Guide Classification (1991)}}</ref> Notably, despite a decline in number of hits, it was during this era that Bachchan won his first National Film Award for Best Actor for his performance as a Mafia don in the cult film Agneepath (1990).<ref name"1991award">{{cite web |urlhttp://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm38thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName38NFA.pdf |titleAward for the Best Actor |publisherDirectorate of Film Festivals |access-date30 July 2011 |page26|url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120326034004/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm38thNFAAward.aspx?PdfName38NFA.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2012 }}</ref>
After the release of Mukul Anand's moderately successful, but critically acclaimed 1992 epic film Khuda Gawah, Bachchan announced his semi retirement from the film industry. With the exception of the delayed release Insaniyat (1994), Bachchan did not appear in any films for five years.<ref name"SRK">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid7570|titleShahrukh Khan PASSES Where Amitabh Bachchan And Dilip Kumar Did Not|date15 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleWhen Amitabh Bachchan Quit Acting And Wasn't Sure About Returning To Films |urlhttps://www.news18.com/news/movies/when-amitabh-bachchan-quit-acting-and-wasnt-sure-about-returning-to-films-6439315.html |workNews18 |date22 November 2022 |access-date22 January 2025}}</ref>
He turned producer during his temporary retirement period, setting up Amitabh Bachchan Corporation, Ltd. (ABCL) in 1996. ABCL's strategy was to introduce products and services covering an entire cross-section of India's entertainment industry. ABCL's operations were mainstream commercial film production and distribution, audio cassettes and video discs, production and marketing of television software, and celebrity and event management.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.bemoneyaware.com/blog/amitabh-bachchan-from-bankruptcy-to-crorepati |titleAmitabh Bachchan – from bankruptcy to crorepati |date10 September 2011 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date11 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191011234411/https://www.bemoneyaware.com/blog/amitabh-bachchan-from-bankruptcy-to-crorepati |url-statuslive }}</ref> Soon after the company was launched in 1996, the first film it produced was Tere Mere Sapne, which was a box office hit<ref>{{cite web |titleTere Mere Sapne – Movie |urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid2732 |websiteBox Office India |access-date3 February 2019}}</ref> and launched the careers of actors like Arshad Warsi and southern film star Simran.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.rediff.com/business/1999/apr/26abcl.htm |titleRediff on the NeT Business News: Businessman Bachchan braves a bad patch as ABCL falls sick |workRediff.com |access-date2 April 2020 |archive-date15 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200715074014/https://www.rediff.com/business/1999/apr/26abcl.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 1997, Bachchan attempted to make his acting comeback with the film Mrityudata, produced by ABCL. Though Mrityudaata attempted to reprise Bachchan's earlier success as an action hero, the film was a failure both financially and critically.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/collapse-of-mrityudaata-diminishes-amitabh-bachchans-godlike-status/1/275854.html |titleCollapse of Mrityudaata diminishes Amitabh Bachchan's godlike status |websiteIndia Today |date31 May 1997 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date3 September 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170903220429/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/collapse-of-mrityudaata-diminishes-amitabh-bachchans-godlike-status/1/275854.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid3038|titleTubelight Aftermath - The Director At Fault|date29 June 2017}}</ref> ABCL was the main sponsor of the 1996 Miss World beauty pageant, Bangalore, but lost millions. The fiasco and the consequent legal battles surrounding ABCL and various entities after the event, coupled with the fact that ABCL was reported to have overpaid most of its top-level managers, eventually led to its financial and operational collapse in 1997.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/after-dream-venture-abcl-go-bankrupt-amitabh-bachchan-faces-legal-battle-with-creditors/1/253830.html |titleAfter dream venture ABCL go bankrupt, Amitabh Bachchan faces legal battle with creditors |websiteIndia Today |date26 April 1999 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date29 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171229162326/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/after-dream-venture-abcl-go-bankrupt-amitabh-bachchan-faces-legal-battle-with-creditors/1/253830.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://m.rediff.com/money/1999/apr/26abcl.htm |titleRediff on the NeT Business News: Businessman Bachchan braves a bad patch as ABCL falls sick |workRediff.com |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041151/http://m.rediff.com/money/1999/apr/26abcl.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> The company went into administration and was later declared a failed company by the Indian Industries board. The Bombay High Court, in April 1999, restrained Bachchan from selling off his Bombay bungalow 'Prateeksha' and two flats until the pending loan recovery cases of Canara Bank were disposed of. Bachchan had, however, pleaded that he had mortgaged his bungalow to raise funds for his company.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010304/spectrum/main1.htm |titleMuqaddar Ka Sikandar |authorPatil, Vimla |date4 March 2001 |access-date16 May 2007 |archive-date1 February 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090201142907/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010304/spectrum/main1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
Bachchan attempted to revive his acting career, and eventually had commercial success with Bade Miyan Chote Miyan (1998) and Major Saab (1998), and received positive reviews for Sooryavansham (1999), but other films such as Lal Baadshah (1999) and Kohram (1999) were box office failures.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid2556 |titleMajor Saab – Movie |publisherBox Office India |access-date31 August 2018 |archive-date27 August 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180827230924/https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid2556 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://in.rediff.com/movies/1999/may/22soo.htm |authorTaliculam, Sharmila |titleHe's back! |access-date16 May 2007 |archive-date31 August 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180831141658/http://in.rediff.com/movies/1999/may/22soo.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://m.rediff.com/movies/2000/jan/03box.htm |titleRediff on the NeT, Movies: A look at the year gone by |workRediff.com |access-date2 April 2020 |archive-date8 January 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200108083140/https://m.rediff.com/movies/2000/jan/03box.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleKohram – Movie – Box Office India |urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid2387 |websiteboxofficeindia.com |access-date1 June 2021 |archive-date16 May 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210516021701/https://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid2387 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Return to success (2000–present)
In 2000, Bachchan appeared in Aditya Chopra's romantic blockbuster Mohabbatein.<ref>{{Cite web |titleMohabbatein |urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid712 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210319204419/https://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid712 |archive-date19 March 2021 |access-date23 March 2021 |publisherBox Office India}}</ref> He played a stern, elder figure who rivalled the character of Shahrukh Khan.<ref>{{Cite news |lastSomaaya |firstBhawana |date18 October 1999 |titleThree decades of triumphs |workThe Hindu |urlhttp://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/DFB48B3C5A7071E765256940004E87EB?OpenDocument |url-statuslive |access-date25 March 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080427191415/http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/DFB48B3C5A7071E765256940004E87EB?OpenDocument |archive-date27 April 2008}}</ref> His role won him his third Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/movie-awards/filmfare-awards-winners/bollywood/2001/101|titleFilmfare Awards (2001)|newspaperThe Times of India}}</ref> Other hits followed, with Bachchan appearing as an older family patriarch in Ek Rishtaa: The Bond of Love (2001), Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001) and Baghban (2003). As an actor, he continued to perform in a range of characters, receiving critical praise for his performances in Aks (2001), Aankhen (2002), Kaante (2002), Khakee (2004), Dev (2004) and Veer-Zaara (2004). His performance in Aks won him his first Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor.<ref>{{cite news |titleFilmfare Awards Winners From 1953 to 2019 |urlhttps://www.filmfare.com/awards/filmfare-awards/winners |access-date14 February 2020 |workfilmfare.com}}</ref>
One project that did particularly well for Bachchan was Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Black (2005). The film starred Bachchan as an ageing teacher of a deaf-blind girl and followed their relationship. His performance was unanimously praised by critics and audiences and won him his second National Film Award for Best Actor, his fourth Filmfare Best Actor Award, and his second Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor. Taking advantage of this resurgence, Amitabh began endorsing a variety of products and services, appearing in many television and billboard advertisements. In 2005 and 2006, he starred with his son Abhishek in the films Bunty Aur Babli (2005), the Godfather adaptation Sarkar (2005), and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006). All of them were successful at the box office.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid390|titleBunty Aur Babli (2005)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleSarkar – Movie |urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid396 |websiteBox Office India |access-date9 November 2018}}</ref><ref name"BOI gross">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid364|title Kabhi Alvida Na Kehna – Movie – Box Office India}}</ref> His later releases in 2006 and early 2007 were Baabul (2006),<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat212&catNameMjAwNg |titleFilms fail at the BO |publisherBox Office India |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130818140640/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat212 |archive-date18 August 2013}}</ref> Ekalavya (2007) and Nishabd (2007), which failed to do well at the box office but his performances in each of them were praised by critics.<ref name"Bachchan's films fail at the box office">{{cite web |workBollywood Hungama |authorAdarsh, Taran |urlhttp://www.bollywoodhungama.com/trade/top5/326.html |titleTop 5: 'Nishabd', 'N.P.D.' are disasters |access-date26 March 2007 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090114110548/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/trade/top5/326.html |archive-date=14 January 2009}}</ref>
In May 2007, two of his films, the romantic comedy Cheeni Kum and the multi-starrer action drama Shootout at Lokhandwala, were released. Shootout at Lokhandwala did well at the box office and was declared a hit in India, while Cheeni Kum picked up after a slow start and was declared a semi-hit by the end of its theatrical run.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid225 |titleShootout at Lokhandwala – Movie |publisherBox Office India |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041157/https://www.boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid225 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat214&catNameMjAwNw|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130115223235/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat214&catNameMjAwNw|archive-date15 January 2013 |titleBox Office 2007 |publisherBox Office India |date15 January 2013 |access-date3 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/circuit_collection.php?movieid347&cityid1&areadomestic |titleCheeni Kum – Movie – |publisherBox Office India |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041152/https://www.boxofficeindia.com/circuit_collection.php?movieid347&cityid1&areadomestic |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"udxlrh">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat214 |titleBox Office 2007 |publisherBox Office India |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131109040918/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat214 |archive-date9 November 2013}}</ref> A remake of his biggest hit, Sholay (1975), entitled Ram Gopal Varma Ki Aag, released in August of that same year and proved to be a major commercial failure in addition to its poor critical reception.<ref name"udxlrh" /> The year also marked Bachchan's first appearance in an English-language film, Rituparno Ghosh's The Last Lear, co-starring Arjun Rampal and Preity Zinta. The film premiered at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival on 9 September 2007. He received positive reviews from critics who hailed his performance as his best since Black.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://bollywoodhungama.com/features/2007/09/11/3020 |date11 September 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090201132528/http://bollywoodhungama.com/features/2007/09/11/3020 |archive-date1 February 2009 |access-date12 July 2020 |titleThis is Amitabh's best performance after Black|websiteBollywood Hungama }}</ref> Bachchan was slated to play a supporting role in his first international film, Shantaram, directed by Mira Nair and starring Hollywood actor Johnny Depp in the lead. The film was due to begin filming in February 2008 but due to the writer's strike, was pushed to September 2008.<ref name"Hollywood">{{cite web |publisherourbollywood.com |titleAmitabh Bachchan to star with Johnny Depp |urlhttp://www.ourbollywood.com/2007/02/amitabh_bachchan_will_star_opp.html |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20070401195932/http://www.ourbollywood.com/2007/02/amitabh_bachchan_will_star_opp.html |url-statusdead |archive-date1 April 2007 |access-date11 March 2007}}</ref> The film is currently "shelved" indefinitely.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/the-diary-shantaram-film--lumiere-festival-tom-atkinson-hans-holbein-harold-evans-1819450.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091116192639/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/the-diary-shantaram-film--lumiere-festival-tom-atkinson-hans-holbein-harold-evans-1819450.html |archive-date16 November 2009 |url-accesslimited |url-statuslive |titleUnderworld tale won't see light of day |date13 November 2009 |access-date23 May 2010 |locationLondon |workThe Independent |firstArifa |lastAkbar}}</ref>
in the premiere of Paa. Bachchan received his third National Film Award for Best Actor at the 57th National Film Awards for his performance and his fifth Filmfare Award for Best Actor for Paa.]]
Vivek Sharma's Bhoothnath, in which he plays the title role as a ghost, was released on 9 May 2008. Sarkar Raj, the sequel of the 2005 film Sarkar, released in June 2008 and received a positive response at the box office. Paa, which was released at the end of 2009 was a highly anticipated project as it saw him playing his own son Abhishek's Progeria-affected 13-year-old son, and it opened to favourable reviews, particularly towards Bachchan's performance and was one of the top-grossing films of 2009.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.boxofficeindia.com/years.php?year2009&pageId4 |titleTop India Total Nett Gross 2009 – |publisherBox Office India |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041224/https://www.boxofficeindia.com/years.php?year2009&pageId4 |url-statuslive }}</ref> It won him his third National Film Award for Best Actor and fifth Filmfare Best Actor Award. In 2010, he debuted in Malayalam film through Kandahar, directed by Major Ravi and co-starring Mohanlal.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://movies.rediff.com/interview/2010/jun/08/south-major-ravi-on-kandahar.htm |titleMajor Ravi gets ready to shoot Kandahar: Rediff.com Movies |workRediff.com |date8 June 2010 |access-date2 October 2010 |archive-date24 September 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180924144120/http://movies.rediff.com/interview/2010/jun/08/south-major-ravi-on-kandahar.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> The film was based on the hijacking incident of the Indian Airlines Flight 814.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/article/56171.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100416025433/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/article/56171.html |url-statusdead |archive-date16 April 2010 |titleBig B in 'Kandahaar' along with Sunil Shetty |websiteIndiaGlitz.com |date14 April 2010}}</ref> Bachchan declined any remuneration for this film.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.indianexpress.com/news/amitabh-to-forego-fee-for-sharing-screen-with-mohanlal/607690/0 |titleAmitabh to forego fee for sharing screen with Mohanlal |workThe Indian Express |date17 April 2010 |access-date21 December 2010 |archive-date23 April 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100423152543/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/amitabh-to-forego-fee-for-sharing-screen-with-mohanlal/607690/0 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2011 he played an aged retired former gangster in Bbuddah... Hoga Terra Baap who protects his son Sonu Sood who is an honest daring police officer from a notorious gangster Prakash Raj who unknowingly hired the latter to perform a contract killing not knowing that the police officer is the gangster's son.<ref>{{cite web|titleRediff review|urlhttp://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-bbuddah-hoga-tera-baap/20110701.htm|workRediff|access-date1 July 2011|archive-date4 July 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110704110156/http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-bbuddah-hoga-tera-baap/20110701.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref> Despite significant expectations, it had poor returns at the box office.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid53|titleBbuddah... Hoga Terra Baap – Movie|publisher=Box Office India}}</ref> ]]
In 2013, he made his Hollywood debut in The Great Gatsby making a special appearance opposite Leonardo DiCaprio and Tobey Maguire.<ref>{{cite web|publisherWarner Bros.|urlhttp://thegreatgatsby.warnerbros.com/about-the-film|titleThe Great Gatsby – In Theaters May 10| access-date14 February 2014}}</ref> In 2014, he played the role of the friendly ghost in the sequel Bhoothnath Returns. The next year, he played the role of a grumpy father experiencing chronic constipation in the critically acclaimed Piku which was also one of the biggest hits of 2015.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.boxofficehits.in/collection/piku-total-collection-lifetime-business-total-worldwide-collection.html |titlePiku Total Collection – Lifetime Business – Total Worldwide Collection – Box Office Hits |date10 June 2015 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722011611/http://www.boxofficehits.in/collection/piku-total-collection-lifetime-business-total-worldwide-collection.html |archive-date22 July 2018 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.financialexpress.com/photos/business-gallery/71357/piku-box-office-collections-amitabh-bachchan-starrer-steady-at-rs-21-18-cr-by-day-2/ |titleAmitabh Bachchan boosts Piku box office collections to over Rs 100 cr, slowly, steadily |date11 May 2015 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722095627/https://www.financialexpress.com/photos/business-gallery/71357/piku-box-office-collections-amitabh-bachchan-starrer-steady-at-rs-21-18-cr-by-day-2/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ibtimes.co.in/piku-13-days-box-office-collection-deepika-amitabh-starrer-grosses-100-crore-worldwide-633076 |title'Piku' 13 Days Box Office Collection: Deepika-Amitabh Starrer Grosses ₹100 Crore Worldwide |firstAnkita |lastMehta |websiteInternational Business Times |access-date21 July 2018 |date21 May 2015 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722070117/https://www.ibtimes.co.in/piku-13-days-box-office-collection-deepika-amitabh-starrer-grosses-100-crore-worldwide-633076 |url-statuslive }}</ref> A review in Daily News and Analysis (DNA) summarised Bachchan's performance as "The heart and soul of Piku clearly belong to Amitabh Bachchan who is in his elements. His performance in Piku, without doubt, finds a place among the top 10 in his illustrious career."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-piku-review-must-watch-for-the-thundering-trio-of-amitabh-bachchan-deepika-padukone-and-irrfan-khan-2084192 |title'Piku' Review: Must-watch for the thundering trio of Amitabh Bachchan, Deepika Padukone, and Irrfan Khan |date8 May 2015 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722101129/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-piku-review-must-watch-for-the-thundering-trio-of-amitabh-bachchan-deepika-padukone-and-irrfan-khan-2084192 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Rachel Saltz wrote for The New York Times, "Piku", an offbeat Hindi comedy, would have you contemplate the intestines and mortality of one Bhashkor Banerji and the actor who plays him, Amitabh Bachchan. Bhashkor's life and conversation may revolve around his constipation and fussy hypochondria, but there's no mistaking the scene-stealing energy that Mr. Bachchan, India's erstwhile Angry Young Man, musters for his new role of Cranky Old Man."<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/movies/review-in-piku-amitabh-bachchan-plays-a-dad-to-deepika-padukone.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/movies/review-in-piku-amitabh-bachchan-plays-a-dad-to-deepika-padukone.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited |titleReview: In 'Piku,' Amitabh Bachchan Plays a Dad to Deepika Padukone |newspaperThe New York Times |date8 May 2015 |access-date21 July 2018|last1Saltz |first1Rachel }}{{cbignore}}</ref> Well known Indian critic Rajeev Masand wrote on his website, "Bachchan is pretty terrific as Bhashkor, who reminds you of that oddball uncle that you nevertheless have a soft spot for. He bickers with the maids, harrows his hapless helper, and expects Piku to stay unmarried so she can attend to him. At one point, to ward off a possible suitor, he casually mentions that his daughter isn't a virgin; that she's financially independent and sexually independent too. Bachchan embraces the character's many idiosyncrasies, never once slipping into caricature while all along delivering big laughs thanks to his spot-on comic timing."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.rajeevmasand.com/reviews/our-films/poop-dreams/ |titlePoop dreams – Rajeev Masand – movies that matter: from bollywood, hollywood and everywhere else |authorRockstah Media |websiterajeevmasand.com |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722002821/http://www.rajeevmasand.com/reviews/our-films/poop-dreams/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Guardian summed up, "Bachchan seizes upon his cranky character part, making Bashkor as garrulously funny in his theories on caste and marriage as his system is backed-up."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/may/18/piku-review-amitabh-bachchan-lets-it-all-out-in-constipation-comedy |titlePiku review: Amitabh Bachchan lets it all out in constipation comedy |firstMike |lastMcCahill |date18 May 2015 |websiteThe Guardian |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041315/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/may/18/piku-review-amitabh-bachchan-lets-it-all-out-in-constipation-comedy |url-status=live }}</ref> The performance won Bachchan his fourth National Film Award for Best Actor and his third Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor.
|258x258px|left]]In 2016, he appeared in the women-centric courtroom drama film Pink which was highly praised by critics and with an increasingly good word of mouth, was a resounding success at the domestic and overseas box office.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/pink-review-amitabh-bachchan-is-still-the-only-boss-around/story-gSCikuuM2WFSvzomGiwB4H.html |titlePink review: Amitabh Bachchan is still the only boss around |date15 September 2016 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722070130/https://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/pink-review-amitabh-bachchan-is-still-the-only-boss-around/story-gSCikuuM2WFSvzomGiwB4H.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"hindustantimes.com">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/pink-review-by-anupama-chopra-a-tale-of-true-grit-grippingly-told/story-Iiug9rbLpnGDTdgwDzEPJJ.html |titlePink review by Anupama Chopra: A tale of true grit, grippingly told |date16 September 2016 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722070106/https://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/pink-review-by-anupama-chopra-a-tale-of-true-grit-grippingly-told/story-Iiug9rbLpnGDTdgwDzEPJJ.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/pink-movie-review-amitabh-bachchan-aniruddha-roy-chowdhury-taapsee-pannu-341162-2016-09-15 |titlePink movie review: Amitabh Bachchan's POWERFUL message is unmissable |websiteIndia Today |date15 September 2016 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041209/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/pink-movie-review-amitabh-bachchan-aniruddha-roy-chowdhury-taapsee-pannu-341162-2016-09-15 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/box-office-special-features/box-office-worldwide-collections-day-wise-breakup-pink/ |titleBox Office: Worldwide Collections and Day wise breakup of Pink |websiteBollywood Hungama |date17 September 2016 |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722011411/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/box-office-special-features/box-office-worldwide-collections-day-wise-breakup-pink/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Bachchan's performance in the film received acclaim. According to Raja Sen of Rediff.com, "Amitabh Bachchan, a retired lawyer with bipolar disorder, takes up cudgels on behalf of the girls, delivering courtroom blows with pugilistic grace. As we know from Prakash Mehra movies, in each life some Bachchan must fall. The girls hang on to him with incredulous desperation, and he bats for them with all he has. At one point Meenal hangs by Bachchan's elbow, words entirely unnecessary. Bachchan towers through Pink – the way he bellows "et cetera" is alone worth having the heavy-hitter at play—but there are softer moments like one where he appears to have dozed off in court, or where he lays his head by his convalescent wife's bedside and needs his hair ruffled and his conviction validated."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-pink-a-film-that-must-be-championed/20160916.htm |titleReview: Pink, a film that must be championed |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722011437/http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-pink-a-film-that-must-be-championed/20160916.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> Writing for Hindustan Times, noted film critic and author Anupama Chopra said of Bachchan's performance, "A special salute to Amitabh Bachchan, who imbues his character with a tragic majesty. Bachchan towers in every sense, but without a hint of showboating.<ref name"hindustantimes.com" /> Meena Iyer of The Times of India wrote, "The performances are pitch-perfect with Bachchan leading the way.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/pink/movie-review/54325066.cms|titlePink Movie Review {4.5/5}: Critic Review of Pink by Times of India|websiteThe Times of India|access-date21 July 2018}}</ref> Writing for NDTV, Troy Ribeiro of Indo-Asian News Service (IANS) stated, "Amitabh Bachchan as Deepak Sehgall, the aged defence lawyer, shines as always, in a restrained, but powerful performance. His histrionics come primarily in the form of his well-modulated baritone, conveying his emotions and of course, from the well-written lines."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/pink-movie-review-1317 |titlePink Movie Review: Amitabh Bachchan Shines As Always – NDTV Movies |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722095613/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/pink-movie-review-1317 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Mike McCahill of The Guardian remarked, "Among an electric ensemble, Taapsee Pannu, Kirti Kulhari and Andrea Tariang give unwavering voice to the girls' struggles; Amitabh Bachchan brings his moral authority to bear as their sole legal ally.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/sep/15/pink-review-subtle-drama-that-grapples-with-indias-culture |titlePink review – subtle drama that grapples with India's rape culture |firstMike |lastMcCahill |date15 September 2016 |websiteThe Guardian |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041310/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/sep/15/pink-review-subtle-drama-that-grapples-with-indias-culture |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In 2017, he appeared in the third instalment of the Sarkar film series: Ram Gopal Varma's Sarkar 3. That year, he started filming for the swashbuckling action-adventure film Thugs of Hindostan with Aamir Khan, Katrina Kaif and Fatima Sana Shaikh which released in November 2018.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.yashrajfilms.com/news/detail/2017/05/05/fatima-sana-shaikh-joins-yash-raj-films-thugs-of-hindostan-along-with-amitabh-bachchan-and-aamir-khan |titleFatima Sana Shaikh Joins Yash Raj Films' Thugs of Hindostan Along with Amitabh Bachchan and Aamir Khan |websiteyashrajfilms.com |access-date11 May 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703220400/https://www.yashrajfilms.com/news/detail/2017/05/05/fatima-sana-shaikh-joins-yash-raj-films-thugs-of-hindostan-along-with-amitabh-bachchan-and-aamir-khan |archive-date3 July 2018 |url-statusdead}}</ref> He co-starred with Rishi Kapoor in 102 Not Out, a comedy drama film directed by Umesh Shukla based on a Gujarati play of the same name written by Saumya Joshi.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/amitabh-bachchan-teaming-up-with-rishi-kapoor-for-102-not-out-has-been-a-great-joy/articleshow/62848833.cms |titleAmitabh Bachchan: Teaming up with Rishi Kapoor for '102 Not Out' has been a great joy |websiteThe Times of India |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180725212736/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/amitabh-bachchan-teaming-up-with-rishi-kapoor-for-102-not-out-has-been-a-great-joy/articleshow/62848833.cms |archive-date25 July 2018 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.screendaily.com/news/sony-pictures-boards-indian-comedy-102-not-out-with-amitabh-bachchan-rishi-kapoor/5126374.article |titleSony Pictures boards Indian comedy '102 Not Out' with Amitabh Bachchan, Rishi Kapoor |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date3 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703220221/https://www.screendaily.com/news/sony-pictures-boards-indian-comedy-102-not-out-with-amitabh-bachchan-rishi-kapoor/5126374.article |url-statuslive }}</ref> This film released in May 2018 and reunited him with Kapoor onscreen after a gap of 27 years.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/102-not-out-teaser-amitabh-bachchan-rishi-kapoor-seen-together-on-screen-after-27-years-4343217.html |title102 Not Out teaser: Amitabh Bachchan, Rishi Kapoor seen together on-screen after 27 years |access-date21 July 2018 |date9 February 2018 |archive-date3 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703220619/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/102-not-out-teaser-amitabh-bachchan-rishi-kapoor-seen-together-on-screen-after-27-years-4343217.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2019, Bachchan appeared in Sujoy Ghosh's mystery thriller Badla.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/badla|titleBadla|websiteRotten Tomatoes|publisherFandango|access-date3 July 2024}}</ref> The film did a lifetime business of {{INRConvert|1.38|b|year2019}} worldwide to emerge a box office hit.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/badla-3/box-office/#bh-movie-box-office|titleBadla Box Office|websiteBollywood Hungama |date8 March 2019 }}</ref> The following year, he co-starred alongside Ayushmann Khurana in Shoojit Sircar's comedy drama Gulabo Sitabo, which won him Filmfare Award for Best Actor (Critics).<ref>{{Cite web|titleWinners of the 66th Vimal Elaichi Filmfare Awards 2021|urlhttps://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/winners-of-the-66th-vimal-elachi-filmfare-awards-2021_-47314.html|publisherFilmfare|date28 March 2021|access-date29 March 2021}}</ref> He then collaborated with Emraan Hashmi for Chehre (2021), a critical and commercial failure.<ref>{{cite web |titleChehre Movie (2021)- Box Office India |urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid6139 |websiteBox Office India |access-date13 January 2022}}</ref>
The next year, Bachchan had five releases, out of which Ayan Mukerji's highly anticipated fantasy action-adventure film Brahmāstra: Part One – Shiva proved to be a hit as well as the highest-grossing Hindi film of 2022 while Jhund, Runway 34 and Uunchai didn't do well at ticket counters, but met with critical acclaim.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid7329|titleBrahmastra Final Box Office Collections: India - Overseas - Worldwide|workBox Office India|date17 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|firstSaibal|lastChatterjee|date3 March 2022|titleJhund Review: Amitabh Bachchan Stars In Underdog Sports Movie That Is Way More Than That|urlhttps://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/jhund-review-amitabh-bachchan-stars-in-underdog-sports-movie-that-is-way-more-than-that-2800983|workNDTV|access-date3 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|titleRunway 34 Movie Review : Ajay Devgn's aviation drama lands well within the runway|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/runway-34/movie-review/91149917.cms|websiteThe Times Of India|access-date28 April 2022}}</ref> In 2024, he played Ashwatthama in Nag Ashwin's Kalki 2898 AD, marking his Telugu debut.<ref>{{Cite web |lastJha |firstSubhash K. |author-linkSubhash K. Jha |date27 November 2020 |titleAmitabh Bachchan will feature in a full length role in Prabhas and Deepika Padukone starrer film |urlhttps://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-will-feature-full-length-role-prabhas-deepika-padukone-starrer-film/ |websiteBollywood Hungama |access-date27 June 2024 |archive-date8 June 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220608175543/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-will-feature-full-length-role-prabhas-deepika-padukone-starrer-film/ |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleAmitabh in Kalki movie |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchans-ashwatthama-in-kalki-2898-ad-is-the-action-hero-we-need-today-101719825746385.html}}</ref> Made on a budget of {{INR|600 crore}}, it opened to positive reception with Bachchan receiving immense praise for his performance.<ref>{{Cite news |lastHungama |firstBollywood |date27 June 2024 |titleKalki 2898 AD Movie Review: KALKI 2898 AD delivers a unique experience to audiences. |urlhttps://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/kalki-2898-ad/critic-review/kalki-2898-ad-movie-review/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240627083822/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/kalki-2898-ad/critic-review/kalki-2898-ad-movie-review/ |archive-date27 June 2024 |access-date27 June 2024 |workBollywood Hungama}}</ref> At the box office, it grossed more than {{INR|1000 crore}} to emerge a superhit as well as the second highest-grossing Indian film of 2024.<ref name"moneycontrol-2024">{{Cite news |date6 August 2024 |titleKalki 2898 AD box office collection: Prabhas' sci-fi drama BEATS Shah Rukh Khan's Jawan as it becomes the fourth highest grossing film in India |urlhttps://www.moneycontrol.com/entertainment/kalki-2898-ad-box-office-collection-prabhas-sci-fi-drama-beats-shah-rukh-khans-jawan-as-it-becomes-the-fourth-highest-grossing-film-in-india-article-12788999.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240806145741/https://www.moneycontrol.com/entertainment/kalki-2898-ad-box-office-collection-prabhas-sci-fi-drama-beats-shah-rukh-khans-jawan-as-it-becomes-the-fourth-highest-grossing-film-in-india-article-12788999.html |archive-date6 August 2024 |access-date6 August 2024 |workMoneycontrol}}</ref>
Other works
Television appearances
In 2000, Bachchan hosted the first season of Kaun Banega Crorepati (KBC), the Indian adaptation of the British television game show, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. The show was well received.<ref>{{cite news |lastSaxena |firstPoonam |titleFive crore question: What makes KBC work? |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Television/Five-crore-question-What-makes-KBC-work/Article1-771297.aspx |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111120104000/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Television/Five-crore-question-What-makes-KBC-work/Article1-771297.aspx |url-statusdead |archive-date20 November 2011 |workHindustan Times |access-date24 November 2011 |date19 November 2011}}</ref> A second season followed in 2005 but its run was cut short by Star Plus when Bachchan fell ill in 2006.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4648470.stm |publisherBBC News |titleIndia scraps millionaire TV show |date25 January 2006 |access-date7 May 2010 |archive-date4 February 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060204185226/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4648470.stm |url-statuslive}}</ref> He then returned to host the fourth season, and has hosted the show since.<ref>{{cite news|workHindustan Times|urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tv/amitabh-bachchan-returns-with-kaun-banega-crorepati-15-101690806386382.html|titleAmitabh Bachchan returns with Kaun Banega Crorepati 15, starting Aug 14: 'New Beginning'|date31 July 2023|access-date=7 August 2023}}</ref>
In 2009, Bachchan hosted the third season of the reality show Bigg Boss.<ref>{{cite news |titleAmitabh Bachchan back on TV with 'Bigg Boss 3' |urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Amitabh-Bachchan-back-on-TV-with-Bigg-Boss-3/articleshow/4973731.cms |websiteThe Times of India |date5 September 2009 |access-date5 September 2009 |archive-date26 May 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150526170413/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Amitabh-Bachchan-back-on-TV-with-Bigg-Boss-3/articleshow/4973731.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In 2010, Bachchan hosted the fourth season of KBC.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://entertainment.oneindia.in/television/top-stories/news/2010/kbc4-beats-bigg-boss4-131210.html |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120714010039/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/television/top-stories/news/2010/kbc4-beats-bigg-boss4-131210.html |url-statusdead |archive-date14 July 2012 |titleKBC 4 beats Bigg Boss 4 in its final episode |publisherOne India |access-date13 March 2011 |date13 December 2010}}</ref> The fifth season started on 15 August 2011 and ended on 17 November 2011. The show became a massive hit with audiences and broke many TRP Records. CNN IBN awarded Indian of the Year- Entertainment to Team KBC and Bachchan. The Show also grabbed all the major Awards for its category.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTugDAAAAMBAJ&qkaun+banega+crorepati+tv+show+was+awarded&pgPA711 |titleThe Indian Telly Awards – 'Kaun Banega Crorepati' |date1 September 2001 |last1Darpan |first1Pratiyogita}}</ref>
The sixth season was also hosted by Bachchan, commencing on 7 September 2012, broadcast on Sony TV and received the highest number of viewers thus far.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}
In 2014, he debuted in the fictional Sony Entertainment Television TV series titled Yudh playing the lead role of a businessman battling in both his personal and professional lives.<ref nameix>{{cite news |urlhttp://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/watch-amitabh-bachchan-battles-world-himself-in-tv-show-yudh/ |titleWatch: Amitabh Bachchan battles world, himself in TV show 'Yudh' |date2 May 2014 |newspaperThe Indian Express |access-date3 June 2014 |archive-date1 July 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150701063027/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/watch-amitabh-bachchan-battles-world-himself-in-tv-show-yudh/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Voice acting Bachchan is known for his deep, baritone voice. He has been a narrator, a playback singer, and a presenter for numerous programmes.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.indianexpress.com/news/amitabh-bachchan-lends-his-voice-to-animated-mahabharat/922732 |titleAmitabh Bachchan lends his voice to animated 'Mahabharat' |workThe Indian Express |date12 March 2012 |access-date11 December 2012 |archive-date11 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201011115048/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/amitabh-bachchan-lends-his-voice-to-animated-mahabharat/922732 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Some prominent films featuring his narration are Satyajit Ray's 1977 film Shatranj Ke Khiladi<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.in/news/specials/amitabh/trivia.htm |titleSpecials: Amitabh Bachchan |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070825135241/http://www.hindustantimes.in/news/specials/amitabh/trivia.htm |archive-date25 August 2007 |workHindustan Times |url-statususurped}}</ref> and Ashutosh Gowarikar's 2001 film Lagaan.<ref>{{cite news |titleAshutosh had rejected Big B as Lagaan's narrator |urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Ashutosh-had-rejected-Big-B-as-Lagaans-narrator/articleshow/8874233.cms?referralPM |newspaperThe Times of India |date16 June 2011 |access-date19 February 2014 |archive-date13 July 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713192448/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Ashutosh-had-rejected-Big-B-as-Lagaans-narrator/articleshow/8874233.cms?referralPM |url-status=live }}</ref>
He also has done voice-over work for the following movies:<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-amitabh-to-do-voiceover-for-jodhaa-akbar-1145747 |titleAmitabh to do voiceover for Jodhaa-Akbar |date17 January 2008 |access-date6 March 2018 |archive-date6 March 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180306204313/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-amitabh-to-do-voiceover-for-jodhaa-akbar-1145747 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastSingh |firstSunny |titleAmitabh Bachchan |date2018 |publisherBritish Film Institute |isbn978-1-84457-631-9 |page171}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://zeenews.india.com/home/amitabh-to-do-voiceover-for-jodha-akbar_418706.html |titleAmitabh to do voiceover for Jodhaa-Akbar |date17 January 2008 |access-date6 March 2018 |archive-date6 March 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180306202838/http://zeenews.india.com/home/amitabh-to-do-voiceover-for-jodha-akbar_418706.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Bhuvan Shome (1969)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.arthousecinema.in/2013/02/bhuvan-shome/ |titleBhuvan Shome 1969 |date10 February 2013 |access-date6 March 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180306214435/https://www.arthousecinema.in/2013/02/bhuvan-shome/ |archive-date6 March 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Bawarchi (1972)<ref name=htians />
* Balika Badhu (1975)<ref name=htians />
* Tere Mere Sapne (1996)<ref name=htians />
* Hello Brother (1999){{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}
* Lagaan (2001)
* Fun2shh... Dudes in the 10th Century (2003)
* Parineeta (2005)<ref name=htians />
* March of the Penguins (2005), Indian version<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.apunkachoice.com/scoop/bollywood/20061012-1.html |titleAmitabh to get France's highest civilian honour: Bollywood News |publisherApunKaChoice.Com |date12 October 2006 |access-date14 February 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120310110450/http://www.apunkachoice.com/scoop/bollywood/20061012-1.html |archive-date10 March 2012}}</ref>
* Swami (2007)<ref namehtians>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Entertainment/Big-B-to-lend-voice-to-Jodhaa-Akbar/Article1-269934.aspx |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131031192448/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Entertainment/Big-B-to-lend-voice-to-Jodhaa-Akbar/Article1-269934.aspx |url-statusdead |archive-date31 October 2013 |titleBig B to lend voice to Jodhaa Akbar |authorSubhash K Jha |date17 January 2008 |workHindustan Times |agencyIANS}}</ref>
* Jodhaa Akbar (2008)
* Zor Lagaa Ke...Haiya! (2009)
* Ra.One (2011)
* Kahaani (2012)
* Krrish 3 (2013)
* Mahabharat (2013)<ref>{{Cite news |lastNivas |firstNandita |date8 November 2013 |titleAmitabh Bachchan almost refused a role in Mahabharat |urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-almost-refused-a-role-in-mahabharat/ |workThe Indian Express |access-date=1 July 2023}}</ref>
* Kochadaiiyaan (Hindi Version) (2014)
* CBI documentary (2014) – sanctioned by Central Bureau of Investigation<ref>{{cite web |date10 February 2014 |titleAmitabh Bachchan lends his voice to CBI documentary |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/amitabh-bachchan-cbi-documentary-lends-voice-180443-2014-02-10 |access-date6 December 2021 |websiteIndia Today |archive-date6 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211206101616/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/amitabh-bachchan-cbi-documentary-lends-voice-180443-2014-02-10 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* The Ghazi Attack (2017)
* Firangi (2017)
Business investments
Around 1994, Bachchan started Amitabh Bachchan Corporation Ltd (ABCL), an event management, production and distribution company. But the company fell into debt with a fiasco and went into bankruptcy, subsequently Bachchan became nearly bankrupt. The reasons for this debacle were films that fared poorly at the box office such as Mrityudata, Major Saab (produced by this organisation), and Miss World 1996 which was organised-managed by ABCL. Due to this he began work for TV, and asked for work to Yash Chopra. Once he said that 'it was the darkest time for him'.<ref>{{cite web |date8 November 2021 |titleBackstory: When the Amitabh Bachchan magic faded briefly |urlhttps://www.cnbctv18.com/business/companies/backstory-when-the-amitabh-bachchan-magic-faded-briefly-11380222.htm |access-date17 September 2022 |websitecnbctv18.com |archive-date20 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220920170320/https://www.cnbctv18.com/business/companies/backstory-when-the-amitabh-bachchan-magic-faded-briefly-11380222.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date8 December 2021 |firstAnindita |lastMukherjee |titleAbhishek Bachchan reveals he dropped out of college to support dad Amitabh when he was broke |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/abhishek-bachchan-reveals-he-dropped-out-of-college-to-support-dad-amitabh-when-he-was-broke-1885460-2021-12-08 |access-date17 September 2022 |websiteIndia Today |archive-date20 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220920171952/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/abhishek-bachchan-reveals-he-dropped-out-of-college-to-support-dad-amitabh-when-he-was-broke-1885460-2021-12-08 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
He has invested in many upcoming business ventures. In 2013, he bought a 10% stake in Just Dial from which he made a gain of 4600 per cent. He holds a 3.4% equity in Stampede Capital, a financial technology firm specialising in cloud computing for financial markets. The Bachchan family also bought shares worth $252,000 in Meridian Tech, a consulting company in the U.S. Recently they made their first overseas investment in Ziddu.com, a cloud-based content distribution platform.<ref name"The Times of India" /><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.firstpost.com/business/actors-turn-investors-bacchans-make-first-ever-overseas-investment-ziddu-com-2254124.html |titleActors turn investors: Bachchans make first ever overseas investment with Ziddu.com |workFirstpost |access-date22 December 2016 |archive-date24 December 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161224075741/http://www.firstpost.com/business/actors-turn-investors-bacchans-make-first-ever-overseas-investment-ziddu-com-2254124.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Bachchan was named in the Panama Papers and Paradise Papers, leaked confidential documents relating to offshore investment.<ref>{{cite news |last1Tandon |first1Suneera |titleThe Indian superstars of tax haven leaks: Amitabh Bachchan and Vijay Mallya |urlhttps://qz.com/1121170/from-paradise-papers-to-the-panama-leaks-amitabh-bachchan-and-vijay-mallya-are-never-missing/ |access-date9 November 2017 |workQuartz India |date7 November 2017 |archive-date7 November 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107103322/https://qz.com/1121170/from-paradise-papers-to-the-panama-leaks-amitabh-bachchan-and-vijay-mallya-are-never-missing/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleAmitabh Bachchan, Family May Be Summoned in Panama Papers Case |urlhttps://www.ndtv.com/india-news/amitabh-bachchans-family-may-be-summoned-in-panama-papers-case-1756057 |access-date10 November 2017 |publisherNDTV |date27 September 2017 |archive-date11 November 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171111094856/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/amitabh-bachchans-family-may-be-summoned-in-panama-papers-case-1756057 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Political career
In 1984, Bachchan took a break from acting and briefly entered politics in support of a long-time family friend, Rajiv Gandhi. He contested the Allahabad's (presently Prayagraj Lok Sabha constituency) seat for the 8th Lok Sabha against H. N. Bahuguna, former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. With 68.2% of the votes in his favour, he won by one of the highest victory margins ever in Indian elections.<ref nameelection>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/amitabh/politics.htm |titleAmitabh Bachchan: Stint in Politics |workHindustan Times |access-date5 December 2005 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060109123607/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/amitabh/politics.htm |archive-date9 January 2006 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In 1987, Indian Express said his brother Ajitabh Bachchan owned an apartment in Switzerland, giving rise to speculations about his involvement in the "Bofors scandal", revealed in the year before.<ref>{{cite news |lastPatil |firstVimla |titleThe Sunday Tribune – Spectrum – Lead Article |urlhttps://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010304/spectrum/main1.htm |access-date12 December 2021 |workwww.tribuneindia.com |date1 March 2004 |archive-date12 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211212081854/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010304/spectrum/main1.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref> Bachchan resigned from his seat in July 1987.{{Why|dateSeptember 2022}}<ref>{{cite news |author1T. N. Ninan |author2Brij Khindaria |titleAmitabh Bachchan resigns from Lok Sabha, Ajitabh lands in Swiss trouble |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19870815-amitabh-bachchan-resigns-from-lok-sabha-ajitabh-lands-in-swiss-trouble-799845-1987-08-15 |access-date12 December 2021 |workIndia Today |date15 August 1987 |archive-date12 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211212080350/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19870815-amitabh-bachchan-resigns-from-lok-sabha-ajitabh-lands-in-swiss-trouble-799845-1987-08-15 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Ajitabh Bachchan sued Swedish newspaper Dagens Nyheter for linking him to Bofors payments in 1990 and won damages in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite news |last1De Sarkar |first1Dipankar |titleSwedish newspaper apologises for naming Ajitabh Bachchan in Bofors case |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/international/story/19900815-swedish-newspaper-apologises-for-naming-ajitabh-bachchan-in-bofors-case-812887-1990-08-15 |access-date12 December 2021 |workIndia Today |date15 August 1990 |archive-date12 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211212080352/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/international/story/19900815-swedish-newspaper-apologises-for-naming-ajitabh-bachchan-in-bofors-case-812887-1990-08-15 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Sten Lindstrom, the Swedish police chief who had investigated the case, said in 2012 that "Indian investigators planted the Bachchan angle on" Dagens Nyheter.<ref>{{cite news |lastMakkar |firstSahil |titleCBI defends its role in investigation |urlhttps://www.livemint.com/Politics/LiZNvbjP7WpfnXBEYy0O2J/CBI-defends-its-role-in-investigation.html |access-date12 December 2021 |workmint |date25 April 2012 |archive-date12 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211212080352/https://www.livemint.com/Politics/LiZNvbjP7WpfnXBEYy0O2J/CBI-defends-its-role-in-investigation.html |url-statuslive}}</ref>{{Why|dateSeptember 2022}}
Bachchan's old friend, Amar Singh, helped him during the financial crisis caused by the failure of his company, ABCL. Thereafter Bachchan started supporting the Samajwadi Party, the political party to which Amar Singh belonged. Jaya Bachchan joined the Samajwadi Party and represented the party as an MP in the Rajya Sabha.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930235326/http://www.hindu.com/2007/02/18/stories/2007021804271000.htm "Bachchan has no plans for the election."] The Hindu.</ref> Bachchan appeared in advertisements and political campaigns for the party. His claim that he too was a farmer in the advertisements was questioned in court.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iJuYOasTF-bsTo0AQjW96aD2Kr2w |titleBollywood's Bachchan in trouble over crime claim |agencyAgence France-Presse |date4 October 2007 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080116120716/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iJuYOasTF-bsTo0AQjW96aD2Kr2w |archive-date=16 January 2008}}</ref>
Bachchan has claimed to have been banned by film press during the emergency years for his family's friendship with Indira Gandhi.<ref>{{cite book |lastSingh |firstSunny |titleAmitabh Bachchan |date25 July 2019 |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |isbn978-1-83871-430-7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2wj8DwAAQBAJ&pgPT40 |access-date13 December 2021 |archive-date4 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230404171905/https://books.google.com/books?id2wj8DwAAQBAJ&pgPT40 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Bachchan has been accused of using the slogan "blood for blood" in the context of the 1984 anti-Sikh riots. Bachchan has denied the allegation.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.news18.com/news/world/us-federal-court-summons-amitabh-bachchan-in-an-alleged-human-rights-violation-connects-it-to-the-1984-anti-sikh-riots-969691.html |titleUS federal court summons Amitabh Bachchan in an alleged human rights violation; connects it to the 1984 anti-Sikh riots |websiteNews18 |date26 February 2015 |access-date20 December 2019 |archive-date11 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191011234411/https://www.news18.com/news/world/us-federal-court-summons-amitabh-bachchan-in-an-alleged-human-rights-violation-connects-it-to-the-1984-anti-sikh-riots-969691.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> In October 2014, Bachchan was summoned by a court in Los Angeles for "allegedly instigating violence against the Sikh community".<ref>{{cite news |titleUS court summons Amitabh Bachchan in connection with 1984 anti-Sikh riots |urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/150225/entertainment-bollywood/article/us-court-summons-amitabh-bachchan-served-his-hollywood-agent |newspaperDeccan Chronicle |access-date19 January 2018 |archive-date19 January 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180119235830/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150225/entertainment-bollywood/article/us-court-summons-amitabh-bachchan-served-his-hollywood-agent |url-statuslive }}</ref> Bachchan in an interview with journalist Arnab Goswami offered to fight the case in court and asked the accusers to file the same as also present proof.<ref>{{cite web |titleFrankly Speaking with Amitabh Bachchan – Exclusive – Full Interview |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v-9nWqbZyAEo |access-date17 September 2020 |websiteYouTube | date30 May 2015 |publisherTimes Now |archive-date3 September 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200903182445/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v-9nWqbZyAEo |url-statuslive}}</ref> He was also one of the trustees of the Rajiv Gandhi Foundation.<ref>{{cite news |date15 July 1991 |titleRajiv Gandhi Foundation established with Sonia Gandhi as chairperson |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/signposts/story/19910715-rajiv-gandhi-foundation-established-with-sonia-gandhi-as-chairperson-814569-1991-07-15 |access-date3 August 2020 |websiteIndia Today |archive-date31 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200831011722/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/signposts/story/19910715-rajiv-gandhi-foundation-established-with-sonia-gandhi-as-chairperson-814569-1991-07-15 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleOur Board |urlhttp://rgfindia.org/our-board-rajiv-gandhi-foundation/ |websiteRajiv Gandhi Foundation |access-date20 September 2020 |date9 March 2016 |archive-date20 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200820202638/http://rgfindia.org/our-board-rajiv-gandhi-foundation/ |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Humanitarian and social causes
Bachchan has been involved with many social causes. For example, he donated {{INR|1.1&nbsp;million}} to clear the debts of nearly 40 beleaguered farmers in Andhra Pradesh<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Big-Bs-secret-aspect-finally-revealed/articleshow/13107830.cms |titleBig B's secret aspect finally revealed |websiteThe Times of India |date13 May 2012 |access-date20 December 2019 |archive-date11 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191011234418/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Big-Bs-secret-aspect-finally-revealed/articleshow/13107830.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref> and {{INR|3&nbsp;million}} to clear the debts of some 100 Vidarbha farmers.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thesundayindian.com/en/story/the-amitabh-bachchan-way-or-the-highway/34825/ |titleThe Amitabh Bachchan way or the highway – Aditi Prasad – The Sunday Indian |websitethesundayindian.com |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722041218/http://www.thesundayindian.com/en/story/the-amitabh-bachchan-way-or-the-highway/34825/ |url-statusdead }}</ref> In 2010, he donated {{INR|1.1&nbsp;million}} to Resul Pookutty's foundation for a medical centre at Kochi,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-amitabh-bachchan-announces-11-lakh-contribution-for-resul-pookutty-s-foundation-1344672 |titleAmitabh Bachchan announces 11 lakh contribution for Resul Pookutty's foundation |date7 February 2010 |websiteDNA India |access-date20 December 2019 |archive-date20 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191220115305/https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-amitabh-bachchan-announces-11-lakh-contribution-for-resul-pookutty-s-foundation-1344672 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-amitabh-bachchan-supports-medical-centre-at-kochi-1344945 |titleAmitabh Bachchan supports medical centre at Kochi |workdna |date8 February 2010 |access-date9 February 2015 |archive-date9 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150209135319/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-amitabh-bachchan-supports-medical-centre-at-kochi-1344945 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/The-Saturday-Interview-mdash-Sound-Sense/article15534067.ece |titleThe Saturday Interview – Sound Sense |firstGeeta |lastPadmanabhan |newspaperThe Hindu |date21 January 2011 |access-date20 December 2019 |archive-date20 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191220115305/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/The-Saturday-Interview-mdash-Sound-Sense/article15534067.ece |url-statuslive }}</ref> and he has given {{INR|250,000}} ({{US$|{{To USD|250000|IND|year2012|roundyes}}|longno}}) to the family of Delhi policeman Subhash Chand Tomar who died after succumbing to injuries during a protest against gang-rape after the 2012 Delhi gang rape case.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/amitabh-bachchan-donates-rs-2.5-lakh-to-delhi-constable-subhash-chand-tomars-family-125317-2012-12-26 |titleDelhi gangrape: Amitabh Bachchan donates Rs 2.5 lakh to Delhi Police constable Subhash Chand Tomar's family |date26 December 2012 |workIndia Today |access-date20 December 2019 |archive-date20 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191220115305/https://www.indiatoday.in/delhi-gangrape/story/amitabh-bachchan-donates-rs-2.5-lakh-to-delhi-constable-subhash-chand-tomars-family-125317-2012-12-26 |url-statuslive }}</ref> He founded the Harivansh Rai Bachchan Memorial Trust, named after his father, in 2013. This trust, in association with Urja Foundation, will be powering 3,000 homes in India with electricity through solar energy.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://archive.indianexpress.com/news/amitabh-bachchan-opens-memorial-trust-in-fathers-name/1163953/ |titleAmitabh Bachchan opens memorial trust in father's name – Indian Express |websiteThe Indian Express |access-date20 December 2019 |archive-date13 July 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713192502/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/amitabh-bachchan-opens-memorial-trust-in-fathers-name/1163953/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.renewindians.com/2013/10/amitabh-bachan-plans-to-light-3000-homes-wit-solar-power.html |titleAmitabh Bachan plans to light 3000 homes with Solar Power |websiterenewindians.com |access-date16 April 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180417023315/http://www.renewindians.com/2013/10/amitabh-bachan-plans-to-light-3000-homes-wit-solar-power.html |archive-date17 April 2018 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In June 2019 he cleared debts of 2100 farmers from Bihar.<ref>{{cite news |date12 June 2019 |titleAmitabh Bachchan pays off loans of 2,100 Bihar farmers, promises to help kin of Pulwama victims |workThe Times Of India |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/amitabh-bachchan-pays-off-loan-of-2100-farmers-from-bihar/articleshow/69754632.cms |access-date14 May 2023 |archive-date7 November 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201107233426/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/amitabh-bachchan-pays-off-loan-of-2100-farmers-from-bihar/articleshow/69754632.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref>
character of Bachchan (left); Bachchan in a 2013 TeachAids recording session (right)]]
Bachchan was made a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador for the polio eradication campaign in India in 2002 and an international ambassador in 2005 and a WHO Goodwill Ambassador for awareness of hepatitis in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.unicef.org/media/media_61032.html |titleAmitabh Bachchan launches new Polio Communication Campaign |date16 December 2011 |workUNICEF |access-date9 February 2015 |archive-date9 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150209134820/http://www.unicef.org/media/media_61032.html |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date24 January 2011 |titleAmitabh Bachchan |urlhttp://www.unicef.org/people/people_57365.html |access-date20 February 2012 |publisherUNICEF}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleBachchan appointed WHO ambassador for hepatitis |urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/bachchan-appointed-who-ambassador-for-hepatitis/article18441751.ece |access-date18 May 2017 |workThe Hindu}}</ref> In 2013, he and his family donated {{INR|2.5&nbsp;million}} ({{US$|{{To USD|2500000|IND|year2013|roundyes}}|longno}}) to a charitable trust, Plan India, that works for the betterment of young girls in India.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/tabloid/bachchan-s-charity-side/story-YJgC79hSNoGCJTQHbFb6AJ.html |titleBachchan's charity side |date10 February 2013 |websiteHindustan Times |access-date20 December 2019 |archive-date20 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191220115305/https://www.hindustantimes.com/tabloid/bachchan-s-charity-side/story-YJgC79hSNoGCJTQHbFb6AJ.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> He also donated {{INR|1.1&nbsp;million}} ({{US$|{{To USD|1100000|IND|year2013|roundyes}}|longno}}) to the Maharashtra Police Welfare Fund in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/article530033.ece |titleMaharashtra police keep Big B 'waiting' |workThe New Indian Express |access-date9 February 2015 |archive-date9 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150209145912/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/article530033.ece |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Bachchan was the face of the 'Save Our Tigers' campaign that promoted the importance of tiger conservation in India.<ref name"The Times of India">{{cite news |urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/20-reasons-why-we-love-Amitabh-Bachchan/photostory/30948897.cms |title20 reasons why we love Amitabh Bachchan |workThe Times of India |access-date9 February 2015 |archive-date10 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150210223741/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/20-reasons-why-we-love-Amitabh-Bachchan/photostory/30948897.cms |url-statuslive}}</ref> He supported the campaign by PETA in India to free Sunder, a 14-year-old elephant who was chained and tortured in a temple in Kolhapur, Maharashtra.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ndtv.com/india-news/amitabh-bachchan-madhuri-dixit-back-free-sunder-campaign-543946 |titleAmitabh Bachchan, Madhuri Dixit back 'Free Sunder' campaign |workNDTV.com |access-date9 February 2015 |archive-date9 February 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150209192349/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/amitabh-bachchan-madhuri-dixit-back-free-sunder-campaign-543946 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2014, it was announced that he had recorded his voice and lent his image to the Hindi- and English-language versions of the TeachAids software, an international HIV/AIDS prevention education tool developed at Stanford University.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/global/amitabh-bachchan-joins-s-f-bay-area-nonprofit-teachaids/article_7db6b21c-7cb3-11e4-acab-5b0e15f111e5.html |titleAmitabh Bachchan Joins S.F. Bay Area Nonprofit TeachAIDS |publisherIndia West |access-date24 June 2015 |archive-date28 June 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170628014157/http://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/global/amitabh-bachchan-joins-s-f-bay-area-nonprofit-teachaids/article_7db6b21c-7cb3-11e4-acab-5b0e15f111e5.html |url-statusdead}}</ref> He has been a vocal "brand ambassador" of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) and featured in a few advertisements to promote the campaign.<ref>{{cite web |date9 February 2017 |titleVidya Balan, Amitabh Bachchan and more: Bollywood bats for a clean India |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/vidya-balan-amitabh-bachchan-and-more-bollywood-bats-for-a-clean-india/story-6esXsSLzIXFQnuxjnb0CgO.html |access-date1 August 2020 |websiteHindustan Times |archive-date9 January 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180109052424/http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/vidya-balan-amitabh-bachchan-and-more-bollywood-bats-for-a-clean-india/story-6esXsSLzIXFQnuxjnb0CgO.html |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAmitabh Bachchan as 'Coolie' – Swachh Bharat Mission – YouTube |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vLFKrZxL0F3w |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/LFKrZxL0F3w |archive-date22 November 2021 |url-statuslive |access-date1 August 2020 |websiteYouTube| date15 October 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAd 43 Arash with Amitabh Bachchan as 'Jadugar' Swachh Bharat Mission – YouTube |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vmAvm80eP_zI |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/mAvm80eP_zI |archive-date22 November 2021 |url-statuslive |access-date1 August 2020 |websiteYouTube| date=20 October 2016 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>
In 2020, Bachchan was helping the Government of India promote its public health message concerning COVID-19 before he and some members of his family became infected. He was hospitalised with reported mild symptoms of the disease on 11 July.<ref>{{cite news |titleAmitabh Bachchan is recovering from Kovid, know-how Big B's time is passing in Quarantine? |workabcFRY.com |urlhttps://abcfry.com/amitabh-bachchan-is-recovering-from-kovid-know-how-big-bs-time-is-passing-in-quarantine/ |access-date7 September 2022 |archive-date7 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220907063703/https://abcfry.com/amitabh-bachchan-is-recovering-from-kovid-know-how-big-bs-time-is-passing-in-quarantine/ |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date12 July 2020 |titleCoronavirus: Bollywood star Amitabh Bachchan tests positive |publisherBBC News |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-53375744 |access-date14 July 2020 |archive-date14 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200714033212/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-53375744 |url-statuslive}}</ref> He was discharged from hospital on 2 August.<ref>{{cite news |publisherBBC News |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-53628587 |titleAmitabh Bachchan: Bollywood star recovers from Covid-19 |date2 August 2020 |access-date3 August 2020 |archive-date2 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200802235910/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-53628587 |url-statuslive}}</ref> During the pandemic he lent his support by donating oxygen concentrators and 250&nbsp;million rupees in various forms.<ref>{{cite web |date16 May 2021 |titleAmitabh Bachchan says his personal donation for Covid-19 relief often matches entire fundraisers: 'I didn't ask, I gave' |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-says-his-personal-donation-for-covid-19-relief-often-matches-entire-fundraisers-i-didn-t-ask-i-gave-101621141209115.html |access-date18 September 2022 |websiteHindustan Times |archive-date20 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220920172515/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-says-his-personal-donation-for-covid-19-relief-often-matches-entire-fundraisers-i-didn-t-ask-i-gave-101621141209115.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Personal life
, Amitabh, Abhishek Bachchan, and Aishwarya Rai Bachchan|285x285px]]
Bachchan has been married to veteran actress and politician Jaya Bhaduri since 3 June 1973, and together they have two children; Shweta, an author, journalist and former model and Abhishek, an actor and producer. Abhishek married actress Aishwarya Rai, and they have a daughter named Aaradhya.<ref>{{cite news |titleAbhishek Bachchan reveals Aishwarya Rai teaches Aaradhya at home: 'She already has the world's best teacher' |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/abhishek-bachchan-reveals-aishwarya-rai-teaches-aaradhya-at-home-she-already-has-the-world-s-best-teacher-101649910333332.html |access-date10 May 2022 |workHindustan Times |date14 April 2022 |archive-date10 May 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220510132327/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/abhishek-bachchan-reveals-aishwarya-rai-teaches-aaradhya-at-home-she-already-has-the-world-s-best-teacher-101649910333332.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Shweta is married to businessman Nikhil Nanda, a grandson of Raj Kapoor from the Kapoor family of actors. They have a daughter, Navya Naveli, and a son, Agastya.<ref>{{cite news |last1Gaikwad |first1Pramod |titleWhy Shweta Bachchan-Nanda lives with her parents, separately from in-laws, husband |urlhttps://www.ibtimes.co.in/why-shweta-bachchan-nanda-lives-her-parents-separately-laws-husband-811545 |access-date30 April 2022 |workIB Times |date11 January 2020 |archive-date30 April 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220430111101/https://www.ibtimes.co.in/why-shweta-bachchan-nanda-lives-her-parents-separately-laws-husband-811545 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Amitabh's family lives in Mumbai in Maharashtra.<ref name"BigBHouse">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.btownmasti.com/the-lovely-amitabh-bachchan-house |titleAmitabh Bachchan houses in Mumbai |date6 December 2011 |access-date6 December 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111130231110/http://www.btownmasti.com/the-lovely-amitabh-bachchan-house/ |archive-date30 November 2011 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-feature/amitabh-bachchan-and-jaya-bachchans-love-story/Jaya-Bachchan-Amitabh-Bachchan-Abhishek-Bachchan-Shweta-Bachchan-Jaya-Amitabh-marriage/photostory/33492082.cms |titleAmitabh Bachchan and Jaya Bachchan's love story |newspaperThe Times of India |access-date10 January 2018 |archive-date11 January 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180111061128/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-feature/amitabh-bachchan-and-jaya-bachchans-love-story/Jaya-Bachchan-Amitabh-Bachchan-Abhishek-Bachchan-Shweta-Bachchan-Jaya-Amitabh-marriage/photostory/33492082.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref> His younger brother Ajitabh Bachchan is a businessman. He did business and lived in London for a brief period before returning to live in India. He and his family choose to stay away from the limelight. His wife Ramola is a fashion designer and was active in business. Ajitabh has one son, Bhim, and three daughters Naina, Namrata, and Nilima. Naina is married to actor Kunal Kapoor<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.bhaskar.com/news/ENT-BOL-meet-amitabh-bachchan-brother-ajitabh-bachchan-family-news-hindi-5435781-PHO.html|titleचार बच्चों के पिता हैं अमिताभ के भाई, बेटी नैना ने की है कुणाल कपूर से शादी|date10 October 2016|websiteDainik Bhaskar|access-date14 May 2023|archive-date10 October 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161010065940/http://www.bhaskar.com/news/ENT-BOL-meet-amitabh-bachchan-brother-ajitabh-bachchan-family-news-hindi-5435781-PHO.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title Meet the mystery Bachchan|date11 December 2009|url https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/meet-the-mystery-bachchan/story-EtzWImVQQjGlHKXXZhvQOI.html|access-date13 September 2022|archive-date 13 September 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220913144730/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/meet-the-mystery-bachchan/story-EtzWImVQQjGlHKXXZhvQOI.html|url-status live}}</ref> and they have a son.<ref>{{cite magazine |lastSrivastava |firstSamriddhi |date31 January 2022 |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/kunal-kapoor-naina-bachchan-welcome-baby-boy-celebs-say-congrats-1906822-2022-01-31 |titleKunal Kapoor, Naina Bachchan welcome baby boy. Celebs say congrats |magazineIndia Today |access-date12 February 2022 |archive-date19 April 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220419143426/https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/movies/celebrities/story/kunal-kapoor-naina-bachchan-welcome-baby-boy-celebs-say-congrats-1906822-2022-01-31 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Bachchan is famously rumoured to have had an extramarital affair with actress Rekha from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s after they first acted together in Do Anjaane, and later in the successful films Khoon Pasina, Ganga Ki Saugandh, Muqaddar Ka Sikandar, Mr. Natwarlal, Suhaag, Ram Balram and ending in Silsila, though they have both denied it.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/movies/gossip/story/amitabh-rekha-untold-love-story-affair-1061436-2017-10-10|titleAmitabh-Rekha's untold love story: 10 lesser-known things about their relationship|date10 October 2017|websiteIndia Today |access-date14 June 2019|archive-date1 October 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201001211308/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/gossip/story/amitabh-rekha-untold-love-story-affair-1061436-2017-10-10|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/movies/gossip/story/happy-birthday-rekha-amitabh-bachchan-affair-controvesies-1061431-2017-10-10|titleHappy Birthday Rekha: Sindoor to rumoured affair with Amitabh Bachchan, 5 shocking controversies from her life|date10 October 2017|websiteIndia Today |access-date14 June 2019|archive-date22 October 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211022025716/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/gossip/story/happy-birthday-rekha-amitabh-bachchan-affair-controvesies-1061431-2017-10-10|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-rekha-s-biography-reveals-shocking-details-about-her-relationship-with-amitabh-bachchan-and-jaya-bachchan-2252221|titleRekha's biography reveals shocking details about her relationship with Amitabh Bachchan and Jaya Bachchan!|date5 September 2016|websiteDNA India |access-date14 June 2019|archive-date10 August 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180810024959/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-rekha-s-biography-reveals-shocking-details-about-her-relationship-with-amitabh-bachchan-and-jaya-bachchan-2252221|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2006, Bachchan stated that he is a teetotaler and a non-smoker.<ref>{{cite web |titleAmitabh Bachchan sends apology letter to anti-tobacco group |urlhttp://movies.dcealumni.com/archives/amitabh-bachchan-sends-apology-letter-to-anti-tobacco-group/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061103152455/http://movies.dcealumni.com/archives/amitabh-bachchan-sends-apology-letter-to-anti-tobacco-group/ |archive-date3 November 2006 |websitemovies.dcealumni.com |date1 October 2006 |access-date27 March 2024}}</ref>
In November 2023, Bachchan gifted his bungalow Prateeksha, located in Juhu, to his daughter Shweta. The bungalow is worth {{INR|500&nbsp;million}}.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/amitabh-bachchan-gifts-prateeksha-to-daughter-shweta-report-4604524 |titleAmitabh Bachchan Gifts Juhu Bungalow Prateeksha To Daughter Shweta |date25 November 2023 |workNDTV India |access-date26 November 2023}}</ref> Legacy Bachchan is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential actors in the history of Indian cinema.<ref>{{cite web|titleAmitabh Bachchan: Meet the biggest movie star in the world|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/amitabh-bachchan-the-biggest-film-star-in-the-world-10034826.html/|workThe independent|access-date9 February 2015|date9 February 2015|archive-date10 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150210093650/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/amitabh-bachchan-the-biggest-film-star-in-the-world-10034826.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleWhy Amitabh Bachchan is more than a superstar |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-19893525 |publisher BBC |access-date11 October 2012 |date 11 October 2012 |archive-date14 October 2012 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121014013931/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-19893525 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|lastWajihuddin|firstMohammed|titleEgypt's Amitabh Bachchan mania|urlhttp://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-12-02/india/27839664_1_bachchan-fan-mania-indians|access-date22 November 2011|newspaperThe Times of India|date2 December 2005|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130501071157/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-12-02/india/27839664_1_bachchan-fan-mania-indians|archive-date1 May 2013|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|lastJatras|firstTodd|titleIndia's Celebrity Film Stars|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/2001/03/09/0309bollywood.html|workForbes|access-date22 November 2011|date9 March 2001|archive-date20 February 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170220031815/http://www.forbes.com/2001/03/09/0309bollywood.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> He earned respect among critics for his memorable performances and charismatic screen presence, and is considered one of the most respected public figures of India.<ref>{{cite web|titleBachchan Receives Lifetime Achievement Award at DIFF |urlhttp://www.khaleejtimes.com/displayarticle.asp?xfiledata/newsmakers/2009/November/newsmakers_November64.xml&sectionnewsmakers&col |workKhaleej Times|access-date24 November 2011 |date25 November 2009 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130602182846/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/displayarticle.asp?xfiledata%2Fnewsmakers%2F2009%2FNovember%2Fnewsmakers_November64.xml&sectionnewsmakers&col |archive-date2 June 2013}}</ref> He is referred to as the "Shahenshah of Bollywood", "Star of the Millennium" or "Big B".<ref name"auto3">{{cite web|titleAmitabh Bachchan at 73: An ode to the undisputed 'Shahenshah' of Bollywood|urlhttp://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-at-72-an-ode-to-the-undisputed-shahenshah-of-bollywood/|workThe Indian Express|access-date11 October 2015|date11 October 2015|archive-date28 October 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151028155451/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/amitabh-bachchan-at-72-an-ode-to-the-undisputed-shahenshah-of-bollywood/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"auto1">{{cite web|titleRajinikanth reveres Amitabh Bachchan as the 'Emperor of Indian Cinema'!|urlhttps://www.indiaglitz.com/rajinikanth-reveres-amitabh-bachchan-as-the-emperor-of-indian-cinema-hindi-news-144373.html/|websiteIndiaGlitz.com|access-date10 October 2015|date10 October 2015|archive-date6 May 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160506041550/http://www.indiaglitz.com/rajinikanth-reveres-amitabh-bachchan-as-the-emperor-of-indian-cinema-hindi-news-144373.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"auto">{{cite web|urlhttp://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/print/delhis-date-with-big-b-at-adda-on-friday/|titleDelhi's date with Big B at Adda on Friday|date27 September 2012|workThe independent|access-date27 September 2012|archive-date4 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304133104/http://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/print/delhis-date-with-big-b-at-adda-on-friday/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"auto2">{{cite web|titleAmitabh Bachchan's Big B'day bash: Bollywood came calling |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/india/amitabh-bachchan-s-big-b-day-bash-bollywood-came-calling/story-kXEUI1OtpqOkB1AqTvlKoM.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160724082236/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/amitabh-bachchan-s-big-b-day-bash-bollywood-came-calling/story-kXEUI1OtpqOkB1AqTvlKoM.html |url-statuslive |archive-date24 July 2016 |workHindustan Times |access-date12 October 2012 |date12 October 2012}}</ref> He inspired many Indian cinema actors, including Rajinikanth, Chiranjeevi, Akshay Kumar, Pawan Kalyan, Prabhas, Manoj Bajpayee, Ajay Devgn, Mohanlal, Ranveer Singh, Allu Arjun and Yash.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Amitabh-is-my-inspiration-says-Rajini/article16133086.ece |titleAmitabh is my inspiration, says Rajini |date15 August 2010 |workThe Hindu |access-date24 November 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180516093145/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Amitabh-is-my-inspiration-says-Rajini/article16133086.ece |archive-date16 May 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref> French director François Truffaut called him a "one-man industry".<ref>{{cite web| work China Daily| titleTruffaut labeled Bachchan a one-man industry| url http://app1.chinadaily.com.cn/star/history/00-07-07/l03-film.html| access-date1 February 2008| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080201030338/http://app1.chinadaily.com.cn/star/history/00-07-07/l03-film.html| archive-date1 February 2008| url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-10-10/news-interviews/43032903_1_amitabh-bachchan-saat-hindustani-inquilab/ |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20131023150403/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-10-10/news-interviews/43032903_1_amitabh-bachchan-saat-hindustani-inquilab/ |url-statusdead |archive-date23 October 2013 |titleAmitabh Bachchan: Indira Gandhi helped him get into films |date10 October 2013 |workThe Times of India |access-date23 October 2013}}</ref>
One of the most successful actors of the 1970s and 1980s, Bachchan appeared in Box Office India{{'}}s "Top Actors" list seventeen times from 1975 to 1991. He topped the list sixteen times (1976–1991).<ref>{{cite web |titleTop Actors |urlhttp://www.boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageNametop_actors |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080219165002/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageNametop_actors |archive-date19 February 2008 |access-date24 April 2020 |work=Box Office India}}</ref>
In 1999, Bachchan was voted the "greatest star of stage or screen" in a BBC Your Millennium online poll. The organisation noted that "Many people in the western world will not have heard of [him]&nbsp;... [but it] is a reflection of the huge popularity of Indian films."<ref name"BBC News"/> In October 2003, Time magazine dubbed Bachchan as "the Undisputed Godfather of Bollywood".<ref name"Perry"/> In April 2005, The Walter Reade Theater of Lincoln Center in New York honoured Bachchan with a special tribute, retrospective—titled "Amitabh Bachchan: The Biggest Film Star in the World".<ref name"Saltz">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/15/movies/15indi.html |titleA Star the World Over but Almost Unknown Here |workThe Indian Express |date15 April 2005 |access-date7 June 2013 |firstRachel |lastSaltz |archive-date19 April 2005 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050419141138/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/15/movies/15indi.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"thedailybeast.com/newsweek">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2005/04/21/the-biggest-film-star-in-the-world.html |titleThe Biggest Film Star in the World|publisherthedailybeast.com|date21 April 2005 |access-date=7 June 2013}}</ref>
In the early 80s, Bachchan authorised the use of his likeness for the comic book character Supremo in a series titled The Adventures of Amitabh Bachchan.<ref>{{cite web |date10 November 2009 |titleRemembering Amitabh, the Supremo superhero |urlhttp://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-pammi-bakshi-on-supremo/20091110.htm |access-date11 December 2012 |workRediff.com |archive-date8 April 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170408044256/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-pammi-bakshi-on-supremo/20091110.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref> In May 2014, La Trobe University in Australia named a Scholarship after Bachchan.<ref>{{cite news |titleLa Trobe University of Australia names scholarship after Amitabh Bachchan |urlhttp://news.biharprabha.com/2014/05/la-trobe-university-of-australia-names-scholarship-after-amitabh-bachchan/ |access-date2 May 2014 |publishernews.biharprabha.com |agencyIndo-Asian News Service |archive-date2 May 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140502153915/http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/05/la-trobe-university-of-australia-names-scholarship-after-amitabh-bachchan/ |url-statuslive}}</ref> In June 2000, he became the first living Asian to have been modelled in wax at London's Madame Tussauds Wax Museum.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.screenindia.com/news/art-of-cinema-is-a-small-contribution-amitabh-bachchan/441709/ |titleArt of cinema is a small contribution: Amitabh Bachchan |publisherScreen |date1 April 2009 |access-date2 October 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090604212708/http://www.screenindia.com/news/art-of-cinema-is-a-small-contribution-amitabh-bachchan/441709 |archive-date4 June 2009}}</ref> Another statue was installed in New York in 2009,<ref>{{cite web|authorAmitabh's Wax Figure in New York |urlhttp://whatslatest.com/blog/?tagamitabh-wax-figure-in-new-york |titleAmitabh Wax figure in New York |publisherWhatslatest.com |access-date2 October 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121202033520/http://whatslatest.com/blog/?tagamitabh-wax-figure-in-new-york |archive-date2 December 2012}}</ref> Hong Kong in 2011,<ref name"The Hindu">{{cite news |url http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article1570825.ece |titleAmitabh's wax statue unveiled at Hong Kong Tussauds |work The Hindu |date25 March 2011 |access-date 11 October 2012 |locationChennai, India |archive-date 15 August 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815155355/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article1570825.ece |url-statuslive}}</ref> Bangkok in 2011,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.madametussauds.com/Bangkok/en/NewsAndEvents/AmitabhBachchanLaunch.aspx |titleUnveils wax figure of India's all-time superstar: Amitabh Bachchan |publishermadametussauds.com|date24 August 2011 |access-date12 October 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121114095003/http://www.madametussauds.com/Bangkok/en/NewsAndEvents/AmitabhBachchanLaunch.aspx |archive-date14 November 2012}}</ref> Washington, DC in 2012<ref name"The Indian Express">{{cite web |url http://www.indianexpress.com/news/big-b-srk-aishwaryas-wax-figures-at-washington-tussauds/1040813/ |titleBig B, SRK, Aishwarya's wax figures at Washington Tussauds |workThe Indian Express |date5 December 2012 |access-date5 December 2012 |archive-date20 January 2016 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160120105117/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/big-b-srk-aishwaryas-wax-figures-at-washington-tussauds/1040813/ |url-statuslive}}</ref> and Delhi in 2017.<ref name"ReferenceA">{{cite web |urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/amitabh-bachchan-misunderstands-his-wax-statue-at-madam-tussauds-delhi-as-his-photo/articleshow/56517118.cms |title Amitabh Bachchan misunderstands his wax statue at Madame Tussauds, Delhi as his photo |workThe Times of India |date 13 January 2017 |access-date13 January 2017 |archive-date13 January 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170113172851/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/amitabh-bachchan-misunderstands-his-wax-statue-at-madam-tussauds-delhi-as-his-photo/articleshow/56517118.cms |url-statuslive}}</ref>
In March 2010, Bachchan was named on CNN's list of the "top 25 Asian actors of all time".<ref name"Hindustan Times">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/Big-B-in-CNN-s-top-25-Asian-actors-list/H1-Article1-515456.aspx |titleBig B in CNN's top 25 Asian actors list |workHindustan Times|date5 March 2010 |access-date4 August 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111101080219/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Big-B-in-CNN-s-top-25-Asian-actors-list/H1-Article1-515456.aspx |archive-date1 November 2011}}</ref> He was named "Hottest Vegetarian male" by PETA India in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |date3 January 2013 |titleAmitabh Bachchan, Vidya Balan named hottest vegetarians |newspaperHindustan Times |urlhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/tabloid/amitabh-bachchan-vidya-balan-named-hottest-vegetarians/article1-984421.aspx |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150217223322/http://www.hindustantimes.com/tabloid/amitabh-bachchan-vidya-balan-named-hottest-vegetarians/article1-984421.aspx |url-statusdead |archive-date17 February 2015}}</ref> He also won the title of "Asia's Sexiest Vegetarian male" in a contest poll run by PETA Asia in 2008.<ref>{{cite news |date19 June 2008 |titleFaye Wong is Asia's sexiest vegetarian |newspaperThe Times of India |urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/english/hollywood/news/Faye-Wong-is-Asias-sexiest-vegetarian/articleshow/3142261.cms |access-date17 February 2015 |archive-date11 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201011115108/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/english/hollywood/news/Faye-Wong-is-Asias-sexiest-vegetarian/articleshow/3142261.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In Allahabad, the Amitabh Bachchan Sports Complex and Amitabh Bachchan Road are named after him.<ref>{{cite web |titleAmitabh Bachchan Sports Complex |urlhttp://allahabaddekho.com/Home/Sportcenters_of_allahabad |access-date15 August 2016 |archive-date19 October 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161019015806/http://allahabaddekho.com/Home/Sportcenters_of_allahabad |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date8 April 2017 |titleRename Clive Road as Amitabh Bachchan Marg |urlhttp://activeindiatv.com/entertainment/44823-rename-clive-road-as-amitabh-bachchan-marg |access-date14 February 2018 |archive-date14 February 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180214202707/http://activeindiatv.com/entertainment/44823-rename-clive-road-as-amitabh-bachchan-marg |url-statusdead }}</ref> A government senior secondary school in Saifai, Etawah is called Amitabh Bachchan Government Inter College.<ref>{{cite web |date18 January 2014 |titleNeighbours' Envy: Remarkable growth of Saifai has left other villages feeling left out |urlhttp://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/neighbours-envy-3/ |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722095625/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/neighbours-envy-3/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleAn oasis in undeveloped Yadav belt |websiteThe Times of India |date23 April 2014 |urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/An-oasis-in-undeveloped-Yadav-belt/articleshow/34084463.cms |access-date21 July 2018 |archive-date21 August 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180821073108/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/An-oasis-in-undeveloped-Yadav-belt/articleshow/34084463.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleThe Telegraph – Calcutta: Nation |urlhttps://www.telegraphindia.com/1040905/asp/nation/story_3719293.asp |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040927053816/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040905/asp/nation/story_3719293.asp |url-statusdead |archive-date27 September 2004 |access-date21 July 2018 |websiteThe Telegraph |locationKolkota}}</ref> There is a waterfall in Sikkim known as Amitabh Bachchan Falls.<ref name"tribune">{{cite news |authorShriaya Dut |date31 August 2019 |titleBeen to Amitabh Bachchan waterfall in Sikkim, even Big B is shocked |workThe Tribune |urlhttps://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/lifestyle/been-to-amitabh-bachchan-waterfall-in-sikkim-even-big-b-is-shocked-825810 |access-date13 April 2020 |archive-date20 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200720061334/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/lifestyle/been-to-amitabh-bachchan-waterfall-in-sikkim-even-big-b-is-shocked-825810 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In 2022, on the occasion of Bachchan's 80th birthday, a not-for-profit organisation Film Heritage Foundation announced a film festival as a part of his 11 films collection had been screened in 17 cities across the country shown in limited cinemas.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/film-heritage-foundation-announces-amitabh-bachchan-film-festival-to-mark-cine-icons-80th-birthday-8182291/ | titleFilm Heritage Foundation announces Amitabh Bachchan film festival to mark cine icon's 80th birthday | date30 September 2022 | access-date5 December 2022 | archive-date5 December 2022 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221205134655/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/film-heritage-foundation-announces-amitabh-bachchan-film-festival-to-mark-cine-icons-80th-birthday-8182291/ | url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/as-big-b-turns-80-special-film-fest-to-showcase-his-11-iconic-films/articleshow/94555450.cms | titleAs Big B turns 80, special film fest to showcase his 11 iconic films | websiteThe Times of India | date30 September 2022 }}</ref> Biographies
Several books have been written about Bachchan. The following is the listing of books focused on his life career:
*Amitabh Bachchan: the Legend was published in 1999,<ref>{{cite web |titleAmitabh Bachchan&nbsp;– The Legend by Bhawana Somaaya |urlhttp://www.indiaclub.com/shop/SearchResults.asp?ProdStock3161 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130615152859/http://www.indiaclub.com/shop/SearchResults.asp?ProdStock3161 |archive-date15 June 2013 |access-date2 October 2010 |publisher=Indiaclub.com}}</ref>
*To be or not to be: Amitabh Bachchan in 2004,<ref>{{cite web |authorhalid Mohamed |titleTo Be or Not to Be Amitabh Bachchan |urlhttp://www.shvoong.com/entertainment/movies/1843754-amitabh-bachchan/ |access-date2 October 2010 |publisherShvoong.com |archive-date8 November 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121108031438/http://www.shvoong.com/entertainment/movies/1843754-amitabh-bachchan/ |url-statusdead}}</ref>
*''AB: The Legend (A Photographer's Tribute)'' in 2006,<ref>{{cite book |urlhttp://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/IDF390 |titleAB: The Legend (A Photographer's Tribute) |date2 October 2008 |publisherExoticindiaart.com |access-date2 October 2010 |archive-date20 July 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090720123607/http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/IDF390/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*Amitabh Bachchan: Ek Jeevit Kimvadanti in 2006,<ref>{{cite book |authorSomaaya |urlhttp://www.autsun.com/amitabh-bachchan-ek-jeevit-kimvadanti/p/5070.html |titleAmitabh Bachchan: Ek Jeevit Kimvadanti |date20 October 2009 |publisherMacmillan India |isbn978-1-4039-3160-3 |access-date2 October 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110707191625/http://www.autsun.com/amitabh-bachchan-ek-jeevit-kimvadanti/p/5070.html |archive-date7 July 2011 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
*Amitabh: The Making of a Superstar in 2006,<ref>{{cite web |titleAmitabh: The Making of a Superstar by Susmita Dasgupta |urlhttp://www.indiaclub.com/shop/searchresults.asp?ProdStock19211 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130615172748/http://www.indiaclub.com/shop/searchresults.asp?ProdStock19211 |archive-date15 June 2013 |access-date2 October 2010 |publisher=Indiaclub.com}}</ref>
*Looking for the Big B: Bollywood, Bachchan and Me in 2007<ref>{{cite book |titleLooking for the Big B: Bollywood, Bachchan and Me: Jessica Hines|id{{ISBN|0747560412|country=uk}}}}</ref> and
*Bachchanalia in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |date24 January 2009 |titleBachchanalia: Big B as hero, lover, conman |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/books/bachchanalia-big-b-as-hero-lover-conman/story-0drMSxKamf8Be1yZhTKOOJ.html |access-date5 October 2020 |websiteHindustan Times |archive-date9 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201009065832/https://www.hindustantimes.com/books/bachchanalia-big-b-as-hero-lover-conman/story-0drMSxKamf8Be1yZhTKOOJ.html |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Awards and honours
{{main|List of awards and nominations received by Amitabh Bachchan}}
presenting the Best Film Actor Award for the year 2005 to Shri Amitabh Bachchan]]
Apart from industry awards won for his performances throughout the years, Bachchan has received several honours for his achievements in the Indian film industry. In 1991, he became the first artist to receive the Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award, which was established in the name of Raj Kapoor. Bachchan was crowned as Superstar of the Millennium in 2000 at the Filmfare Awards.
In 2001, he was honoured with the Actor of the Century award at the Alexandria International Film Festival in Egypt in recognition of his contribution to the world of cinema.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010904/world.htm#8 |titleThe Tribune, Chandigarh, India&nbsp;– World |workThe Tribune |date4 September 2001 |access-date2 October 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131121110907/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010904/world.htm#8 |archive-date21 November 2013}}</ref> Many other honours for his achievements were conferred upon him at several International Film Festivals, including the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2010 Asian Film Awards.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://entertainment.oneindia.in/bollywood/news/2010/amitabh-asian-awards-250310.html |titleActor Amitabh Bachchan &#124; Film Paa&nbsp;– Oneindia Entertainment |publisherEntertainment.oneindia.in |date25 March 2010 |access-date2 October 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130524143103/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/bollywood/news/2010/amitabh-asian-awards-250310.html |archive-date24 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2003, he was conferred with the Honorary Citizenship of the French town of Deauville.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/07/04/stories/2003070400980100.htm |title'Shahenshah' of Bollywood |date4 July 2003 |access-date2 October 2010 |locationChennai, India |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101014135148/http://hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/07/04/stories/2003070400980100.htm |archive-date14 October 2010 |workThe Hindu |url-statusdead}}</ref> The Government of India awarded him with the Padma Shri in 1984, the Padma Bhushan in 2001, the Padma Vibhushan in 2015 and Dadasaheb Phalke Award in 2019. The then-President of Afghanistan awarded him the Order of Afghanistan in 1991 following the shooting of Khuda Gawah there.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.khaama.com/indian-film-star-amitabh-bachchan-cherish-afghanistan-memories-1810/ |titleIndian film star Amitabh Bachchan cherish Afghanistan memories |newspaperThe Khaama Press News Agency |date27 August 2013 |access-date20 November 2018 |archive-date20 November 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181120095505/https://www.khaama.com/indian-film-star-amitabh-bachchan-cherish-afghanistan-memories-1810/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Government of Madhya Pradesh honoured him with Rashtriya Kishore Kumar Samman for 2002–2003.<ref>{{cite news |titleAmitabh conferred Kishore Kumar award |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/amitabh-conferred-kishore-kumar-award/articleshow/26698419.cms |access-date3 June 2022 |workThe Times of India |date29 October 2002 |archive-date3 June 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220603100008/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/amitabh-conferred-kishore-kumar-award/articleshow/26698419.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1रत्नप्रिया |titleक्या है 'किशोर अलंकरण', किन हस्तियों को मिल चुका है ये सम्मान |urlhttps://www.amarujala.com/education/kishore-kumar-samman-recipient-list-waheeda-rehman-to-be-awarded-this-year |access-date3 June 2022 |workAmar Ujala |date6 October 2019 |languagehi |archive-date10 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211210222443/https://www.amarujala.com/education/kishore-kumar-samman-recipient-list-waheeda-rehman-to-be-awarded-this-year |url-status=live}}</ref> in London on 27 July 2012|left]]
France's highest civilian honour, the Officer of the Legion of Honour, was conferred upon him by the French Government in 2007 for his "exceptional career in the world of cinema and beyond".<ref>{{cite news |lastPandey |firstGeeta |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6306201.stm |titleSouth Asia &#124; French honour for Bollywood star |publisherBBC News |date27 January 2007 |access-date2 October 2010 |archive-date4 October 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181004140244/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6306201.stm |url-statuslive}}</ref> On 27 July 2012, at the age of 69, Bachchan carried the Olympic torch during the last leg of its relay in London's Southwark.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/amitabh-bachchan-carries-olympic-torch-355100 |titleAmitabh Bachchan Carries Olympic Torch |date26 July 2012 |workThe Hollywood Reporter |firstNyay |lastBhushan |access-date27 July 2012 |archive-date30 July 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120730004645/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/amitabh-bachchan-carries-olympic-torch-355100 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Bibliography
* Soul Curry for You and Me – An Empowering Philosophy That Can Enrich Your Life. (2002)<ref>{{cite web |title73 things you must know about Amitabh Bachchan |urlhttps://www.businessinsider.in/amitabh-bachchan-turns-73-on-sunday/articleshow/49308365.cms |access-date5 October 2020 |websiteBusiness Insider |archive-date13 March 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170313061431/http://www.businessinsider.in/Amitabh-Bachchan-turns-73-on-Sunday/articleshow/49308365.cms |url-statuslive }}</ref> See also
* List of Bollywood actors
* Lists of Indian actors
{{Portal bar|Biography|India|Film|Bollywood|Television}}
References
Notes
<references group"lower-alpha" />Citations{{reflist|colwidth30em}}
Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |lastSomaaya |firstBhawana |author-linkBhawana Somaaya |titleAmitabh Bachchan: The Legend |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVSxlAAAAMAAJ |date1 February 1999 |publisherMacmillan India Limited |isbn=978-0-333-93355-8}}
* {{cite book |lastSomaaya |firstBhawana |titleBachchanalia: The Films and Memorabilia of Amitabh Bachchan |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8DlePgAACAAJ |year2009 |publisherOsian's-Connoisseurs of Art |isbn978-81-8174-027-4}}
* {{cite book |authorBhawana Somaaya |titleAmitabh Lexicon |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjBBetwAACAAJ |year2011 |isbn978-8122311891 |publisher=Pustak Mahal}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Sister project links|voyno|Amitabh Bachchan|wiktyes|byes|sAmitabha Harivansh Rai Bachchan|vyes|authoryes|d=Q9570}}
* {{Tumblr|srbachchan|Amitabh Bachchan}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama person}}
* {{Twitter}}
{{Don}}
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Allomorph
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In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or in other words, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term allomorph describes the realization of phonological variations for a specific morpheme.
In English
English has several morphemes that vary in sound but not in meaning, such as past tense morphemes, plural morphemes, and negative morphemes.
Past tense allomorphs
For example, an English past tense morpheme is -ed, which occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment by assimilating the voicing of the previous segment or the insertion of a schwa after an alveolar stop.
the negative morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes [ɪn-] when preceding an alveolar consonant ("intolerant"/ɪn'tɔlərənt/)
the morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes [ɪŋ-] before a velar consonant ("incongruous" /ɪŋ'kɔŋgruəs/)
the morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes [ɪm-] before a bilabial consonant ("improper" /ɪm'prɔpər/)
In Sami languages
The Sami languages have a trochaic pattern of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. The vowels and consonants that are allowed in an unstressed syllable differ from those that are allowed in a stressed syllable. Consequently, every suffix and inflectional ending has two forms, and the form that is used depends on the stress pattern of the word to which it is attached. For example, Northern Sami has the causative verb suffix - in which - is selected when it would be the third syllable (and the preceding verb has two syllables), and - is selected when it would be the third and the fourth syllables (and the preceding verb has three syllables):
has two syllables and so when suffixed, the result is .
has three syllables and so when suffixed, the result is .
The same applies to inflectional patterns in the Sami languages as well, which are divided into even stems and odd stems.
Stem allomorphy
Allomorphy can also exist in stems or roots, as in Classical Sanskrit:
See also
Null allomorph
Alternation (linguistics)
Allophone
Consonant mutation
Grassmann's law
Suppletion
References
Category:Linguistic morphology
Category:Morphemes
Category:Linguistics terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allomorph
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Allophone
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thumb|A simplified procedure to determine whether two sounds represent the same or different phonemes. The cases on the extreme left and the extreme right are those in which the sounds are allophones.
In phonology, an allophone (; from the Greek , , 'other' and , , 'voice, sound') is one of multiple possible spoken soundsor phonesused to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, the voiceless plosive (as in stop ) and the aspirated form (as in top ) are allophones for the phoneme , while these two are considered to be different phonemes in some languages such as Central Thai. Similarly, in Spanish, (as in dolor ) and (as in nada ) are allophones for the phoneme , while these two are considered to be different phonemes in English (as in the difference between dare and there).
The specific allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context, with such allophones being called positional variants, but some allophones occur in free variation. Replacing a sound by another allophone of the same phoneme usually does not change the meaning of a word, but the result may sound non-native or even unintelligible.
Native speakers of a given language perceive one phoneme in the language as a single distinctive sound and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations that are used to pronounce single phonemes.
History of concept
The term "allophone" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf circa 1929. In doing so, he is thought to have placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition.
Complementary and free-variant allophones
Each time a speaker vocalizes a phoneme, they pronounce it differently from previous iterations. There is debate regarding how real and universal phonemes are (see phoneme for details). Only some of the variation is perceptible to listeners speakers.
There are two types of allophones: complementary allophones and free-variant allophones.
Complementary allophones are not interchangeable. If context requires a speaker to use a specific allophone for a given phoneme (that is, using a different allophone would confuse listeners), the possible allophones are said to be complementary. Each allophone from a complementary set is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a phonological process.
Otherwise, allophones are free-variant; speakers choose an allophone by habit or preference.
Allotone
An allotone is a tonic allophone, such as the neutral tone in Standard Mandarin.
Examples
English
There are many allophonic processes in English: lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.
Aspiration: In English, a voiceless plosive is aspirated (has a strong explosion of breath) if it is at the beginning of the first or a stressed syllable in a word. For example, as in pin and as in spin are allophones for the phoneme because they cannot be used to distinguish words (in fact, they occur in complementary distribution). English-speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are different: the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Many languages treat the two phones differently.
Nasal plosion: In English, a plosive () has nasal plosion if it is followed by a nasal, whether within a word or across a word boundary.
Partial devoicing of sonorants: In English, sonorants () are partially devoiced after a voiceless sound in the same syllable.
Complete devoicing of sonorants: In English, a sonorant is completely devoiced after an aspirated plosive ().
Partial devoicing of obstruents: In English, a voiced obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound within a word or across a word boundary.
Retraction: In English, are retracted before .
Because the choice among allophones is seldom under conscious control, few people realize their existence. English-speakers may be unaware of differences between a number of (dialect-dependent) allophones of the phoneme :
post-aspirated as in top,
unaspirated as in stop.
glottalized (or rather substituted by the glottal stop) as in button, but many speakers preserve at least an unreleased coronal stop .
In addition, the following allophones of /t/ are found in (at least) some dialects of American(ised) English;
flapped as in American English water,
nasal(ized) flapped as in American English winter.
unreleased as in American English cat, but other dialects preserve the released , or substitute the glottal stop .
However, speakers may become aware of the differences iffor examplethey contrast the pronunciations of the following words:
Night rate: unreleased (without a word space between and )
Nitrate: aspirated or retracted
A flame that is held in front of the lips while those words are spoken flickers more for the aspirated nitrate than for the unaspirated night rate. The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin-speaker, for whom and are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than for an English-speaker, who has learned since childhood to ignore the distinction.
One may notice the (dialect-dependent) allophones of English such as the (palatal) alveolar "light" of leaf as opposed to the velar alveolar "dark" in feel found in the U.S. and Southern England. The difference is much more obvious to a Turkish-speaker, for whom and are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme.
These descriptions are more sequentially broken down in the next section.
Rules for English consonant allophones
Peter Ladefoged, a renowned phonetician, clearly explains the consonant allophones of English in a precise list of statements to illustrate the language behavior. Some of these rules apply to all the consonants of English; the first item on the list deals with consonant length, items 2 through 18 apply to only selected groups of consonants, and the last item deals with the quality of a consonant.
These descriptive rules are as follows:
Consonants are longer when they come at the end of a phrase. This can be easily tested by recording a speaker saying a sound like "bib", then comparing the forward and backward playback of the recording. One will find that the backward playback does not sound like the forward playback because the production of what is expected to be the same sound is not identical.
Voiceless stops are aspirated when they come at the beginning of a syllable, such as in words like "pip, test, kick" . We can compare this with voiceless stops that are not syllable initial like "stop" [stɑp]. The voiceless stop follows the (fricative) here.
Voiced obstruents, which include stops and fricatives, such as , that come at the end of an utterance like in "improve" or before a voiceless sound like in "add two") are only briefly voiced during the articulation.
Voiced stops and affricates in fact occur as partially devoiced at the beginning of a syllable unless immediately preceded by a voiced sound, in which the voiced sound carries over.
Approximants (in English, these include ) are partially devoiced when they occur after syllable-initial like in "play, twin, cue" .
Voiceless stops are not aspirated when following after a syllable initial fricative, such as in the words "spew, stew, skew."
Voiceless stops and affricates are longer than their voiced counterparts when situated at the end of a syllable. Try comparing "cap" to "cab" or "back" to "bag".
When a stop comes before another stop, the explosion of air only follows after the second stop, illustrated in words like "apt" and "rubbed" .
Many English accents produce a glottal stop in syllables that end with voiceless stops. Some examples include pronunciations of "tip, pit, kick" .
Some accents of English use a glottal stop in place of a when it comes before an alveolar nasal in the same word (as opposed to in the next word), such as in the word "beaten" .
Nasals become syllabic, or their own syllable, only when immediately following an obstruent (as opposed to just any consonant), such as in the words "leaden, chasm" . Take in comparison "kiln, film"; in most accents of English, the nasals are not syllabic.
The lateral , however, is syllabic at the end of the word when immediately following any consonant, like in "paddle, whistle" .
When considering as liquids, is included in this rule as well as present in the words "sabre, razor, hammer, tailor" .
Alveolar stops become voiced taps when they occur between two vowels, as long as the second vowel is unstressed. Take for instance mainly American English pronunciations like "fatty, data, daddy, many" .
When an alveolar nasal is followed by a stop, the is lost and a nasal tap occurs, causing "winter" to sound just like "winner" or "panting" to sound just like "panning". In this case, both alveolar stops and alveolar nasal plus stop sequences become voiced taps after two vowels when the second vowel is unstressed. This can vary among speakers, where the rule does not apply to certain words or when speaking at a slower pace.
All alveolar consonants assimilate to dentals when occurring before a dental. Take the words "eighth, tenth, wealth". This also applies across word boundaries, for example "at this" .
Alveolar stops are reduced or omitted when between two consonants. Some examples include "most people" (can be written either as or with the IPA, where the is inaudible, and "sand paper, grand master", where the is inaudible.
A consonant is shortened when it is before an identical consonant, such as in "big game" or "top post".
A homorganic voiceless stop may be inserted after a nasal before a voiceless fricative followed by an unstressed vowel in the same word. For example, a bilabial voiceless plosive can be detected in the word "something" even though it is orthographically not indicated. This is known as epenthesis. However, the following vowel must be unstressed.
Velar stops become more front when the following vowel sound in the same syllable becomes more front. Compare for instance "cap" vs. "key" and "gap" vs. "geese" .
The lateral is velarized at the end of a word when it comes after a vowel as well as before a consonant. Compare for example "life" vs. "file" or "feeling" vs. "feel" .
Other languages
There are many examples for allophones in languages other than English. Typically, languages with a small phoneme inventory allow for quite a lot of allophonic variation: examples are Hawaiian and Pirahã. Here are some examples (the links of language names go to the specific article or subsection on the phenomenon):
Consonant allophones
Final devoicing, particularly final-obstruent devoicing: Arapaho, English, Nahuatl, Catalan and many others
Voicing of initial consonant
Anticipatory assimilation
Aspiration changes: Algonquin
Frication between vowels: Dahalo
Lenition: Manx, Corsican
Voicing of clicks: Dahalo
Allophones for : Arapaho, Xavante
Allophones for : Xavante
Allophones for : Bengali
Allophones for : Xavante
Allophones for : Manam
Allophones for : Garhwali
and as allophones: a number of Arabic dialects
and as allophones: Some dialects of Hawaiian, and some of Mandarin (e.g. Southwestern and Lower Yangtze)
Allophones for
: Finnish, Spanish and many more.
wide range of variation in Japanese (as archiphoneme /N/)
Allophones for : Bengali, Xavante
Allophones for : Bengali
Allophones for : Bengali, Taos
and as allophones: Hawaiian
Allophones for :
and : Hindustani, Hawaiian
fricative before unrounded vowels: O'odham
Allophones for : Bengali
Vowel allophones
and are allophones of and in closed final syllables in Malay and Portuguese, while and are allophones of and in Indonesian.
as allophones for short , and as allophones for short in various Arabic dialects (long , , , are separate phonemes in most Arabic dialects).
Polish
Russian
Allophones for , and : Nuxálk
Vowel/consonant allophones
Vowels become glides in diphthongs: Manam
Representing a phoneme with an allophone
Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not the sounds themselves, they have no direct phonetic transcription. When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple broad transcription is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, the allophony becomes significant and things then become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, that representation is chosen for the phoneme.
However, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than that allows. In such cases, a common convention is to use the "elsewhere condition" to decide the allophone that stands for the phoneme. The "elsewhere" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules.
For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern is that vowels are nasal only before a nasal consonant in the same syllable; elsewhere, they are oral. Therefore, by the "elsewhere" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic, and nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes.
In other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the languages of the world than the other allophones, because it reflects the historical origin of the phoneme, or because it gives a more balanced look to a chart of the phonemic inventory.
An alternative, which is commonly used for archiphonemes, is to use a capital letter, such as /N/ for [m], [n], [ŋ].
In rare cases, a linguist may represent phonemes with abstract symbols, such as dingbats, to avoid privileging any particular allophone.
See also
Allo-
Allophonic rule
Allomorph
Alternation (linguistics)
Diaphoneme
List of phonetics topics
References
External links
Phonemes and allophones
Category:Phonetics
Category:Phonology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophone
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Affix
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In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. The main two categories are derivational and inflectional affixes. Derivational affixes, such as un-, -ation, anti-, pre- etc., introduce a semantic change to the word they are attached to. Inflectional affixes introduce a syntactic change, such as singular into plural (e.g. -(e)s), or present simple tense into present continuous or past tense by adding -ing, -ed to an English word. All of them are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes.
Affixes, infixes and their variations
Changing a word by adding a morpheme at its beginning is called prefixation, in the middle is called infixation, and at the end is called suffixation.
+ Categories of affixes Affix Example Schema Description Prefix un-do prefix-stem Appears before the stem Prefixoid/semi-prefix/pseudo-prefix flexi-cover prefixoid-stem Appears before the stem, but is only partially bound to it Suffix/postfix look-ing stem-suffix Appears after the stem Suffixoid/semi-suffix/pseudo-suffix cat-like stem-suffixoid Appears after the stem, but is only partially bound to it Infix(see also tmesis) educated stem Appears within a stem — common e.g. in Austronesian languages Circumfix enen circumfixcircumfix One portion appears before the stem, the other after Interfix speed-o-meter stema-interfix-stemb Links two stems together in a compound Duplifix money~shmoney (shm-reduplication) stem~duplifix Incorporates a reduplicated portion of a stem(may occur before, after, or within the stem) Transfix Maltese: ktb "he wrote"(compare root ktb "write") stem A discontinuous affix that interleaves within a discontinuous stem Simulfix mouse → mice stem\simulfix Changes a segment of a stem Suprafix produce (noun)produce (verb) stem\suprafix Changes a suprasegmental feature of a stem Disfix Alabama: tipli "break up"(compare root tipasli "break") stem The elision of a portion of a stem
Prefix and suffix may be subsumed under the term adfix, in contrast to infix.
When marking text for interlinear glossing, as shown in the third column in the chart above, simple affixes such as prefixes and suffixes are separated from the stem with hyphens. Affixes which disrupt the stem, or which themselves are discontinuous, are often marked off with angle brackets. Reduplication is often shown with a tilde. Affixes which cannot be segmented are marked with a back slash.
Lexical affixes
Semantically speaking, lexical affixes or semantic affixes, when compared with free nouns, often have a more generic or general meaning. For example, one denoting "water in a general sense" may not have a noun equivalent because all the nouns denote more specific meanings such as "saltwater", "whitewater", etc. (while in other cases the lexical suffixes have become grammaticalized to various degrees.) Although they behave as incorporated noun roots/stems within verbs and as elements of nouns, they never occur as freestanding nouns. Lexical affixes are relatively rare and are used in Wakashan, Salishan, and Chimakuan languages — the presence of these is an areal feature of the Pacific Northwest of North America - where they show little to no resemblance to free nouns with similar meanings. Compare the lexical suffixes and free nouns of Northern Straits Saanich written in the Saanich orthography and in Americanist notation:
Lexical Suffix Noun -o, -aʔ "person", ełtálṉew̱ ʔəɬtelŋəxʷ "person" -nát -net "day" sȼićel skʷičəl "day" -sen -sən "foot, lower leg" sxene, sx̣ənəʔ "foot, lower leg" -áwtw̱ -ew̕txʷ "building, house, campsite", á,leṉ ʔeʔləŋ "house"
Some linguists have claimed that these lexical suffixes provide only adverbial or adjectival notions to verbs. Other linguists disagree, arguing that they may additionally be syntactic arguments just as free nouns are and, thus, equating lexical suffixes with incorporated nouns. Gerdts (2003) gives examples of lexical suffixes in the Halkomelem language (the word order here is verb–subject–object):
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%"
|
|
| style="background: #bbbbff" | VERB
| style="background: #ffebad" | SUBJ
| style="background: #ffbbbb" | OBJ
|-
| (1)
| niʔ
| šak’ʷ-ət-əs
| łə słeniʔ
| łə qeq
|-
|
| colspan="4" | "the woman washed the baby"
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%"
| bgcolorwhite colspan5|
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%"
|
|
| style="background: #bbbbff" | VERB+LEX.SUFF
| style="background: #ffebad" | SUBJ
|
|-
| (2)
| niʔ
| šk’ʷ-əyəł
| łə słeniʔ
|
|-
|
| colspan="4" | "the woman baby-washed"
|}
In sentence (1), the verb "wash" is šak’ʷətəs where šak’ʷ- is the root and -ət and -əs are inflectional suffixes. The subject "the woman" is łə słeniʔ and the object "the baby" is łə qeq. In this sentence, "the baby" is a free noun. (The niʔ here is an auxiliary, which can be ignored for explanatory purposes.)
In sentence (2), "baby" does not appear as a free noun. Instead it appears as the lexical suffix -əyəł which is affixed to the verb root šk’ʷ- (which has changed slightly in pronunciation, but this can also be ignored here). The lexical suffix is neither "the baby" (definite) nor "a baby" (indefinite); such referential changes are routine with incorporated nouns.
Orthographic affixes
In orthography, the terms for affixes may be used for the smaller elements of conjunct characters. For example, Maya glyphs are generally compounds of a main sign and smaller affixes joined at its margins. These are called prefixes, superfixes, postfixes, and subfixes according to their position to the left, on top, to the right, or at the bottom of the main glyph. A small glyph placed inside another is called an infix. Similar terminology is found with the conjunct consonants of the Indic alphabets. For example, the Tibetan alphabet utilizes prefix, suffix, superfix, and subfix consonant letters.
See also
References
Bibliography
Montler, Timothy. (1986). An outline of the morphology and phonology of Saanich, North Straits Salish. Occasional Papers in Linguistics (No. 4). Missoula, MT: University of Montana Linguistics Laboratory.
Montler, Timothy. (1991). Saanich, North Straits Salish classified word list. Canadian Ethnology service paper (No. 119); Mercury series. Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization.
External links
Comprehensive and searchable affix dictionary reference
Category:Lexical units
Category:Linguistics terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix
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Allegory
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{{Short description|Literary device}}
{{For|the concept in mathematics|Allegory (mathematics)}}
. The dreamer stands on the other side of the stream from the Pearl-maiden. Pearl is one of the greatest allegories from the High Middle Ages.<ref name=barney>Stephen A. Barney (1989). "Allegory". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. vol. 1. {{ISBN|0-684-16760-3}}.</ref>]]
As a literary device or artistic form, an allegory is a narrative or visual representation in which a character, place, or event can be interpreted to represent a meaning with moral or political significance. Authors have used allegory throughout history in all forms of art to illustrate or convey complex ideas and concepts in ways that are comprehensible or striking to its viewers, readers, or listeners.
Writers and speakers typically use allegories to convey (semi-) hidden or complex meanings through symbolic figures, actions, imagery, or events, which together create the moral, spiritual, or political meaning the author wishes to convey.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/lit_terms_A.html |title Literary Terms and Definitions: A |workLiterary Vocabulary |publisherCarson-Newman University |lastWheeler |firstL. Kip |date11 January 2018 | access-dateMay 19, 2020}}</ref> Many allegories use personification of abstract concepts.
Etymology
: Allegory of Fortune, representing Fortuna, the goddess of luck, with the horn of plenty]]
and its independence. The painting depicts British diplomat Sir Charles Stuart presenting his letter of credence to Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, who is flanked by his wife Maria Leopoldina, their daughter Maria da Glória (later Queen Maria II of Portugal), and other dignitaries. At right, a winged figure, representing History, carving the "great event" on a stone tablet.<ref>{{Cite book|titleAs barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos |last1Schwarcz|first1Lilia Moritz|date1998|pages 181|publisherCompanhia das Letras|isbn85-7164-837-9|edition|locationSão Paulo|oclc}}</ref>]]
: Mythological allegory]]
First attested in English in 1382, the word allegory comes from Latin allegoria, the latinisation of the Greek ἀλληγορία (allegoría), "veiled language, figurative",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29llhgori%2Fa ἀλληγορία], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> literally "speaking about something else",<ref>{{Cite web |titleEtymology of allegory by etymonline |urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/word/allegory |access-date2024-07-04 |websiteetymonline.com |languageen}}</ref> which in turn comes from ἄλλος (allos), "another, different"<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Fllos1 ἄλλος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀγορεύω (agoreuo), "to harangue, to speak in the assembly",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29goreu%2Fw ἀγορεύω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> which originates from ἀγορά (agora), "assembly".<ref>
[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29gora%2F ἀγορά], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, in the Perseus Digital Library.
</ref>
Types
Northrop Frye discussed what he termed a "continuum of allegory", a spectrum that ranges from what he termed the "naive allegory" of the likes of The Faerie Queene, to the more private allegories of modern paradox literature.<ref>{{cite book | last1 Frye | first1 Northrop | author-link1 Northrop Frye | year 1957 | chapter Second Essay: Ethical Criticism: Theory of Symbols | editor1-last Damrosch | editor1-first = David
| editor1-link David Damrosch | title Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays | url https://books.google.com/books?id0Na_DwAAQBAJ | series Princeton Classics | volume 70 | location Princeton, New Jersey | publisher Princeton University Press | publication-date 2020 | pages 89ff | isbn = 9780691202563}}</ref>
In this perspective, the characters in a "naive" allegory are not fully three-dimensional, for each aspect of their individual personalities and of the events that befall them embodies some moral quality or other abstraction; the author has selected the allegory first, and the details merely flesh it out.
Classical allegory
The origins of allegory can be traced at least back to Homer in his "quasi-allegorical" use of personifications of, e.g., Terror (Deimos) and Fear (Phobos) at Il. 115 f.<ref>Small, S. G. P. (1949). "On Allegory in Homer". The Classical Journal 44 (7): 423.</ref> The title of "first allegorist", however, is usually awarded to whoever was the earliest to put forth allegorical interpretations of Homer. This approach leads to two possible answers: Theagenes of Rhegium (whom Porphyry calls the "first allegorist," Porph. Quaest. Hom. 1.240.14–241.12 Schrad.) or Pherecydes of Syros, both of whom are presumed to be active in the 6th century B.C.E., though Pherecydes is earlier and as he, is often presumed to be the fi,rst writer of prose. The debate is complex, since it demands we obsethat rve the distinction between two often conflated uses of the Greek verb "allēgoreīn," which can mean both "to speak allegorically" and "to interpret allegorically."<ref>Domaradzki, M. (2017). "The Beginnings of Greek Allegoresis". Classical World 110 (3):301</ref>
In the case of "interpreting allegorically," Theagenes appears to be our earliest example. Presumably in response to proto-philosophical moral critiques of Homer (e.g., Xenophanes fr. 11 Diels-Kranz<ref>H. Diels and W. Kranz. (1951). Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, vol. 1. 6th edn. Berlin: Weidmann, 126–138.</ref>), Theagenes proposed symbolic interpretations whereby the Gods of the Iliad actually stood for physical elements. So, Hephestus represents Fire, for instance (for which see fr. A2 in Diels-Kranz<ref>H. Diels and W. Kranz. (1951). Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, vol. 1. 6th edn. Berlin: Weidmann, 51–52.</ref>). Some scholars, however, argue that Pherecydes cosmogonic writings anticipated Theagenes allegorical work, illustrated especially by his early placement of Time (Chronos) in his genealogy of the gods, which is thought to be a reinterpretation of the titan Kronos, from more traditional genealogies.
In classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the Cave in Plato's The Republic (Book VII) and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa (Livy ii. 32).
Among the best-known examples of allegory, Plato's Allegory of the Cave, forms a part of his larger work The Republic. In this allegory, Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained in a cave all of their lives, facing a blank wall (514a–b). The people watch shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them and begin to ascribe forms to these shadows, using language to identify their world (514c–515a). According to the allegory, the shadows are as close as the prisoners get to viewing reality, until one of them finds his way into the outside world where he sees the actual objects that produced the shadows. He tries to tell the people in the cave of his discovery, but they do not believe him and vehemently resist his efforts to free them so they can see for themselves (516e–518a). This allegory is, on a basic level, about a philosopher who upon, finding greater knowledge outside the cave of human understanding, seeks to share it as is his duty, and the foolishness of those who would ignore him because they think themselves educated enough.<ref>{{cite journal|last Elliott|first R. K. |date 1967|title Socrates and Plato's Cave|journalKant-Studien|volume 58|issue 2|page 138|doi 10.1515/kant.1967.58.1-4.137|s2cid 170201374 }}</ref>
In Late Antiquity Martianus Capella organized all the information a fifth-century upper-class male needed to know into an allegory of the wedding of Mercury and Philologia, with the seven liberal arts the young man needed to know as guests.<ref>{{cite book|translator-first1William Harris|translator-last1Stahl|translator-first2Richard|translator-last2Johnson|translator-first3E.L.|translator-last3Burge|titleMartianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts – The Marriage of Philology and Mercury|volumeII|locationNew York|publisherColumbia University Press|date1977|editionPrint}}</ref> Also, the Neoplatonic philosophy developed a type of allegorical reading of Homer<ref>{{Cite book|titleHomer the Theologian: Neoplatonist Allegorical Reading and the Growth of the Epic Tradition|lastLamberton|firstRobert|date1986|publisherUniversity of California Press|isbn9780520066076|jstor10.1525/j.ctt1ppp1k}}</ref> and Plato.<ref name":0">{{Citation|lastCalian|firstFlorin George|title'Clarifications' of Obscurity: Proclus' Allegorical Reading of Plato's Parmenides|date2013|urlhttps://philpapers.org/rec/CALCOO|workMedium Aevum Quotidianum|pages15–31|editor-lastDolealová|editor-firstLucie|publisherKrems: Institut für Realienkunde des Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit|access-date2019-11-06|editor2-lastRider|editor2-firstJeff|editor3-lastZironi|editor3-firstAlessandro}}</ref> As scholars of allegory point out, ”the literal reading of a text has its counter-part in allegorical interpretation. This way of reading, which must have started with the first readers of Homer and found a fertile ground in Philo's allegorical commentaries on the Bible, was amazingly natural for Proclus, whose writings and commentaries represent the last phases of late antique philosophy, and particularly of the relation between philosophy and rhetoric.”<ref name":0" />
Biblical allegory
Other early allegories are found in the Hebrew Bible, such as the extended metaphor in Psalm 80 of the vine and its impressive spread and growth, representing Israel's conquest and population of the Promised Land.<ref>{{cite book |lastKennedy | firstGeorge A. |date1999 |titleClassical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times |edition2nd |publisherUNC Press |page142 |isbn0-8078-4769-0 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLHHYx4idyPEC&pgPA142 |access-date7 August 2009}}</ref> Also allegorical is Ezekiel 16 and 17, wherein the capture of that same vine by the mighty Eagle represents Israel's exile to Babylon.<ref>{{cite book |editor-lastJones |editor-firstAlexander |date1968 |titleThe Jerusalem Bible |editionReader's |publisherDoubleday & Company |pages[https://archive.org/details/jerusalembiblere00gard/page/1186 1186, 1189] |isbn0-385-01156-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jerusalembiblere00gard/page/1186 }}</ref>
Allegorical interpretation of the Bible was a common early Christian practice and continues. For example, the recently re-discovered Fourth Commentary on the Gospels by Fortunatianus of Aquileia has a comment by its English translator: "The principal characteristic of Fortunatianus' exegesis is a figurative approach, relying on a set of concepts associated with key terms in order to create an allegorical decoding of the text."<ref>{{Cite book |lastFortunatianus Aquileiensis |urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/books/9783110516371/9783110516371-003/9783110516371-003.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/books/9783110516371/9783110516371-003/9783110516371-003.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleCommentary on the Gospels: English translation and introduction |year2017 |publisherDe Gruyter |isbn978-3-11-051637-1 |doi10.1515/9783110516371 |pageXIX}}</ref>Medieval allegory
{{see also|Four senses of Scripture}}
17th century – Portrait of a Lady, Called Elizabeth, Lady Tanfield. Sometimes the meaning of an allegory can be lost, even if art historians suspect that the artwork is an allegory of some kind.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.artfund.org/supporting-museums/art-weve-helped-buy/artwork/6393/portrait-of-a-lady-called-elizabeth-lady-tanfield-english-school |workArtFund.org |titlePortrait of a Lady, Called Elizabeth, Lady Tanfield by Unknown Artist |publisherArt Fund}}</ref>]]
Allegory has an ability to freeze the temporality of a story, while infusing it with a spiritual context. Medieval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as the facts of surface appearances. Thus, the Papal Bull Unam Sanctam (1302) presents themes of the unity of Christendom with the pope as its head in which the allegorical details of the metaphors are adduced as facts on which is based a demonstration with the vocabulary of logic: "Therefore of this one and only Church there is one body and one head—not two heads as if it were a monster... If, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ." This text also demonstrates the frequent use of allegory in religious texts during the Medieval Period, following the tradition and example of the Bible.
In the late 15th century, the enigmatic Hypnerotomachia, with its elaborate woodcut illustrations, shows the influence of themed pageants and masques on contemporary allegorical representation, as humanist dialectic conveyed them.
The denial of medieval allegory as found in the 12th-century works of Hugh of St Victor and Edward Topsell's Historie of Foure-footed Beastes (London, 1607, 1653) and its replacement in the study of nature with methods of categorisation and mathematics by such figures as naturalist John Ray and the astronomer Galileo is thought to mark the beginnings of early modern science.<ref>{{cite book |author-linkPeter Harrison (historian) |lastHarrison |firstPeter |titleThe Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science |urlhttps://archive.org/details/bibleprotestanti00harr |url-accesslimited |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn0-521-59196-1 |page[https://archive.org/details/bibleprotestanti00harr/page/n13 1]–10 |chapterIntroduction |date2001}}</ref>Modern allegory
Since meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories which the author may not have recognized. This is allegoresis, or the act of reading a story as an allegory. Examples of allegory in popular culture that may or may not have been intended include the works of Bertolt Brecht, and even some works of science fiction and fantasy, such as The Chronicles of Narnia by C. S. Lewis.
The story of the apple falling onto Isaac Newton's head is another famous allegory. It simplified the idea of gravity by depicting a simple way it was supposedly discovered. It also made the scientific revelation well known by condensing the theory into a short tale.<ref>{{cite web |titleRevised Memoir of Newton (Normalized Version) |urlhttp://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/OTHE00001 |access-date13 March 2017 |websiteThe Newton Project}}</ref>
Poetry and fiction
's Allegory of Arithmetic, {{Circa|1650}}]]
While allegoresis may make discovery of allegory in any work, not every resonant work of modern fiction is allegorical, and some are clearly not intended to be viewed this way. According to Henry Littlefield's 1964 article, L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, may be readily understood as a plot-driven fantasy narrative in an extended fable with talking animals and broadly sketched characters, intended to discuss the politics of the time.<ref>Littlefield, Henry (1964). "The Wizard of Oz: Parable on Populism". American Quarterly, 16 (1): 47–58. {{doi|10.2307/2710826}}.</ref> Yet, George MacDonald emphasized in 1893 that "A fairy tale is not an allegory."<ref name"Baum2000">{{cite book |firstL. Frank |lastBaum |author-link L. Frank Baum |titleThe Annotated Wizard of Oz: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz |url https://archive.org/details/annotatedwizardo0000baum |url-accessregistration |date2000 |publisherNorton |isbn978-0-393-04992-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/annotatedwizardo0000baum/page/101 101]}}</ref>
J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings is another example of a well-known work mistakenly perceived as allegorical, as the author himself once stated, "...I cordially dislike allegory in all its manifestations, and always have done so since I grew old and wary enough to detect its presence. I much prefer history – true or feigned – with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse applicability with allegory, but one resides in the freedom of the reader, and the other in the purposed domination of the author."<ref name"BogstadKaveny2011">{{cite book |editor-firstJanice M. |editor-lastBogstad |editor2-firstPhilip E. |editor2-lastKaveny |titlePicturing Tolkien:Essays on Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings Film Trilogy |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjNjKrXRP0G8C&pgPA189 |date9 August 2011 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0-7864-8473-7 |page=189}}</ref>
Tolkien specifically resented the suggestion that the book's One Ring, which gives overwhelming power to those possessing it, was intended as an allegory of nuclear weapons. He noted that, had that been his intention, the book would not have ended with the Ring being destroyed but rather with an arms race in which various powers would try to obtain such a Ring for themselves. Then Tolkien went on to outline an alternative plot for "Lord of The Rings", as it would have been written had such an allegory been intended, and which would have made the book into a dystopia. While all this does not mean Tolkien's works may not be treated as having allegorical themes, especially when reinterpreted through postmodern sensibilities, it at least suggests that none were conscious in his writings. This further reinforces the idea of forced allegoresis, as allegory is often a matter of interpretation and only sometimes of original artistic intention.
Like allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings – a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.
Some unique specimens of allegory can be found in the following works:
*Edmund Spenser &ndash; The Faerie Queene: The several knights in the poem actually stand for several virtues.<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe Faerie Queene {{!}} work by Spenser|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Faerie-Queene|access-date2020-10-12|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
*William Shakespeare &ndash; The Tempest: an allegory of the civilisation/barbarism binary as it pertains to colonialism
*John Bunyan &ndash; ''The Pilgrim's Progress: The journey of the protagonists Christian and Evangelist symbolises the ascension of the soul from earth to Heaven.
*Nathaniel Hawthorne &ndash; Young Goodman Brown'': The Devil's Staff symbolises defiance of God. The characters' names, such as Goodman and Faith, ironically serve as paradox in the conclusion of the story.
*Nathaniel Hawthorne &ndash; The Scarlet Letter: The letter represents self-reliance from America's Puritan and conformity.<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe Scarlet Letter {{!}} Summary, Analysis, Characters, & Facts|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Scarlet-Letter-novel-by-Hawthorne|access-date2020-10-12|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
*Esteban Echeverría &ndash; The Slaugther Yard: The slaugther yard represents the violence and brutality of the Federalist regime of Juan Manuel de Rosas in Buenos Aires and his parapolice thugs, the Mazorca.
*George Orwell &ndash; Animal Farm: The pigs stand for political figures of the Russian Revolution.<ref>{{Cite web|title'Animal Farm': Andy Serkis-directed adaptation of George Orwell's allegory acquired by Netflix – Wonderfully Curated News|urlhttps://wcregisteronline.com/2020/10/12/animal-farm-andy-serkis-directed-adaptation-of-george-orwells-allegory-acquired-by-netflix/|access-date2020-10-12|languageen-US}}</ref>
*Julio Cortázar &ndash; Casa Tomada: The take over of the protagonists' house is said to represent Peronism taking over Argentina.
*László Krasznahorkai – The Melancholy of Resistance and the film Werckmeister Harmonies: It uses a circus to describe an occupying dysfunctional government.<ref>{{Cite web|lastRomm|firstJake|date2017-04-26|titleMisery Loves Company|urlhttps://thenewinquiry.com/misery-loves-company/|access-date2020-10-12|websiteThe New Inquiry|languageen-US}}</ref>
*Edgar Allan Poe &ndash; The Masque of the Red Death: The story can be read as an allegory for humans' inability to escape death.<ref>Roppolo, Joseph Patrick. "Meaning and 'The Masque of the Red Death'", collected in Poe: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Robert Regan. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. p. 137.</ref>
*Arthur Miller &ndash; The Crucible: The Salem witch trials are thought to be an allegory for McCarthyism and the blacklisting of Communists in the United States of America.<ref>{{cite web|lastSullivan |firstJames |dateOctober 2, 2020|titleWhat really made Salem the Witch City – The Boston Globe|urlhttps://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/10/02/metro/what-really-made-salem-witch-city/|access-date2020-10-12|website=BostonGlobe.com}}</ref>
*Shel Silverstein &ndash; The Giving Tree: The book has been described as an allegory about relationships; between parents and children, between romantic partners, or between humans and the environment.
Art
Some elaborate and successful specimens of allegory are to be found in the following works, arranged in approximate chronological order:
*Ambrogio Lorenzetti &ndash; Allegoria del Buono e Cattivo Governo e loro Effetti in Città e Campagna ({{Circa|1338–1339}})
*Sandro Botticelli &ndash; Primavera ({{Circa|1482}})
*Albrecht Dürer &ndash; Melencolia I (1514)
*Bronzino &ndash; Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time ({{Circa|1545}})
*The English School's &ndash; "Allegory of Queen Elizabeth" ({{Circa|1610}})
*Artemisia Gentileschi &ndash; Allegory of Inclination ({{Circa|1620}}), An Allegory of Peace and the Arts under the English Crown (1638); Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting ({{Circa|1638–39}})
* The Feast of Herod with the Beheading of St John the Baptist by Bartholomeus Strobel is also an allegory of Europe in the time of the Thirty Years' War, with portraits of many leading political and military figures.
*Jan Vermeer &ndash; Allegory of Painting ({{Circa|1666}})
*Fernand Le Quesne – Allégorie de la publicité
*Jean-Léon Gérôme &ndash; Truth Coming Out of Her Well (1896)
*Graydon Parrish &ndash; The Cycle of Terror and Tragedy (2006)
*Many statues of Lady Justice: "Such visual representations have raised the question why so many allegories in the history of art, pertaining occupations once reserved for men only, are of female sex."<ref>Cäcilia Rentmeister: The Muses, Banned From Their Occupations: Why Are There So Many Allegories Female? [http://www.cillie-rentmeister.de/themen/english/ English summary from Kvinnovetenskaplig Tidskrift, Nr.4. 1981, Lund, Sweden as PDF. Retrieved 10.July 2011] Original Version in German: Berufsverbot für die Musen. Warum sind so viele Allegorien weiblich? In: Ästhetik und Kommunikation, Nr. 25/1976, S. 92–112. Langfassung in: Frauen und Wissenschaft. Beiträge zur Berliner Sommeruniversität für Frauen, Juli 1976, Berlin 1977, S.258–297. With illustrations. [http://www.cillie-rentmeister.de/berufsverbot-fuer-die-musen/ Full Texts Online: Cäcilia (Cillie) Rentmeister: publications]</ref>
*Damien Hirst Verity (2012)
Gallery
<gallery class"center" widths"170px" heights"170px" style"font-size:92%; line-height:130%" caption="Allegorical Paintings of the 16th and 17th century">
File:Melencolia I (Durero).jpg|Albrecht Dürer, Melencolia&nbsp;I (1514): Unused tools, an hourglass, an empty scale surrounds a female personification, with other esoteric and exoteric symbols.
File:Angelo Bronzino - Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time - National Gallery, London.jpg|Bronzino, Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time ({{Circa|1545}}): The deities of love are surrounded by personifications of (probably) Time (a bald, man with angry eyes), Folly (the young woman-demon on the right, possibly also so old woman on the left), and others.
File:Titian - Allegorie der Zeit.jpg|Titian, Allegory of Prudence ({{Circa|&nbsp;1565–1570}}): The three human heads symbolise past, present and future, the characterisation of which is furthered by the triple-headed beast (wolf, lion, dog), girded by the body of a big snake.
File:Elizabeth-I-Allegorical-Po.jpg|The English School's Allegory of Queen Elizabeth ({{Circa|1610}}), with Father Time at her right and Death looking over her left shoulder. Two cherubs are removing the weighty crown from her tired head.
File:Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting (La Pittura) - Artemisia Gentileschi.jpg|Artemisia Gentileschi, Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting ({{Circa|1638–39}})
File:Jan Vermeer - The Art of Painting - Google Art Project.jpg|Jan Vermeer, The Art of Painting ({{Circa|1666}}): Painting is shown as related to history and politics, the young woman being Clio, the muse of history, and other symbols for the political and religious division of the Netherlands appearing.
File:Kessel, Jan van Sr. - Allegory of Hearing.JPG|Jan van Kessel, Allegory of Hearing (17th century): Diverse sources of sound, especially instruments serve as allegorical symbols.
File:August bouttats-españa triunfante.jpg|Flemish August Bouttats, Allegory of Triumphant Spain with immaculist banner, {{Circa|1682}}, cover of Triumphant Spain and the laureate church all over the world by the patronage of Holy Mary, Collection: Hispanic Society of America
</gallery>
See also
*Allegorical interpretations of Plato
*Allegorical interpretation of the Bible
*Allegory in Renaissance literature
*Allegorical sculpture
*Cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain
*Diwan (poetry)
*Freemasonry ("a system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols.")
*Parable
*Semiotics
*Theagenes of Rhegium
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
*Frye, Northrop (1957) Anatomy of Criticism.
*Fletcher, Angus (1964) Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode.
*Foucault, Michel (1966) The Order of Things.
*{{cite book|last1Jain|first1Champat Rai|titleThe Key Of Knowledge|date1919|publisherThe Central Jaina Publishing House|viaInternet Archive|locationAllahabad|editionSecond|urlhttps://archive.org/details/keyofknowledge|access-date17 November 2015|author-link=Champat Rai Jain}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Schwarcz
| first1 = Lilia Moritz
| year = 1998
| language = pt
| title = As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos
| publisher = Companhia das Letras
| location = São Paulo
| isbn = 85-7164-837-9
}}
External links
{{Commons category|Allegories}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary|Allegory|Allegories}}
*[http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docIdDicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.iddv1-07;toc.depth1;toc.iddv1-07;branddefault;queryallegory#1 Dictionary of the History of Ideas:] Allegory in Literary history
*[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ElAnt/V1N5/levis.html Electronic Antiquity, Richard Levis, "Allegory and the Eclogues"] Roman definitions of allegoria and interpreting Vergil's Eclogues.
*[https://liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/wlf/what-allegory What is an Allegory?] Introduction to Allegory
{{Narrative modes}}
{{Figures of speech}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Figures of speech
Category:Narrative techniques
Category:Poetic devices
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegory
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.443468
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1839
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Allotropy
|
{{short description|Property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms}}
{{distinguish|Xenophagy{{!}}Allotrophy}}
and graphite are two allotropes of carbon: pure forms of the same element that differ in crystalline structure.]]
Allotropy or allotropism ({{ety|grc|ἄλλος (allos)|other||τρόπος (tropos)|manner, form}}) is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state, known as allotropes of the elements. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element: the atoms of the element are bonded together in different manners.<ref>{{GoldBookRef|titleAllotrope|fileA00243|accessdate=August 11, 2015}}</ref>
For example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (the carbon atoms are bonded together to form a cubic lattice of tetrahedra), graphite (the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice), graphene (single sheets of graphite), and fullerenes (the carbon atoms are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations).
The term allotropy is used for elements only, not for compounds. The more general term, used for any compound, is polymorphism, although its use is usually restricted to solid materials such as crystals. Allotropy refers only to different forms of an element within the same physical phase (the state of matter, such as a solid, liquid or gas). The differences between these states of matter would not alone constitute examples of allotropy. Allotropes of chemical elements are frequently referred to as polymorphs or as phases of the element.
For some elements, allotropes have different molecular formulae or different crystalline structures, as well as a difference in physical phase; for example, two allotropes of oxygen (dioxygen, O<sub>2</sub>, and ozone, O<sub>3</sub>) can both exist in the solid, liquid and gaseous states. Other elements do not maintain distinct allotropes in different physical phases; for example, phosphorus has numerous solid allotropes, which all revert to the same P<sub>4</sub> form when melted to the liquid state.
History
The concept of allotropy was originally proposed in 1840 by the Swedish scientist Baron Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848).<ref>See:
* {{cite book |last1Berzelius |first1Jac. |titleÅrsberättelse om Framstegen i Fysik och Kemi afgifven den 31 Mars 1840. Första delen. |trans-titleAnnual Report on Progress in Physics and Chemistry submitted March 31, 1840. First part. |date1841 |publisherP.A. Norstedt & Söner |locationStockholm, Sweden |page14 |urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idnyp.33433009789326&view1up&seq176 |language=Swedish}} From p. 14: "Om det ock passar väl för att uttrycka förhållandet emellan myrsyrad ethyloxid och ättiksyrad methyloxid, så är det icke passande för de olika tillstånd hos de enkla kropparne, hvari dessa blifva af skiljaktiga egenskaper, och torde för dem böra ersättas af en bättre vald benämning, t. ex. Allotropi (af αλλότροπος, som betyder: af olika beskaffenhet) eller allotropiskt tillstånd." (If it [i.e., the word isomer] is also well suited to express the relation between formic acid ethyl oxide [i.e., ethyl formate] and acetic acid methyloxide [i.e., methyl acetate], then it [i.e., the word isomers] is not suitable for different conditions of simple substances, where these [substances] transform to have different properties, and [therefore the word isomers] should be replaced, in their case, by a better chosen name; for example, Allotropy (from αλλότροπος, which means: of different nature) or allotropic condition.)
* Republished in German: {{cite journal |last1Berzelius |first1Jacob |last2Wöhler |first2F. |titleJahres-Bericht über die Fortschritte der physischen Wissenschaften |journalJahres Bericht Über die Fortschritte der Physischen Wissenschaften |trans-titleAnnual Report on Progress of the Physical Sciences |date1841 |publisherLaupp'schen Buchhandlung |locationTübingen, (Germany) |volume20 |page13 |urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idumn.31951d000120766&view1up&seq189 |language=German}} From p. 13: "Wenn es sich auch noch gut eignet, um das Verhältniss zwischen ameisensaurem Äthyloxyd und essigsaurem Methyloxyd auszudrücken, so ist es nicht passend für ungleiche Zustände bei Körpern, in welchen diese verschiedene Eigenschaften annehmen, und dürfte für diese durch eine besser gewählte Benennung zu ersetzen sein, z. B. durch Allotropie (von αλλότροπος, welches bedeutet: von ungleicher Beschaffenheit), oder durch allotropischen Zustand." (Even if it [i.e., the word isomer] is still well suited to express the relation between ethyl formate and methyl acetate, then it is not appropriate for the distinct conditions in the case of substances where these [substances] assume different properties, and for these, [the word isomer] may be replaced with a better chosen designation, e.g., with Allotropy (from αλλότροπος, which means: of distinct character), or with allotropic condition.)
* Merriam-Webster online dictionary: [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/allotropy Allotropy]</ref><ref nameJensen>{{citation | last Jensen | first W. B. |author1-linkWilliam B. Jensen | title The Origin of the Term Allotrope | journal J. Chem. Educ. | year 2006 | volume 83 | issue 6 | pages 838–39 | doi 10.1021/ed083p838|bibcode 2006JChEd..83..838J }}.</ref> The term is derived {{ety|gre|άλλοτροπἱα (allotropia)|variability, changeableness}}.<ref>{{Citation | contribution allotropy | title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles | volume 1 | publisher Oxford University Press | year 1888 | page 238}}.</ref> After the acceptance of Avogadro's hypothesis in 1860, it was understood that elements could exist as polyatomic molecules, and two allotropes of oxygen were recognized as O<sub>2</sub> and O<sub>3</sub>.<ref name=Jensen/> In the early 20th century, it was recognized that other cases such as carbon were due to differences in crystal structure.
By 1912, Ostwald noted that the allotropy of elements is just a special case of the phenomenon of polymorphism known for compounds, and proposed that the terms allotrope and allotropy be abandoned and replaced by polymorph and polymorphism.<ref>{{cite book |last1Ostwald |first1Wilhelm |last2Taylor |first2W.W. |titleOutlines of General Chemistry |date1912 |publisherMacmillan and Co., Ltd. |locationLondon, England |page104 |edition3rd |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1w1DAAAAIAAJ&pgPA104}} From p. 104: "Substances are known which exist not only in two, but even in three, four or five different solid forms; no limitation to the number is known to exist. Such substances are called polymorphous. The name allotropy is commonly employed in the same connexion, especially when the substance is an element. There is no real reason for making this distinction, and it is preferable to allow the second less common name to die out."</ref><ref nameJensen/> Although many other chemists have repeated this advice, IUPAC and most chemistry texts still favour the usage of allotrope and allotropy for elements only.<ref>Jensen 2006, citing Addison, W. E. The Allotropy of the Elements (Elsevier 1964) that many have repeated this advice.</ref>
Differences in properties of an element's allotropes
Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element and can exhibit quite different physical properties and chemical behaviours. The change between allotropic forms is triggered by the same forces that affect other structures, i.e., pressure, light, and temperature. Therefore, the stability of the particular allotropes depends on particular conditions. For instance, iron changes from a body-centered cubic structure (ferrite) to a face-centered cubic structure (austenite) above 906&nbsp;°C, and tin undergoes a modification known as tin pest from a metallic form to a semimetallic form below 13.2&nbsp;°C (55.8&nbsp;°F). As an example of allotropes having different chemical behaviour, ozone (O<sub>3</sub>) is a much stronger oxidizing agent than dioxygen (O<sub>2</sub>).
List of allotropes
Typically, elements capable of variable coordination number and/or oxidation states tend to exhibit greater numbers of allotropic forms. Another contributing factor is the ability of an element to catenate.
Examples of allotropes include:
Non-metals
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Element
! Allotropes
|-
|Carbon
|
* Diamond – an extremely hard, transparent crystal, with the carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedral lattice. A poor electrical conductor. An excellent thermal conductor.
* Lonsdaleite – also called hexagonal diamond.
* Graphene – is the basic structural element of other allotropes, nanotubes, charcoal, and fullerenes.
* Q-carbon – a ferromagnetic, tough, and brilliant crystal structure that is harder and brighter than diamonds.{{dubious|date=February 2019}}
* Graphite – a semimetallic, soft, black, flaky solid, a good electrical conductor. The C atoms are bonded in flat hexagonal lattices (graphene), which are then layered in sheets.
* Linear acetylenic carbon (carbyne)
* Amorphous carbon
* Fullerenes, including buckminsterfullerene, also known as "buckyballs", such as C<sub>60</sub>.
* Carbon nanotubes – allotropes having a cylindrical nanostructure.
* Schwarzites
* Cyclocarbon
* Glassy carbon
* Superdense carbon allotropes – proposed allotropes
|-
|Nitrogen
|
* Dinitrogen – by far the most common and stable form of nitrogen, found in the air.
* Hexazine
* Octaazacubane
* Tetranitrogen
* Trinitrogen
* Solid nitrogen
|-
|Phosphorus
|
* White phosphorus – crystalline solid of tetraphosphorus (P<sub>4</sub>) molecules
* Red phosphorus – amorphous polymeric solid
* Scarlet phosphorus
* Violet phosphorus with monoclinic crystalline structure
* Black phosphorus – semiconductor, analogous to graphite
* Diphosphorus – gaseous form composed of P<sub>2</sub> molecules, stable between 1200&nbsp;°C and 2000&nbsp;°C; created e.g. by dissociation of P<sub>4</sub> molecules of white phosphorus at around 827&nbsp;°C
|-
|Oxygen
|
* Dioxygen, O<sub>2</sub> – colorless (faint blue liquid and solid)
* Ozone, O<sub>3</sub> – blue
* Tetraoxygen, O<sub>4</sub> – metastable
* Octaoxygen, O<sub>8</sub> – red
|-
|Sulfur
|
* Cyclo-Pentasulfur, Cyclo-S<sub>5</sub>
* Cyclo-Hexasulfur, Cyclo-S<sub>6</sub>
* Cyclo-Heptasulfur, Cyclo-S<sub>7</sub>
* Cyclo-Octasulfur, Cyclo-S<sub>8</sub>
|-
|Selenium
|
* "Red selenium", cyclo-Se<sub>8</sub>
* Gray selenium, polymeric Se
* Black selenium, irregular polymeric rings up to 1000 atoms long
* Monoclinic selenium, dark red transparent crystals
|-
|Spin isomers of hydrogen
|
* Orthohydrogen, H<sub>2</sub> with nuclear spins aligned parallel
* Parahydrogen, H<sub>2</sub> with nuclear spins aligned antiparallel
These nuclear spin isomers have sometimes been described as allotropes, notably by the committee which awarded the 1932 Nobel prize to Werner Heisenberg for quantum mechanics and singled out the "allotropic forms of hydrogen" as its most notable application.<ref>[https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/heisenberg-facts.html Werner Heisenberg – Facts] Nobelprize.org</ref>
|}
Metalloids
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Element
! Allotropes
|-
|Boron
|
* Amorphous boron – brown powder – B<sub>12</sub> regular icosahedra
* α-rhombohedral boron
* β-rhombohedral boron
* γ-orthorhombic boron
* α-tetragonal boron
* β-tetragonal boron
* High-pressure superconducting phase
|-
|Silicon
|
* Amorphous silicon
* α-silicon, a semiconductor, diamond cubic structure
* β-silicon - metallic, with the BCC similar to molybdenum and beta-tin (High Pressure Phase)
* Q-Silicon - a ferromagnetic (Similar to Q-Carbon) and highly conductive phase of silicon (similar to graphite) <ref name"google">{{Cite web|urlhttps://newatlas.com/materials/q-silicon-magnetic-spintronic-quantum-computers/|titleMeet Q-silicon, a new magnetic material for spintronic quantum computers|dateJuly 4, 2023|website=New Atlas}}</ref>
* Silicene, buckled planar single layer Silicon, similar to Graphene
|-
|Germanium
|
* Amorphous germanium
*α-germanium – semimetallic element or semiconductor, with the same structure as diamond (similar chemical properties with sulfur and silicon)
*β-germanium – metallic, with the same structure as beta-tin
*Germanene – Buckled planar Germanium, similar to graphene
|-
|Arsenic
|
* Yellow arsenic – molecular non-metallic As<sub>4</sub>, with the same structure as white phosphorus (Similar chemical properties with nitrogen and phosphorus)
* Gray arsenic, polymeric As (metallic, though heavily anisotropic) (similar to aluminum and antimony in chemical properties)
* Black arsenic – molecular and non-metallic, with the same structure as red phosphorus
|-
|Antimony
|
* Blue-white antimony – stable form (metallic), with the same structure as gray arsenic (similar to arsenic in chemical properties)
* Black antimony (non-metallic and amorphous, only stable as a thin layer)
|-
|Tellurium
|
* Amorphous tellurium – gray-black or brown powder<ref>{{cite book|titleAdvanced Inorganic Chemistry Vol-1|authorRaj, G.|publisherKrishna Prakashan|isbn9788187224037|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0uwDTrxyaB8C&pgPA1327|page1327|access-date=January 6, 2017}}</ref>
* Crystalline tellurium – hexagonal crystalline structure (metalloid) (similar chemical properties with selenium)
|}
Metals
Among the metallic elements that occur in nature in significant quantities (56 up to U, without Tc and Pm), almost half (27) are allotropic at ambient pressure: Li, Be, Na, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Co, Sr, Y, Zr, Sn, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Yb, Hf, Tl, Th, Pa and U. Some phase transitions between allotropic forms of technologically relevant metals are those of Ti at 882 °C, Fe at 912 °C and 1,394 °C, Co at 422 °C, Zr at 863 °C, Sn at 13 °C and U at 668 °C and 776 °C.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Element
!Phase name(s)
!Space group
!Pearson symbol
!Structure type
!Description
|-
|rowspan="8" |Lithium
|style="background:lightblue;|α-Li
|style="background:lightblue;|R{{overline|3}}m
|style="background:lightblue;|hR9
|style="background:lightblue;|α-Sm
|style"background:lightblue;|Forms below 70 K.<ref>{{cite journal | lastOverhauser | firstA. W. | titleCrystal Structure of Lithium at 4.2 K | journalPhysical Review Letters | publisherAmerican Physical Society (APS) | volume53 | issue1 | date1984-07-02 | issn0031-9007 | doi10.1103/physrevlett.53.64 | pages64–65| bibcode=1984PhRvL..53...64O }}</ref>
|- style="background:lightgreen;
|β-Li
|Im{{overline|3}}m
|cI2
|W
|Stable at room temperature and pressure.
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|Fm{{overline|3}}m
|cF4
|Cu
|Forms above 7GPa
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|R{{overline|3}}m
|hR1
|α-Hg
|An intermediate phase formed ~40GPa.<ref name=Hanfland2000 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|I{{overline|4}}3d
|cI16
|
|Forms above 40GPa.<ref nameHanfland2000>{{cite journal | last1Hanfland | first1M. | last2Syassen | first2K. | last3Christensen | first3N. E. | last4Novikov | first4D. L. | titleNew high-pressure phases of lithium | journalNature | publisherSpringer Science and Business Media LLC | volume408 | issue6809 | year2000 | issn0028-0836 | doi10.1038/35041515 | pages174–178| pmid11089965 | bibcode2000Natur.408..174H | s2cid=4303422 }}</ref>
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|oC88
|
|Forms between 60 and 70 GPa.<ref nameDegtyareva2014>{{cite journal | lastDegtyareva | firstV.F. | titlePotassium under pressure: Electronic origin of complex structures | journalSolid State Sciences | volume36 | date2014 | doi10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2014.07.008 | pages62–72| arxiv1310.4718 | bibcode=2014SSSci..36...62D }}</ref>
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|oC40
|
|Forms between 70 and 95 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|oC24
|
|Forms above 95 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|-
|rowspan="2"|Beryllium
| style="background:lightgreen;|α-Be
|style="background:lightgreen;|P6<sub>3</sub>/mmc
|style="background:lightgreen;|hP2
|style="background:lightgreen;|Mg
|style="background:lightgreen;|Stable at room temperature and pressure.
|- style="background:pink;|
|β-Be
|Im{{overline|3}}m
|cI2
|W
|Forms above 1255&nbsp;°C.
|-
|rowspan="7"|Sodium
|style="background:lightblue;|α-Na
|style="background:lightblue;|R{{overline|3}}m
|style="background:lightblue;|hR9
|style="background:lightblue;|α-Sm
|style="background:lightblue;|Forms below 20 K.
|- style="background:lightgreen;|
|β-Na
|Im{{overline|3}}m
|cI2
|W
|Stable at room temperature and pressure.
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|Fm{{overline|3}}m
|cF4
|Cu
|Forms at room temperature above 65 GPa.<ref>{{cite journal | last1Hanfland | first1M. | last2Loa | first2I. | last3Syassen | first3K. | titleSodium under pressure: bcc to fcc structural transition and pressure-volume relation to 100 GPa | journalPhysical Review B | publisherAmerican Physical Society (APS) | volume65 | issue18 | date2002-05-13 | issn0163-1829 | doi10.1103/physrevb.65.184109 | page184109| bibcode2002PhRvB..65r4109H }}</ref>
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|I{{overline|4}}3d
|cI16
|
|Forms at room temperature, 108GPa.<ref>{{cite journal | last1McMahon | first1M. I. | last2Gregoryanz | first2E. | last3Lundegaard | first3L. F. | last4Loa | first4I. | last5Guillaume | first5C. | last6Nelmes | first6R. J. | last7Kleppe | first7A. K. | last8Amboage | first8M. | last9Wilhelm | first9H. | last10Jephcoat | first10A. P. | titleStructure of sodium above 100 GPa by single-crystal x-ray diffraction | journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume104 | issue44 | date2007-10-18 | issn0027-8424 | doi10.1073/pnas.0709309104 | pages17297–17299| pmid17947379 | pmc2077250 | bibcode2007PNAS..10417297M |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|Pnma
|oP8
|MnP
|Forms at room temperature, 119GPa.<ref>{{cite journal | last1Gregoryanz | first1E. | last2Lundegaard | first2L. F. | last3McMahon | first3M. I. | last4Guillaume | first4C. | last5Nelmes | first5R. J. | last6Mezouar | first6M. | titleStructural Diversity of Sodium | journalScience | publisherAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) | volume320 | issue5879 | date2008-05-23 | issn0036-8075 | doi10.1126/science.1155715 | pages1054–1057| pmid18497293 | bibcode2008Sci...320.1054G | s2cid29596632 }}</ref>
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|tI19*
|
|A host-guest structure that forms above between 125 and 180 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|hP4
|
|Forms above 180 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|-
|rowspan="2"|Magnesium
|style="background:lightgreen;|
|style="background:lightgreen;|P6<sub>3</sub>/mmc
|style="background:lightgreen;|hP2
|style="background:lightgreen;|Mg
|style="background:lightgreen;|Stable at room temperature and pressure.
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|Im{{overline|3}}m
|cI2
|W
|Forms above 50 GPa.<ref>{{cite journal | last1Olijnyk | first1H. | last2Holzapfel | first2W. B. | titleHigh-pressure structural phase transition in Mg | journalPhysical Review B | publisherAmerican Physical Society (APS) | volume31 | issue7 | date1985-04-01 | issn0163-1829 | doi10.1103/physrevb.31.4682 | pages4682–4683| pmid9936412 | bibcode=1985PhRvB..31.4682O }}</ref>
|-
|-
|rowspan="2"|Aluminium
|style="background:lightgreen;|α-Al
|style="background:lightgreen;|Fm{{overline|3}}m
|style="background:lightgreen;|cF4
|style="background:lightgreen;|Cu
|style="background:lightgreen;|Stable at room temperature and pressure.
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|β-Al
|P6<sub>3</sub>/mmc
|hP2
|Mg
|Forms above 20.5 GPa.
|-
|rowspan="7" |Potassium
|style="background:lightgreen;|
|style="background:lightgreen;|Im{{overline|3}}m
|style="background:lightgreen;|cI2
|style="background:lightgreen;|W
|style="background:lightgreen;|Stable at room temperature and pressure.
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|Fm{{overline|3}}m
|cF4
|Cu
|Forms above 11.7 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|I4/mcm
|tI19*
|
|A host-guest structure that forms at about 20 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|P6<sub>3</sub>/mmc
|hP4
|NiAs
|Forms above 25 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|Pnma
|oP8
|MnP
|Forms above 58GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|I4<sub>1</sub>/amd
|tI4
|
|Forms above 112 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|Cmca
|oC16
|
|Formas above 112 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|-
|rowspan="4" |Iron
|style="background:lightgreen;|α-Fe, ferrite
|style="background:lightgreen;|Im{{overline|3}}m
|style="background:lightgreen;|cI2
|style="background:lightgreen;|Body-centered cubic
|style"background:lightgreen;|Stable at room temperature and pressure. Ferromagnetic at T<770&nbsp;°C, paramagnetic from T770–912&nbsp;°C.
|- style="background:pink;|
|γ-iron, austenite
|Fm{{overline|3}}m
|cF4
|Face-centered cubic
|Stable from 912 to 1,394&nbsp;°C.
|- style="background:pink;|
| δ-iron
|Im{{overline|3}}m
|cI2
|Body-centered cubic
|Stable from 1,394 – 1,538&nbsp;°C, same structure as α-Fe.
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|ε-iron, Hexaferrum
|P6<sub>3</sub>/mmc
|hP2
|Hexagonal close-packed
|Stable at high pressures.
|-
|rowspan"3" |Cobalt<ref>{{cite journal |last1de la Peña O’Shea |first1Víctor Antonio |last2Moreira |first2Iberio de P. R. |last3Roldán |first3Alberto |last4Illas |first4Francesc |titleElectronic and magnetic structure of bulk cobalt: The α, β, and ε-phases from density functional theory calculations |journalThe Journal of Chemical Physics |date8 July 2010 |volume133 |issue2 |page024701 |doi10.1063/1.3458691 |pmid=20632764 }}</ref>
|style="background:lightgreen;|α-Cobalt
|style="background:lightgreen;|
|style="background:lightgreen;|
|style="background:lightgreen;|hexagonal-close packed
|style="background:lightgreen;|Forms below 450&nbsp;°C.
|-style="background:pink;|
|β-Cobalt
|
|
|face centered cubic
|Forms above 450&nbsp;°C.
|-style="background:lightyellow;|
|ε-Cobalt
|P4<sub>1</sub>32
|
|primitive cubic
|Forms from thermal decomposition of [Co<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>8</sub>]. Nanoallotrope.
|-
|rowspan="6"|Rubidium
|style="background:lightgreen;|α-Rb
|style="background:lightgreen;|Im{{overline|3}}m
|style="background:lightgreen;|cI2
|style="background:lightgreen;|W
|style="background:lightgreen;|Stable at room temperature and pressure.
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|cF4
|
|Forms above 7 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|oC52
|
|Forms above 13 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|tI19*
|
|Forms above 17 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|tI4
|
|Forms above 20 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|
|
|oC16
|
|Forms above 48 GPa.<ref name=Degtyareva2014 />
|-
|rowspan="7" |Tin
|style="background:lightblue;|α-tin, gray tin, tin pest
|style="background:lightblue;|Fd{{overline|3}}m
|style="background:lightblue;|cF8
|style="background:lightblue;|d-C
|style="background:lightblue;|Stable below 13.2&nbsp;°C.
|- style="background:lightgreen;|
|β-tin, white tin
|I4<sub>1</sub>/amd
|tI4
|β-Sn
|Stable at room temperature and pressure.
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|γ-tin, rhombic tin
|I4/mmm
|tI2
|In
|Forms above 10 GPa.<ref nameDeffrennes2022>{{cite journal | last1Deffrennes | first1Guillaume | last2Faure | first2Philippe | last3Bottin | first3François | last4Joubert | first4Jean-Marc | last5Oudot | first5Benoit | titleTin (Sn) at high pressure: Review, X-ray diffraction, DFT calculations, and Gibbs energy modeling | journalJournal of Alloys and Compounds | volume919 | date2022 | doi10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.165675 | page165675|arxiv2203.16240}}</ref>
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|γ'-Sn
|Immm
|oI2
|MoPt<sub>2</sub>
|Forms above 30 GPa.<ref name=Deffrennes2022 />
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|σ-Sn, γ"-Sn
|Im{{overline|3}}m
|cI2
|W
|Forms above 41 GPa.<ref nameDeffrennes2022 /> Forms at very high pressure.<ref>{{cite journal|first A. M.|last Molodets|author2Nabatov, S. S.|title Thermodynamic Potentials, Diagram of State, and Phase Transitions of Tin on Shock Compression|journal High Temperature|volume 38|issue 5|year 2000|pages 715–721|doi 10.1007/BF02755923| bibcode2000HTemp..38..715M |s2cid = 120417927}}</ref>
|- style="background:lightyellow;|
|δ-Sn
|P6<sub>3</sub>/mmc
|hP2
|Mg
|Forms above 157 GPa.<ref name=Deffrennes2022 />
|-
|Stanene
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2" |Polonium
|style="background:lightgreen;|α-Polonium
|style="background:lightgreen;|
|style="background:lightgreen;|
|style="background:lightgreen;|simple cubic
|style="background:lightgreen;|
|-
|β-Polonium
|
|
|rhombohedral
|
|}
{{colorsample|lightgreen}} Most stable structure under standard conditions.<br>
{{colorsample|lightblue}} Structures stable below room temperature.<br>
{{colorsample|pink}} Structures stable above room temperature.<br>
{{colorsample|lightyellow}} Structures stable above atmospheric pressure.
Lanthanides and actinides
* Cerium, samarium, dysprosium and ytterbium have three allotropes.
* Praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium and terbium have two allotropes.
* Plutonium has six distinct solid allotropes under "normal" pressures. Their densities vary within a ratio of some 4:3, which vastly complicates all kinds of work with the metal (particularly casting, machining, and storage). A seventh plutonium allotrope exists at very high pressures. The transuranium metals Np, Am, and Cm are also allotropic.
* Promethium, americium, berkelium and californium have three allotropes each.<ref>{{cite journal|doi10.1088/0305-4608/15/2/002|titleDelocalisation of 5f electrons in curium metal under high pressure|journalJournal of Physics F: Metal Physics|volume15|issue2|pagesL29–L35|year1985|last1Benedict|first1U.|last2Haire|first2R. G.|last3Peterson|first3J. R.|last4Itie|first4J. P.|bibcode1985JPhF...15L..29B}}</ref>
Nanoallotropes
In 2017, the concept of nanoallotropy was proposed.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal|last1Udayabhaskararao|first1Thumu|last2Altantzis|first2Thomas|last3Houben|first3Lothar|last4Coronado-Puchau|first4Marc|last5Langer|first5Judith|last6Popovitz-Biro|first6Ronit|last7Liz-Marzán|first7Luis M.|last8Vuković|first8Lela|last9Král|first9Petr|date2017-10-27|titleTunable porous nanoallotropes prepared by post-assembly etching of binary nanoparticle superlattices|journalScience|languageen|volume358|issue6362|pages514–518|doi10.1126/science.aan6046|issn0036-8075|pmid29074773|bibcode2017Sci...358..514U|doi-accessfree|hdl10067/1472420151162165141|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> Nanoallotropes, or allotropes of nanomaterials, are nanoporous materials that have the same chemical composition (e.g., Au), but differ in their architecture at the nanoscale (that is, on a scale 10 to 100 times the dimensions of individual atoms).<ref name":1">{{Cite web|urlhttp://israelbds.org/materials-that-dont-exist-in-nature-might-lead-to-new-fabrication-techniques/|titleMaterials That Don't Exist in Nature Might Lead to New Fabrication Techniques|websiteisraelbds.org|languageen-US|access-date2017-12-08|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171209152005/http://israelbds.org/materials-that-dont-exist-in-nature-might-lead-to-new-fabrication-techniques/|archive-date2017-12-09|url-statusdead}}</ref> Such nanoallotropes may help create ultra-small electronic devices and find other industrial applications.<ref name":1" /> The different nanoscale architectures translate into different properties, as was demonstrated for surface-enhanced Raman scattering performed on several different nanoallotropes of gold.<ref name":0" /> A two-step method for generating nanoallotropes was also created.<ref name":1" />See also
*Isomer
*Polymorphism (materials science)
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitleAllotropy}}External links
{{Commons category}}
*{{cite web |authorNigel Bunce and Jim Hunt |urlhttp://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/summer/scor/articles/scor40.htm |titleThe Science Corner: Allotropes |access-dateJanuary 6, 2017 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080131061355/http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/summer/scor/articles/scor40.htm |archive-date=January 31, 2008 }}
*[http://www.chemistryexplained.com/A-Ar/Allotropes.html Allotropes – Chemistry Encyclopedia]
{{Authority control}}
Category:Chemistry
Category:Inorganic chemistry
Category:Physical chemistry
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropy
|
2025-04-05T18:25:48.497475
|
1840
|
Agathocles of Syracuse
|
{{Short description|Greek tyrant of Syracuse from 317 to 289 BC}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Agathocles
| title = King of Syracuse
| image = File:Agathokles Musei Vaticani.jpg|
| alt = Agathokles Musei Vaticani
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Depiction of a bust possibly belonging to Agathocles
| reign = 317 – 289 BC
| native_lang1 = Greek
| native_lang1_name1 = {{lang|grc|Ἀγαθοκλῆς}}
| birth_date = 361 BC
| birth_place = Himera
| death_date = 289 BC
| death_place = Syracuse
| predecessor = Timoleon
| successor = Hicetas
| queen = Theoxena
| royal house | father Carcinus of Rhegium
| mother | issue
With first wife
*Archagathus
*Heracleides
With Alcia?
*Lanassa
*Agathocles II
With Theoxena
*Archagathus
*Theoxena
| religion = Greek Polytheism
}}
of Agathocles, depicting Athena and Pegasus with the triskeles.]]
Agathocles ({{langx|grc|Ἀγαθοκλῆς}}, Agathoklḗs; 361–289&nbsp;BC) was a tyrant of Syracuse from 317 BC and king of much of Sicily from 304 BC until his death. Agathocles began his career as a military officer, and raised his profile as a supporter of the democratic faction in Syracuse against the oligarchic civic government. His opponents forced him into exile and he became a mercenary leader. He eventually made his way back to Syracuse and was elected as a general. A few years later he took control through a coup d'état. In practice he was a tyrant, although a democratic constitution theoretically remained in force.
Agathocles had led a long, costly war against the Carthaginians, who ruled the western half of Sicily between 311 and 306 BC. In a military campaign he led the invasion of Carthage's North African heartland in 310 BC. After initial successes he abandoned his army in Africa and returned to Sicily in 307 BC, where he made peace with the Carthaginians and restored the status quo ante bellum. He then assumed the royal title and managed to bring almost the entire Greek portion of Sicily, and part of Calabria, under his control. Agathocles came close to of bringing the entirety of Magna Graecia under his control but his attempt to establish a dynasty fell apart as a result of conflict within his family.
Biography
Agathocles was a son of Carcinus, who came from Rhegium. Carcinus was expelled from his hometown, so he migrated to Thermae Himeraeae and married a local citizen woman. Thermae, which was located on the north coast of Sicily, belonged to the western part of the island, which was under Carthaginian control. The couple had two sons, Antander and Agathocles. In 343 BC, when Agathocles was around eighteen years old, the family re-settled in Syracuse. Carcinus had answered a call from the commander Timoleon, which had overthrown the tyrannical regime of Dionysius II. Timoleon sought new citizens for the city, which had been depopulated by the civil wars. Thus, Carcinus and Agathocles acquired Syracusan citizenship. According to the sources, Carcinus was a potter and Agathocles followed him in his profession. Modern historians generally argue that he must have been a wealthy man who owned a pottery workshop.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p22}}{{sfn|Meister|1984|p385}}{{sfn|Lehmler|2005|p=37}} In later times, Agathocles frequently advertised his lower class origins and used them as part of his self-presentation as a ruler, since performative modesty and presenting himself as a man of the people would be important parts of his persona.{{sfn|Agostinetti|2008}}
Agathocles began his military career during Timoleon's rule. He initially served as a soldier and then as an officer. Later, after Timoleon's death in 337 BC, Agathocles participated in an expedition against Acragas and began a relationship with the general, Damas, who promoted him to chiliarch. After Damas' death, Agathocles married his widow. This made him one of the richest men in Syracuse, which gave him a good platform to begin his political ascent.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p=22}}
After Timoleon's death, Syracuse descended into the traditional conflict between democrats and oligarchs. The oligarchs had the upper hand and ruled the city as a club, called "the Six Hundred." Agathocles' elder brother, Antander, was elected to a generalship, during this period, so he must have had good relationships with members of the ruling circle. Agathocles, on the other hand, spoke in the people's assembly and placed himself on the side of the opposition democrats, but he was unable to overcome their power. After a successful campaign to defend Croton in southern Italy from the Bruttii, he denied an award for bravery which he felt he had earnt.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p23}} After this, he openly opposed the government and openly accused the leading oligarchs, Sosistratus and Heracleides, of seeking to become tyrants. These accusations were not successful and the two oligarchs solidified their power. Agathocles' situation in Syracuse was then untenable and he declared that he was compelled to leave the city. This does not necessarily mean that he was formally exiled.{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp24-31}}
Double exile
Agathocles went to southern Italy, where he led the life of a mercenary captain. At the same time, he built up an independent power base, as preparation for a return to Syracuse. His first military effort was a failure, however: he attempted to bring the major city of Croton in Calabria under his control by force, probably in alliance with the local democrats, but he was completely defeated and had to flee with his surviving followers to Tarentum. The Tarentines accepted him into their mercenary forces, but they distrusted him because of his ambition and plots, which led to his dismissal. After this, he gathered together democrats who had been expelled from their cities by local oligarchs. An opportunity appeared at Rhegium, the hometown of Agathocles' father. There, the democrats were in power, but the city was attacked by forces led by the Syracusan oligarchs, who wanted to help the local oligarchs take power by force. Agathocles defeated this Syracusan expeditionary force, which destabilised Sosistratus and Heracleides' position in Syracuse and as a result they were overthrown in a coup. The democrats returned to power and drove the leading oligarchs out of Syracuse. The exiled oligarchs allied themselves with the Carthaginians. These developments allowed Agathocles to return home around 322 BC.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p25}}{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp29-34}}
Agathocles distinguished himself in the subsequent battles against the Carthaginians and oligarchs, but did not manage to acquire a leading position in the city. Instead, the Syracusans chose to request a commander from their mother city, Corinth, in accordance with a law established by Timoleon. The Corinthians sent one Acestorides, who organised an amnesty for the oligarchs, made peace with the Carthaginians, and exiled Agathocles. The radical democrats were forced out and a moderate oligarchy was established. Acestorides even attempted to have Agathocles assassinated. Agathocles established a private army, apparently funded from his own assets. He took advantage of the fact that the Syracusans were considered oppressive by other cities in Sicily and successfully presented himself as a supporter of these cities' interests against the Syracusans. He managed to take over Leontini and even led an attack on Syracuse. The situation became so tenuous for the oligarchs in Syracuse that they reached out to the Carthaginians for help.{{sfn|Berve|1953|p27}}{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|p33, 38-44}}
Agathocles outpaced the oligarchs. He negotiated with the Carthaginian commander in Sicily, Hamilcar, and convinced him to withdraw. Allegedly, they had concluded a personal agreement to support each other in establishing themselves as sole rulers of their respective cities.<ref>Justin, Epitome 22.2.5-7</ref>{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp52-55}} After the loss of Carthaginian support, Syracuse was isolated. The citizens, who did not really wish to fight for oligarchy, agreed to allow Agathocles to return home. He swore the Syracuse "great oath", promising that he would not establish a tyranny. After that, he was elected commander in chief of the Syracusan army in 319/318 BC.{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp41-46}}
Seizure of power
The position of Agathocles within the city of Syracuse was initially that of a regular military commander, with wide but limited powers. His title was General and Guardian of the Peace ({{langx|grc|στρατηγὸς καὶ φύλαξ τῆς εἰρήνης|strategos kai phylax tes eirenes}}).<ref>Diodoros, Bibliotheke 19.5.5</ref>{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp41, 45}} In Syracuse, the surviving oligarchs banded together as "The Six Hundred" and continued to oppose him. Agathocles took advantage of the conflicts between the Syracusans and the non-Greek Sicels and between the rich and poor within Syracuse to overcome these opponents. On the pretext of taking military action against external enemies, he was able to gather a powerful force, which was loyal only to him, without raising suspicion.{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp45-47}}
In 317/6 or 316/5 BC, Agathocles used this force to launch a coup. At a meeting that the leading members of the opposition party had been invited to, he accused around forty of the oligarchs there of planning an attack on him and had them arrested and executed on the spot. His trumpeters gave the sign for battle and a general slaughter took place in the city, in which the wealthy and their supporters were the main victims. Their houses were plundered. According to Diodorus Siculus's account, over 4,000 people were killed, purely because they belonged to the upper class. More than 6,000 people escaped from the city, even though the gates had been locked. They mostly fled to Agrigentum.<ref>Diodorus Bibliotheke 19.6.4-19.8.2</ref>{{sfn|Meister|1991|p193}}{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp47-49}}
Finally, Agathocles called an assembly of the people, in which he presented himself as a saviour of democracy in the face of the oligarchs and announced that he would retire from his position and return to private life. His followers responded by calling on him to take over the leadership of the state. He responded that he was willing to be general once more, but only if he could hold the role without any colleagues, as General with unlimited power ({{langx|grc|στρατηγὸς αὐτοκράτωρ|strategós autokrátor}}). This was the title that the earlier ruler Dionysius I had used as the legal basis for his tyranny.{{sfn|Berve|1953|pp30ff}} The people elected him to this position and also entrusted him with a general "management of the city" ({{langx|grc|ἐπιμέλεια τῆς πόλεως|epiméleia tes póleos}}). After this he announced a cancellation of debts and redistribution of the land, two planks of the traditional populist programme.<ref>Diodoros, Bibliotheke 19.9.1-5</ref>{{sfn|Consolo Langher|2000|pp49-52}}
Rulership
of Agathocles, depicting Apollo and the triskeles.]]
War with Carthage followed. In 311&nbsp;BC Agathocles was defeated in the Battle of the Himera River and besieged in Syracuse. In 310&nbsp;BC he made a desperate effort to break through the blockade and attack Carthage. He landed at Cape Bon in August 310&nbsp;BC, and was able to defeat the Carthaginians for the first time, and establish a camp near Tunis. He then turned east and tried to take over coastal trading cities such as Neapolis and Hadrumetum, and on this occasion concluded an alliance with Ailymas, king of the Libyans according to Diodorus of Sicily, in an attempt to surround and isolate Carthage. After capturing Hadrumetum, Thapsus and other coastal towns, Agathocles turned his attention to central Tunisia. Before or during this campaign, he broke his alliance with Ailymas, whom he pursued and killed, but he kept his Numidian army, including war chariots they built.<ref name"ailymas">{{Cite journal|urlhttps://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/833?langen|titleEncyclopédie Berbère, Ailymas, G. Camps|journalEncyclopédie Berbère|dateJuly 1986|issue3|pages325–326|doi10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.833|access-date6 January 2021|last1Camps|first1G.|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In 309/8&nbsp;BC, Agathocles began trying to sway Ophellas, ruler of Cyrenaica, as he was likely to prove a useful ally in Agathocles' war against the Carthaginians. To gain his allegiance, he promised to cede to Ophellas whatever conquests their combined forces might make in Africa, reserving to himself only the possession of Sicily.<ref>Diodorus xx. 40.1-4</ref> Ophellas gathered a powerful army from the homeland of his wife Euthydike (a descendant of Miltiades), Athens, where many citizens felt disgruntled after having lost their voting rights.{{sfn|Habicht|1997|p95}} Despite the natural obstacles that presented themselves on his route, Ophellas succeeded in reaching the Carthaginian territories after a toilsome and perilous march of more than two months.<ref>Diodorus xx. 41-42</ref> He was received by Agathocles with every demonstration of friendship, and the two armies encamped near each other, but a few days later, Agathocles betrayed his new ally by attacking the camp of the Cyrenaeans and having Ophellas killed.<ref>Diodorus xx. 42.4-5; 43.3-4</ref> The Cyrenean troops, left without a leader, went over to Agathocles.{{sfn|Habicht|1997|p95}}
of Agathocles, depicting Nike nailing up a war trophy.]]
After several victories, he was finally completely defeated (307&nbsp;BC) and fled secretly to Sicily.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} After concluding peace with Carthage in 306&nbsp;BC, Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in 304&nbsp;BC, and established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the Halycus River. Even in his old age, he displayed the same restless energy and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.
His last years were plagued by ill health and the attempted usurpation of his throne by his grandson Archagathus, whom Diodorus Siculus states had him poisoned;<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIFkZAAAAYAAJ&dqagathocles&pgPA222 | titleAgathocles | last1Tillyard | first1Henry Julius Wetenhall | date1908 }}</ref> however Justinius and the majority of modern historians assert he died a natural death (presumably from cancer of the jaw).<ref>Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, 23.2</ref><ref>{{cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKeEjUjSaDA0C&dqagathocles+jaw+cancer&pgPA10 | titleA Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World | isbn978-0-19-511206-1 | last1Sacks | first1David | date1995 | publisherOxford University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlnIpo8KBbP4C&dqagathocles+jaw+cancer&pgPA409 | titleThe Cambridge Ancient History | isbn978-0-521-23445-0 | last1Astin | first1A. E. | date1994 | publisherCambridge University Press }}</ref> He was a born leader of mercenaries, and he did not shrink from cruelty for the purposes to royal power. Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his deathbed and did not want his grandson to succeed him as king.<ref>{{cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbVWcAQAAQBAJ&dqagathocles%20damnatio&pgPA36 | titleThe Oxford Classical Dictionary | isbn978-0-19-954556-8 | last1Hornblower | first1Simon | last2Spawforth | first2Antony | last3Eidinow | first3Esther | date29 March 2012 | publisherOxford University Press }}</ref>
Family
Agathocles was married three times. His first wife was the widow of his patron Damas, by whom he had two sons:
* Archagathus, who was murdered by the army in Africa in 307 BC after Agathocles abandoned it. He had one son, also called Archagathus, who was Agathocles' main general and heir in the 290s BC, but became involved in a succession dispute with his younger uncle, also called Agathocles, and was assassinated immediately after his father's death in 289 BC.
* Heracleides, who was murdered with his brother in Africa in 307&nbsp;BC.
Agathocles' second wife was Alcia, with whom he had two children:
* Lanassa, second wife of King Pyrrhus of Epirus and mother of Alexander II of Epirus.
* Agathocles, who was murdered in a succession dispute shortly before his father's death.
Agathocles' third wife was Theoxena, who was the second daughter of Berenice I and her first husband Philip and thus a stepdaughter of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt. She escaped to Egypt with their two children following Agathocles' death in 289 BC:{{sfn|Bennett|2012}}
* Archagathus and Theoxena, who escaped to Egypt in 289 BC. Their descendants included Agathocleia and Agathocles of Egypt, who were Ptolemy IV's chief mistress and chief minister respectively, and dominated Egypt in the first years of Ptolemy V's reign.
Legacy
Agathocles was cited as an example "Of those who become princes through their crimes" in chapter 8 of Niccolò Machiavelli's treatise on politics - The Prince (1513).
He was described as behaving as a criminal at every stage of his career. Machiavelli claimed: {{blockquote|Agathocles, the Sicilian, became King of Syracuse not only from a private but from a low and abject position. This man, the son of a potter, through all the changes in his fortunes, always led an infamous life. Nevertheless, he accompanied his infamies with so much ability of mind and body that, having devoted himself to the military profession, he rose through its ranks to be Praetor of Syracuse.<ref name"gutenberg">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm#link2HCH0008|websitegutenberg.org|titleThe Project Gutenberg eBook of The Prince, by Nicolo Machiavelli &#124; Chapter VIII |access-date=15 January 2022}}</ref>}}
Machiavelli goes on to reason that Agathocles' success, in contrast to other criminal tyrants, was due to his ability to commit his crimes quickly and ruthlessly, and states that cruelties are best used when they
{{blockquote|are applied at one blow and are necessary to one's security, and that are not persisted in afterwards unless they can be turned to the advantage of the subjects.}}
Family tree of Agathocles
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Mag |y| Ant |MagMagas|AntAntigone of Macedon}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | Car | | | | | | Phi |y|~|~|~|~| Be1 |~|~|~|~|y| Pt1 |PhiPhilip|CarCarcinus of Rhegium|Be1Berenice I|Pt1Ptolemy I<br/>king of Egypt}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | | | | |`|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| unk |y|~|~|~|~| Aga |~|~|~|y|~| Tho | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | Pt2 |unk1.(unknown)|AgaAgathocles I<br/>tyrant of Syracuse,<br/>king of Sicily|Tho3.Theoxena Elder|Pt2Ptolemy II<br/>king of Egypt}}
{{tree chart| | | |!| Alc |y|J| | | | | |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|t|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | ||!| Alc=2.Alcia }}
{{tree chart| |,|-|^|-|.| |`|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| Arc | | Her | | Ag2 | | Lan |~| Py1 |~| Ang | | Arg | | The | | Pt3 |ArcArchagathus Elder<br/>general<br/><small>∞ Theoxena</small>|HerHeracleides<br/>military officer|AngAntigone|Ag2Agathocles II|LanLanassa|Py1Pyrrhus I<br/>king of Epirus|ArgArchagathus of Libya<br/>epistates of Cyrenaica<br/><small>∞ Oenanthe</small>|TheTheoxena Younger|Pt3=Ptolemy III<br/>king of Egypt}}
{{tree chart| |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| Arh | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Agl | | Pt4 |ArhArchagathus Younger<br/>military officer|AglAgathocles Elder<br/><small>∞ Oenanthe</small>|Pt4=Ptolemy IV<br/>king of Egypt}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Aga | | Ags | | Pt5 |AgaAgathoclea|AgsAgathocles Younger|Pt5=Ptolemy V<Br/>king of Egypt}}
{{tree chart/end}}
Primary sources
* Diodorus Siculus Library of History Books 19–21.
* Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus Book 22.
* Polyaenus 5.3
* Polybius 9.23
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
Bibliography
*{{EB1911|wstitleAgathocles|volume1|page=370}}
*{{cite journal |last1Agostinetti |first1Anna Simonetti |titleAgatocle di Siracusa: un tiranno-operaio |journalAristonothos |date2008 |volume2 |pages=153–160}}
*{{cite web |last1Bennett |first1Chris |titlePtolemaic Dynasty Affiliates |urlhttps://www.instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/affilates/aff_ptolemies.htm |websitewww.instonebrewer.com |date2012|access-date=16 December 2024}}
*{{cite book |last1Berve |first1Helmut |titleDie Herrschaft Des Agathokles |date1953 |publisherBayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |locationMunich}}
*{{cite book |last1Consolo Langher |first1Sebastiana Nerina |titleAgatocle: da capoparte a monarca fondatore di un regno tra Cartagine e i Diadochi |date2000 |publisherDi.Sc.A.M |locationMessina |isbn=978-88-8268-004-6}}
*{{cite book |firstChristian |lastHabicht |titleAthens from Alexander to Antony |publisherHarvard University Press|locationCambridge, MA|year1997|isbn=9780674051119}}
*{{cite book |last1Lehmler |first1Caroline |titleSyrakus unter Agathokles und Hieron II.: die Verbindung von Kultur und Macht in einer hellenistischen Metropole |date2005 |publisherVerlag Antike |locationBerlin |isbn=978-3-938032-07-7}}
*{{cite book |last1Meister |first1Klaus |editor1-lastWalbank |editor1-firstF. W. |editor2-lastAstin |editor2-firstA. E. |editor3-lastFrederiksen |editor3-firstM. W. |editor4-lastOgilvie |editor4-firstR. M. |titleThe Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 7 Part 1. The Hellenistic World |date1984 |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge |pages384–411 |edition2nd |chapter=Agathocles}}
*{{cite book |last1Meister |first1Klaus |editor1-lastGalvagno |editor1-firstEmilio |editor2-lastMolè Ventura |editor2-firstConcetta |titleMito, storia, tradizione |date1991 |locationCatania |pages187–199 |chapterAgatocle in Diodoro: interpretazione e valutazione nella storiografia moderna}}Further reading*{{cite book |last1Tillyard |first1H.J.W. |titleThe History of Agathocles |date1908 |publisherCUP |locationCambridge |urlhttp://www.third-millennium-library.com/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/AGATHOCLES/DOOR.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091215164619/http://www.third-millennium-library.com/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/AGATHOCLES/DOOR.html |url-statususurped |archive-date=15 December 2009 }}
*{{cite book |last1Schubert |first1Rudolf |titleGeschichte des Agathokles |urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_A0A_AQAAIAAJ |date1887 |publisherW. Koebner}}
*{{cite book |last1de Lisle |first1Christopher |titleAgathokles of Syracuse: Sicilian Tyrant and Hellenistic King |date2021 |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford |isbn978-0-19-260627-3 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN70cEAAAQBAJ |languageen}}
External links
{{Commons category|Agathocles of Syracuse}}
*[http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/sicily/syracuse/agathokles/t.html Coinage of Agathocles]
*[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Agathocles Agathocles- Encyclopædia Britannica]
*[https://www.worldhistory.org/Agathocles_of_Syracuse/ Agathocles of Syracuse]- Ancient History Encyclopedia
{{s-start}}
|width25% aligncenter|Preceded by:<br/>oligarchy<br/> <small>position previously held <br/>by Timoleon in 337&nbsp;BC</small>
|width25% aligncenter|Tyrant of Syracuse<br/>317&nbsp;BC{{snd}}289&nbsp;BC
|width25% aligncenter|Succeeded by:<br/>Hicetas
|-
{{s-end}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Agathocles}}
Category:361 BC births
Category:289 BC deaths
Category:Ancient Greek generals
Category:Sicilian tyrants
Category:4th-century BC Syracusans
Category:Ancient Himeraeans
Category:Greek exiles
Category:3rd-century BC Syracusans
Category:4th-century BC Greek monarchs
Category:3rd-century BC monarchs in Europe
Category:People of the Sicilian Wars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathocles_of_Syracuse
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1841
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Economy of Alberta
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{{Short description|None}}
{{Use Canadian English|date= November 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date= November 2023}}
{{Infobox economy
| country = Alberta
| image = Alberta oil field.JPG
| caption = Aerial photo of oilfield roads and drill sites in the Pembina Oil Field, 2008.
| currency = Canadian dollar (CAD, C$)
| year = April 1 – March 29
| gdp = CAD$338.2 billion (2018)
| population {{increase}} 4,421,876 (2020)<ref>{{cite web |titlePopulation estimates on July 1st, by age and sex |urlhttps://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid1710000501 |websitestatscan.gc.ca | dateJune 27, 2018 |publisherStatistics Canada |access-dateApril 3, 2021}}</ref>
}}
The economy of Alberta is the sum of all economic activity in Alberta, Canada's fourth largest province by population. Alberta's GDP in 2018 was CDN$338.2 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|titleEconomic Dashboard - Gross Domestic Product|urlhttps://economicdashboard.alberta.ca/grossdomesticproduct|access-dateSeptember 21, 2019|websiteeconomicdashboard.alberta.ca|language=en}}</ref>
Although Alberta has a presence in many industries such as agriculture, forestry, education, tourism, finance, and manufacturing, the politics and culture of the province have been closely tied to the production of fossil energy since the 1940s. Alberta—with an estimated 1.4 billion cubic metres of unconventional oil resource in the bituminous oil sands—leads Canada as an oil producer.<ref name="statcan_2003" />
In 2018, Alberta's energy sector contributed over $71.5 billion to Canada's nominal gross domestic product.<ref name"NRCAN_20190907">{{cite news| work NRCAN| title Energy and Economy| access-date September 7, 2019| date September 7, 2019| url https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-and-economy/20062| archive-date September 1, 2019| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190901001744/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-and-economy/20062| url-status dead}}</ref> According to Statistics Canada, in May 2018, the oil and gas extraction industry reached its highest proportion of Canada's national GDP since 1985, exceeding 7% and "surpass[ing] banking and insurance"<ref name"CBC_Fletcher_20180731">{{cite news|first Robson |lastFletcher|date July 31, 2018| title Oil and gas surpasses banking and insurance as share of GDP in May |workCBC News| access-dateSeptember 7, 2019| url https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/oil-and-gas-gdp-growth-may-data-statscan-1.4768508}}</ref> with extraction of non-conventional oil from the oilsands reaching an "impressive", all-time high in May 2018.<ref name"CBC_Fletcher_20180731" /> With conventional oil extraction "climbed up to the highs from 2007", the demand for Canadian oil was strong in May.<ref name="CBC_Fletcher_20180731" />
From 1990 to 2003, Alberta's economy grew by 57% compared to 43% for all of Canada—the strongest economic growth of any region in Canada.<ref name"statcan_2003">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-621-m/11-621-m2005023-eng.htm#tm8 | titleCanada, a Big Energy Consumer: A Regional Perspective | publisherStatistics Canada | dateNovember 12, 2009 | access-dateMarch 17, 2016}}</ref> In 2006 Alberta's per capita GDP was higher than all US states, and one of the highest figures in the world. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history.<ref name"statcan_200609"/> Alberta's per capita GDP in 2007 was by far the highest of any province in Canada at C$74,825 (approx. US$75,000). Alberta's per capita GDP in 2007 was 61% higher than the Canadian average of C$46,441 and more than twice that of all the Maritime provinces. From 2004 to 2014 Alberta's "exports of commodities rose 91%, reaching $121 billion in 2014" and 500,000 new jobs were created.<ref name"economic_results_AB2015">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.albertacanada.com/business/overview/economic-results.aspx | titleEconomic results | publisherGovernment of Alberta | dateOctober 25, 2015 | access-dateMarch 16, 2016}}</ref> In 2014, Alberta's real GDP by expenditure grew by 4.8%, the strongest growth rate among the provinces."<ref name"finance_alberta_about_2016_mar_11" /> In 2017, Alberta's real per capita GDP—the economic output per person—was $71,092, compared to the Canadian average of $47,417.<ref name"ATB_20180530"/> In 2016, Alberta's A grade on its income per capita was based on the fact that it was almost "identical" to that of the "top peer country"—Ireland.<ref name"conferenceboard_2017"/>
The energy industry provided 7.7% of all jobs in Alberta in 2013,<ref name"economic_results_AB2015" /> and 140,300 jobs representing 6.1% of total employment of 2,286,900 in Alberta in 2017.<ref name"GovAB_2018"/> The unemployment rate in Alberta peaked in November 2016 at 9.1%. Its lowest point in a ten-year period from July 2009 to July 2019, was in September 2013 at 4.3%.<ref name"economicdashboard"/> The unemployment rate in the spring of 2019 in Alberta was 6.7% with 21,000 jobs added in April.<ref name"StatsCan">{{Cite web| last Government Of Canada| first Statistics Canada| title Regional unemployment rates used by the Employment Insurance program, three-month moving average, seasonally adjusted| access-date September 5, 2019| date May 10, 2019| url https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/190510/t012a-eng.htm}}</ref> By July 2019, the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate had increased to 7.0%.<ref name"economicdashboard">{{Cite web| title Unemployment Rate| access-date September 5, 2019| url https://economicdashboard.alberta.ca/Unemployment}}</ref>
By August 2019, the employment number in Alberta was 2,344,000, following the loss of 14,000 full-time jobs in July, which represented the "largest decline" in Canada according to Statistics Canada.<ref name"edmontonjournal_Wyton_20190909">{{Cite web| title Alberta economy sheds 14,000 full-time jobs in July |newspaperEdmonton Journal| access-date September 6, 2019 |firstMoira |lastWyton |dateAugust 9, 2019 | url https://edmontonjournal.com/news/local-news/alberta-economy-sheds-14000-full-time-jobs-in-july}}</ref>
Beginning in June 2014, the record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage—referred to as a global oil glut<ref name"Firzli">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/6702258 |workAl-Hayat |locationLondon |titleA GCC House Divided: Country Risk Implications of the Saudi-Qatari Rift |firstM. Nicolas J. |lastFirzli |dateApril 6, 2014 |access-dateDecember 29, 2014}}</ref>—caused crude oil prices to collapse at near ten-year low prices.<ref name"G&M_Deloitte_2016">{{citation |workGlobe and Mail via PressReader |dateFebruary 6, 2016 |titleDeloitte warns of oil bankruptcies}}</ref><ref name"reuters_2016_Feb16">{{cite news | urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-shale-bankruptcy-idUSKCN0VP0O6 | titleHigh risk of bankruptcy for one-third of oil firms: Deloitte | workReuters | dateFebruary 16, 2016 | access-dateFebruary 17, 2016 | authorScheyder, Ernest | locationHouston}}</ref><ref name"fortune_2016">{{cite magazine | urlhttp://fortune.com/2016/02/16/oil-companies-bankrupt/ | titleOne-Third of Oil Companies Could Go Bankrupt this Year | magazineFortune | dateFebruary 16, 2016 | access-dateFebruary 17, 2016 | authorZillman, Claire}}</ref> By 2016 West Texas Intermediate (WTI)—the benchmark light, sweet crude oil—reached its lowest price in ten years—US$26.55. In 2012 the price of WTI had reached US$125 and in 2014 the price was $100. By February 2016 the price of Western Canadian Select WCS—the Alberta benchmark heavy crude oil—was US$14.10<ref name"calgaryherald_feb_3_2016_">{{cite news | titleCommodities | newspaperCalgary Herald | dateFebruary 3, 2016 |pageC7}}</ref><ref name"albertaoilmagazine">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.albertaoilmagazine.com/2016/01/wcs-slides-to-us14-50-per-barrel/ | titleWCS Slides to US$14.50 per Barrel Global stock and commodities market turmoil continue, with WTI hitting US$26.55 per barrel | publisherAlberta Oil Magazine | dateJanuary 20, 2016 | access-dateMarch 17, 2016 | authorWilson, Nick}}</ref>—the cheapest oil in the world.<ref name"FP_WCS_cheapest">{{citation |titleCanada's challenge is how to make money selling the world's cheapest oil—but it can be done |workFinancial Post |access-dateJanuary 26, 2016 |firstClaudia |lastCattaneo | dateDecember 16, 2015 |urlhttp://business.financialpost.com/news/energy/canadas-challenge-is-how-to-make-money-selling-the-worlds-cheapest-oil-but-it-can-be-done?__lsae1a0-e5f6}}</ref> Alberta boom years from 2010 to 2014 ended with a "long and deep" recession that began in 2014, driven by low commodity pricing ended in 2017.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> By 2019—five years later—Alberta was still in recovery. Overall, there were approximately 35,000 jobs lost in mining, oil and gas alone.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> Since 2014, sectors that offered high-wage employment of $30 and above, saw about 100,000 jobs disappear—"construction (down more than 45,000 jobs), mining, oil and gas (down nearly 35,000), and professional services (down 18,000)," according to the economist, Trevor Tombe.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> There was a decrease in wages, in the number of jobs, and in the number of hours worked. The total loss of incomes from "workers, business, and government" amounted to about 20 percent or about CDN$75 billion less per year.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> Since 2011, prices have increased in Alberta by 18%.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> However, a typical worker in Alberta still earns more than a typical worker in all the other provinces and territories.<ref name="CBC_Tombe_20190731"/>
By March 2016, Alberta lost over 100,000 jobs in the oil patch.<ref name"calgaryherald_mar_17_2016">{{cite news | urlhttps://calgaryherald.com/business/energy/medicine-hat-reeling-after-second-fracking-company-announces-pullout | titleMedicine Hat reeling after second fracking company announces pullout | newspaperCalgary Herald | dateMarch 17, 2016 | access-dateMarch 17, 2016 | authorHealing, Dan}}</ref> In spite of the surplus with the low price of WCS in 2015—99% of Canada's oil exports went to the United States<ref name"EIA_2012">{{cite web | urlhttps://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id8950 | titleCanada Week: Canada is the leading supplier of crude oil to the United States | publisherEIA | dateNovember 8, 2012 | access-dateMarch 18, 2016}}</ref> and in 2015 Canada was still their largest exporter of total petroleum—3,789 thousand bpd in September—3,401 thousand bpd in October up from 3,026 thousand bpd in September 2014.<ref name"EIA_2016">{{cite report |urlhttp://www.eia.gov/petroleum/imports/companylevel/ |titlePetroleum imports |dateDecember 2016 |workEIA}}</ref> By April 2019, two of the major oil companies, still had thousands of workers—Suncor had about 12,500 employees and Canadian Natural Resources had about 10,000 full-time employees.<ref name"cbc_Bakx_20190408">{{cite news |last Bakx | first Kyle |workCBC News|date April 8, 2019| title Why Jason Kenney is targeting some of Canada's Big Oil executives| access-date September 5, 2019| url = https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/kenney-big-oil-ceos-1.5083119}}</ref>
Alberta has the "lowest taxes overall of any province or territory" in Canada,<ref name"huffingtonpost_2016_03_14">{{cite news | urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2016/03/14/joe-ceci_n_9463302.html | titleJoe Ceci Reminds Businesses Alberta Has The Lowest Taxes In Canada | workHuffington Post | dateMarch 14, 2016 | access-dateMarch 16, 2016 | authorBennett, Dean}}</ref> due in part to having high resource tax revenues. However, overall tax revenues from oil royalties and other non-renewable sources has fallen steeply along with the drop in global oil prices. For example, in 2013, oil tax revenues brought in 9.58 billion, or 21% of the total Provincial budget,<ref name"AlbertaBudget2013">{{cite web | urlhttps://open.alberta.ca/dataset/7714457c-7527-443a-a7db-dd8c1c8ead86/resource/5604f999-fa33-4f77-bff4-1b8a189979e1/download/goa-2013-14-annual-report-complete.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/7714457c-7527-443a-a7db-dd8c1c8ead86/resource/5604f999-fa33-4f77-bff4-1b8a189979e1/download/goa-2013-14-annual-report-complete.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |title=Alberta 2013-2014 Budget }}</ref> whereas in 2018 it had fallen to just 5.43 billion, or 11% of the Provincial budget.
<ref name"AlbertaBudget2018">{{cite web | urlhttps://open.alberta.ca/dataset/3d732c88-68b0-4328-9e52-5d3273527204/resource/2b82a075-f8c2-4586-a2d8-3ce8528a24e1/download/Budget-2019-Fiscal-Plan-2019-23.pdf#revenue |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/3d732c88-68b0-4328-9e52-5d3273527204/resource/2b82a075-f8c2-4586-a2d8-3ce8528a24e1/download/Budget-2019-Fiscal-Plan-2019-23.pdf#revenue |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleAlberta 2018-2019 Budget}}</ref>
In the spring of 2020, Alberta's economy suffered from the economic fallout of both the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war."<ref name="CBC_20200402"/>
__TOC__
{{clear left}}
Data
{{Pie chart
| radius = 100
| thumb | caption GDP by sector, 2016<ref>{{Cite web|titleHighlights of the Alberta Economy|urlhttps://open.alberta.ca/dataset/10989a51-f3c2-4dcb-ac0f-f07ad88f9b3b/resource/513eef5f-aa53-4cde-888d-8e52822b6db4/download/sp-eh-highlightsabeconomypresentation.pdf|url-statuslive|websiteOpen Alberta|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191026021508/https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/10989a51-f3c2-4dcb-ac0f-f07ad88f9b3b/resource/513eef5f-aa53-4cde-888d-8e52822b6db4/download/sp-eh-highlightsabeconomypresentation.pdf |archive-dateOctober 26, 2019 }}</ref>
| other | label1Oil, Gas, & Mining
| value1 =16.4
| color1 =DarkGreen
| label2 =Manufacturing
| value2 =6.7
| color2 =Green
| label3 =Transportation & Utilities
| value3 =6.6
| color3 =DarkOliveGreen
| label4 =Business Services
| value4 =11.8
| color4 =Indigo
| label5 =Real Estate
| value5 =11.7
| color5 =Purple
| label6 =Tourism
| value6 =5.1
| color6 =DarkMagenta
| label7 =Retail
| value7 =9.5
| color7 =DarkRed
| label8 =Public Administration
| value8 =5.4
| color8 =Red
| label9 =Finance & Insurance
| value9 =4.8
| color9 =Firebrick
| label10 =Education
| value10 =4.1
| color10 =DarkKhaki
| label11 =Health Care
| value11 =6.3
| color11 =Gold
| label12 =Agriculture & Forestry
| value12 =1.8
| color12 =Khaki
| label13 =Construction
| value13 =10.1
| color13 =PeachPuff
}}
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center;"
!Year
! class="unsortable" |Nominal GDP
<small>(in bil. CA-Dollar)</small>
!GDP per capita
<small>(in CA-Dollar)</small>
!Unemployment
<small>(in %)</small>
|-
|2019
|334.5
|77,239
|6.8%
|-
|2018
|334.3
|78,311
|6.9%
|-
|2017
|328
|77,765
|8.7%
|-
|2016
|314.6
|75,447
|8.6%
|-
|2015
|326.5
|79,324
|4.6%
|-
|2014
|338.3
|83,946
|4.7%
|-
|2013
|319.5
|81,495
|4.5%
|-
|2012
|302.1
|78,979
|5.0%
|-
|2011
|290.5
|77,375
|5.9%
|-
|2010
|272.2
|73,523
|6.6%
|-
|2009
|258.9
|71,156
|4.9%
|-
|2008
|273.5
|77,068
|3.7%
|-
|2007
|270
|77,748
|3.6%
|-
|2006
|264.8
|78,533
|3.8%
|-
|2005
|248.6
|75,867
|4.5%
|-
|2004
|237.7
|74,064
|4.9%
|-
|2003
|224.7
|71,218
|5.4%
|-
|2002
|216.8
|70,114
|4.9%
|-
|2001
|211.6
|69,882
|5.2%
|-
|2000
|207.8
|69,860
|5.0%
|-
|1999
|196
|66,984
|5.9%
|-
|1998
|193.2
|67,569
|5.3%
|-
|1997
|184.3
|65,832
|6.4%
|}
Current overview
According to ATB Financial's Vice President and Chief Economist—Todd Hirsch, who spoke during an April 2, 2020, webinar hosted by the Calgary Chamber of Commerce, the COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta and its "economic fallout will permanently reshape our economy." Hirsch said that he expects that the resulting contraction in Alberta's economy will be the "worst...Alberta has ever seen."<ref name"CBC_20200402">{{Cite web| title Alberta to face its 'worst contraction' ever, ATB chief economist warns |workCBC News| access-date April 3, 2020 |date April 2, 2020| url https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/todd-hirsch-atb-covid-19-coronavirus-jason-kenney-1.5520100}}</ref>
The global price of oil decreased dramatically because of the combination of COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war. In March 2020, the United States benchmark crude oil EWest Texas Intermediate (WTI)—upon which Alberta's benchmark crude oil Western Canadian Select (WCS) price is based—dropped to an historical below of US$20 a barrel.<ref name"WaPo_Taylor_20200309">{{cite news| last1 Taylor| first1 Adam| last2 Noack| first2 Rick| last3 McAuley| first3 James | last4 Shammas| first4 Brittany| title Live updates: N.Y. Port Authority head tests positive; riots reported at prisons in Italy over coronavirus restrictions| newspaper Washington Post| access-date March 9, 2020 |dateMarch 9, 2020| url https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/03/09/coronavirus-live-updates/}}</ref><ref name"NYT_20200306">{{cite news| issn 0362-4331| title Stocks Fall and Bond Yields Sink: Live Updates| work The New York Times| access-date March 6, 2020| date March 6, 2020| url https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/business/stock-markets-today.html}}</ref><ref name"WaPo_Long_20200309">{{cite news| last Long| first Heather| title The markets are sending a message about coronavirus: The recession risk is real| newspaper Washington Post| access-date March 9, 2020 |dateMarch 9, 2020| url https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/09/coronavirus-stock-market-oil-trump/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title US crude oil price falls below $20 |workFinancial Times| access-date April 2, 2020| url https://www.ft.com/content/bc938195-82d3-43eb-b031-740028451382}}</ref> The price of WCS bitumen-blend crude was US$3.82 per barrel by the end of March.<ref name"CP_Bloomberg_20200330">{{cite news |firstDan |lastHealing| work Canadian Press via BNN Bloomberg| title Oil sands producers in the red as WCS price touches US$4 per barrel| access-date April 1, 2020| date March 30, 2020| url = https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/oil-sands-producers-in-the-red-as-blended-bitumen-price-dips-below-us-4-per-barrel-1.1414715}}</ref>
In 2018, the low price of heavy oil negatively impacted Alberta's economic growth.<ref name"TD_20190906">{{Cite web| title Provincial Economic Forecast (Alberta) |workTD Economics| access-date September 6, 2019 |dateSeptember 6, 2019| url https://economics.td.com/provincial-economic-forecast}}</ref><ref name"edmontonjournal_Clancy_20190228">{{cite news| title Alberta deficit down $1.9 billion on heels of oil curtailment |newspaperEdmonton Journal| access-date September 6, 2019 |firstClare |lastClancy |dateFebruary 27, 2019 | url https://edmontonjournal.com/news/politics/finance-minister-joe-ceci-to-release-fiscal-update}}</ref>
In November 2018, the price of Western Canadian Select (WCS), the benchmark for Canadian heavy crude, hit its record low of less than US$14 a barrel,<ref name"G&M_Lundy_20181127">{{cite news| title Why Alberta's latest oil-price plunge is unprecedented| access-date December 28, 2018| url https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/industry-news/energy-and-resources/article-why-albertas-latest-oil-price-plunge-is-unprecedented/ |newspaperThe Globe and Mail |firstMatt |lastLundy |dateNovember 27, 2018}}</ref> as a "surge of production met limited pipeline space causing bottlenecks."<ref name"financialpost_Tuttle_20181212"/> Previously, from 2008 through 2018, WCS had sold at an average discount of US$17 against West Texas Intermediate (WTI)—the U.S. crude oil benchmark, but by the fall of 2018, the differential between WCS and WTI reached a record of over US$50 per barrel.<ref name"edmontonjournal_Clancy_20190228"/> In response, then Premier Rachel Notley made a December 2 announcement of a mandatory cut of 8.7% in Alberta's oil production.<ref name"financialpost_Tuttle_20181212">{{Cite web |title Alberta's oil production cuts are working a little too well and making crude too expensive to ship| access-date December 29, 2018| date December 12, 2018 |urlhttps://business.financialpost.com/commodities/energy/albertas-output-cut-mandate-may-be-driving-oil-prices-too-high |workBloomberg News via Financial Post |firstRobert |lastTuttle}}</ref> By December 12, after the announcement of the government's "mandated oil output curtailment", the price of WCS rose c. 70% to c. US$41 a barrel with the WTI differential falling from US50 to c. US$11., according to the Financial Post. The WCS price rose to US$28.60 by January 2019, as the international price of oil had begun to recover from the December "sharp downturn" caused by the ongoing China–U.S. trade war<ref name"CBC_20190107">{{Cite web| date January 7, 2019| work CBC News | title Oil prices rebound, buoying loonie and Canadian stocks |access-dateJanuary 7, 2019| url https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/oil-stocks-jan7-1.4968580}}</ref> In March 2019, the differential of WTI over WCS decreased to $US9.94 as the price of WTI dropped to US$58.15 a barrel, which is 7.5% lower than it was in March 2018, while the price of WCS increased to US$48.21 a barrel which is 35.7% higher than in March 2018.<ref name"AB_oilprices_20190521">{{Cite web| series Economic Dashboard |titleOil Prices| access-date May 21, 2019| url https://economicdashboard.alberta.ca/OilPrice |dateMarch 2019 |workAlberta }}</ref> According to TD Economics' September 2019 report, the government's "mandated oil output curtailment", has resulted in a sustained rebound in WCS prices.<ref name"TD_20190906"/> However, investment and spending were low in the province.<ref name"TD_20190906"/> The loss of 14, 000 of the full-time jobs out of 2,344,000 in Alberta in July 2019, represented the "largest decline" in employment in Canada for that month, according to Statistics Canada.<ref name"edmontonjournal_Wyton_20190909"/>
In 1985, Alberta's energy industry accounted for 36.1% of the provinces $66.8 billion GDP.<ref name"GovAB_2017407">{{Cite web|dateJuly 2017|titleHighlights of the Alberta Economy|urlhttps://open.alberta.ca/dataset/10989a51-f3c2-4dcb-ac0f-f07ad88f9b3b/resource/a4037953-4c78-4550-b71f-cde59f7f1422/download/6864680-2014-07-highlights-alberta-economy-presentation.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/10989a51-f3c2-4dcb-ac0f-f07ad88f9b3b/resource/a4037953-4c78-4550-b71f-cde59f7f1422/download/6864680-2014-07-highlights-alberta-economy-presentation.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|pages33|access-dateSeptember 7, 2019}}</ref>{{rp|3}} In 2006, the mining, oil and gas extraction industry accounted for 29.1% of GDP;<ref name"GovAB_2018"/>{{rp|3}} by 2012 it was 23.3%;<ref name"occinfo_alis_alberta_2016" /> in 2013, it was 24.6% of Alberta's $331.9 billion GDP,<ref name"GovAB_2017407"/>{{rp|6}} and in 2016, the mining, oil and gas extraction industry accounted for about 27.9% of Alberta's GDP.<ref name="GovAB_2018"/>{{rp|3}}
By comparison, "In 2017, the federal, provincial and territorial governments spent some $724 billion on programs and more than $58 billion on interest payments on their public debt, which, combined, amounted to about 36 percent of Canada’s gross domestic product (GDP). Their combined borrowing that year was $27 billion, and their net financial debt at year-end stood at around $1.2 trillion, about 54 percent of GDP."
In his July 2019 CBC News article, economist Trevor Tombe said that prior to the 2014 recession, Albertans had experienced boom years from 2010 to 2014, with workers earnings reaching exceptional highs.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731">{{cite news| date July 31, 2019| first Trevor |lastTombe |workCBC News| title Why earnings in Alberta have been stagnant for years | access-date September 9, 2019| url https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta-wages-recession-tombe-1.5229086}}</ref> The recession, which "ended over two years ago" in 2017, was "long and deep".<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> By 2019—five years later—the province was still in recovery. Overall, there were approximately 35,000 jobs lost in mining, oil and gas alone.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> By 2019, the slow recovery and low earnings growth have resulted in workers getting "fewer hours, fewer jobs and, in some cases, lower wages".<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> Tombe said that from 2014 to 2016, Alberta earned CDN$75 billion less per year with the "total incomes of workers, business, and government combined [falling] by nearly 20 per cent". Tombes said that relative to Alberta's "growth path prior to the recession" Alberta's economy is "down $100 billion per year", compared to what was anticipated.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> Tombes said that the "boom years that ended in 2014 were the outliers" and the lower earnings in 2019 reflect a "natural adjustment that's moving Alberta to a more normal and balanced labour market."<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> While earnings are lower, because of inflation, prices have increased in Alberta by 18% since 2011.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> "The $1,183 per week a typical worker earns today goes about as far as $1,000 did nearly a decade ago.", according to Tombe.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/> In spite of the typical worker in Alberta earns $1,183 per week compared to Saskatchewan, where the typical worker earns $1,070 per week. The weekly income a typical worker in all the other Canadian provinces and territories is less than that.<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/>
Since 2014, sectors that offered high-wage employment of $30 and above, saw about 100,000 jobs disappear—"construction (down more than 45,000 jobs), mining, oil and gas (down nearly 35,000), and professional services (down 18,000)."<ref name"CBC_Tombe_20190731"/>Alberta's deficitAlberta's net debt was $27.5 billion by March 2019, which represents the end of the 2018-19 fiscal year (FY).<ref name"McKinnon_Report_201908">{{Cite report|urlhttps://open.alberta.ca/dataset/081ba74d-95c8-43ab-9097-cef17a9fb59c/resource/257f040a-2645-49e7-b40b-462e4b5c059c/download/blue-ribbon-panel-report.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/081ba74d-95c8-43ab-9097-cef17a9fb59c/resource/257f040a-2645-49e7-b40b-462e4b5c059c/download/blue-ribbon-panel-report.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleMacKinnon Report on Alberta's Finances|last1MacKinnon|first1Janice|author2Mike Percy|dateAugust 2019|pages82|quote"An independent panel of experts reviewed Alberta’s finances and provided recommendations to bring the budget back to balance."|author3Kim Henderson|author4Bev Dahlby|author5Dave Mowat|author6Jay Ramotar|access-dateSeptember 7, 2019|viaTreasury Board and Finance}}</ref>{{rp|70}}<ref name"calgaryherald_Varcoe_20190904">{{cite news|last1Varcoe|first1Chris|dateSeptember 4, 2019|titleMacKinnon report recommends tough medicine for Alberta's budget blues|newspaperCalgary Herald|urlhttps://calgaryherald.com/opinion/columnists/varcoe-mackinnon-report-issues-tough-prescription-for-albertas-budget-blues|access-dateSeptember 7, 2019}}</ref> By November 2018, Alberta's government expenditures were $55 billion while the revenue was about $48 billion, according to a report by the University of Calgary's School of Public Policy (SPP) economist, Trevor Tombe.<ref name"SPP_Tombe_201811">{{Cite journal| pages 36| last Tombe| first Trevor| title Alberta's long-term fiscal future | journal The School of Public Policy Publications|issn 2560-8320 |publisherThe School of Public Policy (SPP) |dateNovember 2018 |access-dateSeptember 6, 2019 |locationCalgary, Alberta |volume11 |number31 |seriesSPP Research Paper | doi 10.55016/ojs/sppp.v11i1.52965|urlhttps://www.policyschool.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/AB-Fiscal-Future-Tombe.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.policyschool.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/AB-Fiscal-Future-Tombe.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive }}</ref>{{rp|4}} Capital investment amounted to $4.3 billion.<ref name"SPP_Tombe_201811"/> The provincial government employs more than "210,000 full-time equivalent workers across hundreds of departments, boards and other entities."<ref name"SPP_Tombe_201811"/> Tombe, cited a $8.3 billion deficit in his November report,<ref name"SPP_Tombe_201811"/>{{rp|5}} prior to the release in February 2019 of the corrected deficit figures, which was "$1.9 billion less in 2018-19 than originally expected", —$6.9-billion deficit instead of the original $8.8-billion".<ref name"edmontonjournal_Clancy_20190228"/>
Alberta's current deficit is "unusual for the province", says Tombe in 2018.<ref name"SPP_Tombe_201811"/>{{rp|7}} During the financial crisis, Alberta's "net asset position equivalent to 15 per cent of GDP"−it "owned more financial assets than it owed in debt."<ref name"SPP_Tombe_201811"/>{{rp|6}}
In 2009 Alberta had $31.7 billion in financial assets.<ref name="McKinnon_Report_201908"/>{{rp|70}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Net government debt to GDP by province March 2019<ref name="SPP_Tombe_201811"/>{{rp|6}}
! BC !! Alberta!! Saskatchewan!! Manitoba!! Ontario!! Quebec!! New Brunswick!! Nova Scotia!! Prince Edward Island!! Newfoundland!!
|-
| 15.5% || 8.7% ||15.4%||34.2%||37.6%||43%||40%||34.2||33%||47.3%
|}
Alberta's credit rating
On December 3, 2019, Moody's downgraded Alberta's credit rating from Aa2 stable from Aa1 negative and "downgraded the long-term debt ratings of the Alberta Capital Finance Authority and the long-term issuer rating of ATB Financial to Aa2 from Aa1."<ref name"CBC_Rieger_20191204">{{cite news| last Rieger| first Sarah| title Moody's downgrades Alberta's credit rating, citing continued dependence on oil |workCBC News| access-date December 5, 2019| date December 4, 2019| url https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/moody-s-alberta-credit-rating-1.5383294}}</ref> The agency said that there is a "structural weakness in the provincial economy that remains concentrated and dependent on non-renewable resources ... and remains pressured by a lack of sufficient pipeline capacity to transport oil efficiently with no near-term expectation of a significant rebound in oil-related investments...Alberta's oil and gas sector is carbon-intensive and Alberta's greenhouse gas emissions are the highest among provinces. Alberta is also susceptible to natural disasters including wildfires and floods which could lead to significant mitigation costs by the province."<ref name"CBC_Rieger_20191204"/>Alberta's real per capita GDPIn 2006 Alberta's per capita GDP was higher than all US states, and one of the highest figures in the world. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history.<ref name"statcan_200609">{{Cite web | urlhttp://www.statcan.ca/english/ads/11-010-XPB/pdf/sep06.pdf | author Statistics Canada | author-linkStatistics Canada | title The Alberta economic Juggernaught:The boom on the rose | dateSeptember 2006 | access-date February 2, 2007 | url-statusdead | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20061109110655/http://www.statcan.ca/english/ads/11-010-XPB/pdf/sep06.pdf | archive-dateNovember 9, 2006 }}</ref> In 2007, Alberta's per capita GDP in 2007 was C$74,825 (approx. US$75,000)—by far the highest of any Canadian province—61% higher than the Canadian average of C$46,441 and more than twice that of all the Maritime provinces. In 2017, Alberta's real per capita GDP—the economic output per person—was $71,092, compared to the Canadian average of $47,417.<ref name"ATB_20180530"/> Alberta's A grade on its income per capita was based on the fact that it was almost "identical" to that of the "top peer country" in 2016, Ireland.<ref name="conferenceboard_2017"/>
In 2017, Alberta's real per capita GDP—the economic output per person—was $71,092 compared to the Canadian average output per person of $47, 417 and Prince Edward Island at $32,123 per person.<ref name"ATB_20180530">{{Cite web| title Alberta's economy in a league of its own in Canada |workThe Owl |publisherATB Financial| access-date September 6, 2019 |date May 30, 2018 | url https://www.atb.com/learn/economics/the-owl/Pages/ab-economy-in-a-league-of-its-own.aspx}}</ref> Since at least 1997, Alberta's per capita GDP has been higher than that of any other province. In 2014, Alberta's reached its highest gap ever—$30,069—between its real capita GDP and the Canadian average.<ref name"ATB_20180530"/>
According to the Conference Board of Canada, in 2016 Alberta earned an "A grade with income per capita almost identical to the top peer country, Ireland."<ref name"conferenceboard_2017">{{Cite web| title Income Per Capita - Economy Provincial Rankings - How Canada Performs| access-date September 6, 2019 |date2017| url = https://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/provincial/economy/income-per-capita.aspx}}</ref> In 2016 income per capita in Alberta was $59,259.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Alberta Income per capita<ref name="conferenceboard_2017"/>
! 1981 !! 1988!! 1991 !! 1997!! 2000 !! 2003 !! 2005 !! 2007 !! 2009 !! 2010 !! 2014 !!2016
|-
| 42,441 ||45,995 ||45,393 ||53,748 ||57,106 ||57,646 ||61,163 ||62,518 ||57,321 ||59,254 ||66,031 ||59,249
|}
Alberta's GDP compared to other provinces
A table listing annual "[https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid3610040201 "Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by industry, provinces and territories (x 1,000,000)."] from 2014 through 2018 with value chained to 2012 dollars.<ref name"statcan_20190907"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | Province<br />or<br />Territory
! scope="col" | GDP<br />(million<br />CAD, 2014)
! scope="col" | GDP<br />(million<br />CAD, 2015)
! scope="col" | GDP<br />(million<br />CAD, 2016)
! scope="col" | GDP<br />(million<br />CAD, 2017)
! scope="col" | GDP<br />(million<br />CAD, 2018)
|-|- align=right
| align=left | {{BC}} || 219,060.9 || 224,153.4 || 231,509.9 || 240,657.9|| 246,506.3
|- align=right
| align=left | {{AB}} || 338,262.6 || 326,476.7 ||313,241.5 || 327,596.2 || 335,095.6
|- align=right
| align=left | {{SK}} ||80,175.7 || 79,574.2 ||79,364.4 || 81,179.0||82,502.7
|- align=right
| align=left | {{MB}} || 58,276.3 ||59,082.5 ||60,066.2||61,941.2|| 62,723.1
|- align=right
| align=left | {{ON}} || 659,861.2 || 677,384.0 || 693,900.4|| 712,984.3|| 728,363.7
|- align=right
| align=left | {{QC}} ||338,319.0||341,688.0||346,713.7 ||356,677.9 || 365,614.4
|- align=right
| align=left | {{NB}} || 29,039.6 || 29,275.7 || 29,686.3 || 30,271.8|| 30,295.3
|- align=right
| align=left | {{PE}} ||5,205.6 ||5,280.7 || 5,372.2 || 5,553.3 || 5,700.0
|- align=right
| align=left | {{NS}} ||34,747.2 ||35,013.4 ||35,549.3|| 36,075.4 || 36,518.2
|- align=right
| align=left | {{NL}} ||31,143.3 || 30,806.0 || 31,334.5|| 31,610.6 || 30,757.9
|- align=right
| align=left | {{YT}} || 2,510.9 ||2,320.2 ||2,482.5 || 2,554.5 || 2,626.1
|- align=right
| align=left | {{NT}} || 4,574.6 || 4,621.3 ||4,679.8 || 4,861.3 || 4,954.7
|- align=right
| align=left | {{flag|Nunavut}} || 2,363.6 || 2,353.0 || 2,434.3 || 2,685.3 || 2,955.0
|}
Source: Statistics Canada: GDP (totals),<ref name"statcan_20190907">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid3610040201|titleGross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by industry, provinces and territories (x 1,000,000) |workGovernment of Canada, Statistics |access-dateSeptember 7, 2019 |dateSeptember 7, 2019|number 36-10-0402-01 (formerly CANSIM 379-0030)}}</ref>
Economic geography
{{see also|Geography of Alberta|List of regions of Alberta}}
Alberta has a small internal market, and it is relatively distant from major world markets, despite good transportation links to the rest of Canada and to the United States to the south. Alberta is located in the northwestern quadrant of North America, in a region of low population density called the Interior Plains. Alberta is landlocked, and separated by a series of mountain ranges from the nearest outlets to the Pacific Ocean, and by the Canadian Shield from ports on the Lakehead or Hudson Bay. From these ports to major populations centres and markets in Europe or Asia is several thousands of kilometers. The largest population clusters of North America (the Boston&nbsp;– Washington, San Francisco - San Diego, Chicago&nbsp;– Pittsburgh, and Quebec City&nbsp;– Windsor Corridors) are all thousands of kilometers away from Alberta. Partly for this reason, Alberta has never developed a large presence in the industries that have traditionally started industrialization in other places (notably the original Industrial Revolution in Great Britain) but which require large labour forces, and large internal markets or easy transportation to export markets, namely textiles, metallurgy, or transportation-related manufacturing (automotives, ships, or train cars).
Agriculture has been a key industry since the 1870s. The climate is dry, temperate, and continental, with extreme variations between seasons. Productive soils are found in most of the southern half of the province (excluding the mountains), and in certain parts of the north. Agriculture on a large scale is practiced further north in Alberta than anywhere else in North America, extending into the Peace River country above the 55th parallel north. Generally, however, northern Alberta (and areas along the Alberta Rockies) is forested land and logging is more important than agriculture there. Agriculture is divided into primarily field crops in the east, livestock in the west, and a mixture in between and in the parkland belt in the near north.
Conventional oil and gas fields are found throughout the province on an axis running from the northwest to the southeast. Oil sands are found in the northeast, especially around Fort McMurray (the Athabasca Oil Sands).
Because of its (relatively) economically isolated location, Alberta relies heavily on transportation links with the rest of the world. Alberta's historical development has been largely influenced by the development of new transportation infrastructure, (see "trends" below). Alberta is now served by two major transcontinental railways (CN and CP), by three major highway connections to the Pacific (the Trans-Canada via Kicking Horse Pass, the Yellowhead via Yellowhead Pass and the Crowsnest via Crowsnest Pass), and one to the United States (Interstate 15), as well as two international airports (Calgary and Edmonton). Also, Alberta is connected to the TransCanada pipeline system (natural gas) to Eastern Canada, the Northern Border Pipeline (gas), Alliance Pipeline (gas) and Enbridge Pipeline System (oil) to the Eastern United States, the Gas Transmission Northwest and Northwest Pipeline (gas) to the Western United States, and the McNeill HVDC Back-to-back station (electric power) to Saskatchewan.
{{Economy of Canada}}
Economic regions and cities
Since the days of early agricultural settlement, the majority of Alberta's population has been concentrated in the parkland belt (mixed forest-grassland), a boomerang-shaped strip of land extending along the North Saskatchewan River from Lloydminster to Edmonton and then along the Rocky Mountain foothills south to Calgary. This area is slightly more humid and treed than the drier prairie (grassland) region called Palliser's Triangle to its south, and large areas of the south (the "Special Areas") were depopulated during the droughts of the 1920s and 30s. The chernozem (black soil) of the parkland region is more agriculturally productive than the red and grey soils to the south. Urban development has also been most advanced in the parkland belt. Edmonton and Red Deer are parkland cities, while Calgary is on the parkland-prairie fringe. Lethbridge and Medicine Hat are prairie cities. Grande Prairie lies in the Peace River Country a parkland region (with isolated patches of prairie, hence the name) in the northwest isolated from the rest of the parkland by the forested Swan Hills. Fort McMurray is the only urbanized population centre in the boreal forest which covers much of the northern half of the province.
Calgary and Edmonton
The Calgary and Edmonton regions, by far the province's two largest metropolitan regions, account for the majority of the province's population. They are relatively close to each other by the standards of Western Canada and distant from other metropolitan regions such as Vancouver or Winnipeg. This has produced a history of political and economic rivalry and comparison but also economic integration that has created an urbanized corridor between the two cities.
The economic profile of the two regions is slightly different. Both cities are mature service economies built on a base of resource extraction in their hinterlands. However, Calgary is predominant in hosting the regional and national headquarters of oil and gas exploration and drilling companies. Edmonton skews much more towards governments, universities and hospitals as large employers, while Edmonton's suburban fringes (e.g. Fort Saskatchewan, Nisku, Strathcona County (Refinery Row), Leduc, Beaumont, Acheson) are home to most of the province's manufacturing (much of it related to oil and gas).<ref name"edmontonjournal_Lamphier_20161210">{{cite news| last Lamphier| first Gary| newspaper Edmonton Journal |titleIt's a wrap, folks: thanks for a great run | access-date September 5, 2019| date December 10, 2016| url https://edmontonjournal.com/opinion/columnists/gary-lamphier-its-a-wrap-folks-thanks-for-a-great-run}}</ref>
Calgary-Edmonton Corridor
The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. Measured from north to south, the region covers a distance of roughly {{convert|400|km}}. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta's population).<ref name"CECorridor">{{cite web|urlhttp://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/Highlights/Page9/Page9d_e.cfm|titleCalgary-Edmonton corridor|workStatistics Canada, 2001 Census of Population|dateJanuary 20, 2003|access-dateMarch 22, 2007|archive-dateFebruary 23, 2007|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070223191204/http://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/Highlights/Page9/Page9d_e.cfm|url-statusdead}}</ref> It is also one of the fastest-growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor was the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S. level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian-style quality of life, offering universal health care benefits. The study found GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average U.S. metropolitan areas and 40% above other Canadian cities at that time.{{Citation needed|dateAugust 2008}}
Calgary–Edmonton rivalry
{{See also|Battle of Alberta}}
Seeing Calgary and Edmonton as part of a single economic region as the TD study did in 2003 was novel. The more traditional view had been to see the two cities as economic rivals. For example, in the 1980 both cities claimed to be the "Oil Capital of Canada".
Background
well, which blew in 1947, marked the beginning of series of petroleum-related economic booms.]]
{{See also|History of Alberta|History of the petroleum industry in Canada}}
Alberta has always been an export-oriented economy. In line with Harold Innis' "Staples Thesis", the economy has changed substantially as different export commodities have risen or fallen in importance. In sequence, the most important products have been: fur, wheat and beef, and oil and gas.
The development of transportation in Alberta has been crucial to its historical economic development. The North American fur trade relied on birch-bark canoes, York boats, and Red River carts on age-old Native trails and buffalo trails to move furs out of, and European trade goods into, the region. Immigration into the province was eased tremendously by the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway's transcontinental line across southern Alberta in 1880s. Commercial farming became viable in the area once the grain trade had developed technologies to handle the bulk export of grain, especially hopper cars and grain elevators. Oil and gas exports have been possible because of increasing pipeline technology.
Prior to the 1950s, Alberta was a primarily agricultural economy, based on the export of wheat, beef, and a few other agricultural products. The health of economy was closely bound up with the price of wheat.
In 1947 a major oil field was discovered near Edmonton. It was not the first petroleum find in Alberta, but it was large and spawned an industry that significantly altered the economy of the province (and coincided with growing American demand for energy). Since that time, Alberta's economic fortunes have largely tracked the price of oil, and increasingly natural gas prices. When oil prices spiked during the 1967 Oil Embargo, 1973 oil crisis, and 1979 energy crisis, Alberta's economy boomed. However, during the 1980s oil glut Alberta's economy suffered. Alberta boomed once again during the 2003-2008 oil price spike. In July 2008 the price of oil peaked and began to decline, and Alberta's economy soon followed suit, with unemployment doubling within a year. By 2009 with natural gas prices at a long-term low, Alberta's economy was in poor health compared to before, although still relatively better than many other comparable jurisdictions. By 2012 natural gas prices were at a ten-year low and the Canadian dollar was highly valued compared to the U.S. dollar, but then oil prices recovered until June 2014.
The spin-offs from petroleum allowed Alberta to develop many other industries. Oilpatch-related manufacturing is an obvious example, but financial services and government services have also benefited from oil money.
A comparison of the development of Alberta's less oil and gas-endowed neighbours, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, reveals the role petroleum has played. Alberta was the least-populous of the three Prairie Provinces in the early 20th century, but by 2009, Alberta's population was 3,632,483, approximately three times as much as either Saskatchewan (1,023,810) or Manitoba (1,213,815).
Employment
Alberta's economy is a highly developed one in which most people work in services such as healthcare, government, or retail.<ref>{{Cite web| title Job market trends and profiles |workAlberta| access-date September 9, 2019| date 2018| url https://www.alberta.ca/job-market-trends-profiles.aspx | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190909182248/https://www.alberta.ca/job-market-trends-profiles.aspx | url-status dead | archive-date September 9, 2019 }}</ref> Primary industries are also of great importance, however.
By March 2016 the unemployment rate in Alberta rose to 7.9%—<ref name"finance_alberta_2016_mar_11" /> its "highest level since April 1995 and the first time the province’s rate has surpassed the national average since December 1988."<ref name"finance_alberta_about_2016_mar_11">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.finance.alberta.ca/aboutalberta/at-a-glance/current-economy-indicators-at-a-glance.pdf | titleAlberta Economy: Indicators at a Glance | publisherTreasury Board and Finance Economics and Revenue Forecasting | dateMarch 11, 2016 | access-dateMarch 16, 2016 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160314172259/http://www.finance.alberta.ca/aboutalberta/at-a-glance/current-economy-indicators-at-a-glance.pdf | archive-dateMarch 14, 2016 | url-statusdead }}</ref> There were 21,200 fewer jobs than February 2015.<ref name"finance_alberta_2016_mar_11" /> The unemployment rate was expected to average 7.4% in 2016.<ref name"financealberta_2016_Feb">{{cite report | urlhttp://finance.alberta.ca/publications/budget/quarterly/2015/2015-16-3rd-Quarter-Fiscal-Update.pdf#page12 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://finance.alberta.ca/publications/budget/quarterly/2015/2015-16-3rd-Quarter-Fiscal-Update.pdf#page12 |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | title2015–16 Third Quarter Fiscal Update and Economic Statement | publisherDepartment of Finance, Government of Alberta | dateFebruary 2016 | access-dateMarch 16, 2016 |locationEdmonton, Alberta |pages15}}</ref>{{rp|13}} The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) claimed that Alberta lost 35,000 jobs in 2015–25,000 from the oil services sector and 10,000 from exploration and production.<ref name"huffington_2015">{{citation |titleAlberta Oilpatch Layoffs Total 35,000, Says CAPP |urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2015/09/02/alberta-oilpatch-layoffs_n_8078660.html |workThe Huffington Post|locationAlberta |firstMichelle |lastButterfield |dateSeptember 2, 2015 |access-dateMarch 16, 2016}}</ref> Full-time employment increased by 10,000 in February 2016 after falling 20,000 in both December 2015 and January 2016. The natural resources industry lost 7,400 jobs in February. "Year-over-year (y/y), the goods sector lost 56,000 jobs, while the services sector gained 34,800."<ref name"finance_alberta_2016_mar_11">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.finance.alberta.ca/aboutalberta/labour-market-notes/current-labour-market-notes.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.finance.alberta.ca/aboutalberta/labour-market-notes/current-labour-market-notes.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | titleLabour Market Notes Alberta: Reprieve in employment losses | publisherTreasury Board and Finance Economics and Revenue Forecasting | dateMarch 11, 2016 | access-dateMarch 16, 2016}}</ref> In 2015 Alberta's population increased by 3,900.<ref name"finance_alberta_2016_mar_11" /> While Alberta had a reprieve in job loss in February 2016—up 1,400 jobs after losing jobs in October, November, December 2015 and January 2016—Ontario lost 11,200 jobs, Saskatchewan lost 7,800 jobs and New Brunswick lost 5,700 jobs.<ref name"finance_alberta_2016_mar_11" />
The unemployment rate in spring 2019 in Alberta was 6.7% with 21,000 jobs added in April; in Calgary it was 7.4%, in Edmonton it was 6.9%, in Northern Alberta it was 11.2%, and in Southern Alberta it was 7.8%.<ref name"StatsCan"/> By July 2019, the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate had increased to 7.0%, which represented an increase of 0.3% from the previous year.<ref name"economicdashboard"/> The unemployment rate in Alberta peaked in November 2016 at 9.1%. Its lowest point in a ten-year period from July 2009 to July 2019 was in September 2013 at 4.3%.<ref name="economicdashboard"/>
By August 2019, the employment number in Alberta was 2,344,000, following the loss of 14,000 full-time jobs in July, which represented that the "largest decline" in Canada according to Statistics Canada.<ref name="edmontonjournal_Wyton_20190909"/>
Employment by industry, Alberta – seasonally adjusted (000s)<ref>{{cite report |titleAlberta Labour Force Statistics August, 2019|urlhttps://open.alberta.ca/dataset/b754ca87-2e9b-4a80-b7b2-2cfef8e53ff4/resource/77e98b8a-102a-43fd-819c-95a3d817acee/download/lbr-public-package-2019-08.pdf |dateAugust 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190909185839/https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/b754ca87-2e9b-4a80-b7b2-2cfef8e53ff4/resource/77e98b8a-102a-43fd-819c-95a3d817acee/download/lbr-public-package-2019-08.pdf |archive-date=September 9, 2019}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | Industries
! scope="col" | August 2019
! scope="col" | July 2019
! scope="col" | August 2018
|-
|All industries ||2,344.3 ||2,343.7 ||2,340.2
|-
|Goods-producing sector ||589.6 ||595.6 ||602.1
|-
|Agriculture ||49.9 ||50.7 ||48.5
|-
|Forestry, fishing, mining, oil and gas ||138.3 ||144.3 ||154.4
|-
|Utilities ||24.5 ||24.1 ||23.7
|-
|Construction ||241.9 ||242.1 ||246.5
|-
|Manufacturing ||134.9 ||134.5 ||129.0
|-
|Services-Producing Sector ||1,754.8 ||1,748.1 ||1,738.1
|-
|Trade ||339.3 ||340.0 ||337.1
|-
|Transportation and Warehousing ||139.4 ||140.0 ||138.3
|-
|Finance, Insurance, Real Estate and Leasing ||105.7 ||107.2 ||102.3
|-
|Professional, Scientific and Technical Services ||187.2 ||185.4 ||181.5
|-
|Business, Building and Other Support Services ||83.2 ||84.4 ||88.6
|-
|Educational Services ||157.2 ||157.7 ||160.7
|-
|Health Care and Social Assistance ||292.4 ||290.6 ||278.8
|-
|Information, Culture and Recreation ||79.0 ||74.3 ||78.7
|-
|Accommodation and Food Services ||140.4 ||136.7 ||146.6
|-
|Other Services ||115.1 ||118.2 ||116.7
|-
|Public Administration ||116.0 ||113.6 ||108.8
|}
Extraction industries
According to the Government of Alberta, the "mining and oil and gas extraction industry accounted for 6.1% of total employment in Alberta in 2017".<ref name"GovAB_2018">{{Cite journal |date2017 |titleIndustry Profiles 2018 Mining and Oil and Gas Extraction Industry |urlhttps://open.alberta.ca/dataset/f5a3586b-9fad-47a5-8741-e46cf5008d16/resource/9b026daf-1045-49bb-aad6-34996db59914/download/industry-profile-mining-oil-and-gas-extraction.pdf |journalAlberta Government |pages10}}</ref> By April 2019, there were about 145,100 people working directly with the oil and gas industry.<ref>{{Cite web| titleCanada lost 3,000 oil and gas jobs in April| workAlaska Highway News| access-date September 6, 2019| url https://www.alaskahighwaynews.ca/business/canada-lost-3-000-oil-and-gas-jobs-in-april-1.23821922}}</ref> In 2013, there were 171,200 people employed in the mining and oil and gas extraction industry.<ref name"occinfo_alis_alberta_2016">{{cite web |date2015 |titleMining and Oil and Gas Extraction |urlhttp://occinfo.alis.alberta.ca/occinfopreview/industries/mining-and-oil-and-gas-extraction.aspx |access-dateApril 16, 2022 |publisherOCCinfo: Occupations and Educational Programs |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150719050243/http://occinfo.alis.alberta.ca/occinfopreview/industries/mining-and-oil-and-gas-extraction.aspx |archive-date19 July 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
In 2007 there were 146,900 people working in the mining and oil and gas extraction industry.<ref name"AB_energy_jobs_2007">{{citation |urlhttp://www.energy.alberta.ca/About_Us/1527.asp |titleAbout us |workAlberta Energy |access-dateSeptember 24, 2009 |archive-dateJuly 6, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706164531/http://www.energy.alberta.ca/About_Us/1527.asp |url-statusdead }}</ref>
* Oil and Gas Extraction industry = 69,900
* Support Activities for Mining & Oil & Gas Extraction (primarily oil and gas exploration and drilling) = 71,700
* Mining other than oil and gas (mainly coal and mineral mining & quarrying) 5,100Largest employers of Alberta
According to Alberta Venture magazine's list of the 50 largest employers in the province, the largest employers are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Rank (2012)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://v250.albertaventure.com/largest-alberta-employers/?myyear2011 |titleAlberta Venture 100 Largest Employers 2012 |access-dateDecember 3, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120921075831/http://v250.albertaventure.com/largest-alberta-employers/?myyear2011 |archive-dateSeptember 21, 2012 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
! Rank (2010)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://v250.albertaventure.com/largest-alberta-employers/?myyear2009 |titleAlberta Venture 50 Largest Employers 2010 |access-dateDecember 3, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130729005107/http://v250.albertaventure.com/largest-alberta-employers/?myyear2009 |archive-dateJuly 29, 2013 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
! Rank (2007)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://v250.albertaventure.com/largest-alberta-employers/?myyear2006 |titleAlberta Venture 50 Largest Employers 2007 |access-dateDecember 3, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130729005729/http://v250.albertaventure.com/largest-alberta-employers/?myyear2006 |archive-dateJuly 29, 2013 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
! Employer
! Industry
! 2019 Employees (Total)
! 2012 Employees (Total)
! 2010 Employees (Total)
! 2007 Employees (Total)
! Head office
! Description
! Notes
|-
| 1
| 1
| *
| Alberta Health Services
| Healthcare
| 102,700<ref name"AHS_2019">{{citation |urlhttps://albertahealthservices.ca/about/about.aspx |workAlberta Health Services |titleAbout |access-date=September 9, 2019}}</ref>
| 99,400
| 92,200
| see note
| Edmonton
| Provincial public health authority
| Created in 2008 by merging nine separate provincial health authorities.
|-
| 2
| 2
| 4.
| Canada Safeway Limited
| Wholesale and Retail Trade
|
| 30,000
| 30,000
| 34,318
| Calgary
| Food and drug retailer
| subsidiary of Sobeys Inc. since 2014, before that subsidiary of American chain
|-
| 3
| 6
| n/a
| Agrium Inc.
| Agri-business
| 15,200 (2016)<ref>[https://business.financialpost.com/commodities/mining/potash-corp-and-agrium-agree-to-merge-to-create-global-agricultural-giant-worth-36-billion FP]</ref>
| 14,800
| 11,153
| n/a
| Calgary
| Wholesale producer, distributor and retailer of agricultural products and services in North and South America
| n/a = not listed in 2007
|-
| 4
| 7
| 8
| University of Alberta
| Education
|
| 14,500
| 10,800
| 11,000
| Edmonton
| Publicly funded accredited university
|
|-
| 5
| 4
| 29
| Canadian Pacific Railway
| Transportation
| 12,695
| 14,169
| 14,970
| 15,232
| Calgary
| Railway and inter-modal transportation services
|
|-
| 6
| 5
| 31
| Suncor Energy
| Petroleum Resource Industry
| ~12,500<ref>{{cite report |titleInvestor information Q1 2019 |dateMay 1, 2019 |publisher=Suncor }}</ref>
| 13,026
| 12,978
| 5,800
| Calgary
| Petroleum extraction, refining, and retail
| Merged with Petro-Canada in 2009
|-
| 7
| 9
| 35
| Shaw Communications
| Communications
|
| 12,500
| 10,000
| 8,985
| Calgary
| Provider of digital telecommunications services [cable television / internet / telephony] and community television production facilities
|
|-
| 8
| 8
| 15
| Flint Energy Services Ltd.
| Energy
|
| 11,211
| 10,280
| 6,169
| Calgary
| Energy / Construction
|
|-
| 9
| 11
| n/a
| Stantec Inc.
| Professional Services
|
| 11,100
| 9,300
| n/a
| Edmonton
| Architecture/Engineering/Construction
| n/a = not listed in 2007
|-
| 10
| 12
| 9
| Calgary Board of Education
| Public Education
| 14,000
| 9,106
| 9,278
| 10,972
| Calgary
| Municipal K-12 Public Education School Board
|
|}
Sectors
Oil and gas extraction industries
{{See also|Petroleum production in Canada|Natural gas in Canada}}
In 2018, Alberta's energy sector contributed over $71.5 billion to Canada's nominal gross domestic product.<ref name"NRCAN_20190907" /> In 2006, it accounted for 29.1% of Alberta's GDP;<ref name"GovAB_2018" />{{rp|3}} by 2012 it was 23.3%;<ref name"occinfo_alis_alberta_2016" /> in 2013, it was 24.6%,<ref name"GovAB_2017407" />{{rp|6}} and in 2016 it was 27.9%.<ref name"GovAB_2018" />{{rp|3}} According to Statistics Canada, in May 2018, the oil and gas extraction industry reached its highest proportion of Canada's national GDP since 1985, exceeding 7% and "surpass[ing] banking and insurance".<ref name"CBC_Fletcher_20180731" /> with extraction of non-conventional oil from the oilsands reaching an "impressive", all-time high in May 2018.<ref name"CBC_Fletcher_20180731" /> With conventional oil extraction "climbed up to the highs from 2007", the demand for Canadian oil was strong in May.<ref name"CBC_Fletcher_20180731" />
Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and gas products in the country. Alberta is the world's 2nd largest exporter of natural gas and the 4th largest producer.<ref>[http://www.gov.state.ak.us/trade/2003/tad/canada/canadaalberta.htm State of Alaska - Trade Report on Alberta] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061215031033/http://www.gov.state.ak.us/trade/2003/tad/canada/canadaalberta.htm |dateDecember 15, 2006 }}</ref> Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. Since the early 1940s, Alberta had supplied oil and gas to the rest of Canada and the United States. The Athabasca River region produces oil for internal and external use. The Athabasca Oil Sands contain the largest proven reserves of oil in the world outside Saudi Arabia.
The Athabasca Oil Sands (sometimes known as the Athabasca Tar sands) have estimated unconventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be {{convert|1.6|Toilbbl}}. With the development of new extraction methods such as steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), which was developed in Alberta, bitumen and synthetic crude oil can be produced at costs close to those of conventional crude. Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional in situ methods to extract the bitumen from the oil sands. With current technology and at current prices, about {{convert|315|Goilbbl}} of bitumen are recoverable. Fort McMurray, one of Canada's fastest growing cities, has grown enormously in recent years because of the large corporations which have taken on the task of oil production. As of late 2006 there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta.
Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands was the price of oil. The oil price increases since 2003 made it more than profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss.
Alberta's economy was negatively impacted by the 2015-2016 oil glut with a record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage,<ref name"Firzli"/> with global crude oil collapsing at near ten-year low prices.<ref name"G&M_Deloitte_2016"/><ref name"reuters_2016_Feb16"/><ref name"fortune_2016"/> The United States doubled its 2008 production levels mainly due to substantial improvements in shale "fracking" technology, OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling, and China experienced a marked slowdown in economic growth and crude oil imports.<ref name"G&M_Deloitte_2016"/><ref name"reuters_2016_Feb16"/><ref name"fortune_2016"/><ref name"NYT_2014">{{cite news |titleU.S. Oil Prices Fall Below $80 a Barrel |firstClifford |lastKrassnov |dateNovember 3, 2014 |access-dateDecember 13, 2014 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/04/business/energy-environment/us-oil-prices-fall-below-80-a-barrel.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/04/business/energy-environment/us-oil-prices-fall-below-80-a-barrel.html |archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 |url-accesslimited |newspaperThe New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref nameglut>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-04/opec-maintains-crude-production-as-group-defers-output-target-ihryzilb |titleOPEC Won't Cut Production to Stop Oil's Slump |publisherBloomberg News |date=December 4, 2015}}</ref>
Mining and Oil and Gas Extraction Industry (2017)<ref name"GOV_AB_Profile_Extraction_2018">{{cite report |seriesIndustry Profiles 2018 |titleMining and Oil and Gas Extraction Industry |urlhttps://work.alberta.ca/documents/industry-profile-mining-oil-and-gas-extraction.pdf |dateFebruary 2018 |isbn978-1-4601-3781-9 |issn2292-8960 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190909194936/https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/f5a3586b-9fad-47a5-8741-e46cf5008d16/resource/9b026daf-1045-49bb-aad6-34996db59914/download/industry-profile-mining-oil-and-gas-extraction.pdf |archive-date=September 9, 2019 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Alberta
!Mining and Oil and Gas Extraction Industry
|-
|Employment ||2,286,900 ||140,300
|-
|Employment Share ||N/A ||6.1%
|-
|Unemployment ||194,700 ||8,800
|-
|Unemployment rate ||7.8% ||5.9%
|}
*Data Source: Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey, CANSIM Table 282–0008, 2017 "Employment share is obtained by dividing the number of employment in this industry by total employment in Alberta."<ref name"GOV_AB_Profile_Extraction_2018"/>Natural gas
Natural gas has been found at several points, and in 1999, the production of natural gas liquids (ethane, propane, and butanes) totalled {{convert|172.8|Moilbbl}}, valued at $2.27 billion. Alberta also provides 13% of all the natural gas used in the United States.
Notable gas reserves were discovered in the 1883 near Medicine Hat.<ref>{{Cite web| title Accidental Industry - Natural Gas - Alberta's Energy Heritage| access-date September 9, 2019| url http://history.alberta.ca/energyheritage/gas/creation-of-an-industry/accidental-industry/default.aspx}}</ref><ref name"energy">{{citation |urlhttp://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/About_Us/984.asp |titleAlberta Energy: Energy Facts |url-statusdead |access-dateJune 21, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080329091022/http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/About_Us/984.asp |archive-dateMarch 29, 2008 }}</ref> The town of Medicine Hat began using gas for lighting the town, and supplying light and fuel for the people, and a number of industries using the gas for manufacturing.
One of North America's benchmarks is Alberta gas-trading price—the AECO "C" spot price.<ref name="GOV_AB_2019"/>
In 2018, 69% of the marketable natural gas in Canada was produced in Alberta.<ref name"NRCAN_20190908">{{Cite web| work NRCAN| title Natural gas facts| access-date September 9, 2019| date September 8, 2019| url https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/natural-gas-facts/20067| archive-date September 11, 2019| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190911190044/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/natural-gas-facts/20067| url-status dead}}</ref> Forty nine per cent of Alberta's natural gas production is consumed in Alberta.<ref name"GOV_AB_2019">{{Cite web| title Natural gas overview| access-date September 9, 2019| url https://www.alberta.ca/natural-gas-overview.aspx |workGovernment of Alberta}}</ref> In Alberta, the average household uses {{convert|135|GJ}} of natural gas annually.<ref>{{Citation| title Electricity and natural gas contracts | access-date September 9, 2019| url https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/2cda2fa1-21c4-45d8-8537-fae0c92de94a/resource/799a024e-4861-44f6-bb4d-d16cb63063b1/download/electricity-and-natural-gas-contracts.pdf |date2018}}</ref> Domestic demand for natural gas is divided across sectors, with the highest demand—83% coming from "industrial, electrical generation, transportation and other sectors," and 17 percent going towards residential and commercial sectors.<ref name="GOV_AB_2019"/>
Of the provinces, Alberta is the largest consumer of natural gas at 3.9 billion cubic feet per day.<ref name"NEB_20171207">{{cite web |titleNEB – Provincial and Territorial Energy Profiles – Canada |urlhttps://www.neb-one.gc.ca/nrg/ntgrtd/mrkt/nrgsstmprfls/cda-eng.html |websitewww.neb-one.gc.ca |publisherNational Energy Board - Government of Canada |dateDecember 7, 2017}}</ref>
By August 2019, the Financial Post said that "AECO daily and monthly natural gas prices" were at the lowest they have been since 1992.<ref name"FinPo_Morgan_20190809">{{Cite web| title Alberta natural gas producers struggle through worst prices in 26 years, but outlook is improving |workFinancial Post| access-date September 9, 2019| date August 9, 2018| url https://business.financialpost.com/commodities/energy/alberta-natural-gas-producers-struggle-through-worst-prices-in-26-years-but-outlook-is-improving |firstGeoffrey |lastMorgan}}</ref> Canada's largest natural gas producer, Canadian Natural Resources Ltd., announced in early August that it had "shut in gas production of 27,000 million cubic feet per day because of depressed prices.<ref name"FinPo_Morgan_20190809"/> Previously natural gas pipeline drilled in the southern Alberta and shipped to markets in Eastern Canada. By 2019, the entire natural gas industry had was primarily operating in northwestern Alberta and northeastern B.C., which resulted in strained infrastructure. New systems will not be complete until 2021 or 2023.<ref name"FinPo_Morgan_20190809"/> In September 25, 2017 Alberta's benchmark AECO natural gas prices fell into "negative territory – "meaning producers have had to pay customers to take their gas".<ref name"FinPo_Morgan_20171012">{{Cite web |firstGeoffrey |lastMorgan| title Natural gas prices are so bad in Alberta producers are having to pay customers to take it |workFinancial Post| access-date September 9, 2019| date October 12, 2017| url https://business.financialpost.com/commodities/canadian-natural-gas-prices-enter-negative-territory-amid-pipeline-outages}}</ref> It happened again in early October with the price per gigajoule dropping to -7 cents.<ref name"FinPo_Morgan_20171012"/> TransCanada (now TC Energy Corp)—which "owns and operates Alberta's "largest natural gas gathering and transmission system, interrupted its pipeline service in the fall of 2017 to complete field maintenance on the Alberta system.<ref name"FinPo_Morgan_20171012"/> In July 2018, RS Energy Group's energy analyst Samir Kayande, said that faced with a glut of natural gas across North America, the continental market price was $3 per gigajoule.<ref name"CBC_Edwardson_20190718">{{cite news| lastEdwardson| date July 18, 2019| firstLucie | title Energy analyst weighs in on Alberta natural gas producers seeking government intervention |work CBC News | access-date September 9, 2019| url https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/natural-gas-alberta-production-cuts-1.5215816}}</ref> Alberta is "awash" with natural gas but faces pipeline bottlenecks.<ref name"CBC_Edwardson_20190718"/> CEOs of nine Alberta natural gas producers requested the Kenney government to mandate production cuts to deal with the crisis.<ref name"CBC_Edwardson_20190718"/> On June 30, the AECO price of gas dropped to 11 cents per gigajoule, because of maintenance issues with the pipeline giant TC Energy Corp.<ref name"FinPo_20190716">{{cite news| title Alberta natural gas producers propose limiting production in exchange for royalty credits |workFinancial Post| access-date September 9, 2019| date July 16, 2019| url https://business.financialpost.com/commodities/energy/alberta-natural-gas-producers-propose-limiting-production-in-exchange-for-royalty-credits}}</ref>
In 2003 Alberta produced {{convert|4.97|Tcuft}} of marketable natural gas.<ref nameGOV_AB_2004>{{citation |workGovernment of Alberta |urlhttp://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/docs/aboutus/pdfs/Alberta_Energy_Overview.pdf |titleEnergy Overview |date2004 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061004154020/http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/docs/aboutus/pdfs/Alberta_Energy_Overview.pdf |archive-dateOctober 4, 2006 }}</ref> That year, 62% of Alberta's natural gas was shipped to the United States, 24% was used within Alberta, and 14% was used in the rest of Canada.<ref nameGOV_AB_2004/> In 2006, Alberta consumed {{convert|1.45|Tcuft}} of natural gas. The rest was exported across Canada and to the United States.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2019}} Royalties to Alberta from natural gas and its byproducts are larger than royalties from crude oil and bitumen.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2019}} In 2006, there were 13,473 successful natural gas wells drilled in Alberta: 12,029 conventional gas wells and 1,444 coalbed methane wells.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2019}} There may be up to {{convert|500|Tcuft}} of coalbed methane in Alberta, although it is unknown how much of this gas might be recoverable.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2019}} Alberta has one of the most extensive natural gas systems in the world as part of its energy infrastructure, with {{convert|39000|km}} of energy related pipelines.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2019}}Coal
.]]
{{See also|Coal in Alberta}}
Coal has been mined in Alberta since the late 19th century. Over 1800 mines have operated in Alberta since then.<ref name="energy" />
The coal industry was vital to the early development of several communities, especially those in the foothills and along deep river valleys where coal was close to the surface.
Alberta is still a major coal producer, every two weeks Alberta produces enough coal to fill the Sky Dome in Toronto.<ref name="energy" />
Much of that coal is burned in Alberta for electricity generation. By 2008, Alberta used over 25 million tonnes of coal annually to generate electricity.<ref name"energy" /> However, Alberta is set to retire coal power by 2023, ahead of 2030 provincial deadline.<ref>{{cite news |last1Healing |first1Dan |titleAlberta set to retire coal power by 2023, ahead of 2030 provincial deadline |urlhttps://globalnews.ca/news/7502144/alberta-coal-power-ahead-of-schedule/ |agencyCanadian Press |publisherGlobal News |dateDecember 4, 2020}}</ref>
Alberta has vast coal resources and 70 per cent of Canada's coal reserves are located in Alberta. This amounts to 33.6 Gigatonnes.<ref name="energy" />
Vast beds of coal are found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the Cretaceous beds, and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures in England is of excellent quality{{Citation needed|dateJune 2008}}. In the valley of the Bow River, alongside the Canadian Pacific Railway, valuable beds of anthracite coal are still worked. The usual coal deposits of the area of bituminous or semi-bituminous coal. These are largely worked at Lethbridge in southern Alberta and Edmonton in the centre of the province. Many other parts of the province have pits for private use.Electricity
{{See also|Electricity policy of Alberta}}
{{As of|2016|6}}, Alberta's generating capacity was 16,261&nbsp;MW,<ref name"energy.alberta.ca">{{cite web| url http://www.energy.alberta.ca/electricity/682.asp| title Energy| access-date November 7, 2016| archive-date August 26, 2010| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100826084312/http://www.energy.alberta.ca/Electricity/682.asp| url-status dead}}</ref> and Alberta has about {{convert|26000|km|-2}} of transmission lines.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.aeso.ca/grid/about-the-grid/| title = About the grid » AESO}}</ref>
Alberta has 1491 megawatts of wind power capacity.<ref name="energy.alberta.ca"/>
Production of electricity in Alberta in 2016 by source:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Generation !! GWh !! Share by Fuel
|-
| Coal || 42,227 || 50.2%
|-
| Natural Gas || 33,184 || 39.4%
|-
| Hydro || 1,773 || 2.1%
|-
| Wind || 4,408 || 5.2%
|-
| Biomass || 2,201 || 2.6%
|-
| Others || 338 || 0.4%
|-
| Total || 84,132 || 100%
|}
Alberta has added 9,000 MW of new supply since 1998.<ref name="energy.alberta.ca"/>
Peak for power use in one day was set on July 9, 2015&nbsp;– 10,520&nbsp;MW.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/power-consumption-record-set-as-temperature-soars-in-alberta-1.3145637| title Power consumption record set as temperature soars in Alberta {{!}} CBC News}}</ref>
Mineral mining
Building stones mined in Alberta include Rundle stone, and Paskapoo sandstone.
Diamonds were first found in Alberta in 1958, and many stones have been found since, although to date no large-scale mines have been developed.<ref name"energy" />Manufacturing
The Edmonton area, and in particular Nisku is a major centre for manufacturing oil and gas related equipment. As well Edmonton's Refinery Row is home to a petrochemical industry.
According to a 2016 Statistics Canada report Alberta's manufacturing sales year-over-year sales fell 13.2 per cent, with a loss of almost four per cent from December to January. Alberta's economy continued to shrink because of the collapse of the oil and gas sector. The petroleum and coal product manufacturing industry is now third— behind food and chemicals.<ref name"CBC_manufacturing_2016">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.cbc.ca/news/alberta-manufacturing-sales-1.3493988 | titleAlberta manufacturing sales plunge 13% in year as most provinces see upswing StatsCan says sales rose in 16 of 21 industries across Canada while Alberta saw 4% drop last month | publisherCBC | dateMarch 16, 2016 | access-dateMarch 16, 2016 | authorGibson, John}}</ref>BiotechnologySeveral companies and services in the biotech sector are clustered around the University of Alberta, for example ColdFX.Food processingOwing to the strength of agriculture, food processing was once a major part of the economies of Edmonton and Calgary, but this sector has increasingly moved to smaller centres such as Brooks, the home of XL Foods, responsible for one third of Canada's beef processing in 2011.Transportation
, in Calgary.]]
Edmonton is a major distribution centre for northern communities, hence the nickname "Gateway to the North". Edmonton is one of CN Rail's most important hubs. Since 1996, Canadian Pacific Railway has its headquarters in downtown Calgary.
WestJet, Canada's second largest air carrier, is headquartered in Calgary, by Calgary International Airport, which serves as the airline's primary hub.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120707101103/http://c3dsp.westjet.com/guest/contacts/contactUs.jsp;jsessionidg7RhKJ4H9Rvpn1VJBLFv4GZpJFpLFY1THj2vRHZJPSdwKyRB1mPG!-1091378010 Contact Us]. WestJet. Retrieved on May 20, 2009.</ref> Prior to its dissolution, Canadian Airlines was headquartered in Calgary by the airport.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.cdnair.ca/eng/corp/01corp/index.html |titleInvestor & Financial Information |url-statusdeviated |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20000303181624/http://www.cdnair.ca/eng/corp/01corp/index.html |archive-dateMarch 3, 2000 }}. Canadian Airlines. March 3, 2000. Retrieved on May 20, 2009.</ref> Prior to its dissolution, Air Canada subsidiary Zip was headquartered in Calgary.<ref>Pigg, Susan. "[https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/421016591.html?dids421016591:421016591&FMTABS&FMTSABS:FT&typecurrent&dateJan+22%2C+2003&authorSusan+Pigg&pubToronto+Star&descZip%2C+WestJet+in+fare+war+that+could+hurt+them+both+%3B+Move+follows+competition+bureau+ruling+Battle+could+intensify+when+Zip+flies+eastward&pqatlgoogle Zip, WestJet in fare war that could hurt them both; Move follows competition bureau ruling Battle could intensify when Zip flies eastward] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130207091041/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/421016591.html?dids421016591:421016591&FMTABS&FMTSABS:FT&typecurrent&dateJan+22%2C+2003&authorSusan+Pigg&pubToronto+Star&descZip%2C+WestJet+in+fare+war+that+could+hurt+them+both+%3B+Move+follows+competition+bureau+ruling+Battle+could+intensify+when+Zip+flies+eastward&pqatlgoogle |dateFebruary 7, 2013 }}." Toronto Star. January 22, 2003. Business C01. Retrieved on September 30, 2009.</ref>
Agriculture and forestry
]]
Agriculture
{{See also|Agriculture in Canada}}
In the past, cattle, horses, and sheep were reared in the southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. Currently Alberta produces cattle valued at over $3.3 billion, as well as other livestock in lesser quantities. In this region irrigation is widely used. Wheat, accounting for almost half of the $2 billion agricultural economy, is supplemented by canola,<ref name"Canola" /> barley, rye, sugar beets, and other mixed farming. In 2011, Alberta producers seeded an estimated total of {{convert|17900000000|acres|e9ha sqmi|abbroff}} to spring wheat, durum, barley, oats, mixed grains, triticale, canola and dry peas. Of the total seeded area, 94 per cent was harvested as grains and oilseeds and six per cent as greenfeed and silage.<ref>{{citation |urlhttp://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/sdd14009 |titleAlberta 2011 Greenfeed and Silage Production Survey Results |date2011 |workDepartment of Agriculture, Government of Alberta}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is a major export target especially for wheat and processed potato products. SA having decided to phase out their own forage and cereal production, Alberta expects this to be an opportunity to fill livestock feed demand in the kingdom.<ref name"SA-Alberta">{{cite web | titleSaudi Arabia {{ndash}} Alberta Relations | date2016 | urlhttp://open.alberta.ca/dataset/64be57f1-fa85-4e10-bd38-ca98564535a3/resource/7c281e43-7fc8-4239-a77a-ea49650a41bc/download/saudiarabia-ab.pdf | author=Alberta Ministry of Economic Development and Trade}}</ref>
Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. Over three million cattle are residents of the province at one time or another,<ref>{{citation |urlhttp://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/rsb11006 |titleAlberta Livestock Inspections |dateAugust 2006 |workDepartment of Agriculture, Government of Alberta |access-dateNovember 5, 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815131438/http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/rsb11006 |archive-dateAugust 15, 2011 |url-statusdead }}</ref> and Albertan beef has a healthy worldwide market. Although beef could also be a major export to Saudi Arabia, as with wheat and potatoes above, market access is lacking at the moment.<ref name="SA-Alberta" /> Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the prime producers of plains buffalo (bison) for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and lamb are also raised.
Wheat and canola are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production, with other grains also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points.
Clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae) is a costly disease of Brassicaceae here including canola.<ref name"Canola" /> In several experiments by Peng et al., out of fungicides, biofungicides, inoculation with beneficial microbes, cultivar resistance, and crop rotation, only genetic resistance combined with more than two years rotation worked {{endash}} susceptible cultivars rotated with other crops did not produce enough improvement.<ref name"Canola">
{{Unbulleted list citebundle
|{{*}} {{cite journal | date2014 | volume36 | issuesup1 | publisherTaylor & Francis (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada) | journalCanadian Journal of Plant Pathology | issn0706-0661 | last1Peng | first1Gary | last2Lahlali | first2Rachid | last3Hwang | first3Sheau-Fang | last4Pageau | first4Denis | last5Hynes | first5Russell K. | last6McDonald | first6Mary Ruth | last7Gossen | first7Bruce D. | last8Strelkov | first8Stephen E. | titleCrop rotation, cultivar resistance, and fungicides/biofungicides for managing clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae) on canola | doi10.1080/07060661.2013.860398 | pages99–112 | bibcode2014CaJPP..36S..99P | s2cid=85013123}}
|{{*}} {{cite journal | date2014 | volume36 | issuesup1 | publisherTaylor & Francis (Canadian Phytopathological Society) | journalCanadian Journal of Plant Pathology | issn0706-0661 | last1Hwang | first1S.-F. | last2Howard | first2R. J. | last3Strelkov | first3S. E. | last4Gossen | first4B. D. | last5Peng | first5G. | titleManagement of clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae) on canola (Brassica napus) in western Canada | doi10.1080/07060661.2013.863806 | pages49–65 | bibcode2014CaJPP..36S..49H | s2cid=85393051}}
|{{*}} {{cite journal | year2018 | volume101 | publisherElsevier (European Society for Agronomy) | last1Hegewald | journalEuropean Journal of Agronomy | issn1161-0301 | first1Hannes | last2Wensch-Dorendorf | first2Monika | last3Sieling | first3Klaus | last4Christen | first4Olaf | titleImpacts of break crops and crop rotations on oilseed rape productivity: A review | doi10.1016/j.eja.2018.08.003 | pages63–77 | bibcode2018EuJAg.101...63H | s2cid92683017}}
|{{*}} {{cite journal | issue1 | date2018 | volume9 | publisherTaylor & Francis | journalVirulence | issn2150-5594 | last1Pérez-López | first1Edel | last2Waldner | first2Matthew | last3Hossain | first3Musharaf | last4Kusalik | first4Anthony J. | last5Wei | first5Yangdou | last6Bonham-Smith | first6Peta C. | last7Todd | first7Christopher D. | titleIdentification of Plasmodiophora brassicae effectors — A challenging goal | doi10.1080/21505594.2018.1504560 | pages1344–1353 | pmid30146948 | pmc6177251 | s2cid52090181}}
|{{*}} {{cite journal | publisherTaylor & Francis (Canadian Phytopathological Society) | journalCanadian Journal of Plant Pathology | last1Gossen | first1Bruce D. | last2Carisse | first2Odile | last3Kawchuk | first3Lawrence M. | last4Van Der Heyden | first4Hervé | last5McDonald | first5Mary Ruth | titleRecent changes in fungicide use and the fungicide insensitivity of plant pathogens in Canada | volume36 | issue3 | date2014-07-03 | issn0706-0661 | doi10.1080/07060661.2014.925506 | pages327–340 | bibcode2014CaJPP..36..327G | s2cid=85040709}}
}}
</ref>
Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the Peace River valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed. Hybrid canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need.
Forestry
{{see also|Pulp and paper industry in Canada|Alberta Forest Products Association}}
The vast northern forest reserves of softwood allow Alberta to produce large quantities of lumber, oriented strand board (OSB) and plywood, and several plants in northern Alberta supply North America and the Pacific Rim nations with bleached wood pulp and newsprint.
In 1999, lumber products from Alberta were valued at $4.1 billion of which 72% were exported around the world. Since forests cover approximately 59% of the province's land area, the government allows about {{convert|23.3|e6m3}} to be harvested annually from the forests on public lands.
Services
Despite the high profile of the extractive industries, Alberta has a mature economy and most people work in services. In 2014 there were 1,635.8 thousand people employed in the services-producing sector. Since then, the number has steadily increased to 1754.8 thousand jobs by August 2019, which is an increase of 16.7 thousand jobs from August 2018<ref name"statcan_2016_services">{{cite web|urlhttps://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid1410035501|titleEmployment by industry, monthly, seasonally adjusted (x 1,000)|dateJune 27, 2018 |publisherStatistics Canada|access-dateSeptember 26, 2019}}</ref> This includes wholesale and retail trade; transportation and warehousing; finance, insurance, real estate, rental and leasing; professional, scientific and technical services; business, building and other support services; educational services; health care and social assistance; information, culture and recreation; accommodation and food services; other services (except public administration) and public administration.<ref name"statcan_2016_services" />
Finance
The TSX Venture Exchange is headquartered in Calgary. The city has the second highest number of corporate head offices in Canada after Toronto, and the financial services industry in Calgary has developed to support them. All major banks including the Big Five maintain corporate offices in Calgary, along with smaller banks such as Equitable Group. Recently there has also been a number of fintech companies founded in Calgary such as the National Digital Asset Exchange and Neo Financial, founded by the Skip-the-Dishes team.<ref>{{Cite web|titleNeo Financial|urlhttps://www.neofinancial.com/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|lastStephenson|firstAmanda|titleCalgary companies breaking ground in hot fintech sector|workCalgary Herald|url=https://calgaryherald.com/business/local-business/calgary-companies-breaking-ground-in-hot-fintech-sector}}</ref>
One of Canada's largest accounting firms, MNP LLP, is also headquartered in Calgary.<ref>{{cite web |titleHead Office |urlhttps://www.mnp.ca/en/offices/head-office |websiteMNP LLP |access-dateMarch 12, 2022}}</ref>
Edmonton hosts the headquarters of the only major Canadian banks west of Toronto: Canadian Western Bank, and ATB Financial, as well as the only province-wide credit union, Servus Credit Union.
Government
Despite Alberta's reputation as a "small government" province, many health care and education professionals are lured to Alberta from other provinces by the higher wages the Alberta government is able to offer because of oil revenues. In 2014 the median household income in Alberta was $100,000 with the average weekly wage at $1,163—23 per cent higher than the Canadian national average.<ref name"CBC_2015_wages">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.cbc.ca/news/business/alberta-wages-almost-25-higher-than-canadian-average-1.2981768 | titleAlberta wages almost 25% higher than Canadian average: Economists, politicians and business leaders seek ways to bring wages down | publisherCBC | dateMarch 5, 2015 | access-dateMarch 16, 2016 | author=Johnson, Tracy}}</ref>
In their May 2018 report co-authored by C. D. Howe Institute's President and CEO, William B.P. Robson, evaluating "the budgets, estimates and public accounts" of 2017/18 fiscal year that were tabled by senior governments in the Canadian provinces and the federal government in terms of reporting financial information, appropriately, with transparency, and in a timely fashion, Alberta and New Brunswick ranked highest.<ref name"cdhowe_20180501">{{cite report |urlhttps://www.cdhowe.org/sites/default/files/attachments/research_papers/mixed/Commentary_511.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cdhowe.org/sites/default/files/attachments/research_papers/mixed/Commentary_511.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |dateMay 1, 2018 |titleThe Numbers Game: Rating the Fiscal Accountability of Canada's Senior Governments|publisherC. D. Howe Institute |locationToronto, Ontario |pages24 |seriescommentary |number511 |first1William B.P. |last1Robson |first2Farah |last2Omran |isbn978-1-987983-66-1 |issn 1703-0765}}</ref>{{rp|1}} The report also said that, prior to 2016, Alberta had scored poorly in comparison with other provinces, because of "confusing array of "operating," "saving" and "capital" accounts that were not Public Sector Accounting Standards (PSAS) consistent."<ref name"cdhowe_20180501"/>{{rp|12}} but since 2016, Alberta has received A-plus grades.<ref name"cdhowe_20180501"/>{{rp|12}} The report said that Alberta and New Brunswick in FY2017 provided "straightforward reconciliations of results with budget intentions, their auditors record no reservations, and their budgets and public accounts are timely."<ref name"cdhowe_20180501"/>{{rp|12}}TechnologyAlberta has a burgeoning high tech sector, including prominent technology companies iStockPhoto, Shareworks, Benevity, and Attabotics in Calgary, and Bioware and AltaML in Edmonton.<ref>{{cite news |lastLegge |firstAdam |titleOpinion: To stimulate innovation and growth in Alberta, we need the A-Prize |urlhttps://calgaryherald.com/opinion/columnists/opinion-to-stimulate-innovation-and-growth-in-alberta-we-need-the-a-prize |newspaperCalgary Herald |dateJanuary 13, 2020 |access-dateFebruary 15, 2020}}</ref> Growth in Calgary's technology sector, particularly at Benevity, fueled predictions of a modest economic recovery in February 2020.<ref name"Varcoe">{{cite news |titleVarcoe: 'It's a little bit of a comeback story' as modest economic recovery expected in 2020 |urlhttps://calgaryherald.com/opinion/columnists/varcoe-new-year-will-ring-in-renewed-optimism-for-alberta-economy |lastVarcoe |firstChris |newspaperCalgary Herald |dateDecember 20, 2019 |access-dateFebruary 15, 2020}}</ref>
See also
* Economy of Canada
* Energy policy of Canada
* Economy of Lethbridge
* Canadian Oil Patch, for the petroleum industry
* History of the petroleum industry in Canada
* Canada's Global Markets Action Plan
* Free trade agreements of Canada
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-73-378/politics_economy/alberta_oil/ CBC Digital Archives - Striking Oil in Alberta]
{{Canada topic|Economy of}}
{{Topics on Alberta}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Economy Of Alberta}}
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Alberta
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.570703
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1842
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Augustin-Louis Cauchy
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{{Short description|French mathematician (1789–1857)}}
{{Redirect|Cauchy}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Augustin-Louis Cauchy
| image = Augustin-Louis Cauchy 1901.jpg
| caption = Cauchy around 1840. Lithography by Zéphirin Belliard after a painting by Jean Roller.
| birth_date {{Birth date|1789|8|21|dfy}}
| birth_place = Paris, France
| death_date {{Death date and age|1857|5|23|1789|8|21|dfy}}
| death_place = Sceaux, France
| residence | nationality French
| alma_mater = École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées
| doctoral_advisor = <!-- there were no PhDs in France before 1808 -->
| doctoral_students = Francesco Faà di Bruno<br/>Viktor Bunyakovsky
| known_for = Civil engineering <br>Mathematical analysis<br/>Gradient descent<br/>Implicit function theorem<br>Intermediate value theorem<br>Spectral theorem<br/>Limit (mathematics)<br/>See full list
| awards = Grand Prize of L'Académie Royale des Sciences
| footnotes | spouse Aloise de Bure
| children = Marie Françoise Alicia, Marie Mathilde
| field = Mathematics, physics
| work_institutions = École Centrale du Panthéon <br/>École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées <br/> École Polytechnique
| prizes =
}}
Baron Augustin-Louis Cauchy {{postnom|FRS|FRSE}} ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|k|oʊ|ʃ|i}} {{Respell|KOH|shee}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|aʊ|ʃ|i|_}} {{Respell|KOW|shee}},<ref>{{cite EPD|16|Cauchy|page59}}</ref><ref namecollins>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/cauchy |titleCauchy |workCollins English Dictionary |publisherHarperCollins |access-date3 August 2023}}</ref> {{nobr|{{IPAc-en|US|k|oʊ|ˈ|ʃ|iː|_}}}} {{Respell|koh|SHEE}};<ref namecollins/><ref>{{cite dictionary |titleCauchy |dictionaryRandom House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary |urlhttp://www.dictionary.com/browse/cauchy |viadictionary.com}}</ref> {{IPA|fr|oɡystɛ̃ lwi koʃi|lang}}; 21&nbsp;August 1789 – 23&nbsp;May 1857) was a French mathematician, engineer, and physicist. He was one of the first to rigorously state and prove the key theorems of calculus (thereby creating real analysis), pioneered the field complex analysis, and the study of permutation groups in abstract algebra. Cauchy also contributed to a number of topics in mathematical physics, notably continuum mechanics.
A profound mathematician, Cauchy had a great influence over his contemporaries and successors;{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Hans Freudenthal stated:
: "More concepts and theorems have been named for Cauchy than for any other mathematician (in elasticity alone there are sixteen concepts and theorems named for Cauchy)."{{sfn|Freudenthal|2008}}
Cauchy was a prolific worker; he wrote approximately eight hundred research articles and five complete textbooks on a variety of topics in the fields of mathematics and mathematical physics.
Biography
Youth and education
Cauchy was the son of Louis François Cauchy (1760–1848) and Marie-Madeleine Desestre. Cauchy had two brothers: Alexandre Laurent Cauchy (1792–1857), who became a president of a division of the court of appeal in 1847 and a judge of the court of cassation in 1849, and Eugene François Cauchy (1802–1877), a publicist who also wrote several mathematical works. From his childhood he was good at math.
Cauchy married Aloise de Bure in 1818. She was a close relative of the publisher who published most of Cauchy's works. They had two daughters, Marie Françoise Alicia (1819) and Marie Mathilde (1823).
Cauchy's father was a highly ranked official in the Parisian police of the
Ancien Régime, but lost this position due to the French Revolution (14&nbsp;July 1789), which broke out one month before Augustin-Louis was born.{{efn|His father's dismissal is sometimes seen as the cause of the deep hatred of the French Revolution that Cauchy felt all through his life.}} The Cauchy family survived the revolution and the following Reign of Terror during 1793–94 by escaping to Arcueil, where Cauchy received his first education, from his father.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p66}} After the execution of Robespierre in 1794, it was safe for the family to return to Paris. There, Louis-François Cauchy found a bureaucratic job in 1800,{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|pp65–66}} and quickly advanced his career. When Napoleon came to power in 1799, Louis-François Cauchy was further promoted, and became Secretary-General of the Senate, working directly under Laplace (who is now better known for his work on mathematical physics). The mathematician Lagrange was also a friend of the Cauchy family.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
On Lagrange's advice, Augustin-Louis was enrolled in the École Centrale du Panthéon, the best secondary school of Paris at that time, in the fall of 1802.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p=66}} Most of the curriculum consisted of classical languages; the ambitious Cauchy, being a brilliant student, won many prizes in Latin and the humanities. In spite of these successes, Cauchy chose an engineering career, and prepared himself for the entrance examination to the École Polytechnique.
In 1805, he placed second of 293 applicants on this exam and was admitted.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p66}} One of the main purposes of this school was to give future civil and military engineers a high-level scientific and mathematical education. The school functioned under military discipline, which caused Cauchy some problems in adapting. Nevertheless, he completed the course in 1807, at age&nbsp;18, and went on to the École des Ponts et Chaussées (School for Bridges and Roads). He graduated in civil engineering, with the highest honors.Engineering daysAfter finishing school in 1810, Cauchy accepted a job as a junior engineer in Cherbourg, where Napoleon intended to build a naval base. Here Cauchy stayed for three years, and was assigned the Ourcq Canal project and the Saint-Cloud Bridge project, and worked at the Harbor of Cherbourg.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p66}} Although he had an extremely busy managerial job, he still found time to prepare three mathematical manuscripts, which he submitted to the Première Classe (First Class) of the Institut de France.{{efn|In the revolutionary years the French Académie des Sciences was known as the "First Class" of the Institut de France.}} Cauchy's first two manuscripts (on polyhedra) were accepted; the third one (on directrices of conic sections) was rejected.
In September 1812, at 23 years old, Cauchy returned to Paris after becoming ill from overwork.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p66}} Another reason for his return to the capital was that he was losing interest in his engineering job, being more and more attracted to the abstract beauty of mathematics; in Paris, he would have a much better chance to find a mathematics related position. When his health improved in 1813, Cauchy chose not to return to Cherbourg.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p66}} Although he formally kept his engineering position, he was transferred from the payroll of the Ministry of the Marine to the Ministry of the Interior. The next three years Cauchy was mainly on unpaid sick leave; he spent his time fruitfully, working on mathematics (on the related topics of symmetric functions, the symmetric group and the theory of higher-order algebraic equations). He attempted admission to the First Class of the Institut de France but failed on three different occasions between 1813 and 1815. In 1815 Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo, and the newly installed king Louis XVIII took the restoration in hand. The Académie des Sciences was re-established in March 1816; Lazare Carnot and Gaspard Monge were removed from this academy for political reasons, and the king appointed Cauchy to take the place of one of them. The reaction of Cauchy's peers was harsh; they considered the acceptance of his membership in the academy an outrage, and Cauchy created many enemies in scientific circles.
Professor at École Polytechnique
In November 1815, Louis Poinsot, who was an associate professor at the École Polytechnique, asked to be exempted from his teaching duties for health reasons. Cauchy was by then a rising mathematical star. One of his great successes at that time was the proof of Fermat's polygonal number theorem. He quit his engineering job, and received a one-year contract for teaching mathematics to second-year students of the École Polytechnique. In 1816, this Bonapartist, non-religious school was reorganized, and several liberal professors were fired; Cauchy was promoted to full professor.
When Cauchy was 28 years old, he was still living with his parents. His father found it time for his son to marry; he found him a suitable bride, Aloïse de Bure, five years his junior. The de Bure family were printers and booksellers, and published most of Cauchy's works.{{sfn|Bradley | Sandifer|2010| p9}} Aloïse and Augustin were married on April 4, 1818, with great Roman Catholic ceremony, in the Church of Saint-Sulpice. In 1819 the couple's first daughter, Marie Françoise Alicia, was born, and in 1823 the second and last daughter, Marie Mathilde.{{sfn|Belhoste|1991|p134}}
The conservative political climate that lasted until 1830 suited Cauchy perfectly. In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by his even more conservative brother Charles X. During these years Cauchy was highly productive, and published one important mathematical treatise after another. He received cross-appointments at the Collège de France, and the {{Interlanguage link|Faculté des sciences de Paris|fr}}.
In exile
In July 1830, the July Revolution occurred in France. Charles X fled the country, and was succeeded by Louis-Philippe. Riots, in which uniformed students of the École Polytechnique took an active part, raged close to Cauchy's home in Paris.
These events marked a turning point in Cauchy's life, and a break in his mathematical productivity. Shaken by the fall of the government and moved by a deep hatred of the liberals who were taking power, Cauchy left France to go abroad, leaving his family behind.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p67}} He spent a short time at Fribourg in Switzerland, where he had to decide whether he would swear a required oath of allegiance to the new regime. He refused to do this, and consequently lost all his positions in Paris, except his membership of the academy, for which an oath was not required. In 1831 Cauchy went to the Italian city of Turin, and after some time there, he accepted an offer from the King of Sardinia (who ruled Turin and the surrounding Piedmont region) for a chair of theoretical physics, which was created especially for him. He taught in Turin during 1832–1833. In 1831, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the following year a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.<ref nameAAAS>{{cite web|titleBook of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter C|urlhttp://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterC.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterC.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|publisherAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref>
In August 1833 Cauchy left Turin for Prague to become the science tutor of the thirteen-year-old Duke of Bordeaux, Henri d'Artois (1820–1883), the exiled Crown Prince and grandson of Charles X.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p68}} As a professor of the École Polytechnique, Cauchy had been a notoriously bad lecturer, assuming levels of understanding that only a few of his best students could reach, and cramming his allotted time with too much material. Henri d'Artois had neither taste nor talent for either mathematics or science. Although Cauchy took his mission very seriously, he did this with great clumsiness, and with surprising lack of authority over Henri d'Artois. During his civil engineering days, Cauchy once had been briefly in charge of repairing a few of the Parisian sewers, and he made the mistake of mentioning this to his pupil; with great malice, Henri d'Artois went about saying Cauchy started his career in the sewers of Paris. Cauchy's role as tutor lasted until Henri d'Artois became eighteen years old, in September 1838.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p67}} Cauchy did hardly any research during those five years, while Henri d'Artois acquired a lifelong dislike of mathematics. Cauchy was named a baron, a title by which Cauchy set great store.
In 1834, his wife and two daughters moved to Prague, and Cauchy was reunited with his family after four years in exile.
Last years
Cauchy returned to Paris and his position at the Academy of Sciences late in 1838.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p=67}} He could not regain his teaching positions, because he still refused to swear an oath of allegiance.
In August 1839 a vacancy appeared in the Bureau des Longitudes. This Bureau bore some resemblance to the academy; for instance, it had the right to co-opt its members. Further, it was believed that members of the Bureau could "forget about" the oath of allegiance, although formally, unlike the Academicians, they were obliged to take it. The Bureau des Longitudes was an organization founded in 1795 to solve the problem of determining position at sea — mainly the longitudinal coordinate, since latitude is easily determined from the position of the sun. Since it was thought that position at sea was best determined by astronomical observations, the Bureau had developed into an organization resembling an academy of astronomical sciences.
In November 1839 Cauchy was elected to the Bureau, and discovered that the matter of the oath was not so easily dispensed with. Without his oath, the king refused to approve his election. For four years Cauchy was in the position of being elected but not approved; accordingly, he was not a formal member of the Bureau, did not receive payment, could not participate in meetings, and could not submit papers. Still Cauchy refused to take any oaths; however, he did feel loyal enough to direct his research to celestial mechanics. In 1840, he presented a dozen papers on this topic to the academy. He described and illustrated the signed-digit representation of numbers, an innovation presented in England in 1727 by John Colson. The confounded membership of the Bureau lasted until the end of 1843, when Cauchy was replaced by Poinsot.
Throughout the nineteenth century the French educational system struggled over the separation of church and state. After losing control of the public education system, the Catholic Church sought to establish its own branch of education and found in Cauchy a staunch and illustrious ally. He lent his prestige and knowledge to the École Normale Écclésiastique, a school in Paris run by Jesuits, for training teachers for their colleges. He took part in the founding of the Institut Catholique. The purpose of this institute was to counter the effects of the absence of Catholic university education in France. These activities did not make Cauchy popular with his colleagues, who, on the whole, supported the Enlightenment ideals of the French Revolution. When a chair of mathematics became vacant at the Collège de France in 1843, Cauchy applied for it, but received just three of 45 votes.
In 1848 King Louis-Philippe fled to England. The oath of allegiance was abolished, and the road to an academic appointment was clear for Cauchy. On March 1, 1849, he was reinstated at the Faculté de Sciences, as a professor of mathematical astronomy. After political turmoil all through 1848, France chose to become a Republic, under the Presidency of Napoleon III of France. Early 1852 the President made himself Emperor of France, and took the name Napoleon III.
The idea came up in bureaucratic circles that it would be useful to again require a loyalty oath from all state functionaries, including university professors. This time a cabinet minister was able to convince the Emperor to exempt Cauchy from the oath. In 1853, Cauchy was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAPS Member History |urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creatorCauchy&title&subject&subdiv&mem&year&year-max&dead&keyword&smodeadvanced |access-date2024-04-24 |websitesearch.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> Cauchy remained a professor at the university until his death at the age of 67. He received the Last Rites and died of a bronchial condition at 4&nbsp;a.m. on 23 May 1857.{{sfn|Bruno|Baker|2003|p=67}}
His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
Work
Early work
The genius of Cauchy was illustrated in his simple solution of the problem of Apollonius—describing a circle touching three given circles—which he discovered in 1805, his generalization of Euler's formula on polyhedra in 1811, and in several other elegant problems. More important is his memoir on wave propagation, which obtained the Grand Prix of the French Academy of Sciences in 1816. Cauchy's writings covered notable topics. In the theory of series he developed the notion of convergence and discovered many of the basic formulas for q-series. In the theory of numbers and complex quantities, he was the first to define complex numbers as pairs of real numbers. He also wrote on the theory of groups and substitutions, the theory of functions, differential equations and determinants.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Wave theory, mechanics, elasticity
In the theory of light he worked on Fresnel's wave theory and on the dispersion and polarization of light. <!-- In optics, he developed the wave theory, and his name is associated with the simple dispersion formula. Exactly which formula? --> He also contributed research in mechanics, substituting the notion of the continuity of geometrical displacements for the principle of the continuity of matter.<ref>{{cite book |lastKurrer |author-linkKarl-Eugen Kurrer |firstK.-E. |date2018 |titleThe History of the Theory of Structures. Searching for Equilibrium |locationBerlin |publisherWiley|pages978–979 |isbn978-3-433-03229-9}}</ref> He wrote on the equilibrium of rods and elastic membranes and on waves in elastic media. He introduced a 3 × 3 symmetric matrix of numbers that is now known as the Cauchy stress tensor.{{sfn|Cauchy|1827|p42|loc"De la pression ou tension dans un corps solide" [On pressure or tension in a solid body]}} In elasticity, he originated the theory of stress, and his results are nearly as valuable as those of Siméon Poisson.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}Number theoryOther significant contributions include being the first to prove the Fermat polygonal number theorem.Complex functions
Cauchy is most famous for his single-handed development of complex function theory. The first pivotal theorem proved by Cauchy, now known as ''Cauchy's integral theorem, was the following:
:<math>
\oint_C f(z)dz = 0,
</math>
where f(z) is a complex-valued function holomorphic on and within the non-self-intersecting closed curve C (contour) lying in the complex plane. The contour integral is taken along the contour C. The rudiments of this theorem can already be found in a paper that the 24-year-old Cauchy presented to the Académie des Sciences (then still called "First Class of the Institute") on August 11, 1814. In full form the theorem was given in 1825.{{sfn|Cauchy|1825}}
In 1826 Cauchy gave a formal definition of a residue of a function.{{sfn|Cauchy|1826|p11|loc"Sur un nouveau genre de calcul analogue au calcul infinitésimal" [On a new type of calculus analogous to the infinitesimal calculus]}} This concept concerns functions that have poles—isolated singularities, i.e., points where a function goes to positive or negative infinity. If the complex-valued function f(z) can be expanded in the neighborhood of a singularity a as
:<math>
f(z) = \varphi(z) + \frac{B_1}{z-a} + \frac{B_2}{(z-a)^2} + \cdots + \frac{B_n}{(z-a)^n},\quad
B_i, z,a \in \mathbb{C},
</math>
where φ(z) is analytic (i.e., well-behaved without singularities), then f is said to have a pole of order n in the point a. If n = 1, the pole is called simple.
The coefficient B<sub>1</sub> is called by Cauchy the residue of function f at a. If f is non-singular at a then the residue of f is zero at a. Clearly, the residue is in the case of a simple pole equal to
:<math>
\underset{za}{\mathrm{Res}} f(z) \lim_{z \rightarrow a} (z-a) f(z),
</math>
where we replaced B''<sub>1</sub> by the modern notation of the residue.
In 1831, while in Turin, Cauchy submitted two papers to the Academy of Sciences of Turin. In the first{{sfn|Cauchy|1831}} he proposed the formula now known as Cauchy's integral formula,
:<math>
f(a) = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_C \frac{f(z)}{z-a} dz,
</math>
where f(z) is analytic on C and within the region bounded by the contour C and the complex number a is somewhere in this region. The contour integral is taken counter-clockwise. Clearly, the integrand has a simple pole at z = a. In the second paper<ref>Cauchy, ''Mémoire sur les rapports qui existent entre le calcul des Résidus et le calcul des Limites, et sur les avantages qu'offrent ces deux calculs dans la résolution des équations algébriques ou transcendantes (Memorandum on the connections that exist between the residue calculus and the limit calculus, and on the advantages that these two calculi offer in solving algebraic and transcendental equations], presented to the Academy of Sciences of Turin, November 27, 1831.</ref> he presented the residue theorem,
:<math>
\frac{1}{2\pi i} \oint_C f(z) dz \sum_{k1}^n \underset{z=a_k}{\mathrm{Res}} f(z),
</math>
where the sum is over all the n poles of f(z) on and within the contour C''. These results of Cauchy's still form the core of complex function theory as it is taught today to physicists and electrical engineers. For quite some time, contemporaries of Cauchy ignored his theory, believing it to be too complicated. Only in the 1840s the theory started to get response, with Pierre Alphonse Laurent being the first mathematician besides Cauchy to make a substantial contribution (his work on what are now known as Laurent series, published in 1843).
''Cours d'analyse''
{{Main|Cours d'analyse}}
In his book ''Cours d'analyse Cauchy stressed the importance of rigor in analysis. Rigor in this case meant the rejection of the principle of Generality of algebra (of earlier authors such as Euler and Lagrange) and its replacement by geometry and infinitesimals.{{sfn|Borovik|Katz|2012|pp=245–276}} Judith Grabiner wrote Cauchy was "the man who taught rigorous analysis to all of Europe".{{sfn|Grabiner|1981}} The book is frequently noted as being the first place that inequalities, and <math>\delta-\varepsilon</math> arguments were introduced into calculus. Here Cauchy defined continuity as follows: The function f(x) is continuous with respect to x between the given limits if, between these limits, an infinitely small increment in the variable always produces an infinitely small increment in the function itself.''
M. Barany claims that the École mandated the inclusion of infinitesimal methods against Cauchy's better judgement.{{sfn|Barany|2011}} Gilain notes that when the portion of the curriculum devoted to Analyse Algébrique was reduced in 1825, Cauchy insisted on placing the topic of continuous functions (and therefore also infinitesimals) at the beginning of the Differential Calculus.{{sfn|Gilain|1989}} Laugwitz (1989) and Benis-Sinaceur (1973) point out that Cauchy continued to use infinitesimals in his own research as late as 1853.
Cauchy gave an explicit definition of an infinitesimal in terms of a sequence tending to zero. There has been a vast body of literature written about Cauchy's notion of "infinitesimally small quantities", arguing that they lead from everything from the usual "epsilontic" definitions or to the notions of non-standard analysis. The consensus is that Cauchy omitted or left implicit the important ideas to make clear the precise meaning of the infinitely small quantities he used.{{sfn|Barany|2013}}
Taylor's theorem
He was the first to prove Taylor's theorem rigorously, establishing his well-known form of the remainder.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} He wrote a textbook{{sfn|Cauchy|1821}} (see the illustration) for his students at the École Polytechnique in which he developed the basic theorems of mathematical analysis as rigorously as possible. In this book he gave the necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a limit in the form that is still taught.<!-- which is epsilon delta? --> Also Cauchy's well-known test for absolute convergence stems from this book: Cauchy condensation test. In 1829 he defined for the first time a complex function of a complex variable in another textbook.{{sfn|Cauchy|1829}} In spite of these, Cauchy's own research papers often used intuitive, not rigorous, methods;{{sfn|Kline|1982|p176}} thus one of his theorems was exposed to a "counter-example" by Abel, later fixed by the introduction of the notion of uniform continuity.Argument principle, stabilityIn a paper published in 1855, two years before Cauchy's death, he discussed some theorems, one of which is similar to the "Principle of the argument" in many modern textbooks on complex analysis. In modern control theory textbooks, the Cauchy argument principle is quite frequently used to derive the Nyquist stability criterion, which can be used to predict the stability of negative feedback amplifier and negative feedback control systems. Thus Cauchy's work has a strong impact on both pure mathematics and practical engineering.Published works
Cauchy was very productive, in number of papers second only to Leonhard Euler. It took almost a century to collect all his writings into 27 large volumes:
* {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070724003603/http://portail.mathdoc.fr/cgi-bin/oetoc?idOE_CAUCHY_1_2|dateJuly 24, 2007|titleOeuvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy publiées sous la direction scientifique de l'Académie des sciences et sous les auspices de M. le ministre de l'Instruction publique (27 volumes)}}(Paris : Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1882–1974)
* {{cite book|urlhttps://archive.org/details/oeuvresdaugusti01caucrich |titleŒuvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy|publisherAcadémie des sciences (France)|via Ministère de l'éducation nationale|date=1882–1938}}
His greatest contributions to mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he introduced; these are mainly embodied in his three great treatises:
* {{cite book|id{{Internet Archive|idcoursdanalysede00caucgoog|nameonline}}|titleCours d'analyse de l'École royale polytechnique|date1821|display-authors0|firstAugustin Louis |last Cauchy|locationParis|title-linkCours d'Analyse|chapterAnalyse Algébrique|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUrT0KsbDmDwC&pgPA11|publisher=L'Imprimerie Royale, Debure frères, Libraires du Roi et de la Bibliothèque du Roi}}
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k62404287 Le Calcul infinitésimal] (1823)
* Leçons sur les applications de calcul infinitésimal; La géométrie (1826–1828){{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
His other works include:
*{{cite book|titleMémoire sur les intégrales définies, prises entre des limites imaginaires|languagefr|trans-titleA Memorandum on definite integrals taken between imaginary limits|first Augustin Louis |lastCauchy|date1825 |location submitted to the Académie des Sciences on February 28|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mmoiresurlesin00cauc/page/n4|display-authors0|publisherParis, De Bure frères}}
*{{cite book|titleExercices de mathematiques|firstAugustin Louis |lastCauchy|date1826 |locationParis|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BmOo00FGCuAC/page/n3|display-authors=0}}
*{{cite book|titleExercices de mathematiques|firstAugustin Louis |lastCauchy|date1827|locationParis|volume Seconde Année|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_o6hCzbAYX7cC/page/n3|display-authors0}}
*{{cite book|lastCauchy|firstAugustin Louis Baron |titleLeçons sur le calcul différentiel|urlhttps://archive.org/details/BRIE000598_TO0324_PNI-2034_000000|year1829|publisherDe Bure frères|locationParis|display-authors0}}
*{{cite book|lastCauchy|firstAugustin-Louis |titleSur la mecanique celeste et sur un nouveau calcul qui s'applique a un grand nombre de questions diverses etc|languagefr|trans-titleOn Celestial Mechanics and on a new calculation which is applicable to a large number of diverse questions |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiSVVAAAAcAAJ&pgPA3|year1831|display-authors0|location=presented to the Academy of Sciences of Turin, October 11}}
* ''[https://archive.org/details/exercicedanaly01caucrich Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 1)]
* [https://archive.org/details/exercicedanaly02caucrich Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 2)]
* [https://archive.org/details/exercicedanaly03caucrich Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 3)]
* [https://archive.org/details/117770570_004 Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 4)] (Paris: Bachelier, 1840–1847)
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8626657t Analyse algèbrique] (Imprimerie Royale, 1821)
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k78986c Nouveaux exercices de mathématiques] (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1895)
* Courses of mechanics (for the École Polytechnique)
* Higher algebra (for the {{Interlanguage link|Faculté des sciences de Paris|fr}})
* Mathematical physics (for the Collège de France).
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90188b/f34 Mémoire sur l'emploi des equations symboliques dans le calcul infinitésimal et dans le calcul aux différences finis]'' CR Ac ad. Sci. Paris, t. XVII, 449–458 (1843) credited as originating the operational calculus.
Politics and religious beliefs
Augustin-Louis Cauchy grew up in the house of a staunch royalist. This made his father flee with the family to Arcueil during the French Revolution. Their life there during that time was apparently hard; Augustin-Louis's father, Louis François, spoke of living on rice, bread, and crackers during the period. A paragraph from an undated letter from Louis François to his mother in Rouen says:{{sfn|Valson|1868|p13|locVol. 1}}
{{Blockquote|We never had more than a {{convert|1/2|lb|g|spellin}} of bread — and sometimes not even that. This we supplement with little supply of hard crackers and rice that we are allotted. Otherwise, we are getting along quite well, which is the important thing and goes to show that human beings can get by with little. I should tell you that for my children's pap I still have a bit of fine flour, made from wheat that I grew on my own land. I had three bushels, and I also have a few pounds of potato starch. It is as white as snow and very good, too, especially for very young children. It, too, was grown on my own land.{{sfn|Belhoste|1991|p3}} }} In any event, he inherited his father's staunch royalism and hence refused to take oaths to any government after the overthrow of Charles X.
He was an equally staunch Catholic and a member of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul.{{sfn|Brock|1908|p=}} He also had links to the Society of Jesus and defended them at the academy when it was politically unwise to do so. His zeal for his faith may have led to his caring for Charles Hermite during his illness and leading Hermite to become a faithful Catholic. It also inspired Cauchy to plead on behalf of the Irish during the Great Famine of Ireland.
His royalism and religious zeal made him contentious, which caused difficulties with his colleagues. He felt that he was mistreated for his beliefs, but his opponents felt he intentionally provoked people by berating them over religious matters or by defending the Jesuits after they had been suppressed. Niels Henrik Abel called him a "bigoted Catholic"{{sfn|Bell|1986|p273}} and added he was "mad and there is nothing that can be done about him", but at the same time praised him as a mathematician. Cauchy's views were widely unpopular among mathematicians and when Guglielmo Libri Carucci dalla Sommaja was made chair in mathematics before him he, and many others, felt his views were the cause. When Libri was accused of stealing books he was replaced by Joseph Liouville rather than Cauchy, which caused a rift between Liouville and Cauchy. Another dispute with political overtones concerned Jean-Marie Constant Duhamel and a claim on inelastic shocks. Cauchy was later shown, by Jean-Victor Poncelet, to be wrong.See also{{div col|colwidth22em}}
* List of topics named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy
* Cauchy–Binet formula
* Cauchy boundary condition
* Cauchy's convergence test
* Cauchy (crater)
* Cauchy determinant
* Cauchy distribution
* Cauchy's equation
* Cauchy–Euler equation
* Cauchy's functional equation
* Cauchy horizon
* Cauchy formula for repeated integration
* Cauchy–Frobenius lemma
* Cauchy–Hadamard theorem
* Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem
* Cauchy momentum equation
* Cauchy–Peano theorem
* Cauchy principal value
* Cauchy problem
* Cauchy product
* Cauchy's radical test
* Cauchy–Rassias stability
* Cauchy–Riemann equations
* Cauchy–Schwarz inequality
* Cauchy sequence
* Cauchy surface
* Cauchy's theorem (geometry)
* Cauchy's theorem (group theory)
* Maclaurin–Cauchy test
{{div col end}}
References
Notes
{{notelist}}
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Sources
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{Cite book | last Belhoste | first Bruno | translatorFrank Ragland | title Augustin-Louis Cauchy: A Biography | place Ann Arbor, Michigan | publisher Springer | year 1991 | page 134 | isbn = 3-540-97220-X}}
*{{cite book|titleMen of Mathematics|firstE. T.|lastBell|author-linkEric Temple Bell|publisherSimon and Schuster|year1986|isbn9780671628185|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBLFL3coT5i4C&pgPA273}}
*{{cite journal | last1 Borovik | first1 Alexandre | author1-link Alexandre Borovik | last2 Katz | first2 Mikhail G. | author2-link Mikhail Katz| arxiv 1108.2885 | doi 10.1007/s10699-011-9235-x | issue 3 | journal Foundations of Science | pages 245–276 | title Who gave you the Cauchy--Weierstrass tale? The dual history of rigorous calculus | volume 17 | year 2012| s2cid = 119320059 }}
*{{cite book | author1-firstRobert E. | author1-lastBradley | author2-firstCharles Edward | author2-lastSandifer | editor1-firstJ. Z. | editor1-lastBuchwald | others<!-- -->Cauchy, Augustin-Louis<!-- --> | titleCauchy's Cours d'analyse: An Annotated Translation | seriesSources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences | date2010 | publisherSpringer | isbn978-1-4419-0548-2 | doi10.1007/978-1-4419-0549-9 | lccn2009932254 |pages10, 285 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=M0or-HGe7D0C}}
*{{cite CE1913|firstHenry Matthias |lastBrock|wstitleAugustin-Louis Cauchy|volume3}}
*{{Cite book|titleMath and mathematicians : the history of math discoveries around the world|last1Bruno|first1Leonard C.|date2003|orig-year1999|publisherU X L|last2Baker|first2Lawrence W.|isbn0787638137|locationDetroit, Mich.|oclc41497065|url-accessregistration|url=https://archive.org/details/mathmathematicia00brun}}
*{{cite EB1911|wstitleCauchy, Augustin Louis|volume5|pages=555–556}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia| first Hans| last Freudenthal| title Cauchy, Augustin-Louis| url http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Augustin-Louis_Cauchy.aspx#1| publisher Scribner |via American Council of Learned Societies| isbn 978-0-684-10114-9| editor-last Gillispie| editor-first Charles| encyclopedia Dictionary of Scientific Biography| location New York| year 2008}}
*{{cite book|lastKline|firstMorris |titleMathematics: The Loss of Certainty|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRNwnUL33epsC|year1982|publisherOxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-503085-3}}
*{{cite book|lastValson|firstClaude-Alphonse |titleLa vie et les travaux du baron Cauchy: membre de l'académie des sciences|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvQ7tw0rVKPsC|year1868|publisherGauthier-Villars|languagefr|trans-title=The Life and Works of Baron Cauchy: Member of the Academy of Scinces}}
*{{Citizendium|title=Augustin-Louis Cauchy}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation|lastBarany|firstMichael|titleStuck in the Middle: Cauchy's Intermediate Value Theorem and the History of Analytic Rigor|journalNotices of the American Mathematical Society|volume60|number10|pages1334–1338|year2013|doi10.1090/noti1049|doi-accessfree}}
* {{citation|lastBarany|firstMichael|titleGod, king, and geometry: revisiting the introduction to Cauchy's ''Cours d'analyse''|journalHistoria Mathematica|volume38|issue3|pages368–388|year2011|doi10.1016/j.hm.2010.12.001 |doi-accessfree}}
* Boyer, C.: The concepts of the calculus. Hafner Publishing Company, 1949.
* {{cite journal |doi10.3406/rhs.1973.3315|titleCauchy et Bolzano |year1973 |last1Benis-Sinaceur |first1Hourya |journalRevue d'Histoire des Sciences |volume26 |issue2 |pages97–112 |urlhttps://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01119625/file/1973_RHS_vol26_n2_p97_CauchyBolzano.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01119625/file/1973_RHS_vol26_n2_p97_CauchyBolzano.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live }}
* {{citation|author-linkDetlef Laugwitz|lastLaugwitz|firstD.|year1989|titleDefinite values of infinite sums: aspects of the foundations of infinitesimal analysis around 1820|journalArch. Hist. Exact Sci.|volume39|issue3|pages195–245|doi10.1007/BF00329867|s2cid=120890300}}.
* {{citation|lastGilain|firstC.|titleCauchy et le Course d'Analyse de l'École Polytechnique|journalBulletin de la Société des amis de la Bibliothèque de l'École polytechnique|volume5|pages3–145|year=1989}}
* {{cite book |firstJudith V. |lastGrabiner |titleThe Origins of Cauchy's Rigorous Calculus |urlhttps://archive.org/details/originsofcauchys00judi |url-accessregistration |locationCambridge |publisherMIT Press |year1981 |isbn=0-387-90527-8 }}
* {{cite book|author-linkThemistocles M. Rassias|first Th. M.|lastRassias|url http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/0659.html|titleTopics in Mathematical Analysis, A Volume Dedicated to the Memory of A. L. Cauchy|publisher World Scientific Co.|locationSingapore, New Jersey, London|date 1989|access-date2011-01-27|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120325032416/http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/0659.html|archive-date2012-03-25|url-status dead}}
*{{cite journal |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/41133794|jstor41133794 |titleCauchy's Conception of Rigour in Analysis |last1Smithies |first1F. |journalArchive for History of Exact Sciences |year1986 |volume36 |issue1 |pages41–61 |doi10.1007/BF00357440 |s2cid120781880 }}
* {{Cite NIE|wstitleCauchy, Augustin Louis|year1905 |short=x}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Wikiquote|Augustin Louis Cauchy}}
{{Commons category|Augustin Louis Cauchy}}
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Cauchy}}
* {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050617084840/http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/CauchyCriterionForConvergence.html|dateJune 17, 2005|title= Cauchy criterion for convergence}}
* [http://portail.mathdoc.fr/cgi-bin/oetoc?id=OE_CAUCHY_1_1 Augustin-Louis Cauchy – Œuvres complètes] (in 2 series) Gallica-Math
* {{MathGenealogy |id=55177}}
* [http://math.berkeley.edu/~robin/Cauchy/ Augustin-Louis Cauchy – Cauchy's Life] by Robin Hartshorne
{{Infinitesimals}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cauchy, Augustin Louis}}
Category:1789 births
Category:1857 deaths
Category:19th-century French mathematicians
Category:Corps des ponts
Category:École des Ponts ParisTech alumni
Category:École Polytechnique alumni
Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society
Category:French Roman Catholics
Category:French geometers
Category:History of calculus
Category:French mathematical analysts
Category:Linear algebraists
Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Category:French textbook writers
Category:Academic staff of the University of Turin
Category:International members of the American Philosophical Society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Louis_Cauchy
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.592676
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1844
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Archimedes
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{{Short description|Greek mathematician and physicist (c. 287 – 212 BC)}}
{{other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Archimedes of Syracuse
| native_name = Ἀρχιμήδης
| native_name_lang = grc
| image = Domenico-Fetti Archimedes 1620.jpg
| alt = A painting of an older man puzzling over geometric problems
| caption = Archimedes Thoughtful by Fetti (1620)
| birth_date = {{circa|287{{nbsp}}BC}}
| birth_place = Syracuse, Sicily
| death_date {{circa|212{{nbsp}}BC|lkno}} (aged approximately 75)
| death_place = Syracuse, Sicily
| field = Mathematics<br />Physics<br />Astronomy<br />Mechanics<br />Engineering
| known_for {{collapsible list|Archimedes' principle<br />Archimedes' screw<br />Center of gravity<br />Statics<br />Hydrostatics<br />Law of the lever<br />Indivisibles<br />Neuseis constructions<ref>{{cite journal |lastKnorr |firstWilbur R. |titleArchimedes and the spirals: The heuristic background |journalHistoria Mathematica |year1978 |volume5 |issue1 |pages43–75 |quote"To be sure, Pappus does twice mention the theorem on the tangent to the spiral [IV, 36, 54]. But in both instances the issue is Archimedes' inappropriate use of a 'solid neusis,' that is, of a construction involving the sections of solids, in the solution of a plane problem. Yet Pappus' own resolution of the difficulty [IV, 54] is by his own classification a 'solid' method, as it makes use of conic sections." (p. 48) |doi10.1016/0315-0860(78)90134-9 |doi-accessfree}}</ref><br>List of other things named after him|}}
}}
Archimedes of Syracuse{{Efn|{{langx|grc-x-doric|{{wikt-lang|grc|Ἀρχιμήδης}}}}, {{IPA|grc-x-doric|arkʰimɛːdɛ̂ːs|pron}}.}} ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑːr|k|ᵻ|ˈ|m|iː|d|iː|z}} {{respell|AR|kim|EE|deez}};<ref name"Collins">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/archimedes?showCookiePolicytrue |titleArchimedes |access-date25 September 2014 |publisherCollins Dictionary |daten.d.}}</ref> {{circa|287|212 BC}}) was an Ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily.<ref>{{cite web |titleArchimedes (c. 287 – c. 212 BC) |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/archimedes.shtml |publisherBBC History |access-date7 June 2012}}</ref> Although few details of his life are known, he is considered one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Regarded as the greatest mathematician of ancient history, and one of the greatest of all time,<ref name"LitList">
{{cite book |authorJohn M. Henshaw |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-0ljBAAAQBAJ&pgPA68 |titleAn Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |date2014 |publisherJHU Press |isbn978-1-4214-1492-8 |page68 |quote"Archimedes is on most lists of the greatest mathematicians of all time and is considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity."}}
{{pb}} {{cite book |lastCalinger |firstRonald |titleA Contextual History of Mathematics |publisherPrentice-Hall |year1999 |isbn978-0-02-318285-3 |page150 |quote"Shortly after Euclid, compiler of the definitive textbook, came Archimedes of Syracuse (ca. 287&nbsp;212 BC), the most original and profound mathematician of antiquity."}}
{{pb}} {{cite web |dateJanuary 1999 |titleArchimedes of Syracuse |urlhttp://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Archimedes.html |access-date9 June 2008 |publisher=The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive}}
{{pb}} {{cite book |authorSadri Hassani |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGWPgBwAAQBAJ&pgPA81 |titleMathematical Methods: For Students of Physics and Related Fields |date2013 |publisherSpringer Science & Business Media |isbn978-0-387-21562-4 |page81 |quote"Archimedes is arguably believed to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity."}}
{{pb}} {{cite book |authorHans Niels Jahnke |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCVRZEXFVsZkC&pgPA21 |titleA History of Analysis |publisherAmerican Mathematical Soc. |isbn978-0-8218-9050-9 |page21 |quote="Archimedes was the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all times"}}
{{pb}} {{cite book |authorStephen Hawking |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideU_RzM7OoI4C&pgPT12 |titleGod Created The Integers: The Mathematical Breakthroughs that Changed History |date2007 |publisherRunning Press |isbn978-0-7624-3272-1 |page12 |quote"Archimedes, the greatest mathematician of antiquity"}}
{{pb}} {{cite book |authorHirshfeld |first Alan |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzbcfLoZKDl8C&pgPA206 |titleEureka Man: The Life and Legacy of Archimedes |date2009 |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |isbn978-0-8027-1979-9 |pages206 |languageen |quote"the Archimedes Palimpsest has ridden the roiling waves of circumstance to become the most celebrated link to antiquity's greatest mathematician-inventor"}}{{pb}}
{{cite news |last1Vallianatos |first1Evaggelos |date27 July 2014 |titleArchimedes: The Greatest Scientist Who Ever Lived |urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/archimedes-the-greatest-scientist-who-ever-lived_b_5390263 |access-date17 April 2021 |newspaper=HuffPost}}
{{pb}} {{cite news |last1Kiersz. |first1Andy |date2 July 2014 |titleThe 12 mathematicians who unlocked the modern world |urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/12-classic-mathematicians-2014-7#archimedes-c-287-212-bc-3 |access-date3 May 2021 |newspaper=Business Insider}}
{{pb}} {{Cite web |titleArchimedes |urlhttps://www.math.wichita.edu/history/Men/archimedes.html |access-date=3 May 2021}}
{{pb}} {{cite news |last1Livio |first1Mario |date6 December 2017 |titleWho's the Greatest Mathematician of Them All? |urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/whos-the-greatest-mathematician-of-them-all_b_5526648 |access-date7 May 2021 |newspaper=HuffPost}}
</ref> Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying the concept of the infinitely small and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove many geometrical theorems.<ref name":2" /><ref name":9">{{Citation |lastJullien |firstV. |titleArchimedes and Indivisibles |date2015 |workSeventeenth-Century Indivisibles Revisited |volume49 |pages451–457 |editor-lastJ. |editor-firstVincent |seriesScience Networks. Historical Studies |placeCham |publisherSpringer International Publishing |doi10.1007/978-3-319-00131-9_18 |isbn978-3-319-00131-9}}</ref> These include the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, the area of an ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of a spiral.<ref>{{cite web |author1O'Connor, J.J. |author2Robertson, E.F. |dateFebruary 1996 |titleA history of calculus |urlhttps://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus/ |access-date7 August 2007 |publisherUniversity of St Andrews}}</ref><ref name":0">Heath, Thomas L. 1897. Works of Archimedes.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastKirfel |firstChristoph |date2013 |titleA generalisation of Archimedes' method |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/24496758 |journalThe Mathematical Gazette |volume97 |issue538 |pages43–52 |doi10.1017/S0025557200005416 |issn0025-5572 |jstor24496758}}</ref>
Archimedes' other mathematical achievements include deriving an approximation of pi ({{pi}}), defining and investigating the Archimedean spiral, and devising a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, working on statics and hydrostatics. Archimedes' achievements in this area include a proof of the law of the lever,<ref>{{Cite journal |lastGoe |firstG. |date1972 |titleArchimedes' theory of the lever and Mach's critique |journalStudies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A |volume2 |issue4 |pages329–345 |doi10.1016/0039-3681(72)90002-7 |bibcode1972SHPSA...2..329G}}</ref> the widespread use of the concept of center of gravity,<ref>{{Cite journal |lastBerggren |firstJ. L. |date1976 |titleSpurious Theorems in Archimedes' Equilibrium of Planes: Book I |journalArchive for History of Exact Sciences |volume16 |issue2 |pages87–103 |doi10.1007/BF00349632 |jstor41133463}}</ref> and the enunciation of the law of buoyancy known as Archimedes' principle.{{r|graf}} In astronomy, he made measurements of the apparent diameter of the Sun and the size of the universe.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastOsborne |firstCatherine |date1983 |titleArchimedes on the Dimensions of the Cosmos |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/233105 |journalIsis |volume74 |issue2 |pages234–242 |doi10.1086/353246 |jstor233105 |issn0021-1753}}</ref><ref name":7">{{Citation |last1Rozelot |first1Jean Pierre |titleA brief history of the solar diameter measurements: a critical quality assessment of the existing data |date2016 |arxiv1609.02710 |last2Kosovichev |first2Alexander G. |last3Kilcik |first3Ali}}</ref> He is also said to have built a planetarium device that demonstrated the movements of the known celestial bodies, and may have been a precursor to the Antikythera mechanism.<ref name":11">{{Cite journal |lastFreeth |firstTony |date2022 |titleWonder of the Ancient World |urlhttps://www.scientificamerican.com/article/an-ancient-greek-astronomical-calculation-machine-reveals-new-secrets/ |journalScientific American |volume32 |issue1 |pages24 |doi10.1038/scientificamerican0122-24 |pmid39016582 |issn=0036-8733}}</ref> He is also credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion.
Archimedes died during the siege of Syracuse, when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed. Cicero describes visiting Archimedes' tomb, which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder that Archimedes requested be placed there to represent his most valued mathematical discovery.
Unlike his inventions, Archimedes' mathematical writings were little known in antiquity. Alexandrian mathematicians read and quoted him, but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until {{circa|530{{nbsp}}AD}} by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople, while Eutocius' commentaries on Archimedes' works in the same century opened them to wider readership for the first time. The relatively few copies of Archimedes' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance and again in the 17th century,<ref>
{{cite journal |lastHøyrup |firstJens |year2017 |titleArchimedes: Knowledge and Lore from Latin Antiquity to the Outgoing European Renaissance |journalGaņita Bhāratī |volume39 |number1 |pages1–22 |urlhttp://webhotel4.ruc.dk/~jensh/Publications/2017%7Bg%7D_Archimedes%20--%20%20Knowledge%20and%20Lore_S.pdf}} Reprinted in {{Cite book |lastHoyrup |firstJ. |year2019 |titleSelected Essays on Pre- and Early Modern Mathematical Practice |pages459–477 |doi10.1007/978-3-030-19258-7_17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastLeahy |firstA. |date2018 |titleThe method of Archimedes in the seventeenth century. |journalThe American Monthly |volume125 |issue3 |pages267–272 |doi10.1080/00029890.2018.1413857}}</ref> while the discovery in 1906 of previously lost works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results.<ref>{{cite web |titleWorks, Archimedes |date23 June 2015 |publisherUniversity of Oklahoma |urlhttps://galileo.ou.edu/exhibits/works-archimedes |access-date18 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleThe Genius of Archimedes – 23 Centuries of Influence on Mathematics, Science and Engineering: Proceedings of an International Conference held at Syracuse, Italy |date8–10 June 2010 |seriesHistory of Mechanism and Machine Science |volume11 |publisherSpringer |editor1Paipetis, Stephanos A. |editor2Ceccarelli, Marco |isbn978-90-481-9091-1 |doi10.1007/978-90-481-9091-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleArchimedes&nbsp;– The Palimpsest |publisherWalters Art Museum |urlhttp://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/palimpsest_making1.html |access-date14 October 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070928102802/http://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/palimpsest_making1.html |archive-date28 September 2007 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/oct/26/archimedes-palimpsest-ahead-of-time |titleArchimedes Palimpsest reveals insights centuries ahead of its time |newspaperThe Guardian |first1Alison |last1Flood |access-date10 February 2017}}</ref>Biography Early life
Discovering the Tomb of Archimedes (1805) by Benjamin West]]
Archimedes was born c. 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse, Sicily, at that time a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia. The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek scholar John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years before his death in 212 BC.<ref name":0" /> Plutarch wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, the ruler of Syracuse, although Cicero suggests he was of humble origin.<ref>{{cite book |authorPlutarch |urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/674 |titleParallel Lives Complete e-text from Gutenberg.org |dateOctober 1996 |viaProject Gutenberg}}</ref><ref name"dijksterhuis" /> In the Sand-Reckoner'', Archimedes gives his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing else is known.<ref name"dijksterhuis">Dijksterhuis, Eduard J. [1938] 1987. Archimedes, translated. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-08421-3}}.</ref><ref name":3">{{Cite journal |lastShapiro |firstA. E. |date1975 |titleArchimedes's measurement of the Sun's apparent diameter. |journalJournal for the History of Astronomy |volume6 |issue2 |pages75–83 |bibcode1975JHA.....6...75S |doi10.1177/002182867500600201}}</ref> A biography of Archimedes was written by his friend Heracleides, but this work has been lost, leaving the details of his life obscure. It is unknown, for instance, whether he ever married or had children, or if he ever visited Alexandria, Egypt, during his youth.<ref name":4">{{Cite book |lastAcerbi |firstFabio |chapterArchimedes |titleNew Dictionary of Scientific Biography |volumeI |pages85–91 |publisherScribner |locationDetroit |year2008}}</ref> From his surviving written works, it is clear that he maintained collegial relations with scholars based there, including his friend Conon of Samos and the head librarian Eratosthenes of Cyrene.<ref group"lower-alpha">In the preface to On Spirals addressed to Dositheus of Pelusium, Archimedes says that "many years have elapsed since Conon's death." Conon of Samos lived c. 280–220 BC, suggesting that Archimedes may have been an older man when writing some of his works.</ref>
Career
The standard versions of Archimedes' life were written long after his death by Greek and Roman historians. The earliest reference to Archimedes occurs in the Histories by Polybius ({{circa}} 200–118 BC), written about 70 years after his death.<ref name"dijksterhuis"/> It sheds little light on Archimedes as a person, and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city from the Romans.<ref name"death">{{cite web |lastRorres |firstChris |titleDeath of Archimedes: Sources |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Death/Histories.html |access-date2 January 2007 |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences}}</ref> Polybius remarks how, during the Second Punic War, Syracuse switched allegiances from Rome to Carthage, resulting in a military campaign under the command of Marcus Claudius Marcellus and Appius Claudius Pulcher, who besieged the city from 213 to 212 BC. He notes that the Romans underestimated Syracuse's defenses, and mentions several machines Archimedes designed, including improved catapults, crane-like machines that could be swung around in an arc, and other stone-throwers. Although the Romans ultimately captured the city, they suffered considerable losses due to Archimedes' inventiveness.<ref>{{cite web |lastRorres |firstChris |titleSiege of Syracuse |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Siege/Polybius.html |access-date23 July 2007 |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences}}</ref>
Cicero (106–43 BC) mentions Archimedes in some of his works.<ref name"dijksterhuis"/> While serving as a quaestor in Sicily, Cicero found what was presumed to be Archimedes' tomb near the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse, in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes.<ref name":0"/><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://math.nyu.edu/Archimedes/Tomb/Cicero.html |titleTomb of Archimedes |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences |access-date2024-06-29}}</ref> Cicero had the tomb cleaned up and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription. The tomb carried a sculpture illustrating Archimedes' favorite mathematical proof, that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two-thirds that of an enclosing cylinder including its bases.<ref>{{cite web |lastRorres |firstChris |titleTomb of Archimedes: Sources |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Tomb/Cicero.html |access-date2 January 2007 |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |lastRorres |firstChris |titleTomb of Archimedes&nbsp;– Illustrations |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Tomb/TombIllus.html |access-date15 March 2011 |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences}}</ref> He also mentions that Marcellus brought to Rome two planetariums Archimedes built.<ref name":5">{{Cite web |titleThe Planetarium of Archimedes |urlhttps://studylib.net/doc/8971077/the-planetarium-of-archimedes |access-date14 April 2021 |websitestudylib.net}}</ref> The Roman historian Livy (59 BC–17 AD) retells Polybius' story of the capture of Syracuse and Archimedes' role in it.<ref name"death" />
Death
<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Death of Archimedes: Illustrations |urlhttps://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Death/DeathIllus.html |websitemath.nyu.edu |publisherNew York University |access-date=13 December 2017}}</ref>]]
Plutarch (45–119 AD) provides at least two accounts on how Archimedes died after Syracuse was taken.<ref name"dijksterhuis" /> According to the most popular account, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet Marcellus, but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. This enraged the soldier, who killed Archimedes with his sword. Another story has Archimedes carrying mathematical instruments before being killed because a soldier thought they were valuable items. Marcellus was reportedly angered by Archimedes' death, as he considered him a valuable scientific asset (he called Archimedes "a geometrical Briareus") and had ordered that he should not be harmed.<ref name":6" /><ref>Jaeger, Mary. Archimedes and the Roman Imagination. p. 113.</ref>
The last words attributed to Archimedes are "Do not disturb my circles" ({{langx|la|Noli turbare circulos meos}}; {{langx|el|μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε}}), a reference to the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier.<ref name"dijksterhuis"/> There is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in Plutarch's account. A similar quotation is found in the work of Valerius Maximus (fl. 30 AD), who wrote in Memorable Doings and Sayings, "{{Langx|la|... sed protecto manibus puluere 'noli' inquit, 'obsecro, istum disturbare'|labelnone}}" ("... but protecting the dust with his hands, said 'I beg of you, do not disturb this{{'"}}).<ref name"death" />Discoveries and inventionsArchimedes' principle
{{main|Archimedes' principle}}
The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape. According to Vitruvius, a crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II of Syracuse, who supplied the pure gold to be used. The crown was likely made in the shape of a votive wreath.<ref name "crown"/> Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the goldsmith without damaging the crown, so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density.<ref name"vitruvius">{{cite book |authorVitruvius |urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/20239/20239-h/20239-h.htm |titleDe Architectura, Book IX, Introduction, paragraphs 9–12 |date31 December 2006 |via=Project Gutenberg}}</ref>
In this account, Archimedes noticed while taking a bath that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this effect could be used to determine the golden crown's volume. Archimedes was so excited by this discovery that he took to the streets naked, having forgotten to dress, crying "Eureka!" ({{langx|el|"εὕρηκα}}, heúrēka!, {{Literal translation|I have found [it]!}}). For practical purposes water is incompressible,<ref>{{cite web |titleIncompressibility of Water |publisherHarvard University |urlhttp://www.fas.harvard.edu/~scdiroff/lds/NewtonianMechanics/IncompressibilityofWater/IncompressibilityofWater.html |access-date27 February 2008}}</ref> so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced, its density could be obtained; if cheaper and less dense metals had been added, the density would be lower than that of gold. Archimedes found that this is what had happened, proving that silver had been mixed in.<ref name "crown">{{cite web |editor-lastRorres |editor-firstChris |titleThe Golden Crown: Sources |publisherNew York University |urlhttps://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/Vitruvius.html |access-date=6 April 2021}}
{{bulleted list
|{{cite book |lastMorgan |firstMorris Hicky |author-linkMorris H. Morgan |year1914 |titleVitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture |publisherHarvard University Press |locationCambridge |pages253–254 |quote="Finally, filling the vessel again and dropping the crown itself into the same quantity of water, he found that more water ran over the crown than for the mass of gold of the same weight. Hence, reasoning from the fact that more water was lost in the case of the crown than in that of the mass, he detected the mixing of silver with the gold, and made the theft of the contractor perfectly clear."}}
|{{cite book |authorVitruvius |author-linkVitruvius |date1567 |titleDe Architetura libri decem |publisherDaniele Barbaro |locationVenice |pages270–271 |quote"Postea vero repleto vase in eadem aqua ipsa corona demissa, invenit plus aquae defluxisse in coronam, quàm in auream eodem pondere massam, et ita ex eo, quod plus defluxerat aquae in corona, quàm in massa, ratiocinatus, deprehendit argenti in auro mixtionem, et manifestum furtum redemptoris."}}
}}</ref><ref name="vitruvius" />
The story of the golden crown does not appear anywhere in Archimedes' known works. The practicality of the method described has been called into question due to the extreme accuracy that would be required to measure water displacement.<ref name"inaccuracy">{{cite web |firstChris |lastRorres |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/CrownIntro.html |titleThe Golden Crown |publisherDrexel University |access-date24 March 2009}}</ref> Archimedes may have instead sought a solution that applied the hydrostatics principle known as Archimedes' principle, found in his treatise On Floating Bodies: a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.<ref>{{cite web |title''Archimedes' Principle'' |firstBradley W |lastCarroll |publisherWeber State University |urlhttp://www.physics.weber.edu/carroll/Archimedes/principle.htm |access-date23 July 2007}}</ref> Using this principle, it would have been possible to compare the density of the crown to that of pure gold by balancing it on a scale with a pure gold reference sample of the same weight, then immersing the apparatus in water. The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip accordingly.<ref namegraf>{{cite journal |last1Graf |first1Erlend H. |titleJust What Did Archimedes Say About Buoyancy? |journalThe Physics Teacher |year2004 |volume42 |number5 |pages296–299 |doi10.1119/1.1737965 |bibcode2004PhTea..42..296G}}</ref> Galileo Galilei, who invented a hydrostatic balance in 1586 inspired by Archimedes' work, considered it "probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed, since, besides being very accurate, it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself."<ref>{{cite web |authorVan Helden, Al |titleThe Galileo Project: Hydrostatic Balance |urlhttp://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/balance.html |access-date14 September 2007 |publisherRice University}}</ref><ref name"galileo">{{cite web |firstChris |lastRorres |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/bilancetta.html |titleThe Golden Crown: Galileo's Balance |publisherDrexel University |access-date24 March 2009}}</ref>
Law of the lever
While Archimedes did not invent the lever, he gave a mathematical proof of the principle involved in his work On the Equilibrium of Planes.<ref>Finlay, M. (2013). [https://theses.gla.ac.uk/5129/ Constructing ancient mechanics] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210414075253/https://theses.gla.ac.uk/5129/ |date14 April 2021 }} [Master's thesis]. University of Glassgow.</ref> Earlier descriptions of the principle of the lever are found in a work by Euclid and in the Mechanical Problems, belonging to the Peripatetic school of the followers of Aristotle, the authorship of which has been attributed by some to Archytas.<ref name"lever rorres">{{cite web |firstChris |lastRorres |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Lever/LeverLaw.html |titleThe Law of the Lever According to Archimedes |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences |access-date20 March 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130927050651/http://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Lever/LeverLaw.html |archive-date27 September 2013 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"lever clagett">{{cite book |firstMarshall |lastClagett |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmweWMAlf-tEC&qarchytas%20lever&pgPA72 |titleGreek Science in Antiquity |publisherDover Publications |isbn978-0-486-41973-2 |year=2001}}</ref>
There are several, often conflicting, reports regarding Archimedes' feats using the lever to lift very heavy objects. Plutarch describes how Archimedes designed block-and-tackle pulley systems, allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move.<ref>{{cite web |author1Dougherty, F.C. |author2Macari, J. |author3Okamoto, C. |titlePulleys |urlhttp://www.swe.org/iac/lp/pulley_03.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070718031943/http://www.swe.org/iac/LP/pulley_03.html |archive-date18 July 2007 |access-date23 July 2007 |publisherSociety of Women Engineers}}</ref> According to Pappus of Alexandria, Archimedes' work on levers and his understanding of mechanical advantage caused him to remark: "Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth" ({{langx|el|δῶς μοι πᾶ στῶ καὶ τὰν γᾶν κινάσω}}).<ref>Quoted by Pappus of Alexandria in Synagoge, Book VIII</ref> Olympiodorus later attributed the same boast to Archimedes' invention of the baroulkos, a kind of windlass, rather than the lever.<ref name":10">{{Cite journal |lastBerryman |firstS. |date2020 |titleHow Archimedes Proposed to Move the Earth |journalIsis |volume111 |issue3 |pages562–567 |doi10.1086/710317}}</ref>
Archimedes' screw
{{main|Archimedes' screw}}
can raise water efficiently]]
A large part of Archimedes' work in engineering probably arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse. Athenaeus of Naucratis quotes a certain Moschion in a description on how King Hiero II commissioned the design of a huge ship, the Syracusia, which could be used for luxury travel, carrying supplies, and as a display of naval power.<ref>{{cite book |lastCasson |firstLionel |author-linkLionel Casson |titleShips and Seamanship in the Ancient World |year1971 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn978-0-691-03536-9 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/shipsseamanshipi0000cass}}</ref> The Syracusia is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity and, according to Moschion's account, it was launched by Archimedes.<ref name":10" /> The ship presumably was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations, a gymnasium, and a temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite among its facilities.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAthenaeus, The Deipnosophists, BOOK V., chapter 40 |urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:2013.01.0003:book5:chapterpos377 |access-date7 March 2023 |websiteperseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> The account also mentions that, in order to remove any potential water leaking through the hull, a device with a revolving screw-shaped blade inside a cylinder was designed by Archimedes.
Archimedes' screw was turned by hand, and could also be used to transfer water from a {{nowrap|low-lying}} body of water into irrigation canals. The screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain. Described by Vitruvius, Archimedes' device may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.<ref>{{cite journal |titleSennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World |authorDalley, Stephanie |author2Oleson, John Peter |journalTechnology and Culture |volume44 |number1 |year2003 |urlhttp://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleArchimedes's screw&nbsp;– Optimal Design |authorRorres, Chris |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences |urlhttp://www.cs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Screw/optimal/optimal.html |access-date23 July 2007}}</ref> The world's first seagoing steamship with a screw propeller was the SS Archimedes, which was launched in 1839 and named in honor of Archimedes and his work on the screw.<ref>{{cite web |titleSS Archimedes |publisherwrecksite.eu |urlhttp://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?636 |access-date22 January 2011}}</ref>Archimedes' clawArchimedes is said to have designed a claw as a weapon to defend the city of Syracuse. Also known as "{{visible anchor|the ship shaker}}", the claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it.<ref>{{cite web |firstChris |lastRorres |titleArchimedes's Claw&nbsp;– Illustrations and Animations&nbsp;– a range of possible designs for the claw |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Claw/illustrations.html |access-date23 July 2007}}</ref> There have been modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw, and in 2005 a television documentary entitled Superweapons of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device.<ref>{{cite web |titleArchimedes' Claw: watch an animation |firstBradley W |lastCarroll |publisherWeber State University |urlhttp://physics.weber.edu/carroll/Archimedes/claw.htm |access-date=12 August 2007}}</ref>
Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult, and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War. The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSleeswyk |firstAndré Wegener |date1981 |titleVitruvius' Odometer |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/24964584 |journalScientific American |volume245 |issue4 |pages188–201 |doi10.1038/scientificamerican1081-188 |jstor24964584 |bibcode1981SciAm.245d.188S |issn0036-8733}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/5/55.html |titleAncient Greek Scientists: Hero of Alexandria |publisherTechnology Museum of Thessaloniki |access-date14 September 2007 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20070905125400/http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/5/55.html |archive-date5 September 2007 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Heat ray
{{main|Archimedes' heat ray}}
to attack upcoming ships]]
As legend has it, Archimedes arranged mirrors as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse using focused sunlight. While there is no extant contemporary evidence of this feat and modern scholars believe it did not happen, Archimedes may have written a work on mirrors entitled Catoptrica,<ref name":0" group"lower-alpha" /> and Lucian and Galen, writing in the second century AD, mentioned that during the siege of Syracuse Archimedes had burned enemy ships. Nearly four hundred years later, Anthemius, despite skepticism, tried to reconstruct Archimedes' hypothetical reflector geometry.<ref>Archimedes's contemporary Diocles made no mention of Archimedes or burning ships in his treatise about focusing reflectors. Diocles, On Burning Mirors, ed. G. J. Toomer, Berlin: Springer, 1976. {{pb}} Lucian, Hippias, [https://archive.org/details/lucianha01luciuoft/lucianha01luciuoft/page/36/ ¶ 2], in Lucian, vol. 1, ed. A. M. Harmon, Harvard, 1913, {{pgs|36–37}}, says Archimedes burned ships with his techne, "skill". {{pb}} Galen, On temperaments 3.2, mentions pyreia, "torches". {{pb}} Anthemius of Tralles, On miraculous engines 153 [Westerman]. {{pb}} {{Cite journal |lastKnorr |firstWilbur |date1983 |titleThe Geometry of Burning-Mirrors in Antiquity |urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1086/353176 |journalIsis |volume74 |issue1 |pages53–73 |doi10.1086/353176 |issn=0021-1753}}</ref>
The purported device, sometimes called "Archimedes' heat ray", has been the subject of an ongoing debate about its credibility since the Renaissance.<ref>{{cite journal |lastSimms |firstD. L. |titleArchimedes and the Burning Mirrors of Syracuse |journalTechnology and Culture |year1977 |volume18 |number1 |pages1–24 |doi10.2307/3103202 |jstor3103202}}</ref> René Descartes rejected it as false, while modern researchers have attempted to recreate the effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes, mostly with negative results.<ref name"death ray">{{cite web |titleArchimedes Death Ray: Testing with MythBusters |urlhttp://web.mit.edu/2.009/www//experiments/deathray/10_Mythbusters.html |access-date23 July 2007 |publisherMIT |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061120030352/http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www//experiments/deathray/10_Mythbusters.html |archive-date20 November 2006 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |authorJohn Wesley |urlhttp://wesley.nnu.edu/john_wesley/wesley_natural_philosophy/duten12.htm |titleA Compendium of Natural Philosophy (1810) Chapter XII, Burning Glasses |publisherOnline text at Wesley Center for Applied Theology |access-date14 September 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071012154432/http://wesley.nnu.edu/john_wesley/wesley_natural_philosophy/duten12.htm |archive-date12 October 2007}}</ref> It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship, but the overall effect would have been blinding, dazzling, or distracting the crew of the ship rather than fire.<ref name"death ray2">{{cite web |date13 December 2010 |titleTV Review: MythBusters 8.27&nbsp;– President's Challenge |urlhttp://fandomania.com/tv-review-mythbusters-8-27-presidents-challenge/ |access-date18 December 2010}}</ref> Using modern materials and larger scale, sunlight-concentrating solar furnaces can reach very high temperatures, and are sometimes used for generating electricity.<ref>{{cite web |titleWorld's Largest Solar Furnace |websiteAtlas Obscura |urlhttp://www.atlasobscura.com/places/worlds-largest-solar-furnace |access-date6 November 2016}}</ref>
Astronomical instruments
Archimedes discusses astronomical measurements of the Earth, Sun, and Moon, as well as Aristarchus' heliocentric model of the universe, in the Sand-Reckoner. Without the use of either trigonometry or a table of chords, Archimedes determines the Sun's apparent diameter by first describing the procedure and instrument used to make observations (a straight rod with pegs or grooves),<ref>{{Cite journal |lastEvans |firstJames |date1 August 1999 |titleThe Material Culture of Greek Astronomy |journalJournal for the History of Astronomy |volume30 |issue3 |pages238–307 |bibcode1999JHA....30..237E |doi10.1177/002182869903000305 |quote"But even before Hipparchus, Archimedes had described a similar instrument in his Sand-Reckoner. A fuller description of the same sort of instrument is given by Pappus of Alexandria&nbsp;... Figure 30 is based on Archimedes and Pappus. Rod R has a groove that runs its whole length&nbsp;... A cylinder or prism C is fixed to a small block that slides freely in the groove (p. 281)."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1Toomer |first1G. J. |last2Jones |first2Alexander |date7 March 2016 |titleAstronomical Instruments |encyclopediaOxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |doi10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.886 |isbn9780199381135 |quote"Perhaps the earliest instrument, apart from sundials, of which we have a detailed description is the device constructed by Archimedes (Sand-Reckoner 11-15) for measuring the sun's apparent diameter; this was a rod along which different coloured pegs could be moved."}}</ref> applying correction factors to these measurements, and finally giving the result in the form of upper and lower bounds to account for observational error.<ref name":3" /> Ptolemy, quoting Hipparchus, also references Archimedes' solstice observations in the Almagest. This would make Archimedes the first known Greek to have recorded multiple solstice dates and times in successive years.<ref name=":4" />
Cicero's De re publica portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129 BC. After the capture of Syracuse in the Second Punic War, Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms which were constructed by Archimedes and which showed the motion of the Sun, Moon and five planets. Cicero also mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus. The dialogue says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse, and donated the other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome. Marcellus's mechanism was demonstrated, according to Cicero, by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus, who described it thus:<ref>{{cite web |authorCicero |titleDe re publica 1.xiv §21 |urlhttp://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/repub1.shtml#21 |access-date23 July 2007 |publisherthelatinlibrary.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |authorCicero |urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14988 |titleDe re publica Complete e-text in English from Gutenberg.org |date9 February 2005 |viaProject Gutenberg |access-date=18 September 2007}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text={{lang|la|Hanc sphaeram Gallus cum moveret, fiebat ut soli luna totidem conversionibus in aere illo quot diebus in ipso caelo succederet, ex quo et in caelo sphaera solis fieret eadem illa defectio, et incideret luna tum in eam metam quae esset umbra terrae, cum sol e regione.}} {{pb}}
When Gallus moved the globe, it happened that the Moon followed the Sun by as many turns on that bronze contrivance as in the sky itself, from which also in the sky the Sun's globe became to have that same eclipse, and the Moon came then to that position which was its shadow on the Earth when the Sun was in line.}}
This is a description of a small planetarium. Pappus of Alexandria reports on a now lost treatise by Archimedes dealing with the construction of these mechanisms entitled On Sphere-Making.<ref name":5" /><ref>{{cite book |lastWright |firstMichael T. |chapterArchimedes, Astronomy, and the Planetarium |date2017 |titleArchimedes in the 21st Century: Proceedings of a World Conference at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences |seriesTrends in the History of Science |pages125–141 |editor-lastRorres |editor-firstChris |placeCham |publisherSpringer |doi10.1007/978-3-319-58059-3_7 |isbn978-3-319-58059-3}}</ref> Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism, another device built {{circa|100}} BC designed with a similar purpose, with some scholars regarding Archimedes' device as a precursor.<ref name":11" /><ref>{{cite web |titleThe Antikythera Mechanism II |urlhttp://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsnew/column/antikytheraII-0500/diff4.html |access-date25 December 2013 |publisherStony Brook University |archive-date12 December 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131212212956/http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsnew/column/antikytheraII-0500/diff4.html |url-statusdead}}</ref> Constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing.<ref>{{cite news |lastNoble Wilford |firstJohn |date31 July 2008 |titleDiscovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C. |newspaperThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?_r0 |access-date25 December 2013}}</ref> This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times, but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks.<ref>{{cite news |titleAncient Moon 'computer' revisited |publisherBBC News |date29 November 2006 |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6191462.stm |access-date23 July 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |lastRorres |firstChris |titleSpheres and Planetaria |urlhttp://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Sphere/SphereIntro.html |access-date23 July 2007 |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences}}</ref>MathematicsWhile he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices, Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics. Plutarch wrote that Archimedes "placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life",<ref name":6">{{cite book |titleExtract from Parallel Lives |authorPlutarch |publisherfulltextarchive.com |urlhttps://www.fulltextarchive.com/page/Plutarch-s-Lives10/#p35 |access-date10 August 2009}}</ref> though some scholars believe this may be a mischaracterization.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastRusso |firstL. |date2013 |titleArchimedes between legend and fact. |journalLettera Matematica |volume1 |issue3 |pages91–95 |doi10.1007/s40329-013-0016-y |doi-accessfree |quote"It is amazing that for a long time Archimedes's attitude towards the applications of science was deduced from the acritical acceptance of the opinion of Plutarch: a polygraph who lived centuries later, in a cultural climate that was completely different, certainly could not have known the intimate thoughts of the scientist. On the other hand, the dedication with which Archimedes developed applications of all kinds is well documented: of catoptrica, as Apuleius tells in the passage already cited (Apologia, 16), of hydrostatics (from the design of clocks to naval engineering: we know from Athenaeus (Deipnosophistae, V, 206d) that the largest ship in Antiquity, the Syracusia, was constructed under his supervision), and of mechanics (from machines to hoist weights to those for raising water and devices of war)."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastDrachmann |firstA. G. |author-linkA. G. Drachmann |date1968 |titleArchimedes and the Science of Physics |journalCentaurus |volume12 |issue1 |pages1–11 |doi10.1111/j.1600-0498.1968.tb00074.x |bibcode1968Cent...12....1D}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |titleAttitudes toward the natural philosopher in the early Roman empire (100 B.C. to 313 A.D.) |urlhttps://clio.columbia.edu/catalog/8602980 |date2008 |firstRichard |lastCarrier |access-date6 April 2021}} "Hence Plutarch's conclusion that Archimedes disdained all mechanics, shop work, or anything useful as low and vulgar, and only directed himself to geometric theory, is obviously untrue. Thus, as several scholars have now concluded, his account of Archimedes appears to be a complete fabrication, invented to promote the Platonic values it glorifies by attaching them to a much-revered hero." (p.444)</ref> Method of exhaustion
and for each subsequent doubling of the sides of the regular polygon]]
Archimedes was able to use indivisibles (a precursor to infinitesimals) in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus.<ref name":2">{{Cite web |lastPowers |firstJ. |date2020 |titleDid Archimedes do calculus? |urlhttps://old.maa.org/sites/default/files/images/upload_library/46/HOMSIGMAA/2020-Jeffery%20Powers.pdf |access-date14 April 2021 |websitemaa.org}}</ref> Through proof by contradiction (reductio ad absurdum), he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answer lay. This technique is known as the method of exhaustion, and he employed it to approximate the areas of figures and the value of {{pi}}.
In Measurement of a Circle, he did this by drawing a larger regular hexagon outside a circle then a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle, and progressively doubling the number of sides of each regular polygon, calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each step. As the number of sides increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle. After four such steps, when the polygons had 96 sides each, he was able to determine that the value of {{pi}} lay between 3{{sfrac|1|7}} (approx. 3.1429) and 3{{sfrac|10|71}} (approx. 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately 3.1416.<ref>{{cite web |titleArchimedes on measuring the circle |authorHeath, T.L. |publishermath.ubc.ca |urlhttp://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/archimedes/circle.html |access-date30 October 2012}}</ref> He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to {{pi}} multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle (<math>\pi r^2</math>). Archimedean property In On the Sphere and Cylinder, Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude. Today this is known as the Archimedean property of real numbers.<ref>{{cite web |titleArchimedean ordered fields |authorKaye, R.W. |publisherweb.mat.bham.ac.uk |urlhttp://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/R.W.Kaye/seqser/archfields |access-date7 November 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090316065753/http://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/R.W.Kaye/seqser/archfields |archive-date16 March 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying between {{sfrac|265|153}} (approximately 1.7320261) and {{sfrac|1351|780}} (approximately 1.7320512) in Measurement of a Circle. The actual value is approximately 1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He introduced this result without offering any explanation of how he had obtained it. This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he was: "as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results."<ref>Quoted in Heath, T.L. Works of Archimedes, Dover Publications, {{ISBN|978-0-486-42084-4}}.</ref> It is possible that he used an iterative procedure to calculate these values.<ref>{{Cite web |titleOf Calculations Past and Present: The Archimedean Algorithm |urlhttps://www.maa.org/programs/maa-awards/writing-awards/of-calculations-past-and-present-the-archimedean-algorithm |access-date14 April 2021 |websitemaa.org |publisherMathematical Association of America}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleThe Computation of Pi by Archimedes |authorMcKeeman, Bill |author-linkWilliam M. McKeeman |websiteMatlab Central |urlhttp://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/29504-the-computation-of-pi-by-archimedes/content/html/ComputationOfPiByArchimedes.html#37 |access-date30 October 2012}}</ref> The infinite series
segment in the upper figure is equal to 4/3 that of the inscribed triangle in the lower figure from Quadrature of the Parabola]]
In Quadrature of the Parabola, Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is {{sfrac|4|3}} times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right. He expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio {{sfrac|1|4}}:
:<math>\sum_{n0}^\infty 4^{-n} 1 + 4^{-1} + 4^{-2} + 4^{-3} + \cdots = {4\over 3}. \;</math>
If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle, then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines, and whose third vertex is where the line that is parallel to the parabola's axis and that passes through the midpoint of the base intersects the parabola, and so on. This proof uses a variation of the series {{nowrap|1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + · · ·}} which sums to&nbsp;{{sfrac|1|3}}.
Myriad of myriads
In The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes set out to calculate a number that was greater than the grains of sand needed to fill the universe. In doing so, he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted. He wrote:<blockquote>There are some, King Gelo, who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited.</blockquote>To solve the problem, Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad. The word itself derives from the Greek {{Langx|grc|μυριάς|translitmurias|labelnone}}, for the number 10,000. He proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads (100 million, i.e., 10,000 x 10,000) and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion, or 8{{e|63}}.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Sand Reckoner |firstBradley W |lastCarroll |publisherWeber State University |urlhttp://physics.weber.edu/carroll/Archimedes/sand.htm |access-date23 July 2007}}</ref>
Writings
(1615)]]
The works of Archimedes were written in Doric Greek, the dialect of ancient Syracuse.<ref>Encyclopedia of ancient Greece By Wilson, Nigel Guy [https://books.google.com/books?id-aFtPdh6-2QC&pgPA77 p. 77] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160508081544/https://books.google.com/books?id-aFtPdh6-2QC&pgPA77 |date8 May 2016 }} {{ISBN|978-0-7945-0225-6}} (2006)</ref> Many written works by Archimedes have not survived or are only extant in heavily edited fragments; at least seven of his treatises are known to have existed due to references made by other authors.<ref name":0" /> Pappus of Alexandria mentions On Sphere-Making and another work on polyhedra, while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the {{nowrap|now-lost}} Catoptrica.<ref group"lower-alpha" name=":0">The treatises by Archimedes known to exist only through references in the works of other authors are: On Sphere-Making and a work on polyhedra mentioned by Pappus of Alexandria; Catoptrica, a work on optics mentioned by Theon of Alexandria; Principles, addressed to Zeuxippus and explaining the number system used in The Sand Reckoner; On Balances or On Levers; On Centers of Gravity; On the Calendar.</ref>
Archimedes made his work known through correspondence with mathematicians in Alexandria. The writings of Archimedes were first collected by the Byzantine Greek architect Isidore of Miletus ({{Circa|530&nbsp;AD}}), while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the same century helped bring his work to a wider audience. Archimedes' work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra (836–901 AD), and into Latin via Arabic by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187). Direct Greek to Latin translations were later done by William of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286) and Iacobus Cremonensis (c. 1400–1453).<ref>{{Cite journal |lastClagett |firstMarshall |date1982 |titleWilliam of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes |journalProceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume126 |issue5 |pages356–36 6 |jstor986212}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastClagett |firstMarshall |date1959 |titleThe Impact of Archimedes on Medieval Science |journalIsis |volume50 |issue4 |pages419–429 |doi10.1086/348797}}</ref>
During the Renaissance, the Editio princeps (First Edition) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin.<ref>{{cite web |titleEditions of Archimedes's Work |publisherBrown University Library |year1999 |urlhttps://library.brown.edu/exhibits/archive/math/wholefr.html}}</ref>
Surviving works
The following are ordered chronologically based on new terminological and historical criteria set by Knorr (1978) and Sato (1986).<ref>{{Cite journal |lastKnorr |firstW. R. |date1978 |titleArchimedes and the Elements: Proposal for a Revised Chronological Ordering of the Archimedean Corpus |journalArchive for History of Exact Sciences |volume19 |issue3 |pages211–290 |doi10.1007/BF00357582 |jstor41133526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastSato |firstT. |date1986 |titleA Reconstruction of The Method Proposition 17, and the Development of Archimedes' Thought on Quadrature...Part One |journalHistoria scientiarum: International journal of the History of Science Society of Japan}}</ref> Measurement of a Circle
{{Main|Measurement of a Circle}}
This is a short work consisting of three propositions. It is written in the form of a correspondence with Dositheus of Pelusium, who was a student of Conon of Samos. In Proposition II, Archimedes gives an approximation of the value of pi ({{pi}}), showing that it is greater than {{sfrac|223|71}} (3.1408...) and less than {{sfrac|22|7}} (3.1428...).
The Sand Reckoner
{{Main|The Sand Reckoner}}
In this treatise, also known as Psammites, Archimedes finds a number that is greater than the grains of sand needed to fill the universe. This book mentions the heliocentric theory of the Solar System proposed by Aristarchus of Samos, as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies, and attempts to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun.<ref name":7" /> By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad, Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8{{e|63}} in modern notation. The introductory letter states that Archimedes' father was an astronomer named Phidias. The Sand Reckoner is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy.<ref>{{cite web |year2002 |titleEnglish translation of The Sand Reckoner |publisherUniversity of Waterloo |urlhttp://www.math.uwaterloo.ca/navigation/ideas/reckoner.shtml |archive-date2002-06-01 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020601231141/https://www.math.uwaterloo.ca/navigation/ideas/reckoner.shtml |url-statusdead}} Adapted from {{cite book |lastNewman |firstJames R. |titleThe World of Mathematics |volume1 |publisherSimon & Schuster |locationNew York |year1956}}</ref> On the Equilibrium of Planes
{{Main|On the Equilibrium of Planes}}
There are two books to On the Equilibrium of Planes: the first contains seven postulates and fifteen propositions, while the second book contains ten propositions. In the first book, Archimedes proves the law of the lever, which states that:
{{Blockquote|text=Magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances reciprocally proportional to their weights.}}
Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles, parallelograms and parabolas.<ref name"works">{{cite book |authorHeath, T.L. |urlhttps://archive.org/details/worksofarchimede029517mbp |titleThe Works of Archimedes |year1897 |publisherCambridge University Press}}</ref>
Quadrature of the Parabola
{{Main|Quadrature of the Parabola}}
In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes proves by two methods that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He achieves this in one of his proofs by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio 1/4.
On the Sphere and Cylinder
{{Main|On the Sphere and Cylinder}}
In this two-volume treatise addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud, namely the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter. The volume is {{sfrac|4|3}}{{pi}}{{math|r}}<sup>3</sup> for the sphere, and 2{{pi}}{{math|r}}<sup>3</sup> for the cylinder. The surface area is 4{{pi}}{{math|r}}<sup>2</sup> for the sphere, and 6{{pi}}{{math|r}}<sup>2</sup> for the cylinder (including its two bases), where {{math|r}} is the radius of the sphere and cylinder.
On Spirals
{{Main|On Spirals}}
This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus. The treatise defines what is now called the Archimedean spiral. It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant angular velocity. Equivalently, in modern polar coordinates ({{math|r}}, {{math|θ}}), it can be described by the equation <math>\, r=a+b\theta</math> with real numbers {{math|a}} and {{math|b}}.
This is an early example of a mechanical curve (a curve traced by a moving point) considered by a Greek mathematician.
On Conoids and Spheroids
{{Main|On Conoids and Spheroids}}
This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus. In this treatise Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres, and paraboloids.
On Floating Bodies
{{Main|On Floating Bodies}}
There are two books of On Floating Bodies. In the first book, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids and proves that water will adopt a spherical form around a center of gravity. This may have been an attempt at explaining the theory of contemporary Greek astronomers such as Eratosthenes that the Earth is round. The fluids described by Archimedes are not {{nowrap|self-gravitating}} since he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall in order to derive the spherical shape. Archimedes' principle of buoyancy is given in this work, stated as follows:{{r|graf}}<ref>{{cite book |lastNetz |firstReviel |chapterArchimedes' Liquid Bodies |titleΣΩΜΑ: Körperkonzepte und körperliche Existenz in der antiken Philosophie und Literatur |year2017 |pages287–322 |editor1-firstThomas |editor1-lastBuchheim |editor2-firstDavid |editor2-lastMeißner |editor3-firstNora |editor3-lastWachsmann |isbn978-3-7873-2928-1 |placeHamburg |publisherFelix Meiner |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrQ2KDwAAQBAJ&pgPA287 |chapter-url-access=limited}}</ref>
<blockquote>Any body wholly or partially immersed in fluid experiences an upthrust equal to, but opposite in direction to, the weight of the fluid displaced.</blockquote>
In the second part, he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, similar to the way that icebergs float.<ref>{{cite book |lastStein |firstSherman |chapterArchimedes and his floating paraboloids |editor1-firstDavid F. |editor1-lastHayes |editor2-firstTatiana |editor2-lastShubin |titleMathematical Adventures for Students and Amateurs |publisherMathematical Association of America |placeWashington |year2004 |pages219–231 |isbn0-88385-548-8 |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/mathematicaladve0000unse/page/219 |chapter-url-accesslimited}} {{pb}} {{cite journal |lastRorres |firstChris |year2004 |titleCompleting Book II of Archimedes's on Floating Bodies |journalThe Mathematical Intelligencer |volume26 |number3 |pages32–42 |doi10.1007/bf02986750}} {{pb}} {{cite journal |last1Girstmair |first1Kurt |last2Kirchner |first2Gerhard |titleTowards a completion of Archimedes' treatise on floating bodies |journalExpositiones Mathematicae |volume26 |number3 |year2008 |pages219–236 |doi10.1016/j.exmath.2007.11.002 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Ostomachion
{{Main|Ostomachion}}
is a dissection puzzle found in the Archimedes Palimpsest|200x200px]]
Also known as Loculus of Archimedes or 'Archimedes' Box''',<ref name":1" /> this is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram, and the treatise describing it was found in more complete form in the Archimedes Palimpsest. Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can be assembled to form a square. Reviel Netz of Stanford University argued in 2003 that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the pieces could be assembled into the shape of a square. Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17,152 ways.<ref>{{cite news |titleIn Archimedes' Puzzle, a New Eureka Moment |authorKolata, Gina |newspaperThe New York Times |date14 December 2003 |urlhttps://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9D00E6DD133CF937A25751C1A9659C8B63&sec&spon&pagewantedall |access-date23 July 2007}}</ref> The number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that are equivalent by rotation and reflection are excluded.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Loculus of Archimedes, Solved |authorEd Pegg Jr. |publisherMathematical Association of America |date17 November 2003 |urlhttp://www.maa.org/editorial/mathgames/mathgames_11_17_03.html |access-date=18 May 2008}}</ref> The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in combinatorics.
The origin of the puzzle's name is unclear, and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient Greek word for "throat" or "gullet", stomachos ({{lang|grc|στόμαχος}}).<ref>{{cite web |firstChris |lastRorres |urlhttp://math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Stomachion/intro.html |titleArchimedes' Stomachion |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences |access-date14 September 2007}}</ref> Ausonius calls the puzzle {{Langx|grc|Ostomachion|labelnone|italicyes}}, a Greek compound word formed from the roots of {{Langx|grc|osteon|labelnone|italicyes}} ({{Langx|grc|ὀστέον|labelnone|litbone}}) and {{Langx|grc|machē|labelnone|italicyes}} ({{Langx|grc|μάχη|labelnone|litfight}}).<ref name":1">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.archimedes-lab.org/latin.html#archimede |titleGraeco Roman Puzzles |publisherGianni A. Sarcone and Marie J. Waeber |access-date9 May 2008}}</ref> The cattle problem {{Main|Archimedes's cattle problem|l1 Archimedes' cattle problem}}
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing discovered this work in a Greek manuscript consisting of a 44-line poem in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, Germany in 1773. It is addressed to Eratosthenes and the mathematicians in Alexandria. Archimedes challenges them to count the numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations. There is a more difficult version of the problem in which some of the answers are required to be square numbers. A. Amthor first solved this version of the problem<ref>Krumbiegel, B. and Amthor, A. Das Problema Bovinum des Archimedes, Historisch-literarische Abteilung der Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik 25 (1880) pp. 121–136, 153–171.</ref> in 1880, and the answer is a very large number, approximately 7.760271{{e|206544}}.<ref>{{cite web |firstKeith G |lastCalkins |urlhttp://www.andrews.edu/~calkins/profess/cattle.htm |titleArchimedes' Problema Bovinum |publisherAndrews University |access-date14 September 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071012171254/http://andrews.edu/~calkins/profess/cattle.htm |archive-date12 October 2007}}</ref>
The Method of Mechanical Theorems
{{Main|The Method of Mechanical Theorems}}
This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906. In this work Archimedes uses indivisibles,<ref name":2" /><ref name":9" /> and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of infinitely small parts can be used to determine its area or volume. He may have considered this method lacking in formal rigor, so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results. As with The Cattle Problem, The Method of Mechanical Theorems was written in the form of a letter to Eratosthenes in Alexandria.
Apocryphal works
Archimedes' Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with 15 propositions on the nature of circles. The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic. T. L. Heath and Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot have been written by Archimedes in its current form, since it quotes Archimedes, suggesting modification by another author. The Lemmas may be based on an earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost.<ref>{{cite web |titleArchimedes' Book of Lemmas |websitecut-the-knot |urlhttp://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/BookOfLemmas/index.shtml |access-date7 August 2007}}</ref>
It has also been claimed that the formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was known to Archimedes,<ref group"lower-alpha">Boyer, Carl Benjamin. 1991. A History of Mathematics. {{ISBN|978-0-471-54397-8}}: "Arabic scholars inform us that the familiar area formula for a triangle in terms of its three sides, usually known as Heron's formula – <math>\textstyle k \sqrt{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}</math>, where <math>s</math> is the semiperimeter&nbsp;– was known to Archimedes several centuries before Heron lived. Arabic scholars also attribute to Archimedes the 'theorem on the broken chord'&nbsp;... Archimedes is reported by the Arabs to have given several proofs of the theorem."</ref> though its first appearance is in the work of Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD.<ref>{{cite web |titleHeron of Alexandria |author1O'Connor, J.J. |author2Robertson, E.F. |publisherUniversity of St Andrews |urlhttp://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Heron.html |dateApril 1999 |access-date17 February 2010}}</ref> Other questionable attributions to Archimedes' work include the Latin poem Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris (4th or 5th century), which describes the use of a hydrostatic balance, to solve the problem of the crown, and the 12th-century text Mappae clavicula, which contains instructions on how to perform assaying of metals by calculating their specific gravities.<ref name"kingcrown">Dilke, Oswald A. W. 1990. [Untitled]. Gnomon 62(8):697–99. {{JSTOR|27690606}}.</ref><ref>Berthelot, Marcel. 1891. "Sur l histoire de la balance hydrostatique et de quelques autres appareils et procédés scientifiques." Annales de Chimie et de Physique 6(23):475–85.</ref>
Archimedes Palimpsest
{{main|Archimedes Palimpsest}}
The foremost document containing Archimedes' work is the Archimedes Palimpsest. In 1906, the Danish professor Johan Ludvig Heiberg visited Constantinople to examine a 174-page goatskin parchment of prayers, written in the 13th century, after reading a short transcription published seven years earlier by Papadopoulos-Kerameus.<ref name":8">{{Cite journal |lastWilson |firstNigel |date2004 |titleThe Archimedes Palimpsest: A Progress Report |journalThe Journal of the Walters Art Museum |volume62 |pages61–68 |jstor20168629}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Easton |first1R. L. |last2Noel |first2W. |date2010 |titleInfinite Possibilities: Ten Years of Study of the Archimedes Palimpsest |journalProceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume154 |issue1 |pages50–76 |jstor20721527}}</ref> He confirmed that it was indeed a palimpsest, a document with text that had been written over an erased older work. Palimpsests were created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing them, a common practice in the Middle Ages, as vellum was expensive. The older works in the palimpsest were identified by scholars as 10th-century copies of previously lost treatises by Archimedes.<ref name":8" /><ref>{{cite magazine |titleReading Between the Lines |authorMiller, Mary K. |magazineSmithsonian |dateMarch 2007 |urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/reading-between-the-lines-148131057/}}</ref> The parchment spent hundreds of years in a monastery library in Constantinople before being sold to a private collector in the 1920s. On 29 October 1998, it was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for a total of $2.2 million.<ref>{{cite news |titleRare work by Archimedes sells for $2 million |publisherCNN |date29 October 1998 |urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/books/news/9810/29/archimedes/ |access-date15 January 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080516000109/http://edition.cnn.com/books/news/9810/29/archimedes/ |archive-date16 May 2008}}</ref><ref>[https://www.christies.com/results/printauctionresults.aspx?saleid8685&lid=1 Christie's (n.d). Auction results]</ref>
The palimpsest holds seven treatises, including the only surviving copy of On Floating Bodies in the original Greek. It is the only known source of The Method of Mechanical Theorems, referred to by Suidas and thought to have been lost forever. Stomachion was also discovered in the palimpsest, with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts. The palimpsest was stored at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, where it was subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and {{nowrap|X-ray}} light to read the overwritten text.<ref>{{cite news |titleX-rays reveal Archimedes' secrets |publisherBBC News |date2 August 2006 |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5235894.stm |access-date23 July 2007}}</ref> It has since returned to its anonymous owner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Piñar |first1G. |last2Sterflinger |first2K. |last3Ettenauer |first3J. |last4Quandt |first4A. |last5Pinzari |first5F. |date2015 |titleA Combined Approach to Assess the Microbial Contamination of the Archimedes Palimpsest |journalMicrobial Ecology |volume69 |issue1 |pages118–134 |pmid25135817 |doi10.1007/s00248-014-0481-7 |pmc4287661 |bibcode2015MicEc..69..118P}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastAcerbi |firstF. |date2013 |titleReview: R. Netz, W. Noel, N. Tchernetska, N. Wilson (eds.), The Archimedes Palimpsest, 2001 |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/8016340 |journalAestimatio |volume10 |pages=34–46}}</ref>
The treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest include:
* On the Equilibrium of Planes
* On Spirals
* Measurement of a Circle
* On the Sphere and Cylinder
* On Floating Bodies
* The Method of Mechanical Theorems
* Stomachion
* Speeches by the 4th century BC politician Hypereides
* A commentary on Aristotle's Categories
* Other works
Legacy
{{further|List of things named after Archimedes|Eureka (disambiguation){{!}}Eureka}}
Sometimes called the father of mathematics and mathematical physics, Archimedes had a wide influence on mathematics and science.<ref name="LitList2">
Father of mathematics: Jane Muir, Of Men and Numbers: The Story of the Great Mathematicians, p 19. {{pb}}
Father of mathematical physics: James H. Williams Jr., Fundamentals of Applied Dynamics, p 30., Carl B. Boyer, Uta C. Merzbach, A History of Mathematics, p 111., Stuart Hollingdale, Makers of Mathematics, p 67., Igor Ushakov, In the Beginning, Was the Number (2), p 114.</ref>
Mathematics and physics
]]
Historians of science and mathematics almost universally agree that Archimedes was the finest mathematician from antiquity. Eric Temple Bell, for instance, wrote:
{{blockquote|Any list of the three "greatest" mathematicians of all history would include the name of Archimedes. The other two usually associated with him are Newton and Gauss. Some, considering the relative wealth—or poverty—of mathematics and physical science in the respective ages in which these giants lived, and estimating their achievements against the background of their times, would put Archimedes first.<ref>E.T. Bell, Men of Mathematics, p 20.</ref>}}
Likewise, Alfred North Whitehead and George F. Simmons said of Archimedes:
{{blockquote|... in the year 1500 Europe knew less than Archimedes who died in the year 212 BC ...<ref>{{cite web |authorAlfred North Whitehead |titleThe Influence of Western Medieval Culture Upon the Development of Modern Science |urlhttps://inters.org/Whitehead-Western-Development-Science |access-date4 April 2022}}</ref>}}{{blockquote|If we consider what all other men accomplished in mathematics and physics, on every continent and in every civilization, from the beginning of time down to the seventeenth century in Western Europe, the achievements of Archimedes outweighs it all. He was a great civilization all by himself.<ref>George F. Simmons, Calculus Gems: Brief Lives and Memorable Mathematics, p 43.</ref>}}
Reviel Netz, Suppes Professor in Greek Mathematics and Astronomy at Stanford University and an expert in Archimedes notes:
{{blockquote|And so, since Archimedes led more than anyone else to the formation of the calculus and since he was the pioneer of the application of mathematics to the physical world, it turns out that Western science is but a series of footnotes to Archimedes. Thus, it turns out that Archimedes is the most important scientist who ever lived.<ref>Reviel Netz, William Noel, The Archimedes Codex: Revealing The Secrets of the World's Greatest Palimpsest</ref>}}
Leonardo da Vinci repeatedly expressed admiration for Archimedes, and attributed his invention Architonnerre to Archimedes.<ref name"Nelson Examiner">{{cite news |urlhttp://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?ad&dNENZC18420521.2.11 |titleThe Steam-Engine |volumeI |issue11 |date21 May 1842 |workNelson Examiner and New Zealand Chronicle |publisherNational Library of New Zealand |page43 |access-date14 February 2011 |locationNelson}}</ref><ref name"PennyM">{{cite book |titleThe Steam Engine |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idE1oFAAAAQAAJ&pgRA1-PA104 |year1838 |publisherThe Penny Magazine |page104}}</ref><ref name"Thurston1996">{{cite book |authorRobert Henry Thurston |titleA History of the Growth of the Steam-Engine |year1996 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKCMUmXV1C1gC |publisherElibron |isbn1-4021-6205-7 |page12}}</ref> Galileo Galilei called him "superhuman" and "my master",<ref>Matthews, Michael. Time for Science Education: How Teaching the History and Philosophy of Pendulum Motion Can Contribute to Science Literacy. p. 96.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleArchimedes – Galileo Galilei and Archimedes |urlhttps://exhibits.museogalileo.it/archimedes/section/GalileoGalileiArchimedes.html |access-date16 June 2021 |websiteexhibits.museogalileo.it}}</ref> while Christiaan Huygens said, "I think Archimedes is comparable to no one", consciously emulating him in his early work.<ref>{{Cite web |lastYoder |firstJ. |date1996 |titleFollowing in the footsteps of geometry: the mathematical world of Christiaan Huygens |urlhttps://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_zev001199601_01/_zev001199601_01_0009.php |websiteDe Zeventiende Eeuw. Jaargang 12}}</ref> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz said, "He who understands Archimedes and Apollonius will admire less the achievements of the foremost men of later times".<ref>Boyer, Carl B., and Uta C. Merzbach. 1968. A History of Mathematics. ch. 7.</ref> Gauss's heroes were Archimedes and Newton,<ref>Jay Goldman, The Queen of Mathematics: A Historically Motivated Guide to Number Theory, p 88.</ref> and Moritz Cantor, who studied under Gauss in the University of Göttingen, reported that he once remarked in conversation that "there had been only three epoch-making mathematicians: Archimedes, Newton, and Eisenstein".<ref>E.T. Bell, Men of Mathematics, p 237</ref>
The inventor Nikola Tesla praised him, saying:
{{blockquote|Archimedes was my ideal. I admired the works of artists, but to my mind, they were only shadows and semblances. The inventor, I thought, gives to the world creations which are palpable, which live and work.<ref>W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, p 57</ref>}}
Honors and commemorations
Italian numismatist and archaeologist Filippo Paruta (1552–1629) and Leonardo Agostini (1593–1676) reported on a bronze coin in Sicily with the portrait of Archimedes on the obverse and a cylinder and sphere with the monogram ARMD in Latin on the reverse.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Paruta |first1Filippo |urlhttps://dn720400.ca.archive.org/0/items/lasiciliadifilip00paru/lasiciliadifilip00paru.pdf |titleLa Sicilia descritta con medaglie |last2Agostini |first2Leonardo |publisherMarco Maier |year1697 |publication-date1697 |pages73, 326 |languageit |trans-titleSicily described by medals |access-date2025-01-20}}</ref> Although the coin is now lost and its date is not precisely known, Ivo Schneider described the reverse as "a sphere resting on a base – probably a rough image of one of the planetaria created by Archimedes," and suggested it might have been minted in Rome for Marcellus who "according to ancient reports, brought two spheres of Archimedes with him to Rome".<ref>{{Cite book |lastSchneider |firstIvo |titleArchimedes. Ingenieur, Naturwissenschaftler und Mathematiker |publisherWissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |year1979 |isbn3-534-06844-0 |locationDarmstadt |pages19, 23 |languagede |trans-title=Archimedes. Engineer, natural scientist and mathematician}}</ref>
There is a crater on the Moon named Archimedes ({{Coord|29.7|-4.0|display}}) in his honor, as well as a lunar mountain range, the Montes Archimedes ({{Coord|25.3|-4.6|display}}).<ref>{{cite web |titleOblique view of Archimedes crater on the Moon |author1Friedlander, Jay |author2Williams, Dave |publisherNASA |urlhttp://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgcat/html/object_page/a15_m_1541.html |access-date13 September 2007}}</ref>
carries a portrait of Archimedes|190x190px]]
The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics carries a portrait of Archimedes, along with a carving illustrating his proof on the sphere and the cylinder. The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote attributed to 1st century AD poet Manilius, which reads in Latin: Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri ("Rise above oneself and grasp the world").<ref>{{Cite journal |lastRiehm |firstC. |date2002 |titleThe early history of the Fields Medal |urlhttps://www.ams.org/notices/200207/comm-riehm.pdf |journalNotices of the AMS |volume49 |issue7 |pages778–782 |quote"The Latin inscription from the Roman poet Manilius surrounding the image may be translated 'To pass beyond your understanding and make yourself master of the universe.' The phrase comes from Manilius's Astronomica 4.392 from the first century A.D. (p. 782)."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date5 February 2015 |titleThe Fields Medal |urlhttp://www.fields.utoronto.ca/about/fields-medal |access-date23 April 2021 |websiteFields Institute for Research in Mathematical Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleFields Medal |urlhttps://www.mathunion.org/imu-awards/fields-medal |access-date23 April 2021 |publisher=International Mathematical Union}}</ref>
Archimedes has appeared on postage stamps issued by East Germany (1973), Greece (1983), Italy (1983), Nicaragua (1971), San Marino (1982), and Spain (1963).<ref>{{cite web |firstChris |lastRorres |urlhttp://math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Stamps/stamps.html |titleStamps of Archimedes |publisherCourant Institute of Mathematical Sciences |access-date25 August 2007}}</ref>
The exclamation of Eureka! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California. In this instance, the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter's Mill in 1848 which sparked the California gold rush.<ref>{{cite web |titleCalifornia Symbols |publisherCalifornia State Capitol Museum |urlhttp://www.capitolmuseum.ca.gov/VirtualTour.aspx?content11278&Content21374&Content31294 |access-date14 September 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071012123245/http://capitolmuseum.ca.gov/VirtualTour.aspx?content11278&Content21374&Content31294 |archive-date12 October 2007 |url-statusdead}}</ref>See also{{Portal|Biography|Mathematics|Physics}}Concepts
* Arbelos
* Archimedean point
* Archimedes' axiom
* Archimedes number
* Archimedes paradox
* Archimedean solid
* Archimedes' twin circles
* Methods of computing square roots
* Salinon
* Steam cannon
People
* Diocles
* Pseudo-Archimedes
* Zhang Heng
References
Notes
{{Reflist|35em|grouplower-alpha}} Citations {{Reflist}}Further reading
{{EB1911 poster|Archimedes}}
*Boyer, Carl Benjamin. 1991. A History of Mathematics. New York: Wiley. {{ISBN|978-0-471-54397-8}}.
*Clagett, Marshall. 1964–1984. Archimedes in the Middle Ages 1–5. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
*Clagett, Marshall. 1970. "Archimedes". In Charles Coulston Gillispie, ed. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1 (Abailard–Berg). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. {{pgs|213–231}}.
*Dijksterhuis, Eduard J. 1956. Archimedes. Translated by C. Dikshoorn. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard. Chapters 1–5 were translated from Archimedes (in Dutch). Groningen: Noordhoff. 1938. Later chapters appeared in Euclides Vols. 15–17, 20. 1938–1944. Reprinted 1987 by Princeton University Press. {{isbn|0-691-08421-1}}
*Gow, Mary. 2005. Archimedes: Mathematical Genius of the Ancient World. Enslow Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-7660-2502-8}}.
*Hasan, Heather. 2005. Archimedes: The Father of Mathematics. Rosen Central. {{ISBN|978-1-4042-0774-5}}.
*Heath, Thomas L. 1897. Works of Archimedes. Dover Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-486-42084-4}}. Complete works of Archimedes in English.
*Netz, Reviel. 2004–2017. The Works of Archimedes: Translation and Commentary. 1–2. Cambridge University Press. Vol. 1: "The Two Books on the Sphere and the Cylinder". {{isbn|978-0-521-66160-7}}. Vol. 2: "On Spirals". {{isbn|978-0-521-66145-4}}.
* Netz, Reviel, and William Noel. 2007. The Archimedes Codex. Orion Publishing Group. {{ISBN|978-0-297-64547-4}}.
*Pickover, Clifford A. 2008. Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-533611-5}}.
*Simms, Dennis L. 1995. Archimedes the Engineer. Continuum International Publishing Group. {{ISBN|978-0-7201-2284-8}}.
*Stein, Sherman. 1999. Archimedes: What Did He Do Besides Cry Eureka?. Mathematical Association of America. {{ISBN|978-0-88385-718-2}}.
External links
{{Sister project links|commonsCategory:Archimedes|vAncient Innovations|nParticle accelerator reveals long-lost writings of Archimedes|sAuthor:Archimedes|b=FHSST Physics/Forces/Definition}}
* ''[https://www.wilbourhall.org/index.html#archimedes Heiberg's Edition of Archimedes].'' Texts in Classical Greek, with some in English.
* {{In Our Time|Archimedes|b00773bv|Archimedes}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id2545| nameArchimedes}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* {{InPho|thinker|2546}}
* {{PhilPapers|search|archimedes}}
* [http://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/ The Archimedes Palimpsest project at The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland]
* {{MathPages|idhome/kmath038/kmath038|titleArchimedes and the Square Root of 3}}
* {{MathPages|idhome/kmath343/kmath343|titleArchimedes on Spheres and Cylinders}}
* [http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/experiments/steamCannon/ArchimedesSteamCannon.html Testing the Archimedes steam cannon] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100329220142/http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/experiments/steamCannon/ArchimedesSteamCannon.html |date29 March 2010 }}
{{Archimedes}}
{{Ancient Greek mathematics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Archimedes}}
Category:3rd-century BC Greek people
Category:3rd-century BC writers
Category:People from Syracuse, Sicily
Category:Ancient Greek engineers
Category:Ancient Greek inventors
Category:Ancient Greek geometers
Category:Ancient Greek physicists
Category:Hellenistic-era philosophers
Category:Doric Greek writers
Category:Sicilian Greeks
Category:Mathematicians from Sicily
Category:Scientists from Sicily
Category:Ancient Greek murder victims
Category:Ancient Syracusans
Category:Fluid dynamicists
Category:Buoyancy
Category:280s BC births
Category:210s BC deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:Year of death uncertain
Category:3rd-century BC mathematicians
Category:3rd-century BC Syracusans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
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Alternative medicine
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{{Short description|Unscientific healthcare practices}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{infobox alternative medicine
| name | synonyms <!--Please do not remove any synonym without prior consensus, seek consensus on the talk page-->AM, complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), complementary medicine, heterodox medicine, integrative medicine (IM), complementary and integrative medicine (CIM), new-age medicine, pseudomedicine, unconventional medicine, unorthodox medicine, altmed<!--Please do not remove any synonym without prior consensus, seek consensus on the talk page-->
| image | image_size 250
| alt | caption Alternative therapies often make bombastic claims and frequently include anecdotes from healthy-looking individuals claiming successful treatment.
| classification | modality
| claims = Alternatives to science-based medicine
| topics | origyear
| origprop | laterprop
| seealso | MeshID
}}
{{Alternative medical systems|general}}
<!--References for the lead are contained in the article body. Also see article version ID 890900314, which contains the references in the comments.-->
Alternative medicine is any practice that aims to achieve the healing effects of medicine despite lacking biological plausibility, testability, repeatability or evidence of effectiveness. Unlike modern medicine, which employs the scientific method to test plausible therapies by way of responsible and ethical clinical trials, producing repeatable evidence of either effect or of no effect, alternative therapies reside outside of mainstream medicine{{refn|nameHarrisonquote|groupn}}{{refn |nameWebMD2014quote|groupn}} and do not originate from using the scientific method, but instead rely on testimonials, anecdotes, religion, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural "energies", pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, fraud, or other unscientific sources. Frequently used terms for relevant practices are New Age medicine, pseudo-medicine, unorthodox medicine, holistic medicine, fringe medicine, and unconventional medicine, with little distinction from quackery.
Some alternative practices are based on theories that contradict the established science of how the human body works; others appeal to the supernatural or superstitious to explain their effect or lack thereof. In others, the practice has plausibility but lacks a positive risk–benefit outcome probability. Research into alternative therapies often fails to follow proper research protocols (such as placebo-controlled trials, blind experiments and calculation of prior probability), providing invalid results. History has shown that if a method is proven to work, it eventually ceases to be alternative and becomes mainstream medicine.
Much of the perceived effect of an alternative practice arises from a belief that it will be effective, the placebo effect, or from the treated condition resolving on its own (the natural course of disease). This is further exacerbated by the tendency to turn to alternative therapies upon the failure of medicine, at which point the condition will be at its worst and most likely to spontaneously improve. In the absence of this bias, especially for diseases that are not expected to get better by themselves such as cancer or HIV infection, multiple studies have shown significantly worse outcomes if patients turn to alternative therapies. While this may be because these patients avoid effective treatment, some alternative therapies are actively harmful (e.g. cyanide poisoning from amygdalin, or the intentional ingestion of hydrogen peroxide) or actively interfere with effective treatments.
The alternative medicine sector is a highly profitable industry with a strong lobby,<ref name="ConsumerHealth9th"/> and faces far less regulation over the use and marketing of unproven treatments. Complementary medicine (CM), complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), integrated medicine or integrative medicine (IM), and holistic medicine attempt to combine alternative practices with those of mainstream medicine. Traditional medicine practices become "alternative" when used outside their original settings and without proper scientific explanation and evidence. Alternative methods are often marketed as more "natural" or "holistic" than methods offered by medical science, that is sometimes derogatorily called "Big Pharma" by supporters of alternative medicine. Billions of dollars have been spent studying alternative medicine, with few or no positive results and many methods thoroughly disproven.
{{TOC limit|4}}
Definitions and terminology
{{see also|Terminology of alternative medicine}}
: "There cannot be two kinds of medicine&nbsp;– conventional and alternative."<ref name=Angell1998/>]]
The terms alternative medicine, complementary medicine, integrative medicine, holistic medicine, natural medicine, unorthodox medicine, fringe medicine, unconventional medicine, and new age medicine are used interchangeably as having the same meaning and are almost synonymous in most contexts.<ref name"Shapiro 08">{{Cite book |lastShapiro |firstRose |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIb_IbOu_d9gC&pgPA1 |titleSuckers: How Alternative Medicine Makes Fools of Us All |publisherRandom House |year2010 |isbn978-1-4090-5916-5 |page8 |quoteFurther rebranding has given rise to the notion of 'integrated medicine'.}}</ref><ref nameBombardieri2000 /><ref name"Shuval2012" /><ref name"Freedman2011" /> Terminology has shifted over time, reflecting the preferred branding of practitioners.<ref name"SBM-brand">Gorski, David (August 15, 2011). [https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/integrative-medicine-a-brand-not-a-specialty/ "Integrative medicine": A brand, not a specialty]. sciencebasedmedicine.org. (Retrieved March 25, 2022).</ref> For example, the United States National Institutes of Health department studying alternative medicine, currently named the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), was established as the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) and was renamed the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) before obtaining its current name. Therapies are often framed as "natural" or "holistic", implicitly and intentionally suggesting that conventional medicine is "artificial" and "narrow in scope".<ref name"ConsumerHealth9th"/><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uriOJ:L:2004:136:0085:0090:en:PDF|titleDirective 2004/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council|date2004-04-30|websiteOfficial Journal of the European Union}}</ref>
The meaning of the term "alternative" in the expression "alternative medicine", is not that it is an effective alternative to medical science (though some alternative medicine promoters may use the loose terminology to give the appearance of effectiveness).<ref name"Sampson_6/1995">{{Cite journal |lastSampson |firstWallace |dateJune 1995 |titleAntiscience Trends in the Rise of the Alternative Medicine Movement |urlhttps://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb23138.x |journalAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume775 |issue1 |pages188–197 |doi10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb23138.x |pmid8678416 |s2cid2813395 |issn0077-8923}}</ref><ref name"Kolata">{{Citation |lastKolata |firstGina |titleOn Fringes of Health Care, Untested Therapies Thrive |dateJune 17, 1996 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/17/us/on-fringes-of-health-care-untested-therapies-thrive.html |workThe New York Times |access-dateDecember 22, 2015 |author-linkGina Kolata}}</ref> Loose terminology may also be used to suggest meaning that a dichotomy exists when it does not (e.g., the use of the expressions "Western medicine" and "Eastern medicine" to suggest that the difference is a cultural difference between the Asian east and the European west, rather than that the difference is between evidence-based medicine and treatments that do not work).<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" />
Alternative medicine
Alternative medicine is defined loosely as a set of products, practices, and theories that are believed or perceived by their users to have the healing effects of medicine,{{refn|nameNSFquote|groupn|"[A]lternative medicine refers to all treatments that have not been proven effective using scientific methods."<ref name"NSF_4/2002" />}}{{refn|"Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a broad domain of resources that encompasses health systems, modalities, and practices and their accompanying theories and beliefs, other than those intrinsic to the dominant health system of a particular society or culture in a given historical period. CAM includes such resources perceived by their users as associated with positive health outcomes. Boundaries within CAM and between the CAM domain and the domain of the dominant system are not always sharp or fixed."{{sfn|IOM Report|2005|p19}}|nameIOMquote|groupn}} but whose effectiveness has not been established using scientific methods,{{refn|nameNSFquote|groupn}}{{refn|nameAngellquote|groupn|"It is time for the scientific community to stop giving alternative medicine a free ride. There cannot be two kinds of medicine&nbsp;– conventional and alternative. There is only medicine that has been adequately tested and medicine that has not, medicine that works and medicine that may or may not work&nbsp;... speculation, and testimonials do not substitute for evidence."<ref nameAngell1998/>}}<ref name"Hines_Sampson_Coulter_Sagan" /><ref name"IGPIAMAYP" /><ref name"NP" /><ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /> or whose theory and practice is not part of biomedicine,{{refn|groupn|nameIOMquote}}{{refn|groupn|nameHarrisonquote |"The phrase complementary and alternative medicine is used to describe a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that have historic origins outside mainstream medicine. Most of these practices are used together with conventional therapies and therefore have been called complementary to distinguish them from alternative practices, those used as a substitute for standard care.&nbsp;... Until a decade ago or so, 'complementary and alternative medicine' could be defined as practices that are neither taught in medical schools nor reimbursed, but this definition is no longer workable, since medical students increasingly seek and receive some instruction about complementary health practices, and some practices are reimbursed by third-party payers. Another definition, practices that lack an evidence base, is also not useful, since there is a growing body of research on some of these modalities, and some aspects of standard care do not have a strong evidence base."{{sfn|Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|2015|locchpt. 14-E|p1}}}}{{refn |nameWebMD2014quote |groupn |"An alternative medical system is a set of practices based on a philosophy different from Western biomedicine."<ref nameWebMD2014/>}}{{refn |groupn |nameNCCIH2quote |"CAM is a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not generally considered part of conventional medicine."<ref nameNCCIH2/>}} or whose theories or practices are directly contradicted by scientific evidence or scientific principles used in biomedicine.<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"Hines_Sampson_Coulter_Sagan" /><ref name"AMCER" /> "Biomedicine" or "medicine" is that part of medical science that applies principles of biology, physiology, molecular biology, biophysics, and other natural sciences to clinical practice, using scientific methods to establish the effectiveness of that practice. Unlike medicine,{{refn|nameHarrisonquote|groupn}} an alternative product or practice does not originate from using scientific methods, but may instead be based on hearsay, religion, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural energies, pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, fraud, or other unscientific sources.{{refn|nameAngellquote|groupn}}<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref name"Hines_Sampson_Coulter_Sagan" /><ref name"AMCER" />
Some other definitions seek to specify alternative medicine in terms of its social and political marginality to mainstream healthcare.<ref name"Saks1992" /> This can refer to the lack of support that alternative therapies receive from medical scientists regarding access to research funding, sympathetic coverage in the medical press, or inclusion in the standard medical curriculum.<ref name"Saks1992" /> For example, a widely used{{sfn|IOM Report|2005|p[http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11182&page19 19]}} definition devised by the US NCCIH calls it "a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not generally considered part of conventional medicine".<ref name"NCCIH1" /> However, these descriptive definitions are inadequate in the present-day when some conventional doctors offer alternative medical treatments and introductory courses or modules can be offered as part of standard undergraduate medical training;<ref name"HOL_Kopelman_Wieland_Astin_Pelletier" /> alternative medicine is taught in more than half of US medical schools and US health insurers are increasingly willing to provide reimbursement for alternative therapies.{{sfn|IOM Report|2005|pp[http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11182&page17 17], [http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11182&page196 196–252]}}
Complementary or integrative medicine
{{anchor|Complementary medicine|Integrative medicine|Integrated medicine}}
Complementary medicine (CM) or integrative medicine (IM) is when alternative medicine is used together with mainstream functional medical treatment in a belief that it improves the effect of treatments.{{refn|groupn|nameFinalReport|The Final Report (2002) of the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy states: "The Commissioners believe and have repeatedly stated in this Report that our response should be to hold all systems of health and healing, including conventional and CAM, to the same rigorous standards of good science and health services research. Although the Commissioners support the provision of the most accurate information about the state of the science of all CAM modalities, they believe that it is premature to advocate the wide implementation and reimbursement of CAM modalities that are yet unproven."<ref name"whccamp.hhs.gov"/>}}<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref name"Ernst_1995" /><ref name"Joyce_1994" /><ref name"BMJ_May" /> For example, acupuncture (piercing the body with needles to influence the flow of a supernatural energy) might be believed to increase the effectiveness or "complement" science-based medicine when used at the same time.<ref name"NCI_PDQ_CAM" /><ref name"Borkan2012" /><ref name"whatiscam" /> Significant drug interactions caused by alternative therapies may make treatments less effective, notably in cancer therapy.<ref name"autogenerated2">{{Cite journal |last1Zeller |first1T. |last2Muenstedt |first2K. |last3Stoll |first3C. |last4Schweder |first4J. |last5Senf |first5B. |last6Ruckhaeberle |first6E. |last7Becker |first7S. |last8Serve|first8H. |last9Huebner |first9J. |date2013-03-01 |titlePotential interactions of complementary and alternative medicine with cancer therapy in outpatients with gynecological cancer in a comprehensive cancer center |journalJournal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology |volume139 |issue3 |pages357–365 |doi10.1007/s00432-012-1336-6|issn1432-1335|pmid23099993|s2cid29598970 }}</ref><ref name"Arye13">{{Cite journal|last1Ben-Arye |first1Eran |last2Polliack |first2Aaron |last3Schiff |first3Elad |last4Tadmor |first4Tamar |last5Samuels |first5Noah|date2013-12-01|titleAdvising patients on the use of non-herbal nutritional supplements during cancer therapy: a need for doctor-patient communication |journalJournal of Pain and Symptom Management |volume46 |issue6 |pages887–896 |doi10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2013.02.010 |pmid23707384 |issn1873-6513|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref name="Li et al., 2018" />
Several medical organizations differentiate between complementary and alternative medicine including the UK National Health Service (NHS),<ref>{{Cite web |dateMarch 1, 2022 |titleComplementary and alternative medicine |urlhttps://www.nhs.uk/conditions/complementary-and-alternative-medicine/ |access-date2023-05-06 |publisherNational Health Service |languageen}}</ref> Cancer Research UK,<ref>{{Cite web |date4 April 2022 |titleThe difference between complementary and alternative therapies (CAMs) |urlhttps://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/about/difference-between-therapies |access-date2023-05-06 |publisherCancer Research UK |languageen}}</ref> and the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the latter of which states that "Complementary medicine is used in addition to standard treatments" whereas "Alternative medicine is used instead of standard treatments."<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-06-09 |titleComplementary and Alternative Medicine for Cancer Patients |urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/cancer/survivors/patients/complementary-alternative-medicine.htm |access-date2023-05-06 |websiteCenters for Disease Control and Prevention |languageen-us}}</ref>
Complementary and integrative interventions are used to improve fatigue in adult cancer patients.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Belloni |first1Silvia |last2Bonucci |first2Massimo |last3Arrigoni |first3Cristina |last4Dellafiore |first4Federica |last5Caruso |first5Rosario |date2023-01-01 |titleA Systematic Review of Systematic Reviews and a Pooled Meta-Analysis on Complementary and Integrative Medicine for Improving Cancer-Related Fatigue |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149291822004052 |journalClinical Therapeutics |languageen |volume45 |issue1 |pagese54–e73 |doi10.1016/j.clinthera.2022.12.001 |pmid36566113 |s2cid255049739 |issn0149-2918}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Greenlee |first1Heather |last2Zick |first2Suzanna M. |last3Rosenthal |first3David |last4Cohen |first4Lorenzo |last5Cassileth |first5Barrie |last6Tripathy |first6Debu |dateMarch 2015 |titleIntegrative oncology — strong science is needed for better patient care |journalNature Reviews Cancer |languageen |volume15 |issue3 |page165 |doi10.1038/nrc3822-c1 |pmid25693833 |s2cid8053861 |issn1474-1768|doi-accessfree }}</ref>
David Gorski has described integrative medicine as an attempt to bring pseudoscience into academic science-based medicine<ref name"Gorski2010" /> with skeptics such as Gorski and David Colquhoun referring to this with the pejorative term "quackademia".<ref>{{Cite journal |lastCaldwell |firstElizabeth Frances |date2017-07-03 |titleQuackademia? Mass-Media Delegitimation of Homeopathy Education |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09505431.2017.1316253 |journalScience as Culture |languageen |volume26 |issue3 |pages380–407 |doi10.1080/09505431.2017.1316253 |s2cid151442812 |issn0950-5431}}</ref> Robert Todd Carroll described Integrative medicine as "a synonym for 'alternative' medicine that, at its worst, integrates sense with nonsense. At its best, integrative medicine supports both consensus treatments of science-based medicine and treatments that the science, while promising perhaps, does not justify"<ref name"Carroll_integrative">Robert Todd Carroll. [http://skepdic.com/integratmed.html Integrative medicine]. Skeptic's Dictionary</ref> Rose Shapiro has criticized the field of alternative medicine for rebranding the same practices as integrative medicine.<ref name"Shapiro 08" />
CAM is an abbreviation of the phrase complementary and alternative medicine.<ref name"ernstinterview" /><ref name"CassilethDeng2004" /><ref name"Tyreman 209–17">{{Cite journal |lastTyreman |firstStephen |date2011-05-01 |titleValues in complementary and alternative medicine|journalMedicine, Health Care and Philosophy |volume14 |issue2 |pages209–217 |doi10.1007/s11019-010-9297-5 |issn1572-8633 |pmid21104324|s2cid32143622 }}</ref> The 2019 World Health Organization (WHO) Global Report on Traditional and Complementary Medicine states that the terms complementary and alternative medicine "refer to a broad set of health care practices that are not part of that country's own traditional or conventional medicine and are not fully integrated into the dominant health care system. They are used interchangeably with traditional medicine in some countries."<ref name"WHO_2019">{{Cite report |date2019 |titleWHO global report on traditional and complementary medicine |urlhttps://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/312342/9789241515436-eng.pdf?sequence1&isAllowedy |journalWorld Health Organization |locationGeneva |isbn978-92-4-151543-6 |access-date2022-12-06 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220729214610/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/312342/9789241515436-eng.pdf?sequence1&isAllowedy |archive-date2022-07-29 |archive-format=PDF}}</ref>
The Integrative Medicine Exam by the American Board of Physician Specialties<ref name"ABPS_IM_test">{{cite web | titleIntegrative Medicine Exam Description | publisherAmerican Board of Physician Specialties | dateJuly 16, 2021 | urlhttps://www.abpsus.org/integrative-medicine-description/ | access-dateMarch 11, 2022}}</ref> includes the following subjects: Manual Therapies, Biofield Therapies, Acupuncture, Movement Therapies, Expressive Arts, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, Indigenous Medical Systems, Homeopathic Medicine, Naturopathic Medicine, Osteopathic Medicine,<!--The wikilink deliberately points to the Alternative medicine article, not the mainstream medicine article.--> Chiropractic, and Functional Medicine.<ref name"ABPS_IM_test" />Other terms
{{see also|Traditional medicine}}
Traditional medicine (TM) refers to certain practices within a culture which have existed since before the advent of medical science,<ref name"WakeFitie_2022">{{cite journal |last1Wake |first1Getu Engida |last2Fitie |first2Girma Wogie |titleMagnitude and Determinant Factors of Herbal Medicine Utilization Among Mothers Attending Their Antenatal Care at Public Health Institutions in Debre Berhan Town, Ethiopia |journalFrontiers in Public Health |date29 April 2022 |volume10 |page883053 |doi10.3389/fpubh.2022.883053 |pmid35570953 |pmc9098925 |issn2296-2565|quote"Traditional medicine is defined as the ways of protecting and restoring health that existed before the arrival of modern medicine. It is underestimated part of healthcare that finds in almost every country in the world. Traditional medicine has been being used in the maintenance of health and the prevention, diagnosis, improvement, or treatment of physical and mental illness." |doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref name"CheGeorgeIjinu2017">{{cite book | title Pharmacognosy | last1 Che | first1 C.-T. | last2 George | first2 V. | last3 Ijinu | first3 T.P. | last4 Pushpangadan | first4 P. | last5 Andrae-Marobela | first5 K. | chapter Traditional Medicine | date 2017 | pages 15–30 | publisher Elsevier | doi 10.1016/B978-0-12-802104-0.00002-0 | isbn 978-0-12-802104-0 |quote"Traditional medicine, as defined by the World Health Organization, is the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement, or treatment of physical and mental illness. Some traditional medicine systems are supported by huge volumes of literature and records of the theoretical concepts and practical skills; others pass down from generation to generation through verbal teaching."}}</ref> Many TM practices are based on "holistic" approaches to disease and health, versus the scientific evidence-based methods in conventional medicine.<ref name"UNESCO_IBEC_2010">{{cite book |titleDraft preliminary report on traditional medicine and its ethical implications |date2010 |publisherUNESCO International Bioethics Committee |locationParis |page5 |urlhttps://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000189592_eng |access-date29 March 2023|quote"Whereas traditional medicine is based on analogical reasoning and a holistic approach to disease and health, conventional medicine rests on scientific knowledge and is evidence-based."}}</ref><ref name"LiWeng_2017">{{cite journal |last1Li |first1Fu-Shuang |last2Weng |first2Jing-Ke |titleDemystifying traditional herbal medicine with modern approach |journalNature Plants |date31 July 2017 |volume3 |issue8 |page17109 |doi10.1038/nplants.2017.109 |pmid28758992 |bibcode2017NatPl...317109L |s2cid2127457 |urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/nplants2017109 |languageen |issn2055-0278|quote"Although the initial development of these holistic traditional herbal prescriptions predated modern science, the process was based on thousands of years of phenotype-based and personalized human clinical trials. Meanwhile, meticulous descriptions of disease symptoms and systematic medical theories have also been recorded by generations of herbal doctors, relating therapeutic properties of diverse medicinal plants to their utility in treating specific symptoms. Yet most of the foundational concepts in the traditional medical systems—for example, the concepts of yin versus yang and cold versus hot in traditional Chinese medicine—are disconnected from the modern descriptions of normal and disease states in the language of physiology and molecular biology. The lack of modern scientific and clinical evidence for safety, efficacy and action mechanisms further prevented those holistic herbal medicine prescriptions from being accepted beyond their culture of origin."}}</ref> The 2019 WHO report defines traditional medicine as "the sum total of the knowledge, skill and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness."<ref name"WHO_2019" /> When used outside the original setting and in the absence of scientific evidence, TM practices are typically referred to as "alternative medicine".<ref name"JansenBaker_2021">{{cite journal |last1Jansen |first1C. |last2Baker |first2J.D. |last3Kodaira |first3E. |last4Ang |first4L. |last5Bacani |first5A.J. |last6Aldan |first6J.T. |last7Shimoda |first7L.M.N. |last8Salameh |first8M. |last9Small-Howard |first9A.L. |last10Stokes |first10A.J. |last11Turner |first11H. |last12Adra |first12C.N. |titleMedicine in motion: Opportunities, challenges and data analytics-based solutions for traditional medicine integration into western medical practice |journalJournal of Ethnopharmacology |dateMarch 2021 |volume267 |page113477 |doi10.1016/j.jep.2020.113477|pmid33098971 |pmc7577282 |quote"When adopted outside its traditional or root culture, traditional medicine is often classified as a form of alternative medicine (AM), for example by Western professional medical organizations, insurers and healthcare systems. This problematically leads to lack of regulation (e.g., in the U.S. where these approaches are at best relegated to the nutraceutical market largely outside the FDA sphere of regulation) and a lack of fidelity to original formulations, dose schedules, delivery methods and indications."| issn 0378-8741}}</ref><ref name"Tabish_2008">{{cite journal |last1Tabish |first1Syed Amin |titleComplementary and Alternative Healthcare: Is it Evidence-based? |journalInternational Journal of Health Sciences |date2008 |volume2 |issue1 |pagesV–IX |pmid21475465 |pmc3068720 |issn1658-3639|quote"Complementary and alternative healthcare and medical practices (CAM) is a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine. The list of practices that are considered as CAM changes continually as CAM practices and therapies that are proven safe and effective become accepted as the "mainstream" healthcare practices...Alternative medicine is commonly categorized together with complementary medicine under the umbrella term "complementary and alternative medicine". Complementary medicine refers to therapies that complement traditional western (or allopathic) medicine and is used together with conventional medicine, and alternative medicine is used in place of conventional medicine. Alternative medicine refers to therapeutic approaches taken in place of traditional medicine and used to treat or ameliorate disease."}}</ref><ref name="Fontanarosa1998"/>
{{Visible anchor|Holistic medicine}} is another rebranding of alternative medicine. In this case, the words balance and holism are often used alongside complementary or integrative, claiming to take into fuller account the "whole" person, in contrast to the supposed reductionism of medicine.<ref name"Beresford pp. 721–724">{{cite journal | lastBeresford | firstM. J. | titleMedical reductionism: lessons from the great philosophers | journalQJM | publisherOxford University Press (OUP) | volume103 | issue9 | date15 April 2010 | issn1460-2725 | doi10.1093/qjmed/hcq057 | pages721–724 | pmid20395240 | quoteUnfortunately, the term 'holistic medicine' has been somewhat hijacked by alternative therapists and is often thought mistakenly to be at odds with conventional medicine.| doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref name"ZUCKER 1979 pp. 39–42">{{cite journal |lastZucker |firstArthur |dateJanuary 1979 |titleReductionism and holistic medicine |journalJournal of Social and Biological Systems |publisherElsevier BV |volume2 |issue1 |pages39–42 |doi10.1016/0140-1750(79)90019-8 |issn0140-1750}}</ref>Challenges in defining alternative medicineProminent members of the science<ref name"Offit2013" /><ref name"Dawkins2003a" /> and biomedical science community<ref name"Angell1998" /> say that it is not meaningful to define an alternative medicine that is separate from a conventional medicine because the expressions "conventional medicine", "alternative medicine", "complementary medicine", "integrative medicine", and "holistic medicine" do not refer to any medicine at all.<ref name"Angell1998" /><ref name"Offit2013" /><ref name"Dawkins2003a" /><ref name"Fontanarosa1998" /> Others say that alternative medicine cannot be precisely defined because of the diversity of theories and practices it includes, and because the boundaries between alternative and conventional medicine overlap, are porous, and change.{{sfn|Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|2015|locchpt. 14-E|p1}}{{sfn|IOM Report|2005|pp14–20}} Healthcare practices categorized as alternative may differ in their historical origin, theoretical basis, diagnostic technique, therapeutic practice and in their relationship to the medical mainstream.{{sfn|Sointu|2012|p[https://books.google.com/books?idXC2UUP36bjAC&pgPA13 13]}} Under a definition of alternative medicine as "non-mainstream", treatments considered alternative in one location may be considered conventional in another.<ref name="Nissen2013" />
Critics say the expression is deceptive because it implies there is an effective alternative to science-based medicine, and that complementary is deceptive because it implies that the treatment increases the effectiveness of (complements) science-based medicine, while alternative medicines that have been tested nearly always have no measurable positive effect compared to a placebo.<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"Gorski2010" /><ref name"Skep_Dic_comp_med" /><ref name"Novella2010" /> Journalist John Diamond wrote that "there is really no such thing as alternative medicine, just medicine that works and medicine that doesn't",<ref nameDawkins2003a/><ref name"Jeffrey2015">{{Cite journal |lastJeffery |firstNick |date2015 |titleThere is no such thing as alternative medicine |departmentEditorial |journalJournal of Small Animal Practice |languageen |volume56 |issue12 |pages687–688 |doi10.1111/jsap.12427 |issn1748-5827 |pmid26735773 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> a notion later echoed by Paul Offit: "The truth is there's no such thing as conventional or alternative or complementary or integrative or holistic medicine. There's only medicine that works and medicine that doesn't. And the best way to sort it out is by carefully evaluating scientific studies—not by visiting Internet chat rooms, reading magazine articles, or talking to friends."<ref name"Offit2013" />Types
{{see also|List of forms of alternative medicine}}
Alternative medicine consists of a wide range of health care practices, products, and therapies. The shared feature is a claim to heal that is not based on the scientific method. Alternative medicine practices are diverse in their foundations and methodologies.<ref name"NCCIH1" /> Alternative medicine practices may be classified by their cultural origins or by the types of beliefs upon which they are based.<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"AMCER" /><ref name"NCCIH1" /> Methods may incorporate or be based on traditional medicinal practices of a particular culture, folk knowledge, superstition,{{sfn|O'Connor|1995|p[https://books.google.com/books?idJXFPb88KLZQC&pgPA2 2]}} spiritual beliefs, belief in supernatural energies (antiscience), pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, fraud, new or different concepts of health and disease, and any bases other than being proven by scientific methods.<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"Hines_Sampson_Coulter_Sagan" /><ref name"AMCER" /> Different cultures may have their own unique traditional or belief based practices developed recently or over thousands of years, and specific practices or entire systems of practices.
{{Clear}}
Unscientific belief systems
, an alternative medicine supplement]]
Alternative medicine, such as using naturopathy or homeopathy in place of conventional medicine, is based on belief systems not grounded in science.<ref name="NCCIH1" />
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Proposed mechanism
!Issues
|-
!Naturopathy
|Naturopathic medicine is based on a belief that the body heals itself using a supernatural vital energy that guides bodily processes.<ref name="SarrisWardle2010" />
|In conflict with the paradigm of evidence-based medicine.<ref name"Jagtenberg2006" /> Many naturopaths have opposed vaccination,<ref name"Ernst2001" /> and "scientific evidence does not support claims that naturopathic medicine can cure cancer or any other disease".<ref name="ACS" />
|-
!Homeopathy
|A belief that a substance that causes the symptoms of a disease in healthy people cures similar symptoms in sick people.{{refn|In his book The Homœopathic Medical Doctrine Samuel Hahnemann the creator of homeopathy wrote: "Observation, reflection, and experience have unfolded to me that the best and true method of cure is founded on the principle, similia similibus curentur. To cure in a mild, prompt, safe, and durable manner, it is necessary to choose in each case a medicine that will excite an affection similar ({{lang|el|ὅμοιος πάθος}}) to that against which it is employed."{{sfn|Hahnemann|1833|pp[https://books.google.com/books?idEnEFAAAAQAAJ&pgPR3 iii], [https://books.google.com/books?idEnEFAAAAQAAJ&pgPA48 48–49]}}|nameHahnemannquote|group=n}}
|Developed before knowledge of atoms and molecules, or of basic chemistry, which shows that repeated dilution as practiced in homeopathy produces only water, and that homeopathy is not scientifically valid.<ref name"Ernst2002" /><ref name"HCReport2010" /><ref name"shang" /><ref name"NCCIH_homeopathy" />
|}
Traditional ethnic systems
mixture]]
involves insertion of needles in the body.]]
Alternative medical systems may be based on traditional medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Ayurveda in India, or practices of other cultures around the world.<ref name="NCCIH1" /> Some useful applications of traditional medicines have been researched and accepted within ordinary medicine, however the underlying belief systems are seldom scientific and are not accepted.
Traditional medicine is considered alternative when it is used outside its home region; or when it is used together with or instead of known functional treatment; or when it can be reasonably expected that the patient or practitioner knows or should know that it will not work – such as knowing that the practice is based on superstition.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Claims
!Issues
|-
|Traditional Chinese medicine
|Traditional practices and beliefs from China, together with modifications made by the Communist party make up TCM. Common practices include herbal medicine, acupuncture (insertion of needles in the body at specified points), massage (Tui na), exercise (qigong), and dietary therapy.
|The practices are based on belief in a supernatural energy called qi, considerations of Chinese astrology and Chinese numerology, traditional use of herbs and other substances found in China, a belief that the tongue contains a map of the body that reflects changes in the body, and an incorrect model of the anatomy and physiology of internal organs.<ref name"ATRAMM" /><ref name"BeyersteinSampson1996" /><ref name"LuNeedham1980" /><ref name"Maciocia1995" /><ref name"Matuk2006" /><ref name"Deshpande1987" />
|-
|Ayurveda
|Traditional medicine of India. Ayurveda believes in the existence of three elemental substances, the doshas (called Vata, Pitta and Kapha), and states that a balance of the doshas results in health, while imbalance results in disease. Such disease-inducing imbalances can be adjusted and balanced using traditional herbs, minerals and heavy metals. Ayurveda stresses the use of plant-based medicines and treatments, with some animal products, and added minerals, including sulfur, arsenic, lead and copper(II) sulfate.{{Clarify|date=October 2017}}
|Safety concerns have been raised about Ayurveda, with two U.S. studies finding about 20 percent of Ayurvedic Indian-manufactured patent medicines contained toxic levels of heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic. A 2015 study of users in the United States also found elevated blood lead levels in 40 percent of those tested. Other concerns include the use of herbs containing toxic compounds and the lack of quality control in Ayurvedic facilities. Incidents of heavy metal poisoning have been attributed to the use of these compounds in the United States.{{sfn|Wujastyk|2003|pxviii}}{{sfn|Mishra|2004|p8}}<ref name"DaguptaHStabler2011" /><ref name"Valiathan2006" /><ref name"CDC" /><ref name"Saper2008" /><ref>{{cite web|last1Hall|first1Harriet|titleAyurveda: Ancient Superstition, Not Ancient Wisdom|urlhttps://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/ayurveda_ancient_superstition_not_ancient_wisdom|websiteSkeptical Inquirer|access-date1 February 2018|date2017-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthorsBreeher L, Mikulski MA, Czeczok T, Leinenkugel K, Fuortes LJ|titleA cluster of lead poisoning among consumers of Ayurvedic medicine|journalInternational Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health|date6 Apr 2015|volume21|issue4|pages303–307|doi10.1179/2049396715Y.0000000009|pmid25843124|pmc=4727589}}</ref>
|}
Supernatural energies
Bases of belief may include belief in existence of supernatural energies undetected by the science of physics, as in biofields, or in belief in properties of the energies of physics that are inconsistent with the laws of physics, as in energy medicine.<ref name="NCCIH1" />
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Claims
!Issues
|-
|Biofield therapy
|Intended to influence energy fields that, it is purported, surround and penetrate the body.<ref name="NCCIH1" />
|Advocates of scientific skepticism such as Carl Sagan have criticized the lack of empirical evidence to support the existence of the putative energy fields on which these therapies are predicated.{{sfn|Sagan|1996}}
|-
|Bioelectromagnetic therapy
|Use verifiable electromagnetic fields, such as pulsed fields, alternating-current, or direct-current fields in an unconventional manner.<ref name="NCCIH1" />
|Asserts that magnets can be used to defy the laws of physics to influence health and disease.
|-
|Chiropractic
|Spinal manipulation aims to treat "vertebral subluxations" which are claimed to put pressure on nerves.
|Chiropractic was based on the belief that manipulating the spine unblocks the flow of a supernatural vital energy called Innate Intelligence, thereby affecting health and disease. Vertebral subluxation is a pseudoscientific entity not proven to exist.
|-
|Reiki
|Practitioners place their palms on the patient near Chakras that they believe are centers of supernatural energies in the belief that these supernatural energies can transfer from the practitioner's palms to heal the patient.
|Lacks credible scientific evidence.<ref name"rosa">{{cite journal | doi 10.1001/jama.279.13.1005 | pmid9533499 | volume279 | issue13 | titleA close look at therapeutic touch | dateApril 1998 |vauthorsRosa L, Rosa E, Sarner L, Barrett S| journalJAMA | pages1005–1010| doi-access=free }}</ref>
|}
Herbal remedies and other substances
{{Main|Herbal medicine}}
Substance based practices use substances found in nature such as herbs, foods, non-vitamin supplements and megavitamins, animal and fungal products, and minerals, including use of these products in traditional medical practices that may also incorporate other methods.<ref name"NCCIH1" /><ref name"Abdulla1999">{{cite journal|last1Abdulla|first1Sara|titlePhytotherapy – good science or big business?|journalNature|dateMay 13, 1999|doi10.1038/news990513-8|quoteScience-based medicine, with its emphasis on controlled study, proof, evidence, statistical significance and safety is being rejected in favour of 'alternative medicine'&nbsp;– an atavistic portmanteau of anecdote, hearsay, rumour and hokum.&nbsp;... Probably the most commercially successful and widely used branch of alternative or complementary medicine is 'phytotherapy'. These are the tablets, powders and elixirs, otherwise known as herbal medicine, that are sold in most countries, through health shops and pharmacies as 'nutritional supplements'.&nbsp;... Only a tiny minority of these remedies have been shown to have mild-to moderately beneficial health effects&nbsp;... So why are affluent, otherwise rational, highly educated people (for this is the average user profile) so hungry for phytotherapy?&nbsp;... people still believe that 'natural' equals good and safe despite plenty of evidence to the contrary.&nbsp;... as far as the human body is concerned, 'natural' is meaningless&nbsp;... Equally, what's so safe about consuming substances that need meet no standards of contents?}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1De Smet|first1Peter A.G.M.|titleThe Role of Plant-Derived Drugs and Herbal Medicines in Healthcare|journalDrugs|dateDecember 1997|volume54|issue6|pages801–840|doi10.2165/00003495-199754060-00003|pmid9421691|s2cid46970414}}</ref> Examples include healing claims for non-vitamin supplements, fish oil, Omega-3 fatty acid, glucosamine, echinacea, flaxseed oil, and ginseng.<ref name"NCCIHSurvey" /> Herbal medicine, or phytotherapy, includes not just the use of plant products, but may also include the use of animal and mineral products.<ref name"Abdulla1999" /> It is among the most commercially successful branches of alternative medicine, and includes the tablets, powders and elixirs that are sold as "nutritional supplements".<ref name"Abdulla1999" /> Only a very small percentage of these have been shown to have any efficacy, and there is little regulation as to standards and safety of their contents.<ref name"Abdulla1999" />
"adjusting" the spine]]
Religion, faith healing, and prayer
{{see also|Shamanism}}
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Claims
!Issues
|-
|Christian faith healing
|There is a divine or spiritual intervention in healing.
|Lack of evidence for effectiveness.<ref name"Pearce_Simpson1998">{{cite journal|last1Pearce|first1Alison|last2Simpson|first2Neil|titleA paediatrician's guide to complementary medicine|journalCurrent Paediatrics|dateMarch 1998|volume8|issue1|pages62–67|doi10.1016/S0957-5839(98)80061-4}}</ref> Unwanted outcomes, such as death and disability, "have occurred when faith healing was elected instead of medical care for serious injuries or illnesses".<ref>{{cite web|titleFaith Healing – Making Treatment Decisions|publisherAmerican Cancer Society|dateJune 15, 2009|urlhttp://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_5_3X_Faith_Healing.asp|access-dateMay 28, 2018|archive-dateFebruary 12, 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100212221706/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_5_3X_Faith_Healing.asp}}</ref> A 2001 double-blind study of 799 discharged coronary surgery patients found that "intercessory prayer had no significant effect on medical outcomes after hospitalization in a coronary care unit."<ref name"Aviles_et_al2001">{{cite journal|last1Aviles|first1Jennifer M.|last2Whelan|first2Sr Ellen|last3Hernke|first3Debra A.|last4Williams|first4Brent A.|last5Kenny|first5Kathleen E.|last6O'Fallon|first6W. Michael|last7Kopecky|first7Stephen L.|s2cid7300728|titleIntercessory Prayer and Cardiovascular Disease Progression in a Coronary Care Unit Population: A Randomized Controlled Trial|journalMayo Clinic Proceedings|dateDecember 2001|volume76|issue12|pages1192–1198|doi10.4065/76.12.1192|pmid=11761499}}</ref>
|}
NCCIH classification
The United States agency National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) has created a classification system for branches of complementary and alternative medicine that divides them into five major groups. These groups have some overlap, and distinguish two types of energy medicine: veritable which involves scientifically observable energy (including magnet therapy, colorpuncture and light therapy) and putative, which invokes physically undetectable or unverifiable energy.<ref name"NCCIH_EMed" /> None of these energies have any evidence to support that they affect the body in any positive or health promoting way.<ref name"ConsumerHealth9th"/>
# Whole medical systems: Cut across more than one of the other groups; examples include traditional Chinese medicine, naturopathy, homeopathy, and ayurveda.
# Mind-body interventions: Explore the interconnection between the mind, body, and spirit, under the premise that they affect "bodily functions and symptoms". A connection between mind and body is conventional medical fact, and this classification does not include therapies with proven function such as cognitive behavioral therapy.
# "Biology"-based practices: Use substances found in nature such as herbs, foods, vitamins, and other natural substances. (As used here, "biology" does not refer to the science of biology, but is a usage newly coined by NCCIH in the primary source used for this article. "Biology-based" as coined by NCCIH may refer to chemicals from a nonbiological source, such as use of the poison lead in traditional Chinese medicine, and to other nonbiological substances.)
# Manipulative and body-based practices: feature manipulation or movement of body parts, such as is done in bodywork, chiropractic, and osteopathic manipulation.
# Energy medicine: is a domain that deals with putative and verifiable energy fields:
#* Biofield therapies are intended to influence energy fields that are purported to surround and penetrate the body. The existence of such energy fields have been disproven.
#* Bioelectromagnetic-based therapies use verifiable electromagnetic fields, such as pulsed fields, alternating-current, or direct-current fields in a non-scientific manner.
History
{{Main|History of alternative medicine}}
The history of alternative medicine may refer to the history of a group of diverse medical practices that were collectively promoted as "alternative medicine" beginning in the 1970s, to the collection of individual histories of members of that group, or to the history of western medical practices that were labeled "irregular practices" by the western medical establishment.<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"QMHCHF" /><ref name"Whorton_2003">{{Cite web |lastWhorton |firstJames |date2003 |titleCountercultural Healing: A brief History of Alternative Medicine in America |urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/altmed/clash/history.html |access-date2022-03-25 |websitePBS Frontline}}</ref><ref name"RiseRise_6/2004">{{Cite journal |last1Coulter |first1Ian D. |last2Willis |first2Evan M. |date2004-06-07 |titleThe rise and rise of complementary and alternative medicine: a sociological perspective |journalMedical Journal of Australia |volume180 |issue11 |pages587–589 |doi10.5694/j.1326-5377.2004.tb06099.x |issn0025-729X |pmid15174992|s2cid15983789 }}</ref><ref name"Whorton_9/2002">{{Cite book |lastWhorton |firstJames C. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN21eyOQlE0kC |titleNature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America |year2002 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-534978-8 |languageen}}</ref> It includes the histories of complementary medicine and of integrative medicine. Before the 1970s, western practitioners that were not part of the increasingly science-based medical establishment were referred to "irregular practitioners", and were dismissed by the medical establishment as unscientific and as practicing quackery.<ref name"QMHCHF" /><ref name"Whorton_2003" /> Until the 1970s, irregular practice became increasingly marginalized as quackery and fraud, as western medicine increasingly incorporated scientific methods and discoveries, and had a corresponding increase in success of its treatments.<ref name"Whorton_9/2002" /> In the 1970s, irregular practices were grouped with traditional practices of nonwestern cultures and with other unproven or disproven practices that were not part of biomedicine, with the entire group collectively marketed and promoted under the single expression "alternative medicine".<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"QMHCHF">Quack Medicine: A History of Combating Health Fraud in Twentieth-Century America, Eric W. Boyle, [https://books.google.com/books?idX2YCTohiBpYC&pgPA170]</ref><ref name"Whorton_2003" /><ref name"Whorton_9/2002" /><ref name"FrontlineAF">{{cite web |dateNovember 3, 2003 |titleThe Alternative Fix: Introduction |urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/altmed/etc/synopsis.html |websitewww.pbs.org |publisherPBS Frontline}}</ref>
Use of alternative medicine in the west began to rise following the counterculture movement of the 1960s, as part of the rising new age movement of the 1970s.<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref>{{Cite magazine |lastWallis |firstClaudia |dateNovember 4, 1991 |titleCover Stories: Why New Age Medicine Is Catching On |languageen-US |volume138 |magazineTime |issue18 |urlhttp://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,155810,00.html |access-date2022-03-25 |issn0040-781X}}</ref><ref name"ENAB">{{cite book |titleNew Age Medicine, Encyclopedia of New Age Beliefs |first1John |last1Ankerberg |first2John |last2Weldon |year1996 |pages470–508 |publisherHarvest House Publishers |isbn978-1-56507-160-5 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSghdYBbMds0C&pgPA479 }}</ref> This was due to misleading mass marketing of "alternative medicine" being an effective "alternative" to biomedicine, changing social attitudes about not using chemicals and challenging the establishment and authority of any kind, sensitivity to giving equal measure to beliefs and practices of other cultures (cultural relativism), and growing frustration and desperation by patients about limitations and side effects of science-based medicine.<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"Whorton_2003" /><ref name"Whorton_9/2002" /><ref name"RiseRise_6/2004" /><ref name"FrontlineAF" /><ref name"ENAB" /><ref name"AMBMJ" /> At the same time, in 1975, the American Medical Association, which played the central role in fighting quackery in the United States, abolished its quackery committee and closed down its Department of Investigation.<ref name"QMHCHF" />{{rp|xxi}}<ref name"AMBMJ">{{cite journal |quoteOne of the few growth industries in contemporary Britain is alternative medicine. An apparently endless stream of books, articles, and radio and television programmes urge on the public the virtues of treatments ranging from meditation to drilling a hole in the skull to let in more oxygen. |pmc1548588|year1983|last1Smith|first1T|titleAlternative medicine|journalBritish Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.)|volume287|issue6388|pages307–308|pmid6307462|doi10.1136/bmj.287.6388.307}}</ref> By the early to mid 1970s the expression "alternative medicine" came into widespread use, and the expression became mass marketed as a collection of "natural" and effective treatment "alternatives" to science-based biomedicine.<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"AMBMJ" /><ref>{{Cite book |lastKruger |firstHelen |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idS5_8AAAACAAJ&qOther+healers,+other+cures:+A+guide+to+alternative+medicine,+Helen+Kruger |titleOther Healers, Other Cures: A Guide to Alternative Medicine |date1974 |publisherBobbs-Merrill |isbn978-0-672-51708-2 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastLaw |firstDonald |year1975 |titleA Guide to Alternative Medicine |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBwlPPgAACAAJ |publisherTurnstone Press |isbn978-0-85500-107-0 }}</ref> By 1983, mass marketing of "alternative medicine" was so pervasive that the British Medical Journal (BMJ) pointed to "an apparently endless stream of books, articles, and radio and television programmes urge on the public the virtues of (alternative medicine) treatments ranging from meditation to drilling a hole in the skull to let in more oxygen".<ref name="AMBMJ" />
An analysis of trends in the criticism of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in five prestigious American medical journals during the period of reorganization within medicine (1965–1999) was reported as showing that the medical profession had responded to the growth of CAM in three phases, and that in each phase, changes in the medical marketplace had influenced the type of response in the journals.<ref name"Winnick2005_2009" /> Changes included relaxed medical licensing, the development of managed care, rising consumerism, and the establishment of the USA Office of Alternative Medicine (later National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, currently National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health).{{refn|groupn|According to the medical historian James Harvey Young:
{{blockquote|In 1991 the Senate Appropriations Committee responsible for funding the National Institutes of Health (NIH) declared itself "not satisfied that the conventional medical community as symbolized at the NIH has fully explored the potential that exists in unconventional medical practices."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Young |first1 J.H. |titleThe Development of the Office of Alternative Medicine in the National Institutes of Health, 1991–1996 |doi 10.1353/bhm.1998.0110 |journalBulletin of the History of Medicine |volume 72 |issue2 |pages 279–298 |year1998 |pmid 9628052 |s2cid26685737 }}</ref>}}}}Medical educationMainly as a result of reforms following the Flexner Report of 1910<ref name"Flexner_Report" /> medical education in established medical schools in the US has generally not included alternative medicine as a teaching topic.{{refn|groupn|As the medical professor Kenneth M. Ludmerer noted in 2010: "Flexner pointed out that the scientific method of thinking applied to medical practice. By scientific method, he meant testing ideas with well-planned experiments to establish accurate facts. The clinician's diagnosis was equivalent to the scientist's hypothesis: both medical diagnosis and hypothesis required the test of an experiment. Flexner argued that mastery of the scientific method of problem solving was the key for physicians to manage medical uncertainty and to practice in the most cost-effective way."<ref nameLudmerer2010/>}} Typically, their teaching is based on current practice and scientific knowledge about: anatomy, physiology, histology, embryology, neuroanatomy, pathology, pharmacology, microbiology and immunology.<ref name"Bianco" /> Medical schools' teaching includes such topics as doctor-patient communication, ethics, the art of medicine,<ref name"Stanford_Curriculum" /> and engaging in complex clinical reasoning (medical decision-making).<ref name"Yale_Curriculum" /> Writing in 2002, Snyderman and Weil remarked that by the early twentieth century the Flexner model had helped to create the 20th-century academic health center, in which education, research, and practice were inseparable. While this had much improved medical practice by defining with increasing certainty the pathophysiological basis of disease, a single-minded focus on the pathophysiological had diverted much of mainstream American medicine from clinical conditions that were not well understood in mechanistic terms, and were not effectively treated by conventional therapies.<ref name"Snyderman2002" />
By 2001 some form of CAM training was being offered by at least 75 out of 125 medical schools in the US.<ref name"Berman2001" /> Exceptionally, the School of Medicine of the University of Maryland, Baltimore, includes a research institute for integrative medicine (a member entity of the Cochrane Collaboration).<ref name"UM_CAM_Field" /><ref name"UM_CIM" /> Medical schools are responsible for conferring medical degrees, but a physician typically may not legally practice medicine until licensed by the local government authority. Licensed physicians in the US who have attended one of the established medical schools there have usually graduated Doctor of Medicine (MD).<ref name"Medline_MD" /> All states require that applicants for MD licensure be graduates of an approved medical school and complete the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE).<ref name"Medline_MD" />Efficacy
, an authority on scientific study of alternative therapies and diagnoses and the first university professor of CAM, in 2012 ]]
There is a general scientific consensus that alternative therapies lack the requisite scientific validation, and their effectiveness is either unproved or disproved.<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"Kent1997" /><ref name"Goldrosen2004" /> Many of the claims regarding the efficacy of alternative medicines are controversial, since research on them is frequently of low quality and methodologically flawed.{{sfn|IOM Report|2005}} Selective publication bias, marked differences in product quality and standardisation, and some companies making unsubstantiated claims call into question the claims of efficacy of isolated examples where there is evidence for alternative therapies.<ref name="Sarris2012" />
The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine points to confusions in the general population – a person may attribute symptomatic relief to an otherwise-ineffective therapy just because they are taking something (the placebo effect); the natural recovery from or the cyclical nature of an illness (the regression fallacy) gets misattributed to an alternative medicine being taken; a person not diagnosed with science-based medicine may never originally have had a true illness diagnosed as an alternative disease category.<ref name="Alcock1999" />
Edzard Ernst, the first university professor of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, characterized the evidence for many alternative techniques as weak, nonexistent, or negative<ref name"goodbadugly" /> and in 2011 published his estimate that about 7.4% were based on "sound evidence", although he believes that may be an overestimate.<ref name"Ernst2011" /> Ernst has concluded that 95% of the alternative therapies he and his team studied, including acupuncture, herbal medicine, homeopathy, and reflexology, are "statistically indistinguishable from placebo treatments", but he also believes there is something that conventional doctors can usefully learn from the chiropractors and homeopath: this is the therapeutic value of the placebo effect, one of the strangest phenomena in medicine.<ref name"Economist2011" /><ref name"HHH2008" />
In 2003, a project funded by the CDC identified 208 condition-treatment pairs, of which 58% had been studied by at least one randomized controlled trial (RCT), and 23% had been assessed with a meta-analysis.<ref name="Katz2003" /> According to a 2005 book by a US Institute of Medicine panel, the number of RCTs focused on CAM has risen dramatically.
{{as of|2005}}, the Cochrane Library had 145 CAM-related Cochrane systematic reviews and 340 non-Cochrane systematic reviews. An analysis of the conclusions of only the 145 Cochrane reviews was done by two readers. In 83% of the cases, the readers agreed. In the 17% in which they disagreed, a third reader agreed with one of the initial readers to set a rating. These studies found that, for CAM, 38.4% concluded positive effect or possibly positive (12.4%), 4.8% concluded no effect, 0.7% concluded harmful effect, and 56.6% concluded insufficient evidence. An assessment of conventional treatments found that 41.3% concluded positive or possibly positive effect, 20% concluded no effect, 8.1% concluded net harmful effects, and 21.3% concluded insufficient evidence. However, the CAM review used the more developed 2004 Cochrane database, while the conventional review used the initial 1998 Cochrane database.{{sfn|IOM Report|2005|pp[http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11182&page=135 135–136]}}
Alternative therapies do not "complement" (improve the effect of, or mitigate the side effects of) functional medical treatment.{{refn|groupn|nameFinalReport}}<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref nameErnst_1995/><ref nameJoyce_1994/><ref nameBMJ_May/> Significant drug interactions caused by alternative therapies may instead negatively impact functional treatment by making prescription drugs less effective, such as interference by herbal preparations with warfarin.<ref name":0"/><ref name"Arye13" />
In the same way as for conventional therapies, drugs, and interventions, it can be difficult to test the efficacy of alternative medicine in clinical trials. In instances where an established, effective, treatment for a condition is already available, the Helsinki Declaration states that withholding such treatment is unethical in most circumstances. Use of standard-of-care treatment in addition to an alternative technique being tested may produce confounded or difficult-to-interpret results.<ref name="Bodeker2002" />
Cancer researcher Andrew J. Vickers has stated:
{{blockquote|Contrary to much popular and scientific writing, many alternative cancer treatments have been investigated in good-quality clinical trials, and they have been shown to be ineffective. The label "unproven" is inappropriate for such therapies; it is time to assert that many alternative cancer therapies have been "disproven".<ref name"Vickers" />}}Perceived mechanism of effectAnything classified as alternative medicine by definition does not have a proven healing or medical effect.<ref nameAngell1998/><ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"Hines_Sampson_Coulter_Sagan" /><ref name"IGPIAMAYP" /><ref name"NP" /> However, there are different mechanisms through which it can be perceived to "work". The common denominator of these mechanisms is that effects are mis-attributed to the alternative treatment. thumb|right|350px|How alternative therapies "work":
<br />a) Misinterpreted Regression to the mean|natural course – the individual gets better without treatment.
<br />b) Placebo effect or false treatment effect – an individual receives "alternative therapy" and is convinced it will help. The conviction makes them more likely to get better.
<br />c) [[Nocebo effect – an individual is convinced that standard treatment will not work, and that alternative therapies will work. This decreases the likelihood standard treatment will work, while the placebo effect of the "alternative" remains.
<br />d) No adverse effects – Standard treatment is replaced with "alternative" treatment, getting rid of adverse effects, but also of improvement.
<br />e) Interference – Standard treatment is "complemented" with something that interferes with its effect. This can both cause worse effect, but also decreased (or even increased) side effects, which may be interpreted as "helping".
Researchers, such as epidemiologists, clinical statisticians and pharmacologists, use clinical trials to reveal such effects, allowing physicians to offer a therapeutic solution best known to work. "Alternative treatments" often refuse to use trials or make it deliberately hard to do so.]]
Placebo effect
A placebo is a treatment with no intended therapeutic value. An example of a placebo is an inert pill, but it can include more dramatic interventions like sham surgery. The placebo effect is the concept that patients will perceive an improvement after being treated with an inert treatment. The opposite of the placebo effect is the nocebo effect, when patients who expect a treatment to be harmful will perceive harmful effects after taking it.
Placebos do not have a physical effect on diseases or improve overall outcomes, but patients may report improvements in subjective outcomes such as pain and nausea.<ref nameCochraneHrob2010>{{cite journal | vauthors Hróbjartsson A, Gøtzsche PC | title Placebo interventions for all clinical conditions | journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume 106 | issue 1 | pages CD003974 | date January 2010 | pmid 20091554 | doi 10.1002/14651858.CD003974.pub3 | pmc 7156905 | editor1-last Hróbjartsson | editor1-first Asbjørn | url http://nordic.cochrane.org/sites/nordic.cochrane.org/files/public/uploads/ResearchHighlights/Placebo%20interventions%20for%20all%20clinical%20conditions%20(Cochrane%20review).pdf | access-date 2019-03-25 | archive-date 2019-04-02 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190402005647/https://nordic.cochrane.org/sites/nordic.cochrane.org/files/public/uploads/ResearchHighlights/Placebo%20interventions%20for%20all%20clinical%20conditions%20(Cochrane%20review).pdf }}</ref> A 1955 study suggested that a substantial part of a medicine's impact was due to the placebo effect.<ref name"Hrob2001"/><ref nameCochraneHrob2010/> However, reassessments found the study to have flawed methodology.<ref name"Hrob2001">{{cite journal | vauthors Hróbjartsson A, Gøtzsche PC | title Is the placebo powerless? An analysis of clinical trials comparing placebo with no treatment | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 344 | issue 21 | pages 1594–1602 | date May 2001 | pmid 11372012 | doi 10.1056/NEJM200105243442106 | doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"Kienle & Kiene"/> This and other modern reviews suggest that other factors like natural recovery and reporting bias should also be considered.<ref nameCochraneHrob2010/><ref name="Kienle & Kiene"/>
All of these are reasons why alternative therapies may be credited for improving a patient's condition even though the objective effect is non-existent, or even harmful.<ref name":0"/><ref name"Gorski2010"/><ref nameNovella2010/> David Gorski argues that alternative treatments should be treated as a placebo, rather than as medicine.<ref name"Gorski2010"/> Almost none have performed significantly better than a placebo in clinical trials.<ref name"ATRAMM" /><ref name"Skep_Dic_comp_med" /><ref name"$2.5 billion"/><ref nameAbdulla1999/> Furthermore, distrust of conventional medicine may lead to patients experiencing the nocebo effect when taking effective medication.<ref name":0"/>Regression to the meanA patient who receives an inert treatment may report improvements afterwards that it did not cause.<ref nameCochraneHrob2010/><ref name"Kienle & Kiene">{{cite journal | vauthors Kienle GS, Kiene H | title The powerful placebo effect: fact or fiction? | journal Journal of Clinical Epidemiology | volume 50 | issue 12 | pages 1311–1318 | date December 1997 | pmid 9449934 | doi 10.1016/s0895-4356(97)00203-5 }}</ref> Assuming it was the cause without evidence is an example of the regression fallacy. This may be due to a natural recovery from the illness, or a fluctuation in the symptoms of a long-term condition.<ref name"Kienle & Kiene"/> The concept of regression toward the mean implies that an extreme result is more likely to be followed by a less extreme result.Other factorsThere are also reasons why a placebo treatment group may outperform a "no-treatment" group in a test which are not related to a patient's experience. These include patients reporting more favourable results than they really felt due to politeness or "experimental subordination", observer bias, and misleading wording of questions.<ref name"Kienle & Kiene"/> In their 2010 systematic review of studies into placebos, Asbjørn Hróbjartsson and Peter C. Gøtzsche write that "even if there were no true effect of placebo, one would expect to record differences between placebo and no-treatment groups due to bias associated with lack of blinding."<ref nameCochraneHrob2010/> Alternative therapies may also be credited for perceived improvement through decreased use or effect of medical treatment, and therefore either decreased side effects or nocebo effects towards standard treatment.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal |last1Zeller |first1T. |last2Muenstedt |first2K. |last3Stoll |first3C. |last4Schweder |first4J. |last5Senf|first5B.|last6Ruckhaeberle|first6E.|last7Becker|first7S. |last8Serve |first8H. |last9Huebner |first9J. |date2013-03-01 |titlePotential interactions of complementary and alternative medicine with cancer therapy in outpatients with gynecological cancer in a comprehensive cancer center|journalJournal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology |volume139 |issue3 |pages357–365 |doi10.1007/s00432-012-1336-6 |issn1432-1335|pmid23099993|s2cid29598970 }}</ref>
Use and regulation
Appeal
Practitioners of complementary medicine usually discuss and advise patients as to available alternative therapies. Patients often express interest in mind-body complementary therapies because they offer a non-drug approach to treating some health conditions.<ref name="Sobel2000"/>
In addition to the social-cultural underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine, there are several psychological issues that are critical to its growth, notably psychological effects, such as the will to believe,<ref nameBeyerstein /> cognitive biases that help maintain self-esteem and promote harmonious social functioning,<ref nameBeyerstein /> and the post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy.<ref name=Beyerstein />
In a 2018 interview with The BMJ, Edzard Ernst stated: "The present popularity of complementary and alternative medicine is also inviting criticism of what we are doing in mainstream medicine. It shows that we aren't fulfilling a certain need-we are not giving patients enough time, compassion, or empathy. These are things that complementary practitioners are very good at. Mainstream medicine could learn something from complementary medicine."<ref name"Rimmer_Abi_2018">{{cite journal |last1Rimmer |first1Abi |titleEmpathy and ethics: five minutes with Edzard Ernst |journalBMJ |date25 January 2018 |volume360 |pagesk309 |doi10.1136/bmj.k309|pmid29371199 |s2cid3511158 }}</ref>MarketingAlternative medicine is a profitable industry with large media advertising expenditures. Accordingly, alternative practices are often portrayed positively and compared favorably to "big pharma".<ref name"ConsumerHealth9th" />
The popularity of complementary & alternative medicine (CAM) may be related to other factors that Ernst mentioned in a 2008 interview in The Independent:
{{blockquote|Why is it so popular, then? Ernst blames the providers, customers and the doctors whose neglect, he says, has created the opening into which alternative therapists have stepped. "People are told lies. There are 40 million websites and 39.9 million tell lies, sometimes outrageous lies. They mislead cancer patients, who are encouraged not only to pay their last penny but to be treated with something that shortens their lives." At the same time, people are gullible. It needs gullibility for the industry to succeed. It doesn't make me popular with the public, but it's the truth.<ref name"Con?">{{cite news |lastLaurance |firstJeremy |url https://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/health/the-big-con-26450124.html |titleComplementary therapies: The big con? |newspaper The Independent |access-date2010-04-23 |location London |date2008-04-22 |url-status live |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100417080412/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/complementary-therapies-the-big-con-813248.html | archive-date 2010-04-17}}</ref>}}
Paul Offit proposed that "alternative medicine becomes quackery" in four ways: by recommending against conventional therapies that are helpful, promoting potentially harmful therapies without adequate warning, draining patients' bank accounts, or by promoting "magical thinking".<ref nameOffit2013/> Promoting alternative medicine has been called dangerous and unethical.{{refn|nameGroopmanquote|groupn|"Kessler refers to a lack of efficacy but never pushes back at Hatch by enumerating the dangers that unregulated products pose to the public, the dangers that fill the pages of Offit's book."<ref nameGroopman>{{cite news |authorJerome Groopman |titleThe Quackish Cult of Alternative Medicine. Dr. Paul Offit's battle against charlatanism |urlhttp://www.newrepublic.com/article/114899/paul-offits-do-you-believe-magic-reviewed-dangers |newspaperThe New Republic |dateOctober 19, 2013 |access-date2015-02-03 |author-linkJerome Groopman }}</ref>}}<ref nameWeisleder>{{cite journal|last1Weisleder|first1P|s2cid19719686|titleUnethical prescriptions: alternative therapies for children with cerebral palsy.|journalClinical Pediatrics|dateJanuary 2010|volume49|issue1|pages7–11|doi10.1177/0009922809340438|pmid19628756}}</ref>Social factorsAuthors have speculated on the socio-cultural and psychological reasons for the appeal of alternative medicines among the minority using them in lieu of conventional medicine. There are several socio-cultural reasons for the interest in these treatments centered on the low level of scientific literacy among the public at large and a concomitant increase in antiscientific attitudes and new age mysticism.<ref name"Beyerstein" /> Related to this are vigorous marketing<ref name"Weber" /> of extravagant claims by the alternative medical community combined with inadequate media scrutiny and attacks on critics.<ref name"Beyerstein" /><ref name"Beyerstein2001" /> Alternative medicine is criticized for taking advantage of the least fortunate members of society.<ref name"ConsumerHealth9th"/>
There is also an increase in conspiracy theories toward conventional medicine and pharmaceutical companies,<ref name"Li et al., 2018" /> mistrust of traditional authority figures, such as the physician, and a dislike of the current delivery methods of scientific biomedicine, all of which have led patients to seek out alternative medicine to treat a variety of ailments.<ref name"Beyerstein2001" /> Many patients lack access to contemporary medicine, due to a lack of private or public health insurance, which leads them to seek out lower-cost alternative medicine.<ref name"Barnes2004" /> Medical doctors are also aggressively marketing alternative medicine to profit from this market.<ref name"Weber" />
Patients can be averse to the painful, unpleasant, and sometimes-dangerous side effects of biomedical treatments. Treatments for severe diseases such as cancer and HIV infection have well-known, significant side-effects. Even low-risk medications such as antibiotics can have potential to cause life-threatening anaphylactic reactions in a very few individuals. Many medications may cause minor but bothersome symptoms such as cough or upset stomach. In all of these cases, patients may be seeking out alternative therapies to avoid the adverse effects of conventional treatments.<ref name"Beyerstein" /><ref name"Beyerstein2001" />
Prevalence of use
According to research published in 2015, the increasing popularity of CAM needs to be explained by moral convictions or lifestyle choices rather than by economic reasoning.<ref name"Martin_Debons">{{Cite book |last1Martin |first1Hélène |last2Debons |first2Jérôme |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQ3QGCAAAQBAJ |titleRoutledge Handbook of Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Perspectives from Social Science and Law |year2015|publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-136-68555-2 |editor-lastGale |editor-firstNicola K. |locationLondon and New York |pages271–291 |languageen |chapterCAM and conventional medicine in Switzerland: divided in theory, united in practice |editor2-lastMcHale |editor2-first=Jean V.}}</ref>
In developing nations, access to essential medicines is severely restricted by lack of resources and poverty. Traditional remedies, often closely resembling or forming the basis for alternative remedies, may comprise primary healthcare or be integrated into the healthcare system. In Africa, traditional medicine is used for 80% of primary healthcare, and in developing nations as a whole over one-third of the population lack access to essential medicines.<ref name="WHO_tradmed_fact" />
In Latin America, inequities against BIPOC communities keep them tied to their traditional practices and therefore, it is often these communities that constitute the majority of users of alternative medicine. Racist attitudes towards certain communities disable them from accessing more urbanized modes of care. In a study that assessed access to care in rural communities of Latin America, it was found that discrimination is a huge barrier to the ability of citizens to access care; more specifically, women of Indigenous and African descent, and lower-income families were especially hurt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Castro |first1Arachu |last2Savage |first2Virginia |last3Kaufman |first3Hannah |date2015 |titleAssessing equitable care for indigenous and afrodescendant women in Latin America |urlhttps://www.scielosp.org/article/rpsp/2015.v38n2/96-109/en/ |journalRevista Panamericana de Salud Pública |languageen |volume38 |issue2 |pages96–109 |pmid26581050 |issn1020-4989}}</ref> Such exclusion exacerbates the inequities that minorities in Latin America already face. Consistently excluded from many systems of westernized care for socioeconomic and other reasons, low-income communities of color often turn to traditional medicine for care as it has proved reliable to them across generations.
Commentators including David Horrobin have proposed adopting a prize system to reward medical research.<ref name"Horrobin1986" /> This stands in opposition to the current mechanism for funding research proposals in most countries around the world. In the US, the NCCIH provides public research funding for alternative medicine. The NCCIH has spent more than US$2.5&nbsp;billion on such research since 1992 and this research has not demonstrated the efficacy of alternative therapies.<ref name"$2.5 billion" /><ref>{{Cite web |lastSalzberg |firstSteven |dateMarch 26, 2018 |title$142 Million For Quack Medicine Buried Inside The New 2018 Budget |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/stevensalzberg/2018/03/26/142-million-for-quack-medicine-buried-inside-the-new-2018-budget/ |access-date2019-02-14 |websiteForbes |languageen}}</ref><ref name"nccih_$" /><ref>{{Cite web |lastGorski |firstDavid |dateApril 4, 2016 |titleNCCIH Strategic Plan 2016–2021, or: Let's try to do some real science for a change |urlhttps://sciencebasedmedicine.org/nccih-strategic-plan-2016-2021-or-lets-try-to-do-some-real-science-for-a-change/ |access-date2019-02-14 |websiteScience-Based Medicine |languageen-US}}</ref><ref name"Atwood2003" /><ref>{{cite journal |authorGreen |firstSaul |year2001 |titleStated goals and grants of the Office of Alternative Medicine/National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine |urlhttps://archives.centerforinquiry.org/sram/stated-goals-and-grants-of-the-office-of-alternative-medicinenational-center-for-complementary-and-alternative-medicine/ |journalScientific Review of Alternative Medicine |volume5 |issue4 |pages205–207}}</ref> As of 2011, the NCCIH's sister organization in the NIC Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine had given out grants of around $105&nbsp;million each year for several years.<ref name"2011A">{{cite report |titleAnnual Report on CAM 2011 |urlhttps://cam.cancer.gov/docs/annual_report/cam_annual_report_fy11.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cam.cancer.gov/docs/annual_report/cam_annual_report_fy11.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Testing alternative medicine that has no scientific basis (as in the aforementioned grants) has been called a waste of scarce research resources.<ref nameWadman>{{cite journal |titleCentre turns away from healing herbs |journalNature |volume462 |issue7274 |page711 |last1Wadman |first1Meredith |date7 December 2009 |publisherNature Publishing Group |doi10.1038/462711a |pmid20010660 |doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Gorski |first1David |last2Novella |first2Steven |dateAugust 20, 2014 |titleClinical trials of integrative medicine: testing whether magic works? |journalTrends in Molecular Medicine |volume20 |issue9 |pages473–476 |doi10.1016/j.molmed.2014.06.007 |pmid25150944}}</ref>
That alternative medicine has been on the rise "in countries where Western science and scientific method generally are accepted as the major foundations for healthcare, and 'evidence-based' practice is the dominant paradigm" was described as an "enigma" in the Medical Journal of Australia.<ref name"Coulter2004" /> A 15-year systematic review published in 2022 on the global acceptance and use of CAM among medical specialists found the overall acceptance of CAM at 52% and the overall use at 45%.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsPhutrakool P, Pongpirul K |dateJanuary 2022 |titleAcceptance and use of complementary and alternative medicine among medical specialists: a 15-year systematic review and data synthesis |journalSystematic Reviews |volume11 |issue1 |page10 |doi10.1186/s13643-021-01882-4 |pmc8759198 |pmid35027078 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
In the United States
In the United States, the 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) required that for states to receive federal money, they had to grant religious exemptions to child neglect and abuse laws regarding religion-based healing practices.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastMerrick |firstJanna | dateJune 2003 |titleSpiritual Healing, Sick Kids and the Law: Inequities in the American Healthcare System |journalAmerican Journal of Law & Medicine |volume29 |issue2 |pages269–299|doi10.1017/S0098858800002847 |pmid12961808 |s2cid27122896 }}</ref> Thirty-one states have child-abuse religious exemptions.<ref>{{Cite web |dateApril 2007 |titleDefinitions of Child Abuse and Neglect |urlhttp://www.childwelfare.gov/systemwide/laws_policies/statutes/define.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011062659/http://www.childwelfare.gov/systemwide/laws_policies/statutes/define.pdf |archive-date11 October 2007 |access-date2009-02-27 |publisherChild Welfare Information Gateway}}</ref>
The use of alternative medicine in the US has increased,<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref name"Eisenberg1998">{{cite journal|last1Eisenberg|first1D.M.|last2Davis|first2R.B.|last3Ettner|first3S.L.|last4Appel|first4S.|last5Wilkey|first5S.|last6Van Rompay|first6M.|last7Kessler|first7R.C.|display-authors1|year1998|titleTrends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990–1997: Results of a follow-up national survey|journalJAMA|volume280|issue18|pages1569–1575|doi10.1001/jama.280.18.1569|pmid9820257|ref{{harvid|Eisenberg et al.|1998}}|doi-accessfree}}</ref> with a 50 percent increase in expenditures and a 25 percent increase in the use of alternative therapies between 1990 and 1997 in America.<ref name"Eisenberg1998" /> According to a national survey conducted in 2002, "36 percent of U.S. adults aged 18 years and over use some form of complementary and alternative medicine."<ref name"cdc2002">{{cite journal |author1Patricia M. Barnes |author2Eve Powell-Grine |author3Kim McFann |author4Richard L. Nahin |titleComplementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002 |journalAdvance Data from Vital and Health Statistics |dateMay 27, 2004 |volume343 |pages1–20 |urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad343.pdf |access-dateJune 1, 2021 |publisherCDC}}</ref> Americans spend many billions on the therapies annually.<ref name"Eisenberg1998" /> Most Americans used CAM to treat and/or prevent musculoskeletal conditions or other conditions associated with chronic or recurring pain.<ref name"Barnes2004" /> In America, women were more likely than men to use CAM, with the biggest difference in use of mind-body therapies including prayer specifically for health reasons".<ref name"Barnes2004" /> In 2008, more than 37% of American hospitals offered alternative therapies, up from 27 percent in 2005, and 25% in 2004.<ref name"Warner2006" /> More than 70% of the hospitals offering CAM were in urban areas.{{cn|dateJanuary 2025}}
A survey of Americans found that 88 percent thought that "there are some good ways of treating sickness that medical science does not recognize".<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /> Use of magnets was the most common tool in energy medicine in America, and among users of it, 58 percent described it as at least "sort of scientific", when it is not at all scientific.<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /> In 2002, at least 60 percent of US medical schools have at least some class time spent teaching alternative therapies.<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /> "Therapeutic touch" was taught at more than 100 colleges and universities in 75 countries before the practice was debunked by a nine-year-old child for a school science project.<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref name"rosa" />Prevalence of use of specific therapiesThe most common CAM therapies used in the US in 2002 were prayer (45%), herbalism (19%), breathing meditation (12%), meditation (8%), chiropractic medicine (8%), yoga (5–6%), body work (5%), diet-based therapy (4%), progressive relaxation (3%), mega-vitamin therapy (3%) and visualization (2%).<ref name"Barnes2004" /><ref name="Barnes2008" />
In Britain, the most often used alternative therapies were Alexander technique, aromatherapy, Bach and other flower remedies, body work therapies including massage, Counseling stress therapies, hypnotherapy, meditation, reflexology, Shiatsu, Ayurvedic medicine, nutritional medicine, and yoga.{{sfn|Sir Walton: Science and Technology Committee|2000}} Ayurvedic medicine remedies are mainly plant based with some use of animal materials.{{sfn|Wujastyk|2003}} Safety concerns include the use of herbs containing toxic compounds and the lack of quality control in Ayurvedic facilities.<ref name"Valiathan2006" /><ref name"Saper2008" />
According to the National Health Service (England), the most commonly used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) supported by the NHS in the UK are: acupuncture, aromatherapy, chiropractic, homeopathy, massage, osteopathy and clinical hypnotherapy.<ref name"NHS_Careers_CAM" />In palliative careComplementary therapies are often used in palliative care or by practitioners attempting to manage chronic pain in patients. Integrative medicine is considered more acceptable in the interdisciplinary approach used in palliative care than in other areas of medicine. "From its early experiences of care for the dying, palliative care took for granted the necessity of placing patient values and lifestyle habits at the core of any design and delivery of quality care at the end of life. If the patient desired complementary therapies, and as long as such treatments provided additional support and did not endanger the patient, they were considered acceptable."<ref name"Kellhear2003" /> The non-pharmacologic interventions of complementary medicine can employ mind-body interventions designed to "reduce pain and concomitant mood disturbance and increase quality of life."<ref name"Menefee2005" /> Regulation {{Further|Regulation of alternative medicine | Regulation and prevalence of homeopathy}}{{Expand section|dateMay 2018}}, warn the public about unsafe products.]]
The alternative medicine lobby has successfully pushed for alternative therapies to be subject to far less regulation than conventional medicine.<ref name"ConsumerHealth9th" /> Some professions of complementary/traditional/alternative medicine, such as chiropractic, have achieved full regulation in North America and other parts of the world{{sfn|WHO|2005}} and are regulated in a manner similar to that governing science-based medicine. In contrast, other approaches may be partially recognized and others have no regulation at all.{{sfn|WHO|2005}} In some cases, promotion of alternative therapies is allowed when there is demonstrably no effect, only a tradition of use. Despite laws making it illegal to market or promote alternative therapies for use in cancer treatment, many practitioners promote them.<ref>{{cite web |dateJuly 4, 2019 |titleComplementary and alternative therapies |urlhttp://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancers-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative/ |websitewww.cancerresearchuk.org |publisherCancer Research UK}}</ref>
Regulation and licensing of alternative medicine ranges widely from country to country, and state to state.{{sfn|WHO|2005}} In Austria and Germany complementary and alternative medicine is mainly in the hands of doctors with MDs,<ref nameernstinterview/> and half or more of the American alternative practitioners are licensed MDs.<ref name"Cassileth1996"/> In Germany herbs are tightly regulated: half are prescribed by doctors and covered by health insurance.<ref name="JAMA_book_review"/>
Government bodies in the US and elsewhere have published information or guidance about alternative medicine. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), has issued online warnings for consumers about medication health fraud.<ref>{{cite web |last1Research |first1Center for Drug Evaluation and |titleMedication Health Fraud |urlhttps://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/BuyingUsingMedicineSafely/MedicationHealthFraud/default.htm |websiteFDA |access-date21 May 2022 |languageen |date5 January 2022}}</ref> This includes a section on Alternative Medicine Fraud, such as a warning that Ayurvedic products generally have not been approved by the FDA before marketing.<ref>{{cite web |last1Research |first1Center for Biologics Evaluation and |titleComplementary and Alternative Medicine Products and their Regulation by the Food and Drug Administration |urlhttps://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/complementary-and-alternative-medicine-products-and-their-regulation-food-and-drug-administration |websiteU.S. Food and Drug Administration |access-date21 May 2022 |languageen |date6 May 2020}}</ref>
Risks and problems
The National Science Foundation has studied the problematic side of the public's attitudes and understandings of science fiction, pseudoscience, and belief in alternative medicine. They use a quote from Robert L. Park to describe some issues with alternative medicine:
{{blockquote|Alternative medicine is another concern. As used here, alternative medicine refers to all treatments that have not been proven effective using scientific methods. A scientist's view of the situation appeared in a recent book (Park 2000b)":<p>
Between homeopathy and herbal therapy lies a bewildering array of untested and unregulated treatments, all labeled alternative by their proponents. Alternative seems to define a culture rather than a field of medicine—a culture that is not scientifically demanding. It is a culture in which ancient traditions are given more weight than biological science, and anecdotes are preferred over clinical trials. Alternative therapies steadfastly resist change, often for centuries or even millennia, unaffected by scientific advances in the understanding of physiology or disease. Incredible explanations invoking modern physics are sometimes offered for how alternative therapies might work, but there seems to be little interest in testing these speculations scientifically.<ref name"NSF_4/2002" /></p>}}Negative outcomes
{{See also|List of herbs with known adverse effects}}
According to the Institute of Medicine, use of alternative medical techniques may result in several types of harm:
* "Direct harm, which results in adverse patient outcome."<ref name"NAPCAM2005">{{cite book |urlhttps://www.nap.edu/catalog/11182/complementary-and-alternative-medicine-in-the-united-states |titleComplementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States |publisherThe National Academies Press |year2005 |isbn0-309-09270-1 |pages298–308 |chapterAppendix E: Model Guidelines for the Use of Complementary and Alternative Therapies in Medical Practice |doi10.17226/11182 |pmid22379647 |access-date=June 14, 2021}}</ref>
* "Economic harm, which results in monetary loss but presents no health hazard;"
* "Indirect harm, which results in a delay of appropriate treatment, or in unreasonable expectations that discourage patients and their families from accepting and dealing effectively with their medical conditions;"
Interactions with conventional pharmaceuticals
Forms of alternative medicine that are biologically active can be dangerous even when used in conjunction with conventional medicine. Examples include immuno-augmentation therapy, shark cartilage, bioresonance therapy, oxygen and ozone therapies, and insulin potentiation therapy. Some herbal remedies can cause dangerous interactions with chemotherapy drugs, radiation therapy, or anesthetics during surgery, among other problems.<ref nameCassilethDeng2004/><ref name":0"/><ref name"Arye13" /> An example of these dangers was reported by Associate Professor Alastair MacLennan of Adelaide University, Australia regarding a patient who almost bled to death on the operating table after neglecting to mention that she had been taking "natural" potions to "build up her strength" before the operation, including a powerful anticoagulant that nearly caused her death.<ref name"Hills1999"/>
To ABC Online, MacLennan also gives another possible mechanism:
{{blockquote|And lastly there's the cynicism and disappointment and depression that some patients get from going on from one alternative medicine to the next, and they find after three months the placebo effect wears off, and they're disappointed and they move on to the next one, and they're disappointed and disillusioned, and that can create depression and make the eventual treatment of the patient with anything effective difficult, because you may not get compliance, because they've seen the failure so often in the past.<ref name"SwanABC"/>}}Side-effectsConventional treatments are subjected to testing for undesired side-effects, whereas alternative therapies, in general, are not subjected to such testing at all. Any treatment&nbsp;– whether conventional or alternative&nbsp;– that has a biological or psychological effect on a patient may also have potential to possess dangerous biological or psychological side-effects. Attempts to refute this fact with regard to alternative therapies sometimes use the appeal to nature fallacy, i.e., "That which is natural cannot be harmful." Specific groups of patients such as patients with impaired hepatic or renal function are more susceptible to side effects of alternative remedies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Roozbeh |first1J |last2Hashempur |first2M. H. |last3Heydari |first3M |dateNov 2013 |titleUse of herbal remedies among patients undergoing hemodialysis |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/258636639 |journalIranian Journal of Kidney Diseases |volume7 |issue6 |pages492–495 |pmid24241097}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|titleHerbal products: benefits, limits, and applications in chronic liver disease|journalEvid Based Complement Alternat Med|pmid22991573|pmc3443820|doi10.1155/2012/837939|volume2012|year2012|pages1–19|last1Del Prete|first1A|last2Scalera|first2A|last3Iadevaia|first3M. D.|last4Miranda|first4A|last5Zulli|first5C|last6Gaeta|first6L|last7Tuccillo|first7C|last8Federico|first8A|last9Loguercio|first9C|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
An exception to the normal thinking regarding side-effects is homeopathy. Since 1938, the FDA has regulated homeopathic products in "several significantly different ways from other drugs."<ref nameStehlin/> Homeopathic preparations, termed "remedies", are extremely dilute, often far beyond the point where a single molecule of the original active (and possibly toxic) ingredient is likely to remain. They are, thus, considered safe on that count, but "their products are exempt from good manufacturing practice requirements related to expiration dating and from finished product testing for identity and strength", and their alcohol concentration may be much higher than allowed in conventional drugs.<ref nameStehlin/>
Treatment delay
Alternative medicine may discourage people from getting the best possible treatment.<ref nameMHTG/> Those having experienced or perceived success with one alternative therapy for a minor ailment may be convinced of its efficacy and persuaded to extrapolate that success to some other alternative therapy for a more serious, possibly life-threatening illness.<ref name"Navarro2006"/> For this reason, critics argue that therapies that rely on the placebo effect to define success are very dangerous. According to mental health journalist Scott Lilienfeld in 2002, "unvalidated or scientifically unsupported mental health practices can lead individuals to forgo effective treatments" and refers to this as opportunity cost. Individuals who spend large amounts of time and money on ineffective treatments may be left with precious little of either, and may forfeit the opportunity to obtain treatments that could be more helpful. In short, even innocuous treatments can indirectly produce negative outcomes.<ref nameLilienfeld2002/> Between 2001 and 2003, four children died in Australia because their parents chose ineffective naturopathic, homeopathic, or other alternative medicines and diets rather than conventional therapies.<ref nameHughes2010/>
Unconventional cancer "cures"
There have always been "many therapies offered outside of conventional cancer treatment centers and based on theories not found in biomedicine. These alternative cancer cures have often been described as 'unproven,' suggesting that appropriate clinical trials have not been conducted and that the therapeutic value of the treatment is unknown." However, "many alternative cancer treatments have been investigated in good-quality clinical trials, and they have been shown to be ineffective.... The label 'unproven' is inappropriate for such therapies; it is time to assert that many alternative cancer therapies have been 'disproven'."<ref name=Vickers/>
Edzard Ernst has stated:
{{blockquote|any alternative cancer cure is bogus by definition. There will never be an alternative cancer cure. Why? Because if something looked halfway promising, then mainstream oncology would scrutinize it, and if there is anything to it, it would become mainstream almost automatically and very quickly. All curative "alternative cancer cures" are based on false claims, are bogus, and, I would say, even criminal.<ref nameMiller>{{Citation |lastMiller |firstGabriel |date2 September 2014 |titleAsking the Experts: Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Cancer |workMedscape |urlhttp://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/830553_print |access-date7 September 2014 }}</ref>}}
Rejection of science
{{quote box
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| quote There is no alternative medicine. There is only scientifically proven,<br /> evidence-based medicine supported by solid data<br /> or unproven medicine, for which scientific evidence is lacking.<br /> — P.B. Fontanarosa, JAMA (1998)<ref nameFontanarosa1998/>
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Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is not as well researched as conventional medicine, which undergoes intense research before release to the public.<ref name"Ernst_Cohen" /> Practitioners of science-based medicine also discard practices and treatments when they are shown ineffective, while alternative practitioners do not.<ref name"ConsumerHealth9th">{{Cite book |last1Barrett |first1Stephen |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_p4GywAACAAJ |titleConsumer health: a guide to intelligent decisions |last2Hall |first2Harriet |last3Baratz |first3Robert S. |last4London |first4William M. |last5Kroger |first5Manfred |publisherMcGraw-Hill |year2013 |isbn978-0-07-802848-9 |edition9th |locationNew York |pages34–35, 134, 137 |oclc758098687}}</ref> Funding for research is also sparse making it difficult to do further research for effectiveness of CAM.<ref name"Ernst4" /> Most funding for CAM is funded by government agencies.<ref name"Ernst_Cohen" /> Proposed research for CAM are rejected by most private funding agencies because the results of research are not reliable.<ref name"Ernst_Cohen" /> The research for CAM has to meet certain standards from research ethics committees, which most CAM researchers find almost impossible to meet.<ref name"Ernst_Cohen" /> Even with the little research done on it, CAM has not been proven to be effective.<ref name"Ernst3" /> Studies that have been done will be cited by CAM practitioners in an attempt to claim a basis in science. These studies tend to have a variety of problems, such as small samples, various biases, poor research design, lack of controls, negative results, etc. Even those with positive results can be better explained as resulting in false positives due to bias and noisy data.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Hall |first1Harriet |author-link1Harriet Hall |titleScience Envy in Alternative Medicine |journalSkeptical Inquirer |date2019 |volume43 |issue4 |pages21–23 |urlhttps://www.skepdoc.info/science-envy-in-alternative-medicine/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190917171017/https://www.skepdoc.info/science-envy-in-alternative-medicine/ |archive-date2019-09-17 |access-date17 September 2019}}</ref>
Alternative medicine may lead to a false understanding of the body and of the process of science.<ref name"MHTG">{{Cite book |last1Ernst |first1Edzard |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfL5GDwAAQBAJ&pgPR3 |titleMore harm than good?: the moral maze of complementary and alternative medicine |last2Smith |first2Kevin |publisherSpringer |year2018 |isbn978-3-319-69941-7 |locationCham, Switzerland |page18 |oclc1019807158}}</ref><ref nameFisken2014>{{Cite journal |lastFisken|firstRoger A.|date2014-05-19|titleTeach evidence based, not alternative, medicine |urlhttp://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g3218 |journalBMJ |languageen |volume348 |pageg3218 |doi10.1136/bmj.g3218|pmid24839973|s2cid206902331|issn1756-1833}}</ref> Steven Novella, a neurologist at Yale School of Medicine, wrote that government-funded studies of integrating alternative medicine techniques into the mainstream are "used to lend an appearance of legitimacy to treatments that are not legitimate."<ref name"Brown2009" /> Marcia Angell considered that critics felt that healthcare practices should be classified based solely on scientific evidence, and if a treatment had been rigorously tested and found safe and effective, science-based medicine will adopt it regardless of whether it was considered "alternative" to begin with.<ref name"Angell1998" /> It is possible for a method to change categories (proven vs. unproven), based on increased knowledge of its effectiveness or lack thereof. Prominent supporters of this position are George D. Lundberg, former editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) and the journal's interim editor-in-chief Phil Fontanarosa.<ref name"Fontanarosa1998" />
Writing in 1999 in CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians Barrie R. Cassileth mentioned a 1997 letter to the United States Senate's Subcommittee on Public Health and Safety, which had deplored the lack of critical thinking and scientific rigor in OAM-supported research, had been signed by four Nobel Laureates and other prominent scientists. (This was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH).)<ref name="Cassileth1999" />
:<br />Q: What do you call Alternative Medicine that survives double-blind laboratory tests?<br />A: Regular Medicine.<ref name"Derkatch_2016_p._215">{{cite book | lastDerkatch | firstC. | titleBounding Biomedicine: Evidence and Rhetoric in the New Science of Alternative Medicine | publisherUniversity of Chicago Press | year2016 | isbn978-0-226-34584-0 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4fvTCwAAQBAJ&pgPA215 | access-dateMarch 18, 2023 | page215}}</ref>]]
In March 2009, a staff writer for The Washington Post reported that the impending national discussion about broadening access to health care, improving medical practice and saving money was giving a group of scientists an opening to propose shutting down the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. They quoted one of these scientists, Steven Salzberg, a genome researcher and computational biologist at the University of Maryland, as saying "One of our concerns is that NIH is funding pseudoscience." They noted that the vast majority of studies were based on fundamental misunderstandings of physiology and disease, and had shown little or no effect.<ref name="Brown2009" />
Writers such as Carl Sagan, a noted astrophysicist, advocate of scientific skepticism and the author of The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark (1996), have lambasted the lack of empirical evidence to support the existence of the putative energy fields on which these therapies are predicated.{{sfn|Sagan|1996}}
Sampson has also pointed out that CAM tolerated contradiction without thorough reason and experiment.<ref name"SampsonAtwood2005" /> Barrett has pointed out that there is a policy at the NIH of never saying something does not work, only that a different version or dose might give different results.<ref name"$2.5 billion" /> Barrett also expressed concern that, just because some "alternatives" have merit, there is the impression that the rest deserve equal consideration and respect even though most are worthless, since they are all classified under the one heading of alternative medicine.<ref name="Quackwatch_wary" />
Some critics of alternative medicine are focused upon health fraud, misinformation, and quackery as public health problems, notably Wallace Sampson and Paul Kurtz founders of Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine and Stephen Barrett, co-founder of The National Council Against Health Fraud and webmaster of Quackwatch.<ref name="NCAHF_mission" /> Grounds for opposing alternative medicine include that:
* Alternative therapies typically lack any scientific validation, and their effectiveness either is unproven or has been disproved.<ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"Kent1997" /><ref name="Goldrosen2004" />
* It is usually based on religion, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural energies, pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, or fraud.<ref name"Beyerstein2001" /><ref name"NSF_4/2002" /><ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name"Other_sources" />
* Methods may incorporate or base themselves on traditional medicine, folk knowledge, spiritual beliefs, ignorance or misunderstanding of scientific principles, errors in reasoning, or newly conceived approaches claiming to heal.<ref name"Beyerstein2001" /><ref name"Sampson_6/1995" /><ref name="Acharya2008" />
* Research on alternative medicine is frequently of low quality and methodologically flawed.<ref name"NCCIH1" />{{sfn|IOM Report|2005|p[http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11182&page146 146]}}
* Treatments are not part of the conventional, science-based healthcare system.<ref name"WHO_Trad_Med_Defs" /><ref name"NCCIH1" />{{sfn|IOM Report|2005|pp[http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11182&page17 17–19]}}<ref name"Zollman1999" />
* Where alternative therapies have replaced conventional science-based medicine, even with the safest alternative medicines, failure to use or delay in using conventional science-based medicine has caused deaths.<ref name"Lilienfeld2002" /><ref name"Hughes2010" />
Many alternative medical treatments are not patentable,<ref>{{cite journal |last1Fonfa |first1Anne E. |dateSeptember 1, 2017 |titlePatient Perspectives: Barriers to Complementary and Alternative Medicine Therapies Create Problems for Patients and Survivors |journalIntegrative Cancer Therapies |volume6 |issueSeptember 2007 |pages297–300 |doi10.1177/1534735407306598 |pmid17761643 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> which may lead to less research funding from the private sector. In addition, in most countries, alternative therapies (in contrast to pharmaceuticals) can be marketed without any proof of efficacy – also a disincentive for manufacturers to fund scientific research.<ref name"Ernst2005" />
English evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, in his 2003 book ''A Devil's Chaplain, defined alternative medicine as a "set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested, or consistently fail tests."<ref name"Dawkins2003" /> Dawkins argued that if a technique is demonstrated effective in properly performed trials then it ceases to be alternative and simply becomes medicine.<ref name"Holloway2003" />
CAM is also often less regulated than conventional medicine.<ref name"Ernst_Cohen" /> There are ethical concerns about whether people who perform CAM have the proper knowledge to treat patients.<ref name"Ernst_Cohen" /> CAM is often done by non-physicians who do not operate with the same medical licensing laws which govern conventional medicine,<ref name"Ernst_Cohen" /> and it is often described as an issue of non-maleficence.<ref name"Ernst2" />
According to two writers, Wallace Sampson and K. Butler, marketing is part of the training required in alternative medicine, and propaganda methods in alternative medicine have been traced back to those used by Hitler and Goebels in their promotion of pseudoscience in medicine.<ref name"ATRAMM" /><ref name"ButlerBarrett1992" />
In November 2011 Edzard Ernst stated that the "level of misinformation about alternative medicine has now reached the point where it has become dangerous and unethical. So far, alternative medicine has remained an ethics-free zone. It is time to change this."<ref name="Ernst_Guardian" />
Harriet Hall criticized the low standard of evidence accepted by the alternative medicine community:
{{blockquote|Science-based medicine has one rigorous standard of evidence, the kind [used for pharmaceuticals] .... CAM has a double standard. They gladly accept a lower standard of evidence for treatments they believe in. However, I suspect they would reject a pharmaceutical if it were approved for marketing on the kind of evidence they accept for CAM.<ref name"Hall_9/2015">{{Citation |lastHall |firstHarriet |author-linkHarriet Hall |dateSeptember 2015 |titleEvidence: "It Worked for My Aunt Tillie" is Not Enough |websiteSkeptic, Volume 20, Number 3 |urlhttp://www.skeptic.com/magazine/ |access-dateNovember 22, 2015}}</ref>}}Conflicts of interestSome commentators have said that special consideration must be given to the issue of conflicts of interest in alternative medicine. Edzard Ernst has said that most researchers into alternative medicine are at risk of "unidirectional bias" because of a generally uncritical belief in their chosen subject.<ref name"unid">{{cite journal |authorErnst |firstEdzard |author-linkEdzard Ernst |year2011 |titleConflicts of Interest in Alternative Medicine |urlhttp://www.csicop.org/si/show/conflicts_of_interest_in_alternative_medicine |journalSkeptical Inquirer |volume35 |issue4}}</ref> Ernst cites as evidence the phenomenon whereby 100% of a sample of acupuncture trials originating in China had positive conclusions.<ref name"unid" /> David Gorski contrasts evidence-based medicine, in which researchers try to disprove hyphotheses, with what he says is the frequent practice in pseudoscience-based research, of striving to confirm pre-existing notions.<ref name"gorski">{{cite web |authorGorski |firstDavid |author-linkDavid Gorski |date16 November 2009 |titleConflicts of interest in science-based medicine |urlhttps://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/conflicts-of-interest-in-science-based-medicine/ |websiteScience-Based Medicine}}</ref> Harriet Hall writes that there is a contrast between the circumstances of alternative medicine practitioners and disinterested scientists: in the case of acupuncture, for example, an acupuncturist would have "a great deal to lose" if acupuncture were rejected by research; but the disinterested skeptic would not lose anything if its effects were confirmed; rather their change of mind would enhance their skeptical credentials.<ref name"hall">{{cite web |authorHall |firstHarriet A. |author-linkHarriet A. Hall |date27 April 2011 |titleConflicts of interest |urlhttps://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/conflicts-of-interest/ |websiteScience-Based Medicine}}</ref>
Use of health and research resources
Research into alternative therapies has been criticized for "diverting research time, money, and other resources from more fruitful lines of investigation in order to pursue a theory that has no basis in biology."<ref name"Novella2010" /><ref name"Gorski2010" /> Research methods expert and author of Snake Oil Science'', R. Barker Bausell, has stated that "it's become politically correct to investigate nonsense."<ref name"$2.5 billion" /> A commonly cited statistic is that the US National Institute of Health had spent $2.5&nbsp;billion on investigating alternative therapies prior to 2009, with none being found to be effective.<ref name"$2.5 billion" />
See also
* Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities
* Conservation medicine
* Ethnomedicine
* Gallbladder flush
* Psychic surgery
* Siddha medicine
* Thomsonianism, in United States early 19th century
Notes
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<ref nameUKDoH_CAM>{{cite web |title Complementary and Alternative Medicine |urlhttp://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publichealth/Healthimprovement/Complementaryandalternativemedicine/index.htm |archive-date 2010-04-07 |archive-urlhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100407164951/http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publichealth/Healthimprovement/Complementaryandalternativemedicine/index.htm |work UK Dept. of Health website |ref= {{harvid|UKDoH_CAM}}}}</ref> -->
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<ref nameValiathan2006>{{cite journal | urlhttp://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_090_01_0005_0006_0.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_090_01_0005_0006_0.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive | titleAyurveda: Putting the house in order |departmentGuest Editorial |last Valiathan | firstM.S. |journal Current Science |year2006 |volume 90 |issue1 | pages 5–6 }}</ref>
<ref nameVickers>{{cite journal |last1 Vickers |first1A. |title Alternative cancer cures: 'Unproven' or 'disproven'? |journalCA – A Cancer Journal for Clinicians |volume 54 |issue2 |pages 110–118 |year2004 |pmid 15061600 |doi10.3322/canjclin.54.2.110 |citeseerx 10.1.1.521.2180 |s2cid= 35124492 }}</ref>
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<ref nameVIFAB_definition>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.srab.dk/alternativ+behandling/hvad+er+alternativ+behandling-c7-/vifabs+definition |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130924061206/http://www.srab.dk/alternativ%2Bbehandling/hvad%2Ber%2Balternativ%2Bbehandling-c7-/vifabs%2Bdefinition |archive-date2013-09-24 |titleViFABs definition af alternativ behandling |websitesrab.dk }}</ref> -->
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<ref nameWahlberg>{{Cite journal |last1Wahlberg |first1A |titleA quackery with a difference – New medical pluralism and the problem of 'dangerous practitioners' in the United Kingdom |journalSocial Science & Medicine |volume65 |pages2307–2316 |year2007 |doi10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.07.024 |pmid17719708 |issue=11}}</ref> -->
<ref name"Warner2006">{{cite web |last Warner |firstJ.|url https://www.cbsnews.com/news/alternative-medicine-goes-mainstream/ |titleAlternative Medicine Goes Mainstream |publisher CBS News |workWebMD |date 2006-07-20 |access-date2013-03-11 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130928001238/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/07/20/health/webmd/main1823747.shtml |archive-date2013-09-28 |url-status live}}</ref>
<ref nameWeber>{{cite journal |last Weber |firstD.O. |title Complementary and alternative medicine considering the alternatives |journalPhysician Executive |volume 24 |issue6 |pages 6–14 |year1998 |pmid 10351720 }}</ref>
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<ref name"WebMD2011">{{cite web |url http://www.webmd.com/balance/tc/complementary-medicine-mind-body-interventions |titleComplementary Medicine – Mind-Body Interventions |publisher WebMD |workHealthwise |date 2011-06-29 |access-date2013-03-11 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121015144134/http://www.webmd.com/balance/tc/complementary-medicine-mind-body-interventions |archive-date2012-10-15 |url-status live }}</ref> -->
<ref nameWebMD2014>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.webmd.com/balance/tc/complementary-medicine-alternative-medical-systems|websiteWebMD|titleComplementary Medicine – Alternative Medical Systems|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150601195452/http://www.webmd.com/balance/tc/complementary-medicine-alternative-medical-systems|access-date2015-06-04|archive-date2015-06-01|date2014-01-14|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref namewhatiscam>{{cite web |urlhttp://nccam.nih.gov/health/whatiscam/ |titleWhat is Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM)? |access-date2006-07-11 |publisherNational Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051208040402/http://nccam.nih.gov/health/whatiscam/ |archive-date=2005-12-08 }}</ref>
<ref name"whccamp.hhs.gov">{{cite report |titleWhite House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy Final Report |author1((White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy Staff)) |author2((Dept. of Health and Human Services Staff United States)) |chapterOverview of CAM in the United States: Recent History, Current Status, And Prospects for the Future |isbn978-0-16-051476-0 |publisherUS Government Printing Office |urlhttp://whccamp.hhs.gov/finalreport.html |dateMarch 2002 |chapter-urlhttp://whccamp.hhs.gov/fr2.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130215040532/http://www.whccamp.hhs.gov/finalreport.html |archive-date2013-02-15 }} Chapter 2 [https://web.archive.org/web/20110902075517/http://whccamp.hhs.gov/fr2.html archived] 2011-08-25.</ref>
<ref name"WHO_tradmed_fact">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/ |titleTraditional medicine |access-date2008-03-06 |year2003 |issueFact sheet 134 |publisherWHO |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080727053337/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/ |archive-date=2008-07-27 }}</ref>
<ref name"WHO_Trad_Med_Defs">{{Cite journal |title Traditional Medicines: Definitions |urlhttps://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/definitions/en/index.html |journal WHO Website |access-date2012-11-11 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130927045217/http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/definitions/en/index.html |archive-date2013-09-27 |url-status live |author1= Xiaorui Zhang }} Extracted from {{harvnb|WHO|2000}}.</ref>
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<ref nameYale_Curriculum>{{cite web |title Medical Student Education Program: Curriculum Overview |urlhttp://medicine.yale.edu/education/curriculum/curriculum/overview/index.aspx |work Yale University website |publisherYale School of Medicine |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131004214032/http://medicine.yale.edu/education/curriculum/curriculum/overview/index.aspx |archive-date= 2013-10-04 }}</ref>
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<ref nameYip2002>{{cite journal|lastYip|firstY. L.|titlePivot&nbsp;– Qi|journalThe Journal of Traditional Eastern Health and Fitness|volume12|issue3|publisher Insight Graphics Publishers |dateAutumn 2002|issn1056-4004}}</ref> -->
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<ref nameZollChanCoulRobeAdamArtu>{{harvnb|Zollman et al.|1999}}.<br />{{cite journal |title Complementary and alternative therapies in childhood attention and hyperactivity problems |last1Chan |first1 E. |last2Rappaport |first2 L.A. |last3Kemper |first3 K.J. |journalJournal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics |year 2003 |volume24 |issue 1 |pages4–8 |pmid 12584479 |doi10.1097/00004703-200302000-00003 |display-authors 1 }}<br />{{cite journal |titleComplementary and alternative medicine utilisation in NHS and private clinic settings: A United Kingdom survey of 400 infertility patients |last1 Coulson |first1C. |last2 Jenkins |first2J. |journal Journal of Experimental & Clinical Assisted Reproduction |year2005 |volume 2 |page5 |doi 10.1186/1743-1050-2-5 |pmid15807886 |pmc 1084360 |issue1 |display-authors 1 }}<br />{{cite journal |titleThe social demand for a medicine focused on the person: The contribution of CAM to healthcare and healthgenesis |last Roberti di Sarsina |firstP. |journal Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume4 |issue S1 |year2007 |pages 45–51 |doi10.1093/ecam/nem094 |pmid 18227933 |pmc2206228 }}<br />{{cite journal |title The use of complementary and alternative medicine by cancer patients |last1Adams |first1 M. |last2Jewell |first2 A.P. |journalInternational Seminars in Surgical Oncology |year 2007 |volume4 |page 10 |doi10.1186/1477-7800-4-10 |pmid 17470282 |pmc1872026 |display-authors 1 |issue=1}}<br />{{harvnb|Artus et al.|2007}}.</ref> -->
<ref nameZollman1999>{{cite journal |last1 Zollman |first1C. |last2 Vickers |first2A. |title What is complementary medicine? |departmentABC of complementary medicine |doi 10.1136/bmj.319.7211.693 |pmid10480829 |pmc 1116545 |journalBMJ |volume 319 |issue7211 |pages 693–696 |year1999 |ref {{harvid|Zollman et al.|1999}}|display-authors= 1 }}</ref>
}}
Bibliography
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* {{cite book |author1Board of Science and Education, British Medical Association |titleComplementary Medicine: New Approaches to Good Practice |year1993 |publisher Oxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-286166-5 |ref {{harvid|BMA|1993}}}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastCallahan |editor-first D. |year2004 |title The Role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Accommodating Pluralism |publisherGeorgetown University Press |location Washington, D.C. |isbn= 978-1-58901-464-0 }}
* {{cite book |titleComplementary & Alternative Medicine: Legal Boundaries and Regulatory Perspectives |first Michael H. |lastCohen|author-linkMichael H. Cohen |locationBaltimore|publisher Johns Hopkins University Press |year1998|isbn 978-0-8018-5689-1 }}
* {{cite book |author1Committee on the Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by the American Public for the Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Institute of Medicine |title Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States |urlhttps://archive.org/details/complementaryalt00inst |year 2005 |publisherNational Academy Press |location Washington, D.C. |isbn978-0-309-09270-8 |ref {{harvid|IOM Report|2005}} }}
* {{cite book |lastGevitz |first N. |author-linkNorman Gevitz |editor1-last Bynum |editor1-firstW.F. |editor2-last Porter |editor2-firstR.S. |title Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine |volume1 |chapter Chapter 28: Unorthodox Medical Theories |year1997 |orig-date 1993 |isbn978-0-415-16419-1 |publisher Routledge |locationNew York & London |editor2-link Roy Porter }}
* {{cite book |titleThe Homœopathic Medical Doctrine, or "Organon of the Healing Art" |url https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EnEFAAAAQAAJ |publisherW.F. Wakeman |last Hahnemann |firstS. |author-link Samuel Hahnemann |year1833 |location Dublin | translatorDevrient, C.H. |othersAnnotated by Stratten, S.}}
* {{cite book|first1Dennis L|last1Kasper|first2Anthony S.|last2Fauci|first3Stephen L.|last3Hauser|first4Dan L.|last4Longo|first5J. Larry|last5Jameson|first6Joseph|last6Loscalzo|titleHarrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|publisherMcGraw Hill Education|year2015|locationNew York|isbn978-0-07-180215-4|edition19th|ref={{harvid|Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|2015}}}}
* {{harvc |lastKopelman|firstL.|chapterThe Role of Science in Assessing Conventional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines|inCallahan|year2004|pp[https://books.google.com/books?idryEnQlgMCT0C&pgPA36 36–53]}}
* {{cite book |titleScientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies |firstLakshmi Chandra|lastMishra |publisherCRC Press|locationBoca Raton|year2004 |isbn=978-0-8493-1366-0}}
* {{cite book|lastO'Connor|firstBonnie Blair|titleHealing Traditions: Alternative Medicine and the Health Professions|urlhttps://archive.org/details/healingtradition0000ocon|url-accessregistration|locationPhiladelphia|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press|year1995|isbn=978-0-8122-1398-0}}
* {{cite book |lastRuggie |first M.|titleMarginal to Mainstream: Alternative Medicine in America |year 2004 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-83429-2 }}
* {{cite book |lastSagan |first C. |author-linkCarl Sagan |title The Demon-Haunted World: Science As a Candle in the Dark |year1996 |publisher Random House |locationNew York |isbn 978-0-394-53512-8 |title-link= The Demon-Haunted World }}
* {{cite book |lastSaks |first M.|titleOrthodox and Alternative Medicine: Politics, Professionalization and Health Care |year 2003 |publisherSage Publications |isbn 978-1-4462-6536-9 }}
* {{cite book |lastSointu |first E. |titleTheorizing Complementary and Alternative Medicines: Wellbeing, Self, Gender, Class |year 2012 |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |location Basingstoke, England |isbn= 978-0-230-30931-9}}
* {{cite book | last Taylor | first Kim | title Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945–63: a Medicine of Revolution | year 2005 | isbn 978-0-415-34512-5 |locationLondon and New York|seriesNeedham Research Institute Studies| publisher RoutledgeCurzon}}
* {{cite book |titleSixth Report: Complementary and Alternative Medicine |url http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/123/12301.htm |author1Walton J. |year 2000 |isbn978-0-10-483100-7 |orig-date Session 1999–2000, HL 123 |locationLondon |publisher The Stationery Office |ref= {{harvid|Sir Walton: Science and Technology Committee|2000}}}}
* {{cite journal |titleDevelopment and classification of an operational definition of complementary and alternative medicine for the Cochrane Collaboration |last1 Wieland |first1L.S. |last2 Manheimer |first2E. |last3 Berman |first3B.M. |journal Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine |year2011 |volume 17 |issue2 |pages 50–59 |pmid21717826 |pmc 3196853 |ref{{harvid|Wieland et al.|2011}}|display-authors 1 }}
* {{cite book |titleThe Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings |editor-lastWujastyk|editor-firstD.|othersTranslated by D. Wujastyk|year2003 |location London and New York |publisherPenguin Books |isbn 978-0-14-044824-5}}
* {{cite book |titleGeneral Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicine |url http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_EDM_TRM_2000.1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_EDM_TRM_2000.1.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |volume WHO/EDM/TRM/2001.1 |authorWorld Health Organization |author-mask0 |year2000 |location Geneva |publisherWorld Health Organization (WHO) |quote This document is not a formal publication of the WHO. The views expressed in documents by named authors are solely the responsibility of those authors. |ref= {{harvid|WHO|2000}}}}
* {{cite book |titleWHO Guidelines on Basic Training and Safety in Chiropractic |urlhttps://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/Chiro-Guidelines.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/Chiro-Guidelines.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |author World Health Organization |author-mask0 |year 2005 |locationGeneva |publisher WHO |isbn978-92-4-159371-7 |ref {{harvid|WHO|2005}}}}
Further reading
* {{cite book |lastBausell |first R.B |year2007 |title Snake oil science: the truth about complementary and alternative medicine |publisherOxford University Press |isbn 978-0-19-531368-0 |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195313680 }}
* {{cite journal |last1Benedetti |first1 F. |last2Maggi |first2 G. |last3Lopiano |first3 L. |last4Lanotte |first4 M. |last5Rainero |first5 I. |last6Vighetti |first6 S. |last7Pollo |first7 A. |titleOpen versus hidden medical treatments: The patient's knowledge about a therapy affects the therapy outcome |journal Prevention & Treatment |year2003 |volume 6 |issue1 |doi 10.1037/1522-3736.6.1.61a |display-authors= 1 }}
* {{cite book |editor-lastDiamond |editor-first J. |titleSnake Oil and Other Preoccupations |year 2001 |isbn978-0-09-942833-6 |chapter Foreword |firstR. |last Dawkins |author-linkRichard Dawkins |publisher Vintage |locationLondon |chapter-url-access registration |chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/snakeoilotherpre0000diam }} Reprinted in {{harvnb|Dawkins|2003}}.
* {{cite journal |vauthorsDowning AM, Hunter DG | title Validating clinical reasoning: A question of perspective, but whose perspective? | journal Manual Therapy | volume 8 | issue 2 | pages 117–119 | year 2003 | pmid 12890440 | doi 10.1016/S1356-689X(02)00077-2 | url http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/493/ }}
* {{cite journal | author Eisenberg DM | title Advising patients who seek alternative medical therapies | journal Annals of Internal Medicine | volume 127 | issue 1 | pages 61–69 | date July 1997 | pmid 9214254 | doi 10.7326/0003-4819-127-1-199707010-00010 | s2cid 23351104 }}
* {{cite journal | author Gunn IP | title A critique of Michael L. Millenson's book, Demanding Medical Excellence: Doctors and Accountability in the Information Age, and its Relevance to CRNAs and Nursing | journal AANA Journal |issn0094-6354 | volume 66 | issue 6 | pages 575–582 | date December 1998 | pmid = 10488264 }}
* {{cite book |lastHand |first W.D. |year1980 |chapterFolk Magical Medicine and Symbolism in the West |titleMagical Medicine |locationBerkeley |publisherUniversity of California Press |pages305–319 |isbn978-0-520-04129-5 |oclc6420468}}
* {{cite book |author-linkIvan Illich |last Illich |firstI. |title Limits to Medicine: Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health |publisherPenguin |year 1976 |isbn978-0-14-022009-4 |oclc 4134656 |url= https://archive.org/details/limitstomedicine00illi }}
* {{cite book |authorMayo Clinic |title Mayo Clinic Book of Alternative Medicine: The New Approach to Using the Best of Natural Therapies and Conventional Medicine |locationParsippany, New Jersey |publisher Time Home Entertainment |year2007 |isbn 978-1-933405-92-6 |author-linkMayo Clinic |url-access registration |url= https://archive.org/details/mayoclinicbookof0000unse }}
* {{cite book |lastPlaner |first F.E. |year1988 |title Superstition |editionRev. |location Buffalo, New York |publisherPrometheus Books |isbn 978-0-87975-494-5 |oclc18616238 |url-access registration |url= https://archive.org/details/superstition0000plan }}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.cwru.edu/med/epidbio/mphp439/Sources_of_Healthcare.htm |last Rosenfeld |firstA. |title Where Do Americans Go for Healthcare? |publisherCase Western Reserve University |location Cleveland, Ohio |yearc. 2000 |access-date 2010-09-23 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060509074143/http://www.cwru.edu/med/epidbio/mphp439/Sources_of_Healthcare.htm |archive-date 2006-05-09 }}
* {{cite journal|last1Snyder|first1Mariah|last2Lindquist|first2Ruth|titleIssues in Complementary Therapies: How We Got to Where We Are|journalOnline Journal of Issues in Nursing|dateMay 2001|volume6|issue2|page1|urlhttp://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No2May01/ComplementaryTherapiesIssues.aspx|pmid11469921|access-date2017-01-18|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170203005253/http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume62001/No2May01/ComplementaryTherapiesIssues.aspx|archive-date=2017-02-03}}
* {{cite journal | firstP. Jr. |last Stevens |dateNovember–December 2001 |title Magical thinking in complementary and alternative medicine |journalSkeptical Inquirer |url http://www.csicop.org/si/show/magical_thinking_in_complementary_and_alternative_medicine }}
* {{cite journal | author Tonelli MR | title The limits of evidence-based medicine | journal Respiratory Care | volume 46 | issue 12 | pages 1435–1440; discussion 1440–1441 | year 2001 | pmid 11728302 }}
* {{cite book |lastTrivieri |first L. Jr. |editor-lastAnderson |editor-first J.W. |titleAlternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide |location Berkeley |publisherTen Speed Press |year 2002 |isbn978-1-58761-141-4 |url-access registration |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781587611414_0 }}
* {{cite book |last1Wisneski |first1 L.A. |last2Anderson |first2 L. |titleThe scientific basis of integrative medicine |publisher CRC Press |year2005 |isbn 978-0-8493-2081-1 |display-authors= 1 }}
* {{cite journal |lastZalewski |first Z. |titleImportance of philosophy of science to the history of medical thinking |journal CMJ |year1999 |volume 40 |issue1 |pages 8–13 |urlhttp://www.bsb.mefst.hr/cmj/1999/4001/400102.htm |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20040206092548/http://www.bsb.mefst.hr/cmj/1999/4001/400102.htm |archive-date2004-02-06 |pmid 9933889 }}
World Health Organization
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110421082710/http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/trm_benchmarks/en/ Benchmarks for training in traditional / complementary and alternative medicine]
* {{cite book |titleWHO Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine |last1 WHO Kobe Centre |last2Bodeker |first2 G. |last3Ong |first3 C.K. |last4Grundy |first4 C. |last5Burford |first5 G. |last6Shein |first6 K. |year2005 |publisher WHO |isbn978-92-4-156286-7|display-authors2 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213942/http://apps.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?codlan1&codcol15&codcch614 Summary.]Journals* [http://altmedrev.com/ Alternative Medicine Review: A Journal of Clinical Therapeutics]. Sandpoint, Idaho : Thorne Research, c. 1996 NLM ID: 9705340 {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612162326/https://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DBlocal&v21&ti1,1&Search_Arg9705340&Search_Code0359&CNT20&SID1 |date2018-06-12 }}
* Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. Aliso Viejo, California : InnoVision Communications, c1995- NLM ID: 9502013 {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612163050/https://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DBlocal&v21&ti1,1&Search_Arg9502013&Search_Code0359&CNT20&SID1 |date=2018-06-12 }}
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882 BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924012324/http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882 |date2015-09-24 }}. London: BioMed Central, 2001 NLM ID: 101088661 {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612162549/https://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DBlocal&v21&ti1,1&Search_Arg101088661&Search_Code0359&CNT20&SID1 |date=2018-06-12 }}
* Complementary Therapies in Medicine. Edinburgh; New York : Churchill Livingstone, c. 1993 NLM ID: 9308777 {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612162156/https://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DBlocal&v21&ti1,1&Search_Arg9308777&Search_Code0359&CNT20&SID1 |date=2018-06-12 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090916003115/http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/ Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine: eCAM]. New York: Hindawi, c. 2004 NLM ID: 101215021 {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180914013658/https://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v11&ti1,1&Search_ArgEvidence%20Based%20Complementary%20and%20Alternative%20Medicine&Search_CodeTKEY&CNT10&PIDfpUDGDBAnYWR-hE7tDjwdrxtvHm&SEQ20130926044311&SID2 |date2018-09-14 }}
* [http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?AktionJournalHome&ProduktNr224242 Forschende Komplementärmedizin / Research in Complementary Medicine]
* [http://www.liebertpub.com/products/product.aspx?pid=26 Journal for Alternative and Complementary Medicine] New York : Mary Ann Liebert, c. 1995
* [http://www.sram.org/index.html Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine (SRAM)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100822070458/http://www.sram.org/index.html |date2010-08-22 }}
External links
{{sister project links|voyno|nno|speciesno|mwno|mno|dQ188504|v=Category:Complementary_and_alternative_medicine}}
{{Library resources box |byno |onlinebooksno |othersyes lcheadingAlternative medicine}}
{{Alternative medicine}}
{{Traditional Medicine}}
{{Medicinal herbs & fungi}}
{{Pseudoscience}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alternative Medicine}}
Category:Pseudoscience
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
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Archimedean solid
|
{{short description|Polyhedra in which all vertices are the same}}
, with both forms shown, making 15 models in all.]]
The Archimedean solids are a set of thirteen convex polyhedra whose faces are regular polygons, but not all alike, and whose vertices are all symmetric to each other. The solids were named after Archimedes, although he did not claim credit for them. They belong to the class of uniform polyhedra, the polyhedra with regular faces and symmetric vertices. Some Archimedean solids were portrayed in the works of artists and mathematicians during the Renaissance.
The elongated square gyrobicupola or {{shy|pseudo|rhombi|cub|octa|hedron}} is an extra polyhedron with regular faces and congruent vertices, but it is not generally counted as an Archimedean solid because it is not vertex-transitive.
The solids
The Archimedean solids have a single vertex configuration and highly symmetric properties. A vertex configuration indicates which regular polygons meet at each vertex. For instance, the configuration <math> 3 \cdot 5 \cdot 3 \cdot 5 </math> indicates a polyhedron in which each vertex is met by alternating two triangles and two pentagons. Highly symmetric properties in this case mean the symmetry group of each solid were derived from the Platonic solids, resulting from their construction.{{sfnp|Diudea|2018|p[https://books.google.com/books?idp_06DwAAQBAJ&pgPA39 39]}} Some sources say the Archimedean solids are synonymous with the semiregular polyhedron.{{sfnp|Kinsey|Moore|Prassidis|2011|p[https://books.google.com/books?idfFpuDwAAQBAJ&pgPA380 380]}} Yet, the definition of a semiregular polyhedron may also include the infinite prisms and antiprisms, including the elongated square gyrobicupola.<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvp|Rovenski|2010|p[https://books.google.com/books?idBhVCYqqP69kC&pg=PA116 116]}}
|{{harvp|Malkevitch|1988|p=85}}
}}</ref>
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center"
|+ The thirteen Archimedean solids
|-
! Name
! class="unsortable" | Solids
! Vertex configurations{{sfnp|Williams|1979}}
!Faces{{sfnp|Berman|1971}}
! Edges{{sfnp|Berman|1971}}
! Vertices{{sfnp|Berman|1971}}
! Point<BR>group{{sfnp|Koca|Koca|2013|p[https://books.google.com/books?idILnBkuSxXGEC&pg=PA48 47&ndash;50]}}
|-
| Truncated tetrahedron
|
| 3.6.6<BR>
| 4 triangles<br>4 hexagons
| 18
| 12
| T<sub>d</sub>
|-
| Cuboctahedron
|
| 3.4.3.4<BR>
| 8 triangles<br>6 squares
| 24
| 12
| O<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Truncated cube
|
| 3.8.8<BR>
| 8 triangles<br>6 octagons
| 36
| 24
| O<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Truncated octahedron
|
| 4.6.6<BR>
| 6 squares<br>8 hexagons
| 36
| 24
| O<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Rhombicuboctahedron
|
| 3.4.4.4<BR>
|8 triangles<br>18 squares
| 48
| 24
| O<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Truncated cuboctahedron
|
| 4.6.8<BR>
| 12 squares<br>8 hexagons<br>6 octagons
| 72
| 48
| O<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Snub cube
|
| 3.3.3.3.4<BR>
|32 triangles<br>6 squares
| 60
| 24
| O
|-
| Icosidodecahedron
|
| 3.5.3.5<BR>
| 20 triangles<br>12 pentagons
| 60
| 30
| I<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Truncated dodecahedron
|
| 3.10.10<BR>
|20 triangles<br>12 decagons
| 90
| 60
| I<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Truncated icosahedron
|
| 5.6.6<BR>
| 12 pentagons<br>20 hexagons
| 90
| 60
| I<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Rhombicosidodecahedron
|
| 3.4.5.4<BR>
| 20 triangles<br>30 squares<br>12 pentagons
| 120
| 60
| I<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Truncated icosidodecahedron
|
| 4.6.10<BR>
|30 squares<br>20 hexagons<br>12 decagons
| 180
| 120
| I<sub>h</sub>
|-
| Snub dodecahedron
|
| 3.3.3.3.5<BR>
| 80 triangles<br>12 pentagons
| 150
| 60
| I
|}
The construction of some Archimedean solids begins from the Platonic solids. The truncation involves cutting away corners; to preserve symmetry, the cut is in a plane perpendicular to the line joining a corner to the center of the polyhedron and is the same for all corners, and an example can be found in truncated icosahedron constructed by cutting off all the icosahedron's vertices, having the same symmetry as the icosahedron, the icosahedral symmetry.<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvp|Chancey|O'Brien|1997|p[https://books.google.com/books?idwcQIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]}}
|{{harvp|Koca|Koca|2013|p[https://books.google.com/books?idILnBkuSxXGEC&pg=PA48 48]}}
}}</ref> If the truncation is exactly deep enough such that each pair of faces from adjacent vertices shares exactly one point, it is known as a rectification. Expansion involves moving each face away from the center (by the same distance to preserve the symmetry of the Platonic solid) and taking the convex hull. An example is the rhombicuboctahedron, constructed by separating the cube or octahedron's faces from the centroid and filling them with squares.{{sfnp|Viana|Xavier|Aires|Campos|2019|p1123|locSee Fig. 6}} Snub is a construction process of polyhedra by separating the polyhedron faces, twisting their faces in certain angles, and filling them up with equilateral triangles. Examples can be found in snub cube and snub dodecahedron. The resulting construction of these solids gives the property of chirality, meaning they are not identical when reflected in a mirror.{{sfnp|Koca|Koca|2013|p[https://books.google.com/books?idILnBkuSxXGEC&pg=PA49 49]}} However, not all of them can be constructed in such a way, or they could be constructed alternatively. For example, the icosidodecahedron can be constructed by attaching two pentagonal rotunda base-to-base, or rhombicuboctahedron that can be constructed alternatively by attaching two square cupolas on the bases of octagonal prism.{{sfnp|Berman|1971}}
At least ten of the Archimedean solids have the Rupert property: each can pass through a copy of itself, of the same size. They are the cuboctahedron, truncated octahedron, truncated cube, rhombicuboctahedron, icosidodecahedron, truncated cuboctahedron, truncated icosahedron, truncated dodecahedron, and the truncated tetrahedron.<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvp|Chai|Yuan|Zamfirescu|2018}}
|{{harvp|Hoffmann|2019}}
|{{harvp|Lavau|2019}}
}}</ref>
The dual polyhedron of an Archimedean solid is a Catalan solid.{{sfnp|Diudea|2018|p[https://books.google.com/books?idp_06DwAAQBAJ&pgPA39 39]}} Background of discovery
The names of Archimedean solids were taken from Ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes, who discussed them in a now-lost work. Although they were not credited to Archimedes originally, Pappus of Alexandria in the fifth section of his titled compendium Synagoge referring that Archimedes listed thirteen polyhedra and briefly described them in terms of how many faces of each kind these polyhedra have.<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvp|Cromwell|1997|p[https://books.google.com/books?idOJowej1QWpoC&pg=PA156 156]}}
|{{harvp|Grünbaum|2009}}
|{{harvp|Field|1997|p=248}}
}}</ref>
{{multiple image
| image1 = Piero della Francesca - Libellus de quinque corporibus regularibus - p52b (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = Truncated icosahedron in De quinque corporibus regularibus
| image2 = Polyhedron small rhombi 6-8, davinci.png
| caption2 = Rhombicuboctahedron drawn by Leonardo da Vinci (colorized)
| image3 = Perspectiva Corporum Regularium 17b.jpg
| caption3 = Cuboctahedron in Perspectiva Corporum Regularium
| total_width = 450
}}
During the Renaissance, artists and mathematicians valued pure forms with high symmetry. Some Archimedean solids appeared in Piero della Francesca's De quinque corporibus regularibus, in attempting to study and copy the works of Archimedes, as well as include citations to Archimedes.{{sfnp|Banker|2005}} Yet, he did not credit those shapes to Archimedes and know of Archimedes' work but rather appeared to be an independent rediscovery.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=248}} Other appearance of the solids appeared in the works of Wenzel Jamnitzer's Perspectiva Corporum Regularium, and both Summa de arithmetica and Divina proportione by Luca Pacioli, drawn by Leonardo da Vinci.<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvp|Cromwell|1997|p[https://books.google.com/books?idOJowej1QWpoC&pg=PA156 156]}}
|{{harvp|Field|1997|p=253&ndash;254}}
}}</ref> The net of Archimedean solids appeared in Albrecht Dürer's Underweysung der Messung, copied from the Pacioli's work. By around 1620, Johannes Kepler in his Harmonices Mundi had completed the rediscovery of the thirteen polyhedra, as well as defining the prisms, antiprisms, and the non-convex solids known as Kepler&ndash;Poinsot polyhedra.{{sfnp|Schreiber|Fischer|Sternath|2008}}
, a polyhedron where mathematicians mistakenly constructed the rhombicuboctahedron. This solid is not vertex transitive, and thus was not an Archimedean Solid. ]]
Kepler may have also found another solid known as elongated square gyrobicupola or pseudorhombicuboctahedron. Kepler once stated that there were fourteen Archimedean solids, yet his published enumeration only includes the thirteen uniform polyhedra. The first clear statement of such solid existence was made by Duncan Sommerville in 1905.{{sfnp|Grünbaum|2009}} The solid appeared when some mathematicians mistakenly constructed the rhombicuboctahedron: two square cupolas attached to the octagonal prism, with one of them rotated in forty-five degrees.<ref>{{multiref
|{{harvp|Cromwell|1997|p[https://books.google.com/books?idOJowej1QWpoC&pg=PA91 91]}}
|{{harvp|Berman|1971}}
}}</ref> The thirteen solids have the property of vertex-transitive, meaning any two vertices of those can be translated onto the other one, but the elongated square gyrobicupola does not. {{harvtxt|Grünbaum|2009}} observed that it meets a weaker definition of an Archimedean solid, in which "identical vertices" means merely that the parts of the polyhedron near any two vertices look the same (they have the same shapes of faces meeting around each vertex in the same order and forming the same angles). Grünbaum pointed out a frequent error in which authors define Archimedean solids using some form of this local definition but omit the fourteenth polyhedron. If only thirteen polyhedra are to be listed, the definition must use global symmetries of the polyhedron rather than local neighborhoods. In the aftermath, the elongated square gyrobicupola was withdrawn from the Archimedean solids and included into the Johnson solids instead, a convex polyhedron in which all of the faces are regular polygons.{{sfnp|Grünbaum|2009}}
See also
* Archimedean graph, planar graphs resembling the thirteen Archimedean solids.
* Conway polyhedron notation
References
Footnotes
{{reflist|20em}}
Works cited
{{refbegin|25em}}
*{{citation
| last Banker | first James R.
| date = March 2005
| issue = 1224
| journal = The Burlington Magazine
| jstor = 20073883
| pages = 165–169
| s2cid = 190211171
| title = A manuscript of the works of Archimedes in the hand of Piero della Francesca
| volume = 147
}}.
* {{citation
| last Berman | first Martin
| year = 1971
| title = Regular-faced convex polyhedra
| journal = Journal of the Franklin Institute
| volume = 291
| issue = 5
| pages = 329–352
| doi = 10.1016/0016-0032(71)90071-8
| mr = 290245
}}.
* {{citation
| last1 Chai | first1 Ying
| last2 Yuan | first2 Liping
| last3 Zamfirescu | first3 Tudor
| title = Rupert Property of Archimedean Solids
| journal = The American Mathematical Monthly
| volume 125 | issue 6 | pages = 497–504
| year = 2018
| doi = 10.1080/00029890.2018.1449505
| s2cid = 125508192
}}.
* {{citation
| last1 Chancey | first1 C. C.
| last2 O'Brien | first2 M. C. M.
| year = 1997
| title = The Jahn-Teller Effect in C<sub>60</sub> and Other Icosahedral Complexes
| url https://books.google.com/books?idwcQIEAAAQBAJ
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| isbn = 978-0-691-22534-0
}}.
* {{citation
| last Cromwell | first Peter R.
| title = Polyhedra
| year = 1997
| url = https://archive.org/details/polyhedra0000crom
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-55432-9
}}.
* {{citation
| last Diudea | first M. V.
| year = 2018
| title = Multi-shell Polyhedral Clusters
| series = Carbon Materials: Chemistry and Physics
| volume = 10
| publisher = Springer
| isbn = 978-3-319-64123-2
| doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-64123-2
| url https://books.google.com/books?idp_06DwAAQBAJ
}}.
* {{citation
| last Field | first J. V. | author-link = Judith V. Field
| doi = 10.1007/BF00374595
| issue = 3–4
| journal = Archive for History of Exact Sciences
| jstor = 41134110
| mr = 1457069
| pages = 241–289
| s2cid = 118516740
| title = Rediscovering the Archimedean polyhedra: Piero della Francesca, Luca Pacioli, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Daniele Barbaro, and Johannes Kepler
| volume = 50
| year = 1997
}}.
* {{citation
| last Grünbaum | first Branko | author-link = Branko Grünbaum
| doi = 10.4171/EM/120
| issue = 3
| journal = Elemente der Mathematik
| mr = 2520469
| pages = 89–101
| title = An enduring error
| url = https://digital.lib.washington.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1773/4592/An_enduring_error.pdf
| volume = 64
| year 2009| doi-access free
}}. Reprinted in {{citation|titleThe Best Writing on Mathematics 2010|editor-firstMircea|editor-lastPitici|publisherPrinceton University Press|year2011|pages18–31}}.
* {{citation
| last Hoffmann | first Balazs
| title = Rupert properties of polyhedra and the generalized Nieuwland constant
| year = 2019
| journal = Journal for Geometry and Graphics
| volume 23 | issue 1 | pages = 29–35
| url = http://www.heldermann.de/JGG/JGG23/JGG231/jgg23003.htm
}}
* {{citation
| last1 Kinsey | first1 L. Christine | author-link1 = L. Christine Kinsey
| last2 Moore | first2 Teresa E.
| last3 Prassidis | first3 Efstratios
| year = 2011
| title = Geometry and Symmetry
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons
| isbn = 978-0-470-49949-8
}}.
* {{citation
| last1 Koca | first1 M.
| last2 Koca | first2 N. O.
| year = 2013
| title = Mathematical Physics: Proceedings of the 13th Regional Conference, Antalya, Turkey, 27&ndash;31 October 2010
| contribution = Coxeter groups, quaternions, symmetries of polyhedra and 4D polytopes
| contribution-url https://books.google.com/books?idILnBkuSxXGEC&pg=PA48
| publisher = World Scientific
}}.
* {{citation
| last Lavau | first Gérard
| title = The Truncated Tetrahedron is Rupert
| journal = The American Mathematical Monthly
| volume 126 | issue 10 | pages = 929–932
| year = 2019
| doi = 10.1080/00029890.2019.1656958
| s2cid = 213502432
}}.
* {{citation
| last Malkevitch | first Joseph
| contribution = Milestones in the history of polyhedra
| pages = 80–92
| title = Shaping Space: A Polyhedral Approach
| year = 1988
| editor1-last Senechal | editor1-first M. | editor1-link = Marjorie Senechal
| editor2-last Fleck | editor2-first G.
| publisher = Birkhäuser
| location = Boston
}}.
* {{citation
| last Rovenski | first Vladimir
| year = 2010
| title = Modeling of Curves and Surfaces with MATLAB®
| series = Springer Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics and Technology
| url https://books.google.com/books?idBhVCYqqP69kC
| publisher = Springer
| doi = 10.1007/978-0-387-71278-9
| isbn = 978-0-387-71278-9
}}.
* {{citation
| last1 Schreiber | first1 Peter
| last2 Fischer | first2 Gisela
| last3 Sternath | first3 Maria Luise
| title = New light on the rediscovery of the Archimedean solids during the renaissance
| journal = Archive for History of Exact Sciences
| issn = 0003-9519
| volume = 62
| issue = 4
| pages = 457–467
| year = 2008
| doi = 10.1007/s00407-008-0024-z
| bibcode = 2008AHES...62..457S
| s2cid = 122216140
| jstor = 41134285
}}.
* {{citation
| last1 Viana | first1 Vera
| last2 Xavier | first2 João Pedro
| last3 Aires | first3 Ana Paula
| last4 Campos | first4 Helena
| contribution = Interactive Expansion of Achiral Polyhedra
| editor-last Cocchiarella | editor-first Luigi
| year = 2019
| title = ICGG 2018 - Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Geometry and Graphics 40th Anniversary - Milan, Italy, August 3-7, 2018
| publisher = Springer
| doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-95588-9
| isbn = 978-3-319-95587-2
}}.
* {{citation
| last Williams | first Robert | author-link = Robert Williams (geometer)
| year = 1979
| title = The Geometrical Foundation of Natural Structure: A Source Book of Design
| publisher = Dover Publications, Inc.
| url = https://archive.org/details/geometricalfound00will/page/90
| isbn = 978-0-486-23729-9
}}.
{{refend}}
Further reading
* {{citation
| last Viana | first Vera
| year = 2024
| doi = 10.1007/s00407-024-00331-7
| title = Archimedean solids in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
| journal = Archive for History of Exact Sciences
| volume = 78
| issue = 6
| pages = 631–715
| doi-access = free
}}.
* {{citation
| last1 Williams | first1 Kim
| last2 Monteleone | first2 Cosimo
| year = 2021
| title = Daniele Barbaro's Perspective of 1568
| url https://books.google.com/books?idw5RBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19
| page = 19&ndash;20
| doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-76687-0
| isbn = 978-3-030-76687-0
}}.
External links
* {{mathworld | urlname ArchimedeanSolid | title Archimedean solid }}
* [http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ArchimedeanSolids/ Archimedean Solids] by Eric W. Weisstein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
* [http://www.software3d.com/Archimedean.php Paper models of Archimedean Solids and Catalan Solids]
* [http://www.korthalsaltes.com/cuadros.php?type=a Free paper models(nets) of Archimedean solids]
* [http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra] by Dr. R. Mäder
* [http://dmccooey.com/polyhedra/Archimedean.html Archimedean Solids] at Visual Polyhedra by David I. McCooey
* [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra], The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra by George W. Hart
* [http://www.cs.utk.edu/~plank/plank/origami/penultimate/intro.html Penultimate Modular Origami] by James S. Plank
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050403235101/http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/3Dapp/Convex.htm Interactive 3D polyhedra] in Java
* [https://archive.today/20130411004747/http://kovacsv.github.com/JSModeler/documentation/examples/solids.html Solid Body Viewer] is an interactive 3D polyhedron viewer which allows you to save the model in svg, stl or obj format.
* [http://www.software3d.com/Stella.php Stella: Polyhedron Navigator]: Software used to create many of the images on this page.
* [http://www.polyedergarten.de/ Paper Models of Archimedean (and other) Polyhedra]
{{Archimedes}}
{{Polyhedron navigator}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Archimedean Solid}}
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedean_solid
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.824754
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1851
|
Antiprism
|
{{Short description|Polyhedron with parallel bases connected by triangles}}
{{more sources needed|date=March 2025}}
In geometry, an {{nowrap|{{mvar|n}}-gonal}} antiprism or {{nowrap|{{mvar|n}}-antiprism}} is a polyhedron composed of two parallel direct copies (not mirror images) of an {{nowrap|{{mvar|n}}-sided}} polygon, connected by an alternating band of {{math|2n}} triangles. They are represented by the Conway notation {{math|An}}.
Antiprisms are a subclass of prismatoids, and are a (degenerate) type of snub polyhedron.
Antiprisms are similar to prisms, except that the bases are twisted relatively to each other, and that the side faces (connecting the bases) are {{math|2n}} triangles, rather than {{mvar|n}} quadrilaterals.
The dual polyhedron of an {{mvar|n}}-gonal antiprism is an {{mvar|n}}-gonal trapezohedron.
History
In his 1619 book Harmonices Mundi, Johannes Kepler observed the existence of the infinite family of antiprisms.<ref>{{cite book|titleHarmonices Mundi|firstJohannes|lastKepler|author-linkJohannes Kepler|title-linkHarmonices Mundi|year1619|contributionBook II, Definition X|languagela|page49|contribution-urlhttps://archive.org/details/ioanniskepplerih00kepl/page/n65}} See also [https://archive.org/details/ioanniskepplerih00kepl/page/n75 illustration A], of a heptagonal antiprism.</ref> This has conventionally been thought of as the first discovery of these shapes, but they may have been known earlier: an unsigned printing block for the net of a hexagonal antiprism has been attributed to Hieronymus Andreae, who died in 1556.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 Schreiber | first1 Peter
| last2 Fischer | first2 Gisela | author2-link = Gisela Fischer
| last3 Sternath | first3 Maria Luise
| date = July 2008
| issue = 4
| journal = Archive for History of Exact Sciences
| jstor = 41134285
| pages = 457–467
| title = New light on the rediscovery of the Archimedean solids during the Renaissance
| volume 62| doi 10.1007/s00407-008-0024-z
}}</ref>
The German form of the word "antiprism" was used for these shapes in the 19th century; Karl Heinze credits its introduction to {{ill|Theodor Wittstein|de}}.<ref>{{cite book|titleGenetische Stereometrie|firstKarl|lastHeinze|editor-firstFranz|editor-lastLucke|publisherB. G. Teubner|year1886|languagede|page14|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrZALAAAAYAAJ&pgPA14}}</ref> Although the English "anti-prism" had been used earlier for an optical prism used to cancel the effects of a primary optical element,<ref>{{cite journal
| last Smyth | first Piazzi
| doi = 10.1017/s0080456800029112
| issue = 1
| journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
| pages = 419–425
| title = XVII. On the Constitution of the Lines forming the Low-Temperature Spectrum of Oxygen
| volume = 30
| year = 1881}}</ref> the first use of "antiprism" in English in its geometric sense appears to be in the early 20th century in the works of H. S. M. Coxeter.<ref>{{cite journal
| last Coxeter | first H. S. M.
| date = January 1928
| doi = 10.1017/s0305004100011786
| issue = 1
| journal = Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
| page = 1–9
| title = The pure Archimedean polytopes in six and seven dimensions
| volume 24| bibcode 1928PCPS...24....1C
}}</ref>
Special cases
Right antiprism
For an antiprism with regular {{mvar|n}}-gon bases, one usually considers the case where these two copies are twisted by an angle of {{math|{{sfrac|180|n}}}} degrees. The axis of a regular polygon is the line perpendicular to the polygon plane and lying in the polygon centre.
For an antiprism with congruent regular {{mvar|n}}-gon bases, twisted by an angle of {{math|{{sfrac|180|n}}}} degrees, more regularity is obtained if the bases have the same axis: are coaxial; i.e. (for non-coplanar bases): if the line connecting the base centers is perpendicular to the base planes. Then the antiprism is called a right antiprism, and its {{math|2n}} side faces are isosceles triangles.<ref name=oh>{{cite book
| last1 Alsina | first1 Claudi
| last2 Nelsen | first2 Roger B.
| year = 2015
| title = A Mathematical Space Odyssey: Solid Geometry in the 21st Century
| publisher = Mathematical Association of America
| url https://books.google.com/books?idFEl2CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA87
| page = 87
| isbn = 978-1-61444-216-5
| volume = 50
}}</ref>
The symmetry group of a right {{mvar|n}}-antiprism is {{math|1=D{{sub|nd}}}} of order {{math|4n}} known as an antiprismatic symmetry, because it could be obtained by rotation of the bottom half of a prism by <math> \pi/n </math> in relation to the top half. A concave polyhedron obtained in this way would have this symmetry group, hence prefix "anti" before "prismatic".<ref>{{cite book
| last1 Flusser | first1 J.
| last2 Suk | first2 T.
| last3 Zitofa | first3 B.
| year = 2017
| title = 2D and 3D Image Analysis by Moments
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons
| isbn = 978-1-119-03935-8
| url https://books.google.com/books?idjwKLDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA126
| page = 126
}}</ref> There are two exceptions having groups different than {{math|D<sub>nd</sub>}}:
*{{math|1n 2}}: the regular tetrahedron, which has the larger symmetry group {{math|T<sub>d</sub>}} of order {{math|124 3 × (4 × 2)}}, which has three versions of {{math|D<sub>2d</sub>}} as subgroups;
*{{math|1n 3}}: the regular octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group {{math|O<sub>h</sub>}} of order {{math|148 4 × (4 × 3)}}, which has four versions of {{math|D<sub>3d</sub>}} as subgroups.<ref>{{cite book
| last1 O'Keeffe | first1 Michael
| last2 Hyde | first2 Bruce G.
| title = Crystal Structures: Patterns and Symmetry
| year = 2020
| url https://books.google.com/books?id_MjPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA140
| page = 140
| publisher = Dover Publications
| isbn = 978-0-486-83654-6
}}</ref>
The symmetry group contains inversion if and only if {{mvar|n}} is odd.
The rotation group is {{math|D<sub>n</sub>}} of order {{math|2n}}, except in the cases of:
*{{math|1n 2}}: the regular tetrahedron, which has the larger rotation group {{math|T}} of order {{math|112 3 × (2 × 2)}}, which has three versions of {{math|D<sub>2</sub>}} as subgroups;
*{{math|1n 3}}: the regular octahedron, which has the larger rotation group {{math|O}} of order {{math|124 4 × (2 × 3)}}, which has four versions of {{math|D<sub>3</sub>}} as subgroups.
The right {{mvar|n}}-antiprisms have congruent regular {{mvar|n}}-gon bases and congruent isosceles triangle side faces, thus have the same (dihedral) symmetry group as the uniform {{mvar|n}}-antiprism, for {{math|n ≥ 4}}.
Uniform antiprism
A uniform {{mvar|n}}-antiprism has two congruent regular {{mvar|n}}-gons as base faces, and {{math|2n}} equilateral triangles as side faces. As do uniform prisms, the uniform antiprisms form an infinite class of vertex-transitive polyhedra. For {{math|n {{}} 2}}, one has the digonal antiprism (degenerate antiprism), which is visually identical to the regular tetrahedron; for {{math|n {{}} 3}}, the regular octahedron is a triangular antiprism (non-degenerate antiprism).<ref name=oh/>
{{UniformAntiprisms}}
The Schlegel diagrams of these semiregular antiprisms are as follows:
{| class=wikitable
|- align=center
|<BR>A3
|<BR>A4
|<BR>A5
|<BR>A6
|<BR>A7
|<BR>A8
|}
Cartesian coordinates
Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a right {{mvar|n}}-antiprism (i.e. with regular {{mvar|n}}-gon bases and {{math|2n}} isosceles triangle side faces, circumradius of the bases equal to 1) are:
:<math>\left( \cos\frac{k\pi}{n}, \sin\frac{k\pi}{n}, (-1)^k h \right)</math>
where {{math|0 ≤ k ≤ 2n – 1}};
if the {{mvar|n}}-antiprism is uniform (i.e. if the triangles are equilateral), then:
<math displayblock>2h^2 \cos\frac{\pi}{n} - \cos\frac{2\pi}{n}.</math>
Volume and surface area
Let {{mvar|a}} be the edge-length of a uniform {{mvar|n}}-gonal antiprism; then the volume is:
<math displayblock>V \frac{n\sqrt{4\cos^2\frac{\pi}{2n}-1}\sin \frac{3\pi}{2n} }{12\sin^2\frac{\pi}{n}}~a^3,</math>
and the surface area is:
<math displayblock>A \frac{n}{2} \left( \cot\frac{\pi}{n} + \sqrt{3} \right) a^2.</math>
Furthermore, the volume of a regular right {{mvar|n}}-gonal antiprism with side length of its bases {{mvar|l}} and height {{mvar|h}} is given by:{{sfnp|Alsina|Nelsen|2015|p[http://books.google.com/books?idFEl2CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 88]}}
<math displayblock>V \frac{nhl^2}{12} \left( \csc\frac{\pi}{n} + 2\cot\frac{\pi}{n}\right).</math>
Derivation
The circumradius of the horizontal circumcircle of the regular <math>n</math>-gon at the base is
:<math>
R(0) = \frac{l}{2\sin\frac{\pi}{n}}.
</math>
The vertices at the base are at
:<math>\left(\begin{array}{c}R(0)\cos\frac{2\pi m}{n} \\ R(0)\sin\frac{2\pi m}{n} \\ 0\end{array}\right),\quad m=0..n-1;</math>
the vertices at the top are at
:<math>\left(\begin{array}{c}R(0)\cos\frac{2\pi (m+1/2)}{n}\\R(0)\sin\frac{2\pi (m+1/2)}{n}\\h\end{array}\right), \quad m=0..n-1.</math>
Via linear interpolation, points on the outer triangular edges of the antiprism that connect vertices at the bottom with vertices at the top
are at
:<math>\left(\begin{array}{c}
\frac{R(0)}{h}[(h-z)\cos\frac{2\pi m}{n}+z\cos\frac{\pi(2m+1)}{n}]\\
\frac{R(0)}{h}[(h-z)\sin\frac{2\pi m}{n}+z\sin\frac{\pi(2m+1)}{n}]\\
\\z\end{array}\right), \quad 0\le z\le h, m=0..n-1</math>
and at
:<math>\left(\begin{array}{c}
\frac{R(0)}{h}[(h-z)\cos\frac{2\pi (m+1)}{n}+z\cos\frac{\pi(2m+1)}{n}]\\
\frac{R(0)}{h}[(h-z)\sin\frac{2\pi (m+1)}{n}+z\sin\frac{\pi(2m+1)}{n}]\\
\\z\end{array}\right), \quad 0\le z\le h, m=0..n-1.</math>
By building the sums of the squares of the <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> coordinates in one of the previous two vectors,
the squared circumradius of this section at altitude <math>z</math> is
:<math>
R(z)^2 = \frac{R(0)^2}{h^2}[h^2-2hz+2z^2+2z(h-z)\cos\frac{\pi}{n}].
</math>
The horizontal section at altitude <math>0\le z\le h</math> above the base is a <math>2n</math>-gon (truncated <math>n</math>-gon)
with <math>n</math> sides of length <math>l_1(z)l(1-z/h)</math> alternating with <math>n</math> sides of length <math>l_2(z)lz/h</math>.
(These are derived from the length of the difference of the previous two vectors.)
It can be dissected into <math>n</math> isoceless triangles of edges <math>R(z),R(z)</math> and <math>l_1</math> (semiperimeter <math>R(z)+l_1(z)/2</math>)
plus <math>n</math>
isoceless triangles of edges <math>R(z),R(z)</math> and <math>l_2(z)</math> (semiperimeter <math>R(z)+l_2(z)/2</math>).
According to Heron's formula the areas of these triangles are
:<math>
Q_1(z) = \frac{R(0)^2}{h^2} (h-z)\left[(h-z)\cos\frac{\pi}{n}+z\right] \sin\frac{\pi}{n}
</math>
and
:<math>
Q_2(z) =
\frac{R(0)^2}{h^2} z\left[z\cos\frac{\pi}{n}+h-z\right] \sin\frac{\pi}{n}
.
</math>
The area of the section is <math>n[Q_1(z)+Q_2(z)]</math>, and the volume is
:<math>
V n\int_0^h [Q_1(z)+Q_2(z)] dz \frac{nh}{3}R(0)^2\sin\frac{\pi}{n}(1+2\cos\frac{\pi}{n})
= \frac{nh}{12}l^2\frac{1+2\cos\frac{\pi}{n}}{\sin\frac{\pi}{n}}
.
</math>
The volume of a right {{mvar|n}}-gonal prism with the same {{mvar|l}} and {{mvar|h}} is:
<math displayblock>V_{\mathrm{prism}}\frac{nhl^2}{4} \cot\frac{\pi}{n}</math>
which is smaller than that of an antiprism.
Generalizations
In higher dimensions
Four-dimensional antiprisms can be defined as having two dual polyhedra as parallel opposite faces, so that each three-dimensional face between them comes from two dual parts of the polyhedra: a vertex and a dual polygon, or two dual edges. Every three-dimensional convex polyhedron is combinatorially equivalent to one of the two opposite faces of a four-dimensional antiprism, constructed from its canonical polyhedron and its polar dual.<ref>{{cite journal | last Grünbaum | first Branko | author-link Branko Grünbaum | issue 2 | journal Geombinatorics | mr 2298896 | pages 69–78 | title Are prisms and antiprisms really boring? (Part 3) | url https://faculty.washington.edu/moishe/branko/BG256.Prisms%20and%20antiprisms.%20Part%203.pdf | volume 15 | year 2005}}</ref> However, there exist four-dimensional polychora that cannot be combined with their duals to form five-dimensional antiprisms.<ref>{{cite journal | last Dobbins | first Michael Gene | doi 10.1007/s00454-017-9874-y | issue 4 | journal Discrete & Computational Geometry | mr 3639611 | pages 966–984 | title Antiprismlessness, or: reducing combinatorial equivalence to projective equivalence in realizability problems for polytopes | volume 57 | year 2017}}</ref>Self-crossing polyhedra
{{See|Prismatic uniform polyhedron}}
{| class"wikitable floatright" width320
|- align=center
| <BR>3/2-antiprism<br>nonuniform
| <BR>5/4-antiprism<br>nonuniform
|<BR>5/2-antiprism
|<BR>5/3-antiprism
|- align=center
|<BR>9/2-antiprism
|<BR>9/4-antiprism
|<BR>9/5-antiprism
|}
). For example, the icosaenneagrammic crossed antiprism ({{math|29/q}}) with the greatest {{math|q}}, such that it can be uniform, has {{math|q {{=}} 19}} and is depicted at the bottom right corner of the image. For {{math|q ≥ 20}} up to {{math|28}} the crossed antiprism cannot be uniform.<br />Note: Octagrammic crossed antiprism (8/5) is missing.]]
Uniform star antiprisms are named by their star polygon bases, {{math|{p/q},}} and exist in prograde and in retrograde (crossed) solutions. Crossed forms have intersecting vertex figures, and are denoted by "inverted" fractions: {{math|p/(p – q)}} instead of {{math|p/q}}; example: (5/3) instead of (5/2).
A 'right star {{math|n}}-antiprism has two congruent coaxial regular convex or star''' polygon base faces, and {{math|2n}} isosceles triangle side faces.
Any star antiprism with regular convex or star polygon bases can be made a right star antiprism (by translating and/or twisting one of its bases, if necessary).
In the retrograde forms, but not in the prograde forms, the triangles joining the convex or star bases intersect the axis of rotational symmetry. Thus:
*Retrograde star antiprisms with regular convex polygon bases cannot have all equal edge lengths, and so cannot be uniform. "Exception": a retrograde star antiprism with equilateral triangle bases (vertex configuration: 3.3/2.3.3) can be uniform; but then, it has the appearance of an equilateral triangle: it is a degenerate star polyhedron.
*Similarly, some retrograde star antiprisms with regular star polygon bases cannot have all equal edge lengths, and so cannot be uniform. Example: a retrograde star antiprism with regular star {{mset|7/5}}-gon bases (vertex configuration: 3.3.3.7/5) cannot be uniform.
Also, star antiprism compounds with regular star {{math|{{mset|p/q}}}}-gon bases can be constructed if {{mvar|p}} and {{mvar|q}} have common factors. Example: a star (10/4)-antiprism is the compound of two star (5/2)-antiprisms.
Number of uniform crossed antiprisms
If the notation {{math|(p/q)}} is used for an antiprism, then for {{math|q > p/2}} the antiprism is crossed (by definition) and for {{math|q < p/2}} is not. In this section all antiprisms are assumed to be non-degenerate, i.e. {{math|p ≥ 3}},&ensp;{{math|q ≠ p/2}}. Also, the condition {{math|(p,q) {{=}} 1}} ({{mvar|p}} and {{mvar|q}} are relatively prime) holds, as compounds are exluded from counting. The number of uniform crossed antiprisms for fixed {{mvar|p}} can be determined using simple inequalities. The condition on possible {{mvar|q}} is
: {{math|{{sfrac|p|2}} < q < {{sfrac|2|3}} p}} and {{math|1(p,q) 1.}}
Examples:
* {{mvar|p}} 3:&emsp;{{sfrac|p|2}} 1.5&ensp;and&ensp;{{sfrac|2|3}} {{mvar|p}} = 2,&ensp;so 2 ≤ {{mvar|q}} ≤ 1 – a uniform triangular crossed antiprism does not exist.<br />
* {{mvar|p}} 5:&emsp;{{sfrac|p|2}} 2.5&ensp;and&ensp;{{sfrac|2|3}} {{mvar|p}} {{sfrac|10|3}} {{sfrac|3|1|3}},&ensp;so 3 ≤ {{mvar|q}} ≤ 3 – one antiprism of the type (5/3) can be uniform.<br />
* {{mvar|p}} 29:&ensp;{{sfrac|p|2}} 14.5&ensp;and&ensp;{{sfrac|2|3}} {{mvar|p}} {{sfrac|58|3}} {{sfrac|19|1|3}}, 15 ≤ {{mvar|q}} ≤ 19 – there are five possibilities shown in the rightmost column, below the (29/1) convex antiprism, on the image above.<br />
* {{mvar|p}} 15:&ensp;{{sfrac|p|2}} 7.5&ensp;and&ensp;{{sfrac|2|3}} {{mvar|p}} 10,&ensp;8 ≤ {{mvar|q}} ≤ 9 – antiprism with {{mvar|q}} 8 is a solution, but {{mvar|q}} 9 must be rejected, as (15,9) 3 and {{sfrac|15|9}} = {{sfrac|5|3}}. The antiprism (15/9) is a compound of three antiprisms (5/3). Since 9 satisfies the inequalities, the compound can be uniform, and if it is, then its parts must be. Indeed, the antiprism (5/3) can be uniform by example 2.
In the first column of the following table, the symbols are Schoenflies, Coxeter, and orbifold notation, in this order.
{| class"wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style"text-align:center"
|+ class="nowrap"| Star ({{math|p/q}})-antiprisms by symmetry, for {{math|p'' ≤ 12}}
! Symmetry group
! colspan=4 | Uniform stars
! Right stars
|-
! {{math|D<sub>3h</sub><br>[2,3]<br>(2*3)}}
| colspan=4 |
| <br>3.3/2.3.3<br>Crossed triangular antiprism
|-
! {{math|D<sub>4d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,8]<BR>(2*4)}}
| colspan=4 |
| <BR>3.3/2.3.4<br>Crossed square antiprism
|-
! {{math|D<sub>5h</sub><BR>[2,5]<BR>(*225)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.5/2<br>Pentagrammic antiprism
| colspan=3 |
| <BR>3.3/2.3.5<br>Crossed pentagonal antiprism
|-
! {{math|D<sub>5d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,10]<BR>(2*5)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.5/3<br>Pentagrammic crossed-antiprism
|-
! {{math|D<sub>6d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,12]<BR>(2*6)}}
| colspan=4 |
| <BR>3.3/2.3.6<br>Crossed hexagonal antiprism
|-
! {{math|D<sub>7h</sub><BR>[2,7]<BR>(*227)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.7/2<br>Heptagrammic antiprism (7/2)
| <BR>3.3.3.7/4<br>Heptagrammic crossed antiprism (7/4)
|-
! {{math|D<sub>7d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,14]<BR>(2*7)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.7/3<br>Heptagrammic antiprism (7/3)
|-
! {{math|D<sub>8d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,16]<BR>(2*8)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.8/3<br>Octagrammic antiprism
| <BR>3.3.3.8/5<br>Octagrammic crossed-antiprism
|-
! {{math|D<sub>9h</sub><BR>[2,9]<BR>(*229)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.9/2<br>Enneagrammic antiprism (9/2)
| <BR>3.3.3.9/4<br>Enneagrammic antiprism (9/4)
|-
! {{math|D<sub>9d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,18]<BR>(2*9)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.9/5<br>Enneagrammic crossed-antiprism
|-
! {{math|D<sub>10d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,20]<BR>(2*10)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.10/3<br>Decagrammic antiprism
|-
! {{math|D<sub>11h</sub><BR>[2,11]<BR>(*2.2.11)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.11/2<br>Undecagrammic (11/2)
| <BR>3.3.3.11/4<br>Undecagrammic (11/4)
| <BR>3.3.3.11/6<br>Undecagrammic crossed (11/6)
|-
! {{math|D<sub>11d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,22]<BR>(2*11)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.11/3<br>Undecagrammic (11/3)
| <BR>3.3.3.11/5<br>Undecagrammic (11/5)
| <BR>3.3.3.11/7<br>Undecagrammic crossed (11/7)
|-
! {{math|D<sub>12d</sub><BR>[2<sup>+</sup>,24]<BR>(2*12)}}
| <BR>3.3.3.12/5<br>Dodecagrammic
| <BR>3.3.3.12/7<br>Dodecagrammic crossed
|-
! ...
| ...
|}
See also
* Antiprism graph, graph of an antiprism
*Grand antiprism, a four-dimensional polytope
*Skew polygon, a three-dimensional polygon whose convex hull is an antiprism
References
{{reflist}}
Further reading
*{{cite book | authorAnthony Pugh | year 1976 | titlePolyhedra: A visual approach | publisher University of California Press Berkeley | locationCalifornia | isbn 0-520-03056-7 }} Chapter 2: Archimedean polyhedra, prisms and antiprisms
External links
*{{Commonscatinline}}
*{{MathWorld|urlnameAntiprism|titleAntiprism}}
*[http://home.comcast.net/~tpgettys/nonconvexprisms.html Nonconvex Prisms and Antiprisms]{{dead-link|fix-attemptedy|dateFebruary 2025}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20141019220935/http://www.software3d.com/Prisms.php Paper models of prisms and antiprisms]
{{Polyhedron navigator}}
Category:Uniform polyhedra
Category:Prismatoid polyhedra
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiprism
|
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1853
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Natural history of Africa
|
thumb|right|A composite satellite image of Africa.
thumb|Africa map of Köppen climate classification.
The natural history of Africa encompasses some of the well known megafauna of that continent.
Natural history is the study and description of organisms and natural objects, especially their origins, evolution, and interrelationships.
Flora
The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the distribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Mediterranean, there are groves of orange and olive trees, evergreen oaks, cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus and fragrant tree-heaths.
South of the Atlas Mountains, the conditions alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Characteristic of the Sahara is the date palm, which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semidesert regions the acacia, from which gum arabic is obtained, is abundant.
The more humid regions have a richer vegetation; dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper Nile; and savanna interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, etc. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions, the typical tree is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp character.
The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of hardwoods, two palms, Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) and Raphia vinifera (bamboo palm), not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. Bombax or silk cotton trees attain gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the India rubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (Chlorophora excelsa), ebony, mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), Oldfieldia (Oldfieldia africana) and camwood (Baphia nitida). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or "bush" is extremely dense.
thumb|A map of Africa's vegetation variation.
In the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey-bread tree or baobab (Adansonia digitata), doum palm (Hyphaene) and euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely separated places as Liberia and southern Ethiopia. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalaya and Indo-China.
In the swamp regions of north-east Africa, papyrus and associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourished in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest, save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succulent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the yellowwood (Podocarpus elongatus), stinkwood (Ocotea), sneezewood or Cape ebony (Pteroxylon utile) and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa, alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range.
Fauna
thumb|upright|left|Southwest African lion (Panthera leo bleyenberghi).
The fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild donkey and four species of rhinoceros; and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyena, etc. The okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel, as a domestic animal, is especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes.
The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in South Africa, Central Africa, East Africa, Somaliland, etc., while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900.
The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the ostrich and the secretarybird. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The secretarybird is common in the south. The weaver birds and their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the francolin and guineafowl. Many of the smaller birds, such as the sunbirds, bee-eaters, the parrots and kingfishers, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted for the brilliance of their feathers.
Of reptiles, the lizard and chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous snakes, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries.
The scorpion is abundant. Of insects, Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the proverbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by means of mosquitoes is common. The tsetse fly, whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. It is found nowhere outside Africa.
See also
Ecology
References
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Africa
|
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1854
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Geography of Africa
|
{{Short description|none}} <!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY "none" - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! -->
Africa is a continent comprising 63 political territories, representing the largest of the great southward projections from the main mass of Earth's surface.<ref nameEB1911>{{EB1911 |inliney |wstitleAfrica |volume1 |pages320–322 |first1Edward |last1Heawood |first2Frank Richardson |last2Cana}}</ref> Within its regular outline, it comprises an area of {{convert|30368609|km2|sqmi|abbron}}, excluding adjacent islands. Its highest mountain is Kilimanjaro; its largest lake is Lake Victoria.
Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea and from much of Asia by the Red Sea, Africa is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (which is transected by the Suez Canal), {{convert|130|km|mi|abbron}} wide. For geopolitical purposes, the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt&nbsp;– east of the Suez Canal&nbsp;– is often considered part of Africa. From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia, at 37°21′ N, to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa, 34°51′15″ S, is a distance approximately of {{convert|8000|km|mi|abbron}}; from Cap-Vert, 17°31′13″W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in the Somali Puntland region, in the Horn of Africa, 51°27′52″ E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of {{convert|7400|km|mi|abbron}}.<ref nameEB1911/>
The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus mainly composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, and the southern from north to south.<ref nameEB1911/>Main featuresThe average elevation of the continent approximates closely to {{convert|600|m|ft|abbron}} above sea level, roughly near to the mean elevation of both North and South America, but considerably less than that of Asia, {{convert|950|m|ft|abbron|lkoff}}. In contrast with other continents, it is marked by the comparatively small area of either very high or very low ground, lands under {{convert|180|m|ft|abbron|lkoff}} occupying an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those of Asia or South America, but the area of land over {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbron|lkoff}} is also quite insignificant, being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and ridges that a specialised term—Inselberg-Landschaft, island mountain landscape—has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind of country, thought to be in great part the result of wind action.)<ref name=EB1911/>
As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the lowlands and the Atlas Mountains, the continent may be divided into two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line (somewhat concave to the northwest) running from the middle of the Red Sea to about 6 degrees south on the west coast.<ref name=EB1911/>
Africa can be divided into a number of geographic zones:
* The coastal plains—often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps—never stretching far from the coast, apart from the lower courses of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta of the more important rivers. Elsewhere, the coastal lowlands merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces that constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus.
* The Atlas range—orthographically distinct from the rest of the continent, being unconnected with and separated from the south by a depressed and desert area (the Sahara).<ref nameEB1911/>Plateau region
There are many plateaus in Africa.
The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below {{convert|600|m|ft|abbron}}, have a mean elevation of about {{convert|1000|m|ft|abbron}}. The South African plateau, as far as about 12° S, is bounded east, west and south by bands of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer. Due south, the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with level ground between them. The largest of these level areas, the Great Karoo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known as the Kalahari Desert.<ref name=EB1911 />
The South African plateau is connected towards East African plateau, with probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number of zones running north and south and consisting in turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the Earth's crust, the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes. Towards the south the two lines converge and give place to one great valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of the system.<ref name=EB1911/>
Farther north the western hollow, known as the Albertine Rift, is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the Great Lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Lake Edward and Lake Albert, the first-named over {{convert|400|mi|km}} long and the longest freshwater lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern branch of the East African Rift, contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough being Lake Turkana or Basso Norok.<ref name=EB1911/>
A short distance east of this rift valley is Mount Kilimanjaro – with its two peaks Kibo and Mawenzi, the latter being {{convert|5889|m|ft|abbron}}, and the culminating point of the whole continent&nbsp;– and Mount Kenya, which is {{convert|5184|m|ft|abbron}}. Hardly less important is the Ruwenzori Range, over {{convert|5060|m|ft|abbron}}, which lies east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active.<ref nameEB1911/> This could cause most of the cities and states to be flooded with lava and ash.
The third division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Ethiopian Highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, little of its surface falling below {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbron}}, while the summits reach heights of 4400 m to 4550 m. This block of country lies just west of the line of the great East African Trough, the northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarpment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana.<ref nameEB1911/>
Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, the Ethiopian mountains being continued northwards along the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbron}}. In the west the zone of high land is broader but somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, etc.), where heights of {{convert|1800|to|2400|m|ft|abbron}} are reached. Exactly at the head of the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height of {{convert|4075|m|ft|abbron}}, while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first of the line of islands, rises to over {{convert|2700|m|ft|abbron}}. Towards the extreme west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting.<ref nameEB1911/>PlainsMuch of Africa is made up of plains of the pediplain and etchplain type often occurring as steps.<ref nameGuillocheauetal2017/><ref nameColtortietal2007>{{cite journal |last1Coltorti |first1M. |last2Dramis |first2F.|last3Ollier |first3=C.D
|author-link3Cliff Ollier |date2007 |titlePlanation surfaces in Northern Ethiopia |journalGeomorphology |volume89 |issue3–4 |pages287–296 |doi 10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.12.007|bibcode2007Geomo..89..287C }}</ref> The etchplains are commonly associated with laterite soil and inselbergs.<ref nameGuillocheauetal2017>{{cite journal |last1Guillocheau |first1François |last2Simon |first2Brendan|last3Baby |first3Guillaume|last4Bessin |first4Paul|last5Robin |first5Cécile|last6Dauteuil |first6Olivier |date2017 |titlePlanation surfaces as a record of mantle dynamics: The case example of Africa |journalGondwana Research |volume53 |page82 |doi10.1016/j.gr.2017.05.015 |bibcode2018GondR..53...82G |urlhttps://hal-insu.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-01534695/file/guillocheau-GondRes-2017.pdf }}</ref> Inselberg-dotted plains are common in Africa including Tanzania,<ref>Sundborg, Å., & Rapp, A. (1986). Erosion and sedimentation by water: problems and prospects. Ambio, 215-225.</ref> the Anti-Atlas of Morocco,<ref nameGuillocheauetal2017/> Namibia,<ref nameNamibiainselbergreport>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.nbri.org.na/sites/default/files/Agricola1998_99_No10_07_de_Pauw_et_al.PDF |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nbri.org.na/sites/default/files/Agricola1998_99_No10_07_de_Pauw_et_al.PDF |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titlePRODUCTION OF AN AGRO.ECOLOGICAL ZONES MAP OF NAMIBIA (first approximation)|worknbri.org.na}}</ref> and the interior of Angola.<ref nameInselbergAngola>{{Cite web |urlhttps://library.wur.nl/isric/fulltext/isricu_i27864_001.pdf |titleDEVELOPMENT OF A SOIL AND TERRAIN MAP/DATABASE FOR ANGOLA |access-date2018-01-01 |archive-date2021-03-09 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210309024343/https://library.wur.nl/isric/fulltext/isricu_i27864_001.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref> One of the most wideaspread plain is the African Surface, a composite etchplain occurring across much of the continent.<ref>{{cite book |last1Burke |first1Kevin |last2Gunnell |first2Yanni |date2008 |titleThe African Erosion Surface: A Continental-Scale Synthesis of Geomorphology, Tectonics, and Environmental Change over the Past 180 Million Years |publisherThe Geological Society of America |isbn978-0-8137-1201-7}}</ref><ref nameGuillocheauetal2017/><ref>{{cite journal|author-lastBeauvais|author-firstA.|author-last2Ruffet|author-first2G. |author-last3Henócque|author-first3O.|author-last4Colin|author-first4F.|date2008|titleChemical and physical erosion rhythms of the West African Cenozoic morphogenesis: The 39Ar-40Ar dating of supergene K-Mn oxides. |journalJournal of Geophysical Research|volume113 |number113|pagesF04007|doi10.1029/2008JF000996 |bibcode2008JGRF..113.4007B |s2cid14145710 |urlhttps://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01097306/file/2008JF000996.pdf }}</ref>
The area between the east and west coast highlands, which north of 17° N is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of the basins so formed (the Congo Basin) occupies a circular area bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea.<ref name=EB1911/>
Running along the south of desert is the plains region known as the Sahel.
The arid region, the Sahara&nbsp;— the largest hot desert in the world, covering {{convert|9000000|km2|sqmi|abbron}}&nbsp;— extends from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation, it contains mountain ranges with peaks rising to {{convert|2400|m|ft|abbron}} Bordered N.W. by the Atlas range, to the northeast a rocky plateau separates it from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places {{convert|160|km|mi|abbron}} broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis take a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels.<ref nameEB1911/>
Mountains
{{further|List of highest mountain peaks of Africa}}
The mountains are an exception to Africa's general landscape. Geographers came up with the idea of "high Africa" and "low Africa" to help distinguish the difference in Geography; "high Africa" extending from Ethiopia down south to South Africa and the Cape of Good Hope while "low Africa" representing the plains of the rest of the continent.<ref>{{Cite book|titleAfrica, Fourth Edition|lastDelehanty|firstJames|publisherIndiana University Press|year2014|isbn978-0-253-01302-6|pages15}}</ref> The following table gives the details of the chief mountains and ranges of the continent:<ref nameEB1911/>
{| class"wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" border"0"
|+
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Mountain !! Range !! Country !! Height (m) !! Height (ft) !! Prominence (m) !! Isolation (km)
|-
| Kilimanjaro || Eastern Rift volcanoes || Tanzania || style"text-align: center;" | 5895 || style"text-align: center;" | 19,340 || style"text-align: center;" | 5885 || style"text-align: center;" | 5510
|-
| Mount Kenya || Eastern Rift volcanoes || Kenya
| style"text-align: center;" | 5199 || style"text-align: center;" | 17,058 || style"text-align: center;" | 3825 || style"text-align: center;" | &nbsp;323
|-
| Mount Stanley || Rwenzori Mtns || Uganda/DRC
| style"text-align: center;" | 5109 || style"text-align: center;" | 16,762 || style"text-align: center;" | 3951 || style"text-align: center;" | &nbsp;830
|-
| Mount Meru || Eastern Rift volcanoes || Tanzania
| style"text-align: center;" | 4566 || style"text-align: center;" | 14,980 || style"text-align: center;" | 3170 || style"text-align: center;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;70
|-
| Ras Dashen || Semien Mountains || Ethiopia
| style"text-align: center;" | 4533 || style"text-align: center;" | 14,872 || style"text-align: center;" | 3997 || style"text-align: center;" | 1483
|-
| Mount Karisimbi || Virunga Mountains || Rwanda/DRC
| style"text-align: center;" | 4507 || style"text-align: center;" | 14,787 || style"text-align: center;" | 3312 || style"text-align: center;" | &nbsp;207
|-
| Mount Elgon || Eastern Rift volcanoes || Uganda
| style"text-align: center;" | 4321 || style"text-align: center;" | 14,178 || style"text-align: center;" | 2458 || style"text-align: center;" | &nbsp;339
|-
| Toubkal || Atlas Mountains || Morocco
| style"text-align: center;" | 4167 || style"text-align: center;" | 13,671 || style"text-align: center;" | 3755 || style"text-align: center;" | 2078
|-
| Mount Cameroon || Cameroon line || Cameroon
| style"text-align: center;" | 4095 || style"text-align: center;" | 13,435 || style"text-align: center;" | 3901 || style"text-align: center;" | 2338
|-
| Mount Satima || Aberdare range || Kenya
| style"text-align: center;" | 4001 || style"text-align: center;" | 13,120 || style"text-align: center;" | 2081 || style"text-align: center;" | 77
|-
| | Mount Teide || Canary Islands || Spain
| style"text-align: center;" | 3718 || style"text-align: center;" | 12,198 || style"text-align: center;" | 3715 || style"text-align: center;" | 893
|-
| Thabana Ntlenyana || Drakensberg || Lesotho
| style"text-align: center;" | 3482 || style"text-align: center;" | 11,422 || style"text-align: center;" | 2390 || style"text-align: center;" | 3003
|-
| Emi Koussi || Tibesti Mountains || Chad
| style"text-align: center;" | 3445 || style"text-align: center;" | 11,302 || style"text-align: center;" | 2934 || style"text-align: center;" | 2001
|-
| Emba mossino|| Emba Soira || Eritrea
| style"text-align: center;" | 3038 || style"text-align: center;" | &nbsp;9,849 || style"text-align: center;" | 2319 || style"text-align: center;" | 1272
|}
|}
Rivers
{{See|List of rivers of Africa}}
From the outer margin of the African plateaus, a large number of streams run to the sea with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long distances on the interior highlands, before breaking through the outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=EB1911/>
To the main African rivers belong: Nile (the longest river of Africa), Congo (river with the highest water discharge on the continent) and the Niger, which flows half of its length through the arid areas. The largest lakes are the following: Lake Victoria (Lake Ukerewe), Lake Chad, in the centre of the continent, Lake Tanganyika, lying between the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia. There is also the considerably large Lake Malawi stretching along the eastern border of Malawi. There are also numerous water dams throughout the continent: Kariba on the river of Zambezi, Asuan in Egypt on the river of Nile, and Akosombo, the continent's biggest dam on the Volta River in Ghana (Fobil 2003).
The high lake plateau of the African Great Lakes region contains the headwaters of both the Nile and the Congo.
The break-up of Gondwana in Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic times led to a major reorganization of the river courses of various large African rivers including the Congo, Niger, Nile, Orange, Limpopo and Zambezi rivers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Goudie |first1A.S.|author-linkAndrew Goudie (geographer) |date2005 |titleThe drainage of Africa since the Cretaceous |journalGeomorphology |volume67 |issue3–4 |pages437–456 |doi 10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.11.008|bibcode2005Geomo..67..437G }}</ref>Flowing to the Mediterranean SeaThe upper Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African trough in the neighborhood of the equator. From there, streams pour eastward into Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa (covering over 26,000 square m.), and to the west and north into Lake Edward and Lake Albert. To the latter of these, the effluents of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from there, the Nile flows northward, and between the latitudes of 7 and 10 degrees north it traverses a vast marshy level, where its course is liable to being blocked by floating vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Ethiopian Highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood-water), it separates the great desert with its fertile watershed, and enters the Mediterranean at a vast delta.<ref nameEB1911/>
Flowing to the Atlantic Ocean
The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the Chambezi, which flows southwest into the marshy Lake Bangweulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-clad basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic northward curve, and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it finally turns southwest and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, where the corresponding area is {{convert|1000000|km2|abbron}}.<ref nameEB1911/>
West of Lake Chad is the basin of the Niger, the third major river of Africa. With its principal source in the far west, it reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and Congo,<ref name=EB1911/> and ultimately flows into the Atlantic&nbsp;— a fact that eluded European geographers for many centuries. An important branch, however&nbsp;— the Benue&nbsp;— flows from the southeast.
These four river basins occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa&nbsp;— the remainder consists of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams that do not reach the sea.<ref name=EB1911/>
Of the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin, the Orange, in the extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west coastal highlands of the southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal, for over {{convert|1500|km|abbron}} of coast, the arid region reaches to the Atlantic. Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses, reaching the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains.<ref nameEB1911/>
Flowing to the Indian Ocean
Of the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean, the only one draining any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose western branches rise in the western coastal highlands. The main stream has its rise in 11°21′3″ S 24°22′ E, at an elevation of {{convert|1500|m|abbron}}. It flows to the west and south for a considerable distance before turning eastward. All the largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground stretching across the continent from 10° to 12° S. In the southwest, the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is lost in a system of swamps and saltpans that was formerly centred in Lake Ngami, now dried up.<ref nameEB1911/>
Farther south, the Limpopo drains a portion of the interior plateau, but breaks through the bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its source. The Rovuma, Rufiji and Tana principally drain the outer slopes of the African Great Lakes highlands.<ref name=EB1911/>
In the Horn region to the north, the Jubba and the Shebelle rivers begin in the Ethiopian Highlands. These rivers mainly flow southwards, with the Jubba emptying in the Indian Ocean. The Shebelle River reaches a point to the southwest. After that, it consists of swamps and dry reaches before finally disappearing in the desert terrain near the Jubba River.<ref>{{Cite web |titleShebeli River {{!}} Kenya, Somalia & Ethiopia {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Shebeli-River |access-date2025-02-09 |websitewww.britannica.com |languageen}}</ref> Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the Ethiopian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of Aden.<ref nameEB1911/>
Inland basins
Between the basins of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, there is an area of inland drainage along the centre of the Ethiopian plateau, directed chiefly into the lakes in the Great Rift Valley. The largest river is the Omo, which, fed by the rains of the Ethiopian highlands, carries down a large body of water into Lake Turkana. The rivers of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths, or by cataracts at no great distance upstream. But when these obstacles have been overcome, the rivers and lakes afford a vast network of navigable waters.<ref name=EB1911/>
North of the Congo basin, and separated from it by a broad undulation of the surface, is the basin of Lake Chad&nbsp;— a flat-shored, shallow lake filled principally by the Chari coming from the southeast.<ref nameEB1911/>Lakes
The principal lakes of Africa are situated in the African Great Lakes plateau.
The lakes found within the Great Rift Valley have steep sides and are very deep.
This is the case with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter with depths of {{convert|800|m|abbr=on}}.
Others, however, are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry season.
Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the Great Rift Valley.
Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, the deepest sounding in Lake Victoria being under {{convert|90|m|abbron}}.<ref nameEB1911/>
Besides the African Great Lakes, the principal lakes on the continent are: Lake Chad, in the northern inland watershed; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head-stream of the Congo; and Lake Mai-Ndombe and Ntomba (Mantumba), within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Lake Chad appears to be drying up.<ref name=EB1911/>
Divergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin of the African Great Lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine type. They include jellyfish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, etc.<ref name=EB1911/>
{| class"wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" border"1"
|+
|-
! rowspan="2" | Lake
! rowspan="2" | Country
! rowspan="2" | Area
! rowspan="2" | Depth
! colspan="2" | Surface elevation
|-
! m
! ft
|-
| Chad || |Chad, Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria || || || {{convert|259|m|ft|disp=table}}
|
|-
| Mai-Ndombe || |Dem. Rep. Congo || || || {{convert|335|m|ft|disp=table}}
|-
| Turkana || |Kenya || || || {{convert|381|m|ft|disp=table}}
|-
| Malawi || |Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania || || || {{convert|501|m|ft|disp=table}}
|-
| Albert || |Dem. Rep. Congo, Uganda || || || {{convert|618|m|ft|disp=table}}
|-
| Tanganyika || |Tanzania, Dem. Rep Congo, Burundi, Zambia || || || {{convert|800|m|ft|disp=table}}
|
|-
| Ngami || |Botswana || || || {{convert|899|m|ft|disp=table}}
|-
| Mweru || |Dem. Rep. Congo, Zambia || || || {{convert|914|m|ft|disp=table}}
|
|-
| Edward || |Dem. Rep. Congo, Uganda || || || {{convert|916|m|ft|disp=table}}
|
|-
| Bangweulu || |Zambia || || || {{convert|1128|m|ft|disp=table}}
|-
| Victoria || |Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya || || || {{convert|1134|m|ft|disp=table}}
|
|-
| Abaya || |Ethiopia || || || {{convert|1280|m|ft|disp=table}}
|
|-
| Kivu || |Dem. Rep. Congo, Rwanada || || || {{convert|1472|m|ft|disp=table}}
|
|-
| Tana || |Ethiopia || || || {{convert|1734|m|ft|disp=table}}
|-
| Naivasha || |Kenya || || || {{convert|1870|m|ft|disp=table}}
|
|}
Islands
With the exception of Madagascar, the African islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of {{convert|587041|km2|abbron}}, is, after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo, the fourth largest island on the Earth. It lies in the Indian Ocean, off the southeast coast of the continent, from which it is separated by the deep Mozambique Channel, {{convert|400|km|abbron}} wide at its narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius and Réunion.<ref nameEB1911/> There are also islands in the Gulf of Guinea on which lies the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe (islands of São Tomé and Príncipe). Part of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea is lying on the island of Bioko (with the capital Malabo and the town of Lubu) and the island of Annobón.{{Citation needed|dateDecember 2022}} Socotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the north-west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes. which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin.<ref nameEB1911/> The South Atlantic Islands of Saint Helena and Ascension are classed as Africa but are situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge halfway to South America.Climatic conditions
{{multiple image
| image1 = Africa_1971_2000_mean_temperature.png
| image2 = Africa_1971-2000_mean_precipitation.png
| caption1 = Africa mean annual temperature
| caption2 = Africa mean annual precipitation
| width1 = 120
| width2 = 120
}}
Lying almost entirely within the tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature.<ref nameEB1911/><ref name "Africa geography">{{Cite web| titleKey Elements of Africa's Geographic Landscape and Climate Patterns| work The Saylor Foundation| access-dateMay 4, 2012| url http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/hist252-1.3-Key-Elements-of-Africa’s-Geographic-Landscape-and-Climate-Patterns.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/hist252-1.3-Key-Elements-of-Africa’s-Geographic-Landscape-and-Climate-Patterns.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Great heat is experienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.)
Farther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast.
In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt.<ref name=EB1911/>
The most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics.<ref name=EB1911/>
The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the south northwards along the west. Within the equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coastland west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual rainfall of about {{convert|10000|mm|0|abbron}} as compared with a mean of {{convert|11600|mm||0|abbron}} at Cherrapunji, in Meghalaya, India.<ref name=EB1911/>
The two distinct rainy seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once. Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine.<ref name=EB1911/>
The countries bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from the Kalahari Desert in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the southeast hurricanes are occasionally experienced.<ref nameEB1911/>Health
The climate of Africa lends itself to certain environmental diseases, the most serious of which are: malaria, sleeping sickness and yellow fever. Malaria is the most deadly environmental disease in Africa. It is transmitted by a genus of mosquito (anopheles mosquito) native to Africa, and can be contracted over and over again. There is not yet a vaccine for malaria, which makes it difficult to prevent the disease from spreading in Africa. Recently, the dissemination of mosquito netting has helped lower the rate of malaria.
Yellow fever is a disease also transmitted by mosquitoes native to Africa. Unlike malaria, it cannot be contracted more than once. Like chicken pox, it is a disease that tends to be severe the later in life a person contracts the disease.<ref name= "Africa geography"/>
Sleeping sickness, or African trypanosomiasis, is a disease that usually affects animals, but has been known to be fatal to some humans as well. It is transmitted by the tsetse fly and is found almost exclusively in Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{cite web| titleHuman African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)| work World Health Organization| urlhttps://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs259/en/| access-date May 4, 2012}}</ref> This disease has had a significant impact on African development not because of its deadly nature, like Malaria, but because it has prevented Africans from pursuing agriculture (as the sleeping sickness would kill their livestock).<ref name"Africa geography"/>Extreme points{{main|Extreme points of Africa}}See also
{{Portal|Africa}}
*List of national parks in Africa
*Outline of Africa#Geography of Africa
*The Horn of Africa
Notes
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* {{Cite book |lastGrant |firstRichard |year2014 |titleAfrica: Geographies of Change |locationNew York |publisherOxford University Press |isbn9780199920563 |oclc877561754}}
External links
{{Wikiatlas|Africa}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Geography of Africa}}
* {{cite web |titleAfrica |publisherNorman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library |urlhttps://collections.leventhalmap.org/search?f%5Bsubject_geographic_sim%5D%5B%5DAfrica |access-date1 January 2023 |url-status |archive-url|archive-date}}
* {{cite web |titleRegions of the African Union |urlhttps://www.grida.no/resources/13700 |publisherUNEP/GRID-Arendal |access-date1 January 2023 |archive-url|archive-date |url-status=}}
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Category:Geology of Africa
Africa
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2025-04-05T18:25:48.884801
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Approval voting
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{{Short description|Single-winner electoral system}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Electoral systems sidebar|expandedSingle-winner}}{{Lead too short|dateMarch 2025}}, the voter can select any number of candidates.]]
<!-- Who supports it? Why? How does it do on metrics like social utility efficiency or Condorcet efficiency? Where is it used? What studies are there on it? -->Approval voting is a single-winner rated voting system where voters can approve of all the candidates as they like instead of choosing one. The method is designed to eliminate vote-splitting while keeping election administration simple and easy-to-count (requiring only a single score for each candidate). Approval voting has been used in both organizational and political elections{{Which|date=March 2025}} to improve representativeness and voter satisfaction.
Critics of approval voting have argued the simple ballot format is a disadvantage, as it forces a binary choice for each candidate (instead of the expressive grades of other rated voting rules).
Effect on elections
Research by social choice theorists Steven Brams and Dudley R. Herschbach found that approval voting would increase voter participation, prevent minor-party candidates from being spoilers, and reduce negative campaigning.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Brams |first1Steven J. |last2Herschbach |first2Dudley R. |year2001 |titleThe Science of Elections |journalScience |volume292 |issue5521 |pages1449 |doi10.1126/science.292.5521.1449 |jstor3083781 |pmid11379606 |s2cid28262658}}</ref> Brams' research concluded that approval can be expected to elect majority-preferred candidates in practical election scenarios, avoiding the center squeeze common to ranked-choice voting and primary elections.<ref>{{cite book |lastBrams |firstSteven J. |urlhttps://archive.org/details/mathematicsdemoc00bram |titleMathematics and Democracy: Designing Better Voting and Fair-Division Procedures |date2008 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn9780691133218 |page[https://archive.org/details/mathematicsdemoc00bram/page/n31 16] |url-accesslimited}}</ref><ref name"theory to practice" />
One study showed that approval would not have chosen the same two winners as plurality voting (Jacques Chirac and Jean-Marie Le Pen) in the first round of the 2002 French presidential election; it instead would have chosen Chirac and Lionel Jospin as the top two candidates to proceed to the runoff.
In the actual election, Le Pen lost by an overwhelming margin in the runoff, 82.2% to 17.8%, a sign that the true top two candidates had not been found. In the approval voting survey primary, Chirac took first place with 36.7%, compared to Jospin at 32.9%. Le Pen, in that study, received 25.1% and so would not have made the cut to the second round. In the real primary election, the top three were Chirac, 19.9%, Le Pen, 16.9%, and Jospin, 16.2%.<ref>{{cite web |last1Laslier |first1Jean-François |last2Vander Straeten |first2Karine |dateApril 2003 |titleApproval Voting: An Experiment during the French 2002 Presidential Election |urlhttp://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/VPP/VPPpdf_Wshop2/jflkvdscaen.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050507223548/http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/VPP/VPPpdf_Wshop2/jflkvdscaen.pdf |archive-dateMay 7, 2005 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |page6}}</ref> A study of various evaluative voting methods (approval and score voting) during the 2012 French presidential election showed that "unifying" candidates tended to do better, and polarizing candidates did worse, as compared to under plurality voting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Baujard |first1Antoinette |last2Igersheim |first2Herrade |last3Lebon |first3Isabelle |last4Gavrel |first4Frédéric |last5Laslier |first5Jean-François |dateJune 1, 2014 |titleWho's favored by evaluative voting? An experiment conducted during the 2012 French presidential election |urlhttps://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00803024/file/cahier_2013-05.pdf |url-statuslive |journalElectoral Studies |volume34 |pages131–145 |doi10.1016/j.electstud.2013.11.003 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00803024/file/cahier_2013-05.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022}}</ref> Operational impacts {{more citations needed section|dateJune 2019}}
* Simple to tally—Approval ballots can be counted by some existing machines designed for plurality elections, as ballots are cast, so that final tallies are immediately available after the election, with relatively few if any upgrades to equipment.
* Just one round—Approval can remove the need for multiple rounds of voting, such as a primary or a run-off, simplifying the election process.
* Avoids overvotes—Approval voting does not have the notion of overvotes, where voting for one more than allowed will cancel the entire opportunity to vote. In plurality elections, overvotes have to be reviewed and resolved if possible while in approval voting, no time is wasted on this activity.
Use
Current electoral use
Latvia
The Latvian parliament uses a modified version of approval voting within open list proportional representation, in which voters can cast either positive (approval) votes, negative votes or neither for any number of candidates.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHow do elections work in Latvia? |urlhttps://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/how-do-elections-work-in-latvia/|access-date28 July 2024 |websiteElectoral Reform Society |languageen}}</ref>United States
;Missouri
In November 2020, St. Louis, Missouri, passed Proposition D with 70% voting to authorize a variant of approval (unified primary) for municipal offices.<ref name"St. Louis approves">{{cite web |last |first|dateNovember 4, 2020 |titleSt. Louis Voters Approve Nonpartisan Elections |urlhttps://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/missouri/articles/2020-11-04/st-louis-voters-approve-nonpartisan-elections |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210614075134/https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/missouri/articles/2020-11-04/st-louis-voters-approve-nonpartisan-elections |archive-dateJune 14, 2021 |access-dateDecember 3, 2020 |workU.S. News & World Report}}</ref> In 2021, the first mayoral election with approval voting saw Tishaura Jones and Cara Spencer move on to the general with 57% and 46% support. Lewis Reed and Andrew Jones were eliminated with 39% and 14% support, resulting in an average of 1.6 candidates supported by each voter in the 4 person race.<ref>{{cite news |lastClancy |firstSam |dateMarch 2, 2021 |titleTishaura Jones, Cara Spencer advance to general election in race for St. Louis Mayor |urlhttps://www.ksdk.com/article/news/politics/elections/tishaura-jones-cara-spencer-st-louis-mayor-race/63-34335593-223a-431b-ac63-b17eb2495841 |workKSDK |locationSt. Louis, MO |access-date=May 22, 2024}}</ref>
;North Dakota
In 2018, Fargo, North Dakota, passed a local ballot initiative adopting approval for the city's local elections, becoming the first United States city and jurisdiction to adopt approval.<ref name"Fargo approves">[https://ivn.us/2018/11/06/one-americas-famous-towns-becomes-first-nation-adopt-approval-voting/ One of America's Most Famous Towns Becomes First in the Nation to Adopt Approval Voting] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181107185459/https://ivn.us/2018/11/06/one-americas-famous-towns-becomes-first-nation-adopt-approval-voting/|dateNovember 7, 2018}}, accessed November 7, 2018</ref><ref name"Fargo votes">{{cite web |lastMoen |firstMike |dateJune 10, 2020 |titleFargo Becomes First U.S. City to Try Approval Voting |urlhttps://www.publicnewsservice.org/2020-06-10/civic-engagement/fargo-becomes-first-u-s-city-to-try-approval-voting/a70495-1 |access-dateDecember 3, 2020 |workPublic News Service}}</ref> Previously in 2015, a Fargo city commissioner election had suffered from six-way vote-splitting, resulting in a candidate winning with an unconvincing 22% plurality of the vote.<ref name":1">{{Cite web|lastPiper|firstKelsey|dateNovember 15, 2018|titleThis city just approved a new election system never tried before in America|urlhttps://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2018/11/15/18092206/midterm-elections-vote-fargo-approval-voting-ranked-choice|access-dateJuly 8, 2020|websiteVox|languageen}}</ref>
The first election was held June 9, 2020, selecting two city commissioners, from seven candidates on the ballot.<ref>{{Cite web|lastAmundson|firstBarry|dateJune 9, 2020|titleStrand and Preston emerge as leaders in Fargo City Commission race|urlhttps://www.inforum.com/news/government-and-politics/6528646-Strand-and-Preston-emerge-as-leaders-in-Fargo-City-Commission-race|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200610194537/https://www.inforum.com/news/government-and-politics/6528646-Strand-and-Preston-emerge-as-leaders-in-Fargo-City-Commission-race|archive-dateJune 10, 2020|access-dateJuly 8, 2020|websiteINFORUM|languageen}}</ref> Both winners received over 50% approval, with an average 2.3 approvals per ballot, and 62% of voters supported the change to approval in a poll.<ref>{{Cite web|dateJune 17, 2020|titleFargo's First Approval Voting Election: Results and Voter Experience|urlhttps://www.electionscience.org/commentary-analysis/fargos-first-approval-voting-election-results-and-voter-experience/|access-dateJuly 8, 2020|websiteThe Center for Election Science|languageen-US}}</ref> A poll by opponents of approval was conducted to test whether voters had in fact voted strategically according to the Burr dilemma.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastNagel|firstJack H.|date2007|titleThe Burr Dilemma in Approval Voting|urlhttps://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00493.x|journalThe Journal of Politics|languageen|volume69|issue1|pages43–58|doi10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00493.x|s2cid154179804|issn0022-3816|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> They found that 30% of voters who bullet voted did so for strategic reasons, while 57% did so because it was their sincere opinion.<ref>{{Cite web|lastRCV for Colorado|titleApproval Voting Case Study|urlhttps://drive.google.com/file/d/11_puAt_0JYw0NSL2ykqGz_bZfmic45AP/view?uspsharing&uspembed_facebook|url-statuslive|access-dateMarch 4, 2021|websiteGoogle Docs|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211124095738/https://drive.google.com/file/d/11_puAt_0JYw0NSL2ykqGz_bZfmic45AP/view?uspsharing&uspembed_facebook |archive-dateNovember 24, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titleGuest opinion: Emma Donahue and Linda S. Templin: Ballot issue 2E just makes sense - Ranked Choice Voting for Colorado|urlhttps://rcvforcolorado.org/guest-opinion-emma-donahue-and-linda-s-templin-ballot-issue-2e-just-makes-sense/|url-statuslive|access-dateMarch 4, 2021|websiteRCV for Colorado|languageen-US|quoteTriton Polling called Fargo voters and found that a significant number had gamed that voting method by bullet voting, just like the experts said they would.|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201130073843/https://rcvforcolorado.org/guest-opinion-emma-donahue-and-linda-s-templin-ballot-issue-2e-just-makes-sense/ |archive-dateNovember 30, 2020 }}</ref> Fargo's second approval election took place in June 2022, for mayor and city commission. The incumbent mayor was re-elected from a field of 7 candidates, with an estimated 65% approval, with voters expressing 1.6 approvals per ballot, and the two commissioners were elected from a field of 15 candidates, with 3.1 approvals per ballot.<ref>{{Cite web |lastHamlin |firstAaron |dateJune 16, 2022 |titleFargo's Second Approval Voting Election Runs Smoothly |urlhttps://electionscience.org/commentary-analysis/fargos-second-approval-voting-election-runs-smoothly/ |access-dateJuly 6, 2022 |websiteThe Center for Election Science |languageen-US}}</ref>
In 2023, the North Dakota legislature passed a bill which intended to ban approval voting. The bill was vetoed by governor Doug Burgum, citing the importance of "home rule" and allowing citizens control over their local government. The legislature attempted to overrule the veto but failed.<ref>{{cite news |lastCarvel |firstTasha |dateApril 19, 2023 |titleFargo approval voting survives after Senate fails to override Burgum veto of ban |urlhttps://kfgo.com/2023/04/19/794980/ |workThe Mighty 790 KFGO |locationFargo, ND |access-dateMay 22, 2024}}</ref>
Use by organizations
Approval has been used in privately administered nomination contests by the Independent Party of Oregon in 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2016. Oregon is a fusion voting state, and the party has cross-nominated legislators and statewide officeholders using this method; its 2016 presidential preference primary did not identify a potential nominee due to no candidate earning more than 32% support.<ref>{{Cite news|lastPeralta|firstSal|urlhttp://www.oregonlive.com/opinion/index.ssf/2016/06/following_tense_primary_indepe.html|titleFollowing tense primary, Independent Party plans presidential preference vote (OPINION)|dateJune 17, 2016|workThe Oregonian|access-dateJune 26, 2018|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|lastRadnovich|firstConnor|urlhttps://www.statesmanjournal.com/story/news/politics/2018/04/21/oregon-independent-party-governor-candidates-internal-conflict-highlighted/530248002/|titleIndependent Party's internal conflict highlighted in Oregon governor race|dateApril 21, 2018|workStatesman Journal|access-dateJune 26, 2018|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.fairvote.org/new_lessons_from_problems_with_approval_voting_in_practice|titleNew Lessons from Problems with Approval Voting in Practice|lastRichie|firstRob|dateDecember 14, 2016|workFairVote}}</ref> The party switched to using STAR voting in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|dateApril 7, 2020|titleSTAR VOTING ANNOUNCEMENT|urlhttps://www.indparty.com/election-notice|access-dateApril 11, 2020|websiteIndependent Party of Oregon|locationSalem|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|dateApril 8, 2020|titleIndependent Party of Oregon to utilize STAR system for primary|languageen|workHerald and News|urlhttps://www.heraldandnews.com/news/local_news/independent-party-of-oregon-to-utilize-star-system-for-primary/article_b475ff5a-75c7-55f8-8e46-95b483eaff28.html|access-date=April 10, 2020}}</ref>
It is also used in internal elections by the American Solidarity Party;<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://solidarity-party.org/16112120-b9ec-4746-9bff-c2d18e7662b9/|titleVice-Chair's Remarks|last1Covich|first1Skylar|websiteAmerican Solidarity Party|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180622032935/https://solidarity-party.org/16112120-b9ec-4746-9bff-c2d18e7662b9/|archive-dateJune 22, 2018|access-dateJune 21, 2018}}</ref> the Green Parties of Texas<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.txgreens.org/platform#reform|titlePlatform|publisherGreen Party of Texas|access-dateJanuary 31, 2017|quoteWe support switching to a preferential voting method, such as approval voting.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.txgreens.org/by_laws|titleBy-Laws|publisherGreen Party of Texas|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170129154828/http://www.txgreens.org/by_laws|archive-dateJanuary 29, 2017|access-dateJanuary 31, 2017|quoteThe Co-Chair, Treasurer, and Secretary positions shall be filled by using approval voting.}}</ref> and Ohio;<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ohiogreens.org/event/ohio-green-party-presidential-nominating-convention-columbus-results|titleOhio Green Party Presidential Nominating Convention (Columbus)|publisherOhio Green Party|access-dateJanuary 31, 2017|quoteWe have agreed to use "approval voting" as opposed to "instant runoff voting" to make the Ohio Green Party choice for president|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226172609/http://www.ohiogreens.org/event/ohio-green-party-presidential-nominating-convention-columbus-results|url-statusdead}}</ref> the Libertarian National Committee;<ref>{{Cite web |dateOctober 4, 2020 |titleMEETING MINUTES LIBERTARIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE |urlhttps://lpedia.org/w/images/f/fa/LNC-MEETING_2020-10-04_FINAL.pdf#page10 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://lpedia.org/w/images/f/fa/LNC-MEETING_2020-10-04_FINAL.pdf#page10 |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive |quoteVOTING METHOD: Approval Voting per OpaVote. Vote for as many candidates as desired.}}</ref> the Libertarian parties of Texas,<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://www.lptexas.org/state-platform|titleState Platform|access-dateJanuary 31, 2017|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170130003731/http://www.lptexas.org/state-platform|archive-dateJanuary 30, 2017|publisherLibertarian Party of Texas|quoteWe also believe that all races should be decided by Approval Voting}}</ref> Colorado,<ref>{{Cite web |titleDocument:Colorado State Party Bylaws 2021 |urlhttps://lpedia.org/wiki/Document:Colorado_State_Party_Bylaws_2021 |access-dateSeptember 24, 2022 |websiteLPedia |quoteFor any partisan offices, Convention Delegates shall vote by approval voting}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleColorado Convention 2018 |urlhttps://lpedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Convention_2018 |access-dateSeptember 24, 2022 |workLPedia |languageen |quoteAll candidates were selected by approval voting via standing vote.}}</ref> Arizona,<ref>{{Cite web |titleBylaws |urlhttps://azlp.org/about/bylaws/ |access-dateSeptember 24, 2022 |websiteArizona Libertarian Party |languageen-US |quoteThe remaining Delegates … shall be elected by approval voting … should there be more Delegate Candidates than allotted seats.}}</ref> and New York;<ref>{{Cite web |dateNovember 7, 2021 |titleRules of the Libertarian Party |urlhttps://lpny.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/24/2021/11/LPNY-RULES-2021-11-07.pdf#page10 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://lpny.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/24/2021/11/LPNY-RULES-2021-11-07.pdf#page10 |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive |websiteLibertarian Party of New York |quoteAll elections shall be held with approval voting}}</ref> Alliance 90/The Greens in Germany;<ref>{{Cite web |dateJanuary 18, 2017 |titleGrüne München: Satzung |trans-titleStatutes of the city association - Alliance 90/The Greens Munich-City District Association |urlhttps://www.gruene-muenchen.de/partei/satzung/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170118171623/https://www.gruene-muenchen.de/partei/satzung/ |archive-dateJanuary 18, 2017 |access-dateMarch 5, 2023 |languagede |quoteDelegierte für Bundes, Landes- und Bezirksversammlungen werden per Zustimmungsblockwahl gewählt. Jede*r Stimmberechtigte hat so viele Stimmen, wie Bewerber*innen zur Wahl stehen, und kann jeder*m Bewerber*in eine oder keine Stimme geben.}}</ref> and the Czech<ref>{{Cite web|titleJednací řád celostátního fóra|urlhttps://wiki.pirati.cz/rules/jdr|access-dateNovember 16, 2021|websitePirati.CZ|languagecs}}</ref> and German Pirate Party<!-- with a 50% threshold requirement? -->.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAkzeptanzwahl – Piratenwiki |urlhttps://wiki.piratenpartei.de/Akzeptanzwahl |access-date2025-02-23 |websitewiki.piratenpartei.de |languagede |quoteDie Akzeptanzwahl ist aktuell das Standard-Wahlverfahren beim Großteil aller Parteitage in der Piratenpartei. |trans-quoteApproval Voting is currently the standard voting method at most party conventions in the Pirate Party.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://wiki.piratenpartei.de/Bundesparteitag_2010.1/Gesch%C3%A4ftsordnung#Wahlen_zu_Vorstand_und_Schiedsgericht|titleBundesparteitag 2010.1/Geschäftsordnung|publisherGerman Pirate Party|languagede|access-dateJune 24, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleElection Data from the German Pirate Party (Piratenpartei) |urlhttps://sites.google.com/a/electology.org/www/pirate-elections-germany |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190219005345/https://sites.google.com/a/electology.org/www/pirate-elections-germany |archive-dateFebruary 19, 2019 |access-dateSeptember 24, 2022 |publisherThe Center for Election Science}}</ref>
Approval has been adopted by several societies: the Society for Social Choice and Welfare (1992),<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.unicaen.fr/recherche/mrsh/sites/all/themes/simpler2/scw/statutesSCW.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.unicaen.fr/recherche/mrsh/sites/all/themes/simpler2/scw/statutesSCW.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive |titleStatutes of the Society for Social Choice and Welfare |publisherSociety for Social Choice and Welfare |access-dateJanuary 28, 2020}}</ref> Mathematical Association of America (1986),<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.maa.org/about-maa/governance/governance-documents/bylaws#article9 |titleMAA Bylaws |publisherMathematical Association of America |dateAugust 7, 2010 |access-dateNovember 6, 2014}}</ref> the American Mathematical Society,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.ams.org/notices/201508/rnoti-p931a.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ams.org/notices/201508/rnoti-p931a.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive |title2015 American Mathematical Society Elections |publisherAmerican Mathematical Society |access-dateAugust 19, 2015}}</ref> the Institute of Management Sciences (1987) (now the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences),<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.informs.org/content/download/363531/3797055/file/Constitution%20and%20Bylaws%20August%202017.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.informs.org/content/download/363531/3797055/file/Constitution%20and%20Bylaws%20August%202017.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive |titleConstitution of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences |publisherInstitute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences |dateAugust 2017 |page7}}</ref> the American Statistical Association (1987),<ref>{{cite web|url https://www.amstat.org/asa/files/pdfs/ABT-Bylaws.pdf |title Bylaws of the American Statistical Association |date September 19, 2018 |access-date January 28, 2020 |publisherAmerican Statistical Association}}</ref> and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1987).
Steven Brams' analysis of the 5-candidate 1987 Mathematical Association of America presidential election shows that 79% of voters cast a ballot for one candidate, 16% for 2 candidates, 5% for 3, and 1% for 4, with the winner earning the approval of 1,267 (32%) of 3,924 voters.<ref name"theory to practice"/><ref>{{Cite book|titleHandbook on Approval Voting|urlhttps://archive.org/details/handbookonapprov00lasl|url-accesslimited|last1Brams|first1Steven J.|last2Fishburn|first2Peter C.|chapterGoing from Theory to Practice: The Mixed Success of Approval Voting |date2010 |publisherSpringer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn9783642028380|editor-lastLaslier|editor-firstJean-François|seriesStudies in Choice and Welfare|pages[https://archive.org/details/handbookonapprov00lasl/page/n37 19]–37|languageen|doi10.1007/978-3-642-02839-7_3|editor-last2Sanver|editor-first2M. Remzi}}</ref> The IEEE board in 2002 rescinded its decision to use approval. IEEE Executive Director Daniel J. Senese stated that approval was abandoned because "few of our members were using it and it was felt that it was no longer needed."<ref name"theory to practice">{{cite conference |last1Brams |first1Steven J. |last2Fishburn |first2Peter C. |titleGoing from Theory to Practice: The Mixed Success of Approval Voting |workAnnual Meeting of the American Political Science Association |publisherAmerican Political Science Association |access-dateMay 8, 2010| url http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/theory_to_practice.pdf | dateAugust 2003 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181218010629/http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/theory_to_practice.pdf |archive-date=December 18, 2018}}</ref>
Approval voting was used for Dartmouth Alumni Association elections for seats on the College Board of Trustees, but after some controversy<ref name"verbum">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2009/04/verbum-ultimum-making-amends |titleVerbum Ultimum: Making Amends |dateApril 3, 2009 |workThe Dartmouth}}</ref> it was replaced with traditional runoff elections by an alumni vote of 82% to 18% in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://alumni.dartmouth.edu/content/dartmouth-alumni-association-election-results-new-executive-committee-elected-constitutional |titleDartmouth Alumni Association Election Results: New Executive Committee Elected; Constitutional Amendment Passes |dateMay 9, 2009 |publisherDartmouth Office of Alumni Relations}}</ref> Dartmouth students started to use approval voting to elect their student body president in 2011. In the first election, the winner secured the support of 41% of voters against several write-in candidates.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://thelittlegreenblog.blogspot.com/2011/04/hix-12-dartmouth-student-body-both.html |lastBruschi |firstNathan |titleHix '12, Dartmouth Student Body, both shafted in student election |dateApril 16, 2011 |workThe Little Green Blog}}</ref> In 2012, Suril Kantaria won with the support of 32% of the voters.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2012/04/kantaria-danford-win-student-assembly-elections |titleKantaria, Danford win Student Assembly elections |lastShkuratov |firstMarina |dateApril 16, 2012 |workThe Dartmouth}}</ref> In 2013, 2014 and 2016, the winners also earned the support of under 40% of the voters.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2013/04/ferrari-zhu-elected-to-lead-student-assembly |titleFerrari, Zhu elected to lead Student Assembly |dateApril 15, 2013 |lastRiordan |firstMichael |workThe Dartmouth}}</ref><ref name"Dennis, Cunningham to lead Assembly">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2014/04/dennis-cunningham-to-lead-assembly |titleDennis, Cunningham to lead Assembly |lastMcGahan |firstSara |dateApril 15, 2014 |workThe Dartmouth}}</ref><ref name"thedartmouth.com">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2016/04/harrington-wins-student-assembly-president-election |titleHarrington will be Student Assembly president |lastJiang |firstHeyi |dateApril 17, 2016 |workThe Dartmouth}}</ref> Results reported in The Dartmouth show that in the 2014 and 2016 elections, more than 80 percent of voters approved of only one candidate.<ref name"Dennis, Cunningham to lead Assembly"/><ref name"thedartmouth.com"/> Students replaced approval voting with plurality voting before the 2017 elections.<ref>[https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b397fa0e2ccd1b58ab7a317/t/5b3bf00f0e2e72d1275f0e3d/1530654736431/DartmouthSAConstitution.pdf], Dartmouth student constitution</ref>Historical
300px|thumb|Rows of secret ballot|secret approval vote boxes from early 1900s [[Greece, where the voter drops a marble to the right or left of the box, through a tube, one for each candidate standing]]
Robert J. Weber coined the term "Approval Voting" in 1971.<ref name":0">{{citation|titleApproval Voting|first1Steven J.|last1Brams|author1-linkSteven Brams|first2Peter C.|last2Fishburn|author2-linkPeter C. Fishburn|pagexv|publisherSpringer-Verlag|year2007|isbn978-0-387-49895-9|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide7h7evxSclIC&pgPR5}}</ref> It was more fully published in 1978 by political scientist Steven Brams and mathematician Peter Fishburn.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi 10.2307/1955105 |last1Brams |first1Steven |last2Fishburn |first2Peter | year 1978 | title Approval Voting | jstor 1955105| journal American Political Science Review | volume 72 | issue 3 | pages 831–847 |s2cid251092061 }}</ref>
<span id="Historical_use">Historically, several voting methods that incorporate aspects of approval have been used:</span>
* Approval was used for papal conclaves between 1294 and 1621, with an average of about forty cardinals engaging in repeated rounds of voting until one candidate was listed on at least two-thirds of ballots.<ref name"colomer">{{Cite journal | doi 10.1162/002219598551616|author-link1Josep Colomer |first1Josep M. |last1Colomer |first2Iain |last2McLean | year 1998 | title Electing Popes: Approval Balloting and Qualified-Majority Rule | journal The Journal of Interdisciplinary History | volume 29 | issue 1| pages 1–22 | jstor205972 |s2cid=145296691 }}</ref>
* In the 13th through 18th centuries, the Republic of Venice elected the Doge of Venice using a multi-stage process that featured random selection and voting that allowed approval of multiple candidates.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi 10.1007/BF00135090 | last Lines |firstMarji | year 1986 | title Approval Voting and Strategy Analysis: A Venetian Example | journal Theory and Decision | volume 20 | issue 2 | pages 155–172 | s2cid 121512308 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |first1Miranda |last1Mowbray |first2Dieter |last2Gollmann |dateJuly 2007 |urlhttp://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2007/HPL-2007-28R1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2007/HPL-2007-28R1.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive |titleElecting the Doge of Venice: analysis of a 13th Century protocol |conferenceIEEE Computer Security Foundations Symposium |locationVenice, Italy}}</ref>
* According to Steven J. Brams, approval was used for unspecified elections in 19th century England.<ref>{{cite speech|urlhttp://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/normative_turn.pdf |titleThe Normative Turn in Public Choice |page4 |dateApril 1, 2006 |access-dateMay 8, 2010 |firstSteven J. |lastBrams |eventPresidential Address to Public Choice Society |locationNew Orleans, Louisiana|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100531093534/http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/normative_turn.pdf |archive-date=May 31, 2010}}</ref>
* The Secretary-General of the United Nations is elected in a multi-round straw poll process where, in each round, members of the Security Council may approve or disapprove of candidates, or decide to express no opinion. Disapproval by permanent members of the Security Council is similar to a veto. A candidate with no vetoes, at least nine votes, and more votes than any other candidate is considered to be likely to be supported by the Security Council in its formal recommendation vote.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.unsgselection.org/files/WisnumurtiGuidelinesSelectingCandidateSecretary-General.pdf |title The "Wisnumurti Guidelines" for Selecting a Candidate for Secretary-General |access-dateNovember 30, 2007 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080227114317/http://www.unsgselection.org/files/WisnumurtiGuidelinesSelectingCandidateSecretary-General.pdf |archive-dateFebruary 27, 2008 |url-status dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.openthemagazine.com/article/cover-story/the-inside-story-of-how-i-lost-the-race-for-the-un-secretary-generals-job-in-2006-shashi-tharoor|titleThe inside Story of How I Lost the Race for the UN Secretary-General's Job in 2006|lastTharoor|firstShashi|dateOctober 21, 2016|websiteOPEN Magazine|languageen|access-dateMarch 6, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190721215655/http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/cover-story/the-inside-story-of-how-i-lost-the-race-for-the-un-secretary-generals-job-in-2006-shashi-tharoor |archive-dateJuly 21, 2019}}</ref>
*Approval was used in Greek legislative elections from 1864 to 1923, after which it was replaced with party-list proportional representation.<ref name"mavrogordatos">{{Cite book|urlhttp://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MbSifRqxM1EC|titleStillborn Republic: Social Coalitions and Party Strategies in Greece 1922{{endash}}1936|lastMavrogordatos|firstGeorge Th.|date1983|publisherUniversity of California Press|pages351–352|language=en}}</ref>
*Sequential proportional approval voting was used in Swedish elections in the early 20th century, prior to being replaced by party-list proportional representation.
The idea of approval was adopted by X. Hu and Lloyd Shapley in 2003 in studying authority distribution in organizations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Hu|first1Xingwei|last2Shapley|first2Lloyd S.|year2003|titleOn Authority Distributions in Organizations|journalGames and Economic Behavior|volume45|issue1|pages132–170|doi10.1016/S0899-8256(03)00130-1}}</ref> Strategic voting {{See also|Strategic voting#Cardinal single-winner voting}} Overview {{more citations needed section|dateJune 2019}}
Approval voting allows voters to select all the candidates whom they consider to be reasonable choices.
Strategic approval differs from ranked voting (aka preferential voting) methods where voters are generally forced to reverse the preference order of two options, which if done on a larger scale can cause an unpopular candidate to win. Strategic approval, with more than two options, involves the voter changing their approval threshold. The voter decides which options to give the same rating, even if they were to have a preference order between them. This leaves a tactical concern any voter has for approving their second-favorite candidate, in the case that there are three or more candidates. Approving their second-favorite means the voter harms their favorite candidate's chance to win. Not approving their second-favorite means the voter helps the candidate they least desire to beat their second-favorite and perhaps win.
Approval technically allows for but is strategically immune to push-over and burying.
Bullet voting occurs when a voter approves only candidate "a" instead of both "a" and "b" for the reason that voting for "b" can cause "a" to lose. The voter would be satisfied with either "a" or "b" but has a moderate preference for "a". Were "b" to win, this hypothetical voter would still be satisfied. If supporters of both "a" and "b" do this, it could cause candidate "c" to win. This creates the "chicken dilemma", as supporters of "a" and "b" are playing chicken as to which will stop strategic voting first, before both of these candidates lose.
Compromising occurs when a voter approves an additional candidate who is otherwise considered unacceptable to the voter to prevent an even worse alternative from winning.
Sincere voting
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2019}}
Approval experts describe sincere votes as those "... that directly reflect the true preferences of a voter, i.e., that do not report preferences 'falsely.{{'"}}{{sfn|Brams|Fishburn|1983|p29}} They also give a specific definition of a sincere approval vote in terms of the voter's ordinal preferences as being any vote that, if it votes for one candidate, it also votes for any more preferred candidate. This definition allows a sincere vote to treat strictly preferred candidates the same, ensuring that every voter has at least one sincere vote. The definition also allows a sincere vote to treat equally preferred candidates differently. When there are two or more candidates, every voter has at least three sincere approval votes to choose from. Two of those sincere approval votes do not distinguish between any of the candidates: vote for none of the candidates and vote for all of the candidates. When there are three or more candidates, every voter has more than one sincere approval vote that distinguishes between the candidates. Examples
Based on the definition above, if there are four candidates, A, B, C, and D, and a voter has a strict preference order, preferring A to B to C to D, then the following are the voter's possible sincere approval votes:
*vote for A, B, C, and D
*vote for A, B, and C
*vote for A and B
*vote for A
*vote for no candidates
If the voter instead equally prefers B and C, while A is still the most preferred candidate and D is the least preferred candidate, then all of the above votes are sincere and the following combination is also a sincere vote:
*vote for A and C
The decision between the above ballots is equivalent to deciding an arbitrary "approval cutoff." All candidates preferred to the cutoff are approved, all candidates less preferred are not approved, and any candidates equal to the cutoff may be approved or not arbitrarily.
Sincere strategy with ordinal preferences
A sincere voter with multiple options for voting sincerely still has to choose which sincere vote to use. Voting strategy is a way to make that choice, in which case strategic approval includes sincere voting, rather than being an alternative to it.<ref nameprobstrat>{{Cite journal | doi 10.2307/1955800 | last Niemi |firstR. G. | year 1984 | title The Problem of Strategic Behavior under Approval Voting | journal American Political Science Review | volume 78 | issue 4| pages 952–958 | jstor 1955800 | s2cid 146976380 }}</ref> This differs from other voting systems that typically have a unique sincere vote for a voter.
When there are three or more candidates, the winner of an approval election can change, depending on which sincere votes are used. In some cases, approval can sincerely elect any one of the candidates, including a Condorcet winner and a Condorcet loser, without the voter preferences changing. To the extent that electing a Condorcet winner and not electing a Condorcet loser is considered desirable outcomes for a voting system, approval can be considered vulnerable to sincere, strategic voting.<ref>{{Cite journal | last Yilmaz | firstM. R. | year 1999 | title Can we improve upon approval voting? | doi 10.1016/S0176-2680(98)00043-3 | journal European Journal of Political Economy | volume 15 | issue 1| pages 89–100 }}</ref> In one sense, conditions where this can happen are robust and are not isolated cases.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi 10.1007/BF00054447 |last1Saari |first1Donald G. |last2Van Newenhizen |first2Jill | year 2004 | title The problem of indeterminancy in approval, multiple, and truncated voting systems | journal Public Choice | volume 59 | issue 2| pages 101–120 |jstor30024954 |s2cid154705078 }}</ref> On the other hand, the variety of possible outcomes has also been portrayed as a virtue of approval, representing the flexibility and responsiveness of approval, not just to voter ordinal preferences, but cardinal utilities as well.<ref nameunmitigated>{{Cite journal | doi 10.1007/BF00054449 |last1Saari |first1Donald G. |last2Van Newenhizen |first2Jill | year 2004 | title Is approval voting an 'unmitigated evil?' A response to Brams, Fishburn, and Merrill | journal Public Choice | volume 59 | issue 2| pages 133–147 |jstor30024956 |s2cid154007278 }}</ref>
Dichotomous preferences
Approval avoids the issue of multiple sincere votes in special cases when voters have dichotomous preferences. For a voter with dichotomous preferences, approval is strategyproof.{{sfn|Brams|Fishburn|1983|p31}} When all voters have dichotomous preferences and vote the sincere, strategy-proof vote, approval is guaranteed to elect a Condorcet winner.{{sfn|Brams|Fishburn|1983|p38}} However, having dichotomous preferences when there are three or more candidates is not typical. It is an unlikely situation for all voters to have dichotomous preferences when there are more than a few voters.<ref name=probstrat/>
Having dichotomous preferences means that a voter has bi-level preferences for the candidates. All of the candidates are divided into two groups such that the voter is indifferent between any two candidates in the same group and any candidate in the top-level group is preferred to any candidate in the bottom-level group.{{sfn|Brams|Fishburn|1983|p=16–17}} A voter that has strict preferences between three candidates—prefers A to B and B to C—does not have dichotomous preferences.
Being strategy-proof for a voter means that there is a unique way for the voter to vote that is a strategically best way to vote, regardless of how others vote. In approval, the strategy-proof vote, if it exists, is a sincere vote.{{sfn|Brams|Fishburn|1983|p29}} Approval threshold Another way to deal with multiple sincere votes is to augment the ordinal preference model with an approval or acceptance threshold. An approval threshold divides all of the candidates into two sets, those the voter approves of and those the voter does not approve of. A voter can approve of more than one candidate and still prefer one approved candidate to another approved candidate. Acceptance thresholds are similar. With such a threshold, a voter simply votes for every candidate that meets or exceeds the threshold.<ref nameprobstrat/>
With threshold voting, it is still possible to not elect the Condorcet winner and instead elect the Condorcet loser when they both exist. However, according to Steven Brams, this represents a strength rather than a weakness of approval. Without providing specifics, he argues that the pragmatic judgments of voters about which candidates are acceptable should take precedence over the Condorcet criterion and other social choice criteria.<ref namecritstrats>{{Cite journal |last1Brams |first1S. J. |author2Remzi Sanver, M. | year 2005 | title Critical strategies under approval voting: Who gets ruled in and ruled out | doi 10.1016/j.electstud.2005.05.007 | journal Electoral Studies | volume 25 | issue 2| pages 287–305 }}</ref> Strategy with cardinal utilities
Voting strategy under approval is guided by two competing features of approval. On the one hand, approval fails the later-no-harm criterion, so voting for a candidate can cause that candidate to win instead of a candidate more preferred by that voter. On the other hand, approval satisfies the monotonicity criterion, so not voting for a candidate can never help that candidate win, but can cause that candidate to lose to a less preferred candidate. Either way, the voter can risk getting a less preferred election winner. A voter can balance the risk-benefit trade-offs by considering the voter's cardinal utilities, particularly via the von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem, and the probabilities of how others vote.
A rational voter model described by Myerson and Weber specifies an approval strategy that votes for those candidates that have a positive prospective rating.<ref name":2">{{Cite journal | doi 10.2307/2938959 |last1Myerson |first1R. |last2Weber |first2R. J. | year 1993 | title A theory of Voting Equilibria | jstor 2938959| journal American Political Science Review | volume 87 | issue 1| pages 102–114 |urlhttp://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/research/math/papers/782.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/research/math/papers/782.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive | hdl 10419/221141 |s2cid143828854 | hdl-access free }}</ref> This strategy is optimal in the sense that it maximizes the voter's expected utility, subject to the constraints of the model and provided the number of other voters is sufficiently large.
An optimal approval vote always votes for the most preferred candidate and not for the least preferred candidate, which is a dominant strategy. An optimal vote can require supporting one candidate and not voting for a more preferred candidate if there 4 candidates or more, e.g. the third and fourth choices are correlated to gain or lose decisive votes together; however, such situations are inherently unstable, suggesting such strategy should be rare.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1Dutta |first1B |last2De Sinopoli |first2F. | last3Laslier |first3 J.-F.| year 2006 | title Approval voting: three examples | journal International Journal of Game Theory | volume 35 | pages 27–38 |doi10.1007/s00182-006-0053-2 |s2cid801286 | citeseerx10.1.1.365.8090 }}</ref>
Other strategies are also available and coincide with the optimal strategy in special situations. For example:
* Vote for the candidates that have above average utility. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if the voter thinks that all pairwise ties are equally likely.{{sfn|Brams|Fishburn|1983|p=85}}
* Vote for any candidate that is more preferred than the expected winner and also vote for the expected winner if the expected winner is more preferred than the expected runner-up. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if there are three or fewer candidates or if the pivot probability for a tie between the expected winner and expected runner-up is sufficiently large compared to the other pivot probabilities. This strategy, if used by all voters, implies at equilibrium the election of the Condorcet winner whenever it exists.<ref name":3">{{Cite journal | last1Laslier |first1J.-F.| year 2009 | title The Leader rule: a model of strategic approval voting in a large electorate | journal Journal of Theoretical Politics | volume 21 | issue1 | pages 113–136 |doi 10.1177/0951629808097286|s2cid= 153790214}}</ref>
*Vote for the most preferred candidate only. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy when the best candidate is either much better than all others (i.e. is the only one with a positive expected value).{{sfn|Brams|Fishburn|1983|p=74, 81}}
*If all voters are rational and cast a strategically optimal vote based on a common knowledge of how all other voters vote except for small-probability, statistically independent errors, then the winner will be the Condorcet winner, if one exists.<ref name":4">Laslier, J.-F. (2006) [http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/12/17/51/PDF/stratapproval4.pdf "Strategic approval voting in a large electorate,"] IDEP Working Papers No. 405 (Marseille, France: Institut D'Economie Publique)</ref> Strategy examples {{more citations needed section|dateJune 2019}}In the example election described here, assume that the voters in each faction share the following von Neumann–Morgenstern utilities, fitted to the interval between 0 and 100. The utilities are consistent with the rankings given earlier and reflect a strong preference each faction has for choosing its city, compared to weaker preferences for other factors such as the distance to the other cities.<!-- This seems like a very weird choice of utilities. Wouldn't it be better to make the disutility equal to the distance between the two cities? -->
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
|+Voter utilities for each candidate city
|-
! scope"col" rowspan"2" | Fraction of voters <small>(living close to)</small>
! scope"colgroup" colspan"4" | Candidates
! scope"col" rowspan2 | Average
|-
! scope"col" style"width:6em;"| Memphis
! scope"col" style"width:6em;"| Nashville
! scope"col" style"width:6em;"| Chattanooga
! scope"col" style"width:6em;"| Knoxville
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Memphis (42%)
| 100 || 15 || 10 || 0 || 31.25
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Nashville (26%)
| 0 || 100 || 20 || 15 || 33.75
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Chattanooga (15%)
| 0 || 15 || 100 || 35 || 37.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Knoxville (17%)
| 0 || 15 || 40 || 100 || 38.75
|}
Using these utilities, voters choose their optimal strategic votes based on what they think the various pivot probabilities are for pairwise ties. In each of the scenarios summarized below, all voters share a common set of pivot probabilities.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
|+Approval Voting results for scenarios using optimal strategic voting
|-
! scope"col" rowspan"2" | Strategy scenario
! scope"col" rowspan"2" | Winner
! scope"col" rowspan"2" | Runner-up
! scope"colgroup" colspan"4" | Candidate vote totals
|-
! scope"col" style"width:6em" | Memphis
! scope"col" style"width:6em" | Nashville
! scope"col" style"width:6em" | Chattanooga
! scope"col" style"width:6em" | Knoxville
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Zero-info
| Memphis || Chattanooga || 42 || 26 || 32 || 17
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Memphis leading Chattanooga
| colspan="2" | Three-way tie || 42 || 58 || 58 || 58
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Chattanooga leading Knoxville
| Chattanooga || Nashville || 42 || 68 || 83 || 17
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Chattanooga leading Nashville
| Nashville || Memphis || 42 || 68 || 32 || 17
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Nashville leading Memphis
| Nashville || Memphis || 42 || 58 || 32 || 32
|}
In the first scenario, voters all choose their votes based on the assumption that all pairwise ties are equally likely. As a result, they vote for any candidate with an above-average utility. Most voters vote for only their first choice. Only the Knoxville faction also votes for its second choice, Chattanooga. As a result, the winner is Memphis, the Condorcet loser, with Chattanooga coming in second place. In this scenario, the winner has minority approval (more voters disapproved than approved) and all the others had even less support, reflecting the position that no choice gave an above-average utility to a majority of voters.
In the second scenario, all of the voters expect that Memphis is the likely winner, that Chattanooga is the likely runner-up, and that the pivot probability for a Memphis-Chattanooga tie is much larger than the pivot probabilities of any other pair-wise ties. As a result, each voter votes for any candidate they prefer more than the leading candidate, and also vote for the leading candidate if they prefer that candidate more than the expected runner-up. Each remaining scenario follows a similar pattern of expectations and voting strategies.
In the second scenario, there is a three-way tie for first place. This happens because the expected winner, Memphis, was the Condorcet loser and was also ranked last by any voter that did not rank it first.
Only in the last scenario does the actual winner and runner-up match the expected winner and runner-up. As a result, this can be considered a stable strategic voting scenario. In the language of game theory, this is an "equilibrium." In this scenario, the winner is also the Condorcet winner.
Dichotomous cutoff
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2019}}
Modeling voters with a 'dichotomous cutoff' assumes a voter has an immovable approval cutoff, while having meaningful cardinal preferences. This means that rather than voting for their top 3 candidates, or all candidates above the average approval, they instead vote for all candidates above a certain approval 'cutoff' that they have decided. This cutoff does not change, regardless of which and how many candidates are running, so when all available alternatives are either above or below the cutoff, the voter votes for all or none of the candidates, despite preferring some over others. This could be imagined to reflect a case where many voters become disenfranchised and apathetic if they see no candidates they approve of. In a case such as this, many voters may have an internal cutoff, and would not simply vote for their top 3, or the above average candidates.
For example, in this scenario, voters are voting for candidates with approval above 50% (bold signifies that the voters voted for the candidate):
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; width:600px;"
|-
! Proportion of electorate
! Approval of Candidate A
! Approval of Candidate B
! Approval of Candidate C
! Approval of Candidate D
! Average approval
|-
! 25%
| 90% || 60% || 40% || 10% || 50%
|-
! 35%
| 10% || 90% || 60% || 40% || 50%
|-
! 30%
| 40% || 10% || 90% || 60% || 50%
|-
! 10%
| 60% || 40% || 10% || 90% || 50%
|}
C wins with 65% of the voters' approval, beating B with 60%, D with 40% and A with 35%
If voters' threshold for receiving a vote is that the candidate has an above average approval, or they vote for their two most approved of candidates, this is not a dichotomous cutoff, as this can change if candidates drop out. On the other hand, if voters' threshold for receiving a vote is fixed (say 50%), this is a dichotomous cutoff, and satisfies IIA as shown below:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; width:600px;"
|+ A drops out, candidates voting for above average approval
! Proportion of electorate
! Approval of Candidate A
! Approval of Candidate B
! Approval of Candidate C
! Approval of Candidate D
! Average approval
|-
! 25%
| – || 60% || 40% || 10% || 37%
|-
! 35%
| – || 90% || 60% || 40% || 63%
|-
! 30%
| – || 10% || 90% || 60% || 53%
|-
! 10%
| – || 40% || 10% || 90% || 47%
|}
B now wins with 60%, beating C with 55% and D with 40%
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; width:600px;"
|+ A drops out, candidates voting for approval > 50%
! Proportion of electorate
! Approval of Candidate A
! Approval of Candidate B
! Approval of Candidate C
! Approval of Candidate D
! Average approval
|-
! 25%
| – || 60% || 40% || 10% || 37%
|-
! 35%
| – || 90% || 60% || 40% || 63%
|-
! 30%
| – || 10% || 90% || 60% || 53%
|-
! 10%
| – || 40% || 10% || 90% || 47%
|}
With dichotomous cutoff, C still wins.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; width:600px;"
|+ D drops out, candidates voting for top 2 candidates
! Proportion of electorate
! Approval of Candidate A
! Approval of Candidate B
! Approval of Candidate C
! Approval of Candidate D
! Average approval
|-
! 25%
| 90% || 60% || 40% || – || 63%
|-
! 35%
| 10% || 90% || 60% || – || 53%
|-
! 30%
| 40% || 10% || 90% || – || 47%
|-
! 10%
| 60% || 40% || 10% || – || 37%
|}
B now wins with 70%, beating C and A with 65%
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; width:600px;"
|+ D drops out, candidates voting for approval > 50%
! Proportion of electorate
! Approval of Candidate A
! Approval of Candidate B
! Approval of Candidate C
! Approval of Candidate D
! Average approval
|-
! 25%
| 90% || 60% || 40% || – || 63%
|-
! 35%
| 10% || 90% || 60% || – || 53%
|-
! 30%
| 40% || 10% || 90% || – || 47%
|-
! 10%
| 60% || 40% || 10% || – || 37%
|}
With dichotomous cutoff, C still wins.
Compliance with voting system criteria
{{Incomplete table|date=October 2024}}
Most of the mathematical criteria by which voting systems are compared were formulated for voters with ordinal preferences. In this case, approval voting requires voters to make an additional decision of where to put their approval cutoff (see examples above). Depending on how this decision is made, approval satisfies different sets of criteria.
There is no ultimate authority on which criteria should be considered, but the following are criteria that many voting theorists accept and consider desirable:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|- style="font-size:90%;"
! Voting model:!! Majority!! Monotone and Participation !! Condorcet and Smith !! IIA !! Clone independence !! Reversal symmetry
!Sincere favorite
!Strategyproof
|-
! Zero information<ref name=":2" />
|{{No}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{No}}
|{{No}}
|{{No}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{No}}
|-
!Leader rule<ref name=":3" />
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{No}}
|
| |
|{{Yes}}
|{{No}}
|-
!Trembling ballots<ref name=":4" />
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{No}}
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| |
|{{Yes}}
|{{No}}
|-
! Binary preferences<ref name":0" />{{NoteTag|Assuming voters have only two categories of preference ("approve" and "disapprove"). Voters are indifferent between any two candidates they approve, and between any two they disapprove.{{sfn|Brams|Fishburn|1983|p16–17}} As a result, a voter's approval of a candidate does not depend on what the other alternatives are.}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|}
See also
{{portal|Politics}}Some variants and generalizations of approval voting are:
* Multiwinner approval voting — multiple candidates may be elected, instead of just one.
* Fractional approval voting — the election outcome is a distribution - assigning a fraction to each candidate.
* Score voting (also called range voting) — is simply approval voting where voters can give a wider range of scores than 0 or 1 (e.g. 0-5 or 0–7).
* Combined approval voting — form of score voting with three levels that uses a scale of (-1, 0, +1) or (0, .5, 1).
* D21 – Janeček method — limited to two approval and one negative vote per voter.
* Unified primary — a nonpartisan primary that uses approval voting for the first round.
Notes
<references group"note" /> References {{Reflist|30em}} Sources * {{cite book |last1Brams |first1Steven J. |last2Fishburn |first2Peter C. |date1983 |titleApproval Voting |locationBoston |publisherBirkhäuser |isbn3764331240 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/approvalvoting00bram }}
External links
{{Wiktionary|approval}}
* [https://electionscience.org/library/approval-voting/ Approval Voting] Article by [http://www.electology.org/ The Center for Election Science]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BZiS3U7EG0M Could approval Voting Prevent Electoral Disaster?] Video by Big Think
* [http://pareto.uab.cat/wp/2004/61904.pdf Approval Voting on Dichotomous Preferences] Article by Marc Vorsatz.
* [http://pareto.uab.cat/wp/2004/61704.pdf Scoring Rules on Dichotomous Preferences] Article by Marc Vorsatz.
* [http://www.universalworkshop.com/ARVOfull.htm The Arithmetic of Voting] article by Guy Ottewell
* [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0261379405000570 Critical Strategies Under approval Voting: Who Gets Ruled In And Ruled Out] Article by Steven J. Brams and M. Remzi Sanver.
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=orybDrUj4vA Quick and Easy Voting for Normal People] YouTube video
{{voting systems}}
Category:Electoral systems
Category:Single-winner electoral systems
Category:Cardinal electoral systems
Category:Monotonic electoral systems
Category:Approval voting
Category:Rating systems
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approval_voting
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Arizona State University
|
{{Short description|Public university in Tempe, Arizona, US}}
{{redirect|Arizona State|the U.S. state|Arizona}}
{{distinguish|University of Arizona}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Arizona State University
| image = Arizona State University seal.svg
| image_upright = 0.7
| caption | former_names {{collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-left:0.5em;font-size:100%;<!--size of [show]/[hide] link-->
| liststyle = text-align:left;white-space:nowrap;
| title=|Territorial Normal School (1885–1889)<br>Tempe Normal School of Arizona (1889–1903)<br>Tempe Normal School (1903–1925)<br>Tempe State Teachers College (1925–1929)<br>Arizona State Teachers College (1929–1945)<br>Arizona State College (1945–1958)}}
| established {{start date and age|1885|03|12|bry}}
| motto = On seal: Ditat Deus (Latin)
| mottoeng = "God enriches"
| type = Public research university
| academic_affiliation = {{hlist|AAU|ORAU|URA|Space-grant}}
| parent = Arizona Board of Regents
| endowment $1.59 billion (2024)<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.asufoundation.org/endowment.html | title ASU Foundation: Endowment | access-date May 10, 2023| url-status live|archive-dateMay 11, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511032902/https://www.asufoundation.org/endowment.html}}</ref>
| budget $7.9 billion (2025)<ref>{{cite web |titleAnnual Operating Budget FY '25 |urlhttps://arizonastateu.sharepoint.com/sites/O365ABOR/public/Committee/Board/Shared%20Documents/Forms/AllItems.aspx?id%2Fsites%2FO365ABOR%2Fpublic%2FCommittee%2FBoard%2FShared%20Documents%2F2024%2D06%2D19%2Dthrough%2D21%2DFinal%2DBoard%2DBook%2Epdf&parent%2Fsites%2FO365ABOR%2Fpublic%2FCommittee%2FBoard%2FShared%20Documents&ptrue&ga1 |websiteArizona State University |access-date=23 January 2025}}</ref>
| accreditation = HLC
| president = Michael M. Crow
| provost = Nancy Gonzales
| students {{ubl|57,144, Tempe<ref name"enrollment">{{cite web |titleEnrollment by Campus, ASU University Office of Institutional Analysis |urlhttps://www.asu.edu/about/facts-and-figures |publisherArizona State University |access-dateAugust 9, 2023 }}</ref>|10,608, Downtown Phoenix<ref name"enrollment" />|6,036, Polytechnic<ref name"enrollment" />|4,904, West<ref name"enrollment" />|62,062, Digital Immersion<ref name"enrollment" />}}
| undergrad 114,484<ref name"enrollment" />
| postgrad 31,171<ref name"enrollment" />
| faculty 5,400<ref name"enrollment">{{cite web |titleEnrollment by Campus, ASU University Office of Institutional Analysis |urlhttps://www.asu.edu/about/facts-and-figures |publisherArizona State University |access-dateAugust 9, 2023 }}</ref>
| total_staff More than 18,500<ref>{{Cite web |titleWorking at ASU {{!}} Arizona State University |urlhttps://cfo.asu.edu/working-at-asu |access-date2025-01-22 |website=cfo.asu.edu}}</ref>
| city = Tempe
| state = Arizona
| country = United States
| coordinates {{Coord|33.4209|N|111.9340|W|type:edu_region:US-AZ|displayinline,title}}
| campus Midsize city<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/?qArizona+state&sall&id104151|titleIPEDS-Arizona State University|access-dateNovember 7, 2021|archive-dateNovember 7, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211107042328/https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/?qArizona+state&sall&id104151|url-status=live}}</ref>
| campus_size = {{cvt|660|acre|km2}}
| free_label1 = Other campuses
| free1 = {{hlist|Chula Vista|Glendale|Kailua-Kona|Lake Havasu City|Long Beach|Los Angeles|Mesa|Phoenix|Yuma|Scottsdale|Tucson|
Washington|St. George|London|Online}}<ref name"locations" /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.hlcommission.org/institution/1002/|titleHLC - Arizona State University}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://campus.asu.edu/|title=ASU Campuses and Locations}}</ref>
| free_label2 = Newspaper
| free2 = The State Press
| colors Maroon and gold<ref>{{cite web|titleArizona State University Brand Guide|urlhttps://brandguide.asu.edu/asu-logo|access-dateNovember 6, 2019|archive-dateApril 25, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190425004150/https://brandguide.asu.edu/asu-logo|url-status=live}}</ref> <br /> {{color box|#8C1D40}}&nbsp;{{color box|#FFC627}}
| sports_nickname = Sun Devils
| mascot = Sparky the Sun Devil
| sporting_affiliations = {{hlist|NCAA Division I FBS – Big 12|NCHC|MPSF}}
| website = {{URL|https://www.asu.edu/|asu.edu}}
| logo = Arizona State University logo.svg
| logo_upright = 1.0
}}
Arizona State University (Arizona State or ASU) is a public research university<ref name"ASU">{{cite web|urlhttps://president.asu.edu/oneuniversity/what|titleASU: What do we need to become?|websiteASU Office of the President|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180628233709/https://president.asu.edu/oneuniversity/what|archive-dateJune 28, 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref> in Tempe, Arizona, United States.<ref name"Campuses" /> Founded in 1885 as Territorial Normal School by the 13th Arizona Territorial Legislature, the university is one of the largest public universities by enrollment in the United States.<ref name"oneuniversity">{{cite web|titleASU – One University in Many Places|urlhttp://campus.asu.edu/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080607150438/http://campus.asu.edu/|archive-dateJune 7, 2008|access-dateJune 2, 2008|publisherArizona State University}}</ref> It was one of about 180 "normal schools" founded in the late 19th century to train teachers for the rapidly growing public common schools. Some closed, but most steadily expanded their role and became state colleges in the early 20th century, then state universities in the late 20th century.<ref>Christine Ogren, ''The American State Normal School: 'An Instrument of Great Good' '' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) pp. 1-5, 213–235; [https://books.google.com/books?idmUDHAAAAQBAJ&dqOGREN+Christine&pgPP1 online].</ref>
One of three universities governed by the Arizona Board of Regents, Arizona State University is a member of the Association of American Universities (AAU) and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". ASU has over 183,000<ref name"enrollment" /> students attending classes, with more than 74,000<ref name"enrollment" /> students attending online, and 142,000<ref name"enrollment" /> undergraduates and over 41,000<ref name"enrollment" /> postgraduates across its four campuses<ref>{{cite news |last1Schaudt |first1Sky |titleMore than 65K students are on ASU Online, a new university record |urlhttps://www.kjzz.org/2023-08-17/content-1855098-more-65k-students-are-asu-online-new-university-record |access-date5 February 2025 |publisherKJZZ Phoenix |date17 August 2023}}</ref> and four regional learning centers throughout Arizona.<ref name"enrollment" /> ASU offers more than 400 undergraduate degree programs<ref name"ASU Academics">{{cite web |titleASU Academics |urlhttps://www.asu.edu/academics |websiteArizona State University |access-date24 January 2025}}</ref> from its 16 colleges<ref name"ASU Academics"/> and over 170 cross-discipline centers and institutes for students.<ref name"colleges and degree programs">{{cite web|urlhttps://students.asu.edu/programs|titleMajors and Degree Programs|websiteArizona State University|access-dateApril 9, 2018|archive-dateSeptember 5, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180905023205/https://students.asu.edu/programs|url-statuslive}}</ref> It also offers more than 450 graduate degree and certificate programs.<ref name="ASU Academics"/>
The Arizona State Sun Devils compete in 26 varsity-level sports in NCAA Division I as a member of the Big 12 Conference. Sun Devil teams have won 165 national championships, including 24 NCAA trophies. 179 Sun Devils have made Olympic teams, winning 60 Olympic medals: 25 gold, 12 silver and 23 bronze.
{{As of|February 2024|post,}} ASU had more than 5,000 faculty members.<ref name"enrollment" /> This included 5 Nobel laureates, 11 MacArthur Fellows, 10 Pulitzer Prize winners, 11 National Academy of Engineering members, 26 National Academy of Sciences members, 28 American Academy of Arts and Sciences members, 41 Guggenheim fellows, 163 National Endowment for the Humanities fellows, and 289 Fulbright Program American Scholars.<ref name="ASU_Exc_Page">{{cite web
|url=https://www.asu.edu/academics/faculty-excellence
|title=Faculty excellence
|work=ASU website
|quote=5 Nobel laureates / 11 MacArthur fellows / 10 Pulitzer Prize winners / 11 National Academy of Engineering members / 26 National Academy of Sciences members / 28 American Academy of Arts and Sciences / 41 Guggenheim fellows / 1463 National Endowment for the Humanities fellows / 270 Fulbright U.S. scholars
|date=2024
|access-date=August 16, 2024
}}</ref>
History
{{Main|History of Arizona State University}}
1885–1929
Arizona State University was established as the Territorial Normal School at Tempe on March 12, 1885, when the 13th Arizona Territorial Legislature passed an act to create a normal school to train teachers for the Arizona Territory. The campus consisted of a single, four-room schoolhouse on a 20-acre plot largely donated by Tempe residents George and Martha Wilson. Classes began with 33 students on February 8, 1886. The curriculum evolved over the years and the name was changed several times; the institution was also known as Tempe Normal School of Arizona (1889–1903), Tempe Normal School (1903–1925), Tempe State Teachers College (1925–1929), Arizona State Teachers College (1929–1945), Arizona State College (1945–1958) and, by a 2–1 margin of the state's voters, Arizona State University in 1958.
In 1923, the school stopped offering high school courses and added a high school diploma to the admissions requirements. In 1925, the school became the Tempe State Teachers College and offered four-year Bachelor of Education degrees as well as two-year teaching certificates. In 1929, the 9th Arizona State Legislature authorized Bachelor of Arts in Education degrees as well, and the school was renamed the Arizona State Teachers College.<ref nameTNS>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.azarchivesonline.org/xtf/view?docIdead/asu/tnsrec.xml |titleTempe Normal School Records, 1885–1930 MSS-149 |year2014 |publisherArizona Archives Online |access-dateMay 27, 2014 |archive-dateMay 25, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140525233759/http://www.azarchivesonline.org/xtf/view?docIdead%2Fasu%2Ftnsrec.xml |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Academicprograms">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/acpro.htm |titleThe New ASU Story: Academic Programs |year2001 |publisherArizona State University |access-dateMay 27, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 6, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006095704/http://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/acpro.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> Under the 30-year tenure of president Arthur John Matthews (1900–1930), the school was given all-college student status. The first dormitories built in the state were constructed under his supervision in 1902. Of the 18 buildings constructed while Matthews was president, six are still in use. Matthews envisioned an "evergreen campus", with many shrubs brought to the campus, and implemented the planting of 110 Mexican Fan Palms on what is now known as Palm Walk, a century-old landmark of the Tempe campus.
During the Great Depression, Ralph Waldo Swetman was hired to succeed President Matthews, coming to Arizona State Teachers College in 1930 from Humboldt State Teachers College where he had served as president. He served a three-year term, during which he focused on improving teacher-training programs.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/preslist.htm|titlePrincipals and Presidents of Arizona State University – ASU Library|websiteAsu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateJune 29, 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110629190306/http://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/preslist.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref> During his tenure, enrollment at the college doubled, topping the 1,000 mark for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pages/11lead.htm|titleASU Library: The New ASU Story: Landmarks|websiteAsu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateDecember 12, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171212031717/http://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pages/11lead.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref> Matthews also conceived of a self-supported summer session at the school at Arizona State Teachers College, a first for the school.
1930–1989
, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright]]
In 1933, Grady Gammage, then president of Arizona State Teachers College at Flagstaff, became president of Arizona State Teachers College at Tempe, beginning a tenure that would last for nearly 28 years, second only to Swetman's 30 years at the college's helm. Like President Porter Eric Gasvoda before him, Gammage oversaw the construction of several buildings on the Tempe campus. He also guided the development of the university's graduate programs; the first Master of Arts in Education was awarded in 1938, the first Doctor of Education degree in 1954 and 10 non-teaching master's degrees were approved by the Arizona Board of Regents in 1956. During his presidency, the school's name was changed to Arizona State College in 1945, and finally to Arizona State University in 1958. At the time, two other names were considered: Tempe University and State University at Tempe.<ref name"ASU50th">{{cite web|titleASU's 50th Anniversary|dateNovember 4, 2008|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asus-50th-anniversary|publisherArizona State University|access-dateMarch 28, 2016|archive-dateApril 8, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160408015451/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asus-50th-anniversary|url-status=live}}</ref> Among Gammage's greatest achievements in Tempe was the Frank Lloyd Wright-designed construction of what is Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium/ASU Gammage. One of the university's hallmark buildings, ASU Gammage was completed in 1964, five years after the president's (and Wright's) death.
Gammage was succeeded by Harold D. Richardson, who had served the school earlier in a variety of roles beginning in 1939, including director of graduate studies, college registrar, dean of instruction, dean of the College of Education and academic vice president. Although filling the role of acting president of the university for just nine months (Dec. 1959 to Sept. 1960), Richardson laid the groundwork for the future recruitment and appointment of well-credentialed research science faculty.
By the 1960s, under G. Homer Durham, the university's 11th president, ASU began to expand its curriculum by establishing several new colleges and, in 1961, the Arizona Board of Regents authorized doctoral degree programs in six fields, including Doctor of Philosophy.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pages/16lead.htm|titleASU Library: The New ASU Story: Leadership|websiteAsu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateDecember 12, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171212084116/http://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pages/16lead.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> By the end of his nine-year tenure, ASU had more than doubled enrollment, reporting 23,000 in 1969.
The next three presidents—Harry K. Newburn (1969–71), John W. Schwada (1971–81) and J. Russell Nelson (1981–89), including and Interim President Richard Peck (1989)—led the university to increased academic stature, the establishment of the ASU West Valley campus in 1984 and its subsequent construction in 1986, a focus on computer-assisted learning and research, and rising enrollment.
1990–present
Under the leadership of Lattie F. Coor, president from 1990 to 2002, ASU grew through the creation of the Polytechnic campus and extended education sites. Increased commitment to diversity, quality in undergraduate education, research, and economic development occurred over his 12-year tenure. Part of Coor's legacy to the university was a successful fundraising campaign: through private donations, more than $500&nbsp;million was invested in areas that would significantly impact the future of ASU. Among the campaign's achievements were the naming and endowing of Barrett, The Honors College, and the Herberger Institute for Design and the Arts; the creation of many new endowed faculty positions; and hundreds of new scholarships and fellowships.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pages/21lead.htm|titleASU Library: The New ASU Story: Leadership|websiteAsu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateDecember 12, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171212032031/http://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pages/21lead.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
on Tempe campus]]
In 2002, Michael M. Crow became the university's 16th president. At his inauguration, he outlined his vision for transforming ASU into a "New American University"<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://newamericanuniversity.asu.edu/|titleHome – New American University|websiteNewamericanuniversity.asu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateDecember 8, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171208110720/https://newamericanuniversity.asu.edu/|url-statuslive}}</ref>—one that would be open and inclusive, and set a goal for the university to meet Association of American Universities criteria and to become a member.<ref name"ASU"/> Crow initiated the idea of transforming ASU into "One university in many places"—a single institution comprising several campuses, sharing students, faculty, staff and accreditation. Subsequent reorganizations<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://asunews.asu.edu/20090121_reorg |titleAcademic Reorganization |publisherAsunews.asu.edu |dateJanuary 21, 2009 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateMarch 24, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140324223537/https://asunews.asu.edu/20090121_reorg |url-statuslive }}</ref> combined academic departments, consolidated colleges and schools, and reduced staff and administration as the university expanded its West Valley and Polytechnic campuses. ASU's Downtown Phoenix campus was also expanded, with several colleges and schools relocating there. The university established learning centers throughout the state, including the ASU Colleges at Lake Havasu City and programs in Thatcher, Yuma, and Tucson. Students at these centers can choose from several ASU degree and certificate programs.
During Crow's tenure, and aided by hundreds of millions of dollars in donations, ASU began a years-long research facility capital building effort that led to the establishment of the Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, the Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability, and several large interdisciplinary research buildings. Along with the research facilities, the university faculty was expanded, including the addition of five Nobel Laureates.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://asunews.asu.edu/20091012_ostrom_nobel|titleASU's Ostrom wins Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences|dateOctober 12, 2009|websiteAsunews.asu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateSeptember 2, 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130902091540/https://asunews.asu.edu/20091012_ostrom_nobel|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20160506-asu-news-nobel-laureate-frank-wilczek-joins-asu|titleNobel laureate Frank Wilczek joins ASU|dateMay 9, 2016|firstScott|lastSeckel|websiteASU Now|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022241/https://asunow.asu.edu/20160506-asu-news-nobel-laureate-frank-wilczek-joins-asu|url-statuslive}}</ref> Since 2002, the university's research expenditures have tripled and more than 1.5&nbsp;million square feet of space has been added to the university's research facilities.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://asunews.asu.edu/20121115_naustory |titleASU's 'golden decade' and the rise of a New American University &#124; ASU News |publisherAsunews.asu.edu |dateNovember 16, 2012 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 22, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022145251/https://asunews.asu.edu/20121115_naustory |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The economic downturn that began in 2008 took a particularly hard toll on Arizona, resulting in large cuts to ASU's budget. In response to these cuts, ASU capped enrollment, closed some four dozen academic programs, combined academic departments, consolidated colleges and schools, and reduced university faculty, staff and administrators;<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.asu.edu/budgetcuts |titleFiscal Year 2009 state budget cuts force ASU to cap enrollment, freshman applications close March 1, five months early |publisherArizona State University Office of Public Affairs |access-dateOctober 16, 2015 |archive-dateAugust 13, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150813144832/http://www.asu.edu/budgetcuts/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> with an economic recovery underway in 2011, however, the university continued its campaign to expand the West Valley and Polytechnic Campuses,<ref>{{cite web |lastWright |firstLesley |urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/local/articles/2011/06/19/20110619asu-academic-villages.html |titleASU Building Academic Villages |publisherAzcentral.com |dateJune 19, 2011 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20220226073949/https://help.azcentral.com/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> and establish a low-cost, teaching-focused extension campus in Lake Havasu City.<ref name":0">{{cite web|url http://havasu.asu.edu|title Colleges at Lake Havasu|publisher Arizona State University|access-date July 8, 2014|archive-date July 8, 2014|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140708225335/https://havasu.asu.edu/|url-status live}}</ref> As of 2011, an article in Slate reported that, "the bottom line looks good", noting that:<ref>{{cite web|lastJoseph|firstMark|urlhttp://www.slate.com/articles/technology/top_right/2011/08/michael_crow_president_arizona_state_university.html|titleMichael Crow, the university president who is trying to remake the American public university|workSlate Magazine|dateAugust 16, 2011|access-dateFebruary 16, 2019|archive-dateFebruary 6, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190206063435/http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/top_right/2011/08/michael_crow_president_arizona_state_university.html|url-status=live}}</ref> {{blockquote|Since Crow's arrival, ASU's research funding has almost tripled to nearly $350 million. Degree production has increased by 45 percent. And thanks to an ambitious aid program, enrollment of students from Arizona families below poverty is up 647 percent.}}
On May 1, 2014, ASU was listed as one of fifty-five higher education institutions under investigation by the Office of Civil Rights "for possible violations of federal law over the handling of sexual violence and harassment complaints" by Barack Obama's White House Task Force To Protect Students from Sexual Assault.<ref>{{cite news|titleASU among schools in US federal sex assault probe|urlhttp://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/may/1/asu-among-schools-in-us-federal-sex-assault-probe/|access-dateSeptember 18, 2014|workThe Washington Times|agencyAssociated Press|dateMay 1, 2014|archive-dateDecember 8, 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141208171755/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/may/1/asu-among-schools-in-us-federal-sex-assault-probe/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameEDAnnounce>{{cite web |titleU.S. Department of Education Releases List of Higher Education Institutions with Open Title IX Sexual Violence Investigations |urlhttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-department-education-releases-list-higher-education-institutions-open-title-i |websiteU.S. Department of Education |access-dateAugust 6, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 14, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714000905/http://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-department-education-releases-list-higher-education-institutions-open-title-i |url-statuslive }}</ref> The publicly announced investigation followed two Title IX suits.<ref name"two previous suits">{{cite web|last1Ryman|first1Anne|titleASU settled at least two previous sexual-violence suits|urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/tempe/2014/05/01/arizona-state-universities-sex-assault-inquiry/8565811/|websiteArizona Central|access-dateJuly 26, 2014|archive-dateAugust 3, 2014|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20140803091900/http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/tempe/2014/05/01/arizona-state-universities-sex-assault-inquiry/8565811/|url-statuslive}}</ref> In July 2014, a group of at least nine current and former students who alleged they were harassed or assaulted asked the federal investigation be expanded.<ref>{{cite news|last1Ryman|first1Anne|titleFeds: ASU sex-assault probe ongoing|urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/tempe/2014/07/10/asu-students-ask-feds-broaden-sexual-assault-probe/12491247/|access-dateSeptember 18, 2014|workThe Arizona Republic|publisherGannett|dateJuly 10, 2014|archive-dateSeptember 18, 2014|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20140918020558/http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/tempe/2014/07/10/asu-students-ask-feds-broaden-sexual-assault-probe/12491247/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In August 2014 ASU president Michael Crow appointed a task force<ref>{{cite web|titleASU wants campus 'free from threat of sexual violence'|urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/tempe/2014/08/22/asu-wants-campus-free-threat-sexual-violence/14445703|websiteazcentral.com|publisherGannett|access-dateNovember 26, 2014|archive-dateAugust 23, 2014|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20140823034120/http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/tempe/2014/08/22/asu-wants-campus-free-threat-sexual-violence/14445703/|url-statuslive}}</ref> comprising faculty and staff, students, and members of the university police force to review the university's efforts to address sexual violence. Crow accepted the recommendations of the task force in November 2014.<ref>{{cite web |titleASU president approves sexual violence task force recommendations |urlhttps://asunews.asu.edu/20141121-sexual-violence-task-force |websiteASU News |dateNovember 21, 2014 |publisherArizona State University |access-dateNovember 26, 2014 |archive-dateFebruary 13, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150213112958/https://asunews.asu.edu/20141121-sexual-violence-task-force |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2015, the Thunderbird School of Global Management became the Thunderbird School of Global Management at ASU. Partnerships for education and research with Mayo Clinic established collaborative degree programs in health care and law, and shared administrator positions, laboratories and classes at the Mayo Clinic Arizona campus.
The Beus Center for Law and Society, the new home of ASU's Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law, opened in fall 2016 on the Downtown Phoenix campus, relocating faculty and students from the Tempe campus to the state capital.<ref name"beus">{{cite web|lastTerrill|firstMarshall|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20160816-arizona-impact-center-law-and-society-stands-inclusion|titleCenter for Law and Society stands for inclusion|publisherArizona State University|dateAugust 15, 2016|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022222/https://asunow.asu.edu/20160816-arizona-impact-center-law-and-society-stands-inclusion|url-status=live}}</ref>
In September 2024, ASU announced several cuts in response to state budget cuts, including the closure of the Lake Havasu City campus, a reduction of the Arizona Teachers Academy and the addition of a "tuition surcharge."<ref>{{Cite web |lastRummel |firstHelen |titleASU to add tuition surcharge, close Lake Havasu campus after state budget cuts |urlhttps://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona-education/2024/09/23/asu-to-add-tuition-surcharge-close-campus-after-arizona-budget-cuts/75311690007/ |access-date2024-09-23 |websiteThe Arizona Republic |languageen-US}}</ref>Organization and administration{| class"wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:90%; line-height:1.4em; width:280px;"
|+ ASU college/school founding
|-
! College/School !! Year founded
|-
| Barrett, The Honors College || {{center| 1988 }}
|-
| College of Health Solutions || {{center| 2012 }}
|-
| Herberger Institute for Design and the Arts || {{center| 1964 }}
|-
| Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering || {{center| 1954 }}
|-
| College of Liberal Arts and Sciences || {{center| 1954 }}
|-
| College of Integrative Sciences and Arts|| {{center| 2014 }}
|-
| Mary Lou Fulton College for Teaching and Learning Innovation || {{center| 1954 }}
|-
| New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences || {{center| 1984 }}
|-
| Edson College of Nursing and Health Innovation || {{center| 1957 }}
|-
| Watts College of Public Service & Community Solutions|| {{center| 1979 }}
|-
| Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law || {{center| 1964 }}
|-
| Thunderbird School of Global Management at ASU || {{center| 1946 }}
|-
| University College || {{center| 2011 }}
|-
| W. P. Carey School of Business || {{center| 1961 }}
|-
| Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication || {{center| 1941 }}
|-
| College of Global Futures || {{center| 2020 }}
|}
{{Main|Arizona Board of Regents}}
The Arizona Board of Regents (ABOR) governs Arizona State University as well as the state's other public universities; University of Arizona and Northern Arizona University.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.azregents.edu/universities/arizonastateuniversity/default.aspx |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100716002711/http://www.azregents.edu/universities/arizonastateuniversity/default.aspx |url-statusdead |archive-dateJuly 16, 2010 |titleArizona State University |publisherAzregents.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014}}</ref> The board is composed of 12 members including 11 who are voting members, and one non-voting member. Members of the board include the state governor and superintendent of public instruction acting as ex-officio members, eight volunteer Regents members with eight-year terms who are appointed by the governor, and two student regents, each with two-year terms, and each serving a one-year term as non-voting apprentices.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.azregents.edu/about/board-members|titleBoard Members|websiteArizona Board of Regents|access-dateAugust 8, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170809040047/https://www.azregents.edu/about/board-members|archive-dateAugust 9, 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref> ABOR provides policy guidance to the state universities of Arizona. ASU has four campuses in metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, including the Tempe campus in Tempe; the West Valley campus in Glendale; the Downtown Phoenix campus; and the Polytechnic campus in Mesa. ASU also offers courses and degrees through ASU Online and at the ASU Colleges at Lake Havasu City in western Arizona, and offers regional learning programs in Thatcher, Yuma and Tucson.
The Arizona Board of Regents appoints and elects the president of the university, who is considered the institution's chief executive officer and the chief budget officer.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.asu.edu/aad/manuals/acd/acd102.html |titleArizona State University |publisherAsu.edu |dateJanuary 7, 2011 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateMarch 24, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140324201528/http://www.asu.edu/aad/manuals/acd/acd102.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> The president executes measures enacted by the Board of Regents, controls the university's property, and acts as the university's official representative to the Board of Regents.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.azregents.edu/board-committees/policy-manual|titlePolicy Manual|publisherAzregents.edu|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022334/https://www.azregents.edu/board-committees/policy-manual|url-statuslive}}</ref> The chief executive officer is assisted through the administration of the institution by the provost, vice presidents, deans, faculty, directors, department chairs, and other officers.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.asu.edu/admin/ |titleASU Leadership |publisherAsu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 9, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140709105330/http://www.asu.edu/admin/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The president also selects and appoints administrative officers and general counsels. The 16th ASU president is Michael M. Crow, who has served since July 1, 2002.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://president.asu.edu |titleOffice of the President Home &#124; Office of the President |publisherPresident.asu.edu |dateMay 18, 2014 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 2, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140702025232/http://president.asu.edu/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Campuses and locations
ASU has four campuses and four regional learning centers throughout Arizona,<ref name"locations">{{cite web |titleLocations |urlhttps://www.asu.edu/about/locations-maps |websiteArizona State University |access-date16 February 2024}}</ref> and campuses located in Los Angeles,<ref name"la2022">{{cite news |last1Waiss |first1Alexis |titleASU's expansion into California seen as rare step for a public state university |urlhttps://www.statepress.com/article/2022/12/asu-los-angeles-california-campus-expansion |access-date27 February 2024 |publisherThe State Press |date17 December 2022}}</ref> Washington, D.C.<ref name"AZCentral2019">{{cite news |last1Leingang |first1Rachel |titleASU rents more space in D.C. after programs grow faster than expected |urlhttps://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona-education/2019/02/08/arizona-state-university-rents-more-space-washington-dc-mccain-institute-cronkite-oconnor/2803663002/ |access-date16 February 2024 |publisherAZ Central |date8 February 2019}}</ref> and Hawaii.<ref name"HPR">{{cite news |last1Dym |first1Zoe |titleArizona State University opens hybrid campus on Hawaiʻi Island |urlhttps://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2023-05-19/arizona-state-university-opens-hybrid-campus-on-hawaii-island |access-date16 February 2024 |publisherHawaii Public Radio |date19 May 2023}}</ref> Unlike most multi-campus institutions, however, ASU describes itself as "one university in many places", inferring there is "not a system with separate campuses, and not one main campus with branch campuses".<ref name "Campuses">{{cite web|urlhttp://campus.asu.edu|titleASU Campuses and Locations|websitecampus.asu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateMarch 30, 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120330130827/http://campus.asu.edu/|url-statuslive}}</ref> The university considers each campus "distinctive" and academically focused on certain aspects of the overall university mission. The Tempe campus is the university's research and graduate school center. Undergraduate studies on the Tempe campus are research-based programs that prepare students for graduate school, professional school, or employment.<ref name"Tempe">{{cite web |urlhttp://campus.asu.edu/tempe |titleASU Tempe Campus |publisherArizona State University |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 2, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140702224253/https://campus.asu.edu/tempe/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Polytechnic campus is designed with an emphasis on professional and technological programs for direct workforce preparation. The Polytechnic campus is the site of many of the university's simulators and laboratories dedicated for project-based learning.<ref name"campus.asu.edu">{{cite web|urlhttps://catalog.asu.edu/files/shared/archives/1998-1999/graduate/GC98-99.pdf/1998-1999-GC-370-385.pdf|titleASU East|publisherCampus.asu.edu|access-dateJuly 25, 2017|archive-dateApril 11, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190411214103/https://catalog.asu.edu/files/shared/archives/1998-1999/graduate/GC98-99.pdf/1998-1999-GC-370-385.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref> The West Valley campus is focused on interdisciplinary degrees and the liberal arts, while maintaining professional programs with a direct impact on the community and society.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://campus.asu.edu/west/ |titleASU West Campus |publisherArizona State University |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 5, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140705160727/https://campus.asu.edu/west |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Downtown Phoenix campus focuses on direct urban and public programs such as nursing, public policy, criminal justice, mass communication, and journalism.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://campus.asu.edu/downtown |titleASU Downtown Phoenix Campus |publisherCampus.asu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 2, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140702225745/https://campus.asu.edu/downtown/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ASU recently relocated some nursing and health related programs to its new ASU-Mayo Medical School campus. Inter-campus shuttles and light rail allow students and faculty to easily travel between the campuses. In addition to the physical campuses, ASU's "virtual campus" at the university's SkySong Innovation Center, provides online and extended education.
In 2018, the Arizona Board of Regents reported that the ASU facilities inventory totaled more than 23 million gross square feet.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.azregents.edu/universtiy-system-quick-facts|titleUniversity System Quick Facts|publisherazregents.edu|access-dateSeptember 11, 2018|archive-dateSeptember 11, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180911225339/https://www.azregents.edu/universtiy-system-quick-facts|url-statuslive}}</ref>Tempe campus
{{Main|Arizona State University Tempe campus}}
ASU's Tempe campus is in downtown Tempe, Arizona, about {{convert|8|mi|km|spellin}} east of downtown Phoenix. The campus is considered urban, and is approximately {{convert|660|acre|km2|1}} in size. It is arranged around broad pedestrian malls and is completely encompassed by an arboretum.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://cfo.asu.edu/arboretum|titleArboretum—Tempe campus|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 13, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180613224519/https://cfo.asu.edu/arboretum|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Tempe campus is also the largest of ASU's campuses, with more than 70,000{{efn|Campus enrollment figures at ASU are defined by the number of students taking at least one course offered by a department housed on a particular campus. Students enrolled in classes on more than one campus (estimated to be 27,484) are counted within each campus's total}} students enrolled in at least one class on campus in fall 2017.<ref name="enrollment" /> The campus is considered to range from the streets Rural Road on the east to Mill Avenue on the west, and Apache Boulevard on the south to Rio Salado Parkway on the north.
The Tempe campus is ASU's original campus, and Old Main, the oldest building on campus,<ref>{{cite web|dateAugust 21, 2020|titleOld Main: The heart of ASU|urlhttps://news.asu.edu/20200821-sun-devil-life-old-main-heart-asu|access-dateAugust 27, 2021|websiteASU News|archive-dateAugust 27, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210827021800/https://news.asu.edu/20200821-sun-devil-life-old-main-heart-asu|url-statuslive}}</ref> still stands. Today's university and the Tempe campus were founded as the Territorial Normal School when first constructed, and was originally a teachers college. There are many notable landmarks on campus, including Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright; Palm Walk, which is lined by 111 palm trees;<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://tours.asu.edu/tempe/palm-walk|titleVirtual Tour: Palm Walk |websiteArizona State University|dateMay 2, 2016|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022019/https://tours.asu.edu/tempe/palm-walk|url-statuslive}}</ref> Charles Trumbull Hayden Library; the University Club building; Margaret Gisolo Dance Theatre; Arizona State University Art Museum;<ref>{{cite web|titleISNI 0000000121498782 Arizona State University. Art Museum|urlhttps://isni.oclc.org/xslt/DB1.2//CMD?ACTSRCH&IKT8006&TRMISN%3A0000000121498782&TERMS_OF_USE_AGREEDY&terms_of_use_agreesend&COOKIEU51,KENDUSER,I28,B0028++++++,SY,NISNI,D1.2,Ee7e00292-28,A,H1,,3-28,,30-41,,43-59,,65-70,,74-75,R208.80.153.61,FY|access-dateOctober 10, 2020|websiteisni.oclc.org}}{{Dead link|dateOctober 2023 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> and University Bridge. Furthermore, the Tempe campus is home to Barrett, The Honors College. In addition, the campus has an extensive public art collection; It was named "the single most impressive venue for contemporary art in Arizona" by Art in America magazine.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asuartmuseum.asu.edu/about|titleAbout ASU Art Museum|websiteArizona State University|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022526/https://asuartmuseum.asu.edu/about|url-status=live}}</ref> Against the northwest edge of campus is the Mill Avenue district (part of downtown Tempe), which has a college atmosphere that attracts many students to its restaurants and bars. Students also have Tempe Marketplace, a shopping, dining and entertainment center with an outdoor setting near the northeast border of the campus. The Tempe campus is also home to all of the university's athletic facilities.
<gallery class"center" widths"250" heights="200">
File:2021 Arizona State University, Tempe Campus, Old Main.jpg|Old Main, the oldest building on campus
File:Arizona State University Bridge Tempe Campus.jpg|The ASU Bridge
File:Tempe-Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium-1950 crop.JPG|The Gammage Auditorium was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright
File:Asupalms.jpg|The Palm Walk is the main pathway through the campus.
</gallery>
West Valley campus
{{Main|Arizona State University West campus}}
Established in 1984 by the Arizona legislature,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://lib.asu.edu/sites/default/files/fletcher/State_of_Arizona_west_campus_designation_1984.pdf|titleSession Laws State of Arizona|date1984|websiteASU Library|access-dateJuly 24, 2017|archive-dateAugust 13, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170813182759/https://lib.asu.edu/sites/default/files/fletcher/State_of_Arizona_west_campus_designation_1984.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref> the West Valley campus sits on {{convert|277.92|acre|km2}} in a suburban area of northwest Phoenix. The West Valley campus lies about {{convert|12|mi|km}} northwest of Downtown Phoenix, and about {{convert|18|mi|km}} northwest of the Tempe campus. The West Valley campus is designated as a Phoenix Point of Pride<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://lib.asu.edu/librarychannel/2008/05/22/ep76_pointpride|titleASU's West campus a Point of Pride|dateMay 22, 2008|websiteASU Library|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629050145/https://lib.asu.edu/librarychannel/2008/05/22/ep76_pointpride|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref> and is nearly completely powered by a solar array.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-energizes-west-campus-large-solar-project|titleASU energizes West campus with large solar project|dateApril 30, 2009|websiteASU Now|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022517/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-energizes-west-campus-large-solar-project|url-statuslive}}</ref> The campus serves more than 4,000 students enrolled in at least a single course<ref name"enrollment" /> and offers more than 100 degree programs from the New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, W. P. Carey School of Business, College of Public Service and Community Solutions, College of Health Solutions, and the College of Nursing and Health Innovation.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://webapp4.asu.edu/programs/t5/programs/Campus/WEST/undergrad/West%20campus/false|titleResults – eAdvisor™ Academic Program Search|websitewebapp4.asu.edu|access-dateJuly 24, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170522194509/https://webapp4.asu.edu/programs/t5/programs/Campus/WEST/undergrad/West%20campus/false|archive-dateMay 22, 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Polytechnic campus
{{Main|Arizona State University Polytechnic campus}}
Founded in 1996 as "ASU East", the ASU Polytechnic campus serves more than 4,800<ref name"enrollment" /> students and is home to more than 130 bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees in professional, technical science, humanities, social science and pre-health programs through the W. P. Carey School of Business/Morrison School of Management and Agribusiness, Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering, and College of Integrative Sciences and Arts.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://webapp4.asu.edu/programs/t5/programs/Campus/POLY/undergrad/Polytechnic$0020campus/false?initfalse&nopassivetrue|titleResults – eAdvisor™ Academic Program Search |websitewebapp4.asu.edu|access-dateJuly 25, 2017|archive-dateAugust 13, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170813185539/https://webapp4.asu.edu/programs/t5/programs/Campus/POLY/undergrad/Polytechnic$0020campus/false?initfalse&nopassivetrue |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://webapp4.asu.edu/programs/t5/programs/Campus/POLY/graduate/Polytechnic%20campus/false|titleResults – eAdvisor™ Academic Program Search |websitewebapp4.asu.edu|access-dateJuly 25, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220226130227/https://webapp4.asu.edu/programs/t5/programs/Campus/POLY/graduate/Polytechnic%20campus/false?initfalse&nopassivetrue |archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022|url-statuslive}}</ref> The campus — a desert arboretum — includes outdoor learning labs and spaces as well as leading-edge simulators and indoor lab spaces to support teaching and research in various fields of study.<ref name"campus.asu.edu" /> The {{convert|600|acre|km2|adjon}} campus is in southeast Mesa, Arizona, approximately {{convert|25|mi|km}} southeast of the Tempe campus, and {{convert|33|mi|km}} southeast of downtown Phoenix. The Polytechnic campus sits on the former Williams Air Force Base<ref name"campus.asu.edu" /> and is adjacent to the Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport and Chandler-Gilbert Community College (Williams campus).
Downtown Phoenix campus
{{Main|Arizona State University at the Downtown Phoenix campus}}
The Downtown Phoenix campus was established in 2006 on the north side of Downtown Phoenix.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-downtown-phoenix-campus-opens-its-doors|titleASU Downtown Phoenix campus opens its doors|dateAugust 15, 2006|websiteASU Now|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022204/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-downtown-phoenix-campus-opens-its-doors|archive-dateJune 29, 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The campus has an urban design, with several large modern academic buildings intermingled with commercial and retail office buildings. In addition to the new buildings, the campus included the adaptive reuse of several existing structures, including a 1930s era Post Office that is on the National Register of Historic Places.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://cfo.asu.edu/dpc-post-office|titleDowntown Campus Student Services Center|dateFebruary 11, 2016|workBusiness and Finance|access-dateJuly 25, 2017|archive-dateApril 12, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200412141849/https://cfo.asu.edu/dpc-post-office|url-statusdead}}</ref> Serving 11,465<ref name"enrollment" /> students, the campus houses the College of Health Solutions,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://healthsolutions.asu.edu/ |titlehealthsolutions.asu.edu |publisherhealthsolutions.asu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateDecember 1, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141201235034/https://healthsolutions.asu.edu/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> College of Integrative Science and Arts, College of Nursing and Health Innovation,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nursingandhealth.asu.edu/|titleNursing Schools Arizona – Nursing Degree Programs – Arizona State University Nursing|workCollege of Nursing & Health Innovation|access-dateDecember 2, 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121028062030/https://nursingandhealth.asu.edu/|archive-dateOctober 28, 2012|url-statuslive}}</ref> Watts College of Public Service & Community Solutions,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://publicservice.asu.edu|titleCollege of Public Service & Community Solutions|access-dateFebruary 26, 2022|archive-dateFebruary 24, 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220224074245/https://publicservice.asu.edu/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, and Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication. In 2013, the campus added the Sun Devil Fitness Center in conjunction with the original YMCA building.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/downtown-phoenix-fitness-complex-hosts-grand-opening |titleDowntown Phoenix fitness complex hosts grand opening|dateOctober 1, 2013|websiteASU Now |access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022019/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/downtown-phoenix-fitness-complex-hosts-grand-opening|url-statuslive}}</ref> ASU's Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law relocated from Tempe to the Downtown Phoenix campus in 2016.<ref name"beus" />
ASU Colleges at Lake Havasu City
{{Main|ASU Colleges at Lake Havasu City}}
In response to demands for lower-cost public higher education in Arizona, ASU developed the small, undergraduate-only college in Lake Havasu City. ASU Colleges are teaching-focused and provide a selection of popular undergraduate majors.<ref name":0" /> The Lake Havasu City campus offers undergraduate degrees at lower tuition rates than other Arizona research universities<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://archive.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/news/articles/2011/09/23/20110923arizona-state-university-set-lake-havasu-campus.html|titleASU@Lake Havasu: Finances|websiteArizona State University|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022|archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20220226073949/https://help.azcentral.com/|url-statuslive}}</ref> and a 15-to-1 student-to-faculty ratio.<ref name":0"/> In September 2024, ASU announced that the campus would close in June 2025 in response to state budget cuts.<ref>{{Cite web |last |first|date2024-09-23 |titleASU Havasu will close in June |urlhttps://www.havasunews.com/free_access/asu-havasu-will-close-in-june/article_0d67ddf4-79e4-11ef-8585-970001e1f1a3.html |access-date2024-09-23 |websiteHavasu News |languageen}}</ref>ASU OnlineASU Online offers more than 150 undergraduate and graduate degree programs through an online platform.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asuonline.asu.edu|titleASU Online|websiteASU Online|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 27, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180627234359/https://asuonline.asu.edu/|url-statuslive}}</ref> The degree programs delivered online hold the same accreditation as the university's traditional face-to-face programs. ASU Online is headquartered at ASU's SkySong campus in Scottsdale, Arizona. ASU Online was ranked in the Top 4 for Best Online Bachelor's Programs by U.S. News & World Report.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/arizona-state-university-104151|titleArizona State University Online Programs|websiteU.S. News & World Report|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022214/https://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/arizona-state-university-104151|url-status=live}}</ref>
Online students are taught by the same faculty and receive the same diploma as on-campus students. ASU online programs allow students to learn in highly interactive environments through student collaboration and through technological personalized learning environments.<ref>{{cite web|titleASU and Cerego Partner to Power Personalized Learning Environments for Global Freshman Academy Courses|urlhttp://asuonline.asu.edu/about-us/newsroom/asu-and-cerego-partner-power-personalized-learning-environments-global-freshman|websiteASU Online|access-dateNovember 18, 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151002215754/https://asuonline.asu.edu/about-us/newsroom/asu-and-cerego-partner-power-personalized-learning-environments-global-freshman|archive-dateOctober 2, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In April 2015, ASU Online announced a partnership with edX to form a one of a kind program called the Global Freshman Academy. The program is open to all potential students. The students do not need to submit a high school transcript or GPA to apply for the courses.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://gfa.asu.edu/how-it-works|titleGlobal Freshman Academy – How it Works|websiteArizona State University|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629022125/https://gfa.asu.edu/how-it-works|url-status=live}}</ref>
As of spring 2017, more than 25,000 students were enrolled through ASU Online.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asuonline.asu.edu/sites/default/files/ASUO-infographic-2017-%28sbux%29-2.jpg|titleAt A Glance – Spring 2017|websiteASU Online|access-dateAugust 4, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170805014926/https://asuonline.asu.edu/sites/default/files/ASUO-infographic-2017-%28sbux%29-2.jpg|archive-dateAugust 5, 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref> In June 2014, ASU Online and Starbucks announced a partnership called the Starbucks College Achievement Plan. The Starbucks College Achievement Plan offers all benefits-eligible employees full-tuition coverage when they enroll in any one of ASU Online's undergraduate degree programs.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asuonline.asu.edu/sites/default/files/rover/assets/program.pdf|titleStarbucks College Achievement Plan Program Document|websiteArizona State University|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629050052/https://asuonline.asu.edu/sites/default/files/rover/assets/program.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, in collaboration with ASU
In 2016, Mayo Clinic and ASU formed a new platform for health care education and research: the Mayo Clinic and Arizona State University Alliance for Health Care.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20161021-solutions-mayo-asu-alliance-health-care|titleMayo, ASU alliance seeks to transform health care|lastGreguska|firstEmma|dateOctober 21, 2016|websiteASU Now|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629021855/https://asunow.asu.edu/20161021-solutions-mayo-asu-alliance-health-care|url-statuslive}}</ref> Beginning in 2017, Mayo Clinic School of Medicine students in Phoenix and Scottsdale are among the first to earn a certificate in the Science of Health Care Delivery, with the option to earn a master's degree in the Science of Health Care Delivery through ASU.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://mayo.asu.edu/dualdegrees|titleDual Degrees|websiteMayo Clinic & ASU|access-dateAugust 25, 2017|archive-dateAugust 25, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170825230736/https://mayo.asu.edu/dualdegrees|url-statuslive}}</ref>Thunderbird Campus
{{Main|Thunderbird School of Global Management}}
Thunderbird School of Global Management is one of the newest units of "Arizona State University Knowledge Enterprise." The flagship campus was in Glendale, Arizona, at Thunderbird Field No. 1, a former military airfield from which it derives its name, until 2018 when the Thunderbird School relocated to the Downtown area.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://campus.asu.edu/thunderbird|titleThunderbird School of Global Management at ASU|websiteArizona State University|access-dateJune 28, 2018|archive-dateJune 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629074217/https://campus.asu.edu/thunderbird|url-statusdead}}</ref>Barrett and O'Connor CenterFollowing a nearly 15-year presence in Washington, D.C., through more minor means, ASU opened the Barrett and O'Connor Center in 2018 to solidify the university's contacts with the capital city. The center houses ASU's D.C.-based academic programs, including the Washington Bureau of the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication, the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law Rule of Law and Governance program, the Capital Scholars program, and the McCain Institute's Next Generation Leaders program, among many others. In addition to hosting classes and internships on-site, special lectures and seminars taught from the Barrett & O'Connor Washington Center are connected to classrooms in Arizona through video-conferencing technology.<ref>{{cite web |titleASU in Washington D.C. |urlhttps://washingtondc.asu.edu/facilities#asu-washington-center |websitewashingtondc.asu.edu |access-dateApril 18, 2019 |archive-dateApril 24, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190424082248/https://washingtondc.asu.edu/facilities#asu-washington-center |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Barrett and O'Connor center is located at 1800 I St NW, Washington, DC 20006, close to the White House.
ASU California
ASU operates its "California Center" in Los Angeles at the Herald Examiner Building.<ref>{{cite web| url https://california.asu.edu/| title ASU in California| access-date August 31, 2021| archive-date August 31, 2021| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210831001710/https://california.asu.edu/| url-status live}}</ref> The center offers undergraduate and graduate degree programs, executive education, workshops and seminars.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://test-california-locations.ws.asu.edu/about#los-angeles-herald-examiner-building|titleAbout &#124; ASU in California|access-dateAugust 31, 2021|archive-dateAugust 31, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210831001656/https://test-california-locations.ws.asu.edu/about#los-angeles-herald-examiner-building|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2022, ASU acquired a small nonprofit college, Columbia College Hollywood, and renamed it California College of ASU.<ref>{{Cite web |titleColumbia College Hollywood to become California College of ASU - The Arizona State Press |urlhttps://www.statepress.com/article/2023/03/asu-partners-columbia-college-hollywood |access-date2023-12-04 |websitewww.statepress.com |languageen-US}}</ref> In 2023, ASU reached an agreement with the for-profit Fashion Institute of Design and Merchandising to take over some of its academic programs, creating ASU FIDM.<ref>{{Cite web |date2023-04-15 |titleAfter years of cuts and financial turmoil, L.A.'s famed Fashion Institute finds a lifeline |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/california/story/2023-04-15/fidm-partners-with-arizona-state-university-in-merger |access-date2023-12-04 |websiteLos Angeles Times |languageen-US}}</ref>AcademicsAdmissions{{update|2017 data|dateApril 2022}}
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{| style"font-size:85%; text-align:center;" class"wikitable floatright"
|+Fall First-Year Statistics (Tempe Campus only)<ref name"CDS">{{cite web|titleFirst Time Freshman Profile|websiteArizona State University |urlhttps://facts.asu.edu/Pages/New%20Undergraduates/First-Time-Freshman-Profile.aspx|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateAugust 1, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170801235243/https://facts.asu.edu/Pages/New%20Undergraduates/First-Time-Freshman-Profile.aspx|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":3">{{cite web |urlhttps://uoia.asu.edu/ |titleInstitutional Analysis|websiteuoia.asu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateApril 1, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180401064819/https://uoia.asu.edu/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
!
!Fall 2019!! Fall 2018!! Fall 2017!! Fall 2016 !! Fall 2015
|-
! Applicants
|34,188
| 26,869|| 34,181 || 33,466 || 33,575
|-
! Admits
|29,562
| 22,779|| 28,096 || 27,111 || 27,452
|-
! % Admitted
|86.5
| 84.8 || 82.2 || 81.0 || 81.8
|-
! Enrolled
|10,044
| 8,861 || 10,278 || 10,415 || 10,391
|-
! Avg. HS GPA
|3.53
| 3.54 || 3.53 || 3.49 || 3.48
|}
{| style"font-size:85%; text-align:center;" class"wikitable floatright"
|+Fall First-Year Statistics (ASU Systemwide)<ref name"CDS 2021–2022" /><ref name"CDS 2020–2021">{{cite web |titleArizona State University 2016–2017 Common Data Set |urlhttps://uoia.asu.edu/sites/default/files/cds_2020-2021_tempe.pdf |access-dateDecember 21, 2022 |publisherArizona State University }}{{Dead link|dateJune 2023 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|-
!
!Fall 2021!! Fall 2020
|-
! Applicants
|61,603
| 53516
|-
! Admits
|54,329
| 47290
|-
! % Admitted
|88.2
| 88.3
|-
! Enrolled
|14,250
| 12,677
|-
! Avg. HS GPA
|3.54
| 3.52
|}
As of August 2022, ASU had a systemwide enrolled student population (both in-person and online) of 140,759, a 4% increase over the systemwide total in 2021.<ref nameStoneKTAR>{{cite news |last1Stone |first1Kevin |titleArizona State University opens school year with record number of students |urlhttps://ktar.com/story/5208910/arizona-state-university-opens-school-year-with-record-number-of-students/ |access-date19 March 2023 |workKTAR News |date22 August 2022}}</ref> Out of that total, approximately 79,000 students were enrolled in-person at one of the ASU campuses, an increase of 3.2% from 2021.<ref nameStoneKTAR /> Just over 61,000 students were enrolled in ASU Online courses and programs as of August 2022, an increase of roughly 7% in online student enrollment from the previous year.<ref nameStoneKTAR />
According to the U.S. News & World Report, for the 2022–2023 academic year ASU admitted 88% of all freshman applicants and classified the school's admissions in the “selective” category.<ref>{{cite web |titleArizona State University |urlhttps://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/arizona-state-university-1081 |websiteBest Colleges: USNews Rankings |publisherUS News and World Report |access-date20 December 2022}}</ref> The average high school GPA of incoming first-year students for the 2022–23 academic year was 3.54.<ref name"CDS 2021–2022">{{cite web |titleArizona State University 2021–2022 Common Data Set |urlhttps://uoia.asu.edu/sites/default/files/cds_2021-2022_campus_immersion.pdf |access-dateDecember 21, 2022 |publisherArizona State University |archive-dateDecember 26, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221226071539/https://uoia.asu.edu/sites/default/files/cds_2021-2022_campus_immersion.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Barrett, The Honors College is ranked among the top honors programs in the nation.<ref name"Barrett" /> Although there are no set minimum admissions criteria for Barrett College, the average GPA of Fall 2017 incoming freshmen was 3.78, with an average SAT score of 1380 and an average ACT score of 29.<ref name"Barrett">{{cite web|urlhttp://barretthonors.asu.edu/about/facts/|titleBarrett Facts and Figures|dateJune 12, 2015|publisherBarretthonors.asu.edu|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateAugust 2, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170802083053/https://barretthonors.asu.edu/about/facts/|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Honors college has 7,236 students, with 719 National Merit Scholars.<ref name="Barrett" /><!-- Currently live version doesn't have this information -->
ASU enrolls 10,268 international students, 14.3% of the total student population.<ref name"facts">{{cite web |titleFaculty Trends by Rank, ASU University Office of Institutional Analysis |urlhttps://www.asu.edu/facts#/facts/faculty/trends-rank |publisherArizona State University |access-dateNovember 22, 2022 |archive-dateJuly 14, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190714045912/https://www.asu.edu/facts/#/facts/faculty/trends-rank |url-statuslive }}</ref> The international student body represents more than 150 nations.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://students.asu.edu/international/future/undergrad|titleInternational freshman and transfer undergraduate admission|websiteasu.edu|access-dateAugust 1, 2017|archive-dateJuly 2, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702103118/https://students.asu.edu/international/future/undergrad|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Institute of International Education ranked ASU as the top public university in the U.S. for hosting international students in 2016–2017.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20171113-global-engagement-asu-top-us-public-university-international-students|titleASU is top public university in US for international students|websiteASU Now|dateNovember 13, 2017|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702204831/https://asunow.asu.edu/20171113-global-engagement-asu-top-us-public-university-international-students|url-status=live}}</ref>
In June 2022, Arizona State University was designated a Hispanic-serving institution (HSI) by the United States Department of Education in recognition of the fact that for the first time in the school's history, during the Fall Semester of 2021 Hispanic students comprised over 25% of the university's total undergraduate enrollment.<ref>{{cite news |last1Steinbach |first1Allison |last2Gonzalez |first2Daniel |titleASU joins other Arizona universities in reaching 'major milestone' for Latino students. Why it matters |urlhttps://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona-education/2022/06/21/asu-designated-hispanic-serving-institution-heres-why-matters/7585779001/ |access-dateDecember 19, 2022 |workThe Arizona Republic |dateJune 22, 2022}}</ref>Academic programs
{{Main|List of colleges and schools of Arizona State University}}
{| style"font-size:85%; text-align:center;" class"wikitable floatright"
|+Undergraduate and Graduate Enrollment<ref>{{cite web |titleEnrollment Trends by Campus of Major |urlhttps://www.asu.edu/facts/#/facts/enrollment/campus-major |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210803010933/https://www.asu.edu/facts/#/facts/enrollment/campus-major |archive-dateAugust 3, 2021 |access-dateNovember 22, 2022 |publisher=Arizona State University}}</ref>
|-
!
!Fall 2021!!Fall 2020 !! Fall 2019!! Fall 2018 !! Fall 2017!! Fall 2016 !! Fall 2015 !! Fall 2014 !! Fall 2013
|-
! Undergraduate
|107,425
| 103,609 || 96,726 || 89,888 || 83,544 || 79,442 || 74,139 || 67,498 || 62,082
|-
! Graduate
|28,304
| 25,179 || 23,225 || 21,361 || 19,986 || 18,704 || 17,183 || 15,762 || 14,646
|-
! Total campus-based enrollment
|77,881
| 74,795|| 75,698 || 73,875 || 72,947 || 72,362 || 71,305 || 69,511 || 66,770
|-
! Online
|53,933
| 53,993 || 44,253 || 37,374 || 30,583 || 25,784 || 20,017 || 13,749 || 9,958
|-
! Total including online enrollment
|135,729
| 128,788 || 119,951 || 111,249 || 103,530 || 98,146 || 91,322 || 83,260 || 76,728
|}
ASU offers over 350 majors to undergraduate students,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://students.asu.edu/programs|titleAcademic programs|dateDecember 2, 2014|websiteASU Students|access-dateJune 20, 2019|archive-dateJuly 22, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190722163127/https://students.asu.edu/programs|url-statuslive}}</ref> and more than 100 graduate programs leading to numerous masters and doctoral degrees in the liberal arts and sciences, design and arts, engineering, journalism, education, business, law, nursing, public policy, technology, and sustainability. These programs are divided into 16 colleges and schools that are spread across ASU's six campuses. ASU also offers the 4+1 accelerated program, which allows students in their senior year to attain their master's degree the following year.<ref>{{cite web|title Accelerated Programs (4 + 1)|url https://students.asu.edu/graduate/acceleratedprograms|website ASU Students Site|access-date January 23, 2016|archive-date September 6, 2015|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150906124446/https://students.asu.edu/graduate/acceleratedprograms|url-status live}}</ref> The 4+1 accelerated program is not associated with all majors; for example, in the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College the 4+1 accelerated program only works with Education Exploratory majors. ASU uses a plus-minus grading system with highest cumulative GPA awarded of 4.0 (at time of graduation). Arizona State University is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.hlcommission.org/component/directory/?Itemid&ActionShowBasic&instid1002 |titleStatement of Accreditation Status: Arizona State University |workHigher Learning Commission |access-dateDecember 26, 2017|archive-dateDecember 27, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227061936/https://www.hlcommission.org/component/directory/?Itemid&ActionShowBasic&instid1002|url-statuslive}}</ref> ASU is one of only four universities in the country to offer a certificate in veterans studies.<ref name"Arizona State University Certificate">{{cite web |urlhttps://degrees.apps.asu.edu/minors/major/ASU00/LAVSSCERT/veterans-society-and-service;jsessionid0D974E25F70BFA088A18C92DC22430A2# |websiteVeterans, Society and Service, Certificate |publisherArizona State University |access-date24 March 2023 |titleVeterans, Society and Service, Certificate}}</ref>Rankings
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{Infobox US university ranking
<!-- U.S. rankings -->| Forbes_NU = 109
| USNWR_NU = 121<small>(tie)</small>
| Wamo_NU = 33
| WSJ_NU = 72
<!-- Global rankings -->| QS_W = 200 <small>(tie)</small>
| THE_W = 182
| USNWR_W = 179 <small>(tie)</small>
}}
{{col-break}}
{| class"wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style"float:right" "text-align:center"
|-
! colspan4 style"{{CollegePrimaryStyle|Arizona State Sun Devils|colorwhite}}" |National Program Rankings<br /><small>(as of 2024)</small><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/arizona-state-university-104151/overall-rankings |titleArizona State University - Overall Rankings |dateApril 9, 2024 |websiteU.S. News & World Report |access-dateAugust 12, 2024 }}</ref>
|-
! Program
! Ranking
|-
| Audiology || 34 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Biological Sciences || 58 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Business || 32 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Chemistry || 51 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Clinical Psychology || 27 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Computer Science || 45 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Criminology || 2 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Earth Sciences || 14 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Economics || 38 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Education || 17 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Engineering || 45 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| English || 53 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Fine Arts || 15 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| History || 81 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Law || 36 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Mathematics || 55 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Nursing: Doctorate || 26 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Nursing: Master's || <small>Unranked</small>
|-
| Physics || 50 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Political Science || 54 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Psychology || 39 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Public Affairs || 13 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Social Work || 20 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Sociology || 70 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Speech–Language Pathology || 21 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Statistics || 49 <small>(tie)</small>
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class"wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style"float:right" "text-align:center"
|-
! colspan4 style"{{CollegePrimaryStyle|Arizona State Sun Devils|colorwhite}}" |Global Program Rankings<br /><small>(as of 2024)</small><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/arizona-state-university-tempe-104151 |titleArizona State University-Tempe in United States - US News Best Global Universities |dateJune 24, 2024 |websiteU.S. News & World Report |access-dateAugust 12, 2024 }}</ref>
|-
! Program
! Ranking
|-
| Arts & Humanities || 84
|-
| Biology & Biochemistry || 191 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology || 206 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Chemical Engineering || 192 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Chemistry || 214 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Civil Engineering || 156
|-
| Clinical Medicine || 504 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Computer Science || 127
|-
| Condensed Matter Physics || 216 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Ecology || 79
|-
| Economics & Business || 35 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Education & Educational Research || 24
|-
| Electrical & Electronic Engineering || 164
|-
| Energy & Fuels || 228 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Engineering || 134
|-
| Environmental Engineering || 127 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Environment/Ecology || 52
|-
| Geosciences || 98
|-
| Green & Sustainable Science & Technology || 159
|-
| Materials Science || 183
|-
| Mathematics || 423
|-
| Microbiology || 98 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Molecular Biology & Genetics || 277 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Nanoscience & Nanotechnology || 238
|-
| Neuroscience & Behavior || 438
|-
| Physical Chemistry || 205 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Physics || 348 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Plant & Animal Science || 246 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Psychiatry/Psychology || 105
|-
| Public, Environmental & Occupational Health || 238 <small>(tie)</small>
|-
| Social Sciences & Public Health || 53
|-
| Space Science || 91
|}
{{col-end}}
The 2025 U.S. News & World Report ratings ranked ASU tied for 121st among universities in the United States and tied for 179th globally.<ref name"USNews"/> It was also tied for 61st among public universities in the United States, and was ranked 1st among "most innovative schools", tied for 16th in "best undergraduate teaching", 131st in "best value schools", and tied for 191st in "top performers on social mobility" among national universities in the U.S.<ref name"USNews">{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/arizona-state-university-tempe-1081/overall-rankings|titleArizona State University|magazineU.S. News & World Report|access-dateOctober 14, 2020|archive-dateSeptember 26, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200926132103/https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/arizona-state-university-tempe-1081/overall-rankings|url-statuslive}}</ref> The innovation ranking, new for 2016, was determined by a poll of top college officials nationwide asking them to name institutions "that are making the most innovative improvements in terms of curriculum, faculty, students, campus life, technology or facilities."<ref name"USN-INNOV">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/innovative |title2018 Most Innovative Colleges|dateSeptember 11, 2017|websiteU.S. News & World Report|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170316165646/https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/innovative|archive-dateMarch 16, 2017|url-statusdead|access-dateSeptember 18, 2017}}</ref>
ASU is ranked 42nd–56th in the U.S. and 101st–150th in the world among the top 1000 universities in the 2020 Academic Ranking of World Universities,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2020.html|titleAcademic Ranking of World Universities 2020|websiteShanghaiRanking Consultancy|access-dateOctober 14, 2020|archive-dateAugust 15, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190815195442/http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2020.html|url-statusdead}}</ref> and 67th U.S./183rd world by the 2020–21 Center for World University Rankings.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://cwur.org/2020-21.php|titleWorld University Rankings 2020–21|publisherCenter for World University Rankings|access-dateOctober 14, 2020|archive-dateJune 8, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200608081107/https://cwur.org/2020-21.php|url-statuslive}}</ref> Money magazine ranked ASU 124th in the country out of 739 schools evaluated for its 2020 "Best Colleges for Your Money" edition.<ref>{{cite magazine |titleThe Best Colleges in America, Ranked by Value |urlhttp://money.com/money/best-colleges/ |magazineMoney |dateAugust 25, 2020 |access-dateOctober 14, 2020 |archive-dateNovember 2, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211102004658/https://money.com/best-colleges/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Wall Street Journal ranks ASU 5th in the nation for producing the best-qualified graduates, determined by a nationwide poll of corporate recruiters.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/wall-street-journal-ranks-asu-5th-recruiting-new-hires-graduate-pool|titleWall Street Journal ranks ASU 5th for recruiting new hires from graduate pool|lastLewis|firstBritt|websiteASU Now|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702204805/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/wall-street-journal-ranks-asu-5th-recruiting-new-hires-graduate-pool|url-status=live}}</ref>
ASU's Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication has been named one of America's top 10 journalism schools by national publications and organizations for more than a decade. The rankings include: College Magazine (10th), Quality Education and Jobs (6th), and International Student (1st).<ref>{{cite web|authorKelly Livingston|urlhttps://www.collegemagazine.com/cms-top-10-journalism-schools-2016/|titleCM's Top 10 Journalism Schools 2016|publisherCollege Magazine|dateJune 30, 2017|access-dateJuly 10, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702205012/https://www.collegemagazine.com/cms-top-10-journalism-schools-2016/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.qualityeducationandjobs.com/10-top-journalism-schools-in-the-us/ |titleBest Journalism Schools – 10 Top Journalism Schools in the US |publisherQualityeducationandjobs.com |dateNovember 21, 2013 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 6, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140706120338/http://www.qualityeducationandjobs.com/10-top-journalism-schools-in-the-us/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.internationalstudent.com/study-journalism/top-us-journalism-schools/ |titleTop US Journalism Schools &#124; Study Journalism in the US |publisherInternationalstudent.com |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateAugust 17, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140817131135/http://www.internationalstudent.com/study-journalism/top-us-journalism-schools/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
For its efforts as a national leader in campus sustainability, ASU was named one of the top 6 "Cool Schools" by the Sierra Club in 2017,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20170822-asu-news-sierra-magazine-ranks-asu-top-us-cool-school|titleSierra magazine ranks ASU as a top 'Cool School'|dateAugust 22, 2017|websiteASU Now|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702204716/https://asunow.asu.edu/20170822-asu-news-sierra-magazine-ranks-asu-top-us-cool-school|url-statuslive}}</ref> was named one of the Princeton Review's most sustainable schools in 2015<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-among-nations-most-sustainable-colleges|titleASU among nation's most sustainable colleges|lastDerra|firstSkip|dateApril 20, 2015|websiteASU Now|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702204634/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-among-nations-most-sustainable-colleges|url-statuslive}}</ref> and earned an "A−" grade on the 2011 College Sustainability Green Report Card.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.greenreportcard.org/report-card-2011/schools/arizona-state-university-tempe.html|titleArizona State University|publisherGreenreportcard.org|access-dateAugust 4, 2017|archive-dateOctober 29, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171029232034/http://www.greenreportcard.org/report-card-2011/schools/arizona-state-university-tempe.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>Research and InstitutesASU is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity".<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/lookup/view_institution.php?unit_id104151|titleCarnegie Classifications – Institution Profile|publisherIndiana University Center for Postsecondary Research|access-dateMarch 30, 2020|archive-dateFebruary 25, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225205136/https://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/lookup/view_institution.php?unit_id104151|url-statuslive}}</ref> The university spent $673&nbsp;million in fiscal year 2020, ranking it 43rd nationally.<ref>{{cite web |titleTable 20. Higher education R&D expenditures, ranked by FY 2018 R&D expenditures: FYs 2009–18 |urlhttps://ncsesdata.nsf.gov/profiles/site?methodrankingbysource&dsherd |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220405184205/https://ncsesdata.nsf.gov/profiles/site?methodrankingbysource&dsherd |archive-dateApril 5, 2022 |access-dateApril 5, 2022 |websitencsesdata.nsf.gov |publisherNational Science Foundation}}</ref><ref name"Facts and figures">{{cite web |titleFacts and figures |urlhttps://research.asu.edu/about-us/facts-figures |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220405184358/https://research.asu.edu/about-us/facts-figures |archive-dateApril 5, 2022 |access-dateApril 5, 2022 |websiteresearch.asu.edu}}</ref><ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite web |titleKE 2021 Highlights |urlhttps://research.asu.edu/about-us/year-in-review |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220405184819/https://research.asu.edu/about-us/year-in-review |archive-dateApril 5, 2022 |access-dateApril 5, 2022 |websiteresearch.asu.edu}}</ref> ASU is a NASA designated national space-grant institute and a member of the Universities Research Association. In 2023, it became a member of the Association of American Universities, an elite organization of 71 research universities in the U.S. and Canada.<ref>{{cite press release|urlhttps://www.aau.edu/newsroom/press-releases/six-leading-research-universities-join-association-american-universities |titleSix Leading Research Universities Join the Association of American Universities |publisherAssociation of American Universities |dateMay 31, 2023 |access-dateJune 1, 2023}}</ref> The university is currently in the top 10 for NASA-funded research expenditures.<ref name"Facts and figures" />
The university has raised more than $999&nbsp;million in external funding, and more than 180 companies based on ASU innovations have been launched through the university's exclusive intellectual property management company, Skysong Innovations.<ref name":1">{{cite web |titleSkysong Innovations |urlhttps://www.skysonginnovations.com/impact/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220405185248/https://www.skysonginnovations.com/impact/ |archive-dateApril 5, 2022 |access-dateApril 5, 2022 |websiteSkysong Innovations}}</ref> The U.S. National Academy of Inventors and the Intellectual Property Owners Association rank ASU in the top 10 nationally and No. 11 globally for U.S. patents awarded to universities in 2020, along with MIT, Stanford and Harvard.<ref>{{Cite web |titleRankings |urlhttps://www.asu.edu/rankings |access-date2022-04-05 |websiteArizona State University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastSarley |firstDerek |dateJune 18, 2021 |titleASU makes top 10 in U.S. patent rankings for 3rd straight year |workASU News |urlhttps://news.asu.edu/20210618-entrepreneurship-asu-makes-top-10-us-patent-rankings-3rd-straight-year |access-dateApril 5, 2022}}</ref> ASU jumped to 10th place from 17th in 2017, according to the U.S. National Academy of Inventors and the Intellectual Property Owners Association.<ref>{{cite news |last1Salcido |first1Nikai |titleASU jumps to top 10 in global patent rankings |urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20190604-entrepreneurship-asu-jumps-top-10-global-patent-ranking |access-dateJune 5, 2019 |agencyASU Now |dateJune 4, 2019 |archive-dateJune 11, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190611220342/https://asunow.asu.edu/20190604-entrepreneurship-asu-jumps-top-10-global-patent-ranking |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleTop 100 Worldwide Universities Granted U.S. Utility Patents 2018 |urlhttps://academyofinventors.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Top-100-Universities-2018.pdf |websiteNational Academy of Inventors |publisherNational Academy of Inventors, Intellectual Property Owners Association |access-dateJune 5, 2019 |archive-dateJune 5, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190605160458/https://academyofinventors.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Top-100-Universities-2018.pdf |url-statusdead}}</ref> Since its inception, Skysong Innovations has fostered the launch of more than 180 companies based on ASU innovations, and attracted more than $999 million in venture funding, including $96 million in fiscal year 2016 alone.<ref name":1" /> In 2013, the Sweden-based University Business Incubator (UBI) Index, named ASU as one of the top universities in the world for business incubation, ranking 17th. UBI reviewed 550 universities and associated business incubators from around the world using an assessment framework that takes more than 50 performance indicators into consideration.<ref name":5">{{cite web |urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-venture-catalyst-ranked-among-top-university-business-incubators|titleASU Venture Catalyst ranked among top university business incubators|websiteASU Now|dateJuly 17, 2013|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233349/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-venture-catalyst-ranked-among-top-university-business-incubators|url-statuslive}}</ref> As an example, one of ASU's spin-offs (Heliae Development, LLC) raised more than $28&nbsp;million in venture capital in 2013 alone.<ref name"asu10">{{cite web|urlhttps://sustainability.asu.edu/news/archive/asus-algae-production-company-heliae-set-to-expand-in-gilbert/|titleHeliae raises $28.4 million for Gilbert expansion|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233314/https://sustainability.asu.edu/news/archive/asus-algae-production-company-heliae-set-to-expand-in-gilbert/|url-statuslive}}</ref> In June 2016, ASU received the Entrepreneurial University Award from the Deshpande Foundation, a philanthropic organization that supports social entrepreneurship and innovation.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20160614-entrepreneurship-asu-entrepreneurial-university-award-deshpande-symposium|title7 reasons ASU is the 'Entrepreneurial University'|dateJune 15, 2016|access-dateAugust 9, 2016|archive-dateAugust 16, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160816180751/https://asunow.asu.edu/20160614-entrepreneurship-asu-entrepreneurial-university-award-deshpande-symposium|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The university's push to create various institutes has led to greater funding and an increase in the number of researchers in multiple fields. ASU Knowledge Enterprise (KE) advances research, innovation, strategic partnerships, entrepreneurship, economic development and international development.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://research.asu.edu/institutes-initiatives|titleInstitutes and initiatives|websiteResearch.asu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateDecember 1, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201100511/https://research.asu.edu/institutes-initiatives|url-statuslive}}</ref> KE is led by Sally C. Morton.<ref name"research.asu.edu">{{cite web |titleKnowledge Enterprise leadership |urlhttps://research.asu.edu/about-us/knowledge-enterprise-leadership |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220405190329/https://research.asu.edu/about-us/knowledge-enterprise-leadership |archive-dateApril 5, 2022 |access-dateApril 5, 2022 |websiteResearch.asu.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |dateNovember 16, 2021 |titleASU TRIF Three Year Plan |urlhttps://www.azregents.edu/sites/default/files/reports/asu_three_year_trif_plan.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.azregents.edu/sites/default/files/reports/asu_three_year_trif_plan.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-dateApril 5, 2022}}</ref> KE supports several interdisciplinary research institutes and initiatives.<ref>{{Cite web |titleInstitutes and initiatives {{!}} Knowledge Enterprise |urlhttps://research.asu.edu/institutes-initiatives |access-date2022-04-05 |websiteresearch.asu.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleMark Naufel {{!}} Knowledge Enterprise|urlhttps://research.asu.edu/about-us/research-leadership/mark-naufel|access-dateDecember 8, 2020|websiteresearch.asu.edu|archive-dateDecember 5, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201205184018/https://research.asu.edu/about-us/research-leadership/mark-naufel|url-statuslive}}</ref> Other notable and famed institutes at ASU are The Institute of Human Origins, L. William Seidman Research Institute (W. P. Carey School of Business), Learning Sciences Institute, Herberger Research Institute, and the Hispanic Research Center. The Biodesign Institute for instance, conducts research on issues such as biomedical and health care outcomes as part of a collaboration with Mayo Clinic to diagnose and treat diseases.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://biodesign.asu.edu/news/mayo-clinic-asu-collaborate-seed-and-accelerate-research|titleMayo Clinic, ASU collaborate to seed and accelerate research |publisherArizona State University|dateDecember 18, 2017|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233238/https://biodesign.asu.edu/news/mayo-clinic-asu-collaborate-seed-and-accelerate-research|url-statuslive}}</ref> The institute has attracted more than $760 million in external funding, filed 860 invention disclosures, nearly 200 patents, and generated 35 spinout companies based on its research.<ref>{{Cite web |titleImpact |urlhttps://biodesign.asu.edu/about/impact |access-date2022-04-05 |websiteBiodesign Institute {{!}} ASU}}</ref> In the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic, Biodesign developed a rapid, saliva-based testing option for the university community, and partnered with the Arizona Department of Health Services to make the saliva-based COVID test available to the public.<ref>{{Cite web |date2020-05-26 |titleASU develops state's first saliva-based COVID-19 test |urlhttps://news.asu.edu/20200526-discoveries-arizona-state-university-develops-saliva-based-covid-19-test |access-date2022-04-05 |websiteASU News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastBourque |firstScott |dateJuly 10, 2020 |titleASU, Arizona Department Of Health Services Announce COVID-19 Testing Partnership |workKJZZ |urlhttps://kjzz.org/content/1599851/asu-arizona-department-health-services-announce-covid-19-testing-partnership |access-dateApril 5, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2020-06-01 |titleASU Biodesign Creates Saliva Test For COVID-19 |urlhttps://kjzz.org/content/1587786/asu-biodesign-creates-saliva-test-covid-19 |access-date2022-04-05 |websiteKJZZ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2020-07-09 |titleADHS and ASU Announce Partnership to Increase COVID-19 Testing in Arizona |urlhttps://azgovernor.gov/governor/news/2020/07/adhs-and-asu-announce-partnership-increase-covid-19-testing-arizona |access-date2022-04-05 |websiteOffice of the Arizona Governor |archive-dateMarch 17, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220317213232/https://azgovernor.gov/governor/news/2020/07/adhs-and-asu-announce-partnership-increase-covid-19-testing-arizona |url-statusdead }}</ref> In October 2021, Biodesign announced their millionth test.<ref>{{Cite news |lastSpinner |firstClaire |dateOctober 7, 2021 |titleArizona State University administers its 1 millionth COVID-19 rapid saliva test |workArizona Republic |urlhttps://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona-health/2021/10/07/asu-administers-its-1-millionth-covid-19-rapid-saliva-test/6043331001/ |access-dateApril 5, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastCaballero |firstLuzdelia |dateOctober 8, 2021 |titleASU reaches milestone by completing 1 million COVID-19 tests |workABC 15 Arizona |urlhttps://www.abc15.com/news/region-southeast-valley/tempe/asu-reaches-milestone-by-completing-1-million-covid-19-tests |access-dateApril 5, 2022}}</ref> The institute also is heavily involved in sustainability research, primarily through reuse of CO<sub>2</sub> via biological feedback and various biomasses (e.g. algae) to synthesize clean biofuels. Heliae is a Biodesign Institute spin-off and much of its business centers on algal-derived, high value products.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-spinout-heliae-debuts-platform-large-scale-algae-production|titleASU spinout Heliae debuts platform for large-scale algae production|dateApril 26, 2013|publisherASU Now|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021842/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-spinout-heliae-debuts-platform-large-scale-algae-production|url-statuslive}}</ref> Furthermore, the institute is heavily involved in security research including technology that can detect biological and chemical changes in the air and water. The university has received more than $30&nbsp;million in funding from the Department of Defense for adapting this technology for use in detecting the presence of biological and chemical weapons.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://asunews.asu.edu/20120618_immunosignaturing |titleArizona State University secures defense contract &#124; ASU News |publisherAsunews.asu.edu |dateJune 18, 2012 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022145143/https://asunews.asu.edu/20120618_immunosignaturing |archive-dateOctober 22, 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Research conducted at the Biodesign Institute by ASU professor Charles Arntzen made possible the production of Ebola antibodies in specially modified tobacco plants that researchers at Mapp Biopharmaceutical used to create the Ebola therapeutic ZMapp. The treatment is credited with saving the lives of two aid workers. For his work, Arntzen was named the No. 1 honoree among Fast Company's annual "100 Most Creative People in Business" 2015 awards.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://biodesign.asu.edu/news/asu-professor-charles-arntzen-named-fast-company%27s-most-creative-person-business|titleASU professor Charles Arntzen named Fast Company's Most Creative Person in Business|dateMay 11, 2015|websiteArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018}} {{dead link|dateJune 2020 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes}}</ref>
World-renowned scholars have been integral to the successes of the institutes associated with the university. ASU students and researchers have been selected as Marshall, Truman, Rhodes, and Fulbright Scholars with the university ranking 1st overall in the U.S. for Fulbright Scholar awards to faculty and 5th overall for recipients of Fulbright U.S. Student awards in the 2015–2016 academic year.<ref name"chronicle">{{cite web|urlhttp://chronicle.com/article/Top-Producers-of-US/235384 |titleTop Producers of U.S. Fulbright Scholars and Students |dateFebruary 22, 2016 |publisherThe Chronicle of Higher Education |url-accesssubscription |access-dateJune 11, 2016|archive-dateJune 3, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160603164350/http://chronicle.com/article/Top-Producers-of-US/235384?cidrclink|url-statuslive}}</ref> ASU faculty includes Nobel Laureates, Royal Society members, National Academy members, and members of the National Institutes of Health, to name a few.<ref name"asu11">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.asu.edu/excellence/faculty/index.html|titleFaculty Excellence and Awards|websiteASU Office of the University Provost |access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateApril 5, 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140405051729/http://www.asu.edu/excellence/faculty/index.html|url-statusdead }}</ref> ASU Professor Donald Johanson, who discovered the 3.18&nbsp;million year old fossil hominid Lucy (Australopithecus) in Ethiopia, established the Institute of Human Origins (IHO) in 1981. The institute was first established in Berkeley, California, and later moved to ASU in 1997.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/institute-human-origins-celebrates-30-years-research-discovery |first1Julie |last1Russ |websiteASU Now|titleInstitute of Human Origins celebrates 30 years of research, discovery|dateMarch 11, 2011|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233236/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/institute-human-origins-celebrates-30-years-research-discovery|url-statuslive}}</ref> As one of the leading research organization in the United States devoted to the science of human origins, IHO pursues a transdisciplinary strategy for field and analytical paleoanthropological research.<ref name"asu12">{{cite web|urlhttp://iho.asu.edu/about|titleAbout |publisherArizona State University Institute of Human Origins |access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateMay 31, 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100531160529/http://iho.asu.edu/about|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Herberger Institute Research Center supports the scholarly inquiry, applied research and creative activity of more than 400 faculty and nearly 5,000 students.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://herbergerinstitute.asu.edu/research-and-initiatives|titleResearch and initiatives |websiteHerberger Institute for Design and the Arts |access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702234944/https://herbergerinstitute.asu.edu/research-and-initiatives|url-statuslive}}</ref> The renowned ASU Art Museum, Herberger Institute Community Programs, urban design, and other outreach and initiatives in the arts community round out the research and creative activities of the Herberger Institute. Among well known professors within the Herberger Institute is Johnny Saldaña of the School of Theatre and Film. Saldaña received the 1996 Distinguished Book Award and the prestigious Judith Kase Cooper Honorary Research Award, both from the American Alliance for Theatre Education (AATE).<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://steinhardt.nyu.edu/music/edtheatre/people/faculty/saldana |titleEducational Theatre Faculty: Johnny Saldana |publisherNYU Steinhardt |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140324190927/http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/music/edtheatre/people/faculty/saldana |archive-dateMarch 24, 2014 |url-statusdead}}</ref> The Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability is the center of ASU's initiatives focusing on practical solutions to environmental, economic, and social challenges. The institute has partnered with various cities, universities, and organizations from around the world to address issues affecting the global community.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://sustainability.asu.edu/about/about-the-institute.php |titleAbout the Institute |publisherGlobal Institute of Sustainability / Arizona State University |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJune 26, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140626073329/http://sustainability.asu.edu/about/about-the-institute.php |url-statusdead }}</ref>
ASU is also involved with NASA in the field of space exploration. To meet the needs of NASA programs, ASU built the LEED Gold Certified, 298,000-square-foot Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building IV (ISTB 4) at a cost of $110&nbsp;million in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asus-newest-research-building-achieves-leed-gold-certification|titleASU's newest research building achieves LEED Gold certification|publisherASU Now|dateFebruary 22, 2013|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233418/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asus-newest-research-building-achieves-leed-gold-certification|url-statuslive}}</ref> The building includes space for the School of Earth and Space Exploration (SESE) and includes labs and other facilities for the Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://asunews.asu.edu/20120919_ISTBIV_opening |titleASU's new science building will push boundaries of research, exploration &#124; ASU News |publisherAsunews.asu.edu |dateSeptember 19, 2012 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 22, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022145125/https://asunews.asu.edu/20120919_ISTBIV_opening |url-statuslive }}</ref> One of the main projects at ISTB 4 includes the OSIRIS-REx Thermal Emission Spectrometer (OTES).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://otes.asu.edu|titleOTES: OSIRIS-REx Thermal Emission Spectrometer|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021902/http://otes.asu.edu/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Although ASU built the spectrometers aboard the Martian rovers Spirit and Opportunity, OTES will be the first major scientific instrument completely designed and built at ASU for a NASA space mission.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://news.softpedia.com/news/ASU-to-Build-Spectrometer-for-OSIRIS-REx-202718.shtml |titleASU to Build Spectrometer for OSIRIS-REx |publisherNews.softpedia.com |dateMay 27, 2011 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateNovember 16, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141116001155/http://news.softpedia.com/news/ASU-to-Build-Spectrometer-for-OSIRIS-REx-202718.shtml |url-statuslive }}</ref> Phil Christensen, the principal investigator for the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES), is a Regents' Professor at ASU.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://themis.mars.asu.edu/christensen |titlePhillip Christensen &#124; Mars Odyssey Mission THEMIS |publisherThemis.mars.asu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 4, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140704222139/http://themis.mars.asu.edu/christensen |url-statuslive }}</ref> He also serves as the principal investigator for the Mars Odyssey THEMIS instruments, as well as co-investigator for the Mars Exploration Rovers. ASU scientists are responsible for the Mini-TES instruments aboard the Mars Exploration Rovers. The Buseck Center for Meteorite Studies, which is home to rare Martian meteorites and exotic fragments from space, and the Mars Space Flight Facility are on ASU's Tempe campus.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mars.asu.edu/|titleExplore Mars|access-dateJuly 8, 2014|archive-dateFebruary 3, 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150203190826/http://mars.asu.edu/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-acquires-exotic-piece-mars|titleASU acquires exotic piece of Mars|publisherASU Now|dateJanuary 17, 2012|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233156/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-acquires-exotic-piece-mars|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2017, Lindy Elkins-Tanton of ASU was selected by NASA to lead a deep space mission to Psyche, a metal asteroid believed to be a former planetary core. The $450 million project is the first NASA mission led by the university.<ref>{{cite news |last1Valentine |first1Karin |titleASU to lead deep-space NASA mission for 1st time |urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20170104-discoveries-asu-lead-nasa-space-exploration-mission-1st-time |access-dateJune 4, 2019 |agencyASU Now |publisherArizona State University |dateJanuary 4, 2017 |archive-dateJune 4, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190604212330/https://asunow.asu.edu/20170104-discoveries-asu-lead-nasa-space-exploration-mission-1st-time |url-status=live }}</ref>
The Army Research Laboratory extended funding for the Arizona State University Flexible Display Center (FDC) in 2009 with a $50&nbsp;million grant.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/army-continues-flexible-display-center-support|titleArmy continues Flexible Display Center support|publisherASU Now|dateJanuary 29, 2009|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateDecember 16, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191216112751/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/army-continues-flexible-display-center-support|url-statuslive}}</ref> The university has partnered with the Pentagon on such endeavors since 2004 with an initial $43.7&nbsp;million grant. In 2012, researchers at the center created the world's largest flexible full-color organic light-emitting diode (OLED), which at the time was 7.4 inches. The following year, the FEDC staff broke their own world record, producing a 14.7-inch version of the display.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20160815-solutions-flexible-future-todays-technologies-asu|titleASU works on a flexible future for today's technologies|websiteASU Now|dateAugust 15, 2016|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021807/https://asunow.asu.edu/20160815-solutions-flexible-future-todays-technologies-asu|url-statuslive}}</ref> The technology delivers high-performance while remaining cost-effective during the manufacturing process. Vibrant colors, high switching speeds for video and reduced power consumption are some of the features the center has integrated into the technology. In 2012, ASU eliminated the need for specialized equipment and processing, thereby reducing costs compared to competitive approaches.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://asunews.asu.edu/20120531_flexdisplay_oled |titleASU center produces largest flexible color organic light emitting display &#124; ASU News |publisherAsunews.asu.edu |dateMay 31, 2012 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateFebruary 27, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150227164223/https://asunews.asu.edu/20120531_flexdisplay_oled |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Luminosity Lab
The Luminosity Lab is a student-led research and development think tank located on the Tempe campus of ASU. It was founded in 2016 by Dr. Mark Naufel.<ref name":10">{{cite web |lastDecember 2020|firstEllen Ullman 07|titleThink Tank Drives Practical Innovation and Collaboration|urlhttps://www.techlearning.com/news/think-tank-drives-practical-innovation-and-collaboration|access-dateApril 26, 2021 |websiteTechLearningMagazine|dateDecember 7, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210426171524/https://www.techlearning.com/news/think-tank-drives-practical-innovation-and-collaboration|archive-dateApril 26, 2021|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|lastNaufel|firstMark|dateMarch 15, 2020|titleThe Luminosity Lab—An Interdisciplinary Model of Discovery and Innovation for the 21st Century |urlhttps://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/nai/ti/2020/00000021/00000002/art00003;jsessionid4u19p5h7dhj5e.x-ic-live-02|journalTechnology & Innovation|volume21|issue2|pages115–121|doi10.21300/21.2.2020.115 |s2cid216217672 |access-dateJune 10, 2021|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220226130217/https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/nai/ti/2020/00000021/00000002/art00003;jsessionid4u19p5h7dhj5e.x-ic-live-02 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Fifteen students from multiple disciplines were selected for the initial team.<ref name":10" />LibrariesASU's faculty and students are served by nine libraries across five campuses: Hayden Library, Noble Library, Music Library and Design and the Arts Library on the Tempe campus; Fletcher Library on the West campus; Downtown Phoenix campus library and Ross-Blakley Law Library at the Downtown Phoenix campus; Polytechnic campus library; and the Thunderbird Library at the Thunderbird campus.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://lib.asu.edu |titleASU Libraries |websiteLib.asu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 14, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714051744/https://lib.asu.edu/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
{{as of|2013}}, ASU's libraries held 4.5&nbsp;million volumes.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20170821-solutions-asu-library-archives-paradise-for-books|titlePolytechnic archive a paradise for books|publisherASU Now|dateAugust 21, 2017|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233327/https://asunow.asu.edu/20170821-solutions-asu-library-archives-paradise-for-books|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Arizona State University library system is ranked the 34th largest research library in the United States and Canada, according to criteria established by the Association of Research Libraries that measures various aspects of quality and size of the collection.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://librarytechnology.org/library/25|titleArizona State University Libraries – Arizona State University|websiteLibrary Technology Guides|access-dateJanuary 28, 2022|archive-dateNovember 9, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211109232900/https://librarytechnology.org/library/25|url-statuslive}}</ref> The university continues to grow its special collections, such as the recent addition of a privately held collection of manuscripts by poet Rubén Darío.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-libraries-acquires-rare-manuscripts-nicaraguan-poet-rubén-dar%C3%ADo|titleASU Libraries acquires rare manuscripts of Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío|publisherASU Now|dateNovember 1, 2012|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJanuary 12, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210112083106/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-libraries-acquires-rare-manuscripts-nicaraguan-poet-rub%C3%A9n-dar%C3%ADo|url-status=live}}</ref>
Hayden Library is on Cady Mall in the center of the Tempe campus and is currently under renovation. It opened in 1966 and is the largest library facility at ASU.<ref name="lib.asu.edu"/> An expansion in 1989 created the subterranean entrance underneath Hayden Lawn and is attached to the above-ground portion of the original library. There are two floors underneath Hayden Lawn with a landmark known as the "Beacon of Knowledge" rising from the center. The underground library lights the beacon at night.
The 2013 Capital Improvement Plan, approved by the Arizona Board of Regents, incorporates a $35&nbsp;million repurposing and renovation project for Hayden Library.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://azbex.com/az-regents-ok-375m-in-capital-projects-through-2016/ |titleAZ Regents OK $375M in Capital Projects Through 2016 &#124; Arizona Builders Exchange |publisherAzbex.com |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateMarch 24, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140324185134/http://azbex.com/az-regents-ok-375m-in-capital-projects-through-2016/ |url-statusdead}}</ref> The open air moat area that serves as an outdoor study space will be enclosed to increase indoor space for the library. Along with increasing space and renovating the facility, the front entrance of Hayden Library was rebuilt.Sustainability{{as of|2014|March}}, ASU was the top institution of higher education in the United States for solar generating capacity.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-named-no-1-producer-solar-power-among-campuses-nationwide|titleASU named No. 1 producer of solar power among campuses nationwide|lastGreguska|firstEmma|websiteASU Now|dateApril 22, 2015|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233457/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/asu-named-no-1-producer-solar-power-among-campuses-nationwide|url-statuslive}}</ref> Today, the university generates over 24 megawatts (MW) of electricity from on-campus solar arrays.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://tours.asu.edu/sustainability/solar-initiatives|titleSolar Initiatives|websiteASU|dateMay 10, 2016|access-dateAugust 21, 2017|archive-dateAugust 22, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170822013536/https://tours.asu.edu/sustainability/solar-initiatives|url-statuslive}}</ref> This is an increase over the June 2012 total of 15.3 MW.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://asunews.asu.edu/20110906_ASU10MWSolar |titleSun Devils soak up solar power &#124; ASU News |publisherAsunews.asu.edu |dateSeptember 6, 2011 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 22, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022145211/https://asunews.asu.edu/20110906_ASU10MWSolar |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://cfo.asu.edu/solar-faq |titleSolar: FAQs &#124; Business and Finance |publisherCfo.asu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateSeptember 5, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140905002140/https://cfo.asu.edu/solar-faq |url-statuslive }}</ref> ASU has 88 solar photovoltaic (PV) installations containing 81,424 solar panels across four campuses and the ASU Research Park.<ref name":6">{{cite web|urlhttp://asusolar.asu.edu/|titleASU Solar|websiteASU Business & Finance|access-dateAugust 21, 2017|archive-dateMarch 24, 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120324204431/http://asusolar.asu.edu/|url-statuslive}}</ref> An additional 29 MWdc solar installation was dedicated at Red Rock, Pinal County, Arizona, in January 2017, bringing the university's solar generating capacity to 50 MWdc.<ref name=":6" />
Additionally, six wind turbines installed on the roof of the Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability building on the Tempe campus have operated since October 2008. Under normal conditions, the six turbines produce enough electricity to power approximately 36 computers.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://sustainability.asu.edu/news/gios-news/wind-turbines |titleInstitute News / Global Institute of Sustainability / Arizona State University |publisherSustainability.asu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateMarch 24, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140324185019/http://sustainability.asu.edu/news/gios-news/wind-turbines |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2021, ASU researchers installed a passive radiative cooling film to local Tempe bus shelters to cool temperatures during the daytime by radiating heat to space with zero energy use. The film was produced by 3M and cooled shelter temperatures by 4&nbsp;°C. It was one of the first applications of the cooling film in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |date4 August 2021 |titleASU testing new material to make Tempe bus stops cooler |workABC 15 |urlhttps://www.abc15.com/weather/impact-earth/asu-testing-new-material-to-make-tempe-bus-stops-cooler}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastJohnson |firstBrooks |date12 March 2022 |titleCan a 3M film help climate-proof our buildings? |workStar Tribune |urlhttps://www.startribune.com/can-a-new-3m-technology-help-climate-proof-our-buildings/600155409/}}</ref>
ASU's School of Sustainability was the first school in the United States to introduce degrees in the field of sustainability. ASU's School of Sustainability is part of the Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://schoolofsustainability.asu.edu/about/school-of-sustainability.php|titleSchool of Sustainability|access-dateApril 10, 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130511221729/http://schoolofsustainability.asu.edu/about/school-of-sustainability.php|archive-dateMay 11, 2013|url-statusdead}}</ref> The School was established in spring 2007 and began enrolling undergraduates in fall 2008. The school offers majors, minors, and a number of certificates in sustainability. ASU is also home to the Sustainability Consortium, which was founded by Jay Golden in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sustainabilityconsortium.org/ |titleThe Sustainability Consortium |publisherThe Sustainability Consortium |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 2, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140702074558/http://www.sustainabilityconsortium.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
The School of Sustainability has been essential in establishing the university as "a leader in the academics of sustainable business".<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2013/08/16/asu-sustainable-procurement-isnt-just-academic-exercise|titleAt ASU, sustainable procurement isn't just an academic exercise|lastClancy|firstHeather|dateAugust 16, 2013|websiteGreenBiz|access-dateAugust 21, 2017|archive-dateAugust 13, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170813231758/https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2013/08/16/asu-sustainable-procurement-isnt-just-academic-exercise|url-statuslive}}</ref> The university is widely considered to be one of the most ambitious and principled organizations for embedding sustainable practices into its operating model.<ref name"greenbiz1">{{cite web|lastClancy|firstHeather|urlhttp://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2013/08/16/asu-sustainable-procurement-isnt-just-academic-exercise|titleAt ASU, sustainable procurement isn't just an academic exercise|publisherGreenBiz.com|dateAugust 16, 2013|access-dateJuly 8, 2014|archive-dateSeptember 10, 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140910082245/http://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2013/08/16/asu-sustainable-procurement-isnt-just-academic-exercise|url-statuslive}}</ref> The university has embraced several challenging sustainability goals.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://sustainability.asu.edu/campus/|titleASU Campus is a living laboratory for sustainability innovation|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233344/https://sustainability.asu.edu/campus/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Among the numerous benchmarks outlined in the university's prospectus, is the creation of a large recycling and composting operation that will eliminate 30% and divert 90% of waste from landfills.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://cfo.asu.edu/zerowaste|titleASU CFO: Zero Waste|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 17, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180717221040/https://cfo.asu.edu/zerowaste|url-statuslive}}</ref> This endeavor will be aided by educating students about the benefits of avoiding overconsumption that contributes to excessive waste. Sustainability courses have been expanded to attain this goal and many of the university's individual colleges and schools have integrated such material into their lectures and courses.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://asunews.asu.edu/20110825_AASHEGoldASUSustainabilityAchievements |titleASU's sustainability achievements rated GOLD &#124; ASU News |publisherAsunews.asu.edu |dateAugust 25, 2011 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 22, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022145237/https://asunews.asu.edu/20110825_AASHEGoldASUSustainabilityAchievements |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |dateJuly 29, 2011 |titleArizona State University &#124; Scorecard &#124; Institutions &#124; AASHE STARS |urlhttps://stars.aashe.org/institutions/arizona-state-university-az/report/2011-07-29/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131020201941/https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/arizona-state-university-az/report/2011-07-29/ |archive-dateOctober 20, 2013 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |websiteAASHE |publisher}}</ref> Second, ASU is on track to reduce its rate of water consumption by 50%. The university's most aggressive benchmark is to be the first, large research university to achieve carbon neutrality as it pertains to its Scope 1, 2 and non-transportation Scope 3 greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.<ref name="greenbiz1"/>
ASU's College of Integrative Sciences and Arts (CISA) offers degrees and certifications focused on sustainable horticulture, natural resource ecology, indoor farming, desert food production and wildlife management, through its College of Applied Sciences and Arts at ASU's Polytechnic campus. CISA's Burrowing Owl Conservation Project at the Polytechnic campus was noted as one of the distinctive features of ASU in The Sierra Club magazine's ranking of ASU as the top "cool school" for sustainability in 2021.
CISA faculty at the Polytechnic campus in disciplines such as applied biological sciences, and technical communication and user experience, are involved in research and community outreach to promote sustainable use of resources and preservation of species and habitat. [https://news.asu.edu/20200407-solutions-growing-welcome-vertical-farming Vertical farming], indoor farming and water conservation efforts are just a few of the sustainability initiatives being driven by CISA faculty.
Traditions
Maroon and gold
Gold is the oldest color associated with Arizona State University and dates back to 1896 when the school was named the Tempe Normal School.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://alumni.asu.edu/remember/traditions |titleSun Devil Traditions &#124; ASU Alumni Association |publisherAlumni.asu.edu |dateApril 26, 2014 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateAugust 23, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140823002520/https://alumni.asu.edu/remember/traditions |url-statusdead }}</ref> Maroon and white were later added to the color scheme in 1898. Gold signifies the "golden promise" of ASU. The promise includes every student receiving a valuable educational experience. Gold also signifies the sunshine Arizona is famous for; including the power of the sun and its influence on the climate and the economy. The first uniforms worn by athletes associated with the university were black and white when the "Normals" were the name of the athletic teams. The student section, known as The Inferno, wears gold on game days.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://eoss.asu.edu/getinvolved/traditions|titleASU Dean of Students: Traditions|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233454/https://eoss.asu.edu/getinvolved/traditions|url-statuslive}}</ref> Maroon signifies sacrifice and bravery while white represents the balance of negativity and positivity. As it is in the city of Tempe, Arizona, the school's colors adorn the neighboring buildings during big game days and festive events.<ref>"Emotional and Psychological Meaning of Colours." MyLifeMyStuff. N.p., April 26, 2012. Web. January 21, 2016.</ref>Mascot and Spirit Squad
{{Main|Sparky the Sun Devil}}
Sparky the Sun Devil is the mascot of Arizona State University and was named by vote of the student body on November 8, 1946.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://thesundevils.com/sports/2013/4/17/208256866.aspx|titleSparky|publisherThe Sun Devils|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233204/https://thesundevils.com/sports/2013/4/17/208256866.aspx|url-statuslive}}</ref> Sparky often travels with the team across the country and has been at every football bowl game in which the university has participated. The university's mascot is not to be confused with the athletics department's logo, the Pitchfork or hand gesture used by those associated with the university. The new logo is used on various sport facilities, uniforms and athletics documents.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://arizona.sbnation.com/arizona-st-sun-devils/2011/4/12/2106994/arizona-state-university-asu-sun-devils-to-unveil-new-uniforms-colors-logo-etc |titleASU's Uniforms And Logos Set To Make Debut: Consider The Fork, Feared – SB Nation Arizona |dateApril 12, 2011 |publisherArizona.sbnation.com |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 13, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141013152705/http://arizona.sbnation.com/arizona-st-sun-devils/2011/4/12/2106994/arizona-state-university-asu-sun-devils-to-unveil-new-uniforms-colors-logo-etc |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/arizona-state-university-and-nike-unveil-new-look-sun-devils-sparky-gets-demoted-6632432|titleArizona State University and Nike Unveil New-Look Sun Devils; Sparky Gets Demoted|lastHendley|firstMatthew|dateApril 12, 2011|websitePhoenix New Times|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233242/http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/arizona-state-university-and-nike-unveil-new-look-sun-devils-sparky-gets-demoted-6632432|url-statuslive}}</ref> Arizona State Teacher's College had a different mascot and the sports teams were known as the Owls and later, the Bulldogs. When the school was first established, the Tempe Normal School's teams were simply known as the Normals.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pdf/33Aathlet.pdf|titleNormals to Bulldogs to Sun Devils: ASU's mascot has evolved along with university|publisherArizona State University|dateApril 20, 1987|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|url-statuslive|archive-dateApril 11, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190411214054/https://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pdf/33Aathlet.pdf}}</ref> Sparky is visible on the sidelines of every home game played in Sun Devil Stadium or other ASU athletic facilities. His routine at football games includes pushups after every touchdown scored by the Sun Devils. He is aided by Sparky's Crew, male yell leaders that must meet physical requirements to participate as members. The female members are known as the Spirit Squad and are categorized into a dance line and spirit line. They are the official squad that represents ASU. The spirit squad competes every year at the ESPN Universal Dance Association (UDA) College Nationals in the Jazz and Hip-Hop categories. They were chosen by the UDA to represent the US at the World Dance Championship 2013 in the Jazz category.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://sundevilband.asu.edu/bands/sun-devil-marching-band/spirit-squad|titleAthletic Bands: Spirit Squad|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233457/https://sundevilband.asu.edu/bands/sun-devil-marching-band/spirit-squad|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref>
"A" Mountain
{{Main|Tempe Butte}}
{{multiple image |total_width400 |directionhorizontal |align=right
|image1A-Mountain Sunset.jpg|caption1Hayden Butte, also known as "A" Mountain
|image2Whitewashing "A" Mountain, Tempe Butte on Arizona State University Campus.jpg|caption2Annual tradition of Whitewashing "A" Mountain
}}
A letter has existed on the slope of the mountain since 1918. A "T" followed by an "N" were the first letters to grace the landmark. Tempe Butte, home to "A" Mountain, has had the "A" installed on the slope of its south face since 1938 and is visible from campus just to the south. The original "A" was destroyed by vandals in 1952 with pipe bombs and a new "A", constructed of reinforced concrete, was built in 1955.<ref name"a">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.asu.edu/tour/tempe/amtn.html |titleASU Tempe Campus Tour: "A" Mountain |publisherAsu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJanuary 22, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140122054928/http://www.asu.edu/tour/tempe/amtn.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> The vandals were never identified but many speculate the conspirators were students from the rival in-state university (University of Arizona). Many ancient Hohokam petroglyphs were destroyed by the bomb; nevertheless, many of these archeological sites around the mountain remain. There are many traditions surrounding "A" Mountain, including a revived "guarding of the 'A'" in which students camp on the mountainside before games with rival schools.<ref name"a" /> "Whitewashing" of the "A" is a tradition in which incoming freshmen paint the letter white during orientation week and is repainted gold before the first football game of the season.<ref>{{cite web |titleWhitewash the "A" &#124; ASU Alumni Association |urlhttp://alumni.asu.edu/groups/students/saa/events/whitewash |publisherAlumni.asu.edu |dateApril 26, 2014 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateMay 14, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130514180801/http://alumni.asu.edu/groups/students/saa/events/whitewash |url-statusdead }}</ref> Whitewashing dates back to the 1930s and it grows in popularity every year, with thousands of students going up to paint the "A" every year.<ref>{{cite web|titleCarelessness, painting of the 'A', vandalism take a toll on mountain|urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/community/tempe/articles/20110820tempe-hayden-butte-a-mountain-toll.html|websiteazcentral.com|access-dateFebruary 2, 2016|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022|archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20220226073949/https://help.azcentral.com/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Lantern Walk and Homecoming
The Lantern Walk is one of the oldest traditions at ASU and dates back to 1917.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://homecoming.asu.edu/lantern-walk|titleLantern Walk|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233506/https://homecoming.asu.edu/lantern-walk|url-statuslive}}</ref> It is considered one of ASU's "most cherished" traditions and is an occasion used to mark the work of those associated with ASU throughout history. Anyone associated with ASU is free to participate in the event, including students, alumni, faculty, employees, and friends. This differs slightly from the original tradition in which the seniors would carry lanterns up "A" Mountain followed by the freshman. The senior class president would describe ASU's traditions and the freshman would repeat an oath of allegiance to the university. It was described as a tradition of "good will between the classes" and a way of ensuring new students would continue the university's traditions with honor. In modern times, the participants walk through campus and follow a path up to "A" Mountain to "light up" Tempe. Keynote speakers, performances, and other events are used to mark the occasion. The night is culminated with a fireworks display. The Lantern Walk was held after the Spring Semester (June) but is now held the week before Homecoming, a tradition that dates to 1924 at ASU. It is held in the fall and in conjunction with a football game.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://homecoming.asu.edu/ |titleASU homecoming &#124; ASU Homecoming |publisherHomecoming.asu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140708221311/http://homecoming.asu.edu/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Victory Bell
In 2012, Arizona State University reintroduced the tradition of ringing a bell after each win for the football team.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://asunews.asu.edu/20121119_victorybell |titleSun Devil Athletics brings back Victory Bell in return to tradition &#124; ASU News |publisherAsunews.asu.edu |dateNovember 19, 2012 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |url-statuslive |archive-dateFebruary 22, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140222045035/https://asunews.asu.edu/20121119_victorybell}}</ref> The ROTC cadets associated with the university transport the bell to various events and ring it after Sun Devil victories. The first Victory Bell, in various forms, was used in the 1930s but the tradition faded in the 1970s when the bell was removed from Memorial Union for renovations.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pages/30casc.htm |titleASU Libraries: The New ASU Story: Campus Lives – Campus Scenes |publisherAsu.edu |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130514151316/http://www.asu.edu/lib/archives/asustory/pages/30casc.htm |archive-dateMay 14, 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The bell cracked and was no longer capable of ringing. That bell is on the southeast corner of Sun Devil Stadium, near the entrance to the student section. That bell, given to the university in the late 1960s, is painted gold and is a campus landmark.Sun Devil Marching Band, Devil Walk and songs of the university
{{Main|Sun Devil Marching Band}}
Battery, performing the pregame drum cadence in 2007]]
The Arizona State University Sun Devil Marching Band, created in 1915 and known as the "Pride of the Southwest", was the first of only two marching bands in the Pac-12 to receive the prestigious Sudler Trophy.<ref name"history">{{cite web|urlhttps://sundevilband.asu.edu/history|titleSun Devil Marching Band: History|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021939/https://sundevilband.asu.edu/history|url-statuslive}}</ref> The John Philip Sousa Foundation awarded the band the trophy in 1991. The Sun Devil Marching Band remains one of only 28 bands in the nation to have earned the designation. The band performs at every football game played in Sun Devil Stadium. In addition, the Sun Devil Marching Band has made appearances in the Fiesta Bowl, the Rose Bowl, the Holiday Bowl, and the Super Bowl XLII, in addition to many others.<ref name"history" /> Smaller ensembles of band members perform at other sport venues including basketball games at Wells Fargo Arena and baseball games. The Devil Walk is held in Wells Fargo Arena by the football team and involves a more formal introduction of the players to the community; a new approach to the tradition added in 2012 with the arrival of head coach Todd Graham.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://thesundevils.com/news/2013/4/17/208257004.aspx|titleArizona State University Official Athletic Site – Gameday|publisherArizona State University|dateApril 17, 2013|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021904/https://thesundevils.com/news/2013/4/17/208257004.aspx|url-statuslive}}</ref> It begins 2 hours and 15 minutes prior to the game and allows the players to establish rapport with the fans. The walk ends as the team passes the band and fans lined along the path to Sun Devil Stadium. The walk was discontinued when Graham was fired. However, in 2022, interim coach Shaun Aguano announced that the Sun Devil Walk is returning.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/2022/09/23/asu-football-pleads-support-fanbase-against-utah/ | titleASU football pleads for support from fanbase vs. No. 13 Utah | dateSeptember 23, 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleaguanos on Twitter |urlhttps://twitter.com/aguanos/status/1573143296687443972 |access-date2022-10-11 |websiteTwitter |languageen}}</ref> The most recognizable songs played by the band are "Alma Mater" and ASU's fight songs titled "Maroon and Gold" and the "Al Davis Fight Song". "Alma Mater" was composed by former Music Professor and Director of Sun Devil Marching Band (then known as Bulldog Marching Band), Miles A. Dresskell, in 1937.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://alumni.asu.edu/remember/traditions-arizona-state-university/songs |titleSongs &#124; ASU Alumni Association |publisherAlumni.asu.edu |dateApril 26, 2014 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateAugust 31, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140831152831/https://alumni.asu.edu/remember/traditions-arizona-state-university/songs |url-statusdead }}</ref> "Maroon and Gold" was authored by former Director of Sun Devil Marching Band, Felix E. McKernan, in 1948. The "Al Davis Fight Song" (also known as "Go, Go Sun Devils" and "Arizona State University Fight Song") was composed by ASU alumnus Albert Oliver Davis in the 1940s without any lyrics. Recently lyrics were added to the song.<ref name"history" />
Curtain of Distraction
The Curtain of Distraction is a tradition that appears at every men's and women's basketball game. The tradition started in 2013 in order to get fans to the games. In the second half of basketball games, a portable "curtain" opens up in front of the opponents shooting a free throw and students pop out of the curtain to try and distract the opponent. Some of the skits include an Elvis impersonator, people rubbing mayonnaise on their chest, and people wearing unicorn heads.<ref name"autogenerated2">{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.espn.com/mens-college-basketball/story/_/page/fansectionfeaturearizonastate/arizona-state-curtain-distraction |titleInside student sections: Arizona State and the Curtain of Distraction |dateFebruary 11, 2019 |workESPN.com |access-dateFebruary 23, 2022 |archive-dateFebruary 23, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220223045526/https://www.espn.com/mens-college-basketball/story/_/page/fansectionfeaturearizonastate/arizona-state-curtain-distraction |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2016, former Olympian Michael Phelps came out of the curtain wearing a Speedo during a game against Oregon State.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2016/01/28/michael-phelps-to-make-guest-appearance-in-college-basketballs-nuttiest-tradition/ |titleMichael Phelps went full Speedo for Arizona State's 'Curtain of Distraction' |newspaperThe Washington Post |date2016-01-29 |accessdate2022-02-26 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160308111333/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2016/01/28/michael-phelps-to-make-guest-appearance-in-college-basketballs-nuttiest-tradition/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> ESPN estimated that distraction may give ASU a one-to-three point advantage.<ref name"autogenerated2"/>
Student life
{| class="wikitable floatright sortable collapsible"; text-align:right; font-size:80%;"
|+ style="font-size:90%" |Undergraduate demographics as of Fall 2020
|-
! Race and ethnicity<ref>{{cite web |titleCollege Scorecard: Arizona State University|urlhttps://collegescorecard.ed.gov/school/?104151-Arizona-State-University-Campus-Immersion |publisherUnited States Department of Education |access-dateMay 8, 2022}}</ref>
! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber |Total
|-
| White
|align=right| {{bartable|45|%|2||background:gray}}
|-
| Hispanic
|align=right| {{bartable|26|%|2||background:green}}
|-
| Asian
|align=right| {{bartable|9|%|2||background:purple}}
|-
| Other{{efn|Other consists of Multiracial Americans & those who prefer to not say.}}
|align=right| {{bartable|8|%|2||background:brown}}
|-
| Foreign national
|align=right| {{bartable|7|%|2||background:orange}}
|-
| Black
|align=right| {{bartable|4|%|2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
| Native American
|align=right| {{bartable|1|%|2||background:gold}}
|-
! colspan"4" data-sort-typenumber |Economic diversity
|-
| Low-income{{efn|The percentage of students who received an income-based federal Pell grant intended for low-income students.}}
|align=right| {{bartable|31|%|2||background:red}}
|-
| Affluent{{efn|The percentage of students who are a part of the American middle class at the bare minimum.}}
|align=right| {{bartable|69|%|2||background:black}}
|}
Extracurricular programs
{{See also|List of Arizona State University fraternities and sororities}}
Arizona State University has an active extracurricular involvement program.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://eoss.asu.edu/clubs|titleStudent Organizations|publisherAsu.edu|access-dateAugust 3, 2017|archive-dateAugust 27, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170827103124/https://eoss.asu.edu/clubs|url-statuslive}}</ref> Located on the second floor of the Student Pavilion at the Tempe campus,<ref name"asu13">{{cite web|urlhttps://cfo.asu.edu/student-pavilion|titleStudent Pavilion|publisherASU|access-dateAugust 3, 2017|archive-dateJune 19, 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200619023311/https://cfo.asu.edu/student-pavilion|url-statuslive}}</ref> Educational Outreach and Student Services (EOSS) provides opportunities for student involvement through clubs, sororities, fraternities, community service, leadership, student government, and co-curricular programming.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://eoss.asu.edu/student_involvement|titleGet Involved at ASU|publisherAsu.edu|access-dateAugust 3, 2017|archive-dateJuly 2, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702090207/https://eoss.asu.edu/student_involvement|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The oldest student organization on campus is Devils' Advocates, the volunteer campus tour guide organization, which was founded in 1966 as a way to more competitively recruit National Merit Scholars. There are over 1,100 ASU alumni who can call themselves Advos.<ref>{{cite web|dateApril 18, 2017|titleDevils' Advocates: 50 years of walking the Sun Devil walk|urlhttps://news.asu.edu/20170418-sun-devil-life-devils-advocates-50-years-walking-sun-devil-walk |access-dateMarch 7, 2021|websiteASU News |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210615185140/https://news.asu.edu/20170418-sun-devil-life-devils-advocates-50-years-walking-sun-devil-walk|archive-dateJune 15, 2021|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Changemaker Central is a student-run centralized resource hub for student involvement in social entrepreneurship, civic engagement, service-learning, and community service that catalyzes student-driven social change. Changemaker Central locations have opened on all campuses in fall 2011, providing flexible, creative workspaces for everyone in the ASU community. The project is entirely student run and advances ASU's institutional commitments to social embeddedness and entrepreneurship. The space allows students to meet, work and join new networks and collaborative enterprises while taking advantage of ASU's many resources and opportunities for engagement. Changemaker Central has signature programs, including Changemaker Challenge, that support students in their journey to become changemakers by creating communities of support around new solutions/ideas and increasing access to early stage seed funding.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://changemaker.asu.edu/ |titleChangemaker Central @ ASU |publisherArizona State University |access-dateJuly 2, 2018 |url-statuslive |archive-dateJuly 3, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140703010458/http://changemaker.asu.edu/}}</ref> The Changemaker Challenge seeks undergraduate and graduate students from across the university who are dedicated to making a difference in our local and global communities through innovation. Students can win up to $10,000 to make their innovative project, prototype, venture or community partnership ideas happen.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://eoss.asu.edu/changemaker-challenge |titleChangemaker Challenge|publisherASU|access-dateAugust 3, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170804014645/https://eoss.asu.edu/changemaker-challenge|archive-dateAugust 4, 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>
In addition to Changemaker Central, the Greek community (Greek Life) at Arizona State University has been important in binding students to the university, and providing social outlets. ASU is also home to one of the nation's first and fastest growing gay fraternities, Sigma Phi Beta, founded in 2003;<ref name"statepress">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.statepress.com/2010/11/15/asu-gay-fraternity-expands-to-indiana-university/|titleASU gay fraternity expands to Indiana University &#124; ASU News &#124; The State Press &#124; Arizona State University|publisherstatepress.com|access-dateMay 31, 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140221150629/http://www.statepress.com/2010/11/15/asu-gay-fraternity-expands-to-indiana-university/|archive-dateFebruary 21, 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> considered a sign of the growing university's commitment to supporting diversity and inclusion.
The second Eta chapter of Phrateres, a non-exclusive, non-profit social-service club, was installed here in 1958 and became inactive in the 1990s.
There are multiple councils for Greek Life, including the Interfraternity Council (IFC), Multicultural Greek Council (MGC), National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations (NALFO), National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC), Panhellenic Association (PHA), and the Professional Fraternity Council (PFC).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://eoss.asu.edu/fsl/contact_us/council|titleChapter and Council President Contact List|websiteASU|access-dateAugust 3, 2017|archive-dateAugust 4, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170804013645/https://eoss.asu.edu/fsl/contact_us/council|url-statuslive}}</ref>Student media
The State Press is the university's independent, student-operated news publication. The State Press covers news and events on all four ASU campuses. Student editors and managers are solely responsible for the content of the State Press website. These publications are overseen by an independent board and guided by a professional adviser employed by the university.
The Downtown Devil is a student-run news publication website for the Downtown Phoenix Campus, produced by students at the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://downtowndevil.com/ |titleDowntown Phoenix News |publisherDowntown Devil |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateAugust 27, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140827140002/http://downtowndevil.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
ASU has one student-run radio station, Blaze Radio. Blaze Radio is a completely student-run broadcast station owned and funded by the Cronkite School of Journalism. The station broadcasts using a 24-hour online stream on their official website. Blaze Radio plays music 24 hours a day and features daily student-hosted news, music, and sports specialty programs.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://cronkite.asu.edu/real-world-experiences/student-media/kasc-the-blaze|titleBlaze Radio: College Radio at ASU/Cronkite|publisherBlazeradioonline.com|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180702233507/https://cronkite.asu.edu/real-world-experiences/student-media/kasc-the-blaze|url-statusdead}}</ref>Student governmentAssociated Students of Arizona State University (ASASU) is the student government at Arizona State University.<ref>{{cite web|url https://eoss.asu.edu/studentgov|title Student Government|access-date January 27, 2016|archive-date February 2, 2016|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160202201852/https://eoss.asu.edu/studentgov|url-status = live}}</ref> It is composed of the Undergraduate Student Government and the Graduate & Professional Student Association (GPSA). Each ASU campus has a specific USG; USG Tempe (Tempe), USGD (Downtown), USG Polytechnic (Polytechnic) and USG West (West). Members and officers of ASASU are elected annually by the student body.
The Residence Hall Association (RHA) of Arizona State University is the student government for every ASU student living on-campus. Each ASU campus has an RHA that operates independently. RHA's purpose is to improve the quality of residence hall life and provide a cohesive voice for the residents by addressing the concerns of the on-campus populations to university administrators and other campus organizations; providing cultural, diversity, educational, and social programming; establishing and working with individual community councils.<ref>{{cite web|url https://www.asurha.com/|title ASU Residence Hall Association|access-date May 19, 2020|archive-date May 17, 2020|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200517205749/https://www.asurha.com/|url-status live}}</ref>
Athletics
{{Main|Arizona State Sun Devils}}
Arizona State University's Division I athletic teams are called the Sun Devils, which is also the nickname used to refer to students and alumni of the university. They compete in the Big 12 Conference in 20 varsity sports. Historically, the university has highly performed in men's, women's, and mixed archery; men's, women's, and mixed badminton; women's golf; women's swimming and diving; baseball; and football. Arizona State University's NCAA Division I-A program competes in 9 varsity sports for men and 11 for women. ASU's athletic director is Ray Anderson,<ref>{{cite web|titleNFL's Ray Anderson named ASU athletic director|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/nfls-ray-anderson-named-asu-athletic-director|websiteASU Now: Access, Excellence, Impact|dateJanuary 9, 2014|access-dateNovember 3, 2015|archive-dateFebruary 1, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160201104141/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/nfls-ray-anderson-named-asu-athletic-director|url-statuslive}}</ref> former executive vice president of football operations for the National Football League. Anderson replaced Steve Patterson, who was appointed to the position in 2012, replacing Lisa Love, the former Senior Associate Athletic Director at the University of Southern California.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/patterson-named-vice-president-university-athletics|titlePatterson named vice president for university athletics|publisherASU Now|dateMarch 28, 2012|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021942/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/patterson-named-vice-president-university-athletics|url-statuslive}}</ref> Love was responsible for the hiring of coaches Herb Sendek, the men's basketball coach, and Dennis Erickson, the men's football coach.<ref>[http://www.thesundevils.com/genrel/love_lisa00.html] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130603120910/http://www.thesundevils.com/genrel/love_lisa00.html|dateJune 3, 2013}}</ref> Erickson was fired in 2011 and replaced by Todd Graham.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/7291074/arizona-state-sun-devils-fire-dennis-erickson |titleArizona State Sun Devils fire Dennis Erickson – ESPN |publisherEspn.go.com |dateNovember 28, 2011 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 21, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131021112443/http://espn.go.com/college-football/story/_/id/7291074/arizona-state-sun-devils-fire-dennis-erickson |url-statuslive }}</ref> In December 2017, ASU announced that Herm Edwards would replace Graham as the head football coach.<ref>{{cite web|titleThe Sun Devils: Herm Edwards|urlhttps://thesundevils.com/staff.aspx?staff3582|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703050446/https://thesundevils.com/staff.aspx?staff3582|url-statuslive}}</ref> The rival to Arizona State University is University of Arizona.
, ASU Basketball]]
ASU has won 24 national collegiate team championships in the following sports: baseball (5), men's golf (2), women's golf (8), men's gymnastics (1), softball (2), men's indoor track (1), women's indoor track (2), men's outdoor track (1), women's outdoor track (1), and wrestling (1).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.asu.edu/about/athletics-honors-and-awards|titleAthletics honors and awards|websiteArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021931/https://www.asu.edu/about/athletics-honors-and-awards|url-status=live}}</ref>
In September 2009, criticism over the seven-figure salaries earned by various coaches at Arizona's public universities (including ASU) prompted the Arizona Board of Regents to re-evaluate the salary and benefit policy for athletic staff.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/sports/ua/articles/2009/09/20/20090920athleticsalaries0919-CP.html|titleASU, UA coaching salaries reviewed|websiteAzcentral.com|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022|archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20220226073949/https://help.azcentral.com/|url-statuslive}}</ref> With the 2011 expansion of the Pac-12 Conference, a new $3&nbsp;billion contract for revenue sharing among all the schools in the conference was established.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/sports/la-xpm-2011-may-04-la-sp-pac-12-tv-20110505-story.html|workLos Angeles Times|firstDiane|lastPucin|titleNew Pac-12 TV deal shows the value of sports|dateMay 4, 2011|access-dateDecember 3, 2012|archive-dateDecember 17, 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121217203716/http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/04/sports/la-sp-pac-12-tv-20110505|url-statuslive}}</ref> With the infusion of funds, the salary issue and various athletic department budgeting issues at ASU were addressed. The Pac-12's new media contract with ESPN allowed ASU to hire a new coach in 2012. A new salary and bonus package (maximum bonus of $2.05&nbsp;million) was instituted and is one of the most lucrative in the conference.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/college/football/pac12/story/2012-08-07/conference-football-coaches-salaries/56924120/1|workUSA Today|titlePac-12 schools give football coaches raises – USATODAY.com|dateAugust 10, 2012|access-dateDecember 3, 2012|archive-dateJuly 10, 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130710020734/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/college/football/pac12/story/2012-08-07/conference-football-coaches-salaries/56924120/1|url-statuslive}}</ref> ASU also plans to expand its athletic facilities with a public-private investment strategy to create an amateur sports district that can accommodate the Pan American Games and operate as an Olympic Training Center.<ref>{{cite web |lastHee |firstMichelle Ye |urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/news/articles/2011/11/03/20111103asu-step-closer-sports-mecca.html |titleASU a step closer to sports mecca |publisherAzcentral.com |dateNovember 3, 2011 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20220226073949/https://help.azcentral.com/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> The athletic district will include a $300&nbsp;million renovation of Sun Devil Stadium that will include new football facilities.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.abc15.com/news/region-southeast-valley/tempe/asu-transforming-sun-devil-stadium-into-community-center|titleASU transforming Sun Devil Stadium into community center|publisherABC 15|dateNovember 20, 2017|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703050451/https://www.abc15.com/news/region-southeast-valley/tempe/asu-transforming-sun-devil-stadium-into-community-center|url-statuslive}}</ref> The press box and football offices in Sun Devil Stadium were remodeled in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |lastHaller |firstDoug |urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/sports/asu/articles/2012/08/16/20120816renovations-reflect-arizona-state-football-history.html |titleRenovations reflect Arizona State football history |publisherAzcentral.com |dateAugust 16, 2012 |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateFebruary 26, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20220226073949/https://help.azcentral.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Arizona State Sun Devils football was founded in 1896 under coach Fred Irish.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://static.thesundevils.com/old_site/pdf/m-footbl/08-asu-footbl-mg-heritage.pdf |titleHeritage: Sun Devil Legends |websiteThe Sun Devils |access-dateJuly 2, 2018 |archive-dateJuly 31, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180731093138/https://static.thesundevils.com/old_site/pdf/m-footbl/08-asu-footbl-mg-heritage.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref> The team has played in the 2012 Fight Hunger Bowl, the 2011 Las Vegas bowl, the 2016 Cactus Bowl, and the 2007 Holiday Bowl.<ref>{{cite web|titleCactus Bowl: West Virginia Mountaineers vs. Arizona State Sun Devils|urlhttps://www.espn.com/blog/ncfnation/post/_/id/121418/cactus-bowl|websiteESPN.com|dateDecember 7, 2015|access-dateJanuary 31, 2016|archive-dateJanuary 19, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160119192113/http://espn.go.com/blog/ncfnation/post/_/id/121418/cactus-bowl|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Sun Devils played in the 1997 Rose Bowl and won the Rose Bowl in 1987. The team has appeared in the Fiesta Bowl in 1983, 1977, 1975, 1973, 1972, and 1971 winning 5 of 6. In 1970, and 1975, they were champions of the NCAA Division I FBS National Football Championship. The Sun Devils were Pac-12 Champions in 1986, 1996, and 2007. Altogether, the football team has 17 Conference Championships and has participated in a total of 29 bowl games as of the 2015–2016 season with a 14–14–1 record in those games.<ref>{{cite web |titleArizona State Sun Devils |urlhttps://www.sports-reference.com/cfb/schools/arizona-state/ |websiteCollege Football at Sports-Reference.com |access-dateJuly 2, 2018 |archive-dateJuly 3, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703050434/https://www.sports-reference.com/cfb/schools/arizona-state/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
ASU Sun Devils Hockey competed with NCAA Division 1 schools for the first time in 2012, largely due to the success of the program.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.houseofsparky.com/2012/11/30/3708654/asu-hockey-penn-state-preview |titleASU Hockey vs. Penn State: Series Preview for the Sun Devils |dateNovember 30, 2012 |publisherHouse of Sparky |access-dateJuly 8, 2014 |archive-dateMarch 24, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140324185210/http://www.houseofsparky.com/2012/11/30/3708654/asu-hockey-penn-state-preview |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2016, they began as a full-time Division I team.
Eight members of ASU's Women's Swimming and Diving Team were selected to the Pac-10 All-Academic Team on April 5, 2010. In addition, five member of ASU's Men's Swimming and Diving Team were selected to the Pac-10 All-Academic Team on April 6, 2010.<ref>{{cite web|titleArizona State University Official Athletic Site – Swimming & Diving|urlhttps://thesundevils.com/sports/2013/4/17/208246067.aspx|websiteTheSunDevils.com|access-dateJanuary 29, 2016|archive-dateAugust 3, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160803193000/http://www.thesundevils.com/sports/2013/4/17/208246067.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>
In April 2015, Bobby Hurley was hired as the men's basketball coach, replacing Herb Sendek. Previously, Hurley was the head coach at the University at Buffalo for the UB Bulls as well as an assistant coach at Rhode Island and Wagner University.<ref>{{cite news|last1DiCesare|first1Bob|titleUB's Hurley heads West, takes Arizona State job|urlhttps://buffalonews.com/2015/04/09/ubs-hurley-heads-west-takes-arizona-state-job/|access-dateJanuary 17, 2017|agencyThe Buffalo News|dateApril 9, 2015|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170118051743/https://buffalonews.com/2015/04/09/ubs-hurley-heads-west-takes-arizona-state-job/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2015, Bob Bowman was hired as the head swim coach. Previously, Bowman trained Michael Phelps through his Olympic career.<ref>{{cite web|titlePhelps looks to life outside the pool at ASU|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/20160209-sun-devil-life-phelps-looks-life-outside-pool-asu|websiteASU Now|dateFebruary 9, 2016|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021939/https://asunow.asu.edu/20160209-sun-devil-life-phelps-looks-life-outside-pool-asu|url-statuslive}}</ref>
As of Fall 2015, ASU students, including those enrolled in online courses, may avail of a free ticket to all ASU athletic events upon presentation of a valid student ID and reserving one online through their ASU and Ticketmaster account.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://gpsa.asu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/2014-08-IA-Report.pdf|titleAugust 2014 Executive Report|websiteGpsa.asu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateMay 10, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170510104540/http://gpsa.asu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/2014-08-IA-Report.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref> Tickets may be limited or not available in the 2020–2021 and 2021–2022 school years due to the COVID-19 Pandemic.Alumni
{{Main|List of Arizona State University alumni}}
Arizona State University has produced more than 600,000 alumni worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |dateJuly 12, 2023 |titleASU Alumni Association named largest metro Phoenix networking association |urlhttps://news.asu.edu/20230712-asu-alumni-association-named-largest-metro-phoenix-networking-association |access-dateAugust 23, 2023 |publisherArizona State University}}</ref> The Arizona State University Alumni Association is on the Tempe campus in Old Main.Political figures
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The university has produced many notable figures over its 125-year history, including influential U.S. senator Carl Hayden. Barbara Barrett, who served as U.S. Ambassador to Finland under President George W. Bush and served under President Donald Trump as the Secretary of the U.S. Air Force, attained her bachelor's, master's, and law degrees from ASU.
Other notable alumni include nine current or former U.S. Representatives, including Barry Goldwater Jr., Ed Pastor, and Matt Salmon. Arizona governors Doug Ducey and Jane Dee Hull attended ASU. Peterson Zah, who was the first Navajo president and the last chairman of the Navajo Nation, is also an alumnus of ASU.
Business leaders
Ira A. Fulton, philanthropist and founder of Fulton Homes and Kate Spade, namesake and cofounder of Kate Spade New York, attended ASU. Alumnus Kevin Warren is the COO of the Minnesota Vikings, and the highest ranking African-American executive working on the business side of an NFL team.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.twincities.com/2017/02/04/vikings-kevin-warren-honored-at-super-bowl-seeks-to-help-diversity-candidates/|titleVikings' Kevin Warren honored at Super Bowl, seeks to help diversity candidates |workTwin Cities|dateFebruary 5, 2017|access-dateFebruary 13, 2017|archive-dateFebruary 14, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170214004447/http://www.twincities.com/2017/02/04/vikings-kevin-warren-honored-at-super-bowl-seeks-to-help-diversity-candidates/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Athletes
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Many world renowned athletes have attended the school, including Silver Star recipient Pat Tillman, who left his National Football League career to enlist in the United States Army in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. World Golf Hall of Fame member Phil Mickelson, Baseball Hall of Fame member Reggie Jackson, Major League Baseball home run king Barry Bonds, National Basketball Association All-Star James Harden, and 2011 NFL Defensive Player of the Year Terrell Suggs are all alumni of ASU. ASU alumni enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame include: Curley Culp, Mike Haynes, John Henry Johnson, Randall McDaniel, and Charley Taylor.
Other notable athletes that attended ASU are: Major League Baseball All-Stars Ian Kinsler, Dustin Pedroia, Sal Bando, and Paul Lo Duca; National Basketball Association All-Stars Lionel Hollins and Fat Lever, and NBA All-Star coach Byron Scott; National Football League Pro Bowl selections Jake Plummer and Danny White; 2021 U.S. Open champion golfer Jon Rahm and three-time Olympic gold medalist swimmers Melissa Belote and Jan Henne, and two-time Olympian and double-Olympic gold medalist Megan Jendrick.
Actors, artists, comedians, commentators, and writers
Celebrities who have attended ASU include: Jimmy Kimmel Live! host Jimmy Kimmel; Steve Allen, who was the original host of The Tonight Show; Academy Award-nominated actor Nick Nolte; 11-Time Grammy Award winning singer Linda Ronstadt; Saturday Night Live and Tommy Boy actor David Spade; Wonder Woman actress Lynda Carter; and Road to Perdition actor Tyler Hoechlin. Influential writers and novelists include: Allison DuBois, whose novels and work inspired the TV miniseries Medium; novelist Amanda Brown; and best-selling author and Doctor of Animal Science Temple Grandin.
Journalists and commentators include former Monday Night Football announcer, and Sunday Night Football announcer Al Michaels, and writer and cartoonist Jerry Dumas, who is best known for his Sam and Silo comic strip. Radio host Michael Reagan, the son of President Ronald Reagan and actress Jane Wyman, also briefly attended. Conservative author, commentator, and popular historian Larry Schweikart, known nationally for writing the New York Times bestseller ''A Patriot's History of the United States'', attended ASU for his bachelor's and master's degrees.
Faculty
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ASU faculty have included former CNN host Aaron Brown, Academic Claude Olney, meta-analysis developer Gene V. Glass, feminist and author Gloria Feldt, physicist Paul Davies, and Pulitzer Prize winner and The Ants coauthor Bert Hölldobler. David Kilcullen, a counterinsurgency theorist, is a professor of practice. Donald Johanson, who discovered the 3.18&nbsp;million year old fossil hominid Lucy (Australopithecus) in Ethiopia, is also a professor, as well as George Poste, Chief Scientist for the Complex Adaptive Systems Initiative.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://casi.asu.edu/home|titleWelcome – Complex Adaptive Systems Initiative|websiteCasi.asu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateJune 10, 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120610093559/http://casi.asu.edu/home|url-statusdead}}</ref> Former US senator Jeff Flake was appointed as a distinguished dean fellow on December 2, 2020.<ref>{{cite web |titleFormer US Sen. Jeff Flake appointed distinguished dean fellow in The College |urlhttps://news.asu.edu/20201202-former-us-sen-jeff-flake-appointed-distinguished-dean-fellow-college |publisherArizona State University |dateDecember 2, 2020 |access-dateJanuary 19, 2022 |archive-dateFebruary 22, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210222133458/https://news.asu.edu/20201202-former-us-sen-jeff-flake-appointed-distinguished-dean-fellow-college |url-statuslive }}</ref> Nobel laureate faculty include Leland Hartwell,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://asunews.asu.edu/20090908_hartwell|titleNobel Prize winner Hartwell to lead major ASU health initiative|dateSeptember 4, 2009|websiteAsunews.asu.edu|access-dateDecember 11, 2017|archive-dateApril 11, 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150411055327/https://asunews.asu.edu/20090908_hartwell|url-statuslive}}</ref> and Edward C. Prescott.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://wpcarey.asu.edu/people/profile/667634|titleFaculty: Edward Prescott|publisherArizona State University|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021958/https://wpcarey.asu.edu/people/profile/667634|url-statuslive}}</ref> On June 12, 2012, Elinor Ostrom, ASU's third Nobel laureate, died at the age of 78.
ASU faculty's achievements {{as of|2020|lcy}} include:<ref name"asu11"/>{{better source needed|reasonself sourced exceptoinal claims|dateOctober 2021}}
* 5 Nobel laureates
* 3 members of the Royal Society
* 24 National Academy members
* 7 Pulitzer Prize winners
* 5 Sloan Research Fellows
* 37 Guggenheim Fellows
* 250 Fulbright American Scholars
* 5 MacArthur Fellow
* 23 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
* 9 members of the National Academy of Engineering
* 143 National Endowment for the Humanities fellows
* 65 American Association for the Advancement of Science Fellows
* 2 members of the Institute of Medicine
* 8 Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers
* 8 American Council of Learned Societies Fellows
* 34 IEEE Fellows
* 19 Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation Prize Winners
* 1 Recipient of the Rockefeller Fellowship
Presidential visits
Arizona State University has been visited by nine United States presidents. President Theodore Roosevelt was the first president to visit campus, speaking on the steps of Old Main on March 20, 1911, while in Arizona to dedicate the Roosevelt Dam.<ref name"repository.asu.edu">{{cite web|urlhttps://repository.asu.edu/attachments/194426/content/Presidents%20at%20ASU.pdf|titleU.S. Presidential Visits to Arizona State University|websiteRepository.asu.edu|access-dateJuly 2, 2018|archive-dateJuly 3, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180703021932/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/194426/content/Presidents%20at%20ASU.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref> President Lyndon B. Johnson spoke at ASU's Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium on January 29, 1972, at a memorial service for ASU alumnus Senator Carl T. Hayden.<ref name"repository.asu.edu"/> Future president Gerald R. Ford debated Senator Albert Gore, Sr. at Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium on April 28, 1968, and Ford returned to the same building as a former president to give a lecture on February 24, 1984.<ref name"repository.asu.edu"/> President Jimmy Carter visited Arizona PBS at ASU's Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication on July 31, 2015, to promote a memoir.<ref name"asu2">{{cite web|urlhttps://asunow.asu.edu/content/jimmy-carter-visits-asu-discuss-presidency-new-memoir|titleJimmy Carter visits ASU to discuss presidency, new memoir &#124; ASU Now: Access, Excellence, Impact|dateAugust 2015|publisherasunow.asu.edu|access-dateJune 11, 2016|archive-dateAugust 3, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160803084939/https://asunow.asu.edu/content/jimmy-carter-visits-asu-discuss-presidency-new-memoir|url-statuslive}}</ref> Future president Ronald Reagan gave a political speech at the school's Memorial Union in 1957, and returned to campus as a former president on March 20, 1989, delivering his first ever post-presidential speech at ASU's Wells Fargo Arena.<ref name"repository.asu.edu"/> President George H. W. Bush gave a lecture at Wells Fargo Arena on May 5, 1998.<ref name="repository.asu.edu"/>
President Bill Clinton became the first sitting president to visit ASU on October 31, 1996, speaking on the Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium lawn. He returned to ASU in 2006, and in 2014, President Clinton, Hillary Clinton, and Chelsea Clinton came to campus to host the Clinton Global Initiative University.<ref name"repository.asu.edu"/> President George W. Bush became the second sitting president to visit the school's campus when he debated Senator John Kerry at the university's Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium on October 13, 2004.<ref name"prnewswire">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/arizona-state-university-to-host-presidential-debate-in-2004-72901472.html|titleArizona State University to Host Presidential Debate in 2004|publisherprnewswire.com|access-dateJune 11, 2016|archive-dateMarch 4, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304082146/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/arizona-state-university-to-host-presidential-debate-in-2004-72901472.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> President Barack Obama visited ASU as sitting president on May 13, 2009. President Obama delivered the commencement speech for the Spring 2009 Commencement Ceremony.<ref>{{cite web|titleObama challenges ASU grads in Wed. commencement speech |urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2009/05/13/20090513commence-obama.html|websitewww.azcentral.com|access-dateJanuary 6, 2016}}</ref> President Obama had previously visited the school as a United States senator.<ref name"repository.asu.edu"/> President Richard Nixon did not visit ASU as president, but visited Phoenix as president on October 31, 1970, at an event that included a performance by the Arizona State University Band, which President Nixon acknowledged. As part of President Nixon's remarks, he stated that, "when I am in Arizona, Arizona State is number one."<ref name"ucsb">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid2797|titleRichard Nixon: Remarks at Phoenix, Arizona.|publisherpresidency.ucsb.edu|access-dateJune 11, 2016|archive-dateMay 13, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160513093934/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid2797|url-statuslive}}</ref>
See also
* {{Portal-inline|Arizona}}
* KAET (channel 8), a PBS member station owned by Arizona State University.
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{Commons category|Arizona State University}}
* {{Official website}}
* {{College-navigator|104151|Arizona State University (Tempe)}}
* {{College-navigator|448886|Arizona State University (Downtown Phoenix)}}
* {{College-navigator|420574|Arizona State University (Polytechnic)}}
* {{College-navigator|483124|Arizona State University (Skysong)}}
* {{College-navigator|407009|Arizona State University (West)}}
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1862
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April 14
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*43 BC &ndash; Legions loyal to the Roman Senate, commanded by Gaius Pansa, defeat the forces of Mark Antony in the Battle of Forum Gallorum.{{sfn|Cicero|loc=Phil. XIV, 37}}
*69 &ndash; Vitellius, commanding Rhine-based armies, defeats Roman emperor Otho in the First Battle of Bedriacum to take power over Rome.<ref>{{cite book|authorE. T. Salmon|titleA History of the Roman World: From 30 BC to AD 138|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbQ6AAAAAQBAJ&pgPA204|date21 August 2013|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-134-96341-6|pages=204}}</ref>
* 966 &ndash; Following his marriage to the Christian Doubravka of Bohemia, the pagan ruler of the Polans, Mieszko&nbsp;I, converts to Christianity, an event considered to be the founding of the Polish state.<ref>{{cite book|author1Radio Free Europe|author2Radio Free Europe. Research and Analysis Department|titleThe Pope in Poland|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFQ1pAAAAIAAJ|year1979|publisherRadio Free Europe Research|page97}}</ref>
* 972 &ndash; Otto II, Co-Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, marries Byzantine princess Theophanu. She is crowned empress by Pope John XIII in Rome the same day.<ref>{{cite book|lastLeyser|firstKarl|titleCommunications and Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottoman Centuries|editor-lastReuter|editor-firstTimothy|locationLondon|publisherHambledon Press|date1994|isbn9781852850135|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idefy4NAcXOSkC|page156}}</ref>
*1395 &ndash; Tokhtamysh–Timur war: At the Battle of the Terek River, Timur defeats the army of the Golden Horde, beginning the khanate's permanent military decline.<ref>{{cite book|lastBuell|firstPaul D.|titleHistorical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire|locationLanham, Md.|publisherRowman & Littlefield|date2018|isbn9781538111369|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY38YAwAAQBAJ|page265}}</ref>
*1471 &ndash; In England, the Yorkists under Edward IV defeat the Lancastrians under the Earl of Warwick at the Battle of Barnet; the Earl is killed and Edward resumes the throne.<ref>{{cite book|authorWilliam Seymour|titleBattles in Britain and Their Political Background: 1066-1547|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6HdOAQAAIAAJ|year1975|publisherHippocrene Books|isbn978-0-88254-370-3|page5}}</ref>
*1561 &ndash; A celestial phenomenon is reported over Nuremberg, described as an aerial battle.<ref>{{cite web|author1Frank Johnson|titleNuremburg 1561 UFO "Battle" Debunked|urlhttp://ancientaliensdebunked.com/nuremburg-ufo-battle-debunked/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121214172708/http://ancientaliensdebunked.com/nuremburg-ufo-battle-debunked/|url-statusdead|archive-dateDecember 14, 2012|websiteAncient Aliens Debunked|access-date26 January 2017|dateDecember 12, 2012}}</ref>1601–1900*1639 &ndash; Thirty Years' War: Forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Electorate of Saxony are defeated by the Swedes at the Battle of Chemnitz, ending the military effectiveness of the Saxon army for the rest of the war and allowing the Swedes to advance into Bohemia.<ref>{{cite book|lastWatts|firstTim J.|chapterChemnitz, Battle of (April 14, 1639)|titleGermany at War: 400 years of Military History|editor-lastZabecki|editor-firstDavid T.|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABC-CLIO|date2014|isbn9781598849806|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrCWMBQAAQBAJ|page252}}</ref>
*1775 &ndash; The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage, the first abolition society in North America, is organized in Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin and Benjamin Rush.<ref>{{cite book|lastSinha|firstManisha|titleThe Slave's Cause: A History of Abolition|locationNew Haven|publisherYale University Press|date2017|isbn9780300227116|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2Bh8CwAAQBAJ|page72}}</ref>
*1793 &ndash; The French troops led by Léger-Félicité Sonthonax defeat the slaves settlers in the Siege of Port-au-Prince.<ref>{{Cite book|lastSchœlcher|firstVictor|author-linkVictor Schœlcher|titleVie de Toussaint Louverture|publisherÉditions Karthala|orig-year1889|year1982|languageFrench|page=71}}</ref>
*1816 &ndash; Bussa, a slave in British-ruled Barbados, leads a slave rebellion, for which he is remembered as the country's first national hero.<ref>{{cite book|authorJunius P. Rodriguez|titleEncyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh86YKfO-9RgC&pgPA90|year2007|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group|isbn978-0-313-33272-2|pages=90}}</ref>
*1849 &ndash; Hungary declares itself independent of Austria with Lajos Kossuth as its leader.<ref>{{cite book|lastTucker|firstSpencer C.|titleThe Roots and Consequences of Independence Wars: Conflicts That Changed World History|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABC-CLIO|date2018|isbn9781440855986|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idr59MDwAAQBAJ|page178}}</ref>
*1858 &ndash; The 1858 Christiania fire severely destroys several city blocks near Stortorvet in Christiania, Norway, and about 1,000 people lose their homes.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleBranner |encyclopediaOslo byleksikon |editor1Arstal, Aksel |editor1-linkAksel Arstal|editor2Just, Carl|editor2-linkCarl Just|publisherAschehoug |locationOslo|edition2|year1966 |origyear1938 |languageNorwegian }}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is shot in Ford's Theatre by John Wilkes Booth; Lincoln dies the following day.<ref>{{cite book|authorCarolyn Lawton Harrell|titleWhen the Bells Tolled for Lincoln: Southern Reaction to the Assassination|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduRdfSQHLaPoC&pgPA75|year1997|publisherMercer University Press|isbn978-0-86554-587-8|pages=75}}</ref>
* 1865 &ndash; William H. Seward, the U.S. Secretary of State, and his family are attacked at home by Lewis Powell.<ref>{{cite book|author1James J. Barnes|author2Patience P. Barnes|titleThe American Civil War Through British Eyes: February 1863-December 1865|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrUS7OZzDXzIC&pgPA315|year2003|publisherKent State University Press|isbn978-0-87338-831-3|pages315–}}</ref>
*1881 &ndash; The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight occurs in El Paso, Texas.<ref>{{cite book|titleAmerican Cowboy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYOoCAAAAMBAJ&pgPA152|dateNovember–December 2007|publisherActive Interest Media, Inc.|pages=152}}</ref>
*1890 &ndash; The Pan-American Union is founded by the First International Conference of American States in Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite book|lastManger|firstWilliam|titleInter-American Highlights, 1890-1940|locationWashington, D.C.|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office|date1940|oclc1193999715|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9VpqAAAAMAAJ|page3}}</ref>
*1894 &ndash; The first ever commercial motion picture house opens in New York City, United States. It uses ten Kinetoscopes, devices for peep-show viewing of films.<ref>{{cite book|authorCharles Musser|titleThe Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIEUMWToGOtUC&pgPA81|date4 May 1994|publisherUniversity of California Press|isbn978-0-520-08533-6|pages=81}}</ref>
*1895 &ndash; The 1895 Ljubljana earthquake, both the most and last destructive earthquake in the area, occurs.<ref>{{Cite book |lastKajzer |firstJanez |titleS tramovi podprto mesto |publisherMladinska Knjiga |year1983 |locationLjubljana |pages84–164 |languagesl}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; The world's fair Exposition Universelle opens in Paris.<ref>{{cite book|lastBurbank|firstRichard|titleTwentieth Century Music|locationNew York City, USA|publisherFacts on File Publication, New York City, NY|year1984|isbn0-87196-464-3|page13}}|</ref>
1901–present
*1906 &ndash; The first meeting of the Azusa Street Revival, which will launch Pentecostalism as a worldwide movement, is held in Los Angeles.
*1908 &ndash; Hauser Dam, a steel dam on the Missouri River in Montana, fails, sending a surge of water {{convert|25|to|30|ft}} high downstream.
*1909 &ndash; Muslims in the Ottoman Empire begin a massacre of Armenians in Adana.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSuny |firstRonald Grigor |title"They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide |title-linkThey Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else |date22 March 2015 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn978-1-4008-6558-1 |pages171–173 |languageen |author-linkRonald Grigor Suny}}</ref>
*1912 &ndash; The British passenger liner {{RMS|Titanic}} hits an iceberg in the North Atlantic and begins to sink.
*1928 &ndash; The Bremen, a German Junkers W 33 type aircraft, reaches Greenly Island, Canada, completing the first successful transatlantic aeroplane flight from east to west.
*1929 &ndash; The inaugural Monaco Grand Prix takes place in the Principality of Monaco. William Grover-Williams wins driving a Bugatti Type 35.<ref>{{Cite web|title1929 GRAND PRIX SEASON -|urlhttp://www.kolumbus.fi/leif.snellman/gp2902.htm|access-date2021-05-17|websitewww.kolumbus.fi|archive-date2021-02-13|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210213091528/http://www.kolumbus.fi/leif.snellman/gp2902.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*1931 &ndash; The Second Spanish Republic is proclaimed and king Alfonso XIII goes to exile. Meanwhile, in Barcelona, Francesc Macià proclaims the Catalan Republic.<ref>{{cite web |titleRepública Catalana |urlhttps://www.enciclopedia.cat/EC-GEC-0054960.xml |websiteenciclopèdia.cat |access-date6 October 2019}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; The Black Sunday dust storm, considered one of the worst storms of the Dust Bowl, sweeps across the Oklahoma and Texas panhandles and neighboring areas.
*1940 &ndash; World War II: Royal Marines land in Namsos, Norway, preceding a larger force which will arrive two days later.
*1941 &ndash; World War II: German and Italian forces attack Tobruk, Libya.
*1944 &ndash; Bombay explosion: A massive explosion in Bombay harbor kills 300 and causes economic damage valued at 20&nbsp;million pounds.
*1945 &ndash; Razing of Friesoythe: The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes.
*1958 &ndash; The Soviet satellite Sputnik 2 falls from orbit after a mission duration of 162 days. This was the first spacecraft to carry a living animal, a female dog named Laika, who likely lived only a few hours.
*1967 &ndash; Gnassingbé Eyadéma overthrows Nicolas Grunitzky and installs himself as the new President of Togo, a title he will hold for the next 38 years.
*1978 &ndash; Tbilisi demonstrations: Thousands of Georgians demonstrate against Soviet attempts to change the constitutional status of the Georgian language.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttp://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/inside/publications/0419dissertation.pdf|lastCornell|firstSvante E.|author-linkSvante Cornell|titleAutonomy and Conflict: Ethnoterritoriality and Separatism in the South Caucasus – Cases in Georgia. Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Report No. 61|page150|year2002|isbn91-506-1600-5|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070630141309/http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/inside/publications/0419dissertation.pdf|archive-date30 June 2007|publisherUppsala University|access-date18 August 2021}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; The Progressive Alliance of Liberia stages a protest, without a permit, against an increase in rice prices proposed by the government, with clashes between protestors and the police resulting in over 70 deaths and over 500 injuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1Dunn|first1 Elwood D.|last2Beyan|first2Amos J.|last3Burrowes|first3Carl Patrick|date2000|titleHistorical Dictionary of Liberia |trans-title|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqt0_RrW8ghkC|languageEnglish |location|isbn9781461659310|pages23–24|publisher Scarecrow Press}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; STS-1: The first operational Space Shuttle, Columbia completes its first test flight.
*1986 &ndash; The heaviest hailstones ever recorded, each weighing {{convert|1|kg|lb}}, fall on the Gopalganj district of Bangladesh, killing 92.
*1988 &ndash; The {{USS|Samuel B. Roberts|FFG-58|6}} strikes a mine in the Persian Gulf during Operation Earnest Will.
* 1988 &ndash; In a United Nations ceremony in Geneva, Switzerland, the Soviet Union signs an agreement pledging to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan.
*1991 &ndash; The Republic of Georgia introduces the post of President following its declaration of independence from the Soviet Union.
*1994 &ndash; In a friendly fire incident during Operation Provide Comfort in northern Iraq, two U.S. Air Force aircraft mistakenly shoot-down two U.S. Army helicopters, killing 26 people.
*1997 &ndash; Pai Hsiao-yen, daughter of Taiwanese artiste Pai Bing-bing is kidnapped on her way to school, preceding her murder.<ref>{{cite news |author1劉峻谷 |author2唐復年 |author3鄭國樑 |author4曾增勳 |date27 April 1997 |title白曉燕命案始末 |trans-titlePai Bing-bing's daughter kidnapped |newspaperUnited Daily News |urlhttp://issue.udn.com/FOCUSNEWS/WHITE/a/a1-1.htm |url-statusdead |access-dateSeptember 29, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120207102458/http://issue.udn.com/FOCUSNEWS/WHITE/a/a1-1.htm |archive-dateFebruary 7, 2012 |quote十七歲的白曉燕是白冰冰的獨生女，就讀林口鄉醒吾中學二年級，十四日上午七時四十五分從林口鄉忠孝路家中出門上學，但並沒有到學校。}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; NATO mistakenly bombs a convoy of ethnic Albanian refugees. Yugoslav officials say 75 people were killed.
* 1999 &ndash; A severe hailstorm strikes Sydney, Australia causing A$2.3&nbsp;billion in insured damages, the most costly natural disaster in Australian history.
*2002 &ndash; Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez returns to office two days after being ousted and arrested by the country's military.
*2003 &ndash; The Human Genome Project is completed with 99% of the human genome sequenced to an accuracy of 99.99%.
* 2003 &ndash; U.S. troops in Baghdad capture Abu Abbas, leader of the Palestinian group that killed an American on the hijacked cruise liner {{MS|Achille Lauro}} in 1985.
*2005 &ndash; The Oregon Supreme Court nullifies marriage licenses issued to same-sex couples a year earlier by Multnomah County.
*2006 &ndash; Twin blasts triggered by crude bombs during Asr prayer in the Jama Masjid mosque in Delhi injure 13 people.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/14/world/blasts-at-famous-india-mosque-injure-13.html][https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Terror-Friday-Twin-blasts-rock-Delhis-Jama-Masjid/articleshow/1490834.cms][https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Explosion_rocks_Jama_Masjid_in_India][https://www.rediff.com/news/2006/apr/14masjid.htm Two blasts rock Delhi's Jama Masjid]</ref>
*2014 &ndash; Two bombs detonate at a bus station in Nyanya, Nigeria, killing at least 88 people and injuring hundreds. Boko Haram claims responsibility.<ref>{{cite web |date14 April 2014 |titleNigeria violence: More than 70 killed in Abuja bus blast |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27018751 |access-date18 May 2023 |websiteBBC.com |publisherBBC News}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Boko Haram abducts 276 girls from a school in Chibok, Nigeria.<ref>{{cite web |titleNigeria Chibok abductions: What we know |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32299943 |websiteBBC News |access-date13 February 2021 |date=8 May 2017}}</ref>
*2016 &ndash; The foreshock of a major earthquake occurs in Kumamoto, Japan.
*2022 &ndash; Russian invasion of Ukraine: The Russian warship Moskva sinks.<ref name"Ljunggren">{{cite news |last1Ljunggren |first1David |date13 April 2022 |titleRussia says ammunition blast damages flagship of Black Sea fleet – Interfax |workReuters |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-says-major-ship-black-sea-fleet-badly-damaged-blast-interfax-2022-04-13/ |access-date14 April 2022 |archive-date14 April 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220414011954/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-says-major-ship-black-sea-fleet-badly-damaged-blast-interfax-2022-04-13/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; The Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) is launched by the European Space Agency.<ref>{{cite web|titleESA's Juice lifts off on quest to discover secrets of Jupiter's icy moons|websiteThe European Space Agency|urlhttps://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Juice/ESA_s_Juice_lifts_off_on_quest_to_discover_secrets_of_Jupiter_s_icy_moons|date14 April 2023|access-date=16 April 2023}}</ref>
*2024 - Flooding in the Persian Gulf starts, killing 19 in Oman.<ref>{{Cite news |date2024-04-16 |titleDubai airport chaos as UAE and Oman reel from deadly storms |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68831408 |access-date2024-04-19 |languageen-GB}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600*1126 &ndash; Averroes, Andalusian Arab physician and philosopher (d. 1198)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/10/day-1198-islamic-philosopher-averroes-dies-marrakech/ |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/10/day-1198-islamic-philosopher-averroes-dies-marrakech/ |archive-date2022-01-12 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive|titleOn this day in 1198: the Islamic philosopher Averroës dies in Marrakech|date10 December 2017|authorDominic Selwood|websiteThe Telegraph|access-date=16 April 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*1204 &ndash; Henry I, king of Castile (d. 1217)<ref>{{cite book|authorE. Michael Gerli|titleMedieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideuVJAgAAQBAJ&pgPA299|date4 December 2013|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-136-77162-0|pages=299}}</ref>
*1331 &ndash; Jeanne-Marie de Maille, French Roman Catholic saint (d. 1414)<ref>{{cite book|authorFerdinand Holböck|titleMarried Saints and Blesseds: Through the Centuries|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMpDiGKG4FSsC&pgPA256|year2002|publisherIgnatius Press|isbn978-0-89870-843-1|pages=256}}</ref>
*1527 &ndash; Abraham Ortelius, Flemish cartographer and geographer (d. 1598)<ref>{{cite book|authorMartin Hinoul|titleIconen van onze economie: Rolmodellen voor inspirerend ondernemerschap|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvRj4AgAAQBAJ&pgPA87|date14 October 2013|publisherLeuven University Press|isbn978-90-5867-966-6|pages=87}}</ref>
*1572 &ndash; Adam Tanner, Austrian mathematician, philosopher, and academic (d. 1632)
*1578 &ndash; Philip III of Spain (d. 1621)<ref>{{cite book|authorHerbert Norris|titleTudor Costume and Fashion|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyVdfZGj6NmkC&pgPA677|date1 January 1997|publisherCourier Corporation|isbn978-0-486-29845-0|pages677}}</ref>1601–1900*1629 &ndash; Christiaan Huygens, Dutch mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (d. 1695)<ref>{{cite book|authorJohn Gribbin|titleQ is for Quantum: An Encyclopedia of Particle Physics|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzBsDkgI1uQsC&pgPA181|date22 February 2000|publisherSimon and Schuster|isbn978-0-684-86315-3|pages181}}</ref>
*1669 &ndash; Magnus Julius De la Gardie, Swedish general and politician (d. 1741)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://sok.riksarkivet.se/sbl/Presentation.aspx?id17382|titleMagnus Julius De la Gardie|websitesok.riksarkivet.se|languagesv|access-date17 November 2020}}</ref>
*1678 &ndash; Abraham Darby I, English iron master (d. 1717)<ref>{{cite book|author1Joseph J. Howard|author2Frederick A. Crisp|author3Maltravers Hearld Extraordinary Staff|titleVisitation of England and Wales Notes: Volume 5 1903|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8L4JB9GzSokC&pgPA69|dateAugust 1997|publisherHeritage Books|isbn978-0-7884-0702-4|pages=69}}</ref>
*1709 &ndash; Charles Collé, French playwright and songwriter (d. 1783)<ref>{{cite book|titleRevue francaise|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_L9IAAAAcAAJ&pgPA27|year1856|pages27|language=fr}}</ref>
*1714 &ndash; Adam Gib, Scottish minister and author (d. 1788)<ref>{{cite book|titleEncyclopaedia Britannica, a New Survey of Universal Knowledge|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcJYRAQAAMAAJ|year1957|publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica|page330}}</ref>
*1738 &ndash; William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1809)<ref>{{cite book|author1Robert Eccleshall|author2Graham Walker|titleBiographical Dictionary of British Prime Ministers|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK6qEAgAAQBAJ&pgPA77|date1 June 2002|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-134-66230-2|pages77}}</ref>
*1769 &ndash; Barthélemy Catherine Joubert, French general (d. 1799)<ref>{{cite web |titleBarthélemy-Catherine Joubert {{!}} French general |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Barthelemy-Catherine-Joubert |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date13 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1773 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste de Villèle, French politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1854)<ref>{{cite web |titleJoseph, count de Villèle {{!}} French politician |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-comte-de-Villele |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date13 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1788 &ndash; David G. Burnet, American politician, 2nd Vice-president of Texas (d. 1870)
*1800 &ndash; John Appold, English engineer (d. 1865)
*1812 &ndash; George Grey, Portuguese-New Zealand soldier, explorer, and politician, 11th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1898)
*1814 &ndash; Dimitri Kipiani, Georgian publicist and author (d. 1887)
*1819 &ndash; Harriett Ellen Grannis Arey, American educator, author, editor, and publisher (d. 1901)<ref name"Herringshaw1904">{{cite book|lastHerringshaw|firstThomas William|titleHerringshaw's Encyclopedia of American Biography of the Nineteenth Century: Accurate and Succinct Biographies of Famous Men and Women in All Walks of Life who are Or Have Been the Acknowledged Leaders of Life and Thought of the United States Since Its Formation ...|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXxg7AQAAMAAJ&pgPA50|editionPublic domain|year1904|publisherAmerican Publishers' Association|pages=50–}}</ref>
*1827 &ndash; Augustus Pitt Rivers, English general, ethnologist, and archaeologist (d. 1900)
*1852 &ndash; Alexander Greenlaw Hamilton, Australian biologist (d. 1941)
*1854 &ndash; Martin Lipp, Estonian pastor and poet (d. 1923)
*1857 &ndash; Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (d. 1944)
*1865 &ndash; Alfred Hoare Powell, English architect, and designer and painter of pottery (d. 1960)
*1866 &ndash; Anne Sullivan, American educator (d. 1936)<ref>{{cite book|first1Peg A.|last1Lamphier|first2Rosanne|last2Welch|titleWomen in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection|locationSanta Barbara, California|publisherABC-CLIO|year2017|page359|isbn978-1-61069-602-9}}</ref>
*1868 &ndash; Peter Behrens, German architect, designed the AEG turbine factory (d. 1940)
*1870 &ndash; Victor Borisov-Musatov, Russian painter and educator (d. 1905)
* 1870 &ndash; Syd Gregory, Australian cricketer and coach (d. 1929)
*1872 &ndash; Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Indian-English scholar and translator (d. 1953)
*1874 &ndash; Matti Lonkainen, Finnish politician (d. 1918)<ref>{{cite web |titlePerson: Lonkainen, Matti |urlhttps://sotasurmat.narc.fi/en/victims/page/p_39943/table |websiteWar Victims of Finland 1914–1922 |publisherNational Archives of Finland |access-date16 December 2023 |locationHelsinki, Finland}}</ref>
*1876 &ndash; Cecil Chubb, English barrister and one time owner of Stonehenge (d. 1934)
*1881 &ndash; Husain Salaahuddin, Maldivian poet and scholar (d. 1948)
*1882 &ndash; Moritz Schlick, German-Austrian physicist and philosopher (d. 1936)
*1886 &ndash; Ernst Robert Curtius, German philologist and scholar (d. 1956)
* 1886 &ndash; Árpád Tóth, Hungarian poet and translator (d. 1928)
*1889 &ndash; Arnold J. Toynbee, English historian and academic (d. 1975)<ref>{{cite book|authorWilliam H. McNeill|titleArnold J. Toynbee: A Life|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-Q4POZH7C1AC&pgPT11|date20 April 1989|publisherOxford University Press, USA|isbn978-0-19-992339-7|pages=11}}</ref>
*1891 &ndash; B. R. Ambedkar, Indian economist, jurist, and politician, 1st Indian Minister of Law and Justice (d. 1956)<ref>{{cite book|authorKurukundi Raghavendra Rao|titleBabasaheb Ambedkar|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI-7bUX0E6cMC&pgPA2|year1993|publisherSahitya Akademi|isbn978-81-7201-152-9|pages=2}}</ref>
* 1891 &ndash; Otto Lasanen, Finnish wrestler (d. 1958)
*1892 &ndash; Juan Belmonte, Spanish bullfighter (d. 1962)<ref>{{cite book|author1Juan Belmonte|author2Manuel Chaves Nogales|titleJuan Belmonte, Killer of Bulls: The Autobiography of a Matador|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVrUzAAAAIAAJ|year1937|publisherBook League of America|page1}}</ref>
* 1892 &ndash; V. Gordon Childe, Australian archaeologist and philologist (d. 1957)<ref>{{cite book|authorSally Green|titlePrehistorian: A Biography of V. Gordon Childe|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGeUZAAAAYAAJ|year1981|publisherMoonraker|page1|isbn9780239002068}}</ref>
* 1892 &ndash; Claire Windsor, American actress (d. 1972)<ref>{{cite book|authorCharles Donald Fox|titleFamous Film Folk: A Gallery of Life Portraits and Biographies|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_hovAAAAIAAJ|year1925|publisherGeorge H. Doran Company|page=38}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Shivrampant Damle, Indian educationist (d. 1977)<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastGadre |editor1-firstVishwas |editor2-lastLimaye |editor2-firstAnand |titleदामले कुलवृत्तांत |trans-titleThe Damle Family Genealogy Almanac |date16 December 2012 |publisherDamle Samiti |locationMumbai |edition2nd |languageMarathi |chapterSagwe-Miraj-Kivale gharane |trans-chapterThe House of Sagwe, Miraj and Kivale |page253}}</ref>
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Sylvio Mantha, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and referee (d. 1974)<ref>{{cite book|authorLaurel Zeisler|titleHistorical Dictionary of Ice Hockey|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbWYeAAAAQBAJ&pgPA204|date19 December 2012|publisherScarecrow Press|isbn978-0-8108-7863-1|pages=204}}</ref>
*1903 &ndash; Henry Corbin, French philosopher and academic (d. 1978)
* 1903 &ndash; Ruth Svedberg, Swedish discus thrower and triathlete (d. 2002)
*1904 &ndash; John Gielgud, English actor, director, and producer (d. 2000)<ref>{{cite book|authorGyles Daubeney Brandreth|titleJohn Gielgud: a celebration|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0itaAAAAMAAJ|year1984|publisherPavilion|isbn978-0-907516-38-5|page12}}</ref>
*1905 &ndash; Elizabeth Huckaby, American author and educator (d. 1999)
* 1905 &ndash; Georg Lammers, German sprinter (d. 1987)
* 1905 v &ndash; Jean Pierre-Bloch, French author and activist (d. 1999)
*1906 &ndash; Faisal of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabian king (d. 1975)
*1907 &ndash; François Duvalier, Haitian physician and politician, 40th President of Haiti (d. 1971)<ref>{{cite book|authorFrank J. Coppa|titleEncyclopedia of Modern Dictators: From Napoleon to the Present|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgTv99LBYSL4C&pgPA84|year2006|publisherPeter Lang|isbn978-0-8204-5010-0|pages=84}}</ref>
*1912 &ndash; Robert Doisneau, French photographer and journalist (d. 1994)
* 1912 &ndash; Georg Siimenson, Estonian footballer (d. 1978)
*1913 &ndash; Jean Fournet, French conductor (d. 2008)
*1916 &ndash; Don Willesee, Australian telegraphist and politician, 29th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 2003)
*1917 &ndash; Valerie Hobson, English actress (d. 1998)
* 1917 &ndash; Marvin Miller, American baseball executive (d. 2012)
*1918 &ndash; Mary Healy, American actress and singer (d. 2015)
*1919 &ndash; Shamshad Begum, Pakistani-Indian singer (d. 2013)
* 1919 &ndash; K. Saraswathi Amma, Indian author and playwright (d. 1975)
*1920 &ndash; Ivor Forbes Guest, English lawyer, historian, and author (d. 2018)
*1921 &ndash; Thomas Schelling, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2016)
*1922 &ndash; Audrey Long, American actress (d. 2014)
*1923 &ndash; Roberto De Vicenzo, Argentinian golfer (d. 2017)
*1924 &ndash; Shorty Rogers, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1994)
* 1924 &ndash; Joseph Ruskin, American actor and producer (d. 2013)
* 1924 &ndash; Mary Warnock, Baroness Warnock, English philosopher, and academic (d. 2019)
*1925 &ndash; Abel Muzorewa, Zimbabwean minister and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia (d. 2010)
* 1925 &ndash; Rod Steiger, American soldier and actor (d. 2002)
*1926 &ndash; Barbara Anderson, New Zealand author (d. 2013)
* 1926 &ndash; Frank Daniel, Czech director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1996)
* 1926 &ndash; Gloria Jean, American actress and singer (d. 2018)
* 1926 &ndash; Liz Renay, American actress and author (d. 2007)
*1927 &ndash; Alan MacDiarmid, New Zealand chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2007)
* 1927 &ndash; Dany Robin, French actress and singer (d. 1995)
*1929 &ndash; Gerry Anderson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)
* 1929 &ndash; Inez Andrews, African-American singer-songwriter (d. 2012)
*1930 &ndash; Martin Adolf Bormann, German priest and theologian (d. 2013)
* 1930 &ndash; Arnold Burns, American lawyer and politician, 21st United States Deputy Attorney General (d. 2013)
* 1930 &ndash; René Desmaison, French mountaineer (d. 2007)
* 1930 &ndash; Bradford Dillman, American actor and author (d. 2018)
*1931 &ndash; Geoffrey Dalton, English admiral (d. 2020)
* 1931 &ndash; Paul Masnick, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2024)
*1932 &ndash; Bill Bennett, Canadian lawyer and politician, 27th Premier of British Columbia (d. 2015)
* 1932 &ndash; Atef Ebeid, Egyptian academic and politician, 47th Prime Minister of Egypt (d. 2014)
* 1932 &ndash; Loretta Lynn, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2022)
* 1932 &ndash; Cameron Parker, Scottish businessman and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Renfrewshire
*1933 &ndash; Paddy Hopkirk, Northern Irish racing driver (d. 2022)
* 1933 &ndash; Boris Strugatsky, Russian author (d. 2012)
* 1933 &ndash; Yuri Oganessian, Armenian-Russian nuclear physicist
*1934 &ndash; Fredric Jameson, American philosopher and theorist (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news |lastRisen |firstClay |dateSeptember 23, 2024 |titleFredric Jameson, Critic Who Linked Literature to Capitalism, Dies at 90 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/23/books/fredric-jameson-dead.html |access-dateSeptember 26, 2024 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; Susan Cunliffe-Lister, Baroness Masham of Ilton, English table tennis player, swimmer, and politician (d. 2023)<ref>{{Cite book|titleBurke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage|date2003|publisherBurke's Peerage|isbn9780971196629|editor-lastMosley|editor-firstCharles|doi = 10.5118/bpbk.2003}}</ref>
* 1935 &ndash; John Oliver, English bishop
* 1935 &ndash; Erich von Däniken, Swiss pseudohistorian and author
*1936 &ndash; Arlene Martel, American actress and singer (d. 2014)
* 1936 &ndash; Bobby Nichols, American golfer
* 1936 &ndash; Frank Serpico, American-Italian soldier, police officer and lecturer
*1937 &ndash; Efi Arazi, Israeli businessman, founded the Scailex Corporation (d. 2013)
* 1937 &ndash; Sepp Mayerl, Austrian mountaineer (d. 2012)
*1938 &ndash; Mahmud Esad Coşan, Turkish author and academic (d. 2001)
* 1938 &ndash; Ralph Willis, Australian politician<ref>Bill Hayden (1996), Hayden: An autobiography, Angus & Robertson, Sydney.</ref>
*1940 &ndash; Julie Christie, Indian-English actress and activist
* 1940 &ndash; David Hope, Baron Hope of Thornes, English archbishop and academic
* 1940 &ndash; Richard Thompson, English physician and academic
*1941 &ndash; Pete Rose, American baseball player and manager (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite news |titlePete Rose, MLB all-time hits leader, dies at 83 |urlhttps://eu.cincinnati.com/story/sports/2024/09/30/pete-rose-mlb-hits-leader-obituary/2808469001/ |access-date30 September 2024 |publisherCincinnati.com |date=30 September 2024}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Valeriy Brumel, Soviet high jumper (d. 2003)
* 1942 &ndash; Valentin Lebedev, Russian engineer and astronaut
* 1942 &ndash; Björn Rosengren, Swedish politician, Swedish Minister of Enterprise and Innovation
*1944 &ndash; John Sergeant, English journalist
*1945 &ndash; Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi, Samoan economist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Samoa
* 1945 &ndash; Ritchie Blackmore, English guitarist and songwriter
* 1945 &ndash; Roger Frappier, Canadian producer, director and screenwriter
*1946 &ndash; Mireille Guiliano, French-American author
* 1946 &ndash; Michael Sarris, Cypriot economist and politician, Cypriot Minister of Finance
* 1946 &ndash; Knut Kristiansen, Norwegian pianist and orchestra leader
*1947 &ndash; Dominique Baudis, French journalist and politician (d. 2014)
* 1947 &ndash; Bob Massie, Australian cricketer
*1948 &ndash; Berry Berenson, American model, actress, and photographer (d. 2001)
* 1948 &ndash; Anastasios Papaligouras, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Justice
*1949 &ndash; Dave Gibbons, English author and illustrator
* 1949 &ndash; DeAnne Julius, American-British economist and academic
* 1949 &ndash; Chris Langham, English actor and screenwriter
* 1949 &ndash; Chas Mortimer, English motorcycle racer
* 1949 &ndash; John Shea, American actor and director
*1950 &ndash; Francis Collins, American physician and geneticist
* 1950 &ndash; Péter Esterházy, Hungarian author (d. 2016)
*1951 &ndash; Milija Aleksic, English footballer (d. 2012)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sporting-heroes.net/football/tottenham-hotspur-fc/milija-aleksic-9064/brief-biography-of-his-career-at-spurs_a10926/|titleMilija Aleksic|websitesporting-heroes.net|access-date3 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1951 &ndash; José Eduardo González Navas, Spanish politician
* 1951 &ndash; Julian Lloyd Webber, English cellist, conductor, and educator<ref>{{cite book|authorMargaret Campbell|titleJulian Lloyd Webber: Married to Music : the Authorised Biography|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqFEIAQAAMAAJ|year2001|publisherRobson Books|isbn978-1-86105-400-5|page12}}</ref>
* 1951 &ndash; Elizabeth Symons, Baroness Symons of Vernham Dean, English politician
*1952 &ndash; Kenny Aaronson, American bass player
* 1952 &ndash; Mickey O'Sullivan, Irish footballer and manager
* 1952 &ndash; David Urquhart, Scottish bishop
*1954 &ndash; Katsuhiro Otomo, Japanese director, screenwriter, and illustrator
*1956 &ndash; Boris Šprem, Croatian lawyer and politician, 8th President of Croatian Parliament (d. 2012)
*1957 &ndash; Lothaire Bluteau, Canadian actor
* 1957 &ndash; Bobbi Brown, American make-up artist and author<ref nametimeout>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.timeout.com/newyork/things-to-do/bobbi-brown|titleBobbi Brown|lastDonelson|firstSophie|magazineTimeOut New York|dateFebruary 26, 2009|access-date February 15, 2014|archive-date1 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170801125821/https://www.timeout.com/newyork/things-to-do/bobbi-brown}}</ref>
* 1957 &ndash; Mikhail Pletnev, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor
*1958 &ndash; Peter Capaldi, Scottish actor
* 1958 &ndash; Jim Smith, English musician<ref>{{Cite book |lastLarkin |firstColin |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHrs7AQAAIAAJ |titleThe Virgin Encyclopedia of Eighties Music |publisherVirgin Books |year1997 |isbn978-0-7535-0159-7 |pages93 |orig-date1992}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; Steve Byrnes, American sportscaster and producer (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite news |titleFamily announcement: Steve Byrnes passes away at age 56 |urlhttps://www.foxsports.com/nascar/story/steve-byrnes-update-passes-away-age-56-race-hub-042115 |access-date29 March 2020 |workFOX Sports |date=21 April 2015}}</ref>
* 1959 &ndash; Marie-Thérèse Fortin, Canadian actress
*1960 &ndash; Brad Garrett, American actor and comedian
* 1960 &ndash; Myoma Myint Kywe, Burmese historian and journalist (d. 2021)
* 1960 &ndash; Osamu Sato, Japanese graphic artist, programmer, and composer
* 1960 &ndash; Tina Rosenberg, American journalist and author<ref>Elizabeth C. Clarage & Elizabeth A. Brennan, ''Who's who of Pulitzer Prize winners'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, p. 277.</ref>
* 1960 &ndash; Pat Symcox, South African cricketer
*1961 &ndash; Robert Carlyle, Scottish actor and director<ref>{{cite web |titleRobert Carlyle |urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba9635db1 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160223134912/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba9635db1 |url-statusdead |archive-dateFebruary 23, 2016 |websiteBFI |access-date13 February 2021 |languageen}}</ref>
*1962 &ndash; Guillaume Leblanc, Canadian athlete
*1964 &ndash; Brian Adams, American wrestler (d. 2007)
* 1964 &ndash; Jeff Andretti, American race car driver
* 1964 &ndash; Jim Grabb, American tennis player<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idn_j1DwAAQBAJ&qjim+grabb+1964&pgPA227|titleJewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame|firstJoseph|lastSiegman|dateAugust 1, 2020|publisherU of Nebraska Press|isbn9781496201881|via=Google Books}}</ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Jeff Hopkins, Welsh international footballer and manager<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id3612|titleJeff Hopkins|websitesoccerbase.com|access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Gina McKee, English actress
*1965 &ndash; Tom Dey, American director and producer
* 1965 &ndash; Alexandre Jardin, French author
* 1965 &ndash; Craig McDermott, Australian cricketer and coach
*1966 &ndash; André Boisclair, Canadian lawyer and politician
* 1966 &ndash; Jan Boklöv, Swedish ski jumper<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/jan-boklov|titleJan Boklöv|websiteIOC|access-dateMarch 5, 2021}}</ref>
* 1966 &ndash; David Justice, American baseball player and sportscaster
* 1966 &ndash; Greg Maddux, American baseball player, coach, and manager
*1967 &ndash; Nicola Berti, Italian international footballer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sporting-heroes.net/football/nicola-berti-9260/biography-of-his-football-career-at-spurs_a12947/|titleNicola Berti|websitesporting-heroes.net|access-date3 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1967 &ndash; Barrett Martin, American drummer, songwriter, and producer
* 1967 &ndash; Julia Zemiro, French-Australian actress, comedian, singer and writer
*1968 &ndash; Anthony Michael Hall, American actor
*1969 &ndash; Brad Ausmus, American baseball player and manager
* 1969 &ndash; Martyn LeNoble, Dutch-American bass player
* 1969 &ndash; Vebjørn Selbekk, Norwegian journalist
*1970 &ndash; Shizuka Kudo, Japanese singer and actress
*1971 &ndash; Miguel Calero, Colombian footballer and manager (d. 2012)
* 1971 &ndash; Carlos Pérez, Dominican-American baseball player
* 1971 &ndash; Gregg Zaun, American baseball player and sportscaster
*1972 &ndash; Paul Devlin, English-Scottish footballer and manager
* 1972 &ndash; Roberto Mejía, Dominican baseball player
* 1972 &ndash; Dean Potter, American rock climber and BASE jumper (d. 2015)
*1973 &ndash; Roberto Ayala, Argentinian footballer
* 1973 &ndash; Adrien Brody, American actor<ref>{{cite book|author((Editors of Chase's))|titleChase's Calendar of Events 2019: The Ultimate Go-to Guide for Special Days, Weeks and Months|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJVJtDwAAQBAJ&pgPA223|date30 September 2018|publisherRowman & Littlefield|isbn978-1-64143-264-1|pages=223}}</ref>
* 1973 &ndash; Hidetaka Suehiro, Japanese video game director and writer
* 1973 &ndash; David Miller, American tenor
*1974 &ndash; Da Brat, American rapper
*1975 &ndash; Lita, American wrestler
* 1975 &ndash; Luciano Almeida, Brazilian footballer
* 1975 &ndash; Avner Dorman, Israeli-American composer and academic
* 1975 &ndash; Anderson Silva, Brazilian mixed martial artist and boxer
*1976 &ndash; Christian Älvestam, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1976 &ndash; Georgina Chapman, English model, actress, and fashion designer, co-founded Marchesa
* 1976 &ndash; Anna DeForge, American basketball player
* 1976 &ndash; Kyle Farnsworth, American baseball player
* 1976 &ndash; Nadine Faustin-Parker, Haitian hurdler<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.iaaf.org/athletes/haiti/nadine-faustin-parker-137016|titleIAAF: Nadine FAUSTIN-PARKER {{!}} Profile|websiteiaaf.org|access-date2018-05-21}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; Jason Wiemer, Canadian ice hockey player
*1977 &ndash; Nate Fox, American basketball player (d. 2014)
* 1977 &ndash; Martin Kaalma, Estonian footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Sarah Michelle Gellar, American actress and producer
* 1977 &ndash; Rob McElhenney, American actor, producer, and screenwriter
* 1977 &ndash; Luke Priddis, Australian rugby league player<ref>[http://rugbyleagueproject.com/players/Luke_Priddis.html Rugby League Project]</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Roland Lessing, Estonian biathlete
*1979 &ndash; David Crisafulli, Australian politician, 41st Premier of Queensland<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Governor and Professor Nimmo received the call of Premier-elect Mr David Crisafulli MP |urlhttps://x.com/QldGovernor/status/1850412047609258078?ref_srctwsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Etweet |websiteX |publisherGovernor of Queensland |access-date27 October 2024}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Rebecca DiPietro, American wrestler and model
* 1979 &ndash; Marios Elia, Cypriot footballer
* 1979 &ndash; Ross Filipo, New Zealand rugby player
* 1979 &ndash; Noé Pamarot, French footballer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id17497|titleNoé Pamarot|websitesoccerbase.com|access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1979 &ndash; Kerem Tunçeri, Turkish basketball player
*1980 &ndash; Win Butler, American-Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1980 &ndash; Jeremy Smith, New Zealand rugby league player
*1981 &ndash; Mustafa Güngör, German rugby player
* 1981 &ndash; Amy Leach, English director and producer
*1982 &ndash; Uğur Boral, Turkish footballer
* 1982 &ndash; Larissa França, Brazilian volleyball player
*1983 &ndash; Simona La Mantia, Italian triple jumper
* 1983 &ndash; James McFadden, Scottish footballer
* 1983 &ndash; William Obeng, Ghanaian-American football player
* 1983 &ndash; Nikoloz Tskitishvili, Georgian basketball player
*1984 &ndash; Blake Costanzo, American football player
* 1984 &ndash; Charles Hamelin, Canadian speed skater
* 1984 &ndash; Harumafuji Kōhei, Mongolian sumo wrestler, the 70th Yokozuna
* 1984 &ndash; Tyler Thigpen, American football player
*1986 &ndash; Matt Derbyshire, English footballer
*1987 &ndash; Michael Baze, American jockey (d. 2011)
* 1987 &ndash; Erwin Hoffer, Austrian footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Wilson Kiprop, Kenyan runner<ref>{{cite web |titleWilson KIPROP {{!}} Profile |urlhttps://worldathletics.org/athletes/kenya/wilson-kiprop-14329174 |websiteworldathletics.org |access-date13 February 2021}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Eric Gryba, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleEric Gryba - Profile |urlhttps://nhlpa.com/the-players/29864/eric-gryba |websitewww.nhlpa.com |access-date13 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Eliška Klučinová, Czech heptathlete<ref>{{cite web |titleEliška KLUČINOVÁ {{!}} Profile |urlhttps://www.worldathletics.org/athletes/czech-republic/eliska-klucinova-14263011 |websitewww.worldathletics.org |access-date13 February 2021}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Brad Sinopoli, Canadian football player<ref>{{cite web |titleSinopoli, Brad |urlhttps://cflpa.com/players/brad-sinopoli/ |websiteCFLPA.com |access-date13 February 2021 |language=en-CA}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Anthony Modeste, French footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleAnthony Mbu Agogo Modeste {{!}} Playerprofile {{!}} Bundesliga |urlhttps://www.bundesliga.com/en/bundesliga/player/anthony-modeste |websitebundesliga.com |publisherDFL |access-date=20 December 2021}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Joe Haden, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleJoe Haden |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/13249/joe-haden |publisherESPN |access-date2 April 2023}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Baker Mayfield, American football player<ref name"TTU">{{Cite web |titleBaker Mayfield Profile |urlhttp://www.texastech.com/sports/m-footbl/mtt/baker_mayfield_857276.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190106231156/https://texastech.com/roster.aspx?rp_id612 |archive-dateJanuary 6, 2019 |publisherTexas Tech University Athletics}}</ref>
* 1995 &ndash; Georgie Friedrichs, Australian rugby sevens player<ref>{{cite web |titleRugby Sevens {{!}} Athlete Profile: Georgie FRIEDRICHS - Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games |urlhttps://results.gc2018.com/en/rugby-sevens/athlete-profile-n6029434-georgie-friedrichs.htm |websiteresults.gc2018.com |access-date13 February 2021}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Abigail Breslin, American actress<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.thestar.com/living/article/240338 |titleAbbie shines |workToronto Star |firstRita |lastZekas |dateJuly 27, 2007 |access-dateAugust 20, 2012 |archive-dateMarch 6, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160306145124/http://www.thestar.com/entertainment/2007/07/27/abbie_shines_on.html |url-statusdead}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; D. J. Moore, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleDJ Moore |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/3915416/dj-moore |publisherESPN |access-date2 April 2023}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Chase Young, American football player<ref>{{cite news |last1Fortier |first1Sam |titleChase Young's upbringing made him a 'crazy unusual' leader, and Washington is already following |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2021/01/01/chase-young-leader-washington-football-team/ |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-dateJanuary 1, 2021 |dateJanuary 1, 2021 |archive-dateJanuary 1, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210101224031/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2021/01/01/chase-young-leader-washington-football-team/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Patrick Surtain II, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titlePat Surtain II |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/4372012/pat-surtain-ii |publisherESPN |access-date2 April 2023}}</ref>
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*911 &ndash; Pope Sergius III, pope of the Roman Catholic Church<ref>{{cite web |titleSergius III {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Sergius-III |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date13 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1070 &ndash; Gerard, Duke of Lorraine (b. c. 1030)
*1099 &ndash; Conrad, Bishop of Utrecht (b. before 1040)
*1132 &ndash; Mstislav I of Kiev (b. 1076)
*1279 &ndash; Bolesław the Pious, Duke of Greater Poland (b. 1224)
*1322 &ndash; Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere, English soldier and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1275)
*1345 &ndash; Richard de Bury, English bishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of The United Kingdom (b. 1287)
*1424 &ndash; Lucia Visconti, English countess (b. 1372)
*1433 &ndash; Lidwina, Dutch saint (b. 1380)
*1471 &ndash; Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, English nobleman, known as "the Kingmaker" (b. 1428)<ref>{{cite web |titleRichard Neville, 16th earl of Warwick {{!}} English noble {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Neville-16th-earl-of-Warwick |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date28 May 2023 |languageen |date10 April 2023}}</ref>
* 1471 &ndash; John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu (b. 1431)
*1480 &ndash; Thomas de Spens, Scottish statesman and prelate (b. c. 1415)
*1488 &ndash; Girolamo Riario, Lord of Imola and Forli (b. 1443)
*1574 &ndash; Louis of Nassau (b. 1538)
*1578 &ndash; James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, English husband of Mary, Queen of Scots (b. 1534)
*1587 &ndash; Edward Manners, 3rd Earl of Rutland (b. 1548)
*1599 &ndash; Henry Wallop, English politician (b. 1540)
1601–1900
*1609 &ndash; Gasparo da Salò, Italian violin maker (b. 1540)
*1649 &ndash; Tomás Treviño de Sobremonte, crypto-Jewish martyr<ref>{{cite journal |last1Liebman |first1Seymour B. |titleTomas Treviño de Sobremonte: A Jewish Mexican Martyr |journalJewish Social Studies |date1980 |volume42 |issue1 |pages63–74 |jstor4467073 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/4467073 |access-date14 April 2024 |issn0021-6704}}</ref>
*1662 &ndash; William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, English politician (b. 1582)
*1682 &ndash; Avvakum, Russian priest and saint (b. 1620)
*1721 &ndash; Michel Chamillart, French politician, Controller-General of Finances (b. 1652)
*1740 &ndash; Lady Catherine Jones, English philanthropist (b. 1672)<ref>{{cite book |titleTHE MONTHLY MIRROR - VOL. XIV |date1802 |page19 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideswPAAAAQAAJ&pgPA19 |access-date13 April 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
*1759 &ndash; George Frideric Handel, German-English organist and composer (b. 1685)
*1785 &ndash; William Whitehead, English poet and playwright (b. 1715)
*1792 &ndash; Maximilian Hell, Slovak-Hungarian astronomer and priest (b. 1720)
*1843 &ndash; Joseph Lanner, Austrian violinist and composer (b. 1801)
*1864 &ndash; Charles Lot Church, American-Canadian politician (b. 1777)
*1886 &ndash; Anna Louisa Geertruida Bosboom-Toussaint, Dutch novelist (b. 1812)<ref>{{cite book|firstLia|lastVan Gemert|titleWomen's Writing from the Low Countries 1200-1875: A Bilingual Anthology|locationAmsterdam|publisherAmsterdam University Press|year2011|page528|isbn978-9-08964-129-8}}</ref>
*1888 &ndash; Emil Czyrniański, Polish chemist (b. 1824)<ref>{{cite book|titleLeopoldina|year1888|urlhttp://www.archive.org/stream/leopoldina24kais#page/110/mode/2up/search/111|languagede|page111|access-date27 August 2019}}</ref>
1901–present
*1910 &ndash; Mikhail Vrubel, Russian painter and sculptor (b. 1856)
*1911 &ndash; Addie Joss, American baseball player and journalist (b. 1880)
* 1911 &ndash; Henri Elzéar Taschereau, Canadian lawyer and jurist, 4th Chief Justice of Canada (b. 1836)
*1912 &ndash; Henri Brisson, French politician, 50th Prime Minister of France (b. 1835)
*1914 &ndash; Hubert Bland, English activist, co-founded the Fabian Society (b. 1855)
*1916 &ndash; Gina Krog, Norwegian suffragist and women's rights activist (b. 1847)<ref>{{Citation|lastMoksnes|firstAslaug|titleGina Krog|date2014-09-29|urlhttp://nbl.snl.no/Gina_Krog|workNorwegian Biographical Lexicon|languageno|access-date2020-02-14}}</ref>
*1917 &ndash; L. L. Zamenhof, Polish physician and linguist, created Esperanto (b. 1859)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Rolfe |first1E. |titleInternational language created by ophthalmologist "Dr. Esperanto" celebrates 100th anniversary this month (Dr. Ludvik Zamenhof). |journalCanadian Medical Association Journal |date9 December 1978 |volume119 |issue11 |pages1362–1364 |pmid367551 |pmc1818589}}</ref>
*1919 &ndash; Auguste-Réal Angers, Canadian judge and politician, 6th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (b. 1837)
*1925 &ndash; John Singer Sargent, American painter (b. 1856)
*1930 &ndash; Vladimir Mayakovsky, Georgian-Russian actor, playwright, and poet (b. 1893)
*1931 &ndash; Richard Armstedt, German philologist, historian, and educator (b. 1851)
*1935 &ndash; Emmy Noether, German-American mathematician and academic (b. 1882)
*1938 &ndash; Gillis Grafström, Swedish figure skater and architect (b. 1893)
*1943 &ndash; Yakov Dzhugashvili, Georgian-Russian lieutenant (b. 1907)
*1950 &ndash; Ramana Maharshi, Indian guru and philosopher (b. 1879)
*1951 &ndash; Al Christie, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1881)
*1962 &ndash; M. Visvesvaraya, Indian engineer and scholar (b. 1860)
*1963 &ndash; Rahul Sankrityayan, Indian monk and historian (b. 1893)
*1964 &ndash; Tatyana Afanasyeva, Russian-Dutch mathematician and theorist (b. 1876)
* 1964 &ndash; Rachel Carson, American biologist and author (b. 1907)
*1968 &ndash; Al Benton, American baseball player (b. 1911)
*1969 &ndash; Matilde Muñoz Sampedro, Spanish actress (b. 1900)
*1975 &ndash; Günter Dyhrenfurth, German-Swiss mountaineer, geologist, and explorer (b. 1886)
* 1975 &ndash; Fredric March, American actor (b. 1897)
*1976 &ndash; José Revueltas, Mexican author and activist (b. 1914)
*1978 &ndash; Joe Gordon, American baseball player and manager (b. 1915)
* 1978 &ndash; F. R. Leavis, English educator and critic (b. 1895)
*1983 &ndash; Pete Farndon, English bassist (The Pretenders) (b. 1952)
* 1983 &ndash; Gianni Rodari, Italian journalist and author (b. 1920)
*1983 &ndash; Ben Dunne, founder of Dunnes Stores (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite book|last1Dempsey|first1Pauric J.|titleDictionary of Irish Biography|last2Boylan|first2Shaun|date2009|publisherCambridge University Press|editor1-lastMcGuire|editor1-firstJames|locationCambridge|chapterDunne, Bernard ('Ben')|editor2-lastQuinn|editor2-first=James}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Simone de Beauvoir, French novelist and philosopher (b. 1908)
*1990 &ndash; Thurston Harris, American singer (b. 1931)
* 1990 &ndash; Olabisi Onabanjo, Nigerian politician, 3rd Governor of Ogun State (b. 1927)
*1991 &ndash; Randolfo Pacciardi, centre-left Italian politician (b. 1899)<ref>{{Cite web |titleArchivio Randolfo Pacciardi (1919 aprile 22 - 1991 aprile 16). Profilo storico-biografico |urlhttps://archivio.camera.it/inventari/profilo/fondo-randolfo-pacciardi |websiteArchivio storico della Camera dei Deputati |languageit}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Irene Greenwood, Australian radio broadcaster and feminist and peace activist (b. 1898)<ref>{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |last1Fisher |first1Catherine Horne |titleGreenwood, Irene Adelaide (1898–1992) |id2greenwood-irene-adelaide-25528 |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, Pakistani chemist and scholar (b. 1897)
*1995 &ndash; Burl Ives, American actor, folk singer, and writer (b. 1909)
*1999 &ndash; Ellen Corby, American actress and screenwriter (b. 1911)
* 1999 &ndash; Anthony Newley, English singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1931)
* 1999 &ndash; Bill Wendell, American television announcer (b. 1924)
*2000 &ndash; Phil Katz, American computer programmer, co-created the zip file format (b. 1962)
* 2000 &ndash; August R. Lindt, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1905)
* 2000 &ndash; Wilf Mannion, English footballer (b. 1918)
*2001 &ndash; Jim Baxter, Scottish footballer (b. 1939)
* 2001 &ndash; Hiroshi Teshigahara, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1927)
*2003 &ndash; Jyrki Otila, Finnish politician (b. 1941)
*2004 &ndash; Micheline Charest, English-Canadian television producer, co-founded the Cookie Jar Group (b. 1953)
*2006 &ndash; Mahmut Bakalli, Kosovo politician (b. 1936)
*2007 &ndash; June Callwood, Canadian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1924)
* 2007 &ndash; Don Ho, American singer and ukulele player (b. 1930)
* 2007 &ndash; René Rémond, French historian and economist (b. 1918)
*2008 &ndash; Tommy Holmes, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917)
* 2008 &ndash; Ollie Johnston, American animator and voice actor (b. 1912)
*2009 &ndash; Maurice Druon, French author (b. 1918)
*2010 &ndash; Israr Ahmed, Pakistani theologian and scholar (b. 1932)
* 2010 &ndash; Alice Miller, Polish-French psychologist and author (b. 1923)
* 2010 &ndash; Peter Steele, American singer-songwriter and bass player (b. 1962)
*2011 &ndash; Jean Gratton, Canadian Roman Catholic bishop (b. 1924)
*2012 &ndash; Émile Bouchard, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1919)
* 2012 &ndash; Jonathan Frid, Canadian actor (b. 1924)
* 2012 &ndash; Piermario Morosini, Italian footballer (b. 1986)
*2013 &ndash; Efi Arazi, Israeli businessman, founded the Scailex Corporation (b. 1937)
* 2013 &ndash; Colin Davis, English conductor and educator (b. 1927)
* 2013 &ndash; R. P. Goenka, Indian businessman, founded RPG Group (b. 1930)
* 2013 &ndash; George Jackson, American singer-songwriter (b. 1945)
* 2013 &ndash; Armando Villanueva, Peruvian politician, 121st Prime Minister of Peru (b. 1915)
* 2013 &ndash; Charlie Wilson, American politician (b. 1943)
*2014 &ndash; Nina Cassian, Romanian poet and critic (b. 1924)
* 2014 &ndash; Crad Kilodney, American-Canadian author (b. 1948)
* 2014 &ndash; Wally Olins, English businessman and academic (b. 1930)
* 2014 &ndash; Mick Staton, American soldier and politician (b. 1940)
*2015 &ndash; Klaus Bednarz, German journalist and author (b. 1942)
* 2015 &ndash; Mark Reeds, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1960)
* 2015 &ndash; Percy Sledge, American singer (b. 1940)
* 2015 &ndash; Roberto Tucci, Italian cardinal and theologian (b. 1921)
*2019 &ndash; Bibi Andersson, Swedish actress (b.1935)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2019/apr/15/bibi-andersson-obituary|titleBibi Andersson obituary|newspaperThe Guardian|date15 April 2019|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; Carol D'Onofrio, American public health researcher (b. 1936)<ref>{{Cite web|lastMake|firstKara|date2020-04-23|titleCarol D'Onofrio, champion of health for underserved communities, dies at 84|urlhttps://news.berkeley.edu/2020/04/23/carol-donofrio-champion-of-health-for-underserved-communities-dies-at-84/|access-date2021-08-10|websiteBerkeley News|languageen-US}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Bernie Madoff, American mastermind of the world's largest Ponzi scheme (b. 1938)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-56750103|titleBernie Madoff: Disgraced financier dies in prison|workBBC News|date14 April 2021}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Mike Bossy, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (b. 1957)<ref nameglobeobit>{{cite web|publisherThe Globe and Mail|urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-mike-bossy-new-york-islanders-stanley-cup-champ-obituary|titleMike Bossy, New York Islanders Great, Four-time Stanley Cup Champion, Dies at 65|firstTom|lastHawthorn|dateApril 15, 2022|accessdateApril 15, 2022}}</ref>
* 2022 &ndash; Ilkka Kanerva, Finnish politician (b. 1948)<ref>{{Cite web |date14 April 2022 |titleKansanedustaja Ilkka Kanerva on kuollut |urlhttps://yle.fi/uutiset/3-12406911 |access-date14 April 2022 |websiteYle Uutiset |languagefi}}</ref>
* 2022 &ndash; Orlando Julius, Nigerian saxophonist, singer (b. 1943)<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-04-26 |titleOrlando Julius obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/apr/26/orlando-julius-obituary |access-date2022-05-01 |websitethe Guardian |languageen}}</ref>
* 2023 &ndash; Mark Sheehan, Irish guitarist (The Script) (b. 1976)<ref>{{cite news|last1Parkel|first1Inga|titleMark Sheehan death: The Script guitarist and co-founder dies aged 46|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/mark-sheehan-death-the-script-age-cause-b2320054.html?amp|workThe Independent|date14 April 2023}}</ref>
* 2024 &ndash; Ken Holtzman, American baseball player (b. 1945)<ref>{{Cite web |lastHochman |firstBenjamin |date2024-04-15 |titleSt. Louisan Ken Holtzman, who threw 2 no-hitters for Cubs and won 3 World Series for A's, has died |urlhttps://www.stltoday.com/sports/column/benjamin-hochman/st-louisan-ken-holtzman-who-threw-2-no-hitters-for-cubs-and-won-3-world/article_3abee8da-fb3e-11ee-baab-c74c79ace82a.html |access-date2024-04-16 |websiteSTLtoday.com |languageen}}</ref>
Holidays and observances
*Ambedkar Jayanti (India)
*Bengali New Year (Bangladesh)<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-04-14 |titlePoila Boishakh 1429: Why Bangladesh & West Bengal Celebrate Bengali New Year On Different Days |urlhttps://news.abplive.com/lifestyle/poila-boishakh-1429-history-of-bengali-calendar-and-why-bangladesh-and-bengal-celebrate-bengali-new-year-on-different-days-1525756 |access-date19 September 2022 |publisherABP News Bureau |languageen}}</ref>
*Black Day (South Korea)
*Cake and Cunnilingus Day<ref>{{cite web |titleCake-and-Cunnilingustag am 14.04.2020: Was ist eigentlich der Kuchen-und-Cunnilingustag? |urlhttps://www.news.de/reisen-und-leben/855636354/kuchen-und-cunnilingus-tag-am-14-04-2020-begriff-erklaerung-herkunft-bedeutung-von-cake-and-cunnilingus-day/1/ |websiteNews.de |access-date16 April 2024 |languagede |date14 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleCake and Cunnilingus Day, la "dolcissima" festa del sesso orale per sole donne...|urlhttps://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2018/04/14/cake-and-cunnilingus-day-la-dolcissima-festa-del-sesso-orale-per-sole-donne/4293320/ |websiteIl Fatto Quotidiano |access-date16 April 2024 |languageit-IT |date14 April 2018}}</ref>
*Christian feast day:
**Anthony, John, and Eustathius
**Bénézet
**Henry Beard Delany (U.S. Episcopal Church)
**Domnina of Terni
**Lidwina
**Peter González
**Tiburtius, Valerian, and Maximus
**April 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Commemoration of Anfal Genocide Against the Kurds (Iraqi Kurdistan)
*Day of Mologa (Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia)
*Day of the Georgian language (Georgia)<ref>{{cite web|titleOn April 14, our country celebrates the Day of the Georgian Language|urlhttp://gov.ge/print.php?gg1&sec_id412&info_id48425&lang_idENG|date14 April 2015|publisherGovernment of Georgia|access-date=25 August 2021}}</ref>
*Dhivehi Language Day (Maldives)
*N'Ko Alphabet Day (Mande speakers)
*Pan American Day (several countries in the Americas)
*Takayama Spring Festival begins (Takayama, Gifu Prefecture, Japan)
* Vaisakhi (Since 2011)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/baisakhi-stories/myth-behind-baisakhi-baisakhi-not-always-on-april-13/articleshow/7884380.cms|workThe Times of India|titleMyth behind Baisakhi: Baisakhi not always on April 13|lastBhatia|firstRamaninder|date2011-04-07}}</ref>
*Youth Day (Angola)<ref>{{cite book |last1James |first1W. Martin |titleHistorical Dictionary of Angola |date2018 |publisherRowman & Littlefield |isbn978-1-5381-1123-9 |page255 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZtJKDwAAQBAJ&pgPA255 |language=en}}</ref>
*World Quantum Day<ref>{{Cite web |date2023-04-14 |titleWhite House Office of Science and Technology Policy Celebrates World Quantum Day {{!}} OSTP |urlhttps://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/ostp/news-updates/2023/04/14/white-house-office-of-science-and-technology-policy-celebrates-world-quantum-day/ |access-date2023-05-26 |websiteThe White House |languageen-US}}</ref>
References
{{Reflist}}
Sources
* {{cite book |authorMarcus Tullius Cicero |titlePhilippicae |volumeXIV |ref{{harvid|Cicero}} }}
External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/14 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day14}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/14 Historical Events on April 14]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_14
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.135059
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1864
|
Astoria, Oregon
|
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Astoria
| settlement_type = City
| nickname | motto
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| total_width = 280
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/2/2
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Astoria Oregon.jpg
| alt1 = View of Astoria and Astoria–Megler Bridge
| caption1 = View of Astoria and Astoria–Megler Bridge
| image2 = Pinkhouse (25100833).jpg
| alt2 = Peter L. Cherry House
| caption2 = Peter L. Cherry House
| image3 = Astoria Riverfront Trolley on trestle west of 2nd Street-crop.jpg
| alt3 = Astoria Riverfront Trolley
| caption3 = Astoria Riverfront Trolley
| image4 = John Jacob Astor Hotel in Astoria.JPG
| alt4 = John Jacob Astor Hotel
| caption4 = John Jacob Astor Hotel
| image5 = Fort Astoria replica 2011.jpg
| alt5 = The replica of Fort Astoria
| caption5 = The replica of Fort Astoria
}}
| image_flag | image_seal AstoriaSeal.png
| image_map {{maplink|frameyes|plainyes|frame-aligncenter|frame-width280|frame-height280|frame-coordSWITCH:{{coord|46|11|20|N|123|48|25|W}}###{{coord|qidQ484371}}###{{coord|qidQ824}}###{{coord|39|49|41|N|101|0|0|W}}|zoomSWITCH:11;9;5;3|typeSWITCH:shape-inverse;shape;point;point|markercity|stroke-width2|stroke-color#5f5f5f|id2SWITCH:Q490724;Q484371;Q824;Q30|type2shape|fill2#ffffff|fill-opacity2SWITCH:0;0.1;0.1;0.1|stroke-width22|stroke-color2#5f5f5f|stroke-opacity2SWITCH:0;1;1;1|switchAstoria;Clatsop County;Oregon;the United States}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_type2 = County
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_name1 = Oregon
| subdivision_name2 = Clatsop
| government_type | leader_title Mayor
| leader_name Sean Fitzpatrick{{cn|dateNovember 2023}}
| established_title = Founded
| established_title2 = Incorporated
| established_date = 1811
| established_date2 1876<ref nameincorp>{{cite journal|lastLeeds|firstW. H.|year1899|titleSpecial Laws|journalThe State of Oregon General and Special Laws and Joint Resolutions and Memorials Enacted and Adopted by the Twentieth Regular Session of the Legislative Assembly|publisherState Printer|locationSalem, Oregon|page747|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgsCwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA747}}</ref>
| named_for = John Jacob Astor
| area_total_sq_mi = 9.95
| area_footnotes <ref name"TigerWebMapServer">{{cite web|titleArcGIS REST Services Directory|urlhttps://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/arcgis/rest/services/TIGERweb/Places_CouSub_ConCity_SubMCD/MapServer/5/query?whereSTATE'41'&outFieldsNAME,STATE,PLACE,AREALAND,AREAWATER,LSADC,CENTLAT,CENTLON&orderByFieldsPLACE&returnGeometryfalse&returnTrueCurvesfalse&fjson|publisherUnited States Census Bureau|accessdate=October 12, 2022}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 = 25.77
| area_land_sq_mi = 6.11
| area_land_km2 = 15.82
| area_water_sq_mi = 3.84
| area_water_km2 = 9.95
| area_urban_sq_mi | area_metro_sq_mi
<!-- Population -->
| population_as_of = 2020
| population_est | pop_est_as_of
| population_footnotes <ref name"USCensusDecennial2020CenPopScriptOnly"/>
| population_total = 10181
| population_density_km2 = 643.42
| population_density_sq_mi = 1666.56
| population_note | population_metro
| population_urban | timezone PST
| utc_offset = −08:00
| timezone_DST = PDT
| utc_offset_DST = −07:00
| coordinates {{coord|46|11|18|N|123|48|36|W|type:city_region:US-OR_source:gnis|displayinline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes <ref namegnis/>
| elevation_ft = 118
| website = {{URL|https://www.astoria.gov|astoria.gov}}
| postal_code_type = ZIP Code
| postal_code = 97103
| area_codes = 503 and 971
| blank_name = FIPS code
| blank_info 41-03150<ref name"GR2">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.census.gov |publisherUnited States Census Bureau |access-dateJanuary 31, 2008 |titleU.S. Census website }}</ref>
| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID
| blank1_info 2409744<ref namegnis>{{GNIS|2409744}}</ref>
| unit_pref = Imperial
}}
Astoria is a port city and the seat of Clatsop County, Oregon, United States. Founded in 1811, Astoria is the oldest city in the state and was the first permanent American settlement west of the Rocky Mountains.{{sfn|Lescroart|2009|p981}} The county is the northwest corner of Oregon, and Astoria is located on the south shore of the Columbia River, where the river flows into the Pacific Ocean. The city is named for John Jacob Astor, an investor and entrepreneur from New York City, whose American Fur Company founded Fort Astoria at the site and established a monopoly in the fur trade in the early 19th century. Astoria was incorporated by the Oregon Legislative Assembly on October 20, 1856.<ref nameincorp />
The city is served by the deepwater Port of Astoria. Transportation includes the Astoria Regional Airport. U.S. Route 30 and U.S. Route 101 are the main highways, and the {{convert|4.1|mi|adjon}} Astoria–Megler Bridge connects to neighboring Washington across the river. The population was 10,181 at the 2020 census.<ref>{{Cite web |titleU.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Astoria city, Oregon |urlhttps://www.census.gov/quickfacts/astoriacityoregon |access-date2023-01-25 |websitewww.census.gov |languageen}}</ref>
History
Prehistoric settlements
The present area of Astoria was inhabited by a large, prehistoric Native American trade system of the Columbia Plateau.<ref>Rebecca Sedlak (August 2, 2012). [https://www.dailyastorian.com/news/first-archaeological-dig-scratches-the-surface-of-fort-astoria-146-s-history/article_e79c22b1-9633-52f8-a46a-a1a2db62ed37.html "First archaeological dig 'scratches the surface' of Fort Astoria’s history"]. The Daily Astorian. Retrieved April 29, 2021.</ref><ref>Galm, Jerry R., (1989), Prehistoric Trade and Exchange in the Columbia Plateau, Paper presented at the 42nd Annual Northwest Anthropological Conference, Spokane, Washington. Retrieved April 29, 2021.</ref>
19th century
The Lewis and Clark Expedition spent the winter of 1805–1806 at Fort Clatsop, a small log structure southwest of modern-day Astoria. The expedition had hoped a ship would come by that could take them back east, but instead, they endured a torturous winter of rain and cold. They later returned overland and by internal rivers, the way they had traveled west.<ref>{{cite book|author1William Clark|author2-linkMeriwether Lewis |author2Meriwether Lewis |title The Journals of Lewis and Clark, 1804–1806 |editionLibrary of Alexandria |year 2015 |publisherLibrary of Alexandria |isbn 978-1-613-10310-4 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6NrOUUf7288C&pgPP1|author1-linkWilliam Clark }}</ref> During archeological excavations in Astoria and Fort Clatsop in 2012, trading items from American settlers with Native Americans were found, including Austrian glass beads and falconry bells. Today, the fort has been recreated and is part of Lewis and Clark National Historical Park.<ref>{{cite web |titleHistory & Culture: Places: Fort Clatsop – "The National Park Service maintains a replica fort within the Lewis and Clark National Historical Park that is believed to sit on or near the site of the original fort." |publisher National Park Service / U.S. Department of the Interior|access-dateMay 12, 2016|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/lewi/learn/historyculture/histcult-places-focl.htm}}</ref>
<!-- Could be in a single column for the new English Wikipedia interface. -->
{{multiple image
| align = left
| total_width = 200
| image1 = Franchere fort astoria 1813.jpg
| alt1 = 1813 sketch of Fort Astoria
| caption1 = Gabriel Franchère's 1813 sketch of Fort Astoria
}}
In 1811, British explorer David Thompson, the first person known to have navigated the entire length of the Columbia River, reached the partially constructed Fort Astoria near the mouth of the river. He arrived two months after the Pacific Fur Company's ship, the Tonquin.{{Sfn|Meinig|1995|pages37–38, 50}} The fort constructed by the Tonquin party established Astoria as a U.S., rather than a British, settlement{{Sfn|Meinig|1995|pages37–38, 50}} and became a vital post for American exploration of the continent. It was later used as an American claim in the Oregon boundary dispute with European nations.
The Pacific Fur Company, a subsidiary of John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company, was created to begin fur trading in the Oregon Country.<ref>{{cite book |lastRonda | first James |titleAstoria & Empire |url https://archive.org/details/astoriaempire0000rond |url-accessregistration |year 1995 |publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press |locationLincoln, Nebraska |isbn0-8032-3896-7}}</ref> During the War of 1812, in 1813, the company's officers sold its assets to their Canadian rivals, the North West Company, which renamed the site Fort George. The fur trade remained under British control until U.S. pioneers following the Oregon Trail began filtering into the town in the mid-1840s. The Treaty of 1818 established joint U.S. – British occupancy of the Oregon Country.<ref name"US Treaties in Force 2005">{{cite book
| last = United States Department of State
| author-link = United States Department of State
| others = Compiled by the Treaty Affairs Staff, Office of the Legal Adviser, U.S. Department of State.
| title = Treaties In Force: A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force on November 1, 2007. Section 1: Bilateral Treaties
| urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/83046.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/83046.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive
| edition = 2007
| date = November 1, 2007
| location = Washington, DC
| pages = 320
}}</ref>{{Sfn|Lauterpacht|2004|p=8}}
Washington Irving, a prominent American writer with a European reputation, was approached by John Jacob Astor to mythologize the three-year reign of his Pacific Fur Company. Astoria (1835), written while Irving was Astor's guest, promoted the importance of the region in the American psyche.<ref>In his introduction to the rambling work, Irving reports that Astor explicitly "expressed a regret that the true nature and extent of his enterprize<!--enterprize in original-->and its national character and importance had never been understood."</ref> In Irving's words, the fur traders were "Sinbads of the wilderness", and their venture was a staging point for the spread of American economic power into both the continental interior and outward in Pacific trade.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRdRKAQAAMAAJ&pgPA105|titleCollections of the Kansas State Historical Society, Volume 9|date1906|publisherKansas State Historical Society|page=105}}</ref>
In 1846, the Oregon Treaty divided the mainland at the 49th parallel north, making Astoria officially part of the United States.<ref name"Canado-American Treaties Text">{{cite web|year2000 |urlhttp://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/ca_us/en/cus.1818.15.en.html |titleConvention of Commerce between His Majesty and the United States of America.—Signed at London, 20th October 1818 |workCanado-American Treaties |publisherUniversité de Montréal |access-dateMarch 27, 2006 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090411212640/http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/ca_us/en/cus.1818.15.en.html |archive-dateApril 11, 2009}}</ref>
As the Oregon Territory grew and became increasingly more colonized by Americans, Astoria likewise grew as a port city near the mouth of the great river that provided the easiest access to the interior. The first U.S. post office west of the Rocky Mountains was established in Astoria in 1847<ref name"Oregon Sesquicentennial exhibit online version.pdf">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.pacificnorthwestpostalhistorysociety.org/Downloads/OregonTerritorialExhibit/Oregon%20Sesquitennial%20exhibit%20online%20version.pdf |titleOregon Territorials – Oregon Sesquicentennial exhibit online version.pdf |year2009 |publisherPacific Northwest Postal History Society |access-dateNovember 11, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150220055006/http://pacificnorthwestpostalhistorysociety.org/Downloads/OregonTerritorialExhibit/Oregon%20Sesquitennial%20exhibit%20online%20version.pdf |archive-dateFebruary 20, 2015 |url-statusdead }}</ref> and official state incorporation in 1876.<ref name"incorp" />
Astoria attracted a host of immigrants beginning in the late 19th century: Nordic settlers, primarily Swedes, Swedish-speaking Finns, and Chinese soon became larger parts of the population. The Nordic settlers mostly lived in Uniontown, near the present-day end of the Astoria–Megler Bridge, and took fishing jobs; the Chinese tended to do cannery work, and usually lived either downtown or in bunkhouses near the canneries. By the late 1800s, 22% of Astoria's population was Chinese.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.loffe.net/emigration-mainmenu-59/1474-the-swedes-of-oregon|titleThe Swedes of Oregon}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.opb.org/news/article/astoria_embraces_chinese_legacy/|titleAstoria Embraces Chinese Legacy|authorChelsea Gorrow|newspaper The Daily Astorian | dateApril 16, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTNwizCeblKgC&pgPA38|title American Swedish Historical Museum: Yearbook 1946| publisherAmerican Swedish Hist Museum |isbn 9781437950021}}</ref> Astoria also had a significant population of Indians, especially Sikhs from Punjab; the Ghadar Party, a political movement among Indians on the West Coast of the U.S. and Canada to overthrow British rule in India, was officially founded on July 15, 1913, in Astoria.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastOgden |firstJohanna |dateSummer 2012 |titleGhadar, Historical Silences, and Notions of Belonging: Early 1900s Punjabis of the Columbia River |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5403/oregonhistq.113.2.0164 |journalOregon Historical Quarterly |volume113 |issue2 |pages164–197 (34 pages)|doi10.5403/oregonhistq.113.2.0164 |jstor10.5403/oregonhistq.113.2.0164 |s2cid164468099 }}</ref> 20th and 21st centuries In 1883, and again in 1922, downtown Astoria was devastated by fire, partly because the buildings were constructed mostly of wood, a readily available material. The buildings were entirely raised off the marshy ground on wooden pilings. Even after the first fire, the same building format was used. In the second fire, flames spread quickly again, and the collapsing streets took out the water system. Frantic citizens resorted to dynamite, blowing up entire buildings to create fire stops.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.oregonlive.com/O/index.ssf/2010/12/infernos_leave_historic_marks.html | first John | last Terry | title Infernos leave historic marks on Astoria's waterfront | publisher The Oregonian/OregonLive | dateDecember 25, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnEwiCgAAQBAJ&pgPT26| first Rachel | last Dresbeck | title Oregon Disasters: True Stories of Tragedy and Survival |chapterChapter 3 – Port Town in Flames – The Astoria Fire – 1922 | publisher Rowman & Littlefield | date July 15, 2015| isbn = 9781493013197 }}</ref>
{| class"wikitable collapsible autocollapse" style"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|-
! style="background: #F3E5AB" | Panoramic views of Astoria in the early 20th century
|-
|{{Panorama |imageFile:Astoria, Oregon, looking out the mouth of the Columbia River LCCN2007662740.tif|fullwidth3201 |fullheight684 |caption{{center|Photograph of Astoria {{circa|1912}}}}|height=140}}
|-
|{{Panorama |imageFile:Astoria, Oregon, looking out the mouth of the Columbia River LCCN2007662739.tif|fullwidth3946 |fullheight680 |caption{{center|Photograph of Astoria {{circa|1914}}}}|height=140}}
|-
|{{Panorama |imageFile:Astoria, Oregon and mouth of the Columbia River LCCN2007662735.tif|fullwidth3305 |fullheight680 |caption{{center|Photograph of Astoria {{circa|1915}}}}|height=140}}
|}
Astoria has served as a port of entry for over a century and remains the trading center for the lower Columbia basin. In the early 1900s, the Callendar Navigation Company was an important transportation and maritime concern based in the city.<ref>{{Citation
| title = Callendar Navigation Co.
| type = schedule
| url = https://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn85042400/1905-05-09/ed-1/seq-6/
| newspaper = Morning Astorian
| publisher = J.S. Dellinger Co.
| editor | location Astoria OR
| volume = 59
| issue = 177
| date = May 9, 1905
| page = 6, col.3
| no-pp =
}}</ref> It has long since been eclipsed in importance by Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington, as economic hubs on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. Astoria's economy centered on fishing, fish processing, and lumber. In 1945, about 30 canneries could be found along the Columbia River.
In the early 20th century, the North Pacific Brewing Company contributed substantially to the economic well-being of the town.<ref>{{Cite news |dateMay 22, 1906 |titleReport of Committee on Manufacturies |pages5 |workThe Morning Astorian |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/102302548/report-of-committee-on-manfacturies/ |access-dateMay 21, 2022 |via=Newspapers.com}}
----{{Cite news |dateMay 22, 1906 |titleEthics and Business |pages2 |workThe Morning Astorian |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/102303425/ethics-and-business/ |access-dateMay 21, 2022 |viaNewspapers.com}}</ref> Before 1902, the company was owned by John Kopp, who sold the firm to a group of five men, one of whom was Charles Robinson, who became the company's president in 1907.<ref>{{Cite news |dateFebruary 17, 1903 |titleEmil Schimpff Ends His Life |pages4 |workThe Times-Tribune |locationScranton, Pennsylvania |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/51250122/emil-schimpff-suicide/ |access-dateMay 21, 2022 |viaNewspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastHankel |firstEvelyn G. |dateFall 1989 |titleEarly Astonian Breweries |urlhttps://archive.org/details/cumtux.19890904/page/20/mode/2up |journalCUMTUX |volume9 |issue4 |pages21 |viaInternet Archive}}</ref> The main plant for the brewery was located on East Exchange Street.<ref>{{Cite news |dateMarch 28, 1908 |titleWorking and Repairing |pages5 |workThe Morning Astorian |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/102304090/working-and-repairing/ |access-dateMay 21, 2022 |viaNewspapers.com}}</ref>
As the Pacific salmon resource diminished, canneries were closed. In 1974, the Bumble Bee Seafoods corporation moved its headquarters out of Astoria and gradually reduced its presence until closing its last Astoria cannery in 1980.<ref>{{cite book|titleSouth Tongue Point Land Exchange and Marine Industrial Park Development Project, Clatsop County: Environmental Impact Statement |publisherUS Dept of Interior: Fish & Wildlife Service |date1992 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtDQ3AQAAMAAJ&pgPT106 |chapter3 |page53 |access-date2021-11-21}}</ref> The lumber industry likewise declined in the late 20th century. Astoria Plywood Mill, the city's largest employer, closed in 1989. The Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway discontinued service to Astoria in 1996, as it did not provide a large enough market.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.bendbulletin.com/lifestyle/3256316-153/going-goonie-in-astoria| first John Gottberg | last Anderson | title Going "Goonie" in Astoria | newspaper Bend Bulletin | date=June 21, 2015}}</ref>
From 1921 to 1966, a ferry route across the Columbia River connected Astoria with Pacific County, Washington. In 1966, the Astoria–Megler Bridge was opened. The bridge completed U.S. Route 101 and linked Astoria with Washington on the opposite shore of the Columbia, replacing the ferry service.{{Sfn|Smith|1989|p=299}}
Today, tourism, Astoria's growing art scene, and light manufacturing are the main economic activities of the city. Logging and fishing persist, but at a fraction of their former levels.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://koin.com/2014/10/29/report-astoria-tops-west-coast-fishing-ports/ |titleReport: Astoria tops West Coast fishing ports |agencyAssociated Press |dateOctober 29, 2014 |access-dateMay 31, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160808204432/http://koin.com/2014/10/29/report-astoria-tops-west-coast-fishing-ports/ |archive-dateAugust 8, 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Since 1982 it has been a port of call for cruise ships, after the city and port authority spent $10&nbsp;million in pier improvements to accommodate these larger ships.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.dailyastorian.com/news/cruise-ship-season-to-see-double-the-visits/article_8e52ff7b-5f7b-521e-99be-e2ba6a9cb234.html| first LeeAnn | lastNeal | title Cruise ship season to see double the visits | newspaper The Astorian | dateApr 30, 2011}}</ref>
To avoid Mexican ports of call during the swine flu outbreak of 2009, many cruises were rerouted to include Astoria. The floating residential community MS The World visited Astoria in June 2009.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.oregonlive.com/news/index.ssf/2009/05/swine_flu_sends_cruise_ship_an.html | first Katy | lastMuldoon | title Swine flu sends cruise ship, tourism dollars to Astoria |publisher The Oregonian/OregonLive | dateMay 14, 2009}}</ref>
The town's seasonal sport fishing tourism has been active for several decades.<ref>{{cite web |authorEdward Stratton |titleKeeping fishing fever in check|urlhttp://www.dailyastorian.com/Local_News/20150811/keeping-fishing-fever-in-check |websiteThe Daily Astorian |dateAugust 11, 2015 |access-dateMay 30, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |authorBill Monroe|titleEarly success at Buoy 10 promises good fall season ahead for salmon fishing |urlhttp://www.oregonlive.com/sports/oregonian/bill_monroe/index.ssf/2015/08/post_191.html |websiteThe Oregonian/OregonLive |dateAugust 8, 2015 |access-dateMay 30, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |authorAndrew McKean |titleThe Bite: Salmon Fishing the Columbia River |urlhttp://www.outdoorlife.com/articles/fishing/2015/08/bite-salmon-fishing-columbia-river |websiteOutdoor Life |dateAugust 2015 |access-dateMay 30, 2016}}</ref> Visitors attracted by heritage tourism and the historic elements of the city have supplanted fishing in the economy. Since the early 21st century, the microbrewery/brewpub scene<ref>{{cite news |authorEdward Stratton |titleSour beer to join Astoria's impressive brewing lineup |urlhttp://www.dailyastorian.com/local_biz/20160524/sour-beer-to-join-astorias-impressive-brewing-lineup |websiteThe Daily Astorian |dateMay 24, 2016 |access-dateMay 30, 2016}}</ref> and a weekly street market<ref>{{cite web |titleAstoria Sunday Market – Astoria, OR |urlhttp://nfmd.org/or/astoria/1003661/ |websiteNational Farmers Market Directory |access-dateMay 30, 2016}}</ref> have helped popularize the area as a destination.
In addition to the replicated Fort Clatsop, another point of interest is the Astoria Column, a tower {{convert|125|ft|m}} high, built atop Coxcomb Hill above the town. Its inner circular staircase allows visitors to climb to see a panoramic view of the town, the surrounding lands, and the Columbia flowing into the Pacific. The tower was built in 1926. Financing was provided by the Great Northern Railway, seeking to encourage tourists, and Vincent Astor, a great-grandson of John Jacob Astor, in commemoration of the city's role in the family's business history and the region's early history.<ref nameacolcch>{{cite news |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idcbFXAAAAIBAJ&pg6859%2C293169 |newspaperSpokesman-Review |locationSpokane, Washington |agencyAssociated Press |titleAstoria Column, Coxcomb Hill |dateJuly 13, 1926 |page7}}</ref><ref nametcatas>{{cite news |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idorVWAAAAIBAJ&pg6372%2C1096842 |newspaperEugene Guard |locationOregon |titleThe Column at Astoria |dateJuly 24, 1926 |page=4}}</ref>
Since 1998, artistically inclined fishermen and women from Alaska and the Pacific Northwest have traveled to Astoria for the Fisher Poets Gathering, where poets and singers tell their tales to honor the fishing industry and lifestyle.<ref namesmithso>{{cite magazine |url http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/rhyme-or-cut-bait-76082918/?cy%3Fno-ist|titleRhyme or Cut Bait When these fisher poets gather, nobody brags about the verse that got away|authorSharon Boorstin|magazineSmithsonian Magazine|date= June 2005}}</ref>
Another popular annual event is the Dark Arts Festival, which features music, art, dance, and demonstrations of craft such as blacksmithing and glassblowing, in combination with offerings of a large array of dark craft brews. Dark Arts Festival began as a small gathering at a community arts space. Now Fort George Brewery hosts the event, which draws hundreds of visitors and tour buses from Seattle.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.dailyastorian.com/multimedia/festival-of-dark-arts/collection_e559eb12-32fa-11e9-b34d-335c31cd3beb.html#1 |titleFestival of Dark Arts|authorColin Murphey|newspaperThe Daily Astorian|date= February 17, 2019}}</ref>
Astoria is the western terminus of the TransAmerica Bicycle Trail, a {{convert|4250|mi|adj=on}} coast-to-coast bicycle touring route created in 1976 by the Adventure Cycling Association.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.adventurecycling.org/routes/transamerica.cfm
|title = TransAmerica Trail Summary
|publisher = Adventure Cycling Association
|access-date = December 26, 2012
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20130112054026/http://www.adventurecycling.org/routes/transamerica.cfm
|archive-date = January 12, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
At least two United States Coast Guard cutters: the David Duren and Elm, are homeported in Astoria.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.chinookobserver.com/co/coast-guard/20150916/new-commander-takes-steadfasts-helm
| title = New commander takes Steadfast's helm
| author = Edward Stratton
| publisher = EO Media Group / chinookobserver
| date = September 16, 2015
| access-date = May 12, 2016
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleCoast Guard accepts 56th fast response cutter, to be homeported in Astoria, Oregon |urlhttps://www.dcms.uscg.mil/Our-Organization/Assistant-Commandant-for-Acquisitions-CG-9/Newsroom/Latest-Acquisition-News/Article/3727094/coast-guard-accepts-56th-fast-response-cutter-to-be-homeported-in-astoria-oregon/ |websiteLatest Acquisition News |publisherUnited States Coast Guard |access-date16 January 2025}}</ref>GeographyAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of {{convert|10.11|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, of which {{convert|3.95|sqmi|sqkm|2}} are covered by water.<ref name"Gazetteer files">{{cite web|titleUS Gazetteer files 2010 |urlhttps://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |publisherUnited States Census Bureau |access-dateDecember 21, 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120112090031/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt |archive-dateJanuary 12, 2012 |dfmdy}}</ref>
Climate
Astoria lies within the Mediterranean climate zone (Köppen Csb), with cool winters and mild summers, although short heat waves can occur. Rainfall is most abundant in late fall and winter and is lightest in July and August, averaging about {{convert|67|in|mm}} of rain each year.<ref name"climate">{{cite web|titleClimate of Clatsop County |urlhttp://www.ocs.oregonstate.edu/county_climate/Clatsop_files/Clatsop.html |publisherOregon State University |access-dateApril 22, 2016 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160730095449/http://www.ocs.oregonstate.edu/county_climate/Clatsop_files/Clatsop.html |archive-dateJuly 30, 2016}}</ref> Snowfall is relatively rare, averaging under {{convert|5|in|cm}} a year and frequently having none.<ref>{{Cite web |date2002 |titlenot found |urlhttps://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/lcd/annual/2002/2002AST.pdf |access-dateJanuary 9, 2025 |website=www.ncei.noaa.gov}}</ref> Nevertheless, when conditions are ripe, significant snowfalls can occur.
Astoria's monthly average humidity is always over 80% throughout the year, with average monthly humidity reaching a high of 84% from November to March, with a low of 81% during May.<ref>{{Cite web |lastAladin |titleAstoria, OR - Climate & Monthly weather forecast |urlhttps://www.weather-us.com/en/oregon-usa/astoria-climate |access-date2023-01-25 |websiteWeather U.S. |languageen}}</ref> The average relative humidity in Astoria is 89% in the morning and 73% in the afternoon.<ref>{{cite web | title Average Relative Humidity – Morning (M), Afternoon (A) | work Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2012 | publisher National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | year 2013 | url http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/ccd-data/CCD-2012.pdf | url-status dead | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140718012823/http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/ccd-data/CCD-2012.pdf | archive-date July 18, 2014}}</ref>
Annually, an average of only 4.2 afternoons have temperatures reaching {{convert|80|°F|1}} or higher, and {{convert|90|°F|1|dispor}} readings are rare. Normally, only one or two nights per year occur when the temperature remains at or above {{convert|60|°F|1|dispor}}.<ref>{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/1981-2010/products/station/USW00094224.normals.txt
| title = Station Name: OR ASTORIA RGNL AP
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| access-date June 13, 2013}}</ref> An average of 31 mornings have minimum temperatures at or below the freezing mark. The record high temperature was {{convert|101|°F|1}} on July 1, 1942, and June 27, 2021. The record low temperature was {{convert|6|°F|1}} on December 8, 1972, and on December 21, 1990. Even with such a cold record low, afternoons usually remain mild in winter. On average, the coldest daytime high is {{convert|36|F|C}} whereas the lowest daytime maximum on record is {{convert|19|F|C}}.<ref name NCDC /> Even during brief heat spikes, nights remain cool. The warmest overnight low is {{convert|63|F|C}} set as early in the year as in May during 2008.<ref name NCDC /> Nights close to that record are common with the normally warmest night of the year being at {{convert|61|F|C}}.<ref name NCDC />
On average, 191 days have measurable precipitation. The wettest "water year", defined as October 1 through September 30 of the next year, was from 1915 to 1916 with {{convert|108.04|in|mm|abbron}} and the driest from 2000 to 2001 with {{convert|44.50|in|mm|abbron}}. The most rainfall in one month was {{convert|36.07|in|mm|1}} in December 1933, and the most in 24 hours was {{convert|5.56|in|mm|1}} on November 25, 1998.<ref name NCDC /> The most snowfall in one month was {{convert|26.9|in|cm|abbron}} in January 1950,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?or0324|titleAstoria, Oregon (350324)|publisherWestern Regional Climate Center|access-dateDecember 31, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?or0328|titleAstoria WSO Airport, Oregon (350328)|publisherWestern Regional Climate Center|access-dateDecember 31, 2013}}</ref> and the most snow in 24 hours was {{convert|12.5|in|cm|abbron}} on December 11, 1922.<ref name NCDC />
{{Weather box
|collapsed |location Astoria Regional Airport (1991–2020 normals,{{efn|Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.}} extremes 1892–present)
|single line = Y
|Jan record high F = 70
|Feb record high F = 72
|Mar record high F = 80
|Apr record high F = 85
|May record high F = 93
|Jun record high F = 101
|Jul record high F = 101
|Aug record high F = 98
|Sep record high F = 95
|Oct record high F = 85
|Nov record high F = 73
|Dec record high F = 64
|year record high F = 101
|Jan avg record high F = 58.9
|Feb avg record high F = 61.4
|Mar avg record high F = 65.5
|Apr avg record high F = 71.9
|May avg record high F = 77.8
|Jun avg record high F = 79.1
|Jul avg record high F = 81.7
|Aug avg record high F = 83.7
|Sep avg record high F = 81.9
|Oct avg record high F = 74.1
|Nov avg record high F = 62.8
|Dec avg record high F = 57.9
|year avg record high F = 89.4
|Jan high F = 49.4
|Feb high F = 50.9
|Mar high F = 53.0
|Apr high F = 55.9
|May high F = 60.5
|Jun high F = 64.0
|Jul high F = 67.4
|Aug high F = 68.7
|Sep high F = 67.6
|Oct high F = 60.7
|Nov high F = 53.6
|Dec high F = 48.7
|year high F = 58.4
|Jan mean F = 43.7
|Feb mean F = 44.2
|Mar mean F = 46.0
|Apr mean F = 48.7
|May mean F = 53.4
|Jun mean F = 57.3
|Jul mean F = 60.6
|Aug mean F = 61.3
|Sep mean F = 59.0
|Oct mean F = 52.8
|Nov mean F = 46.9
|Dec mean F = 43.2
|year mean F = 51.4
|Jan low F = 38.1
|Feb low F = 37.4
|Mar low F = 39.0
|Apr low F = 41.5
|May low F = 46.3
|Jun low F = 50.6
|Jul low F = 53.9
|Aug low F = 53.9
|Sep low F = 50.5
|Oct low F = 44.9
|Nov low F = 40.2
|Dec low F = 37.6
|year low F = 44.5
|Jan avg record low F = 27.2
|Feb avg record low F = 26.7
|Mar avg record low F = 29.6
|Apr avg record low F = 33.3
|May avg record low F = 37.6
|Jun avg record low F = 43.0
|Jul avg record low F = 46.9
|Aug avg record low F = 46.7
|Sep avg record low F = 41.8
|Oct avg record low F = 34.1
|Nov avg record low F = 29.3
|Dec avg record low F = 26.8
|year avg record low F = 22.6
|Jan record low F = 11
|Feb record low F = 9
|Mar record low F = 22
|Apr record low F = 26
|May record low F = 30
|Jun record low F = 37
|Jul record low F = 37
|Aug record low F = 39
|Sep record low F = 33
|Oct record low F = 26
|Nov record low F = 15
|Dec record low F = 6
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 10.59
|Feb precipitation inch = 7.18
|Mar precipitation inch = 7.90
|Apr precipitation inch = 5.80
|May precipitation inch = 3.40
|Jun precipitation inch = 2.30
|Jul precipitation inch = 0.83
|Aug precipitation inch = 1.12
|Sep precipitation inch = 2.67
|Oct precipitation inch = 6.74
|Nov precipitation inch = 11.05
|Dec precipitation inch = 10.68
|year precipitation inch = 70.26
|Jan snow inch = 0.4
|Feb snow inch = 0.5
|Mar snow inch = 0.0
|Apr snow inch = 0.0
|May snow inch = 0.0
|Jun snow inch = 0.0
|Jul snow inch = 0.0
|Aug snow inch = 0.0
|Sep snow inch = 0.0
|Oct snow inch = 0.0
|Nov snow inch = 0.3
|Dec snow inch = 0.2
|year snow inch = 1.4
|unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
|Jan precipitation days = 21.6
|Feb precipitation days = 18.8
|Mar precipitation days = 21.5
|Apr precipitation days = 19.2
|May precipitation days = 15.5
|Jun precipitation days = 13.7
|Jul precipitation days = 8.1
|Aug precipitation days = 7.7
|Sep precipitation days = 10.1
|Oct precipitation days = 16.6
|Nov precipitation days = 21.1
|Dec precipitation days = 22.0
|year precipitation days = 195.9
|unit snow days = 0.1 in
|Jul snow days = 0.0
|Aug snow days = 0.0
|Sep snow days = 0.0
|Oct snow days = 0.0
|Nov snow days = 0.1
|Dec snow days = 0.3
|Jan snow days = 0.6
|Feb snow days = 0.7
|Mar snow days = 0.0
|Apr snow days = 0.0
|May snow days = 0.0
|Jun snow days = 0.0
|year snow days = 1.7
|Jan humidity = 82.7
|Feb humidity = 82.2
|Mar humidity = 80.9
|Apr humidity = 79.5
|May humidity = 79.5
|Jun humidity = 79.8
|Jul humidity = 79.8
|Aug humidity = 81.6
|Sep humidity = 81.1
|Oct humidity = 82.9
|Nov humidity = 83.3
|Dec humidity = 84.0
|year humidity = 81.4
|Jan dew point C = 2.6
|Feb dew point C = 3.7
|Mar dew point C = 4.1
|Apr dew point C = 5.2
|May dew point C = 7.7
|Jun dew point C = 10.1
|Jul dew point C = 11.7
|Aug dew point C = 12.3
|Sep dew point C = 11.0
|Oct dew point C = 8.4
|Nov dew point C = 5.5
|Dec dew point C = 3.2
|source 1 NOAA (relative humidity and dew point 1961–1990, snowfall & snow days 1981–2010)<ref name NCDC >{{cite web
|url https://www.weather.gov/wrh/climate?wfopqr
|title = NOWData – NOAA Online Weather Data
|publisher= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|access-date= 2018-04-18
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?datasetnormals-monthly-1991-2020&stationsUSW00094224&formatpdf&dataTypes=MLY-TMAX-NORMAL,MLY-TMIN-NORMAL,MLY-TAVG-NORMAL,MLY-PRCP-NORMAL,MLY-SNOW-NORMAL
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|title = U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access – Station: Astoria RGNL AP, OR (1991&ndash;2020)
|access-date = December 30, 2022
|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230906224959/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?datasetnormals-monthly-1991-2020&stationsUSW00094224&formatpdf&dataTypes=MLY-TMAX-NORMAL,MLY-TMIN-NORMAL,MLY-TAVG-NORMAL,MLY-PRCP-NORMAL,MLY-SNOW-NORMAL
|archive-date = 2023-09-06
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?datasetnormals-monthly&stationsUSW00094224&formatpdf&dataTypes=MLY-TMAX-NORMAL,MLY-TMIN-NORMAL,MLY-TAVG-NORMAL,MLY-PRCP-NORMAL,MLY-SNOW-NORMAL
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|title = U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access – Station: Astoria Regional Airport, OR (1981&ndash;2010)
|access-date = December 30, 2022
|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230906225009/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?datasetnormals-monthly&stationsUSW00094224&formatpdf&dataTypes=MLY-TMAX-NORMAL,MLY-TMIN-NORMAL,MLY-TAVG-NORMAL,MLY-PRCP-NORMAL,MLY-SNOW-NORMAL
|archive-date = 2023-09-06
}}
</ref><ref name= NOAA2>
{{cite web
|title = WMO climate normals for ASTORIA/CLATSOP, OR 1961–1990
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_IV/US/GROUP4/72791.TXT
|access-date = September 6, 2023
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230906151206/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_IV/US/GROUP4/72791.TXT
|archive-date = 2023-09-06}}</ref>
}}
Demographics
{{US Census population
|1860= 252
|1870= 639
|1880= 2803
|1890= 6184
|1900= 8351
|1910= 9599
|1920= 14027
|1930= 10349
|1940= 10389
|1950= 12331
|1960= 11239
|1970= 10244
|1980= 9998
|1990= 10069
|2000= 9813
|2010= 9477
|2020= 10181
|footnoteSources:<ref name"2010 census">{{cite web|title2010 Census profiles: Oregon cities alphabetically A-C|urlhttp://www.pdx.edu/sites/www.pdx.edu.prc/files/media_assets/2010_PL94_cities_A-C_updated.pdf|publisherPortland State University Population Research Center|access-dateJune 12, 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303231317/http://www.pdx.edu/sites/www.pdx.edu.prc/files/media_assets/2010_PL94_cities_A-C_updated.pdf|archive-dateMarch 3, 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>Moffat, Riley. Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850–1990. Lanham: Scarecrow, 1996, 206.</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.census.gov/popest/cities/files/SUB-EST2007-41.csv|titleSubcounty population estimates: Oregon 2000–2007|formatCSV|publisherUnited States Census Bureau, Population Division|dateMarch 18, 2009|access-dateMay 3, 2009|archive-urlhttp://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090709154837/http%3A//www%2Ecensus%2Egov/popest/cities/files/SUB%2DEST2007%2D41%2Ecsv|archive-dateJuly 9, 2009|url-statusdead|dfmdy}}</ref><ref name"USCensusDecennial2020CenPopScriptOnly">{{cite web|urlhttps://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?getP1_001N,NAME&forplace:*&instate:41&key5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108|titleCensus Population API|publisherUnited States Census Bureau|accessdateOct 12, 2022}}</ref>
}}
2010 census
As of the 2010 census,<ref name "wwwcensusgov">{{cite web|titleU.S. Census website|urlhttps://www.census.gov|publisherUnited States Census Bureau|access-date=December 21, 2012}}</ref> 9,477 people, 4,288 households, and 2,274 families were residing in the city. The population density was {{convert|1538.5|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. The 4,980 housing units had an average density of {{convert|808.4|/sqmi|/km2|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 89.2% White, 0.6% African American, 1.1% Native American, 1.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.9% from other races, and 3.3% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 9.8% of the population.
Of the 4,288 households, 24.6% had children under 18 living with them, 37.9% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47.0% were not families. About 38.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.1% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.15, and the average family size was 2.86.
The median age in the city was 41.9 years; 20.3% of residents were under 18; 8.6% were between 18 and 24; 24.3% were from 25 to 44; 29.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17.1% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female.
2000 census
As of the 2000 census,<ref name"GR2" /> 9,813 people, 4,235 households, and 2,469 families resided in the city. The population density was {{convert|1,597.6|/mi2|/km2|disppreunit|people&nbsp;|people}}. The 4,858 housing units had an average density of {{convert|790.9|/mi2|/km2}}. The racial makeup of the city was 91.08% White, 0.52% Black or African American, 1.14% Native American, 1.94% Asian, 0.19% Pacific Islander, 2.67% from other races, and 2.46% from two or more races. About 5.98% of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race.
By ethnicity, 14.2% were German, 11.4% Irish, 10.2% English, 8.3% United States or American, 6.1% Finnish, 5.6% Norwegian, and 5.4% Scottish according to the 2000 United States census.
Of the 4,235 households, 28.8% had children under 18 living with them, 43.5% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% were not families. About 35.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 2.93.
In the city the age distribution was 24.0% under 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 24.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% were 65 or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females 18 and over, there were 89.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $33,011, and for a family was $41,446. Males had a median income of $29,813 versus $22,121 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,759. About 11.6% of families and 15.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.0% of those under 18 and 9.6% of those 65 or over.
Arts and culture
Museums and other points of interest
]]
]]
* Astoria Riverwalk with Astoria Riverfront Trolley, Uniontown Neighborhood, Columbia River Maritime Museum, Uppertown Firefighters Museum and Pier 39 Astoria
* The Astoria Column (the highest point in Astoria) with nearby Cathedral Tree Trail
* Heritage Museum, located in the Old City Hall
* Fort Astoria, Fort George Brewery
* Astor Building, Liberty Theater
* Museum of Whimsy, Astoria Sunday Market, Garden of Surging Waves, Astoria City Hall
* Oregon Film Museum, Flavel House
* Astoria Regional Airport with CGAS Astoria
* Fort Stevens, Clatsop Spit, Fort Clatsop and Youngs River Falls
Shanghaied in Astoria is a musical about Astoria's history that has been performed in Astoria every year since 1984.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://coastexplorermagazine.com/features/shanghaied-in-astoria-2017-showtimes
| title= Shanghaied in Astoria Announces 2017 Showdates
| website= coastexplorermagazine.com
| date= May 12, 2017
| access-date= April 17, 2018
}}{{open access}}</ref>
Government
Astoria operates under a council–manager form of city government. Voters elect four councilors by ward and a mayor, who each serve four-year terms.<ref namecity-council>{{cite web|titleCity Council|urlhttp://astoria.or.us/page/92|publisherCity of Astoria|access-dateDecember 22, 2015}}</ref> The mayor and council appoint a city manager to conduct the ordinary business of the city.{{r|city-council}} The current mayor is Sean Fitzpatrick, who took office in January 2023. His predecessor, Bruce Jones, served from 2019 to 2022.Education
{{see also|wikisource:en:Oregon Historical Quarterly/Volume 4/The Educational History of Astoria, Oregon}}
The Astoria School District has four primary and secondary schools, including Astoria High School. Clatsop Community College is the city's two-year college. The city also has a library and many parks with historical significance, plus the second oldest Job Corps facility (Tongue Point Job Corps) in the nation. Tongue Point Job Corps center is the only such location in the country which provides seamanship training.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSeamanship {{!}} Job Corps |urlhttps://www.jobcorps.gov/train/392/transportation/209/seamanship |access-date2022-05-31 |websitejobcorps.gov}}</ref>
Media
The Astorian (formerly The Daily Astorian) is the main newspaper serving Astoria. It was established {{Years or months ago|{{#expr:1873-1}}}}, in 1873,<ref namebluebook>[https://sos.oregon.gov/blue-book/Pages/cultural/media-newspapers.aspx Newspapers Published in Oregon] Oregon Blue Book. Retrieved July 22, 2012.</ref> and has been in continuous publication since that time.<ref nameopna-jun2012>{{cite web|titleOregon Newspaper Publishers Century Roster|dateJune 2012|workOregon Publisher|publisherThe Oregon Newspaper Publishers Association|urlhttp://www.orenews.com/web/members/op/OPJune2012.pdf |page7|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120619054453/http://www.orenews.com/web/members/op/OPJune2012.pdf|archive-dateJune 19, 2012|access-dateNovember 25, 2014}}</ref> The Coast River Business Journal is a monthly business magazine covering Astoria, Clatsop County, and the Northwest Oregon coast. It, along with The Astorian, is part of the EO Media Group (formerly the East Oregonian Publishing Company) family of Oregon and Washington newspapers.<ref nameeo>{{cite web|titleCoast River Business Journal – About Us|urlhttp://publishing.eomediagroup.com/coast-river-business-journal/|access-dateMay 30, 2016|archive-dateSeptember 28, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160928010317/http://publishing.eomediagroup.com/coast-river-business-journal/|url-statusdead}}</ref> The local NPR station is KMUN 91.9, and KAST 1370 is a local news-talk radio station.
Filming location
The early 1960s television series Route 66 filmed the episode entitled "One Tiger to a Hill"<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt0690475/|titleOne Tiger to a Hill|dateSeptember 21, 1962|publisherIMDb}}</ref> in Astoria; it was broadcast on September 21, 1962.
In recent popular culture, Astoria is most famous for being the setting of the 1985 film The Goonies, which was filmed on location in the city. Other notable movies filmed in Astoria include Short Circuit, The Black Stallion, Kindergarten Cop, Free Willy, Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III, Benji the Hunted, Come See the Paradise, The Ring Two, Into the Wild, The Guardian and Green Room.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://parentingsquad.com/family-vacation-idea-visit-your-favorite-family-movie-locations-in-astoria-oregon
| title = Visit Your Favorite Family Movie Locations in Astoria, Oregon
| author = Sonja Stewart
| date = May 16, 2011
| work = Parenting Squad
| access-date = March 3, 2014
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.astoriaoregon.com/astoria_movies.php
| title = Movies filmed in Astoria Oregon
| publisher = Astoria Oregon
| access-date = March 3, 2014
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://content.usatoday.com/communities/popcandy/post/2010/07/guest-blogger-how-did-i-spend-my-vacation-visiting-goonies-filming-locations/1
| title = Guest blogger: How did I spend my vacation? Visiting 'Goonies' filming locations!
| author = Ryan S. (a.k.a. Spoodawg)
| date = July 8, 2010
| work = USA Today
| access-date = March 3, 2014
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.oregonfilm.org/docs/Oregon_Filmography.pdf
|title= Filmed in Oregon 1908–2012
|publisher= Oregon Governor's Office of Film & Television
|url-status= dead
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140814050842/http://www.oregonfilm.org/docs/Oregon_Filmography.pdf
|archive-date= August 14, 2014
|access-date= April 17, 2018
}}</ref>
Notable people
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* Bobby Anet, college basketball guard who helped guide the University of Oregon to win the inaugural NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament championship in 1938–1939 attended Astoria High school<ref>[https://sites.google.com/a/astoriak12.org/ahs-hall-of-fame/bobby-anet] AHS Hall of Fame</ref>
* Alexander G. Barry, American attorney Republican member of the Oregon House of Representatives
* Jona Bechtolt, Grammy nominated electronic musician and multimedia artist raised in Astoria
* Del Bjork, a professional American football offensive lineman in the National Football League (NFL). He played two seasons for the Chicago Bears (1937–1938)
* Brian Bruney, Major League Baseball relief pitcher<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.baseball-almanac.com/players/player.php?pbrunebr01|titleBrian Bruney Stats|publisherBaseball Almanac|access-date=December 31, 2013}}</ref>
* Honey Lee Cottrell, Photographer, filmmaker, LGBTQ activist born in Astoria<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ebar.com/news///245679/photographer_honey_lee_cottrell_dies |title Photographer Honey Lee Cottrell dies |lastLaird |first Cynthia |dateOctober 1, 2015 |publisher The Bay Area Reporter |access-date= August 5, 2018}}</ref>
* Marie Dorion, the only female member of an overland expedition sent by the Pacific Fur Company to Fort Astoria in 1810<ref nameSJ>{{cite news |url http://www.statesmanjournal.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID/20050405/NEWS/504050337 |title She Should Be As Famous As Sacagawea |dateApril 5, 2005 |last Lynn |firstCapi |work Statesman Journal |locationSalem, Oregon |access-date October 24, 2008 |archive-dateFebruary 3, 2013 |archive-url https://archive.today/20130203075641/http://www.statesmanjournal.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID/20050405/NEWS/504050337 |url-status dead }}</ref>
* George Flavel, maritime pilot and businessman
* Charles William Fulton, lawyer and Oregon senator
* Grouper, American ambient musician (Elizabeth Anne Harris)
* Jerry Gustafson, football player<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.fanbase.com/Jerry-F-Gustafson |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20140812020744/http://www.fanbase.com/Jerry-F-Gustafson |url-statusdead |archive-dateAugust 12, 2014 |titleJerry F. Gustafson |publisherfanbase.com |access-date=August 9, 2014}}</ref>
* Darrell Hanson, American politician in the state of Iowa
* Michael Hurley, American singer/songwriter<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://oregonmusicnews.com/2011/05/11/wading-in-cerebrospinal-fluid-with-cass-mccombs-frank-fairfield-and-michael-hurley/ |titleWading in cerebrospinal fluid with Cass McCombs, Frank Fairfield and Michael Hurley |authorBrinkman, Brian R. |dateMay 11, 2011 |workOregon Music News |access-dateDecember 31, 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140102193529/http://oregonmusicnews.com/2011/05/11/wading-in-cerebrospinal-fluid-with-cass-mccombs-frank-fairfield-and-michael-hurley/ |archive-dateJanuary 2, 2014 |dfmdy}}</ref>
* Duane Jarvis, American guitarist and singer/songwriter
* Wally Johansen, a college basketball guard who played for the University of Oregon when it won the inaugural NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament championship in 1938–1939
* Consuelo Kanaga, a photographer and writer who became well known for her photographs of African-Americans
* Augustus C. Kinney, a physician and scientist, was a leading expert on tuberculosis
* Kenneth Koe, chemist of Chinese descent, helped develop sertraline, which was branded and sold as Zoloft
* Carl W. Leick, a German born architect who moved to Astoria. His Astoria designs include the Captain George Flavel House, the Clatsop County Courthouse, and the Grace Episcopal Church<ref namenomination>{{cite web|url{{NRHP url|id77001360}} |titleNational Register of Historic Places Nomination and Registration Forms: Mukilteo Light Station |publisherNational Park Service |dateOctober 21, 1977 |access-date=June 8, 2015}}</ref>
* Rosa Lemberg, a Namibian-born Finnish American teacher, choral conductor and socialist<ref>{{cite book|lastRosemont|firstFranklin|titleJoe Hill: The IWW & The Making of a Revolutionary Working Class Counterculture|year2003|locationChicago, Illinois|publisherCharles H Kerr|isbn=978-088-28626-4-4}}</ref>
* Armand Lohikoski, American born – Finnish movie director and writer
* Robert Lundeen, American businessperson, most notable for his association with the College of Engineering at Oregon State University (OSU) and Tektronix Inc.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.osufoundation.org/s/359/foundation/index.aspx?sid359&gid34&pgid342&cid8845&ecid8845&crid0&calpgid4370&calcid6941|titleLundeen Made Lasting Impact at Oregon State|access-date=May 11, 2016}}</ref>
* Ranald MacDonald, first man to teach the English language in Japan and one of the interpreters between the Tokugawa shogunate and Commodore Perry when the latter made his trips to Japan on behalf of the U.S. government in the early 1850s
* Holly Madison, Playboy model and one of Hugh Hefner's ex-girlfriends,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.tmz.com/2008/10/07/holly-to-hugh-hef-off/|titleHolly to Hugh: Hef Off|authorTMZ.com|access-dateOctober 7, 2008|date=October 7, 2008}}</ref> born in Astoria, but left before her second birthday
* Donald Malarkey, World War II U.S. Army soldier of the 101st Airborne Division who was portrayed in the television series Band of Brothers<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://oregoncatalyst.com/12667-veterans-day-tribute-oregon-hero-don-malarkey.html|titleVeterans Day tribute to an Oregon hero: Don Malarkey|authorNW Spotlight|dateNovember 11, 2011|publisherOregonCatalyst|access-dateDecember 31, 2013}}</ref>
* Petra Mathers, a German-born American writer and illustrator of children's picture books
* George H. Merryman, a doctor who made house calls by horse and buggy then later built the first modern hospital in Klamath Falls. Served in both the Oregon House of Representatives & Oregon Senate
* Royal Nebeker, American painter and print maker. Lived and worked in Astoria for 30 years
* Gene Nelson, American dancer, actor, screenwriter, and director, starred as Will Parker in Oklahoma! (1955)
* Albin W. Norblad, Attorney in the U.S. state of Oregon, and a judge of the Oregon Circuit Court for the 3rd judicial district
* Kerttu Nuorteva, A Soviet intelligence agent during World War II. Daughter of Santeri Nuorteva
* Santeri Nuorteva, Finnish socialist politician and journalist, who edited Toveri ("The Comrade") in Astoria in 1912–1913<ref>Paul George Hummasti, Finnish Radicals in Astoria, Oregon, 1904–1940: A Study in Immigrant Socialism. New York: Arno Press, 1979; p. 44.</ref> Father of Kerttu Nuorteva
* Maila Nurmi, a.k.a. 1950s TV horror hostess Vampira and co-star of Ed Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space attended Astoria High School in the late 1930s<ref>{{cite news|titleVampira: The haunting of Astoria High School |workThe Daily Astorian |dateOctober 31, 2008 |urlhttp://www.dailyastorian.com/news/vampira-the-haunting-of-astoria-high-school/article_145abfb6-0a12-5568-aae8-2e19568e3f33.html |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20140101042552/http://www.dailyastorian.com/news/vampira-the-haunting-of-astoria-high-school/article_145abfb6-0a12-5568-aae8-2e19568e3f33.html |url-statusdead |archive-dateJanuary 1, 2014 |access-dateDecember 31, 2013}}</ref>
* Mike Pecarovich, American college football coach, lawyer, and actor
* Allan Pomeroy, mayor of Seattle from 1952 to 1956<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.seattle.gov/cityarchives/seattle-facts/city-officials/mayors/mayors-1948-present|titleMayors, 1948 – Present|publisher=Seattle Municipal Archives}}</ref>
* Jordan Poyer, NFL football player, raised in Astoria and played for Astoria teams<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.cleveland.com/browns/index.ssf/2013/12/small-town_jordan_poyer_hopes.html|titleSmall-town Jordan Poyer hopes to make it big time with the Cleveland Browns as a defensive back|date=December 13, 2013}}</ref>
* Ken Raymond, an expert in bioinorganic and coordination chemistry
* Arnie Sundberg, American weightlifter who competed in the 1932 Summer Olympics
* Wilbur Ternyik, American civic leader who has been characterized as a founding father of coastal planning. Mayor of Florence, Oregon
* Willis Van Dusen, businessman and mayor of Astoria from 1991 through 2014
* Gary Wilhelms, American politician who was a member of the Oregon House of Representatives
* Stanley Paul Young, American biologist<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_arc_217331|titleBiography|publisherSmithsonian Institution Archives|access-dateJune 19, 2013}}</ref>
* Eric Zener, American photorealist artist best known for figure paintings of lone subjects, often in or about swimming pools
}}
In popular culture
, formerly old Clatsop County Jail, used in first scene of The Goonies.]]
{{See also|List of fiction set in Oregon}}
Actor Clark Gable is claimed to have begun his career at the Astoria Theatre in 1922.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.flickr.com/photos/antiuser/426380299/in/set-72157600008412065/|titleAstoria Theatre Sign|date=March 18, 2007}}</ref>
Leroy E. "Ed" Parsons, called the "Father of Cable Television", developed one of the first community antenna television stations (CATV) in the United States in Astoria starting in 1948.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.offbeatoregon.com/o1109c-astoria-man-invents-cable-tv-as-favor-for-wife.html|titleAstoria man set out to do something nice for his wife, ended up inventing cable TV|authorJohn, Finn J.D.|dateSeptember 19, 2011|workOffbeat Oregon History|access-dateDecember 31, 2013}}</ref>
The fourth album of the pop punk band The Ataris was titled So Long, Astoria as an allusion to The Goonies. A song of the same title is the album's first track. The album's back cover features news clippings from Astoria, including a picture of the port's water tower from a 2002 article on its demolition.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://chicagoist.com/2014/03/20/the_ataris_hop_on_the_nostalgia_boa.php|titleThe Ataris Hop on the Nostalgia Boat, Bring 'So Long, Astoria' Tour To Chicago|authorKATIE KARPOWICZ|publisherGothamist LLC|access-dateMay 13, 2016|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305013442/http://chicagoist.com/2014/03/20/the_ataris_hop_on_the_nostalgia_boa.php|archive-dateMarch 5, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
The pop punk band Marianas Trench has an album titled Astoria. The band states the album was inspired by 1980s fantasy and adventure films, and The Goonies in particular. That film inspired the title, as it was set in Astoria, the album's artwork, as well as the title of their accompanying US tour (Hey You Guys!!).<ref namehighlight>{{cite news|last1Jane|first1Lauraa|titleMarianas Trench To Release New Album 'Astoria'|urlhttp://highlightmagazine.net/2015/09/15/marianas-trench-to-release-new-album-astoria/|workHighlight Magazine|access-dateJan 4, 2018|dateSeptember 15, 2015}}</ref>
The film Green Room prominently featured Astoria and the areas surrounding Portland.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt4062536/locations/ |websiteIMDB |access-date9 September 2024 |titleGreen Room (2015) - Filming & production - IMDb }}</ref>
Two U.S. Navy cruisers were named USS Astoria: A New Orleans-class heavy cruiser (CA-34) and a Cleveland class light cruiser (CL-90). The former was lost in the Pacific Ocean in combat at the Battle of Savo Island in August 1942, during World War II,<ref>{{cite book
| author = Joe James Custer
| title = Through the Perilous Night: The Astoria's Last Battle.
| publisher = The Macmillan Company
| date = 1944
}}</ref> and the latter was scrapped in 1971 after being removed from active duty in 1949.<ref name"DANFS">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/a/astoria-cl-90-iii.html| titleAstoria III (CL-90) | publisherNaval History and Heritage Command | dateJune 19, 2015 |access-dateDecember 12, 2015}}</ref>
Sister cities
Astoria has one sister city,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sister-cities.org/interactive-map/Astoria,%20Oregon|titleInteractive City Directory|publisherSister Cities International|access-dateDecember 31, 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140813090727/http://www.sister-cities.org/interactive-map/Astoria,%20Oregon|archive-dateAugust 13, 2014|url-statusdead|dfmdy-all}}</ref> as designated by Sister Cities International:
*{{flagicon|Germany}} Walldorf, Germany, which is the birthplace of Astoria's namesake, John Jacob Astor, who was born in Walldorf near Heidelberg on July 17, 1763. The sistercityship was founded on Astor's 200th birthday in 1963 in Walldorf by Walldorf's mayor Wilhelm Willinger and Astoria's mayor Harry Steinbock.{{Sfn|Ebeling|1998|pages351–354}}See also
* Astoria Regional Airport
* The Clatsop tribe of Native Americans
* Columbia Memorial Hospital
* National Register of Historic Places listings in Clatsop County, Oregon&nbsp;— 44 Astoria structures and districts listed (2020)
* Socialist Party of Oregon § The Finnish Socialists of Astoria
* Western Workmen's Co-operative Publishing Company
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite book|lastEbeling|firstHerbert C.|titleJohann Jakob Astor, Walldorf Astor-Stiftung|year1998|publisherAstor-Stiftung |isbn3-00-003749-7}}
*{{cite book |editor1Elihu Lauterpacht |editor2 C. J. Greenwood |editor3A. G. Oppenheimer |editor4 Karen Lee |titleInternational Law Reports |url http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn0521807794 |year 2004 |publisherCambridge University Press |chapter Consolidated Table of Treaties, Volumes 1–125 |chapter-urlhttp://assets.cambridge.org/052180/7794/excerpt/0521807794_excerpt.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://assets.cambridge.org/052180/7794/excerpt/0521807794_excerpt.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|isbn0-521-80779-4 |oclc 56448442 |access-dateApril 17, 2018 |ref {{sfnRef|Lauterpacht|2004}}}}
*{{cite book|lastLescroart|firstJustine|year2009|titleRoadtripping USA|publisherMacmillan|locationNew York|isbn978-0-312-38583-5|url-accessregistration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312385835}}
*{{cite book | lastMeinig | firstD.W.| author-linkDonald W. Meinig | title The Great Columbia Plain| edition Weyerhaeuser Environmental Classic| orig-year 1968| year 1995| publisher University of Washington Press| isbn = 978-0-295-97485-9}}
*{{cite book | first Dwight A. | last Smith |author2Norman, James B. |author-link2James B. Norman |author3Dykman, Pieter T. | title Historic Highway Bridges of Oregon | publisher Oregon Historical Society Press | year 1989 | isbn 0-87595-205-4 | ref{{sfnRef|Smith|1989}}}}
Further reading
* Ebeling, Herbert C.: Johann Jakob Astor. Walldorf, Germany: Astor-Stiftung, 1998. {{ISBN|3-00-003749-7}}.
* Leedom, Karen L.: Astoria: An Oregon History. Astoria, Oregon: Rivertide Publishing, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-9826252-1-7}}.
* {{Cite book|authorMacGibbon, Elma|titleLeaves of knowledge|urlhttp://www.secstate.wa.gov/history/publications%5Fdetail.aspx?p63|publisherShaw & Borden Co|year1904}} Elma MacGibbons reminiscences about her travels in the United States starting in 1898, which were mainly in Oregon and Washington. Includes chapter "Astoria and the Columbia River".
External links
{{Commons category|Astoria, Oregon}}{{Wikivoyage|Astoria}}
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitleAstoria |shortx}}
* [https://sos.oregon.gov/blue-book/Pages/local/cities/a-d/astoria.aspx Entry for Astoria] in the Oregon Blue Book
* [http://www.oldoregon.com/ Astoria-Warrenton Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.opb.org/television/programs/oregonexperience/segment/astoria/ Astoria] Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting
{{Clatsop County, Oregon}}
{{Oregon}}
{{Oregon county seats}}
{{authority control}}
Category:1811 establishments in New Spain
Category:Cities in Oregon
Category:Populated places established in 1811
Category:Oregon populated places on the Columbia River
Category:Cities in Clatsop County, Oregon
Category:Port cities in Oregon
Category:Populated coastal places in Oregon
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astoria,_Oregon
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.173288
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1866
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Alarums and Excursions
|
Alarums and Excursions (A&E) is an amateur press association (APA) started in June 1975 by Lee Gold; publication continues to the present day. It was one of the first publications to focus solely on role-playing games.
History
In 1964, Bruce Pelz of the Los Angeles Science Fiction Society (LASFS) began a weekly amateur press association named APA-L. In 1974, with the publication of Dungeons & Dragons by TSR, Inc., articles and comments about the new roleplaying game began to fill the pages of APA-L, a development to which Pelz objected. Lee Gold took note of this and started a new APA, Alarums and Excursions (the title taken from an Elizabethan drama stage direction that moved soldiers across a stage), to focus entirely on roleplaying games, attracting such material away from APA-L. The first issue appeared in June 1975.
In addition to removing roleplaying games discussion out of APA-L, the initial aim of the publication was to prevent roleplaying games from becoming so divergent that people from different cities could not participate in games together.
The June 2017 issue of Alarums and Excursions was number 500, with a color cover drawn by Lee Moyer and printed by Rob Heinsoo.
Contents
Each issue is a collection of contributions from different authors, often featuring game design discussions, rules variants, write-ups of game sessions, reviews, and comments on others contributions.
Although game reports and social reactions are common parts of many A&E contributions, it has also, over the years, become a testing ground for new ideas on the development of the RPG as a genre and an art form. The idea that role-playing games are an art form took strong root in this zine, and left a lasting impression on many of the RPG professionals who contributed. The 1992 role-playing game Over the Edge was inspired by discussions in A&E.
Over the years, contributors have included:
Terry K. Amthor
Wilf K. Backhaus
Scott Bennie
Greg Costikyan
Doc Cross
John M. Ford
E. Gary Gygax
Andrew Gelman
David A. Hargrave
Rob Heinsoo
John Eric Holmes
Wes Ives
Robin Laws
Nicole Lindroos
Samuel Edward Konkin III
Stephen R. Marsh
Phil McGregor
Dave Nalle
Mark Rein·Hagen
Ken Rolston
John T. Sapienza Jr.
Lawrence M. Schoen
Edward E. Simbalist
Jonathan Tweet
Erick Wujcik
John Nephew
Spike Y Jones
Reception
In the February 1976 issue of Strategic Review (Issue 6), Gary Gygax complimented the new APA, calling it "an excellent source of ideas, inspirations and fun." Although Gygax felt some of the contributors were "woefully lacking in background", and the quality of printing varied dramatically from issue to issue, he concluded, "For all of its faults, it is far and away the best D&D 'zine, and well worth reading. See for yourself why it rates a Major Triumph."
In the June 1981 edition of Dragon (Issue #50), Dave Nalle reviewed Alarums and Excursions after its 63rd issue (November 1980), and although he found the writing style "a bit stuffy", with a "tendency for the writers to pat each other on the back", he still called it "the top APA publication... This is a very well run APA and features many of the leading thinkers in fantasy gaming."
Awards
To date, Alarums and Excursions has been a winner of the Charles Roberts/Origins Award four times:
"Best Amateur Adventure Gaming Magazine" in 1984
"Best Amateur Game Magazine" in 1999
"Best Amateur Game Periodical" in 2000 and 2001
References
External links
Alarums and Excursions page
Lee Gold's index of APA-L's pre-A&E D&D-related content
Category:Fanzines
Category:Magazines established in 1975
Category:Organizations established in 1975
Category:Origins Award winners
Category:Role-playing game magazines
Category:Science fiction organizations
Category:Magazines published in Los Angeles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarums_and_Excursions
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.183033
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1869
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Alfred Jarry
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{{Short description|French symbolist writer (1873–1907)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox writer
|name = Alfred Jarry
|image = Alfred Jarry.jpg
|caption = Jarry in 1896
|pseudonym |birth_date {{Birth date|1873|9|8|df=y}}
|birth_place = Laval, France
|death_date {{death date and age|dfyes|1907|11|1|1873|9|8}}
|death_place = Paris, France
|occupation = Writer and dramatist
|nationality = French
|genre = 'Pataphysics
|signature =
}}
Alfred Jarry ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʒ|ɑr|i}}; {{IPA|fr|alfʁɛd ʒaʁi|lang}}; 8 September 1873 – 1 November 1907) was a French symbolist writer who is best known for his play Ubu Roi (1896), often cited as a forerunner of the Dada, Surrealist, and Futurist movements of the 1920s and 1930s and later the theatre of the absurd In the 1950s and 1960s.<ref>{{Cite news |lastFenstermaker |firstWill |date2020-06-08 |titleThe Twisted Legacy of Alfred Jarry's Monsters |languageen-US |urlhttps://www.thenation.com/article/culture/alfred-jarry-carnival-of-being-review/ |access-date2023-03-18 |issn0027-8378}}</ref><ref>Jarry, Alfred. "Ubu Roi". Dover (2003).</ref> He also coined the term and philosophical concept of 'pataphysics.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.bookbyte.com/textbooks/pataphysics/9780810118775-0810118777| title "Pataphysics - 01 edition"| access-date 11 November 2015| archive-date 16 March 2016| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160316052920/https://www.bookbyte.com/textbooks/pataphysics/9780810118775-0810118777| url-status dead}}</ref>
Jarry was born in Laval, Mayenne, France, and his mother was from Brittany.<ref>Brotchie, Alastair. Alfred Jarry, a Pataphysical Life. MIT Press (2013). {{ISBN|978 0 262 01619 3}}.</ref> He wrote in a variety of hybrid genres and styles, prefiguring the postmodern, including novels, poems, short plays and opéras bouffes, absurdist essays and speculative journalism. His texts are considered examples of absurdist literature and postmodern philosophy.
Biography and works
His father Anselme Jarry (1837–1895) was a salesman who descended into alcoholism; his mother Caroline, née Quernest (1842–1893), was interested in music and literature, but her family had a streak of insanity, and her mother and brother were institutionalized. The couple had two surviving children, a daughter Caroline-Marie, called Charlotte (1865–1925), and Alfred. In 1879 Caroline left Anselme and took the children to Saint-Brieuc in Brittany.<ref>Lennon, Nigey. Alfred Jarry: The Man with the Axe. San Francisco: Last Gasp, 1984, pp. 16–18. {{ISBN|0-86719-382-4}}.</ref>
In 1888 the family moved to Rennes, where Jarry entered the {{lang|fr|lycée}} at 15. There he led a group of boys who enjoyed poking fun at their well-meaning, but obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and his classmate, Henri Morin, wrote a play they called Les Polonais and performed it with marionettes in the home of one of their friends. The main character, Père Heb, was a blunderer with a huge belly, three teeth (one of stone, one of iron and one of wood), a single, retractable ear and a misshapen body. In Jarry's later work Ubu Roi, Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous and astonishing characters in French literature.
At 17 Jarry passed his {{lang|fr|baccalauréat}} and moved to Paris to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he soon gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, Les minutes de sable mémorial, was published in 1893.
That same year, Jarry contracted influenza. His mother and sister tended him, but once he recovered his mother fell ill of the disease and died; two years later his father perished from influenza as well, leaving Jarry a small inheritance which he quickly spent.<ref>Lennon, Nigey. Alfred Jarry: The Man with the Axe, pp. 34, 61.</ref>
Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called "my sacred herb" or, when referring to absinthe, the "green goddess". A story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour (and possibly under its influence).
When he was drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline. The sight of the diminutive Jarry in a uniform much too large for his less than 5-foot frame – the army did not issue uniforms small enough – was so disruptively funny that he was excused from parades and marching drills. Eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience eventually inspired his novel Days and Nights.
In his youth, Jarry was homosexually inclined,<ref>Alastair Brotchie Alfred Jarry: A Pataphysical Life MIT Press, 2015, p. 117.</ref> although like many bohemians he disavowed sexual categorization. A brief but passionate relationship with future poet Léon-Paul Fargue inspired his semi-autobiographical play Haldernablou (1894).<ref>Gabriele Griffin ''Who's Who in Lesbian and Gay Writing Routledge, London 2002.</ref>
Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to writing, drinking and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with Remy de Gourmont in the publication of L'Ymagier, a luxuriously produced "art" magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. Symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time, and L'Ymagier'' provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry's play Caesar Antichrist (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical Book of Revelation as a point of departure, Caesar Antichrist presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which Christ is resurrected not as an agent of spirituality but as an agent of the Roman Empire that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique narrative that effectively links the domination of the soul to contemporaneous advances in the field of Egyptology such as the 1894 excavation of the Narmer Palette, an ancient artifact used for situating the rebus within hermeneutics. The character Ubu Roi first appears in this play.<ref>Cody, Gabriele. Sprinchorn, Everet. The Columbia Encyclopedia of Modern Drama, Volume 1. Columbia University Press (2007) {{ISBN|9780231144223}} page 53.</ref>
The spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort's review ''Le Livre d'art'', of Jarry's 5-act play Ubu Roi, the rewritten and expanded Les Polonais of his school days. Ubu Roi{{'}}s savage humour and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theatre, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theatre director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l'Œuvre.
On opening night (10 December 1896), with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu (played by Firmin Gémier) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, "Merdre!" (often translated as "Pshit" or "Shittr!" in English). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more bohemian contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until after Jarry's death.
The play brought fame to the 23-year-old Jarry, and he immersed himself in the fiction he had created. Gémier had modelled his portrayal of Ubu on Jarry's own staccato, nasal vocal delivery, which emphasized each syllable (even the silent ones). From then on, Jarry would always speak in this style. He adopted Ubu's ridiculous and pedantic figures of speech; for example, he referred to himself using the royal we, and called the wind "that which blows" and the bicycle he rode everywhere "that which rolls".
Jarry moved into a flat which the landlord had created through the unusual expedient of subdividing a larger flat by means of a horizontal rather than a vertical partition. The diminutive Jarry could just manage to stand up in the place, but guests had to bend or crouch. Jarry also took to carrying a loaded revolver. In response to a neighbour's complaint that his target shooting endangered her children, he replied, "If that should ever happen, ma-da-me, we should ourselves be happy to get new ones with you."
in 1898.]]
With Franc-Nohain and Claude Terrasse he co-founded the Théâtre des Pantins, which in 1898 was the site of marionette performances of Ubu Roi.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.schubertiademusic.com/details/multiple_catalogs:yes/desc:Bonnard,+Pierre.+(1867+-+1947)%3B+Terrasse,+Claude.+(1867+-+1923)%3B+Jarry,+Alfred.+(1873+-+1907)| title PADA, Schubertiade Music Online}}</ref>
Living in worsening poverty, neglecting his health and drinking excessively, Jarry went on to write the novel Le Surmâle (The Supermale), which is partly a satire on the Symbolist ideal of self-transcendence.
Unpublished until after his death, his fiction Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician (Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien) describes the exploits and teachings of a sort of antiphilosopher who, born at age 63, travels through a hallucinatory Paris in a sieve and subscribes to the tenets of 'pataphysics. 'Pataphysics deals with "the laws which govern exceptions and will explain the universe supplementary to this one." In 'pataphysics, every event in the universe is accepted as an extraordinary event.
Jarry once wrote, expressing some of the bizarre logic of 'pataphysics, "If you let a coin fall and it falls, the next time it is just by an infinite coincidence that it will fall again the same way; hundreds of other coins on other hands will follow this pattern in an infinitely unimaginable fashion."{{Citation needed|dateMarch 2024|reasonThe quote doesn't seem to appear in Faustroll, and the article doesn't seem to mention any other works where Jarry might have written about 'pataphysics.}}
In his final years, he was a legendary and heroic figure to some of the young writers and artists in Paris. Guillaume Apollinaire, André Salmon and Max Jacob sought him out in his truncated apartment. Pablo Picasso was fascinated with Jarry.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/04/08/pablo-picasso-trivia_n_7018574.html|title5 Things You Didn't Know About Pablo Picasso|date2015-04-08|websiteHuffPost|access-date=2016-05-03}}</ref> After Jarry's death Picasso acquired his revolver and wore it on his nocturnal expeditions in Paris. He later bought many of his manuscripts as well as executing a fine drawing of him.
Jarry died in Paris on 1 November 1907 of tuberculosis, aggravated by drug and alcohol misuse. When he could not afford alcohol, he drank ether.<ref>{{Cite journal | urlhttp://www.nybooks.com/articles/2012/05/10/alfred-jarry-king-charisma/ |title The King of Charisma|journal The New York Review of Books|date 10 May 2012|last1 Ford|first1 Mark| volume59 | issue8 }}</ref> It is recorded that his last request was for a toothpick. He was interred in the Cimetière de Bagneux, near Paris.
The complete works of Alfred Jarry are published in three volumes by Gallimard in the collection Bibliothèque de la Pléiade.
Selected works
Plays
* César-Antéchrist (1895) – (Caesar Antichrist) – which introduces Père Ubu and his symbolic meaning.
* Ubu Roi (1896, revised from 1888) – (Ubu Rex) – which portrays the ambition of Père Ubu.
* ''Ubu Cocu, ou l'Archeopteryx (1897) – (Ubu Cuckolded'') – which portrays the inconstancy of Ubu's closest.
* Ubu Enchaíné (1899) – (Ubu in Chains) – which portrays Père Ubu in service.
* Ubu Sur La Butte (1906)
Novels
* ''Les Jours et Les Nuits, roman d'un déserteur (1897) – (Days and Nights, novel of a deserter). The first part of a fictional (or pataphysical) autobiography of life in the army.
* L'Amour en Visites (1897) – (Love in Visits). The second part of a fictional (or pataphysical) autobiography of life and the theatre.
* L'Amour Absolu (1899) – (Absolute Love). The third and final part of this autobiography.
* Messaline (1901) – (Messalina in English translation) – set in ancient Rome.
* Le Surmâle (1902) – (The Supermale) – features a superhuman bicycle race in which the hero is propelled by perpetual motion food (alcohol).
* Gestes et Opinions du Docteur Faustroll, Pataphysicien (Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician'') – published posthumously in 1911. This novel's symbolism defines the symbolic meaning of pataphysique.
* La Dragonne – assembled and published posthumously in 1943.
Other notable works
* Short story La Passion considérée comme course de côte (The Passion Considered as an Uphill Bicycle Race) has been widely circulated and imitated, notably by J. G. Ballard and Robert Anton Wilson.
* Comic operetta ''The Pope's Mustard-Maker (Le Moutardier du pape) First English translation (2019) by Doug Skinner.
* Speculative essays Speculations (Spéculations) English translation (2022) by R J Dent.
* Les Minutes de Sable Memorial (1894) – (Minutes of Memorial Sand) – a collection of short early works including the symbolist play Haldernablou.
* La Chandelle Verte: Lumières sur les Choses de ce Temps – (The Green Candle) – a collection of absurdist essays which revert his pataphysique the other way round. They address contemporary issues in an absurd manner. Originally published in reviews and collected in 1969.
* Illustrated Almanac of Père Ubu (1899).
* Illustrated Almanac of Père Ubu – 2nd edition'' (1901). Both the 1899 and 1901 almanacs are downloadable (in French) at http://alfredjarry.fr/jarry/
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* {{cite book | authorBeaumont, Keith| titleAlfred Jarry: A Critical and Biographical Study | locationU.S. | publisherSt. Martin's Press | year1984 | isbn0-312-01712-X}}
* Fell, Jill (2005). Alfred Jarry. An Imagination in Revolt. U.S.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. {{ISBN|0-8386-4007-9}}.
* Fell, Jill (2010). Alfred Jarry. London, Reaktion Books. {{ISBN|978-1-86189-755-8}}.
* {{cite book | authorBrotchie, Alastair| titleAlfred Jarry: A Pataphysical Life | locationU.S. | publisherThe MIT Press | year2011 | isbn978-0-262-01619-3}}
* {{cite book | authorLennon, Nigey| titleAlfred Jarry: The Man with the Axe | locationU.S. | publisherLast Gasp | year1984 | isbn0-86719-382-4}}
* {{cite book | authorTomkins, Calvin | titleDuchamp: A Biography | locationU.S. | publisherHenry Holt and Company | year1996 | isbn0-8050-5789-7| author-link=Calvin Tomkins }}
* {{cite book | authorShattuck, Roger | titleThe Banquet Years: The Arts in France, 1885–1918: Alfred Jarry, Henri Rousseau, Erik Satie, Guillaume Apollinaire | locationU.S. | publisherHenry Holt and Company | year1958 | isbn0-394-70415-0}}
* {{cite book | authorShattuck, Roger | titleThe Banquet Years: The Origins of the Avant-Garde in France, 1885 to World War I. | locationU.S. | publisherFreeport, N.Y., Books for Libraries Press | year1968 | isbn0836928261}} Revised edition of 1958 book.
* {{cite book | authorDubbelboer, Marieke |year2012 |titleThe Subversive Poetics of Alfred Jarry: Ubusing Culture in the Almanachs du Pére Ubu |publisherManey |isbn=978-1907747984 }}
* Stillman, Linda Klieger (1980). ''La Theatralité dans l'Œuvre d'Alfred Jarry. U.S.: French Literature Publications Company. {{ISBN|0-917786-12-2}}
* Stillman, Linda Klieger (1983). Alfred Jarry. U.S.: Twayne Publishers, {{ISBN|0-8057-6528-X}}.
External links
*{{wikiquote-inline}}
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*{{Wikisourcelang-inline|fr}}
* {{gutenberg author| id6994| nameAlfred Jarry}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Alfred Jarry}}
* {{Librivox author |id=4737}}
* {{Find a Grave|9101496}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100209073240/http://athena.unige.ch/athena/jarry/jar_ubur.html Ubu Roi ou Les Polonais'' at athena.unige.ch] {{in lang|fr}}
{{Alfred Jarry}}
{{Modernism}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jarry, Alfred}}
Category:French satirists
Category:French satirical novelists
Category:Symbolist writers
Category:Absurdist writers
Category:1873 births
Category:1907 deaths
Category:Writers from Brittany
Category:Modernist theatre
Category:Pataphysicians
Category:French people of Breton descent
Category:Lycée Henri-IV alumni
Category:People from Laval, Mayenne
Category:20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Category:Tuberculosis deaths in France
Category:Burials at the Cimetière parisien de Bagneux
Category:19th-century French dramatists and playwrights
Category:19th-century French novelists
Category:20th-century French novelists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Jarry
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.192304
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1870
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Amalric
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Amalric or Amalaric (also Americ, Almerich, Emeric, Emerick and other variations) is a personal name derived from the tribal name Amal (referring to the Gothic Amali) and ric (Gothic reiks) meaning "ruler, prince".
Equivalents in different languages include:
French: Amaury (surname/given name), Amalric (surname), Amaurich (surname), Maury (surname)
German: Amalrich, Emmerich
Italian: Amerigo, Arrigo
Hungarian: Imre
Latin: Amalricus, Americus, Almericus, Emericus
Greek: Έμέρικοσ (Emérikos)
Polish: Amalaryk, Amalryk, Emeryk
Dutch: Emmerik, Amerik, Hamelink, Hamelryck
Portuguese: Amáuri, Américo
Spanish: Amauri, Américo
Serbo-Croatian: Emerik/Емерик
Arabic: عَمُورِي (ʻAmūrī)
Given name
Amalaric (502–531), King of the Visigoths from 526 to 531
Malaric (fl. 585), King of the Suevi
Amaury, Count of Valenciennes (fl.953-973)
Amalric of Nesle (fl. 1151–1180), Patriarch of Jerusalem from 1158 to 1180
Amalric I of Jerusalem (1136–1174), King of Jerusalem from 1162 to 1174
Amalric II of Jerusalem (fl. 1155–1205), King of Jerusalem from 1197 to 1205
Amalric of Bena (f. 1200–1204), French theologian
Arnaud Amalric (fl. 1196–1225), seventeenth abbot of Citeaux
Amaury de Montfort (disambiguation), several individuals including:
Amaury de Montfort (died 1241) (1195–1241), crusader
Amalric, Lord of Tyre (c. 1272 – 1310), Governor of Cyprus from 1306 to 1310
Amerigo Vespucci (1451–1512), Italian merchant, explorer, and navigator from the Republic of Florence, from whose name the term "America" is derived.
Surname
Arnaud Amalric (died 1225), Cistercian abbot
Catherine Amalric (born 1964), French politician
Mathieu Amalric (born 1965), French actor and director
Leonid Amalrik (1905–1997), Soviet animator
Andrei Amalrik (1938–1980), Soviet dissident
See also
Amaury (disambiguation), a French alternative spelling
Emery (name)
Category:Masculine given names
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalric
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.200071
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1871
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Amalric, King of Jerusalem
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{{Short description|Crusader ruler from 1163 to 1174}}{{Redirect|King Amalric|the king of Cyprus|Aimery of Lusignan}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name=Amalric
| succession= King of Jerusalem
| image=King Amalric.jpg
| reign= 1163–1174
| coronation= 18 February 1163
| predecessor=Baldwin III
| successor=Baldwin IV
| spouses= Agnes of Courtenay<br />Maria Komnene
| issue ={{ubl|Sibylla of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Isabella I of Jerusalem}}
| house=Anjou
| father= Fulk V of Anjou
| mother= Melisende of Jerusalem
| birth_date= 1136
| birth_place| death_date {{death date and age|1174|7|11|1136|df=y}}
| death_place=Jerusalem
}}
Amalric ({{langx|fr|Amaury}}; 1136{{snd}}11 July 1174), formerly known in historiography as {{nowrap|Amalric I}},{{efn|The name of a later king of Jerusalem, Aimery of Lusignan, was frequently mistranscribed as "Amaury", leading to him being known as "Amaury II" and the true Amaury as "Amaury I".{{sfn|Richard|1979|p=289}}}} was the king of Jerusalem from 1163 until his death. He was, in the opinion of his Muslim adversaries, the bravest and cleverest of the crusader kings.
Amalric was the younger son of King Fulk and Queen Melisende and brother of King Baldwin III. Baldwin was crowned with Melisende after Fulk's death in 1143. Melisende made Amalric the count of Jaffa, and he took her side in her conflict with Baldwin until Baldwin deposed her in 1152. From 1154 Amalric was fully reconciled with his brother and made count of both Jaffa and Ascalon. In 1157 he married Agnes of Courtenay despite the misgivings of the Church and had two children with her, Sibylla and Baldwin. When his brother died in 1163, Amalric was obliged to leave Agnes in order to be recognized as king. He was crowned on 18 February.
Amalric's reign was marked by a ceaseless struggle with the Muslim atabeg of Damascus and Aleppo, Nur al-Din Zengi, and persistent attempts to subjugate Egypt. In his first invasion he induced the vizier, Dirgham, to pay tribute, and in the following two he supported the rival vizier, Shawar, against Dirgham and Nur al-Din's general Shirkuh. Nur al-Din took advantage of the king's expeditions to Egypt to wreak havoc on the kingdom and the northern crusader states, Antioch and Tripoli, and Amalric had to intervene in the north as well. Throughout his reign Amalric sought support of Western European rulers in his struggle against the Muslims of Syria and Egypt, but concluded the most concrete alliance with the Byzantine emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, whose grandniece Maria became Amalric's second wife. They had a daughter, Isabella.
In 1167 Amalric again prevented Shirkuh from seizing Egypt and took Alexandria. Without waiting for the Byzantines, and in contravention of his treaty with Shawar, he invaded Egypt in 1167-68 with the intention to conquer it, but it fell to Shirkuh instead. Shirkuh died in 1169, and Amalric launched an invasion in concert with Manuel, but the two armies cooperated poorly and failed in their attempt. Shirkuh's successor, Saladin, emerged as a major threat. Amalric's only son, Baldwin, started exhibiting symptoms of leprosy during Amalric's lifetime. Amalric sought a husband for his daughter, Sibylla, but her suitor, Count Stephen I of Sancerre, declined and left the kingdom. While trying to take advantage of the confusion in Syria following the death of Nur al-Din in 1174, Amalric caught dysentery and died on 11 July. He was succeeded by his son, Baldwin IV.
Youth
Childhood
On his deathbed in 1131 King Baldwin II conferred the Kingdom of Jerusalem&ndash;one of the crusader states established by the Latin Christians who invaded the Levant and defeated its Muslim rulers{{sfn|Barber|2012|p2}}&ndash;on his eldest daughter, Melisende; her husband, Fulk of Anjou; and their infant son, Baldwin III.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p149}} Fulk was considerably older than Melisende and had adult children in Europe from his first marriage, including Count Geoffrey V of Anjou and Countess Sibylla of Flanders.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p178}} He excluded Melisende from power until she and the barons forced him to acknowledge her as a co-ruler in 1135.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp155-156}} Fulk was eager to be reconciled, and historian Malcolm Barber suggests that Melisende agreed because the succession of her family rested on only one son. The couple consequently conceived Amalric in late 1135 or early 1136.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p155}} To the north of the kingdom were three more crusader states: the County of Tripoli, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Edessa.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p2}} Antioch and Tripoli were ruled by the families of Melisende's sisters Alice and Hodierna.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=157}}
Amalric's father, King Fulk, was fatally injured in a horse-riding accident on a family outing near Acre in 1143. He died on 10 November. Queen Melisende seized power and was crowned again on 25 December, this time alongside 13-year-old King Baldwin III.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p233}} In 1144 the Turkic Muslim atabeg of Mosul, Imad al-Din Zengi{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp163-164}} captured Edessa.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p179}} This prompted the Second Crusade, which failed in its objective to conquer Damascus,{{sfn|Barber|2012|p188}} one of the greatest Muslim-held cities.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p150}} Melisende continued to withhold power from Baldwin after he reached the age of majority, and by 1151 their relationship had broken down.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p196}} In 1151 Melisende bestowed on Amalric the County of Jaffa, which was part of her endeavor to consolidate her position against Baldwin.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p176}} Amalric became his mother's most important partisan besides the Church.{{sfn|Mayer|1972|p175}}
Countship
In 1152 Baldwin summoned the High Court and demanded that the kingdom be divided between him and Melisende. The queen retained the regions of Judaea and Samaria while Acre and Tyre remained under the young king's rule.{{sfn|Mayer|1972|p166}} Baldwin soon invaded his mother's lands, defeated and exiled her constable, Manasses of Hierges, and marched on Jerusalem. Melisende's lords deserted her as Baldwin advanced, and she took refuge in the Tower of David with her most loyal men, including Amalric, Viscount Rohard the Elder, and Philip of Milly.{{sfn|Mayer|1972|p168}} Baldwin besieged them, but they put up a defense until the negotiations of a settlement that saw Melisende deposed and restricted to ruling the city of Nablus. By the end of April 1152 Baldwin was the sole ruler of the kingdom.{{sfn|Mayer|1972|p169}} Based on charter evidence, Mayer concludes that Baldwin punished Amalric for siding with their mother by depriving him of the County of Jaffa in 1152.{{sfn|Mayer|1972|pp175-176}} The king conquered Ascalon from Fatimid Egypt in 1153 and forced the Egyptians to pay a tribute.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p237}} He granted both Ascalon and Jaffa to Amalric. Historian Hans E. Mayer dates Amalric's acquisition of the double county to shortly after July 1154.{{sfn|Mayer|1972|pp175-176}}
In 1157 Amalric married Agnes of Courtenay. Agnes was the daughter of the dispossessed Count Joscelin II of Edessa, a second cousin of Queen Melisende, and a widow since the death in battle of her first husband, Reynald of Marash.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p24}} The Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, Fulcher of Angoulême, objected to Amalric's marriage with Agnes. According to contemporary chronicler William of Tyre, Fulcher disapproved because of the couples's kinship; but the late-13th-century ''Lignages d'Outremer'' states that Agnes had been betrothed to the lord of Ramla, Hugh of Ibelin, and that Amalric married her when she came to marry Hugh, which the patriarch deemed uncanonical.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p25}} Mayer argues that Agnes had already been married to Hugh in 1157, making her marriage to Amalric bigamous{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p25}} and, in Barber's opinion, possibly the result of an abduction.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p233}} Historian Bernard Hamilton rejects this interpretation and states that a bigamous marriage would have resulted in the excommunication of both Amalric and Agnes.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p25}} Fulcher died in November 1157, possibly before the couple married.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p233}}
In 1159 Count Amalric accompanied King Baldwin to Antioch, where they welcomed Emperor Manuel I Komnenos.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p544}} Baldwin and Manuel were allied through Baldwin's marriage with Manuel's niece Theodora.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|pp542-543}} Both Baldwin and Amalric placed a great value on good relations with the Byzantine Empire,{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p309}} a Greek Orthodox state{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p50}} that claimed suzerainty over the Christian states in the Levant.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p31}} Amalric and Agnes had a daughter, Sibylla, between 1157 and 1161. In 1161 a son, Baldwin, was born.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p24}} The children were named after Amalric's siblings.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p232}}AccessionAmalric's mother, Queen Melisende, died on 11 September 1161. His brother, King Baldwin, barely outlived her. He came down with dysentery while visiting Antioch in late 1162 and died in Beirut on 10 February 1163.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p216}} Baldwin and Theodora had had no children, and Amalric was thus his heir. The chronicler Ernoul relates that Baldwin named Amalric as his heir.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=231}}
Having convened to discuss the succession, the High Court refused to recognize Amalric as king unless he repudiated his wife, Agnes. Their spokesman was the patriarch, Amalric of Nesle. According to William of Tyre, the patriarch objected because of the couple's kinship.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=23}} Barber describes this story as "so unlikely that historians have been unwilling to accept it at
face value".{{sfn|Barber|2012|p232}} Hamilton notes that such an objection to an established marriage was "extremely unusual",{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p23}} and argues that there was a "deep-seated animosity" towards Agnes behind it.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p24}} Amalric accepted the High Court's demand, and his marriage to Agnes was annulled on the grounds of consanguinity. Cardinal John of Santi Giovanni e Paolo al Celio, the legate of Pope Alexander III, was present. Amalric obtained papal confirmation of the legitimacy of his children, Sibylla and Baldwin, and exoneration of Agnes from any moral censure.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p26}} On 18 February, the day of Baldwin III's funeral, the patriarch crowned Amalric in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=231}}
Early in his reign Amalric strengthened his position against his most powerful vassals (tenants-in-chief) by passing the Assise sur la ligece. This legislation enabled the vassals of the powerful vassals to appeal directly to the king if their lord did them injustice.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p549}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p236}} 13th-century jurists John of Ibelin and Philip of Novara believed that the assise resulted from Amalric's war with the lord of Sidon, Gerard Grenier, who had unjustly seized a fief from one of his vassals, but contemporary chroniclers Michael the Syrian and Ibn al-Athir say that it was Baldwin III who defeated Gerard.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp236-237}}ReignVizierate of ShawarIntervention in EgyptAmalric's chief aim as king was to conquer Egypt.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p237}} Its government was in disarray: Dirgham and Shawar, rival viziers, fought for power while the Fatimid caliph was sidelined.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p238}} Zengi's son Nur ad-Din unified the Muslim principalities of Syria by bringing the great cities of Damascus and Aleppo under his rule; if he were to conquer Egypt as well, the crusader states would be encircled.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|pp549-550}} Although his lords were preoccupied with extending their own holdings, Amalric could not ignore Egypt, and in this had the support of the masters of the military orders, the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=241}}
In 1163 the Egyptian government failed to pay the tribute. In response Amalric came with a large force within {{cvt|35|miles}} of the capital, Cairo,{{sfn|Barber|2012|p238}} and besieged Bilbais.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|pp549-550}} Dirgham, who had driven out Shawar, desperately attempted to fend off the invaders by opening the floodbanks on the Nile, but ended up agreeing to pay an even larger tribute and surrendered hostages as guarantees. After returning to Jerusalem, Amalric wrote to King Louis VIII of France that it was only the annual flooding of the Nile that prevented him from taking Bilbais.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=238}}
Shawar appealed to Nur ad-Din for help against Dirgham. Nur ad-Din dispatched Asad al-Din Shirkuh, one of his most able generals, who helped Shawar defeat Dirgham and seize power. Shirkuh then decided to conquer Egypt for himself, forcing Shawar to request help from Amalric. After Shawar offered a once again increased tribute, the king undertook his second Egyptian expedition, fully financed by Shawar, in July 1164. The invasion ended in Shirkuh's defeat and Amalric's restoration of Shawar to power.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p238}}Turkic threatNur ad-Din could not afford to allow Amalric to control Egypt. The king's southern expedition left the kingdom and the northern crusader states undefended, which allowed Nur ad-Din to act. In the battle of Artah on 10 August 1164 he destroyed a large Christian army and captured Prince Bohemond III of Antioch, Count Raymond III of Tripoli, Joscelin III of Edessa, and the Byzantine governor of Cilicia, Constantine Coloman. On 12 August he captured Harim. Amalric's brother-in-law Count Thierry of Flanders arrived with numerous knights, but this failed to deter Nur ad-Din.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p240}} Amalric returned to Jerusalem in October,{{sfn|Barber|2012|p238}} and immediately hurried north with Thierry.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p240}} Raymond declared that, during his captivity, Amalric should rule Tripoli.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p551}} The king thus stopped at Tripoli to establish his rule,{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p370}} and then proceeded further north to install governors in the cities of Bohemond's principality.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=240}}
On 18 October 1164 Nur ad-Din captured Banias, described by Patriarch Amalric as "the gateway to the whole kingdom". The king and the master of the Knights Templar, Bertrand of Blancfort, declared that Banias had been sold by traitors. In mid-1165 King Amalric secured the release of Prince Bohemond.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p240}} Amalric and Bertrand's attempts to entice the king of France to assist in their planned conquest of Egypt proved fruitless, and so the Christian leaders continued to court the Byzantines. In late 1165 the king sent an embassy led by the royal butler, Odo of Saint-Amand, and the archbishop of Caesarea, Ernesius, to arrange a royal marriage with a member of Emperor Manuel's family.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p242}}
In late 1165 Philip of Milly resigned the lordship of Oultrejordain to join the Templars.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp91-92}} His sole heir was his elder daughter, Helena, who was married to the lord of Beirut, Walter III Brisebarre.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p92}} When Walter and his brothers, Guy and Bernard, were captured by the Muslims, Amalric forbade anybody to lend money to them for their ransom. By 1167 the king had forced Walter to surrender Beirut in return for money.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p91}} Hamilton concludes that this "sharp" treatment originated from Amalric's desire to prevent Walter from holding the great lordships of Beirut and Oultrejordain simultaneously.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp91-92}} Around this time Emperor Manuel's cousin Andronikos Komnenos arrived in the kingdom after scandalously seducing Philippa, sister of Prince Bohemond and sister-in-law of the emperor.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p377}} His bravery impressed Amalric,{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p378}} who gave him the lordship of Beirut in fief in 1167.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p91}}Third invasion of EgyptWilliam relates that a Templar garrison surrendered a cave fortress besieged by Shirkuh while Amalric was on his way to relieve them; in his anger the king hanged about a dozen Templars who were responsible. Barber dates the incident to 1166.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p250}} In January 1167, before the Byzantines could assist, news reached Jerusalem that Shirkuh was marching towards Egypt at the head of a large army furnished by Nur ad-Din.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p242}} Amalric called a general council at Nablus, at which funds were raised for a counter-strike, and set out from Ascalon on 30 January.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp242-243}} Amalric rapidly mobilized an army, but failed in his attempt to catch Shirkuh before he crosed the Nile. Shawar again agreed to an annual tribute to the king of Jerusalem in return for Frankish help against Shirkuh.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p243}} The Franks secured the support of the Fatimid caliph, al-Adid, but then a stalemate ensued between them and Shirkuh as the opposing forces were encamped on the opposite banks of the Nile.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p244}}
For over a month Amalric waited for enforcements from his constable, Humphrey II of Toron, and Philip of Milly. The king then secretly moved his men {{cvt|8|miles}} south, leaving some to protect the young caliph and the wooden bridge they had raised on the Nile. A whirlwind prevented them from crossing the river, however, and so instead of catching Shirkuh by surprise, Amalric chased him with his knights for three days.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p244}} On 18 March an indecisive battle took place, after which Shirkuh subjugated Alexandria. The Franks followed him and blockaded the city until Shirkuh fled, leaving his nephew Saladin in charge. The king pursued Shirkuh until the Egyptians convinced him to attack Alexandria instead. The siege of Alexandria forced Shirkuh to sue for peace. The Franks entered Alexandria, where the king placed his banner on the city's Lighthouse, and then departed Egypt.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p245}}
Byzantine alliance
King Amalric returned to his kingdom on 21 August 1167. His envoys to Emperor Manuel arrived with his new bride, the emperor's grandniece Maria Komnene. On 29 August, in the {{ill|Cathedral of Saint Mark, Tyre|ltCathedral of Tyre|it|Cattedrale_Crociata_di_Tiro}}, Patriarch Amalric celebrated the king's second marriage.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p246}} The new queen received Nablus as her dower.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p391}} The same year Queen Theodora, niece of Emperor Manuel and widow of Amalric's brother, eloped with the emperor's cousin Andronikos. The lovers fled to Damascus, where they were received by Nur ad-Din.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p378}} The scandalous conduct of his kin enraged the emperor, but Amalric was glad to take Acre, his sister-in-law's rich dower, back into the royal domain;{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp378-379}} Beirut also reverted to Amalric.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p92}}
Maria's arrival was shortly followed by that of two envoys from the emperor, Alexander of Gravina and Michael Hydruntius of Otranto. The envoys were immediately met by the king. They stated that the king and the emperor ought to conquer Egypt together lest the weakened country should fall in the hands of another. William of Tyre believed that the idea came from Amalric; Barber sees a link between his Byzantine marriage and the arrival of the envoys. A treaty was drawn up and taken by William to the emperor for ratification.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p246}} In this period the king was depicted on his seal wearing a sash in the Byzantine fashion, and the two rulers cooperated in the extensive mosaic program undertaken in the Bethlehem's Church of the Nativity.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp246-247}} Amalric was even willing to concede to Manuel on theological issues, such as the exclusion of the filioque clause from the Bethlehem church's mosaic inscriptions and the admission of Greek clergy into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in order to secure military assistance.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp247-248}}Attempted conquest of EgyptWilliam returned to the kingdom in late 1167 and was astonished to find that, by 20 October, King Amalric had departed on another expedition to Egypt without the Byzantines. He did not know the reason for it: he recorded the rumor that Shawar, the vizier of Egypt, had allied with Nur ad-Din, but did not himself believe in it and suggested that the vizier had faithfully kept his treaty with Amalric.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p247}} Ibn al-Athir depicts the king as a reluctant invader, pressured by "the Frankish knights and policy makers".{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp248-249}} Amalric struck a deal with the Hospitallers, who pledged more men than ever before and to whom the king in return promised a vast lordship from Bilbais to the coast as well as the first pick of the spoils and the best house or palace after the king's in all the major cities of Egypt. William names the order's master, Gilbert of Assailly, as the driving force, if not the mastermind, behind the campaign. The Templars refused to participate; William speculates that they either objected to betraying Shawar or to following the lead of the Hospitallers, their rivals.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p249}} Barber suggests that the Templar master, Bertrand of Blancfort, may have also resented the king's execution of some of his knights.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=249}}
Bilbais was captured and plundered and its inhabitants massacred in 1168 after a three-day siege. Amalric then moved onto Cairo, but Shawar burned it down to prevent the Franks from seizing it. Unable to resist, Shawar offered huge sums of money to Amalric while simultaneously petitioning Nur ad-Din for help. The Christian fleet arrived, took Tinnis, and blocked the Nile below Cairo. Shawar convinced Amalric to retreat
a few miles so that Shawar could collect the money he had promised to the king; the vizier actually worked to strengthen the city's defenses and the population's morale. Ibn al-Athir reports that the inhabitants of Cairo grew resolute when they heard about the fate of the people of Bilbais. William believes that the city could have been taken but for the greed of the king, encouraged by his seneschal, Miles of Plancy: if they had taken the city by storming, they would have had to share the plunder, but all the tribute money would go to the king.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=251}}
On 2 December Shirkuh set out from Damascus with a large army and ample provisions provided by Nur ad-Din. Amalric returned to Bilbais, but Shirkuh bypassed him and encamped on the other side of the Nile. Amalric judged it too risky to attack him. On 2 January he set out for his kingdom with his army. Not only was the expedition a complete failure, but it also delivered Egypt to Shirkuh: Shawar was soon killed, and the caliph appointed Shirkuh to succeed him.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p252}} Amalric was undeterred and in mid-1169 started planning his fifth attempt to take Egypt.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p252}} He appealed for help in letters sent to Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Kings Louis VII of France and Henry II of England, Queen Margaret of Sicily, and Counts Philip I of Flanders, Theobald V of Blois, and Henry I of Champagne. Patriarch Amalric and Archbishop Ernesius, who were carrying the letters, were driven back by a severe storm at sea.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p384}} He sent a new embassy, consisting of the archbishop of Tyre, Frederick de la Roche, and the bishop of Banyas, John, but to no avail.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p252}}
Dynastic concerns
King Amalric was determined that his son and heir apparent, Baldwin, should receive a good education. Amalric appointed William of Tyre, one of the kingdom's most eminent scholars, to tutor Baldwin when the boy reached the age of nine. William discovered that Baldwin did not feel pain in his right arm.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p27}} The king employed Arabs to treat the boy and teach him to ride.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p28}} One of them was Abu Sulayman Da'ud, a physician whom he had sought out during his campaigns in Egypt.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p264}} No diagnosis was made, but Hamilton is certain that Amalric must have been informed that the symptoms pointed to the early stages of leprosy.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p29}}
Amalric empowered Archbishop Frederick to arrange a marriage for Amalric's 11-year-old daughter, Sibylla during the prelate's mission in Europe. The king was then aged 33, the age at which his brother had died; and his 8-year-old son, Baldwin, had seven more years until the age of majority. Amalric had no kinsmen who could rule in Baldwin's name if Amalric died unexpectedly, as his father and brother had; Hamilton argues that the king's solution was to find a capable son-in-law.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p30}} He chose the well-connected Count Stephen I of Sancerre, brother of the count of Blois and relative of both the French and the English royal house.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p30}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p253}} Stephen agreed and arrived in Jerusalem with Duke Hugh III of Burgundy, bringing gifts from King Louis VII of France.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p30}}
Hamilton discusses the possibility that Baldwin's symptoms had already appeared by the time Sibylla's marriage was first discussed and that Amalric thought that Sibylla and Stephen might succeed to the throne.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p30}} Stephen was invited by the High Court to give his opinion on the inheritance of a fief; in Hamilton's opinion this points to Stephen being considered a possible future king.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp30-31}} For unknown reasons Stephen refused to marry Sibylla and returned to France.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p31}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p253}} Baldwin remained Amalric's only son. The king's marriage to Maria Komnene produced two daughters, of whom one died in childhood. The other, Isabella, was born about 1172.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p31}}Rise of the AyyubidsFranco-Byzantine invasion of EgyptThe death of Bertrand of Blancfort in January 1169 paved the way for a master of the Templars who would be more compliant with Amalric's desire to subjugate Egypt. In August 1169 Philip of Milly was elected the new master. Barber considers it obvious that King Amalric influenced the election, for he and Philip had been associated since the 1150s, when both supported Amalric's mother, Queen Melisende, against his brother, King Baldwin III.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp253-254}} In the same month Amalric confirmed his earlier deal with the Hospitallers and also recruited the Templars. In late 1169 Emperor Manuel sent a formidable force led by experienced men, and a large fleet.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=253}}
Amalric was served by the animosity of the Egyptians for their new, foreign rulers, and by the unexpected death of Shirkuh. On 16 October the king left Ascalon, shortly after the Byzantine fleet set out from Acre. Sea floods hindered him, but he reached Damietta on 27 October.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p254}} The Nile was blocked north of the city, and William of Tyre is confident that Damietta could have been taken by a quick attack. The siege of the city drew out, however, because the city was reinforced by boats from the south and siege engines had to be constructed. The defenders launched a fire ship towards the Byzantine fleet, burning six ships; the king averted a greater loss by rousing the crews.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p557}}
As their food ran out and the torrential rains poured, the attackers became desperate.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p557}} William's informants insisted that Manuel had not sent enough supplies, whereas the Byzantine chroniclers John Kinnamos and Niketas Choniates accuse the Franks of procrastinating.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p255}} The Byzantine general Andronikos Kontostephanos proposed an all-out assault, but Amalric believed that the city walls had not been battered enough by the siege engines. Kontostephanos had been instructed to obey Amalric, but made preparations to attack without him.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p557}} According to Choniates, Kontostephanos had grown tired of "talking into the ear of the dead".{{sfn|Barber|2012|p255}} Before Kontostephanos could act, Amalric began peace negotiations.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|pp557-558}} Patriarch Michael the Syrian, ever disdainful of the Greek Orthodox, writes that the Byzantines intended to deceive Amalric and seize Egypt for themselves, and that the king took the Egyptians' offer of gold and left after he realized the Byzantines' treachery.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p255}} Nur ad-Din, meanwhile, again used Amalric's absence to plunder the kingdom.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p255}} Amalric and his army returned on 21 December.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p254}}
Earthquake
On 29 June 1170 a devastating earthquake hit the Levant, affecting Christians and Muslims alike. Amalric and Nur ad-Din made a temporary peace to allow their lands to recover; yet both were wary that the other would attack while the damage was being repaired. Amalric informed Louis VII of France and expressed concern that the enemy would seize Tripoli, Arqa, Gibelet, Latakia, Marqab, and Antioch. As administrator of the County of Tripoli, Amalric granted Arqa and Gibelacar to the Hospitallers to hold independently of the count on the condition that they repair the castles.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=256}}
In December 1170 Saladin suddenly brought a vast host to besiege Darum, a simple fortress built by Amalric in the south of the kingdom for collecting taxes and tolls. Barber proposes that Saladin was emboldened by Amalric's preoccupation with the damage suffered by the County of Tripoli. Amalric was shocked by the size of Saladin's force, but Saladin left Darum half-destroyed without giving a major battle. Amalric rebuilt the fortress to be stronger. Later that month the Franks were unable to prevent Saladin from plundering Ailah. For the first time in half a century the kingdom was seriously threatened from Egypt.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p257}}Visit to ConstantinopleIn early 1171 Amalric held a general council to discuss the state of the kingdom{{sfn|Barber|2012|p257}} and its future military policy.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p258}} It was agreed that embassies and letters seeking help should be sent to all major Latin rulers and to Emperor Manuel. The king shocked the attending barons by suggesting that he himself should visit Manuel. No king of Jerusalem had ever traveled to Constantinople, and Barber believes that the idea betrayed a lack of confidence in western help. Amalric set out on 10 March, having sent Philip of Milly ahead. Philip had resigned as master of the Templars for this purpose, and the butler, Odo of Saint Amand, succeeded him.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p258}} Amalric traveled with a large party, including the bishop of Acre, William, and the marshal, {{ill|Gerard of Pugi|fr|Gérard de Pougy}}. The king set sail from Tripoli. He was met at Gallipoli by his father-in-law, John Doukas Komnenos, who was a nephew of the emperor, and taken to Heraclea. There he embarked again in order to enter the Great Palace of Constantinople through the Boukoleon gate, which was an honor reserved for rulers.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p=391}}
Manuel arranged a lavish welcome for the royal party: Amalric was seated on a throne next to the emperor's, albeit slightly lower; given access to private imperial suites; shown the most precious relics; treated to music and theater shows; given a guided tour of the city; and taken by ship to view the mouth of the Black Sea.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p258}} Manuel took a liking to Amalric and the imperial family, especially Amalric's father-in-law, were eager to show hospitality.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p391}} Conferences were held daily,{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p559}} but the topics and eventual agreement went unrecorded.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p391}} The Franks apparently convinced the emperor that they should once again join forces to conquer Egypt. Kinnamos writes that, in return, Amalric had to accept "his subjection" to the empire.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p258}} Historian Marshall Baldwin is not certain that Amalric regarded himself as a vassal of Manuel.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p559}} The king returned on 15 June, landing at Sidon.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=258}}
Amalric had to deal with new Muslim attacks immediately upon his return from Constantinople. He assembled a force at the Springs of Saffuriya to respond to Nur ad-Din's attack in the north while simultaneously Saladin attacked Montreal in the south. Ibn al-Athir relates that Saladin came close to capturing Montreal, but was advised that Nur ad-Din might turn his attention to him if he defeated Amalric at the same time. In 1172 the king travelled north once again to prevent Cilicia from falling into the hands of the Armenian lord Mleh, who had expelled the Templars from their Cilician fortresses and allied with Nur ad-Din. Amalric obtained Mleh's submission, but had to return south when Nur ad-Din launched another diversion by attacking Kerak.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p259}}Unmaterialized alliancesIn 1173 Amalric attempted to ally with the Order of Assassins. According to the agreement reached between the king and the order's leader, Rashid al-Din Sinan, the king would cancel the tribute which the order paid to the Templars and the Assassins would in turn convert from Shi'ite Islam to Christianity. The order's envoy was returning from the negotiations with the king's guarantee of safe conduct when he was killed by a group of Templars led by Walter of Mesnil.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p259}} Amalric's rage increased when the Templar's master, Odo of Saint Armand, refused to hand over Walter. Odo said that he had given a penance to Walter, who was held in Sidon, and that he would be sent to the pope. Amalric went to Sidon, however, took Walter, and imprisoned him in Tyre, intending to discuss the matter with other rulers. William of Tyre and Walter Map, the sources who recorded the murder, both lament the loss of this opportunity. Map writes that the Templars feared that conversions of Muslims to Christianity would make the Templars redundant.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=260}}
With the help of Amalric, who helped raise the ransom, Raymond III of Tripoli was released from Nur ad-Din's prison in late 1173 or early 1174. Amalric welcomed Raymond and handed the government of Tripoli back to him.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p561}} In 1174 King Amalric agreed on a joint attack on Egypt with King William II of Sicily.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p263}} Nur ad-Din died on 15 May.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p260}} Amalric tried to take advantage. He attacked Banias, but could not capture it and accepted money to retreat.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p261}} On his way back he complained that he felt unwell. When he arrived in Tiberias it was clear that he had contracted dysentery.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p32}} He reached Jerusalem, where he was treated by Greek, Syrian, and Frankish physicians, but they failed to save him.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p261}} He died on 11 July.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p260}} After some deliberation the High Court accepted Amalric's sickly son, Baldwin IV, as the new king.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p264}}
Assessment
William of Tyre, whom Amalric tasked with recording the history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, left a detailed description of the king. Amalric was light-skinned with blond receding hair{{sfn|Barber|2012|p234}} and, although he did not eat or drink excessively, considerably overweight.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p548}} He shook with laughter when he was amused, but this was rare; whereas Baldwin was affable, Amalric was serious and taciturn.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p234}} He was intellectually gifted but less refined than Baldwin,{{sfn|Barber|2012|p234}} preferring a hunt to poetry.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p548}} He enjoyed reading and debates with scholars, and was well-informed about the issues facing the crusader states. In battle he was daring, and in command composed and decisive.{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p548}} He regularly attended Mass, but William noted that not even the Church was spared from the king's "lust for money"; and he was promiscuous, pursuing even married women.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p234}} The pro-Zengid chronicler Ibn al-Athir describes Amalric as "the bravest of their kings, the most outstanding for policy, cunning and intrigue".{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp260-261}}
Baldwin believes that the union of Egypt and Syria under Saladin might have been prevented if Amalric had not acted without his Byzantine allies in 1168. In the opinion of Baldwin, the failed attempt of the alliance to subjugate Egypt in 1169 marked a "turning point in Levantine history". Nevertheless he considers Amalric "one of the best kings of Jerusalem, the last man of genuine capacity to hold the reins of government".{{sfn|Baldwin|1969|p558}} Notes {{notelist}}References{{Reflist|20em}}Sources
{{commons category|Amalric I of Jerusalem }}
*{{cite book|firstMarshall|lastBaldwin|editor1-lastSetton|editor1-firstKenneth|editor2-firstMarshall|editor2-lastBaldwin|editor1-linkKenneth Setton|titleA History of the Crusades|contributionThe Latin States under Baldwin III and Amalric I, 1143-1174|date1969|publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Press|isbn978-0-299-04834-1|language=en}}
* {{cite book |firstMalcolm |lastBarber |author-linkMalcolm Barber |year2012 |titleThe Crusader States |publisherYale University Press |isbn978-0300189315|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIsxWoAEACAAJ&qmalcolm+barber+crusader+states}}
* {{cite book|lastHamilton|firstBernard|titleThe Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem|year2000|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn9780521017473|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIySQoHdviNkC&qJoscelin+loyal+kinsman&pgPA232}}
* {{cite journal|lastMayer|firstHans E.|titleStudies in the History of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem|author-linkHans E. Mayer |journalDumbarton Oaks Papers|publisherDumbarton Oaks|year1972|volume26 |pages93–182 |doi10.2307/1291317 |jstor1291317 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/1291317}}
* {{cite book | lastRichard | firstJean|author-linkJean Richard (historian)| titleThe Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem | publisherNorth-Holland Publishing Company | seriesEurope in the Middle Ages: selected studies| volume11A | year1979 | isbn978-0-444-85092-8 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_w1nAAAAMAAJ | access-date2025-01-02|translator=Janet Shirley}}
* {{cite book |firstSteven |lastRunciman | author-linkSteven Runciman |titleA History of the Crusades |volumeII: The Kingdom of Jerusalem |publisherCambridge University Press |year=1952 }}
{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=Baldwin III}}
{{s-ttl|titleKing of Jerusalem|years1162–1174}}
{{s-aft|after=Baldwin IV}}
{{s-vac|reasonRoyal domain|lastHugh II}}
{{s-ttl|titleCount of Jaffa|years1151–1162}}
{{s-vac|rows2|reasonRoyal domain|next=William}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|titleCount of Ascalon|years1153–1162}}
{{s-end}}
{{Jerusalem Monarchs}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:1136 births
Category:1174 deaths
Category:12th-century monarchs of Jerusalem
Category:Counts of Jaffa and Ascalon
Category:12th-century French nobility
Category:Kings of Jerusalem
Category:Deaths from dysentery
Category:Crusader–Fatimid wars
Category:Sons of kings
Category:Sons of queens regnant
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalric,_King_of_Jerusalem
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.220159
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1872
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Aimery of Cyprus
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{{Short description|King of Jerusalem (1198–1205) and Cyprus (1196–1205)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{good article}}
{{Redirect|Amalric of Cyprus|the later regent of Cyprus|Amalric, Lord of Tyre}}
{{Redirect|Aimery of Jerusalem|the patriarch of Jerusalem|Aymar the Monk}}
{{Infobox royalty
|name = Aimery
|title |image King Aimery of Cyprus and Jerusalem, seal.PNG
|image_size |altPhoto of two ancient silver circular seals of Aimery, with Latin words framing the outer part of the seals.
|caption= Aimery's seal as king of Cyprus and Jerusalem
|succession = Lord of Cyprus
|reign = 1194–1196
|coronation |predecessor Guy
|succession1 = King of Cyprus
|reign1 = 1196–1205
|coronation1 = September 1197
|successor1 = Hugh I
|succession2 = King of Jerusalem
| moretext2 = (jure uxoris)
|reign2 = 1198–1205
|coronation2 = January 1198
|cor-type |predecessor2 Isabella I
|successor2 = Isabella I
|regent2 = Isabella I
|reg-type2 = Co-ruler
|spouses = Eschiva of Ibelin<br>Isabella I of Jerusalem
|issue = {{plainlist|
* Bourgogne, Countess of Toulouse
* Helvis, Princess of Antioch
* Hugh I, King of Cyprus
* Sibylla, Queen of Armenia
* Melisende, Princess of Antioch}}
|issue-link =#Family
|issue-pipe =more...
|house = Lusignan
|father = Hugh VIII of Lusignan
|mother = Burgundia of Rancon
|birth_date = {{circa}} 1153
|birth_place |death_date 1 April {{Death year and age|1205|1153}}
|death_place |burial_date
|burial_place |religion
}}
Aimery of Lusignan ({{langx|la|Aimericus}}, {{Langx|el|Αμωρί}}, Amorí;{{sfn|Savva|2011}} before 1155{{snd}}1 April 1205), erroneously referred to as Amalric ({{langx|fr|Amaury}}) in earlier scholarship, reigned as the first king of Cyprus from 1196 to his death in 1205. He also reigned as the king of Jerusalem as the husband and co-ruler of Queen Isabella I from 1197 to his death. He was a younger son of Hugh VIII of Lusignan, a nobleman in Poitou. After participating in a rebellion against Henry II of England in 1168, he went to the Holy Land and settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Aimery's marriage to Eschiva of Ibelin (whose father was an influential nobleman) strengthened his position in the kingdom. His younger brother, Guy, married Sibylla, the sister and heir presumptive of Baldwin IV of Jerusalem. Baldwin made Aimery the constable of Jerusalem around 1180. He was one of the commanders of the Christian army in the Battle of Hattin, which ended with a decisive defeat at the hands of the army of Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and Syria, on 4 July 1187.
Aimery supported Guy even after he lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem according to most barons of the realm, because of the death of Sibylla and their two daughters. The new king of Jerusalem, Henry II of Champagne, arrested Aimery for a short period. After his release, he retired to Jaffa which was the fief of his elder brother, Geoffrey of Lusignan, who had left the Holy Land.
After Guy died in May 1194, his vassals in Cyprus elected Aimery as their lord. He accepted the suzerainty of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. With the emperor's authorization, Aimery was crowned king of Cyprus in September 1197. The widowed Aimery soon married Henry of Champagne's widow, Isabella I of Jerusalem. Aimery and Isabella were crowned king and queen of Jerusalem in January 1198. He signed a truce with Al-Adil I, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, which secured the Christian possession of the coastline from Acre to Antioch. His rule was a period of peace and stability in both of his realms.
Early life
Aimery was born before 1155.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p103}} He was the fifth son of Hugh VIII of Lusignan and his wife, Burgundia of Rancon.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p23}}{{sfn|Painter|1957|pp39–40}} His family had been noted for generations of crusaders in their native Poitou. His great-grandfather, Hugh VI of Lusignan, died in the Battle of Ramla in 1102; Aimery's grandfather, Hugh VII of Lusignan, took part in the Second Crusade.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p97}} Aimery's father also came to the Holy Land and died in a Muslim prison in the 1160s.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p97}}{{sfn|Painter|1957|p41}} Earlier scholarship erroneously referred to him as Amalric (or Amaury, its French form), but evidence from documentaries shows he was actually called Aimericus, which is a distinct name (although it was sometimes confused with Amalricus already in the Middle Ages).{{sfn|Hill|2010|pp32 (note 3), 45 (note 1)}}{{sfn|Hazard|1975|p108 (note 125)}} Runciman{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p506}} and other modern historians erroneously refer to him as Amalric II of Jerusalem, because they confused his name with that of Amalric "I" of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Hill|2010|pp32 (note 3), 45 (note 1)}}{{sfn|Hazard|1975|p=108 (note 125)}}
Aimery joined a rebellion against Henry II of England (who also ruled Poitou) in 1168, according to Robert of Torigni's chronicle, but Henry crushed the rebellion. Aimery left for the Holy Land and settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. He was captured in a battle and held in captivity in Damascus. A popular tradition (which was first recorded by the 13th-century Philip of Novara and John of Ibelin) held, the King of Jerusalem, Amalric, ransomed him personally.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p23}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p97}}
Ernoul (whose reliability is questioned) claimed Aimery was a lover of Amalric of Jerusalem's former wife, Agnes of Courtenay.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp9, 97–98}} Aimery married Eschiva of Ibelin, a daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin, who was one of the most powerful noblemen in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp35, 98}} Amalric of Jerusalem, who died on 11 July 1174, was succeeded by his thirteen-year-old son by Agnes of Courtenay, Baldwin IV who suffered from leprosy.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p61}} Aimery became a member of the royal court with his father-in-law's support.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p99}}
Aimery's youngest brother, Guy, married Baldwin IV's widowed sister, Sibylla, in April 1180.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p66}} Ernoul wrote, it was Aimery who had spoken of his brother to her and her mother, Agnes of Courtenay, describing him as a handsome and charming young man.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p152}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p424}} Aimery, continued Ernoul, hurried back to Poitou and persuaded Guy to come to the kingdom, although Sibylla had promised herself to Aimery's father-in-law.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p424}} Another source, William of Tyre, did not mention that Aimery had played any role in the marriage of his brother and the King's sister.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p152}} Consequently, many elements of Ernoul's report (especially Aimery's alleged journey to Poitou) were most probably invented.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|pp152, 157}}
Constable of Jerusalem
, and Sibylla, the sister of Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]]
Aimery was first mentioned as Constable of Jerusalem on 24 February 1182.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p167}} According to Steven Runciman and Malcolm Barber, he had already been granted the office shortly after his predecessor, Humphrey II of Toron, died in April 1179.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|pp419, 424}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p274}} Historian Bernard Hamilton writes that Aimery's appointment was the consequence of the growing influence of his brother and he was appointed only around 1181.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p167}}
Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and Syria, launched a campaign against the Kingdom of Jerusalem on 29 September 1183.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p66}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p281}} Aimery defeated the sultan's troops in a minor skirmish with the support of his father-in-law and his brother, Balian of Ibelin. After the victory, the crusaders' main army could advance as far as a spring near Saladin's camp, forcing him to retreat nine days later.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p190}} During the campaign, it turned out that most barons of the realm were unwilling to cooperate with Aimery's brother, Guy, who was the designated heir to Baldwin IV.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p191}} The ailing king dismissed Guy and made his five-year-old nephew (Guy's stepson), Baldwin V, his co-ruler on 20 November 1183.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=68}}
In early 1185, Baldwin IV decreed that the Pope, the Holy Roman Emperor and the Kings of France and England were to be approached to choose between his sister, Sybilla, and their half-sister, Isabella, if Baldwin V died before reaching the age of majority.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p443}} The leper king died in April or May 1185, his nephew in late summer of 1186.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p70}} Ignoring Baldwin IV's decree, Sybilla was proclaimed queen by her supporters and she crowned her husband, Guy, king.{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|pp447–448}} Aimery was not listed among those who were present at the ceremony, but he obviously supported his brother and sister-in-law, according to Hamilton.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p218}}
As Constable, Aimery organised the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem into units before the Battle of Hattin, which ended with the decisive victory of Saladin on 4 July 1187.{{sfn|Barber|2012|pp303–304, 365}} Along with most commanders of the Christian army, Aimery was captured in the battlefield.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p304}} During the siege of Ascalon, Saladin promised the defenders that he would set free ten persons whom they named if they surrendered.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p309}} Aimery and Guy were among those whom the defenders named before surrendering on 4 September, but Saladin postponed their release until the spring of 1188.{{sfn|Painter|1969|p55}}
Most barons of the realm thought that Guy lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem when Sybilla and their two daughters died in late 1190, but Aimery remained loyal to his brother.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p30}}{{sfn|Edbury|1994|pp26–27}} Guy's opponents supported Conrad of Montferrat who married Sybilla's half-sister Isabella in late November.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p31}} An assembly of the noblemen of the realm unanimously declared Conrad the lawful king on 16 April 1192.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p64}} Although Conrad was murdered twelve days later, his widow soon married Henry II of Champagne, who was elected King of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp77–78}} To compensate Guy for the loss of Jerusalem, Richard I of England authorized him to purchase the island of Cyprus (that Richard had conquered in May 1191) from the Knights Templar.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp66–67}} He was also to pay 40,000 bezants to Richard who donated the right to collect the sum from Guy to Henry.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p28}} Guy settled in Cyprus in early May.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p67}}
Aimery remained in the Kingdom of Jerusalem,{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p67}} which was reduced to a narrow strip of land along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea from Jaffa to Tyre.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p78}} King Henry ordered the expulsion of the merchants from Pisa from Acre in May, because he accused them of plotting with Guy of Lusignan.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p83}} After Aimery intervened on behalf of the merchants, Henry had him arrested. Aimery was only released at the demand of the grand masters of the Templars and the Hospitallers. He retired to Jaffa, which King Richard had granted to Aimery's eldest brother, Geoffrey of Lusignan.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p84}}
Reign
Lord of Cyprus
Guy died in May 1194, and bequeathed Cyprus to his elder brother, Geoffrey. However Geoffrey had already returned to Poitou, thus Guy's vassals elected Aimery their new lord.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p29}} Henry of Champagne demanded the right to be consulted about the succession in Cyprus, but the Cypriote noblemen ignored him. Around the same time, Henry replaced Aimery with John of Ibelin as constable of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p84}}
Aimery realized that the treasury of Cyprus was almost empty because his brother had granted most landed property on the island to his supporters, according to Ernoul.{{sfn|Furber|1969|p604}} He summoned his vassals to an assembly.{{sfn|Furber|1969|p604}} After emphasizing that each of them owned more land than he had, he persuaded them one by one "either by force, or by friendship, or by agreement" to surrender some of their rents and lands.{{sfn|Furber|1969|p=604}}
, who authorized the coronation of Aimery in exchange after Aimery acknowledged his suzerainty]]
Aimery dispatched an embassy to Pope Celestine III, asking him to set up Roman Catholic dioceses in Cyprus.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p29}} He also sent his representative, Rainier of Gibelet, to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI, proposing that he would acknowledge the emperor's suzerainty, if the emperor sent a royal crown to him.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p85}} Aimery primarily wanted to secure the emperor's assistance against a potential Byzantine invasion of Cyprus,{{sfn|Furber|1969|p604}} but he also wanted to strengthen his own legitimacy as king.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p31}} Rainier of Gibelet swore loyalty to Henry VI on behalf of Aimery in Gelnhausen in October 1196.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p80}} The emperor who had decided to lead a crusade to the Holy Land promised that he would personally crown Aimery king. He dispatched the archbishops of Brindisi and Trani to take a golden sceptre to Aimery as a symbol of his right to rule Cyprus.{{sfn|Johnson|1969|p119}}
King of Cyprus
Henry VI's two envoys landed in Cyprus in April or May 1196. Aimery may have adopted the title of king around that time, because Pope Celestine styled him as king already in a letter in December 1196.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p31}}{{sfn|Hardwicke|1969|p528}} In the same month, the Pope set up a Roman Catholic archdiocese in Nicosia with three suffragan bishops in Famagusta, Limassol and Paphos.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p31}} The Greek Orthodox bishops were not expelled, but their property and income were seized by the new Catholic prelates.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p86}}
Henry VI's chancellor, Conrad, Bishop of Hildesheim, crowned Aimery king in Nicosia in September 1197.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p31}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p85}} Aimery did homage to the chancellor.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p85}} The noblemen who owned fiefs in both Cyprus and the Kingdom of Jerusalem wanted to bring about a reconciliation between Aimery and Henry of Champagne.{{sfn|Hardwicke|1969|p525}} One of them, Baldwin of Beisan, Constable of Cyprus, persuaded King Henry to visit Cyprus in early 1197.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p84}}{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p32}} The two kings made peace, agreeing that Aimery's three sons were to marry Henry's three daughters. Henry also renounced the debt that Aimery still owed to him for Cyprus and allowed Aimery to garrison his troops at Jaffa. Aimery sent Reynald Barlais to take possession of Jaffa. Aimery again used the title of Constable of Jerusalem in November 1197, which suggests that he had also recovered that office as a consequence of his treaty with Henry.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p32}} King of two realms Henry of Champagne fell from the window in his palace and died in Acre on 10 September 1197. The aristocratic-yet-impoverished Raoul of Saint Omer was one of the possible candidates to succeed him, but the grand masters of the military orders opposed him vehemently. A few days later, Al-Adil I, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, occupied Jaffa.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p93}}
and her first husband, Humphrey IV of Toron]]
Conrad of Wittelsbach, Archbishop of Mainz, who arrived to Acre on 20 September, was the first to propose that the crown should be offered to Aimery. Since Aimery's first wife had died, he could marry the widowed queen of Jerusalem, Isabella I.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p94}} Although Aymar, Patriarch of Jerusalem, stated that the marriage would be uncanonical, Joscius, Archbishop of Tyre, started negotiations with Aimery who accepted the offer. The patriarch also withdrew his objections and crowned Aimery and Isabella in Tyre in January 1198.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p33}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp=94–95}}
The Cypriot Army fought for the Kingdom of Jerusalem during Aimery's rule, but otherwise, he administered his two realms separately.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p33}} Even before his coronation, Aimery united his forces with the German crusaders who were under the command of Duke Henry I of Brabant to launch a campaign against the Ayyubid troops. They forced Al-Adil to withdraw and captured Beirut on 21 October. He laid siege to Toron, but he had to lift the siege on 2 February, because the German crusaders decided to return to the Holy Roman Empire after learning that Emperor Henry VI had died.{{sfn|Hardwicke|1969|p530}}
Aimery was riding at Tyre when four German knights attacked him in March 1198.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|pp95–96}} His retainers rescued him and captured the four knights. Aimery accused Raoul of Saint Omer of hiring the assailants and sentenced him to banishment without a trial by his peers. At Raoul's demand, the case was submitted to the High Court of Jerusalem which held that Aimery had unlawfully banished Raoul. Nevertheless, Raoul voluntarily left the kingdom and settled in Tripoli, because he knew that he had lost Aimery's goodwill.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p96}}
Aimery signed a truce with Al-Adil on 1 July 1198, securing the possession of the coast from Acre as far as to Antioch for the crusaders for five years and eight months.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p81}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p98}} The Byzantine emperor, Alexios III Angelos, did not abandon the idea of recovering Cyprus. He promised that he would help a new crusade if Pope Innocent III excommunicated Aimery to enable a Byzantine invasion in 1201, but Innocent refused him, stating that the Byzantines had lost their right to Cyprus when Richard I conquered the island in 1191.{{sfn|Furber|1969|p=608}}
Aimery kept the peace with the Muslims, even when Reynald II of Dampierre, who arrived at the head of 300 French crusaders, demanded that he launch a campaign against the Muslims in early 1202. After Aimery reminded him that more than 300 soldiers were needed to wage war against the Ayyubids, Reynald left the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the Principality of Antioch. An Egyptian emir seized a fortress near Sidon and made plundering raids against the neighbouring territory. As Al-Adil failed to force the emir to respect the truce, Aimery's fleet seized 20 Egyptian ships and he invaded Al-Adil's realm. In retaliation, Al-Adil's son, Al-Mu'azzam Isa plundered the region of Acre. In May 1204, Aimery's fleet sacked a small town in the Nile Delta in Egypt. The envoys of Aimery and Al-Adil signed a new truce for six years in September 1204. Al-Adil ceded Jaffa and Ramleh to the Kingdom of Jerusalem and simplified the Christian pilgrims' visits to Jerusalem and Nazareth.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p103}}{{sfn|Hardwicke|1969|p531}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p102}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p86}}
After eating an excess of white mullet, Aimery fell seriously ill. He died after a short illness on 1 April 1205. His six-year-old son, Hugh I, succeeded him in Cyprus; and Queen Isabella ruled the Kingdom of Jerusalem until her own death four days later.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p103}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p87}}
Legacy
Historian Mary Nickerson Hardwicke described Aimery as a "self-assured, politically astute, sometimes hard, seldom sentimentally indulgent" ruler.{{sfn|Hardwicke|1969|p532}} His rule was a period of peace and consolidation.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p34}} He initiated the revision of the laws of the Kingdom of Jerusalem to specify royal prerogatives.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p95}} The lawyers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem held him in high esteem.{{sfn|Edbury|1994|p34}} One of them, John of Ibelin emphasized that Aimery had governed both Cyprus and Jerusalem "well and wisely" until his death.{{sfn|Furber|1969|p605}} Family Aimery's first wife, Eschiva of Ibelin, was the elder daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin, Lord of Mirabel and Ramleh, and Richelda of Beisan.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p35}}{{sfn|Runciman|1989a|p=423, Appendix III: Genealogical trees, Number 4.}} They had five children
* Bourgogne, who married (1) Raymond VI of Toulouse in 1193 (div 1196 with no issue);{{sfn|William of Puylaurens|2003|p18}} (2) Walter of Montbéliard in 1204. Walter was the regent of Cyprus for her younger brother, Hugh I, from 1205 to 1210.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p134, Appendix III: Genealogical trees, Number 1.}}
* Helvis, who was the wife of Raymond-Roupen,{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=138, Appendix III: Genealogical trees, Number 1.}} who was Prince of Antioch from 1216 to 1219.
* Guy, who died young{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=84}}
* John, who died young{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=84}}
* Hugh I, who married Alice of Champagne{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=84}}
Aimery's second wife, Isabella I of Jerusalem,{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|p493}} was the only daughter of Amalric I of Jerusalem and Maria Komnene.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p31}} They had three children
* Sybilla, who was the second wife of Leo I, King of Armenia.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=95, Appendix III: Genealogical trees, Number 1. and 4.}}
* Melisende, who married Bohemond IV of Antioch.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p=95, Appendix III: Genealogical trees, Number 1-2.}}
* Amalric, who died during childhood, 2 February 1205.{{sfn|Runciman|1989b|p103}} References {{Reflist|30em}} Sources
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |lastBarber |firstMalcolm |author-linkMalcolm Barber |year2012 |titleThe Crusader States |publisherYale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-11312-9 }}
* {{cite book |lastEdbury |firstPeter W. |year1994 |titleKingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-45837-5 }}
* {{cite book |lastFurber |firstElizabeth Chapin |editor1-lastSetton |editor1-firstKenneth M. |editor2-lastWolff |editor2-firstRobert Lee |editor3-lastHazard |editor3-firstHarry |titleA History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |publisherThe University of Wisconsin Press |year1969 |pages599–629 |chapterThe Kingdom of Cyprus, 1191–1291 |isbn0-299-04844-6 }}
* {{cite book |lastHamilton |firstBernard |year2000 |titleThe Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-64187-6 }}
*{{cite journal |lastHazard |firstHarry W. |titleCaesarea and the Crusades |journalBulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. Supplementary Studies |volume1 |issue19 The Joint Expedition to Caesarea Maritima |pages79–114 |year1975 }}
* {{cite book |lastHill |firstGeorge Francis |author-linkGeorge Francis Hill |year2010 |titleA History of Cyprus, Volume II. |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-1-108-02063-3 |orig-year1948}}
* {{cite book |lastHardwicke |firstMary Nickerson |editor1-lastSetton |editor1-firstKenneth M. |editor2-lastWolff |editor2-firstRobert Lee |editor3-lastHazard |editor3-firstHarry |titleA History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |publisherThe University of Wisconsin Press |year1969 |pages522–554 |chapterThe Crusader States, 1192–1243 |isbn0-299-04844-6 }}
* {{cite book |lastJohnson |firstEdgar N. |editor1-lastSetton |editor1-firstKenneth M. |editor2-lastWolff |editor2-firstRobert Lee |editor3-lastHazard |editor3-firstHarry |titleA History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |publisherThe University of Wisconsin Press |year1969 |pages87–122 |chapterThe Crusades of Frederick Barbarossan and Henry VI |isbn0-299-04844-6 }}
* {{cite book |lastLock |firstPeter |year2006 |titleThe Routledge Companion to the Crusades |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-415-39312-6 }}
* {{cite journal |lastPainter |firstSidney |author-linkSidney Painter |titleThe Lords of Lusignan in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries |journalSpeculum |volume32 |issue1 |pages27–47 |publisherThe University of Chicago Press |year1957 |doi10.2307/2849244 |jstor2849244 |s2cid161153870 |issn0038-7134 }}
* {{cite book |lastPainter |firstSidney |author-linkSidney Painter |editor1-lastSetton |editor1-firstKenneth M. |editor2-lastWolff |editor2-firstRobert Lee |editor3-lastHazard |editor3-firstHarry |titleA History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |publisherThe University of Wisconsin Press |year1969 |pages45–85 |chapterThe Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted and Philip Augustus |isbn=0-299-04844-6 }}
* {{cite book |lastRunciman |firstSteven |author-linkSteven Runciman |year1989a |titleA History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-06163-6 }}
* {{cite book |lastRunciman |firstSteven |author-linkSteven Runciman |year1989b |titleA History of the Crusades, Volume III: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-06163-6 }}
* {{cite thesis |last1Savva |first1Panagiotis |titleΗ περίοδος της ακμής του βασιλείου των Λουζινιάν στην Κύπρο (1285-1369) |trans-titleThe heyday of the Lusignan kingdom in Cyprus (1285-1369) |languageel |date1 March 2011 |doi10.12681/eadd/30282 |doi-accessfree |hdl10442/hedi/30282 |hdl-accessfree }}
* {{cite book |titleGod's War: A New History of the Crusades |firstChristopher |lastTyerman |publisherHarvard University Press |year=2006 }}
* {{cite book |lastWilliam of Puylaurens |titleThe Chronicle of William of Puylaurens: The Albigensian Crusade and its Aftermath |editor1-firstW.A. |editor1-lastSibly |editor2-firstM.D. |editor2-lastSibly |publisherThe Boydell Press |year2003 }}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastGerish |firstDeborah |titleAimery of Lusignan |editor-lastMurray |editor-firstAlan V. |encyclopediaThe Crusades: An Encyclopedia |volume1 |page24 |publisherABC-CLIO |year2006 |isbn=978-1-576-07862-4}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|House of Lusignan| |{{circa}} 1153|1 April|1205| }}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=Guy}}
{{s-ttl|titleLord of Cyprus|years1194–1196}}
{{s-non|reason=Became king}}
|-
{{s-non|reason=Became king}}
{{s-ttl|titleKing of Cyprus|years1196–1205}}
{{s-aft|after=Hugh I}}
|-
{{S-bef|beforeIsabella I|assole ruler}}
{{S-ttl|titleKing of Jerusalem|years1198&ndash;1205|regent1=Isabella I}}
{{S-aft|afterIsabella I|assole ruler}}
|-
{{s-off}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=Humphrey IV of Toron}}
{{s-ttl|titleConstable of Jerusalem|years1179/1181–1194}}
{{s-aft|after=John of Ibelin}}
{{s-end}}
{{Jerusalem Monarchs}}
{{Cypriot Monarchs}}
{{authority control}}{{Portal bar|Cyprus|Jerusalem|Middle Ages}}
Category:12th-century births
Category:1205 deaths
Category:12th-century monarchs of Jerusalem
Category:13th-century monarchs of Jerusalem
Category:Kings of Jerusalem
Category:Kings of Cyprus
Category:Jure uxoris kings
Category:Constables of Jerusalem
Category:Burials at Saint Sophia Cathedral, Nicosia
Category:French Roman Catholics
Category:Christians of the Crusade of 1197
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aimery_of_Cyprus
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.238543
|
1873
|
Anthemius of Tralles
|
{{Short description|5th-century Byzantine architect and mathematician}}
{{for|persons of a similar name|Anthemius (disambiguation)}}
Anthemius of Tralles ({{langx|grc|Ἀνθέμιος ὁ Τραλλιανός}}, Medieval Greek: {{IPA|el|anˈθemios o traliaˈnos|}}, Anthémios o Trallianós; {{c.|lkno|474}}&nbsp;– 533&nbsp;{{abbr|x|sometime between}}&nbsp;558){{r|Boyer}} was a Byzantine Greek from Tralles<ref>{{harvnb|Heath|1911|p98}}: "ANTHEMIUS, Greek mathematician and architect, who produced, under the patronage of Justinian (A.D.{{nbsp}}532), the original and daring plans for the church of St Sophia in Constantinople,{{nbsp}}... He was one of five brothers—the sons of Stephanus, a physician of Tralles—who were all more or less eminent in their respective departments.{{nbsp}}..."</ref> who worked as a geometer and architect in Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. With Isidore of Miletus, he designed the Hagia Sophia for Justinian&nbsp;I.
{{anchor|History|Biography}}
Life
Anthemius was one of the five sons of Stephanus of Tralles, a physician. His brothers were Dioscorus, Alexander, Olympius, and Metrodorus. Dioscorus followed his father's profession in Tralles; Alexander did so in Rome and became one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius became a noted lawyer; and Metrodorus worked as a grammarian in Constantinople.{{sfn|Heath|1911|p=98}}
Anthemius was said to have annoyed his neighbor Zeno in two ways: first, by engineering a miniature earthquake by sending steam through leather tubes he had fixed among the joists and flooring of Zeno's parlor while he was entertaining friends<ref>{{Cite book |lastAgathias |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWp92bUzuMoQC&dq%22Zeno+and+his+friends+were+terrified%2C+and+ran+panic-stricken+into+the+street%22&pgPA142 |titleThe Histories |date2 May 2011|publisherWalter de Gruyter |isbn978-3-11-082694-4 |languageen |chapterSection 5.7.2-5}}</ref> and, second, by simulating thunder and lightning and flashing intolerable light into Zeno's eyes from a slightly hollowed mirror.{{sfn|Heath|1911|p98}} In addition to his familiarity with steam, some dubious authorities credited Anthemius with a knowledge of gunpowder or other explosive compound.{{sfn|Heath|1911|p98}}MathematicsAnthemius was a capable mathematician. In the course of his treatise On Burning Mirrors, he intended to facilitate the construction of surfaces to reflect light to a single point, he described the string construction of the ellipse{{r|Boyer}} and assumed a property of ellipses not found in Apollonius of Perga's Conics: the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point. His work also includes the first practical use of the directrix: having given the focus and a double ordinate, he used the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola.{{sfn|Heath|1911|p98}} This work was later known to Arab mathematicians such as Alhazen.
Eutocius of Ascalon's commentary on Apollonius's Conics was dedicated to Anthemius.{{r|Boyer}}
Architecture
, 2013]]
As an architect, Anthemius is best known for his work designing the Hagia Sophia.{{sfn|Heath|1911|p98}} He was commissioned with Isidore of Miletus by Justinian&nbsp;I shortly after the earlier church on the site burned down in 532 but died early on in the project. He is also said to have repaired the flood defenses at Daras.{{sfn|O'Connor|Robertson|1999}} Editions of On Burning-Glasses * {{citation |lastDupuy |firstL. |titleΠερί παραδόξων μηχανημάτων [Perí Paradóxōn Mēkhanēmátōn; Concerning Wondrous Machines] |date1777 |languageel }}
* {{citation |titleHistoire de l'Academie des Instrumentistes |volumeXLII |language=fr}}
* {{citation |lastWestermann |firstA. |titleΠαραδοξογράφοι [Paradoxográphoi; Marvel-Writers] |date1839 |languageel }}Notes{{reflist |refs
<ref name=Boyer>
{{citation |lastBoyer |firstCarl Benjamin |author-linkCarl Benjamin Boyer |titleA History of Mathematics |edition2nd |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |date1991 |isbn0-471-54397-7 |page=193 }}.
</ref>
}} <!-- END REFLIST -->
References
* {{Cite EB1911 |modecs2 |lastHeath |firstThomas Little |author-linkThomas Little Heath |wstitleAnthemius |volume2 |page=93 }}
* {{citation |lastHuxley |firstG. L. |year1959 |titleAnthemius of Tralles: A Study in Later Greek Geometry |lccn59-14700 |locationCambridge, MA |pages8–9 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/anthemiusoftrall0000huxl/page/8/ |url-access=limited }}
* {{citation |lastHuxley |firstG. L. |year1970 |contributionAnthemius of Tralles |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography
|editor-lastGillispie |editor-firstCharles Coulston |editor-linkCharles Coulston Gillispie |volume1 (Abailard–Berg) |placeNew York |publisherCharles Scribner's Sons |pages169–170 |contribution-urlhttps://archive.org/details/dictionaryofscie0001unse/page/169/mode/1up |contribution-url-access=limited }}.
* {{cite journal |lastKnorr |firstWilbur |year1983 |titleThe Geometry of Burning-Mirrors in Antiquity |journalIsis |volume74 |number1 |pages53–73 |doi10.1086/353176 |jstor232280 }}
* {{MacTutor Biography |idAnthemius |year1999}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson1999}}
{{Ancient Greek mathematics}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:470s births
Category:6th-century deaths
Category:Byzantine architects
Category:5th-century mathematicians
Category:6th-century mathematicians
Category:Greek Christians
Category:People from Tralles
Category:Justinian I
Category:5th-century Byzantine writers
Category:5th-century Byzantine scientists
Category:6th-century Byzantine scientists
Category:6th-century Byzantine writers
Category:6th-century architects
Category:Hagia Sophia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthemius_of_Tralles
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.249064
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1874
|
Absalon
|
{{Short description|Danish bishop and statesman (c. 1128–1201)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| name = Absalon
| title = {{ubl|Bishop of Roskilde|Archbishop of Lund}}
| image = Absalons ligsten.jpg
| caption = Absalon's grave effigy
| diocese = {{ubl|Diocese of Roskilde (1158–1192)|Archdiocese of Lund (1178–1201)}}
| predecessor = {{ubl|Asser of Roskilde|Eskil of Lund}}
| successor = {{ubl|Peder Sunesen (Roskilde)|Anders Sunesen (Lund)}}
| consecration | birth_name <!-- If different from name or full name -->
| birth_date = {{c.|1128}}
| birth_place = near Sorø
| death_date {{death date and age|1201|3|21|1128|dfy}}
| death_place = Sorø
| buried = Sorø Abbey
}}
Absalon ({{circa|1128}}{{snd}}21 March 1201) was a Danish statesman and prelate of the Catholic Church who served as the bishop of Roskilde from 1158 to 1192 and archbishop of Lund from 1178 until his death. He was the foremost politician and church father of Denmark in the second half of the 12th century, and was the closest advisor of King Valdemar I of Denmark. He was a key figure in the Danish policies of territorial expansion in the Baltic Sea, Europeanization in close relationship with the Holy See, and reform in the relation between the Church and the public. He combined the ideals of Gregorian Reform with loyal support of a strong monarchical power.
Absalon was born into the powerful Hvide clan, and owned great land possessions. He endowed several church institutions, most prominently his family's Sorø Abbey. He was granted lands by the crown, and built the first fortification of the city that evolved into modern-day Copenhagen. His titles were passed on to his nephews Anders Sunesen and Peder Sunesen. He died in 1201, and was interred at Sorø Abbey.
Early life
Absalon was born around 1128 near Sorø, Zealand.{{fact|dateJanuary 2021}} Due to his name being unusual in Denmark, it is speculated that he was baptized on the Danish "Absalon" name day, 30 October.<ref name"bricka"/> He was the son of Asser Rig, a magnate of the Hvide clan from Fjenneslev on Zealand,<ref name"Britannica">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAbsalon|volume1|pages73–74|firstRobert Nisbet|lastBain|author-linkRobert Nisbet Bain}}</ref> and Inger Eriksdotter. He was also a kinsman of Archbishop Eskil of Lund.<ref name"bricka">Carl Frederik Bricka (ed.), Dansk Biografisk Lexikon, vol. I [Aaberg – Beaumelle], 1887. A.D. Jørgensen, "Absalon" [https://runeberg.org/dbl/1/0088.html pp.70–81]</ref> He grew up at the castle of his father, and was brought up alongside his older brother Esbern Snare and the young prince Valdemar, who later became King Valdemar I of Denmark.<ref name"gyldendal"/> During the civil war following the death of Eric III of Denmark in 1146, Absalon travelled abroad to study theology in Paris, while Esbern fought for Valdemar's ascension to the throne. In Paris, he was influenced by the Gregorian Reform ideals of churchly independence from monarchical rule.<ref name"gad">"Gads Historieleksikon", 3rd edition, 2006. Paul Ulff-Møller, "Absalon", p.10. {{ISBN|978-87-12-04259-4}}</ref> He also befriended the canon William of Æbelholt at the Abbey of St Genevieve, whom he later made abbot of Eskilsø Abbey.<ref name"bricka"/>
Absalon first appears in Saxo Grammaticus's contemporary chronicle Gesta Danorum at the end of the civil war, in the brokering of the peace agreement between Sweyn III and Valdemar at St. Alban's Priory in Odense.<ref name"bricka"/> He was a guest at the subsequent Roskilde banquet given in 1157 by Sweyn for his rivals Canute V and Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination by Sweyn on this occasion, and escaped to Jutland, whither Sweyn followed them.<ref name"Britannica"/> Absalon probably did not take part in the following battle of Grathe Heath in 1157, where Sweyn was defeated and slain. This led to Valdemar ascending to the Danish throne. On Good Friday 1158, bishop {{interlanguage link|Asser of Roskilde|qidQ12302360}} died, and Absalon was eventually elected bishop of Roskilde on Zealand with the help of Valdemar,<ref name"bricka"/> as the king's reward for Hvide family support.<ref name"pajung">Stefan Pajung, [http://www.danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/absalon-ca-1128-1201/ Artikel: Absalon ca. 1128–1201], Aarhus University, 20 June 2009</ref>Bishop and advisorAbsalon was a close counsellor of Valdemar, and chief promoter of the Danish crusades against the Wends.<ref name"gyldendal"/> During the Danish civil war, Denmark had been open to coastal raids by the Wends.<ref name"pajung"/> It was Absalon's intention to clear the Baltic Sea of the Wendish pirates who inhabited its southern littoral zone, which was later called Pomerania. The pirates had raided the Danish coasts during the civil war of Sweyn III, Canute V, and Valdemar, to the point where at the accession of Valdemar one-third of Denmark lay wasted and depopulated.<ref name"Britannica"/> Absalon formed a guardian fleet, built coastal defenses, and led several campaigns against the Wends.<ref name"pajung"/> He even advocated forgiving the earlier enemies of Valdemar, which helped stabilize Denmark internally.<ref name"bricka"/>
Wendish campaigns
]]
The first expedition against the Wends conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160.<ref name"Britannica"/> These expeditions were successful, but brought no lasting victories.<ref name"bricka"/> What started out as mere retribution, eventually evolved into full-fledged campaigns of expansion with religious motives.<ref name"pajung"/> In 1164 began twenty years of crusades against the Wends, sometimes with the help of German duke Henry the Lion, sometimes in opposition to him.<ref name"bricka"/>
In 1168 the chief Wendish fortress at Arkona in Rügen, containing the sanctuary of their god Svantevit, was conquered. The Wends agreed to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same time. From Arkona, Absalon proceeded by sea to Charenza, in the midst of Rügen, the political capital of the Wends and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. Absalon, with only Bishop Sweyn of Aarhus and twelve "housecarls", thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding to the temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit, caused the idol to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole population of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations of twelve churches in the isle of Rügen.<ref name"Britannica"/> Rügen was then subjected to Absalon's Bishopric of Roskilde.<ref name"pajung"/>
]]
The destruction of this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon to considerably reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dziwnów on the isle of Wolin. Absalon's last military exploit came in 1184, off Stralsund at Whitsun, when he soundly defeated a Pomeranian fleet that had attacked Denmark's vassal, Jaromar of Rügen.<ref name"Britannica"/>PoliciesAbsalon's main political goal was to free Denmark from entanglements with the Holy Roman Empire.<ref name"Britannica"/> Absalon reformed the Danish church organisation to closer match Holy See praxis, and worked to keep Denmark a close ally of the Holy See.<ref name"gyldendal"/> However, during the schism between Pope Alexander III and Antipope Victor IV, Absalon stayed loyal to Valdemar even as he joined the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in supporting Victor IV.<ref name"pajung"/> This caused a split within the Danish church, as it possibly forced Eskil of Lund into exile around 1161,<ref name"gyldendal"/> despite Abaslon's attempts to keep the Danish church united.<ref name"bricka"/> It was contrary to Absalon's advice and warnings that Valdemar I rendered fealty to the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Dole in 1162.<ref name"Britannica"/> When Valdemar returned to Denmark, he was convinced to strengthen the Danevirke fortifications at the German border, with the support of Absalon.<ref name"bricka"/>
Absalon built churches and monasteries, supporting international religious orders like the Cistercians and Augustinians, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment.<ref name"Britannica"/> In 1162, Absalon transformed the Sorø Abbey of his family from Benedictine to Cistercian, granting it lands from his personal holdings. In 1167, Absalon was granted the land around the city of Havn (English: "Harbour"), and built there a castle for coastal defense against the Wends.<ref name"gyldendal"/> Havn quickly expanded into one of Scandinavia's most important centers of trade, and eventually evolved into modern-day Copenhagen.<ref name"bricka"/> It was also Absalon who held the first Danish Synod at Lund in 1167.<ref name"Britannica"/> He was interested in history and culture, and commissioned Saxo Grammaticus to write Gesta Danorum, a comprehensive chronicle of the history of the Danes.<ref name"pajung"/> In 1171, Absalon issued the "Zealand church law" ({{langx|da|Sjællandske Kirkelov}}), which reduced the number of Canonical Law offenses for which the church could fine the public, while instituting the tithe payment system. Violation of the law was specified as subject to a secular legal process.<ref>[http://www.denstoredanske.dk/Samfund%2c_jura_og_politik/Jura/Retshistorie/kirkelove Kirkelove] at Gyldendals Åbne Encyklopædi</ref>Archbishop of LundArchbishop Eskil returned from exile in 1167. Eskil agreed on canonizing Valdemar's father Knud Lavard in 1170, with Absalon assisting him at the feast. When Eskil stepped down as Archbishop of Lund in 1177, he chose Absalon as his successor.<ref name"pajung"/> Absalon initially resisted the new position, as he did not want to lose his power position on Zealand, but complied with Papal orders to do so in 1178.<ref name"bricka"/> By a unique Papal dispensation, Absalon was allowed to simultaneously maintain his post as Bishop of Roskilde.<ref name"gyldendal"/> As the Archbishop of Lund, Absalon utilized ombudsmen from Zealand, demanded unfree labour from the peasantry, and instituted tithes.<ref name"pajung"/> He was a harsh and effective ruler, who cleared all Orthodox Christian liturgical remnants in favour of Papal standards.<ref name"gyldendal"/> A rebellion in the Scanian peasantry forced him to flee to Zealand in 1180, but he returned and subdued the Scanians with the help of Valdemar.<ref name="pajung"/>
Valdemar died in 1182 and was succeeded by his son, Canute VI, whom Absalon also served as counsellor.<ref name"pajung"/> Under Canute VI, Absalon was the chief policymaker in Danish politics.<ref name"gad"/> Absalon kept his hostile attitude to the Holy Roman Empire. On the accession of Canute VI in 1182, an imperial ambassador arrived at Roskilde to get the new king to swear fealty to Frederick Barbarossa, but Absalon resolutely withstood him.<ref name"Britannica"/>DeathWhen Absalon retired from military service in 1184 at the age of fifty-seven, he resigned the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, the later king Valdemar II. He instead confined himself to the administration of the Danish empire.<ref name"bricka"/> In 1192, Absalon made his nephew {{ILL|Peder Sunesen|da}} his successor as Bishop of Roskilde, while his other nephew Anders Sunesen was named the chancellor of Canute VI.<ref name"pajung"/> Absalon died at Sorø Abbey on 21 March 1201, 73 years old, with his last will granting his personal holdings to the Abbey, apart from Fjenneslev which went to Esbern Snarre. He had already given Copenhagen to the Bishopric of Roskilde.<ref name"bricka"/> Absalon was interred at Sorø Abbey,<ref name"pajung"/> and was succeeded as Archbishop of Lund by Anders Sunesen.<ref name"gyldendal"/>
Legacy
commemorating Absalon on Højbro Plads, Copenhagen]]
Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum was not finished until after the death of Absalon,<ref name"gyldendal"/> but Absalon was one of the chief heroic figures of the chronicle, which was to be the main source of knowledge about early Danish history.<ref name"pajung"/> Absalon left a legacy as the foremost politician and churchfather of Denmark in the 12th century.<ref name"gyldendal">[http://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_historie/Danmark_f%C3%B8r_Reformationen/Absalon Absalon] at Gyldendals Åbne Encyklopædi</ref> Absalon was equally great as churchman, statesman, and warrior. His policy of expansion was to give Denmark the dominion of the Baltic for three generations. That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole indication of their religious role was to avoid the shedding of blood by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon never neglected his ecclesiastical duties.<ref name"Britannica"/>
In the 2000s, "Absalon" was adopted as the name for a class of Royal Danish Navy vessels, and the lead vessel of the class. HDMS Absalon (L16) and Esbern Snare (L17) were launched and commissioned by Denmark in 2004 and 2005.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://forsvaret.dk/2ESK/ENHEDER/FS/ABSL/Pages/default.aspx |titleForsvaret.dk |access-date25 March 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090210080938/http://forsvaret.dk/2ESK/Enheder/FS/ABSL/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date10 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/absalon/absalon2.html Absalon Class Combat / Flexible Support Ship, Denmark] naval-technology.com {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080915103734/http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/absalon/absalon2.html |date15 September 2008 }}</ref>
References
{{reflist|30em}}
Further reading
* Saxo, Gesta Danorum, ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books xvi.
* Steenstrup, Danmarks Riges Historie. Oldtiden og den ældre Middelalder, pp.&nbsp;570–735 (Copenhagen, 1897–1905).
* Absalon's Testamentum, in Migne, Patrologia Latina 209,18.
External links
* {{cite NIE|wstitleAxel |year1905 |short=x}}
* {{cite AmCyc|wstitleAbsalon |shortx}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Absalon}}
Category:Roman Catholic archbishops of Lund
Category:1120s births
Category:1201 deaths
Category:12th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in Denmark
Category:Burials at Sorø Abbey
Category:Royal Danish Navy
Category:12th century in Skåne County
Category:Canute VI of Denmark
Category:Valdemar I of Denmark
Category:Year of birth uncertain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absalon
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.256841
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1875
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Adhemar of Le Puy
|
thumb|right|200px|19th-century painting on display at Versailles depicting Adhemar of Le Puy (in red to left of Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse).
Adhemar (also known as Adémar, Aimar, or Aelarz) de Monteil (died 1 August 1098) was one of the principal figures of the First Crusade and was bishop of Puy-en-Velay from before 1087. He was the chosen representative of Pope Urban II for the expedition to the Holy Land. Remembered for his martial prowess, he led knights and men into battle and fought beside them, particularly at the Battle of Dorylaeum and Siege of Antioch. Adhemar is said to have carried the Holy Lance in the Crusaders’ desperate breakout at Antioch on 28 June 1098, in which superior Islamic forces under the atabeg Kerbogha were routed, securing the city for the Crusaders. He died in 1098 due to illness.
Life
Born around 1045 into the family of the Counts of Valentinois and elected Bishop of Le Puy around 1080, he was an advocate of the Gregorian Reform. Among his supporters were the future Pope Urban II and Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Count of Toulouse and the richest, most powerful nobleman in France. He was also said to have gone on pilgrimage to Jerusalem around 1086. He was the brother of William Hugh of Monteil, who was also a Crusader in the First Crusade. Adhemar was buried in Antioch within the Basilica of St Peter. The disputes among the higher nobles went unsolved and the march to Jerusalem was delayed for months. However, the lower-class soldiers continued to think of Adhemar as a leader. Following his death, Adhemar reportedly appeared in several visions of various Crusaders. One of the first was reported by Peter Bartholomew who stated that Adhemar appeared to him stating that, due to his skepticism of the Holy Lance, he had spent a few days in hell and was only rescued because a candle had been burned in his memory, he had given a gift to the Shrine where the Holy Lance was kept, and due to the prayers of Bohemond. This was done and Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders in 1099. Later, Stephen of Valence also claimed to have had visions featuring Adhemar in which Adhemar spoke to Stephen of several relics. Adhemar told Stephen great reverence should be given to the cross Adhemar had taken with him on the crusade. He also told Stephen how the Holy Lance should be treated and told Stephen to give Stephen's ring to Count Raymond. He told Stephen that, through this ring, Count Raymond would be able to call upon the power of Mary.
References
Sources
Murray, Alan V., "The Army of Godfrey of Bouillon, 1096–1099: Structure and Dynamics of a Contingent on the First Crusade" (PDF), Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, 1992
Runciman, Steven, A History of the Crusades, Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1951
Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders, 1095–1131, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997
Edgington, Susan, Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana, History of the Journey to Jerusalem, Clarendon Press, 2007 (available on Google Books)
External links
Medieval Sourcebook: Speech by Urban II at Council of Clermont, 1095 (Five versions of the Speech)
Category:Christians of the First Crusade
Category:11th-century French Roman Catholic bishops
Category:Bishops of Le Puy-en-Velay
Category:1098 deaths
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:1040s births
Category:Holy Lance
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhemar_of_Le_Puy
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.263333
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1878
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Alphonse, Count of Poitiers
|
Alphonse (11 November 122021 August 1271) was the Count of Poitou from 1225 and Count of Toulouse (as such called Alphonse II) from 1249. As count of Toulouse, he also governed the Marquisate of Provence.
Birth and early life
Born at Poissy, Alphonse was a son of King Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile. He was a younger brother of King Louis IX of France and an older brother of Count Charles I of Anjou. In 1229, his mother, who was regent of France, forced the Treaty of Paris on Count Raymond VII of Toulouse after his rebellion. It stipulated that a brother of King Louis was to marry Joan, daughter of Raymond VII of Toulouse, and so in 1237 Alphonse married her. Since she was Raymond's only child, they became rulers of Toulouse at Raymond's death in 1249.thumb|Alphonse, as Count of Toulouse, recognised the autonomy of the commune of the town of Agen. In this illustration he takes an oath before the consuls with his right hand on the town ordinances, while sitting on a pedestal. The consul administering the oath is forced to go on his knees, symbolising Alphonse's lordship and the town's loyalty.
thumb|Arms of Alphonse on a 13th-century harness pendant, found in West Berkshire, England.
By the terms of his father's will Alphonse received an appanage of Poitou and Auvergne. To enforce this Louis IX won the battle of Taillebourg in the Saintonge War together with Alphonse against a revolt allied with King Henry III of England, who also participated in the battle.
Crusades
Alphonse took part in two crusades with his brother, Louis IX, in 1248 (the Seventh Crusade) and in 1270 (the Eighth Crusade). For the first of these, he raised a large sum and a substantial force, arriving in Damietta on 24 October 1249, after the town had already been captured. He sailed for home on 10 August 1250. His father-in-law had died while he was away, and he went directly to Toulouse to take possession. There was some resistance to his accession as count, which was suppressed with the help of his mother Blanche of Castile who was acting as regent in the absence of Louis IX.
Later life
In 1252, on the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, Alphonse was joint regent with Charles of Anjou until the return of Louis IX. During that time he took a great part in the campaigns and negotiations which led to the Treaty of Paris in 1259, under which King Henry III of England recognized his loss of continental territory to France (including Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Poitou) in exchange for France withdrawing its support for English rebels.
thumb|upright|Alphonse's coat of arms was formed of those of France (left) and Castile (right), representing his father and mother respectively: Per pale azure semé-de-lis or dimidiating gules semé of castles or
Aside from the crusades, Alphonse stayed primarily in Paris, governing his estates by officials, inspectors who reviewed the officials' work, and a constant stream of messages. His main work was on his own estates. There he repaired the effects of the Albigensian war and made a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing the way for union with the crown. On 8 October 1268, Alphonse had all Jews throughout his lands arrested and their property confiscated.
When Louis IX formed the Eighth Crusade, Alphonse again raised a large sum of money and accompanied his brother. This time, however, he did not return to France, dying while on his way back, at Savona in Italy, on 21 August 1271.
Death and legacy
Alphonse's death without heirs raised some questions as to the succession to his lands. One possibility was that they should revert to the crown, another that they should be redistributed to his family. The latter was claimed by Charles of Anjou, but in 1283 Parlement decided that the County of Toulouse should revert to the crown, if there were no male heirs. Alphonse's wife Joan (who died four days after Alphonse) had attempted to dispose of her lands in a will to her nearest female relative Philippa de Lomagne. However, Joan was the only surviving child and heiress of Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne, and Marquis of Provence, so under Provençal and French law, the lands should have gone to her nearest male relative. Her will was invalidated by Parlement in 1274. One specific bequest in Alphonse's will, giving his wife's lands in the Comtat Venaissin to the Holy See, was allowed, and it became a papal territory, a status which it retained until 1791.
See also
Abraham of Aragon
References
Citations
Sources
External links
|-
|-
Category:1220 births
Category:1271 deaths
Category:13th-century peers of France
Category:Children of Louis VIII of France
Category:Christians of the Eighth Crusade
Category:Christians of the Seventh Crusade
Category:Counts of Poitiers
Category:Counts of Toulouse
Category:People from Poissy
Category:Prisoners and detainees of the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:Sons of kings
Category:Jure uxoris counts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse,_Count_of_Poitiers
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.278305
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1879
|
Alfonso Jordan
|
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Alfonso Jordan
| image = Alphonse Jourdain-Cartulaire de la Cite (Toulouse).jpg
| caption = Alfonso Jordan, on a historiated initial from the first cartulary of the city of Toulouse, 1205
| title = Count of Toulouse, Rouergue and Tripoli, Margrave of Provence and Duke of Narbonne
| succession = Count of Tripoli
| reign = 1105 – 1109
| predecessor = Raymond IV
| successor = Bertrand of Toulouse
| succession1 = Count of Toulouse
| reign1 = 1112 – 1148
| predecessor1 = Bertrand of Toulouse
| successor1 = Raymond V
| birth_date = 1103
| birth_place = Citadel of Raymond de Saint-Gilles, Tripoli
| death_date {{death date and age|1148|4|16|1103|dfyes}}
| death_place = Caesarea, Kingdom of Jerusalem
| father = Raymond IV
| mother = Elvira of Castile
| spouse = Faydiva d'Uzes (m. Sep 1125)
| issue = Raymond<br>Alfonso II of Toulouse<br>Faydiva<br>Bertrand
}}
Alfonso Jordan, also spelled Alfons Jordan or Alphonse Jourdain (1103–1148), was the Count of Tripoli (1105–09), Count of Rouergue (1109–48) and Count of Toulouse, Margrave of Provence and Duke of Narbonne (1112–48).
Life
Alfonso was the son of Raymond IV of Toulouse by his third wife, Elvira of Castile.{{sfn|Graham-Leigh|2005|loctable 5}} He was born in the castle of Mont Pèlerin in Tripoli while his father was on the First Crusade. He was given the name "Jourdain" after being baptised in the Jordan River.{{sfn|Barton|Fletcher|2000|p164}}
Alfonso's father died when he was two years old and he remained under the guardianship of his cousin, William Jordan, Count of Cerdagne, until he was five. He was then taken to Europe, where his half-brother Bertrand had given him the county of Rouergue. Upon Bertrand's death in 1112, Alfonso succeeded to the county of Toulouse and marquisate of Provence.
In 1114, Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who claimed Toulouse by right of his wife Philippa, daughter of Count William IV, invaded the county and conquered it. Alfonso recovered a part in 1119, but he was not in full control until 1123. When at last successful, he was excommunicated by Pope Callixtus II for having damaged the abbey of Saint-Gilles and assaulting the monks.{{sfn|Selwood|1999|p=32}}
Alfonso next had to fight for his rights in Provence against Count Raymond Berengar III of Barcelona. Not until September 1125 did their war end in "peace and concord" (pax et concordia).{{sfn|Kosto|2001|p=256-258}} At this stage, Alfonso was master of the regions lying between the Pyrenees and the Alps, the Auvergne and the sea. His ascendancy was, according to one commentator, an unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen years art and industry flourished.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
In March 1126, Alfonso was at the court of King Alfonso VII of León when he acceded to the throne. According to the Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris, Alfonso and Suero Vermúdez took the city of León from opposition magnates and handed it over to Alfonso VII.{{sfn|Barton|1997|pp126–28|ps. According to the Chronica, "count Alfonso of Toulouse ... was in all things obedient to him [Alfonso VII]" (comes Adefonsus Tolosanus ... in omnibus essent obedientes ei).}} Among those who may have accompanied Alfonso on one of his many extended stays in Spain was the troubadour Marcabru.{{sfn|Barton|1997|p=147}}{{sfn|Boissonade|1922}}
'' minted at Narbonne during the minority of Ermengard (1134–43) bearing the obverse inscription DUX ANFOS and on the reverse CIVI NARBON]]
By 1132, Alfonso was embroiled in a succession war over the county of Melgueil against Count Berengar Raymond of Provence.{{sfn|Graham-Leigh|2005|p94}} This brief conflict was resolved with Alfonso's defeat and Berengar marrying Beatrice, heiress of Melgueil.{{sfn|Graham-Leigh|2005|p94}}
Alfonso seized the viscounty of Narbonne in 1134, and ruled it during the minority of Viscountess Ermengarde, only restoring it to her in 1143.
In 1141 King Louis VII of France pressed the claim of his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, granddaughter of Philippa, even besieging Toulouse, but without result.{{sfn|Kelly|1978|p=15}}
That same year Alfonso Jordan was again in Spain, making a pilgrimage to Saint James of Compostela, when he proposed a peace between the king of León and García Ramírez of Navarre, which became the basis for subsequent negotiations.{{sfn|Barton|1997|pp=140, 211}}
In 1144, Alfonso again incurred the displeasure of the church by siding with the citizens of Montpellier against their lord.
In 1145, Bernard of Clairvaux addressed a letter to him full of concern about a heretic named Henry in the diocese of Toulouse. Bernard even went there to preach against the heresy, an early expression of Catharism.{{sfn|Wakefield|Evans|1991|p122}} A second time he was excommunicated; but in 1146 he took the cross (i.e., vowed to go on crusade) at a meeting in Vézelay called by Louis VII. In August 1147, he embarked for the near east on the Second Crusade.{{sfn|Tyerman|2007|p156}}
He lingered on the way in Italy and probably in Constantinople, where he may have met Emperor Manuel I.
Alfonso finally arrived at Acre in 1148. He died at Caesarea,{{sfn|Richard|1999|p165}} which was followed by accusations of poisoning, levelled against either Eleanor of Aquitaine or Melisende of Jerusalem,{{sfn|Richard|1999|p165}} who may have wanted to eliminate him as a rival to her brother-in-law Count Raymond II of Tripoli.
Alfonso and Faydiva d'Uzès had:
# Raymond, who succeeded him{{sfn|Graham-Leigh|2005|loc=table 5}}
# Alfonso II
#
# Faydiva (died 1154), married to Count Humbert III of Savoy{{sfn|Graham-Leigh|2005|loc=table 5}}
# Agnes (died 1187) {{sfn|Graham-Leigh|2005|loc=table 5}}
# Laurentia, who married Count Bernard III of Comminges{{sfn|Graham-Leigh|2005|loc=table 5}}
He also had an illegitimate son, Bertrand.{{sfn|Lewis|2017|p152}}Notes{{Reflist|30em}}Sources
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book |firstSimon |lastBarton |titleThe Aristocracy in Twelfth-century León and Castile |publisherCambridge University Press |year=1997}}
*{{cite book |titleThe world of El Cid: Chronicles of the Spanish Reconquest |editor-first1Simon |editor-last1Barton |editor-first2Richard |editor-last2Fletcher |publisherManchester University Press |year=2000 }}
*{{cite book |firstEloy |lastBenito Ruano |chapterAlfonso Jordán, Conde de Toulouse: un nieto de Alfonso VI de Castilla |titleEstudios sobre Alfonso VI y la reconquista de Toledo |locationToledo |year1987 |pages=83–98}}
*{{citation |firstEloy |lastBenito Ruano |urlhttp://dbe.rah.es/biografias/65061/alfonso-jordan |titleAlfonso Jordán |encyclopediaDiccionario Biográfico electrónico |publisherReal Academia de la Historia |year=2018}}
*{{cite journal |firstPierre |lastBoissonade |titleLes personnages et les événements de l'histoire d'Allemagne, de France et d'Espagne dans l'oeuvre de Marcabru (1129–50) |journalRomania |volume48 |year1922 |pages207–242|doi10.3406/roma.1922.4480 }}
*{{cite book |firstFredric L. |lastCheyette |titleErmengard of Narbonne and the World of the Troubadours |year2004 |publisher=Cornell University Press}}
*{{EB1911|wstitleAlphonse I.|volume1|page=733}}
*{{cite book |titleThe Southern French Nobility and the Albigensian Crusade |firstElaine |lastGraham-Leigh |publisherThe Boydell Press |year=2005 }}
*{{cite book |titleRaymond IV, Count of Toulouse |first1John Hugh |last1Hill |first2Laurita Lyttleton |last2Hill |publisherSyracuse University Press |year=1962}}
*{{cite book |firstAmy |lastKelly |titleEleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings |publisherHarvard University Press |year1978 |edition2nd }}
*{{cite book |firstAdam |lastKosto |titleMaking Agreements in Medieval Catalonia: Power, Order, and the Written Word, 1000–1200 |publisherCambridge University Press |year=2001 }}
*{{cite book |lastLewis |firstKevin James |year2017 |titleThe Counts of Tripoli and Lebanon in the Twelfth Century: Sons of Saint-Gilles |publisher=Routledge }}
*{{cite book |titleSociety and Government at Toulouse in the Age of the Cathars |lastMundy |firstJohn Hine |publisherPontifical Institute for Medieval Studies |year=1997}}
*{{cite book |firstBernard F. |lastReilly |titleThe Kingdom of León-Castilla Under King Alfonso VII, 1126–1157 |year1998 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}}
*{{cite book |titleThe Crusades, c.1071-c.1291 |firstJean |lastRichard |author-linkJean Richard (historian) |translator-firstJean |translator-lastBirrell |publisherCambridge University Press |year1999 }}
*{{cite book |titleKnights of the Cloister: Templars and Hospitallers in Central-Southern Occitania, c. 1100-c. 1300 |firstDominic |lastSelwood |publisherThe Boydell Press |year=1999 }}
*{{cite book |titleGod's War: A New History of the Crusades |firstChristopher |lastTyerman |publisherPenguin Group |year=2007 }}156
*{{cite book |first1Walter Leggett |last1Wakefield |first2Austin Patterson |last2Evans |titleHeresies of the High Middle Ages |publisherColumbia University Press |year=1991 }}
{{refend}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=Raymond I}}
{{s-ttl|titleCount of Tripoli|years1105&ndash;1109}}
{{s-aft|after=Bertrand}}
{{s-bef|before=Bertrand}}
{{s-ttl|titleCount of Toulouse|years1112&ndash;1148}}
{{s-aft|after=Raymond V}}
{{s-end}}
{{Toulouse Counts}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alfonso Jordan}}
Category:1103 births
Category:1148 deaths
Category:People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
Category:Counts of Tripoli
Category:Counts of Toulouse
Category:Dukes of Narbonne
Category:Margraves of Provence
Category:Occitan nobility
Category:House of Rouergue
Category:Christians of the Second Crusade
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Jordan
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.306994
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1880
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Ambroise
|
Ambroise, sometimes Ambroise of Normandy, (flourished ) was a Norman poet and chronicler of the Third Crusade, author of a work called , which describes in rhyming Old French verse the adventures of as a crusader.
Life
The credit for detecting its value belongs to Gaston Paris, although his edition (1897) was partially anticipated by the editors of the , who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores (1885). Ambroise followed Richard I as a noncombatant, and not improbably as a court-minstrel. He speaks as an eyewitness of the king's doings at Messina, in Cyprus, at the siege of Acre, and in the abortive campaign which followed the capture of that city.
Commentary on his work
Ambroise is surprisingly accurate in his chronology; though he did not complete his work before 1195, it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the course of his pilgrimage. He shows no greater political insight than we should expect from his position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naïve vivacity which compels attention. He is by no means an impartial source: he is prejudiced against the Saracens, against the French, and against all the rivals or enemies of his master, including the Polein party which supported Conrad of Montferrat against Guy of Lusignan. He is rather to be treated as a biographer than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader aspects. Nonetheless, he is an interesting primary source for the events of the years 1190–1192 in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Books 2–6 of the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi, a Latin prose narrative of the same events apparently compiled by Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London, are closely related to Ambroise's poem. They were formerly sometimes regarded as the first-hand narrative on which Ambroise based his work, but that can no longer be maintained.
History of the poem
The poem is known to us only through one Vatican manuscript, and long escaped the notice of historians.
Published edition
Ambroise, L´Estoire de la guerre sainte. Paris, 1897: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6517331f.r
Ambroise, Itinerarium regis Ricardi. London, 1920: https://archive.org/details/itinerariumregis00richuoft
Ambroise, The History of the Holy War, translated by Marianne Ailes, Boydell Press, 2003.
See also
Anglo-Norman literature
Norman language
Notes
Category:12th-century deaths
Category:Anglo-Norman literature
Category:Medieval writers about the Crusades
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:12th-century French poets
Category:Christians of the Third Crusade
Category:Year of death unknown
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambroise
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.310925
|
1881
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Art Deco
|
{{Short description|20th-century architectural and art style}}
{{about|the art style}}
{{Cleanup reorganize|date=August 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox art movement
|name = Art Deco
|image = {{photo montage
|photo1a = Chrysler Building 1 (4684845155).jpg
|photo2a = Chicago world's fair, a century of progress, expo poster, 1933, 2.jpg
|photo3a = Victoire 2 by Rene Lalique Toyota Automobile Museum.jpg
|position = center
|size = 200
|color_border = #AAAAAA
|color = #F9F9F9
}}
|alt |caption Top to bottom: Chrysler Building in New York City (1930); poster for the Chicago World's Fair (1933); and Victoire hood ornament by René Lalique at Toyota Automobile Museum in Japan (1928)
|yearsactive = {{circa|1910s–1950s}}
|country = Global
}}
Art Deco, short for the French {{lang|fr|Arts décoratifs}} ({{literally|Decorative Arts}}),<ref>{{cite magazine |urlhttps://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/worlds-most-beautiful-art-deco-buildings |titleArt Deco Architecture: Everything You Need to Know |last1McLaughlin |first1Katherine |last2Stamp |first2Elizabeth |magazineArchitectural Digest |dateJune 26, 2023 |access-dateDecember 28, 2023}}</ref> is a style of visual arts, architecture, and product design, that first appeared in Paris in the 1910s just before World War I,{{Sfn|Texier|2012|page128}} and flourished in the United States and Europe during the 1920s to early 1930s. Through styling and design of the exterior and interior of anything from large structures to small objects, including how people look (clothing, fashion, and jewelry), Art Deco has influenced buildings (from skyscrapers to cinemas), bridges, ships, ocean liners, trains, cars, trucks, buses, furniture, and everyday objects including radios and vacuum cleaners.{{Sfn|Hillier|1968|page=12}}
The name Art Deco came into use after the 1925 {{lang|fr|Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes}} (International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts) held in Paris.{{Sfn|Benton|Benton|Wood|2003|page=16}} Art Deco has its origins in the bold geometric forms of the Vienna Secession and Cubism. From the outset, Art Deco was influenced by the bright colors of Fauvism and the Ballets Russes, and the exoticized styles of art from China, Japan, India, Persia, ancient Egypt, and Maya.
During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance and faith in social and technological progress. The movement featured rare and expensive materials, such as ebony and ivory, and exquisite craftsmanship. It also introduced new materials such as chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic. In New York, the Empire State Building, Chrysler Building, and other buildings from the 1920s and 1930s are monuments to the style. The largest concentration of art deco architecture in the world is in Miami Beach, Florida.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/miami/news/miami-beach-celebrates-100-years-of-art-deco-style-culture/|titleMiami Beach celebrates 100 years of Art Deco style, culture|publisherCBS news|access-dateJanuary 20, 2025}}</ref>
In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Art Deco became more subdued. A sleeker form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, featuring curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces.<ref>Renaut, Christophe and Lazé, Christophe, ''Les Styles de l'architecture et du mobilier (2006), Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot, pp. 110–116</ref> Art Deco was an international style, but after the outbreak of World War II, it lost its dominance to the functional and unadorned styles of modern architecture and the International Style.{{Sfn |Benton|Benton|Wood|2003|pages13–28}}<ref name criticos>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism |date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|pages14, 16|url|languageRomanian, English}}</ref>EtymologyArt Deco took its name, short for {{lang|fr|Arts Décoratifs}}, from the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts held in Paris in 1925,{{Sfn|Benton|Benton|Wood|2003|page16}} though the diverse styles that characterised it had already appeared in Paris and Brussels before World War I.
Arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858 in the Bulletin de la Société française de photographie.<ref>[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k111368q "M. Cunny présente une Note sur un procédé vitro-héliographique applicable aux arts décoratifs"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220180622/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k111368q |date20 December 2016 }}, Bulletin de la Société française de photographie, Société française de photographie. Éditeur: Société française de photographie (Paris), 1858, Bibliothèque nationale de France, département Sciences et techniques, 8-V-1012</ref> In 1868, the Le Figaro newspaper used the term objets d'art décoratifs'' for objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de l'Opéra.<ref>[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2716231 "Enfin, dans les ateliers, on travaille à l'achèvement des objets d'art décoratifs, qui sont très nombreux"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220180617/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2716231 |date20 December 2016 }}, Le Figaro, Éditeur: Figaro (Paris), 1869-09-18, no. 260, Bibliothèque nationale de France</ref><ref>[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k65463131 ''L'Art décoratif à Limoges, La Voix de la province : Revue littéraire, artistique, agricole et commerciale, 1862] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180816232210/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k65463131 |date16 August 2018 }}, (1862/04/01 (N1)-1863/01/01 (N12)), Bibliothèque francophone multimédia de Limoges, 2013-220524, Bibliothèque nationale de France</ref><ref>[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb32858171s/date Revue des arts décoratifs (Paris), 1880–1902] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220162222/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb32858171s/date |date20 December 2016 }}, Bibliothèque nationale de France, département Sciences et techniques, 4-V-1113</ref> In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewellers, glass-workers, and other craftsmen were officially given the status of artists by the French government. In response, the École royale gratuite de dessin (Royal Free School of Design), founded in 1766 under King Louis XVI to train artists and artisans in crafts relating to the fine arts, was renamed the École nationale des arts décoratifs (National School of Decorative Arts). It took its present name, ENSAD (École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs), in 1920.
The actual term art déco did not appear in print until 1966, in the title of the first modern exhibition on the subject, held by the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris, Les Années 25 : Art déco, Bauhaus, Stijl, Esprit nouveau, which covered a variety of major styles in the 1920s and 1930s.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJdi9QQAACAAJ|titleLes années "25": art déco, Bauhaus, Stijl, Esprit nouveau|date1966|publisherMusée des arts décoratifs|languagefr}}</ref> The term was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in The Times (London, 12 November), describing the different styles at the exhibit.<ref>{{cite book|firstRichard|lastPoulin|titleGraphic Design and Architecture, A 20th Century History: A Guide to Type, Image, Symbol, and Visual Storytelling in the Modern World|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0kf0AwAAQBAJ&pgPA85|year2012|publisherRockport Publishers|isbn978-1-61058-633-7|page85}}</ref>
Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major academic book on it, Art Deco of the 20s and 30s.{{Sfn|Hillier|1968|page12}} He noted that the term was already being used by art dealers, and cites The Times (2 November 1966) and an essay named Les Arts Déco in Elle magazine (November 1967) as examples.{{Sfn|Benton|Benton|Wood|2003|page430}} In 1971, he organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book The World of Art Deco.<ref name"Hillier4">{{cite book | lastHillier | firstBevis | titleThe World of Art Deco: An Exhibition Organized by The Minneapolis Institute of Arts, June–September 1971 | publisherE.P. Dutton |year1971 | isbn978-0-525-47680-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Benton |first1Charlotte |last2Benton |first2Tim |last3Wood |first3Ghislaine |titleArt Déco dans le monde- 1910–39 |date2010 |publisherRenaissance du Livre |isbn9782507003906 |pages16–17}}</ref>
In its time, Art Deco was tagged with other names, like style moderne, Moderne, modernistic or style contemporain'', and was not recognized as a distinct and homogenous style.<ref name criticos/>OriginsNew materials and technologiesNew materials and technologies, especially reinforced concrete, were key to the development and appearance of Art Deco. The first concrete house was built in 1853 in the Paris suburbs by François Coignet. In 1877 Joseph Monier introduced the idea of strengthening the concrete with a mesh of iron rods in a grill pattern. In 1893, Auguste Perret built the first concrete garage in Paris, then an apartment building, house, then, in 1913, the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. The theatre was denounced by one critic as the "Zeppelin of Avenue Montaigne", an alleged Germanic influence, copied from the Vienna Secession. Thereafter, the majority of Art Deco buildings were made of reinforced concrete, which gave greater freedom of form and less need for reinforcing pillars and columns. Perret was also a pioneer in covering the concrete with ceramic tiles, both for protection and decoration. The architect Le Corbusier first learned the uses of reinforced concrete working as a draftsman in Perret's studio.{{sfn|Cabanne|1986|page225}}
Other new technologies that were important to Art Deco were new methods in producing plate glass, which was less expensive and allowed much larger and stronger windows, and for mass-producing aluminium, which was used for building and window frames and later, by Corbusier, Warren McArthur, and others, for lightweight furniture.
Vienna Secession and Wiener Werkstätte (1897–1912)
The architects of the Vienna Secession (formed 1897), especially Josef Hoffmann, had a notable influence on Art Deco. His Stoclet Palace, in Brussels (1905–1911), was a prototype of the Art Deco style, featuring geometric volumes, symmetry, straight lines, concrete covered with marble plaques, finely-sculpted ornament, and lavish interiors, including mosaic friezes by Gustav Klimt. Hoffmann was also a founder of the Wiener Werkstätte (1903–1932), an association of craftsmen and interior designers working in the new style. This became the model for the Compagnie des arts français, created in 1919, which brought together André Mare and Louis Süe, the first leading French Art Deco designers and decorators.{{sfn|Texier|2019|pp=5–7}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px">
File:Secession 2016, Vienna.jpg|Secession Building in Vienna by Joseph Maria Olbrich (1897–98)
Penzing (Wien) - Kirche am Steinhof (2).JPG|Church of St. Leopold in Vienna by Otto Wagner (1903–1907)
File:Wien - Österreichische Postsparkasse, Georg-Coch-Platz.JPG|Austrian Postal Savings Bank in Vienna by Wagner (1904–1912)
File:20120923 Brussels PalaisStoclet Hoffmann DSC06725 PtrQs.jpg|Stoclet Palace in Brussels by Josef Hoffmann (1905–1911)
File:Bruxelles - Palais Stoclet (6).jpg|Detail of the Stoclet Palace's façade, made of reinforced concrete covered with marble plaques
</gallery>
Society of Decorative Artists (1901–1945)
The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, who until late in the 19th century were considered simply artisans. The term {{lang|fr|arts décoratifs}} had been invented in 1875{{citation needed|dateDecember 2023}}, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs (Society of Decorative Artists), or SAD, was founded in 1901, and decorative artists were given the same rights of authorship as painters and sculptors. A similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the decorative arts, the ''Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Decorativa Moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration and L'Art décoratif moderne. Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français'', and later in the {{lang|fr|Salon d'Automne}}. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, as French designers felt challenged by the increasing exports of less expensive German furnishings. In 1911, SAD proposed a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912. No copies of old styles would be permitted, only modern works. The exhibit was postponed until 1914; and then, because of the war, until 1925, when it gave its name to the whole family of styles known as "Déco".{{Sfn|Benton|Benton|Wood|2003|pages165–170}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Art Deco table, chairs, carpet.jpg|Table and chairs by Maurice Dufrêne and carpet by Paul Follot at the 1912 Salon des artistes décorateurs
File:‘Lady with Panther’ by George Barbier for Cartier, 1914.jpg|Lady with Panther by George Barbier for Louis Cartier (1914). Display card commissioned by Cartier shows a woman in a Paul Poiret gown.
File:Jacques-émile ruhlmann, poltrona 'oreille cassée', parigi 1914, 01.JPG|Armchair by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann (1914), now in the Musée d'Orsay, Paris
</gallery>
Parisian department stores and fashion designers also played an important part in the rise of Art Deco. Prominent businesses such as silverware firm Christofle, glass designer René Lalique, and the jewellers Louis Cartier and Boucheron began designing products in more modern styles.<ref>{{cite web| url https://books.google.com/books?idyslUAAAAMAAJ&qArt+Deco.+Louis+Vuitton,+Christofle,+Ren%C3%A9+Lalique,+Louis+Cartier,+Boucheron| title Metropolitan Review, Volume 2, Metropolitan Press Publications, 1989, p. 8| year 1989}}</ref><ref name"Campbell">[https://books.google.com/books?idi3Od9bcGus0C&q%22Andr%C3%A9+Vera%22&pgPA42 Campbell, Gordon, The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts, Oxford University Press, USA, 9 Nov 2006] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221206151135/https://books.google.fr/books?idi3Od9bcGus0C&lpgPA42&dq%22The%20Grove%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Decorative%20Arts%22%20%22Andr%C3%A9%20Vera%22%20gordon%20campbell&pgPA42#vonepage&q%22Andr%C3%A9%20Vera%22&ffalse |date6 December 2022 }}, pp. 42 (Vera), 43 (Cartier), 243 (Christofle), 15, 515, 527 (Lalique), 13, 134 (Boucheron), {{ISBN|0195189485}}</ref> Beginning in 1900, department stores recruited decorative artists to work in their design studios. The decoration of the 1912 ''Salon d'Automne was entrusted to the department store Printemps'',<ref name"Salon d'Automne 2012">{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.salon-automne.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/catalogue-SA-2012.pdf |titleSalon d'Automne 2012, exhibition catalogue |access-date10 October 2016 |archive-date1 February 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180201192912/http://www.salon-automne.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/catalogue-SA-2012.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"Campbell2">[https://books.google.com/books?idi3Od9bcGus0C&qPrintemps&pgPA43 Campbell, Gordon, The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts, Oxford University Press, USA, 9 Nov 2006] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221206151122/https://books.google.fr/books?idi3Od9bcGus0C&lpgPA42&dq%22The%20Grove%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Decorative%20Arts%22%20%22Andr%C3%A9%20Vera%22%20gordon%20campbell&pgPA43#vonepage&qPrintemps&ffalse |date6 December 2022 }}, pp. 42-43 {{ISBN|0195189485}}</ref> and that year it created its own workshop, Primavera.<ref name"Campbell2" /> By 1920 Primavera employed more than 300 artists, whose styles ranged from updated versions of Louis XIV, Louis XVI, and especially Louis Philippe furniture made by Louis Süe and the Primavera workshop, to more modern forms from the workshop of the Au Louvre department store. Other designers, including Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann and Paul Follot, refused to use mass production, insisting that each piece be made individually. The early Art Deco style featured luxurious and exotic materials such as ebony, ivory and silk, very bright colours and stylized motifs, particularly baskets and bouquets of flowers of all colours, giving a modernist look.<ref name"benton165">Laurent, Stephane, "L'artiste décorateur", in Art Deco, 1910–1939 by Charlotte Benton, Tim Benton and Ghislain Wood (2002), Renaissance du Livre, pages 165–171</ref>
Salon d'Automne (1903–1914)
{{Main|Salon d'Automne}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px">
File:Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov) 02 by L. Bakst 2.jpg|Set for Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's ballet Sheherazade by Léon Bakst (1910)
File:Art Deco Armchair.jpg|Art Deco armchair made for art collector Jacques Doucet (1912–13)
File:Display at Salon D'Automne (1913).jpg|Display of early Art Deco furnishings by the Atelier français at the 1913 {{lang|fr|Salon d'Automne|italic=no}} from Art et décoration magazine (1914)
</gallery>
At its birth between 1910 and 1914, Art Deco was an explosion of colours, featuring bright and often clashing hues, frequently in floral designs, presented in furniture upholstery, carpets, screens, wallpaper and fabrics. Many colourful works, including chairs and a table by Maurice Dufrêne and a bright Gobelin carpet by Paul Follot were presented at the 1912 Salon des artistes décorateurs. In 1912–1913 designer Adrien Karbowsky made a floral chair with a parrot design for the hunting lodge of art collector Jacques Doucet.<ref>{{cite web |titleBergère - Adrien Karbowsky |urlhttps://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/oeuvres/bergere-151537 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220108032535/https://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/oeuvres/bergere-151537 |archive-date8 January 2022 |access-date8 January 2022 |websitewww.musee-orsay.fr |publisherMusee d'Orsay}}</ref> The furniture designers Louis Süe and André Mare made their first appearance at the 1912 exhibit, under the name of the Atelier français, combining polychromatic fabrics with exotic and expensive materials, including ebony and ivory. After World War I, they became one of the most prominent French interior design firms, producing the furniture for the first-class salons and cabins of the French transatlantic ocean liners.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages51–55}}
The vivid hues of Art Deco came from many sources, including the exotic set designs by Léon Bakst for the Ballets Russes, which caused a sensation in Paris just before World War I. Some of the colours were inspired by the earlier Fauvism movement led by Henri Matisse; others by the Orphism of painters such as Sonia Delaunay;<ref name"Arwas, Russell">{{cite book |last1Arwas |first1Victor |urlhttps://archive.org/details/Art_Deco_by_Victor_Arwas_and_Frank_Russell |titleArt Deco |last2Russell |first2Frank |date1980 |publisherHarry N. Abrams. Inc. |isbn0-8109-0691-0 |locationNew York |pages21, 52, 85, 171–184, 197–198}}</ref> others by the movement known as Les Nabis, and in the work of symbolist painter Odilon Redon, who designed fireplace screens and other decorative objects. Bright shades were a feature of the work of fashion designer Paul Poiret, whose work influenced both Art Deco fashion and interior design.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages51–55}}<ref name"Duncan 1988">{{cite book |lastDuncan |firstAlastair |urlhttps://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000unse_q3m2/page/6/mode/2up?qcubism |titleThe Encyclopedia of Art Deco, An Illustrative Guide to a Decorative Style from 1920 to 1939 |publisherE. P. Dutton |year1988 |isbn9780525246138 |locationNew York |pages46–47, 71, 73, 76, 82, 130 |refnone}}</ref><ref name"Mackrell">{{cite book |lastMackrell |firstAlice |urlhttps://archive.org/details/paulpoiret0000mack/page/16/mode/2up?qcubism |titlePaul Poiret |date1990 |publisherHolmes & Meier |locationNew York |pages16, 56}}</ref> Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1910–1913) <gallery mode"packed" heights="200">
File:Théâtre des Champs-Élysées DSC09330.jpg|Théâtre des Champs-Élysées by Auguste Perret at 15, avenue Montaigne, Paris (1910–1913). Reinforced concrete gave architects the ability to create new forms and bigger spaces.
File:"La Danse", bas-relief d'Antoine Bourdelle (Théâtre des Champs Elysées, Paris).jpg|La Danse, bas-relief on the façade of the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées by Antoine Bourdelle (1912)
File:Theatre Champs Elysees 35.jpg|Interior of the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, with Bourdelle's bas-reliefs over the stage
File:Plafond du Théâtre des Champs-Élysées à Paris.JPG|Dome of the Theater, with Art Deco rose design by Maurice Denis
</gallery>
{{wide image|Antoine Bourdelle, 1910-12, Apollon et sa méditation entourée des 9 muses (The Meditation of Apollon and the Muses), bas-relief, Théâtre des Champs Elysées DSC09313.jpg|1100px| Apollon et sa méditation entourée des 9 muses (Apollo and His Meditation Surrounded by the 9 Muses), bas-relief on the façade of the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées by Bourdelle (1910–1912). This work represents one of the earliest examples of what became known as Art Deco sculpture.}}
The Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1910–1913), by Auguste Perret, was the first landmark Art Deco building completed in Paris. Previously, reinforced concrete had been used only for industrial and apartment buildings, Perret had built the first modern reinforced-concrete apartment building in Paris on rue Benjamin Franklin in 1903–04. Henri Sauvage, another important future Art Deco architect, built another in 1904 at 7, rue Trétaigne (1904). From 1908 to 1910, the 21-year-old Le Corbusier worked as a draftsman in Perret's office, learning the techniques of concrete construction. Perret's building had clean rectangular form, geometric decoration and straight lines, the future trademarks of Art Deco. The décor of the theatre was also revolutionary; the façade was decorated with high reliefs by Antoine Bourdelle, a dome by Maurice Denis, paintings by Édouard Vuillard, and an Art Deco curtain by Ker-Xavier Roussel. The theatre became the venue for many of the first performances of the Ballets Russes.<ref name"Bevis Hillier">{{cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/styleofcentury1900hill/page/62/mode/2up?qcubism |firstBevis |lastHillier |titleThe style of the century, 1900–1980 |publisherDutton |locationNew York |date1983 |pages62, 67, 70}}</ref> Perret and Sauvage became the leading Art Deco architects in Paris in the 1920s.<ref>{{cite book |firstPeter |lastCollins |titleConcrete: The Vision of a New Architecture |locationNew York |publisherHorizon Press |date1959}}</ref>{{Sfn|Poisson|2009|pages318–319}}Cubism<gallery mode"packed" heights="200">
File:Raymond Duchamp-Villon, 1912, Projet d'hôtel, Maquette de la façade de la Maison Cubiste, published in Les Peintres Cubistes, 1913.jpg|Design for the façade of La Maison Cubiste (Cubist House) by Raymond Duchamp-Villon (1912)
File:Raymond Duchamp-Villon, 1912, La Maison Cubiste (Cubist House) at the Salon d'Automne, 1912, detail of the entrance. Photograph by Duchamp-Villon.jpg|Detail of the entrance of La Maison Cubiste at the 1912 Salon d'Automne
File:La Maison Cubiste, Le Salon Bourgeois, Salon d'Automne, 1912, Paris.jpg|Le Salon Bourgeois, designed by André Mare inside La Maison Cubiste, in the decorative arts section of the 1912 Salon d'Automne. Metzinger's {{lang|fr|Femme à l'Éventail}} can be seen hanging on the left wall.
File:Josef Chochol, 1912-13, Cubist villa in Libušina Street 3-49, Vyšehrad, Prague, Czech Republic.jpg|Cubist villa at 3-49 Libušina Street, Vyšehrad (Prague), by Josef Chochol (1912–13). Chochol was one of three Czech architects (members of the Mánes Union of Fine Arts), with Pavel Janák and Josef Gočár, influenced by Cubism.
</gallery>
'' by Joseph Csaky (1912), original plaster, exhibited at the 1912 {{lang|fr|Salon d'Automne|italic=no}} and the 1914 Salon des Indépendants, a proto-Art Deco sculpture]]
The art movement known as Cubism appeared in France between 1907 and 1912, influencing the development of Art Deco.<ref name"Bevis Hillier" /><ref name"Arwas, Russell" /><ref name"Duncan 1988" /> In Art Deco Complete: The Definitive Guide to the Decorative Arts of the 1920s and 1930s Alastair Duncan writes "Cubism, in some bastardized form or other, became the lingua franca of the era's decorative artists."<ref name"Duncan 1988" /><ref>{{cite book|lastDuncan |firstAlastair |titleArt Deco Complete: The Definitive Guide to the Decorative Arts of the 1920s and 1930s |publisherAbrams |year2009 |isbn978-0-8109-8046-4 }}</ref> The Cubists, themselves under the influence of Paul Cézanne, were interested in the simplification of forms to their geometric essentials: the cylinder, the sphere, the cone.<ref name"Erle Lora">{{cite book |lastLoran |firstErle |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvpbEHESVx9cC&pgPA9 |page9|isbn978-0-520-00768-0 |titleCézanne's Composition: Analysis of His Form, with Diagrams and Photographs of His Motifs |publisherUniversity of California Press |year1963 }}</ref><ref name"Goss">{{cite web |authorGoss, Jared |titleFrench Art Deco |urlhttps://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/frdc/hd_frdc.htm |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220331091103/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/frdc/hd_frdc.htm |archive-date31 March 2022 |access-date|date June 2010 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref>
In 1912, the artists of the Section d'Or exhibited works considerably more accessible to the general public than the analytical Cubism of Picasso and Braque. The Cubist vocabulary was poised to attract fashion, furniture and interior designers.<ref name"Arwas, Russell" /><ref name"Mackrell" /><ref name="Goss" /><ref>''La Section d'or, 1912-1920-1925'', Cécile Debray, Françoise Lucbert, Musées de Châteauroux, Musée Fabre, exhibition catalogue, Éditions Cercle d'art, Paris, 2000</ref>
In the Art Décoratif section of the 1912 Salon d'Automne, an architectural installation was exhibited known as La Maison Cubiste.<ref>Eve Blau, Nancy J. Troy, "The Maison Cubiste and the meaning of modernism in pre-1914 France", in Architecture and Cubism, Montreal, Cambridge, MA, London: MIT Press−Centre Canadien d'Architecture, 1998, pp. 17–40, {{ISBN|0-262-52328-0}}</ref><ref>Nancy J. Troy, Modernism and the Decorative Arts in France: Art Nouveau to Le Corbusier, New Haven CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1991, pp. 79–102, {{ISBN|0-300-04554-9}}</ref> The façade was designed by Raymond Duchamp-Villon. The décor of the house was by André Mare.<ref>"Portraits of Architects- André Mare" site of the Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine (in French)</ref><ref>{{cite book|firstChristopher |lastGreen|year2000|titleArt in France, 1900–1940|chapterChapter 8, Modern Spaces; Modern Objects; Modern People|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvlY6SLmg-xEC&pgPA161|publisherYale University Press|isbn978-0-300-09908-9|page161}}</ref> La Maison Cubiste was a furnished installation with a façade, a staircase, wrought iron banisters, a bedroom, a living room—the Salon Bourgeois, where paintings by Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger, Marie Laurencin, Marcel Duchamp, Fernand Léger and Roger de La Fresnaye were hung.<ref>André Mare, ''Salon Bourgeois, Salon d'Automne, The Literary Digest, Doom of the Antique, 30 November 1912, p. 1012</ref><ref>[http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030272/1912-11-10/ed-1/seq-46/ The Sun'' (New York, N.Y.)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150217234104/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030272/1912-11-10/ed-1/seq-46/ |date17 February 2015 }}, 10 November 1912. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress</ref><ref>Ben Davis, [https://news.artnet.com/exhibitions/cubism-at-the-met-modern-art-that-looks-tragically-antique-157075 '"Cubism" at the Met: Modern Art That Looks Tragically Antique'] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160927012922/https://news.artnet.com/exhibitions/cubism-at-the-met-modern-art-that-looks-tragically-antique-157075 |date27 September 2016 }}, Exhibition: "Cubism: The Leonard A. Lauder Collection", Metropolitan Museum of Art, ArtNet News, 6 November 2014</ref> Thousands of spectators at the salon passed through the full-scale model.<ref>{{cite web |websitekubisme.info |languageDutch |urlhttp://www.kubisme.info/kt324a.html |titleLa Maison Cubiste, 1912 |url-statususurped |archive-date13 March 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130313233214/http://www.kubisme.info/kt324a.html}}</ref>
The façade of the house, designed by Duchamp-Villon, was not very radical by modern standards; the lintels and pediments had prismatic shapes, but otherwise the façade resembled an ordinary house of the period. For the two rooms, Mare designed the wallpaper, which featured stylized roses and floral patterns, along with upholstery, furniture and carpets, all with flamboyant and colourful motifs. It was a distinct break from traditional décor. The critic Emile Sedeyn described Mare's work in the magazine Art et Décoration: "He does not embarrass himself with simplicity, for he multiplies flowers wherever they can be put. The effect he seeks is obviously one of picturesqueness and gaiety. He achieves it."{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|page52}} The Cubist element was provided by the paintings. The installation was attacked by some critics as extremely radical, which helped make for its success.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|page54}} This architectural installation was subsequently exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York City, Chicago and Boston.<ref name"Arwas, Russell" /><ref name"Goss" /><ref>{{cite web| url http://www.kubisme.info/kt315s.html| title Kubistische werken op de Armory Show}}</ref><ref>[http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/images/detail/detail-duchampvillons-faade-architecturale-14604 Detail of Duchamp-Villon's Façade architecturale, catalog number 609, unidentified photographer, 1913. Walt Kuhn, Kuhn family papers, and Armory Show records, 1859–1984, bulk 1900–1949] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130314150144/http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/images/detail/detail-duchampvillons-faade-architecturale-14604 |date14 March 2013 }}. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/catnter00unse/catnter00unse_djvu.txt "Catalogue of international exhibition of modern art: at the Armory of the Sixty-ninth Infantry, 1913], Duchamp-Villon, Raymond, Facade Architectural</ref> Thanks largely to the exhibition, the term "Cubist" began to be applied to anything modern, from women's haircuts to clothing to theater performances."{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|page=54}}
The Cubist influence continued within Art Deco, even as Deco branched out in many other directions.<ref name"Arwas, Russell" /><ref name"Duncan 1988" />
<blockquote>Cubism's adumbrated geometry became coin of the realm in the 1920s. Art Deco's development of Cubism's selective geometry into a wider array of shapes carried Cubism as a pictorial taxonomy to a much broader audience and wider appeal. (Richard Harrison Martin, Metropolitan Museum of Art)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idM0brAAAAMAAJ Richard Harrison Martin, Cubism and Fashion, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.), 1998, p. 99] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221206151121/https://books.google.es/books/about/Cubism_and_Fashion.html?idM0brAAAAMAAJ&redir_escy |date6 December 2022 }}, {{ISBN|0870998889}}</ref></blockquote>InfluencesPre-World War I European styles<gallery mode"packed" heights="170">
File:George Barbier (1882-1932), Vaslav Nijinsky (1890-1950), 1913 1.jpg|Ballets Russes influences – Drawing of the dancer Vaslav Nijinsky, by Paris fashion artist Georges Barbier (1913)
File:Chest of drawers, by Jacques Dubois, 1750-1755 - Waddesdon Manor - Buckinghamshire, England - DSC07774.jpg|Rococo – Chest of drawers, by Jacques Dubois (1750–1755), various wood types and gilt bronze mounts, Waddesdon Manor, Buckinghamshire, UK
File:Paul Iribe, cassettiera, parigi 1919 ca.jpg|Rococo influences – Commode, by Paul Iribarne Garay ({{circa|1912}}), mahogany and tulip wood frame, slate top, green-tinted shagreen upholstery, ebony knobs, base and garlands, Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris
File:Immeuble 21ter Boulevard Diderot - Paris XII (FR75) - 2023-07-25 - 2.jpg|Beaux Arts architecture – Boulevard Diderot no. 21, Paris, unknown architect ({{circa|1910}})
File:Avenue de Versailles immeuble Paul Delaroche 1928.jpg|Beaux Arts influences – Avenue de Versailles no. 70–72, Paris, "Modern" decor in an established typology, designed by Paul Delaplace and sculpted by Jean Boucher (1928)
File:Corner table by Jean-Francois-Therese Chalgrin, 1770 - Corcoran Gallery of Art - DSC01284.JPG|Louis XVI style – Corner table, by Jean-Francois-Therese Chalgrin (1770), gilded wood, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
File:Art Deco dressing table (1919-20).jpg|Louis XVI style influences – Dressing table and chair set, by Paul Follot (1919), marble and wood encrusted, lacquered and gilded, {{lang|fr|Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris|italic=no}}
File:Mercury Pajou Louvre RF1624.jpg|Neoclassicism – Mercury or The Trade, by Augustin Pajou (1780), marble, Louvre, Paris
File:Rockefeller Center MAM.JPG|Neoclassical influences – Prometheus, a stylised Art Deco update of classical sculpture, by Paul Manship (1936), gilded bronze, Rockefeller Center, New York City
File:Hôtel Guimard 2019.jpg|Art Nouveau – Hôtel Guimard (Avenue Mozart no. 122), Paris, by Hector Guimard (1909)
File:Avenue Montaigne (47128639262).jpg|Art Nouveau influences – Sinuous curves on the façade of Avenue Montaigne no. 26, Paris, by Louis Duhayon and Marcel Julien (1937)<ref name"pss-archi_eu">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.pss-archi.eu/immeubles/FR-75056-27646.html|websitepss-archi.eu|title26, avenue Montaigne|access-date=27 September 2023}}</ref>
</gallery>
Art Deco was not a single style, but a collection of different and sometimes contradictory styles. In architecture, Art Deco was the successor to (and reaction against) Art Nouveau, a style which flourished in Europe between 1895 and 1900, and coexisted with the Beaux-Arts and neoclassical that were predominant in European and American architecture. In 1905 Eugène Grasset wrote and published Méthode de Composition Ornementale, Éléments Rectilignes,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6109619d |firstEugène|lastGrasset |titleMéthode de composition ornementale, Éléments rectilignes|date1905|publisherLibrarie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris|languagefr |viaGallica |access-date18 December 2012}}</ref> in which he systematically explored the decorative (ornamental) aspects of geometric elements, forms, motifs and their variations, in contrast with (and as a departure from) the undulating Art Nouveau style of Hector Guimard, so popular in Paris a few years earlier. Grasset stressed the principle that various simple geometric shapes like triangles and squares are the basis of all compositional arrangements. The reinforced-concrete buildings of Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage, and particularly the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, offered a new form of construction and decoration which was copied worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mthodedecomposit01gras |firstEugène|lastGrasset|titleMéthode de composition ornementale|languagefr |year1905|publication-date10 March 2001 |access-date18 December 2012}}</ref>Ancient and non-European civilizations<gallery mode"packed" heights="190">
File:The Hathor-headed columns of the Mammisi (birth house), Philae, Egypt (49813135922).jpg|altAncient Egyptian art - Vegetal capitals in the courtyard of the Isis Temple, Philae, Egypt, unknown architect, 380 BC–117 AD: 30|Ancient Egyptian art – Vegetal capitals in the courtyard of the Isis Temple, Philae, Egypt, unknown architect (380 BC–117 AD)<ref>* {{cite book|editor-last1Jones |editor-first1Denna |titleArchitecture The Whole Story |date2014 |publisherThames & Hudson |isbn978-0-500-29148-1 |languageen}}</ref>{{rp|30}}
Robe, 1964.18.1(2).jpg|Egyptian influences – Dress with lotus flowers inspired by Ancient Egyptian decoration, by Jenny (couturier) and Lesage (embroiderer) (1925), silk, metallic thread, and crocheted embroidery, Musée Galliera, Paris
File:Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq 2005.jpg|Mesopotamian art – Ziggurat of Ur in Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Iraq, unknown architect (21st century BC)<ref>{{cite book|last1Weston|first1Richard|title100 Ideas That Changed Architecture|date2011|publisherLaurence King|isbn978-1-78627-567-7|page21|url|language=en}}</ref>
File:Western Union building, Manhattan jeh crop.jpg|Mesopotamian influences – Western Union Building (Hudson Street no. 60) in New York City, by Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker (1928–1930)
File:Yaxchilan Lintel 24.jpg|Pre-Columbian art (in this case Maya) – Yaxchilan Lintel 24 (702 AD), limestone, British Museum, London<ref>{{cite book|last1|first1|title10,000 YEARS OF ART|date2009|publisherPhaidon|isbn978-0-7148-4969-0|page174|url|language=en}}</ref>
File:450 Sutter St. lobby 1.JPG|Pre-Columbian influences (in this case Maya) – Interior detail of 450 Sutter Street in San Francisco, California, by Timothy L. Pflueger (1929)
File:Brooklyn Museum 61.33 Ndop Portrait of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul (5).jpg|Sub-Saharian African (in this case produced in the Kuba Kingdom from present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) – Ndop of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul (1760–1780), wood, Brooklyn Museum, New York City
File:Winter 1930, Léon Benigni (1892-1948), oil on canvas, 55.3 x 39.4 cm, private collection.jpg|Sub-Saharian African influences – Winter 1930, by Léon Benigni, oil on canvas, private collection
</gallery>
In decoration, many different styles were borrowed and used by Art Deco. They included pre-modern art from around the world and observable at the {{lang|fr|Musée du Louvre|italicno}}, Musée de l'Homme and the Musée national des Arts d'Afrique et d'Océanie. There was also popular interest in archaeology due to excavations at Pompeii, Troy, and the tomb of the 18th dynasty Pharaoh Tutankhamun. Artists and designers integrated motifs from ancient Egypt, Africa, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, Asia, Mesoamerica and Oceania with Machine Age elements.<ref name"Art Deco Style">{{cite web |urlhttp://arthistory.heindorffhus.dk/frame-Style21-ArtDeco.htm |titleArt Deco Style |publisherMuseum of London |access-date6 November 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080207022236/http://arthistory.heindorffhus.dk/frame-Style21-ArtDeco.htm |archive-date7 February 2008 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"Essential Art Deco">{{cite book |lastWood |firstGhislaine |titleEssential Art Deco |publisherVA&A Publications |locationLondon |isbn0-8212-2833-1 |year2003 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/essentialartdeco00wood }}</ref><ref name"Design: A Concise History">{{cite book |lastHauffe |firstThomas |titleDesign: A Concise History |publisherLaurence King |locationLondon |year1998 |edition1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.vam.ac.uk/nal/guides/art_deco/index.html |titleArt Deco Study Guide |publisherVictoria and Albert Museum |access-date1 November 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081025210428/http://www.vam.ac.uk/nal/guides/art_deco/index.html |archive-date25 October 2008 |url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.decopix.com/New%20Site/Pages/Directory%20Pages/Intro.html |titleIntroduction to Art Deco |lastJuster |firstRandy |publisherdecopix.com |access-date7 November 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081029202446/http://www.decopix.com/New%20Site/Pages/Directory%20Pages/Intro.html |archive-date29 October 2008 |url-status dead }}</ref><ref name"University Times">{{cite journal |date9 October 2003 |titleHow Art Deco came to be |journalUniversity Times | publisherUniversity of Pittsburgh |volume36 |issue4 }}</ref>
Early 20th-century avant-garde movements
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File:Amedeo Modigliani, Head of a Woman, 1910-1911, NGA 46716.jpg|Primitivism – Head of a Woman, by Amedeo Modigliani (1910–11), limestone, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
File:Bust for a shop window, by an anonymous Belgian artist, circa 1920, painted papier-mâché, private collection, Cologne.jpg|Primitivist influences – Bust for a shop window, anonymous Belgian artist ({{circa|1920}}), painted papier-mâché, private collection, Cologne, Germany
File:Casa Rietveld Schröder 02.jpg|De Stijl – Rietveld Schröder House in Utrecht, Netherlands, by Gerrit Rietveld (1924)<ref>{{cite Monumentenregister|monumentID18329|nameRietveld Schröder huis|accessdate=9 February 2012}}</ref>
File:Pavillon du tourisme de Robert Mallet-Stevens (UAM, Centre Pompidou, Paris) (43200558625).jpg|De Stijl influences – Pavillon du Tourisme, by Robert Mallet-Stevens, International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts, Paris (1925)<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page69|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm, Tate Modern, London.jpg|Cubism – Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), by Pablo Picasso (1909–10), oil on canvas, Tate Modern, London
File:Cubic coffee service - Erik Magnussen (27986651569).jpg|Cubist influences – Cubic coffee service, by Erik Magnussen (1927), silver, in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art, US
File:Klinom Krasnym Bej Belych.JPG|Constructivism – Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge, by El Lissitzky (1919–1920), lithographic poster, Russian State Library, Moscow
File:Clock - Jean Goulden (38866282265).jpg|Constructivist influences – Clock, decorated with flat geometric shapes, by Jean Goulden (1928), silvered bronze with enamel, Stephen E. Kelly Collection<ref>{{cite book|last1Raizman|first1David|titleHistory of Modern Design - 3rd Edition|date2012|publisherLaurence King|isbn978-1-78627-682-7|page164|url|language=en}}</ref>
File:Metropolis-new-tower-of-babel.png|Expressionist theatre and film – Scene from Metropolis, by Fritz Lang (1927)
File:Stitched Panorama of the Apollo theatre near Victoria, London 167 (5058015607).jpg|Influences of the Expressionist theatre and film – Interior of the Apollo Victoria Theatre in London, by Ernest Wamsley Lewis (1928–1930)<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page74|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Casa a gradinata con ascensori dai quattro piani stradali 1914- Sant'Elia.jpg|Futurism – Staircase house with elevators from four street levels, part of La Città Nuova, by Antonio Sant'Elia (1914), ink and pencil on paper, Musei Civici, Como, Italy<ref name criticos67>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page67|url|languageRomanian, English}}</ref>
File:25 Rue du Laos Paryż, Île-de-France (50594191012).jpg|Futurist influences – Rue du Laos no. 25 in Paris, by Charles Thomas (1930)<ref name = criticos67/>
File:Berlin, Mitte, Schuetzenstrasse, Mosse-Zentrum 05.jpg|Expressionist architecture – Rudolf Mosse Printing and Publishing Company Building in Berlin, by Erich Mendelsohn (1921–1923)<ref name criticos88>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page88|url|languageRomanian, English}}</ref>
File:Aux Trois-Quartiers, Paris, with it's original facade.jpg|Expressionist architecture influences – Aux Trois-Quartiers department store in Paris, by Louis Faure-Dujarric (1932)<ref name = criticos88/>
</gallery>
Other styles borrowed included Futurism, Orphism, Functionalism, and Modernism in general. Cubism discovers its decorative potential within the Art Deco aesthetic, when transposed from the canvas onto a textile material or wallpaper. Sonia Delaunay conceives her dress models in an abstract and geometric style, "as live paintings or sculptures of living forms". Cubist-like designs are created by Louis Barrilet in the stained-glass windows of the American bar at the Atrium Casino in Dax (1926), but also including names of fashionable cocktails. In architecture, the clear contrast between horizontal and vertical volumes, specific both to Russian Constructivism and the Frank Lloyd Wright-Willem Marinus Dudok line, becomes a common device in articulating Art Deco façades, from individual homes and tenement buildings to cinemas or oil stations.<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page51|url|languageRomanian, English}}</ref><ref name"Goss" /><ref name"Art Deco Style" /><ref name"Art, Design and Visual Thinking">{{cite web|urlhttp://char.txa.cornell.edu/art/decart/artdeco/artdeco.htm |titleArt, Design and Visual Thinking |lastJirousek |firstCharlotte |year1995 |access-date7 November 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081202040916/http://char.txa.cornell.edu/art/decart/artdeco/artdeco.htm |archive-date2 December 2008 |url-status live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|page8-10}} Art Deco also used the clashing colours and designs of Fauvism, notably in the work of Henri Matisse and André Derain, inspired the designs of Art Deco textiles, wallpaper, and painted ceramics.<ref name"Goss" /> It took ideas from the high fashion vocabulary of the period, which featured geometric designs, chevrons, zigzags, and stylized bouquets of flowers. It was influenced by discoveries in Egyptology, and growing interest in the Orient and in African art. From 1925 onwards, it was often inspired by a passion for new machines, such as airships, automobiles and ocean liners, and by 1930 this influence resulted in the style called Streamline Moderne.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|pages7–8}}
International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts (1925)
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File:Postcard of Exposition des Art Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes.jpg|Postcard of the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris (1925)
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo 1925 Arts décoratifs-entrée Place de la Concorde.jpg|Entrance to the 1925 Exposition from Place de la Concorde by Pierre Patout
File:Paris 1925 59878912.jpg|The Polish pavilion, designed by Józef Czajkowski and Wojciech Jastrzębowski
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo 1925 Arts décoratifs-pavillon des Galeries Lafayette.jpg|Pavilion of the Galeries Lafayette department store
File:Salon of the Hotel du Collectionneur (1925).jpg|Salon of the Hôtel du Collectionneur, furnished by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann, painting by Jean Dupas, design by Pierre Patout
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The event that marked the zenith of the style and gave it its name was the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts which took place in Paris from April to October in 1925. This was officially sponsored by the French government, and covered a site in Paris of 55 acres, running from the Grand Palais on the right bank to Les Invalides on the left bank, and along the banks of the Seine. The Grand Palais, the largest hall in the city, was filled with exhibits of decorative arts from the participating countries. There were 15,000 exhibitors from twenty different countries, including Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the new Soviet Union. Germany was not invited because of tensions after the war; the United States, misunderstanding the purpose of the exhibit, declined to participate. The event was visited by sixteen million people during its seven-month run. The rules of the exhibition required that all work be modern; no historical styles were allowed. The main purpose of the Exhibit was to promote the French manufacturers of luxury furniture, porcelain, glass, metalwork, textiles, and other decorative products. To further promote the products, all the major Paris department stores, and major designers had their own pavilions. The Exposition had a secondary purpose in promoting products from French colonies in Africa and Asia, including ivory and exotic woods.
The Hôtel du Collectionneur was a popular attraction at the Exposition; it displayed the new furniture designs of Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, as well as Art Deco fabrics, carpets, and a painting by Jean Dupas. The interior design followed the same principles of symmetry and geometric forms which set it apart from Art Nouveau, and bright colours, fine craftsmanship rare and expensive materials which set it apart from the strict functionality of the Modernist style. While most of the pavilions were lavishly decorated and filled with hand-made luxury furniture, two pavilions, those of the Soviet Union and Pavilion de L'Esprit Nouveau, built by the magazine of that name run by Le Corbusier, were built in an austere style with plain white walls and no decoration; they were among the earliest examples of modernist architecture.{{Sfn|Charles|2013|pages35–104}}Late Art Deco<gallery mode"packed" heights="200px">
File:1 Piața Sfântul Ștefan, Bucharest (01).jpg|Piața Sfântul Ștefan no. 1 in Bucharest, by unknown architect ({{circa|1930}})
File:St Jan de Doperkerk in Molenbeek.jpg|Church of St. John the Baptist in Molenbeek (Brussels), by Joseph Diongre (1930–1932)
File:Miami Beach FL Lincoln Mall Lincoln Theatre01.jpg|Lincoln Theater in Miami Beach, Florida, by Thomas W. Lamb (1936)
File:Paris 75016 Fontaines du Trocadéro 20090815.jpg|Palais de Chaillot in Paris by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, Jacques Carlu and Léon Azéma from the 1937 Paris International Exposition
File:L'exposition Auguste Perret (Conseil économique, social et environnemental, Paris) (11872278295).jpg|Stairway of the Economic and Social Council in Paris, originally the Museum of Public Works, built for the 1937 Exposition, by Auguste Perret (1937)
File:KingCityHS-RobertStantonTheater.jpg|High School in King City, California, built by Robert Stanton for the Works Progress Administration (1939)
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In 1925, two different competing schools coexisted within Art Deco: the traditionalists, who had founded the Society of Decorative Artists; included the furniture designer Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, Jean Dunand, the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, and designer Paul Poiret; they combined modern forms with traditional craftsmanship and expensive materials. On the other side were the modernists, who increasingly rejected the past and wanted a style based upon advances in new technologies, simplicity, a lack of decoration, inexpensive materials, and mass production. The modernists founded their own organisation, The French Union of Modern Artists, in 1929. Its members included architects Pierre Chareau, Francis Jourdain, Robert Mallet-Stevens, Corbusier, and, in the Soviet Union, Konstantin Melnikov; the Irish designer Eileen Gray; the French designer Sonia Delaunay; and the jewellers Georges Fouquet and Jean Puiforcat. They fiercely attacked the traditional Art Deco style, which they said was created only for the wealthy, and insisted that well-constructed buildings should be available to everyone, and that form should follow function. The beauty of an object or building resided in whether it was perfectly fit to fulfil its function. Modern industrial methods meant that furniture and buildings could be mass-produced, not made by hand.<ref>Le Corbusier, Vers une architecture, Flammarion, republished in 1995, page xix</ref><ref>Larousse Encyclopedia on-line edition (in French){{full citation needed|dateAugust 2021|reasonShould be able to at least supply a URL if it is on-line.}}</ref>{{page needed|dateJanuary 2022|reasonWill be able to find citation, but there is multiple volumes, so many pages. Which?}}
The Art Deco interior designer Paul Follot defended Art Deco in this way: "We know that man is never content with the indispensable and that the superfluous is always needed...If not, we would have to get rid of music, flowers, and perfumes..!"{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|page8}} However, Le Corbusier was a brilliant publicist for modernist architecture; he stated that a house was simply "a machine to live in", and tirelessly promoted the idea that Art Deco was the past and modernism was the future. Le Corbusier's ideas were gradually adopted by architecture schools, and the aesthetics of Art Deco were abandoned. The same features that made Art Deco popular in the beginning, its craftsmanship, rich materials and ornament, led to its decline. The Great Depression that began in the United States in 1929, and reached Europe shortly afterwards, greatly reduced the number of wealthy clients who could pay for the furnishings and art objects. In the Depression economic climate, few companies were ready to build new skyscrapers.<ref name"Goss" /> Even the Ruhlmann firm resorted to producing pieces of furniture in series, rather than individual hand-made items. The last buildings built in Paris in the new style were the Museum of Public Works by Auguste Perret (now the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council), the Palais de Chaillot by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, Jacques Carlu and Léon Azéma, and the Palais de Tokyo of the 1937 Paris International Exposition; they looked out at the grandiose pavilion of Nazi Germany, designed by Albert Speer, which faced the equally grandiose socialist-realist pavilion of Stalin's Soviet Union.
After World War II, the dominant architectural style became the International Style pioneered by Le Corbusier, and Mies van der Rohe. A handful of Art Deco hotels were built in Miami Beach after World War II, but elsewhere the style largely vanished, except in industrial design, where it continued to be used in automobile styling and products such as jukeboxes. In the 1960s, it experienced a modest academic revival, thanks in part to the writings of architectural historians such as Bevis Hillier. In the 1970s efforts were made in the United States and Europe to preserve the best examples of Art Deco architecture, and many buildings were restored and repurposed. Postmodern architecture, which first appeared in the 1980s, like Art Deco, often includes purely decorative features.<ref name"Goss" /><ref name"Art Deco Style" /><ref name"Design Handbook">{{cite book |last1Fell | first1Charlotte |first2Peter |last2Fell |titleDesign Handbook: Concepts, Materials and Styles |publisherTaschen |year2006 |edition1 }}</ref><ref name"Art Deco (1920s to 1930s)">{{cite web |urlhttp://arthistory.heindorffhus.dk/frame-Style21-ArtDeco.htm |titleArt Deco (1920s to 1930s) |lastHeindorf |firstAnne |date24 July 2006 |access-date6 November 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080207022236/http://arthistory.heindorffhus.dk/frame-Style21-ArtDeco.htm |archive-date7 February 2008 |url-statusdead }}</ref> Deco continues to inspire designers, and is often used in contemporary fashion, jewellery, and toiletries.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.library.unsw.edu.au/~thesis/adt-NUN/uploads/approved/adt-NUN20060515.093519/public/02whole.pdf |titleThe Decorative in Twentieth Century Art: A Story of Decline and Resurgence |firstPamela |lastGaunt |dateAugust 2005 |url-status dead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081217013725/http://www.library.unsw.edu.au/~thesis/adt-NUN/uploads/approved/adt-NUN20060515.093519/public/02whole.pdf |archive-date17 December 2008 }}</ref>Painting<gallery mode"packed" heights="200px">
File:Mural-Ariel-Rios-Marsh-1.jpg|Workers sorting the mail, a mural in the Ariel Rios Federal Building, Washington, D.C., by Reginald Marsh (1936)
File:Mural-Ariel-Rios-Rockwell-Kent-1.jpg|Art in the Tropics, mural in the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, Washington, D.C., by Rockwell Kent (1938)
File:Entrance of Rockefeller Center.JPG|Detail of Time, ceiling mural in lobby of 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City, by Josep Maria Sert (1941)
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There was no section set aside for painting at the 1925 Exposition. Art deco painting was by definition decorative, designed to decorate a room or work of architecture, so few painters worked exclusively in the style, but two painters are closely associated with Art Deco. Jean Dupas painted Art Deco murals for the Bordeaux Pavilion at the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition in Paris, and also painted the picture over the fireplace in the Maison du Collectionneur exhibit at the 1925 Exposition, which featured furniture by Ruhlmann and other prominent Art Deco designers. His murals were also prominent in the décor of the French ocean liner SS Normandie. His work was purely decorative, designed as a background or accompaniment to other elements of the décor.<ref>Louis René Vian, Les Arts décoratifs à bord des paquebots français, Éditions Fonmare, 1992</ref>
The other painter closely associated with the style is Tamara de Lempicka. Born in Poland, she emigrated to Paris after the Russian Revolution. She studied under Maurice Denis and André Lhote, and borrowed many elements from their styles. She painted portraits in a realistic, dynamic and colourful Art Deco style.<ref>Blondel, Alain (1999). Tamara de Lempicka: a Catalogue Raisonné 1921–1980. Lausanne: Editions Acatos.</ref>
In the 1930s, a dramatic new form of Art Deco painting appeared in the United States. During the Great Depression, the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration was created to give work to unemployed artists. Many were given the task of decorating government buildings, hospitals and schools. There was no specific Art Deco style used in the murals; artists engaged to paint murals in government buildings came from many different schools, from American regionalism to social realism; they included Reginald Marsh, Rockwell Kent and the Mexican painter Diego Rivera. The murals were Art Deco because they were all decorative and related to the activities in the building or city where they were painted: Reginald Marsh and Rockwell Kent both decorated U.S. postal buildings, and showed postal employees at work while Diego Rivera depicted automobile factory workers for the Detroit Institute of Arts. Diego Rivera's mural Man at the Crossroads (1933) for 30 Rockefeller Plaza featured an unauthorized portrait of Lenin.<ref>Balfour, Alan (1978). Rockefeller Center: Architecture as Theater. McGraw-Hill, Inc., p. 311, {{ISBN|978-0-070-03480-8}}</ref><ref name"enotes">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.enotes.com/poetry-criticism/macleish-archibald |titleArchibald MacLeish Criticism |publisherEnotes.com |access-date8 December 2011}}</ref> When Rivera refused to remove Lenin, the painting was destroyed and a new mural was painted by the Spanish artist Josep Maria Sert.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://livingnewdeal.org/projects/city-college-san-francisco-pan-american-unity-mural-san-francisco-ca/ |titleCity College of San Francisco: Rivera Mural – San Francisco CA|websiteThe Living New Deal |publisherDepartment of Geography, University of California, Berkeley |access-date15 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>Atkins, Robert (1993). ArtSpoke: A Guide to Modern Ideas, Movements, and Buzzwords, 1848–1944. Abbeville Press. {{ISBN|978-1-55859-388-6}}.</ref><ref name"WPA Art Recovery Project">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.gsaig.gov/index.cfm/other-documents/other/works-progress-administration-wpa-art-recovery-project/ |titleWorks Progress Administration (WPA) Art Recovery Project |publisherOffice of the Inspector General, General Services Administration |access-date13 June 2015 |url-status dead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150919064231/https://www.gsaig.gov/index.cfm/other-documents/other/works-progress-administration-wpa-art-recovery-project/ |archive-date19 September 2015 }}</ref>
Sculpture
Monumental and public sculpture
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File:Folie Bergère Paris (36268584).jpeg|Gold detail on the façade of the Folies Bergère cabaret music hall in Paris, by Maurice Pico (1926)
File:Christ the Redeemer - Cristo Redentor.jpg|Christ the Redeemer, reinforced concrete and soapstone sculpture on Corcovado Mountain, Rio de Janeiro, by Paul Landowski (1931)
File:Guardian of Traffic (cropped).jpg|Guardians of Traffic, pylon on Hope Memorial Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio, by Henry Hering and Frank Walker (1932)
File:Lobby, (former) Daily Express Building by Ronald Atkinson.jpg|Britain, relief sculpture in the lobby of the former Daily Express Building in London, by Ronald Atkinson (1932)
File:Niagara Mohawk Building 1.jpg|Spirit of Light or Spirit of Power, metal sculpture on the façade of the Niagara Mohawk Building in Syracuse, N.Y., by Clayton Frye (1932)
File:Rockefeller Center entrance (4674369705).jpg|Wisdom, portal decoration at the Rockefeller Center in New York City, by Lee Lawrie (1933)
File:Nowogrodzka 45 w Warszawie orzeł.jpg|Polish coat of arms (unofficial) on the façade of the post office in Warsaw, by Julian Puterman-Sadłowski (1934)
File:New York City, May 2014 - 033.JPG|Atlas, bronze sculpture in front of the Rockefeller Center, by Lawrie (1936–37)
File:NixFedBldgPhilaMailBas1.jpg|Mail Delivery East, one of four bas-relief sculptures on the Nix Federal Building in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by Edmond Amateis (1937)
File:"One is Man Controlling Trade," 1942 statue by Michael Lantz, at Federal Trade Commission, 600 Pennsylvania Ave., NW Washington, D.C LCCN2010641732.tif|Man Controlling Trade at the Federal Trade Commission Building in Washington, D.C., by Michael Lantz (1942)
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Sculpture was a very common and integral feature of Art Deco architecture. In France, allegorical bas-reliefs representing dance and music by Antoine Bourdelle decorated the earliest Art Deco landmark in Paris, the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, in 1912. The 1925 Exposition had major sculptural works placed around the site, pavilions were decorated with sculptural friezes, and several pavilions devoted to smaller studio sculpture. In the 1930s, a large group of prominent sculptors made works for the 1937 {{Lang|fr|Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne|italicno}} at Chaillot. Alfred Janniot made the relief sculptures on the façade of the Palais de Tokyo. The Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, and the esplanade in front of the Palais de Chaillot, facing the Eiffel Tower, was crowded with new statuary by Charles Malfray, Henry Arnold, and many others.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages165–66}}
Public Art Deco sculpture was almost always representational, usually of heroic or allegorical figures related to the purpose of the building or room. The themes were usually selected by the patrons, not the artist. Abstract sculpture for decoration was extremely rare.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?isbn0671808044 |firstEva |lastWeber |titleArt deco in America |publisherExeter Books |date1985 |page32 |isbn0671808044}}</ref>{{sfn|Duncan|1988|pages121–141}}
In the United States, the most prominent Art Deco sculptor for public art was Paul Manship, who updated classical and mythological subjects and themes in an Art Deco style. His most famous work was the statue of Prometheus at Rockefeller Center in New York City, a 20th-century adaptation of a classical subject. Other important works for Rockefeller Center were made by Lee Lawrie, including the sculptural façade and the Atlas statue.
During the Great Depression in the United States, many sculptors were commissioned to make works for the decoration of federal government buildings, with funds provided by the WPA, or Works Progress Administration. They included sculptor Sidney Biehler Waugh, who created stylized and idealized images of workers and their tasks for federal government office buildings.{{sfn|Duncan|1988|p=140}} In San Francisco, Ralph Stackpole provided sculpture for the façade of the new San Francisco Stock Exchange building. In Washington D.C., Michael Lantz made works for the Federal Trade Commission building.
In Britain, Deco public statuary was made by Eric Gill for the BBC Broadcasting House, while Ronald Atkinson decorated the lobby of the former Daily Express Building in London (1932).
One of the best known and certainly the largest public Art Deco sculpture is the Christ the Redeemer by the French sculptor Paul Landowski, completed between 1922 and 1931, located on a mountain top overlooking Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Studio sculpture
<gallery mode"packed" heights"170">
File:Joseph Csaky, Tête, ca 1920 (front and side view) limestone, 60 cm, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, Holland.tiff|Tête (front and side view), limestone, by Joseph Csaky ({{circa|1920}}), Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands
File:Le chasseur de Pierre Le Faguays.png|The Hunter by Pierre Le Faguays (1920s)
File:Actaeon - Paul Manship (25890637528).jpg|Actaeon by Paul Manship (1925), in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art, US
File:Speed - Harriet Frishmuth.jpg|Speed, a design for a radiator ornament by Harriet Whitney Frishmuth (1925)
File:The Flight of Europa.jpg|The Flight of Europa, bronze with gold leaf, by Paul Manship (1925), Whitney Museum of American Art, New York City
File:Art Deco Sculpture.jpg|Tânără (Girl), bronze, ivory and onyx, by Demétre Chiparus ({{circa|1925}})
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Many early Art Deco sculptures were small, designed to decorate salons. One genre of this sculpture was called the Chryselephantine statuette, named for a style of ancient Greek temple statues made of gold and ivory. They were sometimes made of bronze, or sometimes with much more lavish materials, such as ivory, onyx, alabaster, and gold leaf.
One of the best-known Art Deco salon sculptors was the Romanian-born Demétre Chiparus, who produced colourful small sculptures of dancers. Other notable salon sculptors included Ferdinand Preiss, Josef Lorenzl, Alexander Kelety, Dorothea Charol and Gustav Schmidtcassel.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages=141–163}} Another important American sculptor in the studio format was Harriet Whitney Frishmuth, who had studied with Auguste Rodin in Paris.
Pierre Le Paguays was a prominent Art Deco studio sculptor, whose work was shown at the 1925 Exposition. He worked with bronze, marble, ivory, onyx, gold, alabaster and other precious materials.<ref>Brian Catley, Deco and other Bronzes, pp. 203–209, {{ISBN|978-1851493821}}</ref>
François Pompon was a pioneer of modern stylised animalier sculpture. He was not fully recognised for his artistic accomplishments until the age of 67 at the Salon d'Automne of 1922 with the work Ours blanc, also known as The White Bear, now in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris.<ref nameKjellberg>{{cite book|last1Kjellberg|first1Pierre|titleBronzes of the 19th Century|date1994|publisherSchiffer Publishing, Ltd.|locationAtglen, Pennsylvania|isbn0-88740-629-7|page551|editionFirst}}<!--|access-date=20 July 2015--></ref>
Parallel with these Art Deco sculptors, more avant-garde and abstract modernist sculptors were at work in Paris and New York City. The most prominent were Constantin Brâncuși, Joseph Csaky, Alexander Archipenko, Henri Laurens, Jacques Lipchitz, Gustave Miklos, Jean Lambert-Rucki, Jan et Joël Martel, Chana Orloff and Pablo Gargallo.<ref name"Edith Balas, 1998">[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_0T8LAAAAIAAJ Edith Balas, 1998, Joseph Csaky: A Pioneer of Modern Sculpture], Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society</ref>Graphic arts<gallery mode"packed" heights="200">
File:Bakst Nizhinsky.jpg|Program design for Afternoon of a Faun by Léon Bakst for Ballets Russes (1912)
File:Deutsche Werkbund-Ausstellung Kunst in Handwerk, Industrie und Handel Architektur Köln 1914 Oct. Peter Behrens A. Molling & Comp. KG Hannover Berlin.jpg|Deutscher Werkbund exhibition poster by Peter Behrens (1914)
File:Vanity Fair cover by Georges Lepape 1919.jpg|A Vanity Fair cover by Georges Lepape (1919)
File:Weinold Reiss - Drawing in two colors.jpg|Interpretation of Harlem Jazz I by Winold Reiss ({{circa|1920}})
File:Erté Harpers Bazar cover Feb 1922.jpg|Cover of ''Harper's Bazaar by Erté (1922)
File:Brightest London is best reached by Underground, subway poster, 1924.jpg|London Underground poster by Horace Taylor (1924)
File:Moulin Rouge Music-Hall.jpg|Moulin Rouge poster by Charles Gesmar (1925)
File:JesterCoverGWBridge.jpg|Cover of the Jester of Columbia, unattributed (1931)
</gallery>
The Art Deco style appeared early in the graphic arts, in the years just before World War I. It appeared in Paris in the posters and the costume designs of Léon Bakst for the Ballets Russes, and in the catalogues of the fashion designers Paul Poiret.<ref>{{cite web| url https://archive.org/details/robesdePaulPoir00Irib| title Paul Iribe, Les robes de Paul Poiret, 1908| year 1908}}</ref> The illustrations of Georges Barbier, and Georges Lepape and the images in the fashion magazine La Gazette du bon ton perfectly captured the elegance and sensuality of the style. In the 1920s, the look changed; the fashions stressed were more casual, sportive and daring, with the woman models usually smoking cigarettes. American fashion magazines such as Vogue, Vanity Fair and Harper's Bazaar quickly picked up the new style and popularized it in the United States. It also influenced the work of American book illustrators such as Rockwell Kent. In Germany, the most famous poster artist of the period was Ludwig Hohlwein, who created colourful and dramatic posters for music festivals, beers, and, late in his career, for the Nazi Party.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|pages148–150}}
During the Art Nouveau period, posters usually advertised theatrical products or cabarets. In the 1920s, travel posters, made for steamship lines and airlines, became extremely popular. The style changed notably in the 1920s, to focus attention on the product being advertised. The images became simpler, precise, more linear, more dynamic, and were often placed against a single-color background. In France, popular Art Deco designers included Charles Loupot and Paul Colin, who became famous for his posters of American singer and dancer Josephine Baker. Jean Carlu designed posters for Charlie Chaplin movies, soaps, and theatres; in the late 1930s he emigrated to the United States, where, during the World War, he designed posters to encourage war production. The designer Charles Gesmar became famous making posters for the singer Mistinguett and for Air France. Among the best-known French Art Deco poster designers was Cassandre, who made the celebrated poster of the ocean liner SS Normandie in 1935.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|pages=148–150}}
In the 1930s a new genre of posters appeared in the United States during the Great Depression. The Federal Art Project hired American artists to create posters to promote tourism and cultural events.
Architecture
{{Redirect|Art Deco Architecture|the book by Patricia Bayer|Art Deco Architecture: Design, Decoration and Detail from the Twenties and Thirties}}
{{See also|List of Art Deco architecture}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:P1030956 Paris Ier La Samaritaine rwk.JPG|La Samaritaine department store in Paris by Henri Sauvage (1925–1928)
File:Los Angeles City Hall building.jpg|Los Angeles City Hall by John Parkinson, John C. Austin, and Albert C. Martin Sr. (1928)
File:Eastern Columbia Building-6.jpg|Entrance of the Eastern Columbia Building in Los Angeles, California, by Claud Beelman (1930)
File:La Villa Empain en 2012, après restauration..jpg|Entrance of the Villa Empain in Ixelles (Brussels) by Michel Polak (1930–1934)
File:Cincinnati Union Terminal murals 2019a.jpg|Cincinnati Union Terminal in Cincinnati, Ohio, by Alfred T. Fellheimer and Roland A. Wank (1933)
File:Nice, France, Église Jeanne d’Arc.jpg|Church of St. Joan of Arc in Nice, France, by Jacques Droz (1934)
File:Diet of Japan Kokkai 2009.jpg|National Diet Building in Tokyo, after a design by Watanabe Fukuzo (1936)
File:Vertical panorama of the Mayakovskaya Metro Station.jpg|Mayakovskaya Metro Station in Moscow by Alexey Dushkin (1936)
</gallery>
Styles
The architectural style of Art Deco made its debut in Paris in 1903–04, with the construction of two apartment buildings in Paris, one by Auguste Perret on rue Benjamin Franklin and the other on rue Trétaigne by Henri Sauvage. The two young architects used reinforced concrete for the first time in Paris residential buildings; the new buildings had clean lines, rectangular forms, and no decoration on the façades; they marked a clean break with the art nouveau style.{{Sfn|Poisson|2009|pages299, 318}} Between 1910 and 1913, Perret used his experience in concrete apartment buildings to construct the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, 15 avenue Montaigne. Between 1925 and 1928 Sauvage constructed the new Art Deco façade of La Samaritaine department store in Paris.{{Sfn|Plum|2014|page134}}
The Art Deco style was not limited to buildings on land; the ocean liner SS Normandie, whose first voyage was in 1935, featured Art Deco design, including a dining room whose ceiling and decoration were made of glass by Lalique.{{sfn|Ardman|1985|pp=86-87}}
Art Deco architecture is sometimes classified into three types: Zigzag [Moderne] (aka Jazz Moderne<ref nameadsla>{{cite web | titleArt Deco Society of Los Angeles | websiteArt Deco Society of Los Angeles | urlhttps://artdecola.org/what-is-art-deco | access-date10 January 2024}}</ref>); Classic Moderne; and Streamline Moderne.<ref nameih>{{cite web | titleTypes of Art Deco Architecture | websiteInviting Home | date30 August 2019 | urlhttps://invitinghome.com/types-of-art-deco-architecture/ | access-date10 January 2024}}</ref>Zigzag ModerneZigzag Moderne (aka Jazz Moderne) was the first style to arrive in the United States. "Zigzag" refers to the stepping of the outline of a skyscraper to exaggerate its height,<ref nameih/><ref nameadsla/> and was mainly used for large public and commercial buildings, in particular hotels, movie theaters, restaurants, skyscrapers, and department stores.<ref name508park/>
Classic Moderne
Classic Moderne has a more graceful appearance, and there is less ornamentation. Classic Moderne is also sometimes referred to as PWA (Public Works Administration) Moderne or Depression Moderne, as it was undertaken by the PWA during the Great Depression.<ref name508park>{{cite web | titleStyles of Art Deco | website508 Park | urlhttp://www.508park.org/styles-of-art-deco | access-date10 January 2024}}</ref><ref nameadsla/><ref nameih/>Streamline Moderne
{{main|Streamline Moderne}}
In the late 1930s, a new variety of Art Deco architecture became common; it was called Streamline Moderne or simply Streamline, or, in France, the Style Paquebot, or Ocean Liner style. Buildings in the style had rounded corners and long horizontal lines; they were built of reinforced concrete and were almost always white; and they sometimes had nautical features, such as railings and portholes that resembled those on a ship. The rounded corner was not entirely new; it had appeared in Berlin in 1923 in the Mossehaus by Erich Mendelsohn, and later in the Hoover Building, an industrial complex in the London suburb of Perivale. In the United States, it became most closely associated with transport; Streamline moderne was rare in office buildings but was often used for bus stations and airport terminals, such as the terminal at La Guardia airport in New York City that handled the first transatlantic flights, via the PanAm Clipper flying boats; and in roadside architecture, such as gas stations and diners. In the late 1930s a series of diners, modelled upon streamlined railroad cars, were produced and installed in towns in New England; at least two examples still remain and are now registered historic buildings.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|page=197}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px">
File:Broadcasting House by Stephen Craven.jpg|The nautical-style rounded corner of Broadcasting House in London (1931)
File:Immeuble de Pierre Patout Bd Victor Paris XV.jpg|Building in the Paquebot'' or ocean liner style, at 3, boulevard Victor, Paris, by Pierre Patout (1935)
File:Pan-Pacific Auditorium entrance.jpg|Pan-Pacific Auditorium in Los Angeles, California, by Wurdeman & Becket (1936)
File:LaGuardia MarineAirTerminal 1974.jpg|The Marine Air Terminal at La Guardia Airport (1937) was New York City's terminal for the flights of Pan Am Clipper flying boats to Europe.
File:Hoover Building No 1.jpg|The Hoover Building canteen in Perivale in London's suburbs, by Wallis, Gilbert and Partners (1938)
File:Ancien Institut national de Radiodiffusion - vue d'ensemble.JPG|Former Belgian National Institute of Radio Broadcasting in Ixelles (Brussels) by Joseph Diongre (1938)
File:World Fair 1939 LOC gsc.5a03061.jpg|The Ford Pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair
File:First Church of Deliverance 2.jpg|Streamline Moderne church, First Church of Deliverance in Chicago, Illinois, by Walter T. Bailey (1939). Towers added in 1948.
</gallery>
Building types
Skyscrapers
<gallery mode"packed" heights"220px">
File:NYC - American Radiator Building.jpg|The American Radiator Building in New York City by Raymond Hood (1924)
File:Carbide & Carbon Building, Chicago in May 2016.jpg|Carbide & Carbon Building in Chicago, Illinois, by Burnham Brothers (1929)
File:Chrysler Building by David Shankbone Retouched.jpg|Chrysler Building in New York City by William Van Alen (1930)
File:Times Square Building, Rochester, New York.jpg|The Times Square Building in Rochester, NY by Ralph Thomas Walker (1930)
File:National Newark Building + Eleven 80.jpg|The Lefcourt Building (1930) by Frank Grad and the National Newark Building by John H. & Wilson C. Ely (1933) in Newark, NJ
File:Empire State Building (aerial view).jpg|Empire State Building in New York City by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon (1931)
File:Pittsburgh-gulf-tower-2007.jpg|Gulf Tower in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by Trowbridge & Livingston and Edward Mellon (1932)
File:570 Lexington Avenue2.JPG|Crown of the General Electric Building (also known as 570 Lexington Avenue) in New York City by Cross & Cross (1933)
File:GE Building by David Shankbone.JPG|30 Rockefeller Plaza, now the Comcast Building, in New York City by Raymond Hood (1933)
</gallery>
American skyscrapers marked the summit of the Art Deco style; they became the tallest and most recognizable modern buildings in the world, designed to show the prestige of their builders through height, shape, their color, and dramatic illumination at night.<ref>John Burchard and Albert Bush Brown, The Architecture of America (1966), Atlantic, Little and Brown, page 277</ref> The American Radiator Building by Raymond Hood (1924) combined Gothic and Deco modern elements in the design of the building. Black brick on the frontage of the building (symbolizing coal) was selected to give an idea of solidity and to give the building a solid mass. Other parts of the façade were covered in gold bricks (symbolizing fire), and the entry was decorated with marble and black mirrors. Another early Art Deco skyscraper was Detroit's Guardian Building, which opened in 1929. Designed by modernist Wirt C. Rowland, the building was the first to employ stainless steel as a decorative element, and the extensive use of colored designs in place of traditional ornaments.
New York City's skyline was radically changed by the Chrysler Building in Manhattan (completed in 1930), designed by William Van Alen. It was a giant seventy-seven-floor tall advertisement for Chrysler automobiles. The top was crowned by a stainless steel spire, and was ornamented by deco "gargoyles" in the form of stainless steel radiator cap decorations. The base of the tower, thirty-three stories above the street, was decorated with colorful Art Deco friezes, and the lobby was decorated with Art Deco symbols and images expressing modernity.{{Sfn|Benton|Benton|Wood|2003|pages=249–258}}
The Chrysler Building was soon surpassed in height by the Empire State Building by William F. Lamb (1931), in a slightly less lavish Deco style and the RCA Building (now 30 Rockefeller Plaza) by Raymond Hood (1933) which together completely changed New York City's skyline. The tops of the buildings were decorated with Art Deco crowns and spires covered with stainless steel, and, in the case of the Chrysler building, with Art Deco gargoyles modeled after radiator ornaments, while the entrances and lobbies were lavishly decorated with Art Deco sculpture, ceramics, and design. Similar buildings, though not quite as tall, soon appeared in Chicago and other large American cities. Rockefeller Center added a new design element: several tall buildings grouped around an open plaza, with a fountain in the middle.{{Sfn|Morel|2012|pages=125–30}}
Across the Hudson River, Art Deco style skyscrapers were constructed in Newark, New Jersey in the '20s and '30s, namely the New Jersey Bell Headquarters (completed in 1929), designed by Ralph Thomas Walker; the Lefcourt Building (completed in 1930), designed by Frank Grad; and the National Newark Building (completed in 1933), designed by John H. & Wilson C. Ely. John Cotton Dana, head of the Newark Public Library during this period, remarked contemporaneously that these skyscrapers transformed Newark from a "huge, uncouth and unthinking industrial Frankenstein monster into a place of refinement."<ref>{{cite web |last1Di Ionna |first1Mark |titleArt Deco Buildings Turned Newark from Frankenstein Monster to Place of Refinement |urlhttps://www.tapinto.net/towns/berkeley-heights/articles/art-deco-buildings-turned-newark-from-frankenstein-monster-to-place-of-refinement |websitetapinto.net |publisherTapinto |access-date3 February 2025 |dateJuly 2, 2019}}</ref>
"Cathedrals of Commerce"
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Interior of Fisher Building, Detroit.JPG|The Fisher Building in Detroit, Michigan, by Joseph Nathaniel French (1928)
File:Detroit December 2015 30 (Guardian Building).jpg|Lower lobby of the Guardian Building in Detroit by Wirt Rowland (1929)
File:450 Sutter St. lobby 2.JPG|Lobby of 450 Sutter Street in San Francisco, California, by Timothy Pflueger (1929)
File:Chrysler Building Lobby.jpg|Lobby of the Chrysler Building in New York City, by William Van Alen (1930)
File:Chrysler building door detail crown.jpg|Interior door in the Chrysler Building (1930)
File:Chandelier, Carew Tower.jpg|Ceiling and chandelier detail on the lobby of the Carew Tower in Cincinnati, Ohio, by Walter W. Ahlschlager (1930)
File:Haltusch.jpg|Foyer of the Tuschinski Theatre in Amsterdam by Hijman Louis de Jong (1921)
</gallery>
The grand showcases of American Art Deco interior design were the lobbies of government buildings, theaters, and particularly office buildings. Interiors were extremely colorful and dynamic, combining sculpture, murals, and ornate geometric design in marble, glass, ceramics and stainless steel. An early example was the Fisher Building in Detroit, by Joseph Nathaniel French; the lobby was highly decorated with sculpture and ceramics. The Guardian Building (originally the Union Trust Building) in Detroit, by Wirt Rowland (1929), decorated with red and black marble and brightly colored ceramics, highlighted by highly polished steel elevator doors and counters. The sculptural decoration installed in the walls illustrated the virtues of industry and saving; the building was immediately termed the "Cathedral of Commerce". The Medical and Dental Building called 450 Sutter Street in San Francisco by Timothy Pflueger was inspired by Mayan architecture, in a highly stylized form; it used pyramid shapes, and the interior walls were covered with highly stylized rows of hieroglyphs.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|pages=198–200}}
In France, the best example of an Art Deco interior during this period was the Palais de la Porte Dorée (1931) by Albert Laprade, Léon Jaussely and Léon Bazin. The building (now the National Museum of Immigration, with an aquarium in the basement) was built for the Paris Colonial Exposition of 1931, to celebrate the people and products of French colonies. The exterior façade was entirely covered with sculpture, and the lobby created an Art Deco harmony with a wood parquet floor in a geometric pattern, a mural depicting the people of French colonies; and a harmonious composition of vertical doors and horizontal balconies.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|pages198–200}}Movie palaces<gallery mode"packed" heights="200px">
File:Pathe Tuschinski.jpg|Tuschinski Theatre in Amsterdam by Hijman Louis de Jong and Willem Kromhout (1921)
File:Graumanegyptian-opening1922.jpg|Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood (Los Angeles), California, by Meyer & Holler (1922)
File:Paramount Theatre in Oakland, California LCCN2013635154.tif|Four-story high grand lobby of the Paramount Theatre in Oakland, California, by Timothy Pflueger (1932)
File:Radio City Music Hall 3051638324 4a385c5623.jpg|Auditorium and stage of Radio City Music Hall in New York City by Edward Durell Stone and Donald Deskey (1932)
File:Facade Rex.jpg|Grand Rex in Paris by Auguste Bluysen, John Eberson, Henri-Édouard Navarre and Maurice Dufrêne (1932)
File:The Paramount, Shanghai.JPG|The Paramount in Shanghai, China, by S. J. Young (1933)
File:Gaumont State Cinema Entrance.jpg|Gaumont State Cinema in London by George Coles (1937)
</gallery>
Many of the best surviving examples of Art Deco are cinemas built in the 1920s and 1930s. The Art Deco period coincided with the conversion of silent films to sound, and movie companies built large display destinations in major cities to capture the huge audience that came to see movies. Movie palaces in the 1920s often combined exotic themes with Art Deco style; Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood (1922) was inspired by ancient Egyptian tombs and pyramids, while the Fox Theater in Bakersfield, California attached a tower in California Mission style to an Art Deco Hall. The largest of all is Radio City Music Hall in New York City, which opened in 1932. Originally designed as theatrical performance space, it quickly transformed into a cinema, which could seat 6,015 customers. The interior design by Donald Deskey used glass, aluminum, chrome, and leather to create a visual escape from reality. The Paramount Theatre in Oakland, California, by Timothy Pflueger, had a colorful ceramic façade, a lobby four stories high, and separate Art Deco smoking rooms for gentlemen and ladies. Similar grand palaces appeared in Europe. The Grand Rex in Paris (1932), with its imposing tower, was the largest cinema in Europe after the 6,000 seats of the Gaumont-Palace (1931–1973). The Gaumont State Cinema in London (1937) had a tower modelled on the Empire State building, covered with cream ceramic tiles and an interior in an Art Deco-Italian Renaissance style. The Paramount Theatre in Shanghai, China (1933) was originally built as a dance hall called The gate of 100 pleasures; it was converted to a cinema after the Communist Revolution in 1949, and now is a ballroom and disco. In the 1930s Italian architects built a small movie palace, the Cinema Impero, in Asmara in what is now Eritrea. Today, many of the movie theatres have been subdivided into multiplexes, but others have been restored and are used as cultural centres in their communities.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|pages197–199}}Decoration and motifs<gallery mode"packed" heights="180px">
File:Door decoration, 55 quai d'Orsay, Paris 75007, 23 December 2016.jpg|Birds – Quai d'Orsay no. 55 in Paris, designed by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau and carved by Léon Binet (1913)
File:44 Calea Călărașilor, Bucharest (12).jpg|Allegorical representations – Pediment of the Mihai Zisman House (Calea Călărașilor no. 44) in Bucharest, by Soru (1920)
File:Parfumerie Orsay fronton.tif|Stylized flowers (especially spiral flowers and converging fascicles) – Architectural element for the Parfumerie d'Orsay in Paris, by Georges Béal (1922)
File:Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann (French, 1879-1933). Corner Cabinet, ca. 1923..jpg|The urn – Corner cabinet made of mahogany with rose basket design of inlaid ivory, by Jacques-Émile Ruhlmann (1923), Brooklyn Museum, New York City
File:41 Avenue Montaigne, 75008 Paris, France 27 December 2016.jpg|The flower basket – Balconies and pediment of Avenue Montaigne no. 41 in Paris, unknown architect or sculptor (1924)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.pss-archi.eu/immeubles/FR-75056-16276.html|websitepss-archi.eu|titlePSS / 41, avenue Montaigne|author|access-date=17 September 2023}}</ref>
File:Grille of the Cheney Silk Company Building, New York City, 1925, designed by the French metalworking company Ferrobrandt.jpg|Repeating patterns – Decorative ironwork of the Madison Belmont Building (Madison Avenue no. 181–183) in New York City, by Ferrobrandt (1925)<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page189|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Porte d'honneur, by Edgar Brandt, 1925, at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts.jpg|The papyrus flower – Porte d'honneur, at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, by Edgar Brandt (1925)<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page192|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Edgar brandt, porte da ascensore in ferro, vetro e bronzo, francia 1926 02.jpg|The foliage scroll – Elevator doors, by Brandt (1926), wrought iron, glass, patinated and gilded bronze, Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page196|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Gustave Simon caveau.jpg|Simplified reinterpretations of the Doric columns (with a basic rectangular capital or base, or just as a shaft) – Grave of Gustave Simon in Préville Cemetery, Nancy, France, unknown architect (after 1926)
File:Belgique - Bruxelles - Withuis - 01.jpg|Decoration not just through ornaments, but also through combinations of volumes - Withuis (Avenue Charles Woeste no. 183) in Brussels, Belgium, by Joseph Diongre (1927)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://monument.heritage.brussels/fr/glossary/500|websitemonument.heritage.brussels|titleArt Déco|access-date24 May 2024}}</ref>
File:Stage design for Meșterul Manole (The Master Builder Manole), by Victor Feodorov, 1927-1928, collection of the National Theatre, Bucharest, Romania.jpg|Ingenious games of light and darkness – Stage design for Meșterul Manole (The Master Builder Manole), by Victor Feodorov (1927–28), collection of the National Theatre, Bucharest
File:Paris La Samaritaine 374.JPG|The octagon-shaped medallion – Sign of the La Samaritaine department store in Paris, by Henri Sauvage (1928)<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page44|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:La Maison Bleue, porte d'entrée - Angers - 20110119.jpg|Mosaics – Maison bleue (Rue d'Alsace no. 28) in Angers, France, designed by Roger Jusserand, and decorated with mosaics by the Odorico fréres (1928)
File:28 Brook Street, Mayfair, January 2022 01.jpg|Vertical mouldings – Greybrook House (Brook Street no. 28) in London, by Sir John Burnet & Partners (1928–29)<ref>{{cite book|last1Hardwood|first1Elain|titleArt Deco Britain - Buildings of the Interwar Years|date2019|publisherBatsford|isbn9781849945271|page113|url|language=en}}</ref>
File:Rotterdam - Atlantic Huis.jpg|Horizontal mouldings – Atlantic Huis (Westplein no. 51) in Rotterdam, by P.G. Buskens (1928–1930)
File:Chrysler Building Entrance - New York, NY, USA - August 18, 2015 04.jpg|The stepped motif – Entrance hall of the Chrysler Building in New York City, by William Van Allen (1928–1930)
File:Lamp - Paul Kiss (38691617495).jpg|The artesian fountain – Lamp, by Paul Kiss ({{circa|1930}}), glass and metal, in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art, US
File:77 avenue des Champs-Élysées, Paris 8e 5.jpg|The cornucopia – Avenue des Champs-Élysées no. 77 in Paris, unknown architect ({{circa|1930}})
File:Console table detail 02 - Paul Fehér (25893303288).jpg|Complex zigzags – Foot of a console table, by Paul Fehér ({{circa|1930}}), metal, in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art
File:Immeuble, 17-21 rue Gramme (11Fi 4578).jpg|Streamlining – Rue Gramme no. 17–21 in Paris, by Marcel Chappey (1930)
File:Eastern Columbia Building-6.jpg|The sunburst – Detail above the entrance of the Eastern Columbia Building (S. Broadway no. 849) in L.A., by Claud Beelman (1930)
File:Louis Vuitton Maison Champs Élysées (49570496372).jpg|An aesthetic of artificial lighting – Maison de France (now showroom for Louis Vuitton), Avenue des Champs-Élysées no. 101 in Paris, by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau and Charles-Henri Besnard (1931)<ref name"SIMETRIA">{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page185|url|languageRomanian, English}}</ref>
File:Bucharest - Strada Ion Câmpineanu 11 (cropped top).jpg|Ziggurat – Union Hotel (Strada Ion Câmpineanu no. 11) in Bucharest, by Arghir Culina (1931)<ref name="SIMETRIA"/>
File:Villa Cavrois le vestibule (cropped).jpg|Vertical and horizontal luminous surfaces – Entrance hall of the Villa Cavrois in Croix, France, by Rob Mallet-Stevens (1932)<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page206|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Grave of the colonel Paul Străjescu Family in the Bellu Cemetery in Bucharest, Romania (08).jpg|The undulating line – Relief on the Grave of the Străjescu Family in Bellu Cemetery, Bucharest, by George Cristinel (1934)<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page79|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Edificio del Parque - detalle 2.jpg|Decorative stylized lettering – Edificio del Parque in Mexico City, by Ernesto Buenrostro (1935)
</gallery>
Decoration in the Art Deco period went through several distinct phases. Between 1910 and 1920, as Art Nouveau was exhausted, design styles saw a return to tradition, particularly in the work of Paul Iribe. In 1912 André Vera published an essay in the magazine ''L'Art Décoratif'' calling for a return to the craftsmanship and materials of earlier centuries and using a new repertoire of forms taken from nature, particularly baskets and garlands of fruit and flowers. A second tendency of Art Deco, also from 1910 to 1920, was inspired by the bright colours of the artistic movement known as the Fauves and by the colourful costumes and sets of the Ballets Russes. This style was often expressed with exotic materials such as sharkskin, mother of pearl, ivory, tinted leather, lacquered and painted wood, and decorative inlays on furniture that emphasized its geometry. This period of the style reached its high point in the 1925 Paris Exposition of Decorative Arts. In the late 1920s and the 1930s, the decorative style changed, inspired by new materials and technologies. It became sleeker and less ornamental. Furniture, like architecture, began to have rounded edges and to take on a polished, streamlined look, taken from the streamline modern style. New materials, such as nickel or chrome-plated steel, aluminium and bakelite, an early form of plastic, began to appear in furniture and decoration.<ref>Explanatory text on Art Deco in the Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris.{{full citation needed|date=August 2021}}</ref>
Throughout the Art Deco period, and particularly in the 1930s, the motifs of the décor expressed the function of the building. Theatres were decorated with sculpture which illustrated music, dance, and excitement; power companies showed sunrises, the Chrysler building showed stylized hood ornaments; The friezes of Palais de la Porte Dorée at the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition showed the faces of the different nationalities of French colonies. The Streamline style made it appear that the building itself was in motion. The WPA murals of the 1930s featured ordinary people; factory workers, postal workers, families and farmers, in place of classical heroes.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|page=250}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"180px">
File:Avenue Montaigne (47128639262).jpg|Curvy – Avenue Montaigne no. 26, Paris, by Louis Duhayon and Marcel Julien (1937)<ref name="pss-archi_eu" />
File:Chrysler Building Entrance.jpg|Angular – Entrance of the Chrysler Building in New York City, by William Van Allen (1928–1930)
File:Ministry of Justice in Bucharest, former Veterinary Physicians' Society Building, now National Magistracy Institute (07).jpg|Asymmetric - Ministry of Justice (Bulevardul Regina Elisabeta no. 53), Bucharest, by Constantin Iotzu (1929–1932)
File:14 rue Chomel Paris.jpg|Symmetric – Rue Chomel no. 14, Paris, designed by Émile Boursier and sculpted by Raymond Delamarre (1934)
File:Front full - 1925 Edgar Brandt fire screen (39537375352).jpg|Maximalist – Fire screen, by Edgar Brandt (1925), wrought iron, in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art, US
File:Seattle - old Federal Court House 04.jpg|Minimalist – William K. Nakamura Federal Courthouse in Seattle, US, by Gilbert Stanley Underwood (1940)
</gallery>
Art Deco, like the complex times that engendered it, can best be characterized by a series of contradictions: minimalist vs maximalist, angular vs fluid, ziggurat vs streamline, symmetrical vs irregular, to name a few. The iconography chosen by Art Deco artists to express the period is also laden with contradictions. Fair maidens in 18th-century dress seem to coexist with chic sophisticated ladies and recumbent nudes, and flashes of lightning illuminate stylized rosebuds.<ref>{{cite book|last1McCready|first1Karen|titleArt Deco and Modernist ceramics|date1997|publisherThames & Hudson|isbn978-0500278253|page|url|languageen}}</ref>Furniture<gallery mode"packed" heights="200px">
File:Paul follot, sedia, parigi 1914-16 ca.JPG|Chair by Paul Follot (1912–1914)
File:Art Deco chair and screen (1912 and 1920).jpg|Armchair by Louis Süe (1912) and painted screen by André Mare (1920)
File:Art Deco dressing table (1919-20).jpg|Dressing table and chair of marble and encrusted, lacquered, and gilded wood by Follot (1919–20)
File:Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann (French, 1879-1933). Corner Cabinet, ca. 1923..jpg|Corner cabinet of Mahogany with rose basket design of inlaid ivory by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann (1923)
File:André Groult, cassettone antropomorphe, parigi, 1925 ca.jpg|Cabinet covered with shagreen or sharkskin by André Groult (1925)
File:J.-E. Ruhlmann au Musée des Années 30 (Boulogne-Billancourt) (2132077838).jpg|Cabinet by Ruhlmann (1926)
File:Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann (Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon) (5469658728).jpg|Cabinet design by Ruhlmann
File:Gio ponti ed emilio lancia, sala da pranzo 'domus nova', 1927, 02.JPG|Furniture by Gio Ponti (1927)
File:Desk of Adminiistrator Michel Roux-Spitz 1930.jpg|Desk of an administrator, by Michel Roux-Spitz for the 1930 Salon of Decorative Artists
File:Fauteuil jazzclub.jpg|Art Deco club chair (1930s)
File:"La Maison Leleu" au Musée des Années 30 (Boulogne-Billancourt) (2132078468).jpg|Late Art Deco furniture and rug by Jules Leleu (1930s)
File:Waterfall buffet table.jpg|A Waterfall style buffet table
</gallery>
French furniture from 1910 until the early 1920s was largely an updating of French traditional furniture styles, and the art nouveau designs of Louis Majorelle, Charles Plumet and other manufacturers. French furniture manufacturers felt threatened by the growing popularity of German manufacturers and styles, particularly the Biedermeier style, which was simple and clean-lined. The French designer Frantz Jourdain, the president of the Paris Salon d'Automne, invited designers from Munich to participate in the 1910 Salon. French designers saw the new German style and decided to meet the German challenge. The French designers decided to present new French styles in the Salon of 1912. The rules of the Salon indicated that only modern styles would be permitted. All of the major French furniture designers took part in Salon: Paul Follot, Paul Iribe, Maurice Dufrêne, André Groult, André Mare and Louis Suë took part, presenting new works that updated the traditional French styles of Louis XVI and Louis Philippe with more angular corners inspired by Cubism and brighter colours inspired by Fauvism and the Nabis.{{Sfn|Benton|Benton|Wood|2003|pages=91–93}}
The painter André Mare and furniture designer Louis Süe both participated the 1912 Salon. After the war the two men joined to form their own company, formally called the Compagnie des Arts Française, but usually known simply as Suë and Mare. Unlike the prominent art nouveau designers like Louis Majorelle, who personally designed every piece, they assembled a team of skilled craftsmen and produced complete interior designs, including furniture, glassware, carpets, ceramics, wallpaper and lighting. Their work featured bright colors and furniture and fine woods, such as ebony encrusted with mother of pearl, abalone and silvered metal to create bouquets of flowers. They designed everything from the interiors of ocean liners to perfume bottles for the label of Jean Patou.The firm prospered in the early 1920s, but the two men were better craftsmen than businessmen. The firm was sold in 1928, and both men left.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|page=51}}
The most prominent furniture designer at the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition was Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann, from Alsace. He first exhibited his works at the 1913 Autumn Salon, then had his own pavilion, the "House of the Rich Collector", at the 1925 Exposition. He used only most rare and expensive materials, including ebony, mahogany, rosewood, ambon and other exotic woods, decorated with inlays of ivory, tortoise shell, mother of pearl, Little pompoms of silk decorated the handles of drawers of the cabinets.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|page15}} His furniture was based upon 18th-century models, but simplified and reshaped. In all of his work, the interior structure of the furniture was completely concealed. The framework usually of oak, was completely covered with an overlay of thin strips of wood, then covered by a second layer of strips of rare and expensive woods. This was then covered with a veneer and polished, so that the piece looked as if it had been cut out of a single block of wood. Contrast to the dark wood was provided by inlays of ivory, and ivory key plates and handles. According to Ruhlmann, armchairs had to be designed differently according to the functions of the rooms where they appeared; living room armchairs were designed to be welcoming, office chairs comfortable, and salon chairs voluptuous. Only a small number of pieces of each design of furniture was made, and the average price of one of his beds or cabinets was greater than the price of an average house.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|page56}}
Jules Leleu was a traditional furniture designer who moved smoothly into Art Deco in the 1920s; he designed the furniture for the dining room of the Élysée Palace, and for the first-class cabins of the steamship Normandie. his style was characterized by the use of ebony, Macassar wood, walnut, with decoration of plaques of ivory and mother of pearl. He introduced the style of lacquered Art Deco furniture in the late 1920s, and in the late 1930s introduced furniture made of metal with panels of smoked glass.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|pages=18–19}} In Italy, the designer Gio Ponti was famous for his streamlined designs.
The costly and exotic furniture of Ruhlmann and other traditionalists infuriated modernists, including the architect Le Corbusier, causing him to write a famous series of articles denouncing the arts décoratif style. He attacked furniture made only for the rich and called upon designers to create furniture made with inexpensive materials and modern style, which ordinary people could afford. He designed his own chairs, created to be inexpensive and mass-produced.<ref>{{cite web |firstAlexandra |lastGriffith Winton |urlhttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/dsgn2/hd_dsgn2.htm |titleDesign, 1925–50 |publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art |seriesHeilbrunn Timeline of Art History |date=October 2008}}</ref>
In the 1930s, furniture designs adapted to the form, with smoother surfaces and curved forms. The masters of the late style included Donald Deskey, who was one of the most influential designers; he created the interior of the Radio City Music Hall. He used a mixture of traditional and very modern materials, including aluminium, chrome, and bakelite, an early form of plastic.{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|page=36}} Other top designers of Art Deco furniture of the 1930s in the United States included Gilbert Rohde, Warren McArthur, and Kem Weber.
The Waterfall style was popular in the 1930s and 1940s, the most prevalent Art Deco form of furniture at the time. Pieces were typically of plywood finished with blond veneer and with rounded edges, resembling a waterfall.<ref name"Cooper">{{cite journal|lastCooper|firstDan|titleFurniture of the Jazz Age|journalOld-House Interiors|publisherWilliam J. O'Donnell|volume7|number6|page42|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4zAEAAAAMBAJ|dateNovember 2011}}</ref>
Design
{{Main |Streamline Moderne}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px">
File:Duofold Desk Set.jpg|Parker Duofold desk set ({{circa|1930}})
File:Beau Brownie.jpg|Beau Brownie camera, design by Walter Dorwin Teague for Eastman Kodak (1930)
File:Philips 930.jpg|Philips radio set (1931)
File:SLNSW 22573 Chrysler Airflow.jpg|Chrysler Airflow sedan, designed by Carl Breer (1934)
File:Bugatti Aérolithe AV.jpg|Bugatti Aérolithe (1936)
File:Vintage Philco (Big Bullet) Table Radio, Model 37-610T, Broadcast & Short Wave Bands, Art Deco Design, 5 Vacuum Tubes, Walnut Veneer Cabinet, Circa 1937 (15351304051).jpg|Philco table radio ({{circa|1937}})
File:Lurelle Guild. Vacuum Cleaner, ca. 1937..jpg|Electrolux vacuum cleaner (1937)
File:Cord 812 1937.jpg|Cord automobile model 812, designed by Gordon M. Buehrig and staff (1937)
File:1938_Phantom_Corsair_Pebble_Beach_Concours_dElegance_2007_02.jpg|Phantom Corsair, designed by Rust Heinz (1938)
File:Test run of streamlined 20th Century Limited 1938.jpg|New York Central's 20th Century Limited Hudson 4-6-4 Streamlined locomotive ({{circa|1939}})
</gallery>
Streamline was a variety of Art Deco which emerged during the mid-1930s. It was influenced by modern aerodynamic principles developed for aviation and ballistics to reduce aerodynamic drag at high velocities. The bullet shapes were applied by designers to cars, trains, ships, and even objects not intended to move, such as refrigerators, gas pumps, and buildings.<ref name"Design: A Concise History" /> One of the first production vehicles in this style was the Chrysler Airflow of 1933. It was unsuccessful commercially, but the beauty and functionality of its design set a precedent; meant modernity. It continued to be used in car design well after World War II.<ref>{{cite book |lastGartman |firstDavid |titleAuto Opium |publisherRoutledge |year1994 |pages122–124 | isbn978-0-415-10572-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.phxart.org/exhibition/exhibitioncurves.aspx |titleCurves of Steel: Streamlined Automobile Design |publisherPhoenix Art Museum |year2007 |access-date1 September 2010 |archive-date24 June 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090624171243/http://www.phxart.org/exhibition/exhibitioncurves.aspx |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastArmi |firstC. Edson |titleThe Art of American Car Design |publisherPennsylvania State University Press |year1989 |page66 |isbn978-0-271-00479-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastHinckley |firstJames |titleThe Big Book of Car Culture: The Armchair Guide to Automotive Americana |publisherMotorBooks/MBI Publishing |year2005 |page239 |isbn978-0-7603-1965-9}}</ref>
New industrial materials began to influence the design of cars and household objects. These included aluminium, chrome, and bakelite, an early form of plastic. Bakelite could be easily moulded into different forms, and soon was used in telephones, radios and other appliances.
by Pierre Patout (1935); bas-reliefs by Raymond Delamarre]]
Ocean liners also adopted a style of Art Deco, known in French as the Style Paquebot, or "Ocean Liner Style". The most famous example was the SS Normandie, which made its first transatlantic trip in 1935. It was designed particularly to bring wealthy Americans to Paris to shop. The cabins and salons featured the latest Art Deco furnishings and decoration. The Grand Salon of the ship, which was the restaurant for first-class passengers, was bigger than the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. It was illuminated by electric lights within twelve pillars of Lalique crystal; thirty-six matching pillars lined the walls. This was one of the earliest examples of illumination being directly integrated into architecture. The style of ships was soon adapted to buildings. A notable example is found on the San Francisco waterfront, where the Maritime Museum building, built as a public bath in 1937, resembles a ferryboat, with ship railings and rounded corners. The Star Ferry Terminal in Hong Kong also used a variation of the style.<ref name"Goss" />Textiles<gallery mode"packed" heights="200px">
File:"Abundance" Textile MET DP293540.jpg|Abundance textile design by André Mare (1911), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
File:Paul Iribe, birds from Les Ateliers de Martine.jpg|Design of birds from Les Ateliers de Martine by Paul Iribe (1918)
File:"Draperies" Textile MET DP293587.jpg|Rose pattern textiles designed by Mare ({{circa|1919}}), Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Rose Mousse MET DP105936.jpg|Rose Mousse pattern for upholstery, cotton and silk (1920), Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>
Textiles were an important part of the Art Deco style, in the form of colourful wallpaper, upholstery and carpets, In the 1920s, designers were inspired by the stage sets of the Ballets Russes, fabric designs and costumes from Léon Bakst and creations by the Wiener Werkstätte. The early interior designs of André Mare featured brightly coloured and highly stylized garlands of roses and flowers, which decorated the walls, floors, and furniture. Stylized Floral motifs also dominated the work of Raoul Dufy and Paul Poiret, and in the furniture designs of J.E. Ruhlmann. The floral carpet was reinvented in Deco style by Paul Poiret.<ref>De Morant, Henry, Histoire des arts décoratifs (1970), pg. 448-453</ref>
The use of the style was greatly enhanced by the introduction of the pochoir stencil-based printing system, which allowed designers to achieve crispness of lines and very vivid colours. Art Deco forms appeared in the clothing of Paul Poiret, Charles Worth and Jean Patou. After World War I, exports of clothing and fabrics became one of the most important currency earners of France.<ref name="Beltra, Rubio 2016">Beltra, Rubio, Exploring Art Deco in Textile and Fashion Design, 20 December 2016, Site of Metropolitan Museum</ref>
Late Art Deco wallpaper and textiles sometimes featured stylized industrial scenes, cityscapes, locomotives and other modern themes, as well as stylized female figures, metallic finishes and geometric designs.<ref name"Beltra, Rubio 2016"/>Fashion<gallery mode"packed" heights="200px">
File:Evening coat MET 85.151 bw.jpeg|Evening coat by Paul Poiret ({{circa|1912}}), silk and metal, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
File:Black satin evening gown trimmed with crystals (Robe du soir satin noir et tulle bordée de brillants) (CBL Wep 0837).jpg|Evening dress from the Journal des Dames et des Modes, illustrated by George Barbier (1913), Chester Beatty Library, Dublin
File:Paquin3.jpg|Illustration by Barbier of a gown by Paquin (1914). Stylised floral designs and bright colours were a feature of early Art Deco.
File:Cécile Sorel, in 1920, by Reutlinger.jpg|Cécile Sorel at the Comédie-Française (1920)
File:Robe du soir, 1968.40.57.jpg|Evening dress by the Maison Agnès (1920–1930), silk, pearls, strass, cabochon, and other materials, Musée Galliera, Paris
File:Fashion picture by Adolf de Meyer 4.jpg|Desiree Lubovska in a dress by Jean Patou ({{circa|1921}})
File:Fond de robe du soir, 1968.40.87(2).jpg|Skirt by the Maison Agnès (1925–1927), silk, Musée Galliera
File:Gabrielle Chanel en marinière.jpg|Coco Chanel in a sailor's blouse and trousers (1928)
File:Louise Brooks in Diary of a Lost Girl.jpg|Louise Brooks with an à la garçonne hairstyle, in a publicity photo for Diary of Lost Girl (1929)
File:Advertisement for pyjamas in Lisières Fleuries fabric, from Jardin des Modes, 1930.jpg|Advertisement for pyjamas in Lisières Fleuries fabric, from Le Jardin des Modes (1930)
</gallery>
Fashion changed dramatically during this period, thanks in particular to designers Paul Poiret and later Coco Chanel. Poiret introduced the concept of draping, a departure from the tailoring and patternmaking of the past.<ref namemet>{{cite web| url http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2007/poiret| title The Metropolitan Museum of Art – Special Exhibitions: Poiret: King of Fashion}}</ref> He designed clothing cut along straight lines and constructed of rectangular motifs.<ref namemet/> His styles offered structural simplicity<ref namemet/> The corseted look and formal styles of the previous period were abandoned, and fashion became more practical, and streamlined. With the use of new materials, brighter colours and printed designs.<ref namemet/> The designer Coco Chanel continued the transition, popularising the style of sporty, casual chic.<ref nameHorton-2007>{{cite book|first1Ros|last1Horton|first2 Sally|last2Simmons|titleWomen Who Changed the World| page103|year2007|isbn978-1847240262|publisherQuercus|access-date8 March 2011 | url https://books.google.com/books?id7LYLOj2APSsC&pgPA103}}</ref>
A particular typology of the era was the Flapper, a woman who cut her hair into a short bob, drank cocktails, smoked in public, and danced late into the night at fashionable clubs, cabarets or bohemian dives. Of course, most women didn't live like this, the Flapper being more a character present in popular imagination than a reality. Another female Art Deco style was the androgynous garçonne of the 1920s, with flattened bosom, dispelled waist and revealed legs, reducing the silhouette to a short tube, topped with a head-hugging cloche hat.<ref>{{cite book|last1Blackman|first1Cally|title100 Years of Fashion|date2012|publisherLaurence King|isbn978-1-78627-682-7|page12|url|languageen}}</ref>Jewelry<gallery mode"packed" heights="200px">
File:Cigarette Case MET DP291206.jpg|Cigarette case of leather and gold leaf by Pierre Legrain (1922), presenting a polychrome geometric decoration, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
File:Art Deco bracelet (1925) Museum of Decorative Arts.jpg|Bracelet of gold, coral and jade (1925), Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris
File:Art Deco buckle (1925).jpg|Gold buckle set with diamonds and carved onyx, lapis lazuli, jade, and coral, by Boucheron (1925)
File:Art Deco glass pendants Rene Lalique.jpg|Molded glass pendants on silk cords by René Lalique (1925–1930)
File:Cartier 3526707735 f4583fda9a.jpg|Mackay Emerald Necklace, emerald, diamond and platinum, by Cartier (1930), Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
</gallery>
In the 1920s and 1930s, designers including René Lalique and Cartier tried to reduce the traditional dominance of diamonds by introducing more colourful gemstones, such as small emeralds, rubies and sapphires. They also placed greater emphasis on very elaborate and elegant settings, featuring less-expensive materials such as enamel, glass, horn and ivory. Diamonds themselves were cut in less traditional forms; the 1925 Exposition saw many diamonds cut in the form of tiny rods or matchsticks. Other popular Art Deco cuts include:
* emerald cut, with long step-cut facets;
* asscher cut, more square-shaped than emerald with a high crown and the first diamond cut to ever be patented;
* marquise cut, to give the illusion of being bigger and bolder;
* baguette cut: small, rectangular step-cut shapes often used to outline bolder stones;<ref>{{Cite web |titleArt Deco-era rings: how to buy and what to look for |urlhttps://www.antiqueringboutique.com/pages/art-deco |access-date2023-08-22 |websiteAntique Ring Boutique |language=en}}</ref>
* old European cut, round in shape and cut by hand so sparks of color (called fire) flash from within the stone.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-04-15 |titleThe Journal of Antiques and Collectibles {{!}} The Social Platform for Antiquers, Collectors, and Enthusiasts |urlhttps://journalofantiques.com/features/rene-lalique-master-jeweler-turned-glassmaker/ |access-date2024-04-14 |language=en-US}}</ref>
The settings for diamonds also changed; More and more often jewellers used platinum instead of gold, since it was strong and flexible, and could set clusters of stones. Jewellers also began to use more dark materials, such as enamels and black onyx, which provided a higher contrast with diamonds.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages=121–123}}
Jewellery became much more colourful and varied in style. Cartier and the firm of Boucheron combined diamonds with colourful other gemstones cut into the form of leaves, fruit or flowers, to make brooches, rings, earrings, clips and pendants. Far Eastern themes also became popular; plaques of jade and coral were combined with platinum and diamonds, and vanity cases, cigarette cases and powder boxes were decorated with Japanese and Chinese landscapes made with mother of pearl, enamel and lacquer.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages=121–123}}
Rapidly changing fashions in clothing brought new styles of jewellery. Sleeveless dresses of the 1920s meant that arms needed decoration, and designers quickly created bracelets of gold, silver and platinum encrusted with lapis-lazuli, onyx, coral, and other colourful stones; Other bracelets were intended for the upper arms, and several bracelets were often worn at the same time. The short haircuts of women in the twenties called for elaborate deco earring designs. As women began to smoke in public, designers created very ornate cigarette cases and ivory cigarette holders. The invention of the wristwatch before World War I inspired jewelers to create extraordinary, decorated watches, encrusted with diamonds and plated with enamel, gold and silver. Pendant watches, hanging from a ribbon, also became fashionable.{{sfn|Arwas|1992|pages=125}}
The established jewellery houses of Paris in the period, Cartier, Chaumet, Georges Fouquet, Mauboussin, and Van Cleef & Arpels all created jewellery and objects in the new fashion. The firm of Chaumet made highly geometric cigarette boxes, cigarette lighters, pillboxes and notebooks, made of hard stones decorated with jade, lapis lazuli, diamonds and sapphires. They were joined by many young new designers, each with his own idea of deco. Raymond Templier designed pieces with highly intricate geometric patterns, including silver earrings that looked like skyscrapers. Gerard Sandoz was only 18 when he started to design jewelry in 1921; he designed many celebrated pieces based on the smooth and polished look of modern machinery. The glass designer René Lalique also entered the field, creating pendants of fruit, flowers, frogs, fairies or mermaids made of sculpted glass in bright colors, hanging on cords of silk with tassels.{{sfn|Arwas|1992|pages125}} The jeweller Paul Brandt contrasted rectangular and triangular patterns, and embedded pearls in lines on onyx plaques. Jean Despres made necklaces of contrasting colours by bringing together silver and black lacquer, or gold with lapis lazuli. Many of his designs looked like highly polished pieces of machines. Jean Dunand was also inspired by modern machinery, combined with bright reds and blacks contrasting with polished metal.{{sfn|Arwas|1992|pages125}} Suzanne Belperron contributed sculptural designs using materials like rock crystal and semi-precious stones, exploring the period's emphasis on non-traditional elements. Jean Fouquet, influenced by Cubism, worked with materials such as ebony and chrome-plated steel, bringing a distinctly modernist approach to Art Deco jewelry.<ref>{{Cite web |titleArt Deco Jewelry - Rediscovering The Joy Of Living After World War I |urlhttps://dsfantiquejewelry.com/blogs/journal/art-deco-jewelry-rediscovering-the-joy-of-living-after-world-war-i |access-date2024-10-27 |websiteDSF Antique Jewelry |languageen}}</ref> Other notable names in the Art Deco movement include Boucheron, Lacloche, and Danish silversmith Georg Jensen, known for his work with silver and less expensive gemstones. American jewelry houses such as Tiffany & Co., Black, Starr & Frost, and Marcus & Co. also made significant contributions, producing pieces that included clocks and objets d'art, as well as jewelry.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastEbert |firstJ. Mark |date1983-04-01 |titleArt Deco: The Period, the Jewelry |journalGems & Gemology |volume19 |issue1 |pages3–11 |doi10.5741/GEMS.19.1.3 |s2cid55653350 |issn0016-626X}}</ref>
Glass art
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px">
Gros. Falster a-s - no-nb digifoto 20160412 00011 NB NS NM 07745 A.jpg|Bottles, unknown designer or producer (1920s)
File:'Oiseau de Feu' made by René Lalique, Dayton Art Institute.JPG|The Firebird by René Lalique (1922), Dayton Art Institute, US
File:Vase (Perruches) by René Jules Lalique, 1922, blown four mold glass - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC04355.JPG|Parrot vase by Lalique (1922), Cincinnati Art Museum, US
File:Vitraux Louis Majorelle, Grands Bureaux des Aciéries de Longwy 03.jpg|Window for a steel mill office by Louis Majorelle (1928), Grands bureaux des Aciéries de Longwy, Longlaville, France
File:Arnaldo Dell'Ira (1903-1943), lampada a grattacielo, 1929.jpg|Skyscraper Lamp, designed by Arnaldo dell'Ira (1929), Arnaldo dell'Ira Collection
File:A light fixture in the Leeds Uni. library (353154643).jpg|Angular chandeliers by Lanchester & Lodge ({{circa|1929–1936}}), Brotherton Library, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK<ref>{{cite book|last1Hardwood|first1Elain|titleArt Deco Britain - Buildings of the Interwar Years|date2019|publisherBatsford|isbn9781849945271|page60|url|language=en}}</ref>
File:Vase des années 30 (musée des arts décoratifs) (4782889920).jpg|Vase by Daum ({{circa|1930–1935}}), Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris
File:Cathedral of Amiens glass window.jpg|Stained glass windows by Jean Gaudin (1932–1934), Amiens Cathedral, Amiens, France
</gallery>
Like the Art Nouveau period before it, Art Deco was an exceptional period for fine glass and other decorative objects designed to fit their architectural surroundings. The most famous producer of glass objects was René Lalique, whose works, from vases to hood ornaments for automobiles, became symbols of the period. He had experimented with glass before World War I, designing bottles for the perfumes of François Coty, but he did not begin serious production of art glass until after World War I. In 1918, at the age of 58, he bought a large glass works in Combs-la-Ville and began to manufacture both artistic and practical glass objects. He treated glass as a form of sculpture, creating statuettes, vases, bowls, lamps and ornaments. He used demi-crystal rather than lead crystal, which was softer and easier to form, though not as lustrous. He sometimes used coloured glass, but more often used opalescent glass, where part or the whole of the outer surface was stained with a wash. Lalique provided the decorative glass panels, lights and illuminated glass ceilings for the ocean liners {{SS|Île de France}} in 1927 and the SS Normandie in 1935, and for some of the first-class sleeping cars of the French railroads. At the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts, he had his own pavilion, designed a dining room with a table setting and matching glass ceiling for the Sèvres Pavilion, and designed a glass fountain for the courtyard of the Cours des Métiers, a slender glass column which spouted water from the sides and was illuminated at night.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages=245–250}}
Other notable Art Deco glass manufacturers included Marius-Ernest Sabino, who specialized in figurines, vases, bowls, and glass sculptures of fish, nudes, and animals. For these he often used an opalescent glass which could change from white to blue to amber, depending upon the light. His vases and bowls featured molded friezes of animals, nudes or busts of women with fruit or flowers. His work was less subtle but more colourful than that of Lalique.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages=245–250}}
Other notable Deco glass designers included Edmond Etling, who also used bright opalescent colours, often with geometric patterns and sculpted nudes; Albert Simonet, and Aristide Colotte and Maurice Marinot, who was known for his deeply etched sculptural bottles and vases. The firm of Daum from the city of Nancy, which had been famous for its Art Nouveau glass, produced a line of Deco vases and glass sculpture, solid, geometric and chunky in form. More delicate multi-coloured works were made by Gabriel Argy-Rousseau, who produced delicately shaded vases with sculpted butterflies and nymphs, and Francois Decorchemont, whose vases were streaked and marbled.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages=245–250}}
The Great Depression impacted on the decorative glass industry, which depended upon wealthy clients. Some artists turned to designing stained glass windows for churches. In 1937, the Steuben glass company began the practice of commissioning famous artists to produce glassware.{{Sfn|Arwas|1992|pages=245–250}} Louis Majorelle, famous for his Art Nouveau furniture, designed a remarkable Art Deco stained glass window portraying steel workers for the offices of the Aciéries de Longwy, a steel mill in Longwy, France.
Amiens Cathedral has a rare example of Art Deco stained glass windows in the Chapel of the Sacred Heart, made in 1932–34 by the Paris glass artist Jean Gaudin based on drawings by Jacques Le Breton.{{Sfn|Plagnieux|2003|p82}}Metal art<gallery mode"packed" heights="200">
File:Paul Kiss, kovácsoltvas ajtó alkotása, 1925.jpg|A grill with two wings called The Pheasants, made by Paul Kiss and displayed at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative and Industrial Arts
File:Art Deco screen "Oasis" 1925.jpg|Iron and copper grill called Oasis by Edgar Brandt, displayed at the 1925 Paris Exposition
File:Spiegel mit Frauenkopf von Franz Hagenauer, um 1930.tif|Table mirror by Franz Hagenauer of Werkstätte Hagenauer Wien ({{circa|1930}})
File:Norman Bel Geddes. Cocktail Set. 1937..jpg|Cocktail set of chrome-plated steel by Norman Bel Geddes (1937)
</gallery>
Art Deco artists produced a wide variety of practical objects in the Art Deco style, made of industrial materials from traditional wrought iron to chrome-plated steel. The American artist Norman Bel Geddes designed a cocktail set resembling a skyscraper made of chrome-plated steel. Raymond Subes designed an elegant metal grille for the entrance of the Palais de la Porte Dorée, the centre-piece of the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition. The French sculptor Jean Dunand produced magnificent doors on the theme "The Hunt", covered with gold leaf and paint on plaster (1935).{{Sfn|Duncan|1988|pages71–81}}Animation
(1943).]]
Art Deco visuals and imagery was used in multiple animated films including Batman, Night Hood, All's Fair at the Fair, Merry Mannequins, Page Miss Glory, Fantasia and Sleeping Beauty.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cartoonbrew.com/events/art-deco-in-animation-presentation-5173.html|titleArt Deco in Animation Presentation|websiteCartoon Brew|date4 March 2008 }}</ref> The architecture is featured in the fictitious underwater city of Rapture in the BioShock video game series.
Art Deco architecture around the world
Art Deco architecture began in Europe, but by 1939 there were examples in large cities on every continent and in almost every country. This is a selection of prominent buildings on each continent.
For a comprehensive list of existing buildings by country, see: List of Art Deco architecture.''
Africa
{{See also|List of Art Deco architecture in Africa}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"180px">
File:Le jardin des majorelle 16.JPG|Jardin Majorelle in Marrakesh, Morocco, by Paul Sinoir (1931)
File:Fiat tagliero, 08.JPG|Fiat Tagliero Building in Asmara, Eritrea, by Giuseppe Pettazzi (1938)<ref nameBradt112>{{cite book|titleBradt Travel Guide: Eritrea|lastDenison|firstEdward|year2007|publisherBradt|isbn978-1-84162-171-5|page112}}</ref>
File:La Cathédrale de Rabat.jpg|St. Peter's Cathedral in Rabat, Morocco (1938)
File:Estação Ressano Garcia.JPG|Railway Station in Ressano Garcia, Mozambique (1945)
</gallery>
Most Art Deco buildings in Africa were built during European colonial rule, and often designed by Italian, French and Portuguese architects.
Asia
{{See also|List of Art Deco architecture in Asia|Art Deco in Mumbai|Art Deco in Kolkata}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"180px">
File:Jaarbeurs.JPG|Kologdam Building in Bandung, Indonesia (1920)
File:Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum 02.jpg|Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum in Tokyo, Japan (1933)
File:NewIndiaAssuranceBdg.jpg|New India Assurance Building in Mumbai, India (1936)
File:Diet of Japan Kokkai 2009.jpg|National Diet Building in Tokyo, Japan (1936)
File:Ankara asv2021-10 img19 Railway station.jpg|Ankara railway station in Ankara, Turkey (1937)
File:Cebu Capitol Compund.jpg|Cebu Provincial Capitol in Cebu City, Philippines (1938)
File:EID Parry headquarters.jpg|Dare House in Chennai, India (1940)
File:Bangkok General Post Office 07.23.jpg|General Post Office in Bangkok, Thailand (1940)
</gallery>
Many Art Deco buildings in Asia were designed by European architects. But in the Philippines, local architects such as Juan Nakpil, Juan Arellano, Pablo Antonio and others were preeminent. Many Art Deco landmarks in Asia were demolished during the great economic expansion of Asia the late 20th century, but some notable enclaves of the architecture still remain, particularly in Shanghai and Mumbai.
The Indian Institute of Architects, founded in Mumbai in 1929, played a prominent role in propagating the Art Deco movement. In November 1937, this institute organised the 'Ideal Home Exhibition' held in the Town Hall in Mumbai which spanned over 12 days and attracted about one hundred thousand visitors. As a result, it was declared a success by the 'Journal of the Indian Institute of Architects'. The exhibits displayed the 'ideal', or better described as the most 'modern' arrangements for various parts of the house, paying close detail to avoid architectural blunders and present the most efficient and well-thought-out models. The exhibition focused on various elements of a home ranging from furniture, elements of interior decoration as well as radios and refrigerators using new and scientifically relevant materials and methods.<ref name":0">{{Cite book|titleMumbai Fables|lastPrakash|firstGyan|publisherPrinceton University Press|year2010|isbn9780691142845|page99}}</ref>
Guided by their desire to emulate the west, the Indian architects were fascinated by the industrial modernity that Art Deco offered.<ref name":0" /> The western elites were the first to experiment with the technologically advanced facets of Art Deco, and architects began the process of transformation by the early 1930s.<ref name":0" />
Mumbai's expanding port commerce in the 1930s resulted in the growth of educated middle class population. It also saw an increase of people migrating to Mumbai in search of job opportunities. This led to the pressing need for new developments through Land Reclamation Schemes and construction of new public and residential buildings.<ref>{{Cite book|titleBombay : the cities within|lastSharada.|firstDwivedi|date1995|publisherIndia Book House|othersMehrotra, Rahul., Mulla-Feroze, Umaima.|isbn818502880X|locationMumbai|oclc33153751}}</ref> Parallelly, the changing political climate in the country and the aspirational quality of the Art Deco aesthetics led to a whole-hearted acceptance of the building style in the city's development. Most of the buildings from this period can be seen spread throughout the city neighbourhoods in areas such as Churchgate, Colaba, Fort, Mohammed Ali Road, Cumbala Hill, Dadar, Matunga, Bandra and Chembur.<ref>{{Cite book|titleBombay Deco|lastSharada.|firstDwivedi|date2008|publisherEminence Designs|othersMehrotra, Rahul., Gobhai, Noshir.|isbn978-8190382151|locationMumbai|oclc300923025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.artdecomumbai.com/inventory/|titleInventory {{!}} Art Deco|websitewww.artdecomumbai.com|date10 March 2017 |languageen-US|access-date10 January 2018}}</ref>
Australia and New Zealand
{{See also|List of Art Deco buildings in Sydney|List of Art Deco buildings in Melbourne|List of Art Deco buildings in Tasmania|List of Art Deco buildings in Perth|List of Art Deco architecture in Oceania}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px">
File:The Grace Building, Sydney, 1930 - Max Dupain (4226030071).jpg|Grace Building in Sydney, Australia (1930–31)
File:Sound Shell and Skating Rink 01.jpg|Sound Shell in Napier, New Zealand (1931)
File:Castlemaine Art Museum.jpg|Façade of the Castlemaine Art Museum, Australia (1931), architect Percy Meldrum, frieze by Orlando Dutton
File:GoulburnElmsleaChambers 001.jpg|Elmslea Chambers in Goulburn, Australia (1933)
File:Anzac Memorial Hyde Park 001.jpg|Anzac Memorial in Sydney, Australia (1934)
File:Holyman House, Launceston.JPG|Holyman House in Launceston, Tasmania, Australia (1936)
File:MelbourneCenturyBdg.jpg|Century Building in Melbourne, Australia (1939)
</gallery>
Melbourne and Sydney, Australia, have several notable Art Deco buildings, including the Manchester Unity Building and the former Russell Street Police Headquarters in Melbourne, the Castlemaine Art Museum in Castlemaine, central Victoria and the Grace Building, AWA Tower and Anzac Memorial in Sydney.
Several towns in New Zealand, including Napier and Hastings were rebuilt in Art Deco style after the 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake, and many of the buildings have been protected and restored. Napier has been nominated for UNESCO World Heritage Site status, the first cultural site in New Zealand to be nominated.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.artdeconapier.com/Earthquake_8.aspx |titleNapier Earthquake |publisherArtdeconapier.com |date3 February 1931 |access-date8 July 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100706013856/http://www.artdeconapier.com/Earthquake_8.aspx |archive-date6 July 2010 |url-status dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.artdeconapier.com/ |titleHome – Art Deco Trust |publisherArtdeconapier.com |access-date8 July 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100630211317/http://www.artdeconapier.com/ |archive-date30 June 2010 |url-status live }}</ref> Wellington has retained a sizeable number of Art Deco buildings.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://wellington.govt.nz/recreation/enjoy-the-outdoors/walks-and-walkways/across-the-city/art-deco-heritage-trail |titleArt Deco heritage trail |publisherwellington.gov.nz |formatPDF |access-date22 February 2016}}</ref>
North America
{{See also|List of Art Deco architecture in the Americas|List of Art Deco architecture in the United States|Art Deco in the United States}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Barclay-Vesey Building 140 West Street.jpg|Verizon Building in New York City, US (1923–1927)
File:SouthBeachMiamiBeach.jpg|Miami Art Deco District in South Beach, Florida, US (1925–1940s)
File:KiMo Albuquerque.jpg|KiMo Theater's Pueblo Deco architecture in Albuquerque, New Mexico, US (1927)
File:Bullocks Wilshire.jpg|Bullocks Wilshire in Los Angeles, California, US (1929)
File:Edifice Price.jpg|The Price Building in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada (1930)
File:Louisiana State Capitol Building.jpg|Louisiana State Capitol in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, US (1930–1932)
File:View of Buffalo City Hall (cropped).jpg|Buffalo City Hall in Buffalo, N.Y., US (1931)
File:Jefferson County Courthouse, Texas.jpg|Jefferson County Courthouse in Beaumont, Texas, US (1931)
File:Niagara Mohawk Bldg (Syracuse, NY)a.jpg|Niagara Mohawk Building in Syracuse, N.Y., US (1932)
File:CMC-Union Terminal.jpg|Cincinnati Union Terminal in Cincinnati, Ohio, US (1933)
File:InteriorHoyBADF.JPG|Interior of the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts) in Mexico City, Mexico (1934)
File:Vancouver City Hall.jpg|Vancouver City Hall in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (1935)
File:Edificio_El_Moro_2010.JPG|Edificio El Moro in Mexico City, Mexico (1936)
File:Monumento a la Revolución Mexico.jpg|Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City, Mexico (1938)
</gallery>
In Canada, surviving Art Deco structures are mainly in the major cities; Montreal, Toronto, Hamilton, Ontario, and Vancouver. They range from public buildings like Vancouver City Hall to commercial buildings (College Park) to public works (R. C. Harris Water Treatment Plant).
In Mexico, the most imposing Art Deco example is interior of the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts), finished in 1934 with its elaborate décor and murals. Examples of Art Deco residential architecture can be found in the Condesa district, many designed by Francisco J. Serrano.
In the United States, Art Deco buildings are found from coast to coast, in all the major cities. It was most widely used for office buildings, train stations, airport terminals, and cinemas; residential buildings are rare. During the 1920s and 1930s architects in the Southwestern United States, particularly in the US state of New Mexico, combined Pueblo Revival with Territorial Style and Art Deco to create Pueblo Deco, as seen in the KiMo Theater in Albuquerque. In the 1930s, the more austere streamline style became popular. Many buildings were demolished between 1945 and the late 1960s, but then efforts began to protect the best examples. The City of Miami Beach established the Miami Beach Architectural District to preserve the fine collection of Art Deco buildings found there.
Central America and the Caribbean
{{See also|List of Art Deco architecture in the Americas}}
Art Deco buildings can be found throughout Central America, including in Cuba.
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Havana Art Deco (8955334332).jpg|Bacardi Building in Havana, Cuba (1930)
File:Hotel Nacional de Cuba - panoramio.jpg|Hotel Nacional de Cuba in Havana, Cuba (1930)
File:Edifício Lopez Serrano (35464009654) cropped2.jpg|Lopez Serrano Building in Havana, Cuba (1932)
File:Havana Art Deco (8703599920).jpg|A rundown Art Deco building in Havana, Cuba
File:IMG 2684 - Plaza del Mercado Isabel II in Ponce, PR.jpg|Plaza del Mercado de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico, US (1941)
File:San Juan, PR 05.jpg|Normandie Hotel in San Juan, Puerto Rico
File:Miami Building Facade.JPG|The Miami Building in San Juan, Puerto Rico
File:CasaPresidencialGuatemala2016.jpeg|Casa Presidencial in Guatemala City
</gallery>
{{clear}}
Europe
{{See also|Art Deco in Paris|Art Deco in Brussels|List of Art Deco architecture in Europe}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Theatre-des-champs-elysees-.jpg|Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris, France (1910–1913)
File:Estación central de FF.CC. de Helsinki, Finlandia, 2012-08-14, DD 05.JPG|Helsinki Central Station in Helsinki, Finland (1919)
File:Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Brussels (1).jpg|National Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg (Brussels), Belgium (1919–1969)
File:Berlin, Mitte, Schuetzenstrasse, Mosse-Zentrum 05.jpg|Mossehaus with Art Deco elements by Erich Mendelsohn in Berlin, Germany (1921–1923)
File:Radio Kootwijk (aangezicht).jpg|Radio Kootwijk in Kootwijk, Netherlands (1927)
File:Madrid - Edificio Carrión (36011869036).jpg|Capitol Building in Madrid's Gran Vía, Spain (1931)
File:Milan CentralStation 016 4294.jpg|Milano Centrale railway station in Milan, Italy (1931)
File:Galleria Vittorio Emanuele III (Messina) 07.JPG|Galleria Vittorio Emanuele III in Messina, (1929)
File:Hotel_(34595862000).jpg|Éden Theatre in Lisbon, Portugal (1931)
File:Embassy of France, Belgrade, Serbia.jpg|Embassy of France in Belgrade, Serbia (1933)
File:Express Building Manchester.jpg|Daily Express Building in Manchester, UK (1936–1939)
File:Palais de Tokyo, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris.jpg|Palais de Tokyo, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, France (1937)
File:1604 Maastunnel - entrance building of pedestrian and cyclists' tunnel at Parkkade, Rotterdam 114.jpg|Ventilation tower of the Maastunnel in Rotterdam, Netherlands (1937)<ref>{{cite web | titleVentilatiegebouwen Maastunnel, Rotterdam | websiteAmsterdamse School Platform | date24 November 2017 | urlhttps://items.amsterdamse-school.nl/details/objects/1045 | languagenl | access-date4 April 2023}}</ref>
File:Porto Teatro Rivoli 4.JPG|Rivoli Theater in Porto, Portugal (1937)
File:Moscow MayakovskayaMetroStation 0943.jpg|Mayakovskaya Station in Moscow, Russia (1938)
</gallery>
The architectural style first appeared in Paris with the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1910–13) by Auguste Perret but then spread rapidly around Europe, until examples could be found in nearly every large city, from London to Moscow. In Germany two variations of Art Deco flourished in the 1920s and 30s: The Neue Sachlichkeit style and Expressionist architecture. Notable examples include Erich Mendelsohn's Mossehaus and Schaubühne in Berlin, Fritz Höger's Chilehaus in Hamburg and his Kirche am Hohenzollernplatz in Berlin, the {{ill|Anzeiger Tower|de|Anzeiger-Hochhaus}} in Hanover and the {{ill|Borsig Tower|af|Borsig-toring}} in Berlin.<ref>{{cite book|lastJames|firstKathleen|titleErich Mendelsohn and the Architecture of German Modernism|date1997|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn9780521571685}}</ref>
One of the largest Art Deco buildings in Western Europe is the National Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg, Brussels. In 1925, architect Albert van Huffel won the Grand Prize for Architecture with his scale model of the basilica at the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes in Paris.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.basilicakoekelberg.be/documents/home.xml?langen |titleBasilica of the Sacred Heart, Koekelberg |publisherBasilicakoekelberg.be |date8 March 2011 |access-date7 December 2012}}</ref>
Spain and Portugal have some striking examples of Art Deco buildings, particularly movie theaters. Examples in Portugal are the Capitólio Theater (1931) and the Éden Cine-Theatre (1937) in Lisbon, the Rivoli Theater (1937) and the Coliseu (1941) in Porto and the Rosa Damasceno Theater (1937) in Santarém. An example in Spain is the Cine Rialto in Valencia (1939).
During the 1930s, Art Deco had a noticeable effect on house design in the United Kingdom,<ref name"Art Deco Style" /> as well as the design of various public buildings.<ref name"Design Handbook" /> Straight, white-rendered house frontages rising to flat roofs, sharply geometric door surrounds and tall windows, as well as convex-curved metal corner windows, were all characteristic of that period.<ref name"Art Deco (1920s to 1930s)" /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.london-footprints.co.uk/artdecobldgs.htm |titleArt Deco Buildings |year2007 |publisherlondon-footprints.co.uk |access-date6 November 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081211074839/http://www.london-footprints.co.uk/artdecobldgs.htm |archive-date11 December 2008 |url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.art-deco-classics.co.uk/frinton_artdeco.php |titleArt Deco in Frinton on sea |year2006 |publisherArt Deco Classics |access-date6 November 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081201132519/http://www.art-deco-classics.co.uk/frinton_artdeco.php |archive-date1 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The London Underground is famous for many examples of Art Deco architecture,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00npm4g/Art_Deco_Icons_London_Transport |titleFour Programmes – Art Deco Icons |publisherBBC |date14 November 2009 |access-date=8 July 2010}}</ref> and there are a number of buildings in the style situated along the Golden Mile in Brentford. Also in West London is the Hoover Building, which was originally built for The Hoover Company and was converted into a superstore in the early 1990s.
Bucharest, once known as the "Little Paris" of the 19th century, engaged in a new design after World War I, redirected its inspiration towards New York City. The 1930s brought a new fashion which echoed in the cinema, theatre, dancing styles, art and architecture. Bucharest during the 1930s was marked by more and more Art Deco architecture from the bigger boulevards like Bulevardul Magheru to the private houses and smaller districts. The Telephone Palace, an early landmark of modern Bucharest, was the first skyscraper of the city. It was the tallest building between 1933 and the 1950s, with a height of {{convert|52.5|m}}. The architects were Louis Weeks and Edmond van Saanen Algi and engineer Walter Troy. The Art Deco monuments are a crucial part of the character of Bucharest since they describe and mark an important period from its history, the interbellic life (World War I–World War II). Most of the buildings from those years are prone to catastrophe, as Bucharest is located in an earthquake zone.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://artdecobucharest.ro/ |titleBucharest: Modernism Art Deco |websiteartdecobucharest.ro |access-date26 July 2021 |url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191022215659/https://artdecobucharest.ro/ |archive-date22 October 2019 }}</ref>South America
{{See also|List of Art Deco architecture in the Americas}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:2016 vista del Palacio Díaz Av. 18 de Julio 1333, entre Yaguarón y Ejido de Montevideo.jpg|Palacio Díaz in Montevideo, Uruguay (1929)
File:Elevador Lacerda dia.jpg|Lacerda Elevator in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil (1930)
File:Kavanagh building.jpg|Kavanagh Building in Buenos Aires, Argentina (1934–1936)
File:Viaduto do Chá - "Viaduto do Chá" viaduct (9630396439).jpg|Viaduto do Chá in São Paulo, Brazil (1938)
File:Estádio do Pacaembu, Sao Paulo 2017 002.jpg|Pacaembu Stadium in São Paulo, Brazil (1940)
File:Palácio Duque de Caxias - Rio de Janeiro - 20220930133747.jpg|Palácio Duque de Caxias in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1941)
File:Estação Central do Brasil.jpg|Central do Brasil Station in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1943)
File:Mercado de Abasto de Buenos Aires, ca 1945 (AGNA).jpg|Abasto Market in Buenos Aires, Argentina ({{circa|1945}})
File:Fachada Universidad Mayor de San Andres.jpg|Entrance of the Higher University of San Andrés in La Paz, Bolivia (1946)
File:Altino Arantes Building.jpg|Altino Arantes Building in São Paulo, Brazil (1947)
File:Palacio Municipal de Laprida, vista desde la plaza.JPG|Palacio Municipal and fountain in Laprida (Buenos Aires), Argentina
</gallery>
Art Deco in South America is especially present in countries that received a great wave of immigration in the first half of the 20th century, with notable works in their richest cities, like São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, Buenos Aires in Argentina and Montevideo in Uruguay.<ref>{{Cite web |date2020-08-27 |titleEl art déco y Uruguay, un recorrido de casi un siglo |urlhttps://www.lavanguardia.com/ocio/viajes/20200820/482915051633/uruguay-art-deco-recorrido-edificios-montevideo.html |access-date2025-03-23 |websiteLa Vanguardia |languagees}}</ref> The Kavanagh Building in Buenos Aires (1934), by Sánchez, Lagos and de la Torre, was the tallest reinforced-concrete structure when it was completed and is a notable example of late Art Deco style.
Preservation and neo-Art Deco
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Delano National MiamiBeach.JPG|The Miami Beach Architectural District in Miami, Florida, protects historical Art Deco buildings.
File:37 Calea Victoriei, Bucharest (01).jpg|Telephone Company Building on Calea Victoriei in Bucharest (1929–1934) by Walter Froy, Louis S. Weeks and Edmond van Saanen Algi, qualified as a monument istoric (Romanian for historic monument)
File:75 Strada Romulus, Bucharest (01).jpg|Strada Romulus no. 75 in Bucharest (1930s) by unknown architect, in a state of decay
File:U-Drop Inn.jpg|U-Drop Inn, a roadside gas station and diner on U.S. Highway 66 in Shamrock, Texas (1936), now a historical monument
File:Messeturm, Frankfurt, Southwest detail view 20170325 1.jpg|Messeturm in Frankfurt, Germany, by Helmut Jahn (1990), a Postmodern building that is reminiscent of Art Deco architecture<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page255|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Rue Henri Heine 3.jpg|Rue Henri Heine no. 3–5 in Paris by J.J. Ory (2001), a neo-Art Deco building<ref>{{cite book|last1Criticos|first1Mihaela|titleArt Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date2009|publisherSIMETRIA|isbn978-973-1872-03-2|page257|url|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>
File:Smithcenterlv.jpg|Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada, by David M. Schwarz (2012), a neo-Art Deco building
File:The Brooklyn Tower 010.jpg|The Brooklyn Tower, in New York City (2021), a major neo-Art Deco skyscraper
File:Capella Hanoi - 2022-09-02 02.jpg|Capella Hanoi in Vietnam (2021), a neo-Art Deco building
</gallery>
In many cities, efforts have been made to protect the remaining Art Deco buildings. In many U.S. cities, historic Art Deco cinemas have been preserved and turned into cultural centres. Even more modest Art Deco buildings have been preserved as part of America's architectural heritage; an Art Deco café and gas station along Route 66 in Shamrock, Texas is an historic monument. The Miami Beach Architectural District protects several hundred old buildings, and requires that new buildings comply with the style. In Havana, Cuba, many Art Deco buildings have badly deteriorated. Efforts are underway to bring the buildings back to their original appearance.
In the 21st century, modern variants of Art Deco, called Neo Art Deco (or neo-Art Deco), have appeared in some American cities, inspired by the classic Art Deco buildings of the 1920s and 1930s.<ref name"Capitman">{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?isbn0525934421 |authorBarbara B. Capitman |titleRediscovering Art Deco U.S.A. |publisherViking Studio Books |year1994 |page52 |isbn0525934421}}</ref> Examples include the NBC Tower in Chicago, inspired by 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City; the Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada, which includes Art Deco call backs to the Hoover Dam; 99 Hudson in Jersey City, New Jersey, the state's tallest building and the 46th tallest in the United States, which features Art Deco-inspired limestone and glass lineation; and the Brooklyn Tower in Brooklyn, New York, the borough's tallest building and the 19th tallest in the country, with its black glass and bronze piping.<ref name"Capitman" /><ref>{{cite web |titleThe Smith Center for the Performing Arts |urlhttps://www.dmsas.com/project/smith-center-performing-arts/ |publisherDavid M. Schwarz Architects, Inc. |access-date24 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleOverview |publisherThe Smith Center for the Performing Arts |urlhttp://www.thesmithcenter.com/building/overview |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100324123612/http://www.thesmithcenter.com/building/overview |archive-date24 March 2010 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thesmithcenter.com/explore/faq/ |titleFrequenty Asked Questions (FAQ) |publisherThe Smith Center for the Performing Arts |access-date23 March 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-date2 May 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150502121133/http://www.thesmithcenter.com/explore/faq/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Flamer |first1Keith |titleLifestyle Jersey City's 99 Hudson Soars As America's Third-Tallest Condominium |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/keithflamer/2019/03/31/jersey-citys-99-hudson-soars-as-usas-third-tallest-condominium/ |websiteforbes.com |publisherForbes |access-date3 February 2025 |dateApril 11, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Lange |first1Alexandra |titleDowntown Brooklyn Gets the Gotham City Treatment |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2023-09-25/brooklyn-tower-and-100-flatbush-lead-brooklyn-s-art-deco-revival |websitebloomberg.com |publisherBloomberg |access-date3 February 2025 |dateSeptember 25, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Davies |first1Rachel |titleExclusive Look Inside Brooklyn's Tallest Skyscraper |urlhttps://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/exclusive-look-inside-brooklyns-tallest-skyscraper |websitearchitecturaldigest.com |publisherArchitectural Digest |access-date3 February 2025 |dateMay 17, 2022}}</ref>Gallery
<!--Please DO not ADD images directly to this Gallery. By consensus, editors of the article have limited the Gallery to 24 images. Please POST YOUR PROPOSED IMAGE TO THE TALK PAGE FIRST, and specify which of the current images you propose to replace with the new one. Please do not post NON-FREE USE images to the Gallery, nor images that appear in other articles. Thanks! -->
<gallery widths"180" heights"180">
File:Municipal Auditorium art deco chandelier.jpg|Municipal Auditorium of Kansas City, Missouri: Hoit Price & Barnes, and Gentry, Voskamp & Neville (1935)
File:Niagara Mohawk Bldg (Syracuse, NY).jpg|Niagara Mohawk Building, Syracuse, N.Y.. Melvin L. King and Bley & Lyman, architects, completed in 1932
File:Mexican art deco.jpg|Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City, Federico Mariscal, completed in 1934
File:Paramount Ladies Lounge.jpg|Women's Smoking Room at the Paramount Theatre, Oakland. Timothy L. Pflueger, architect (1931)
File:Rytm2.jpg|Henryk Kuna, Rytm ("Rhythm"), in Skaryszewski Park, Warsaw, Poland (1925)
File:Snowdon Theatre (Montreal).jpg|Snowdon Theatre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Daniel J. Crighton, architect. Opened 1937, closed in 1984
File:WPAMilkPoster1940.jpg|Federal Art Project poster promoting milk drinking in Cleveland (1940)
File:Empire State Lobby-27527.jpg|Lobby, Empire State Building, New York City. William F. Lamb, opened in 1931
File:DontKillWildlifeWPA1940.jpg|U.S. Works Progress Administration poster, John Wagner, artist, ca. 1940
File:Cincinnati Union Terminal 29.jpg|Rotunda ceiling of Union Terminal in Cincinnati, Ohio; Paul Philippe Cret, Alfred T. Fellheimer, Steward Wagner, Roland Wank(1933)
File:US 853.jpg|U.S. postage stamp commemorating the 1939 New York World's Fair (1939)
File:BudynekFeniksa-RzeźbaNarożna-RynekGłówny-POL, Kraków.jpg|The Statue of Hygieia in Art Deco style in Kraków, Poland (1932)
</gallery>
See also
{{Category see also |Art Deco architecture |Art Deco ships |Art Deco sculptures and memorials |Art Deco architects |Art Deco artists |Art Deco designers |Art Deco sculptors}}
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Roaring Twenties
* 1920s in Western fashion
* Années folles
* 1933 Chicago World's Fair Century of Progress
* 1936 Fair Park built for Texas Centennial Exposition
* Art Deco stamps
{{div col end}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
Bibliography
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |lastArdman |firstHarvey |year1985 |titleNormandie, Her Life and Times |locationNew York |publisherFranklin Watts |isbn=0531097846}}
* {{cite book|lastArwas| firstVictor|titleArt Deco|publisherHarry N. Abrams Inc.|year1992|isbn0-8109-1926-5}}
* {{cite book|lastBayer |firstPatricia |titleArt Deco Architecture: Design, Decoration and Detail from the Twenties and Thirties |publisherThames & Hudson | year1999 |isbn 978-0-500-28149-9|title-link=Art Deco Architecture: Design, Decoration and Detail from the Twenties and Thirties }}
* {{cite book |last1Benton |first1Charlotte |first2Tim |last2Benton |first3Ghislaine |last3Wood |titleArt Deco: 1910–1939 |publisherBulfinch |year2003 |isbn978-0-8212-2834-0 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/artdeco191019390000unse }}
* {{Cite book| first Alain | last Blondel | title Tamara de Lempicka: a Catalogue Raisonné 1921–1980 | place Lausanne | publisher Editions Acatos | year 1999}}
* {{cite book|lastBreeze |firstCarla |titleAmerican Art Deco: Modernistic Architecture and Regionalism |publisherW. W. Norton |year2003 | isbn978-0-393-01970-4 }}
* {{cite book|lastCabanne|firstPierre|titleEncyclopédie Art Deco|year1986|publisherSomogy|languagefr |isbn=2-85056-178-9}}
* {{cite book|lastCharles|firstVictoria|titleArt Déco|publisherParkstone International|year2013 |isbn978-1-84484-864-5}}
* {{cite book|lastDe Morant|firstHenry|titleHistoire des arts décoratifs|languagefr|publisherHachette |year1970}}
* {{cite book|lastDucher|firstRpbert|titleLa charactéristique des styles|publisherFlammarion|year2014 |languagefr|isbn=978-2-0813-4383-2}}
* {{cite book|lastDuncan|firstAlastair|titleArt déco|urlhttps://archive.org/details/artdeco00dunc|url-accessregistration|publisherThames & Hudson|year1988|isbn2-87811-003-X}}
* {{cite book|lastDuncan |firstAlastair |titleArt Deco Complete: The Definitive Guide to the Decorative Arts of the 1920s and 1930s |publisherAbrams |year2009 |isbn978-0-8109-8046-4 }}
* {{cite book|lastGallagher |firstFiona |titleChristie's Art Deco |publisherPavilion Books |year2002 |isbn978-1-86205-509-4 }}
* {{Cite book |lastHillier |firstBevis |author-linkBevis Hillier |titleArt Deco of the 20s and 30s |publisherStudio Vista |year1968 |isbn978-0-289-27788-1| title-linkArt Deco of the 20s and 30s}}
* {{Cite book | lastLe Corbusier|titleL'Art Decoratif Aujourd'hui|publisherFlammarion|languagefr |year1996|isbn978-2-0812-2062-1}}
* {{cite book |lastLong |firstChristopher |titlePaul T. Frankl and Modern American Design |publisherYale University Press |year2007 |isbn978-0-300-12102-5 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/paultfranklmoder0000long }}
* {{cite book|lastLucie-Smith |firstEdward |titleArt Deco Painting |publisherPhaidon Press |year1996 |isbn 978-0-7148-3576-1 }}
* {{cite book|lastRay |firstGordon N. |editor-lastTansell |editor-firstG. Thomas |titleThe Art Deco Book in France |publisherBibliographical Society of The University of Virginia |year2005 |isbn978-1-883631-12-3 }}
* {{cite book|lastLehmann |firstNiels |editor-lastRauhut |editor-firstChristoph |titleModernism London Style |publisherHirmer |year2012 |isbn978-3-7774-8031-2 }}
* {{cite book|lastMorel|firstGuillaume|titleArt Déco|publisherÉditions Place des Victoires|year2012|isbn978-2-8099-0701-8|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|lastOkroyan |firstMkrtich |titleArt Deco Sculpture: From Root to Flourishing (vol.1,2)|languageru |publisherRussian Art Institute|year2008–2011 |isbn= 978-5-905495-02-1 }}
* {{cite book|lastPlagnieux|firstPhilippe|titleCathérale Notre Dame d'Amiens|publisherÉditions du Patrimoine, Centre des Monuments Nationaux|languagefr|year2003|isbn=978-27577-0404-2}}
* {{Cite book|lastPlum|firstGiles|titleParis architectures de la Belle Epoque|year2014|publisherParigramme|isbn978-2-84096-800-9|language=fr}}
* {{Cite book|lastPoisson|firstMichel|title1000 Immeubles et monuments de Paris|year2009|publisherParigramme|isbn978-2-84096-539-8|language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last1Savage |first1Rebecca Binno |first2Greg |last2Kowalski |titleArt Deco in Detroit (Images of America) |publisherArcadia |year2004 | isbn978-0-7385-3228-8 }}
* {{Cite book|lastTexier|firstSimon|titleParis: Panorama de l'architecture|year2012|publisherParigramme|isbn978-2-84096-667-8|language=fr}}
* {{Cite book|lastTexier|firstSimon|titleArt Déco|year2019|publisherEditions Ouest-France|isbn978-27373-8172-0}}
* {{cite book|lastUnes |firstWolney |titleIdentidade Art Déco de Goiânia |publisherAteliê |year2003 |isbn85-7480-090-2 |language=pt }}
* {{cite book|lastVincent |firstG.K. |titleA History of Du Cane Court: Land, Architecture, People and Politics |publisherWoodbine Press |year2008 | isbn978-0-9541675-1-6 }}
* {{cite book|last1Ward |first1Mary |last2Ward |first2Neville |year1978 |titleHome in the Twenties and Thirties |publisherIan Allan |isbn0-7110-0785-3}}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
*{{cite book|titleDesign of the 20th Century|first1Charlotte|last1Fiell|first2Peter|last2Fiell|publisherTaschen|locationKöln|edition25th anniversary|year2005|pages48–53|isbn9783822840788|oclc809539744}}
External links
{{Commons category|Art Deco}}
{{Wikivoyage|Art Deco architecture}}
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.miamibeach-usa.com/miami-beach-art-deco/ Art Deco Miami Beach]
*[http://www.artdecomumbai.com/ Art Deco Mumbai]
*[http://www.artdecomontreal.com Art Deco Montreal]
*[http://www.adsw.org/ Art Deco Society of Washington]
*[https://theproductsflash.co.in/living-room-interior-design/ living room interior design]
*[http://www.artdecoriodejaneiro.com/ Art Deco Rio de Janeiro]
*[http://www.shanghaiartdeco.net Art Deco Shanghai]
*[http://en.artdecomuseum.ru/ Art Deco Museum in Moscow]
*[http://artdeco.org/ Art Deco Society New York]
*[http://adsla.org/info/ Art Deco Society of Los Angeles] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150517020223/http://adsla.org/info/ |date17 May 2015 }}
*[https://walkmontreal.com/walks/art-deco/ Art Deco Walk in Montreal]
{{Westernart}}
{{History of architecture}}
{{Modern architecture}}
{{Architecture in the United States}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:20th century in the arts
Category:20th-century architectural styles
Category:Art movements
Category:Decorative arts
Category:Modern art
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.379332
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1884
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ASCII art
|
{{short description|Computer art form using text characters}}
{{redirect|Text Art|the art form also known as "text art"|Word art}}
{{Use dmy dates|dateOctober 2021|cs1-datesy}}
ASCII art is a graphic design technique that uses computers for presentation and consists of pictures pieced together from the 95 printable (from a total of 128) characters defined by the ASCII Standard from 1963 and ASCII compliant character sets with proprietary extended characters (beyond the 128 characters of standard 7-bit ASCII<!-- leave it as 7-bit for accuracy -->). The term is also loosely used to refer to text-based visual art in general. ASCII art can be created with any text editor, and is often used with free-form languages. Most examples of ASCII art require a fixed-width font (non-proportional fonts, as on a traditional typewriter) such as Courier or Consolas for presentation.
Among the oldest known examples of ASCII art are the
creations by computer-art pioneer Kenneth Knowlton from around 1966, who was working for Bell Labs at the time.<ref name="cgihist">
{{cite web |lastCarlson |firstWayne E. |date2003 |titleAn Historical Timeline of Computer Graphics and Animation|urlhttp://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/timeline.html#1960 |url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080310082944/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/timeline.html#1960|archive-date10 March 2008 |access-date5 March 2008 |websiteDepartment of Design - The Ohio State University}}
</ref> "Studies in Perception I" by Knowlton and Leon Harmon from 1966 shows some examples of their early ASCII art.<ref name"sip1">{{Harvnb|Carlson|2003}} "1966 Studies in Perception I by Ken Knowlton and Leon Harmon (Bell Labs)", [http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/tree/images/bell.jpg Image of Studies in Perception I]{{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304134227/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/tree/images/bell.jpg |date=4 March 2016}}</ref>
ASCII art was invented, in large part, because early printers often lacked graphics ability and thus, characters were used in place of graphic marks. Also, to mark divisions between different print jobs from different users, bulk printers often used ASCII art to print large banner pages, making the division easier to spot so that the results could be more easily separated by a computer operator or clerk.<ref name"Moritsugu2000">{{cite book |last1Moritsugu |first1Steve |titlePractical UNIX |date2000 |publisherQue Publishing |isbn9780789722508 |pages[https://archive.org/details/practicalunix00mori_1/page/220 220]–221 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/practicalunix00mori_1 |url-accessregistration |quotebanner. |languageen}}</ref> ASCII art was also used in early e-mail when images could not be embedded.
History
Typewriter art
, 6 January 1875, showing an advertisement made from typewriter art.|"Typewriter art" advertisement in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 6 January 1875]]
Since 1867, typewriters have been used for creating visual art.{{better source needed|dateAugust 2013}}<ref name"joanstark">{{cite web |lastStark|first Joan G.| author-linkJoan Stark|title The History of ASCII (Text) Art| date2001| access-date 5 March 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20091026141759/http://geocities.com/SoHo/7373/history.htm| archive-date 26 October 2009 |url-statusdead|url http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/7373/history.htm}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web| urlhttp://www.typewritermuseum.org/lib/library_art2.html| title Typewriter Art| last Robert| first Paul| date 11 May 2005| publisher The Virtual Typewriter Museum| access-date = 5 March 2008}}
</ref> Typists could find guides in books or magazines with instructions on how to type portraits or other depictions.<ref>{{Cite web |date2013-01-18 |titleD.I.Y. Typewriter Art |urlhttps://loriemerson.net/2013/01/18/d-i-y-typewriter-art/ |access-date2024-09-16 |websiteloriemerson |languageen}}</ref>
TTY and RTTY
, printout from teleprinter 1961–1962]]
TTY stands for "TeleTYpe" or "TeleTYpewriter", and is also known as Teleprinter or Teletype.
RTTY stands for Radioteletype; character sets such as Baudot code, which predated ASCII, were used. According to a chapter in the "RTTY Handbook", text images have been sent via teletypewriter as early as 1923.<ref name"rttyhb">{{cite book| last Green| firstWayne| title RTTY Handbook| publisher G/L Tab Books| location Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania| dateJune 1972| isbn 0-8306-2597-6}}</ref> However, none of the "old" RTTY art has been discovered yet. What is known is that text images appeared frequently on radioteletype in the 1960s and the 1970s.<ref name="joanstark"/><ref>
{{cite web| url http://www.rtty.com/gallery/rttyeasy.htm| title New Pag| websitewww.rtty.com | access-date 19 October 2017}}</ref>
Line-printer art
In the 1960s, Andries van Dam published a representation of an electronic circuit produced on an IBM 1403 line printer.<ref>[http://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/afips/1967/5069/00/50690601.pdf "A compact data structure for storing, retrieving and manipulating line drawings"] by Andries Van Dam & David Evans</ref> At the same time, Kenneth Knowlton was producing realistic images, also on line printers, by overprinting several characters on top of one another.<ref name="sip1"/>
Note that it was not ASCII art in a sense that the 1403 was driven by an EBCDIC-coded platform and the character sets and trains available on the 1403 were derived from EBCDIC rather than ASCII, despite some glyphs commonalities.
ASCII art
The widespread usage of ASCII art can be traced to the computer bulletin board systems of the late 1970s and early 1980s. The limitations of computers of that time period necessitated the use of text characters to represent images. Along with ASCII's use in communication, however, it also began to appear in the underground online art groups of the period.
An ASCII comic is a form of webcomic which uses ASCII text to create images. In place of images in a regular comic, ASCII art is used, with the text or dialog usually placed underneath.<ref>{{Cite book|last1Chute|first1Hillary L.|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI64VBAAAQBAJ&qascii+comic&pgPA10|titleComics & Media: A Special Issue of "Critical Inquiry"|last2Jagoda|first2Patrick|date11 July 2014|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press|isbn978-0-226-23908-8|language=en}}</ref>
During the 1990s, graphical browsing and variable-width fonts became increasingly popular, leading to a decline in ASCII art. Despite this, ASCII art continued to survive through online MUDs, an acronym for "Multi-User Dungeon", (which are textual multiplayer role-playing video games), Internet Relay Chat, Email, message boards, and other forms of online communication which commonly employ the needed fixed-width.
]]
ASCII art is seen to this day on the CLI app Neofetch, which displays the logo of the OS on which it is invoked.<ref>{{Cite web |titleNeofetch Creates Colorful System Information Screens using Ascii Art |urlhttps://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/software/neofetch-creates-colorful-system-information-screens-using-ascii-art/ |access-date2022-07-10 |websiteBleepingComputer |languageen-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastSneddon |firstJoey |date2020-05-15 |titleNeoFetch: See System Information from the Command Line on Linux |urlhttp://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/2016/11/neofetch-terminal-system-info-app |access-date2022-08-08 |websiteOMG! Ubuntu! |languageen-GB}}</ref>ANSI
ASCII and more importantly, ANSI were staples of the early technological era; terminal systems relied on coherent presentation using color and control signals standard in the terminal protocols.
Over the years, warez groups began to enter the ASCII art scene.<ref>{{cite web| lastNecromancer| title History of the PC Ascii Scene| websitetextfiles.com| date 6 March 1998| urlhttp://artscene.textfiles.com/history/essays/pcascii.txt| access-date 5 March 2008|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080215200828/http://artscene.textfiles.com/history/essays/pcascii.txt| archive-date 15 February 2008| url-status live}}</ref> Warez groups usually release .nfo files with their software, cracks or other general software reverse-engineering releases.<ref>{{cite web| author Defacto2| urlhttp://www.defacto2.net/documents.cfm| date 2008 | titleDefacto2 – Scene Documents, text and NFO files| publisher defacto2.net | access-date5 March 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080312071317/http://www.defacto2.net/documents.cfm|archive-date12 March 2008| url-status live}}</ref> The ASCII art will usually include the warez group's name and maybe some ASCII borders on the outsides of the release notes, etc.<ref>[http://www.defacto2.net/documents.cfm NFO Files collection at Defacto2.net, with NFO files that date back to 1989]. Retrieved 17 February 2008.</ref>
BBS systems were based on ASCII and ANSI art, as were most DOS and similar console applications, and the precursor to AOL.
Uses
ASCII logo]]
ASCII art is used wherever text can be more readily printed or transmitted than graphics, or in some cases, where the transmission of pictures is not possible. This includes typewriters, teleprinters, non-graphic computer terminals, printer separators, in early computer networking (e.g., BBSes), email, and Usenet news messages. ASCII art is also used within the source code of computer programs for representation of company or product logos, and flow control or other diagrams. In some cases, the entire source code of a program is a piece of ASCII art – for instance, an entry to one of the earlier International Obfuscated C Code Contest is a program that adds numbers, but visually looks like a binary adder drawn in logic ports.<ref>{{cite web| lastDowns | first Makarios| title16 bit addition the easy/hard way| url http://www.ioccc.org/1995/heathbar.c}}</ref>
Some electronic schematic archives represent the circuits using ASCII art.<ref name"Markup_2004"/><ref name"Circuits"/><ref name"Schematics"/><ref name"Cunningham_2010"/><ref name"ASCII-Circuits"/><ref name"Paul_2005_SR-T"/><ref name"Paul_2009_SR-T"/><ref name"Paul_2005_Remote"/><ref name"Paul_2007_PT-04"/><ref name"Paul_2009_4000AF"/><ref name"Paul_2012_PCT-100"/>{{excessive citations inline|dateJanuary 2025}}
Examples of ASCII-style art predating the modern computer era can be found in the June 1939, July 1948 and October 1948 editions of Popular Mechanics.<ref name"popscience">{{cite web| url http://www.roysac.com/blog/2007/02/keyboard-text-art-from-over-twenty-years-before-ascii/| titleKeyboard Text Art From Over Twenty Years Before ASCII| last Cumbrowski| firstCarsten| date 14 February 2007| websiteroysac.com| access-date 5 March 2008}}</ref>
Early computer games played on terminals frequently used ASCII art to simulate graphics, most notably the roguelike genre using ASCII art to visually represent dungeons and monsters within them.<ref>{{cite web | url https://killscreen.com/previously/articles/cogmind-proves-roguelike-isnt-done-ascii-art-yet/ | title Roguelikes Aren't Done With ASCII Art Yet | first Christian | last Valentin | date 17 October 2016 | access-date 4 January 2020 | work Kill Screen }}</ref> "0verkill" is a 2D platform multiplayer shooter game designed entirely in color ASCII art.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.hanselman.com/blog/building-0verkill-on-windows-10-subsystem-for-linux-2d-ascii-art-deathmatch-game|titleBuilding 0verkill on Windows 10 Subsystem for Linux - 2D ASCII art deathmatch game|firstScott|lastHanselman|date2018-01-12|access-date=2023-03-18}}</ref> MPlayer and VLC media player can display videos as ASCII art through the AAlib library. ASCII art is used in the making of DOS-based ZZT games.
Many game walkthrough guides come as part of a basic .txt file; this file often contains the name of the game in ASCII art. Such as below, word art is created using backslashes and other ASCII values in order to create the illusion of 3D.
Types and styles
Different techniques could be used in ASCII art to obtain different artistic effects.
"Typewriter-style" lettering, made from individual letter characters:<ref name="Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP"/>{{nat|&nbsp;
H H EEEEE L L OOO W W OOO RRRR L DDDD !!
H H E L L O O W W W O O R R L D D !!
HHHHH EEEEE L L O O W W W O O RRRR L D D !!
H H E L L O O ,, W W O O R R L D D
H H EEEEE LLLLL LLLLL OOO ,, W W OOO R R LLLLL DDDD !!
}}
Line art, for creating shapes:
.--. /\ ____
'--' /__\ (^._.^)~ <(o.o )>
Solid art, for creating filled objects:
.g@8g. db
'Y8@P' d88b
Shading, using symbols with various intensities for creating gradients or contrasts:
:$#$: "4b. ':.
:$#$: "4b. ':.
Combinations of the above, often used as signatures, for example, at the end of an email:
|\_/| **************************** (\_/)
/ @ @ \ * "Purrrfectly pleasant" * ('.')
( > º < ) * Poppy Prinz * (")_(")
`&gt;&gt;x&lt;&lt;´ * ([email protected]) *
/ O \ ****************************
As-pixel characters use combinations of ░ , █ , ▄, ▀ (Block Elements), and/or ⣿, ⣴, ⢁, etc (Braille ASCII) to make pictures:
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠿⠿⠿⠿⢿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣾⣿⣷⣦⣌⠙⢿⣿⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣷⡈⢻⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⠋⣉⠙⢻⣿⣿⣿⣷⠀⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⡷⢀⣿⣿⣿⡿⠀⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣼⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣶⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿
⣿⣿⠁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿
⣿⣿⠀⢿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⠟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣧⡈⠻⢿⣿⡿⠋⣠⣾⣿⣿⡟⢁⣴⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿
⣿⣿⣿⣿⣷⣶⣶⣶⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿⣿
Emoticons
{{Main|Emoticon}}
The simplest forms of ASCII art are combinations of two or three characters for expressing emotion in text. They are commonly referred to as 'emoticon', 'smilie', or 'smiley'. There is another type of one-line ASCII art that does not require the mental rotation of pictures, which is widely known in Japan as kaomoji (literally "face characters".)
More complex examples use several lines of text to draw large symbols or more complex figures. Hundreds of different text smileys have developed over time,<ref name"smileys2">{{cite web| last textfiles| titleCollection of ASCII Smileys| date 2008| url http://artscene.textfiles.com/asciiart/smileys.txt| access-date 5 March 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080310030328/http://artscene.textfiles.com/asciiart/smileys.txt| archive-date 10 March 2008| url-statuslive}}</ref> but only a few are generally accepted, used and understood.ASCII comicAn ASCII comic is a form of webcomic.{{Citation needed|dateMarch 2025}}
The Adventures of Nerd Boy
'The Adventures of Nerd Boy', or just 'Nerd Boy', was an ASCII comic, published by Joaquim Gândara between 5 August 2001 and 17 July 2007, and consisting of 600 strips. They were posted to ASCII art newsgroup alt.ascii-art and on the website.<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://www.nerd-boy.net/nerdboypak.php| title The Adventures of Nerd Boy—Episodes 1-635 | lastGândara|first Joaquim| year2006| publisher Nerd-Boy.net| access-date= 5 March 2008}}</ref> Some strips have been translated to Polish<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilk|2006}} episodes 1 to 172
</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|nb-pl.jogger.pl|2006}} episodes 208 to 470</ref> and French.
Styles of the computer underground text art scene
{{anchor|ATASCII art}}Atari 400/800 ATASCII
The Atari 400/800, which were released in 1979, did not follow the ASCII standard and had their own character set, called ATASCII.<ref>{{cite web| lastŠtěrba|first Radek| title= ATASCII
| date20 December 2005| urlhttp://raster.infos.cz/atari/chars/atascii.htm|access-date 20 December 2005| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20051220204949/http://raster.infos.cz/atari/chars/atascii.htm| archive-date 20 December 2005}}(gif image)</ref><ref>{{cite web| last1 Moeser| first1David| last2 Fusik| first2Piotr| url http://www.faqs.org/faqs/atari-8-bit/faq/section-49.html| date13 May 2007|title 7.2: What is the ATASCII character set? | publisherfaqs.org|access-date 5 March 2008}}</ref>{{Failed verification|dateMarch 2012}} The emergence of ATASCII art coincided with the growing popularity of BBS Systems caused by availability of the acoustic couplers that were compatible with the 8-bit home computers. ATASCII text animations are also referred to as "break animations" by the Atari sceners.{{anchor|PETSCII art}}C-64 PETSCIIThe Commodore 64, which was released in 1982, also did not follow the ASCII standard. The C-64 character set is called PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963. As with the Atari's ATASCII art, C-64 fans developed a similar scene that used PETSCII for their creations."Block ASCII" / "High ASCII" style ASCII art on the IBM PC{{Contradicts other|dateJune 2012|1=ANSI art}}
So-called "block ASCII" or "high ASCII" uses the extended characters of the 8-bit code page 437, which is a proprietary standard introduced by IBM in 1979 (ANSI Standard x3.16) for the IBM PC DOS and MS-DOS operating systems. "Block ASCIIs" were widely used on the PC during the 1990s until the Internet replaced BBSes as the main communication platform. Until then, "block ASCIIs" dominated the PC Text Art Scene.<ref name"asciistyles">{{cite web| url http://www.RoySAC.com/roy-sac_styles_of_underground_text_art.html| titleThe Three ASCII Art Styles of the Underground Text Art Scene| last Roy/SAC| websitewww.roysac.com| access-date 19 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="ddarthistory">[http://cd.textfiles.com/darkdomain/www/html/history-art_scene.html An Abbreviated History of the Underground Computer Art Scene] by Napalm, 11 October 1998, The History of Art and Technology</ref>
The first art scene group that focused on the extended character set of the PC in their artwork was called "Aces of ANSI Art", or {{proper name|<A.A.A>}}. Some members left in 1990 and formed a group called "ANSI Creators in Demand", or ACiD. In that same year the second major underground art scene group "Insane Creators Enterprise", or ICE, was founded.<ref name="100years">[http://www.cow.net/conned/notacon/artscene/notacon-100artscene-transcript.txt 100 YEARS OF THE COMPUTER ART SCENE], Presented by Jason Scott Sadofsky and RaD Man (ACiD), Notacon Conference – Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 23–25 April 2004.</ref>
There is some debate between ASCII and block ASCII artists, with "Hardcore" ASCII artists maintaining that block ASCII art is in fact not ASCII art, because it does not use the 128 characters of the original ASCII standard. On the other hand, block ASCII artists argue that if their art uses only characters of the computer's character set, then it is to be called ASCII, regardless if the character set is proprietary or not.
Microsoft Windows does not support the ANSI Standard x3.16. One can view block ASCIIs with a text editor using the font "Terminal", but it will not look exactly as it was intended by the artist. With a special ASCII/ANSI viewer, such as ACiDView for Windows {{crossreference|(see: {{slink|List of text editors|ASCII and ANSI art|nopagey}})}}, one can see block ASCII and ANSI files properly. An example that illustrates the difference in appearance is part of this article. Alternatively, one could look at the file using the TYPE command in the command prompt."Amiga"/"Oldskool" style ASCII artIn the art scene one popular ASCII style that used the 7-bit standard ASCII character set was the so-called "Oldskool" style. It is also called "Amiga style", due to its origin and widespread use on Commodore Amiga computers. The style uses primarily the characters <code>_/\-+.()<>:</code> and looks more like the outlined drawings of shapes than real pictures. The accompanying image is an example of "Amiga style" (also referred to as "old school" or "oldskool" style) scene ASCII art.<ref name="asciistyles"/>
The Amiga ASCII scene surfaced in 1992, seven years after the introduction of the Commodore Amiga 1000. The Commodore 64 PETSCII scene did not make the transition to the Commodore Amiga as the C64 demo and warez scenes did. Among the first Amiga ASCII art groups were ART, Epsilon Design, Upper Class, Unreal (later known as "DeZign"). This means that the text art scene on the Amiga was actually younger than the text art scene on the PC. The Amiga artists also did not call their ASCII art style "Oldskool". That term was introduced on the PC; when and by whom is unknown and lost to history.
The Amiga style ASCII artwork was most often released in the form of a single text file, which included all the artwork (usually requested), with some design parts in between, as opposed to the PC art scene where the art work was released as a ZIP archive with separate text files for each piece. Furthermore, the releases were usually called "ASCII collections" and not "art packs" like on the IBM PC.
In text editors
<pre style="float:right;">
_____ ___ ____ _ _
| ___|_ _/ ___| | ___| |_
| |_ | | | _| |/ _ \ __|
| _| | | |_| | | __/ |_
|_| |___\____|_|\___|\__|
</pre>
This kind of ASCII art is handmade in a text editor. Popular editors used to make this kind of ASCII art include Microsoft Notepad, CygnusEditor also known as CED (Amiga), and EditPlus2 (PC).
The accompanying image shows an Oldskool font example done with the ASCII editor FIGlet on a PC.
Newskool style ASCII art
"Newskool" is a popular form of ASCII art which capitalizes on character strings like "$#Xxo". In spite of its name, the style is not "new"; on the contrary, it was very old but fell out of favor and was replaced by "Oldskool" and "Block" style ASCII art. It was dubbed "Newskool" upon its comeback and renewed popularity at the end of the 1990s.<ref name="asciistyles"/>
Newskool changed significantly as the result of the introduction of extended proprietary characters. The classic 7-bit standard ASCII characters remain predominant, but the extended characters are often used for "fine tuning" and "tweaking". The style developed further after the introduction and adaptation of Unicode.
Methods for generating ASCII art
{{Main|List of text editors#ASCII and ANSI art}}
While some prefer to use a simple text editor to produce ASCII art, specialized programs, such as JavE have been developed that often simulate the features and tools in bitmap image editors. For Block ASCII art and ANSI art the artist almost always uses a special text editor, because to generate the required characters on a standard keyboard, one needs to know the Alt code for each character. For example, {{keypress|Alt}}+{{keypress|1}}{{keypress|7}}{{keypress|8}} will produce ▓, {{keypress|Alt}}+{{keypress|1}}{{keypress|7}}{{keypress|7}} will produce ▒, and {{keypress|Alt}}+{{keypress|8}} will produce ◘.
The special text editors have sets of special characters assigned to existing keys on the keyboard. Popular DOS-based editors, such as TheDraw and ACiDDraw had multiple sets of different special characters mapped to the function keys to make the use of those characters easier for the artist who can switch between individual sets of characters via basic keyboard shortcuts. PabloDraw is one of the very few special ASCII/ANSI art editors that was developed for Windows.
Image to text conversion
Other programs allow one to automatically convert an image to text characters, which is a special case of vector quantization. A method is to sample the image down to grayscale with less than 8-bit precision, and then assign a character for each value. Such ASCII art generators often allow users to choose the intensity and contrast of the generated image.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://asciiartgenerator.net/ascii-art-generator-an-overview/| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130801070421/http://asciiartgenerator.net/ascii-art-generator-an-overview/| archive-date1 August 2013|titleASCII Art Generator: An Overview| date12 January 2012| publisher asciiartgenerator.net| access-date= 19 March 2012}}</ref>
Three factors limit the fidelity of the conversion, especially of photographs:
* depth (solutions: reduced line spacing; bold style; block elements; colored background; good shading);
* sharpness (solutions: a longer text, with a smaller font; a greater set of characters; variable width fonts);
* ratio (solutions with compatibility issues: font with a square grid; stylized without extra line spacing).
Examples of converted images are given below.
This is one of the earliest forms of ASCII art, dating back to the early days of the 1960s minicomputers and teletypes. During the 1970s, it was popular in US malls to get a t-shirt with a photograph printed in ASCII art on it from an automated kiosk containing a computer, and London's Science Museum had a similar service to produce printed portraits. With the advent of the web, HTML and CSS, many ASCII conversion programs will now quantize to a full RGB colorspace, enabling colorized ASCII images.
{| style="margin:1em auto;"
|-
|| || ||
|}
Still images or movies can also be converted to ASCII on various UNIX and UNIX-like systems using the AAlib (black and white) or libcaca (colour) graphics device driver, or the VLC media player or mpv under Windows, Linux or macOS; all of which render the screen using ASCII symbols instead of pixels.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.oreilly.com/library/view/linux-multimedia-hacks/0596100760/ch03s09.html|title54. Watch Videos in ASCII Art - Linux Multimedia Hacks [Book]|website=www.oreilly.com}}</ref>
There are also a number of smartphone applications, such as ASCII cam for Android, that generate ASCII art in real-time using input from the phone's camera. These applications typically allow the ASCII art to be saved as either a text file or as an image made up of ASCII text.
Non fixed-width ASCII
Most ASCII art is created using a monospaced font, such as Courier, where all characters are identical in width. Early computers in use when ASCII art came into vogue had monospaced fonts for screen and printer displays. Today, most of the more commonly used fonts in word processors, web browsers and other programs are proportional fonts, such as Helvetica or Times Roman, where different widths are used for different characters. ASCII art drawn for a fixed width font will usually appear distorted, or even unrecognizable when displayed in a proportional font.
Some ASCII artists have produced art for display in proportional fonts. These ASCIIs, rather than using a purely shade-based correspondence, use characters for slopes and borders and use block shading. These ASCIIs generally offer greater precision and attention to detail than fixed-width ASCIIs for a lower character count, although they are not as universally accessible since they are usually relatively font-specific.
Animated ASCII art
Animated ASCII art started in 1970 from so-called VT100 animations produced on VT100 terminals. These animations were simply text with cursor movement instructions, deleting and erasing the characters necessary to appear animated. Usually, they represented a long hand-crafted process undertaken by a single person to tell a story.
Contemporary web browser revitalized animated ASCII art again. It became possible to display animated ASCII art via JavaScript or Java applets. Static ASCII art pictures are loaded and displayed one after another, creating the animation, very similar to how movie projectors unreel film reel and project the individual pictures on the big screen at movie theaters. A new term was born: "ASCIImation" – another name of animated ASCII art. A seminal work in this arena is the Star Wars ASCIImation.<ref>{{cite web| firstSimon| last Jansen| date18 April 2006| url http://www.asciimation.co.nz/| titleStar "ASCIImation" Wars|publisher Asciimation.co.nz|access-date18 November 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081209033917/http://www.asciimation.co.nz/| archive-date9 December 2008| url-status live}}</ref> More complicated routines in JavaScript generate more elaborate ASCIImations showing effects like Morphing effects, star field emulations, fading effects and calculated images, such as mandelbrot fractal animations.<ref name"asciimation1">[http://www.roysac.com/skylined-Morph-ASCIIanimationFrame.html ASCII Animation "Morph" by SkyLined (using JavaScript)] includes morph effects and mandelbrot fractal animation</ref><ref name"asciimation2">[http://www.roysac.com/skylined-Starfield-ASCIIanimationFrame.html ASCII Animation Starfield by SkyLined (using JavaScript)] includes fading effect and horizontal scrolling star field emulation</ref>
There are now many tools and programs that can transform raster images into text symbols; some of these tools can operate on streaming video. For example, the music video for American singer Beck's song "Black Tambourine"<ref name"beckbt">{{cite web| url https://www.youtube.com/watch?vwEXaEYpifhg|title Beck - Black Tambourine | lastBeckVEVO|date 7 October 2009|access-date 19 October 2017| via YouTube}}</ref> is made up entirely of ASCII characters that approximate the original footage. VLC, a media player software, can render any video in colored ASCII through the libcaca module.
Other text-based visual art
There are a variety of other types of art using text symbols from character sets other than ASCII and/or some form of color coding. Despite not being pure ASCII, these are still often referred to as "ASCII art". The character set portion designed specifically for drawing is known as the line drawing characters or pseudo-graphics.
ANSI art
{{Main|ANSI art}}
The IBM PC graphics hardware in text mode uses 16 bits per character. It supports a variety of configurations, but in its default mode under DOS they are used to give 256 glyphs from one of the IBM PC code pages (Code page 437 by default), 16 foreground colors, eight background colors, and a flash option. Such art can be loaded into screen memory directly. ANSI.SYS, if loaded, also allows such art to be placed on screen by outputting escape sequences that indicate movements of the screen cursor and color/flash changes. If this method is used then the art becomes known as ANSI art. The IBM PC code pages also include characters intended for simple drawing which often made this art appear much cleaner than that made with more traditional character sets. Plain text files are also seen with these characters, though they have become far less common since Windows GUI text editors (using the Windows ANSI code page) have largely replaced DOS-based ones.
Shift_JIS and Japan
{{anchor|Monā}}|２ちゃんねる|Nichanneru}} in 2000]]
{{Main|Shift_JIS art}}
In Japan, ASCII art (AA) is mainly known as Shift_JIS art. Shift JIS offers a larger selection of characters than plain ASCII (including characters from Japanese scripts and fullwidth forms of ASCII characters), and may be used for text-based art on Japanese websites.
Often, such artwork is designed to be viewed with the default Japanese font on a platform, such as the proportional MS P Gothic.<ref>
{{cite web| urlhttp://monafont.sourceforge.net/index-e.html|title Mona Font| websitemonafont.sourceforge.net| access-date 19 October 2017}}</ref>
Kaomoji
{{Further|Emoticon#Japanese_style|List of emoticons#Eastern}}
Users on ASCII-NET, in which the word ASCII refers to the ASCII Corporation rather than the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, popularised a style of {{Nihongo|emoticon|顔文字|kaomoji|emoticon}} in which the face appears upright rather than rotated.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Icon
! Meaning
|-
| (^_^) (^^ゞ (^_^;) (-_-;) (~_~;) (・。・;) (・_・;) (・・;) ^^; ^_^; (#^.^#) (^ ^;) || Smiley, nervous, embarrassed, troubled, shy, sweat drop
|}
{{anchor|Unicode art}}Unicode
{{further|Unicode}}
Unicode would seem to offer the ultimate flexibility in producing text based art with its huge variety of characters. However, finding a suitable fixed-width font is likely to be difficult if a significant subset of Unicode is desired. (Modern UNIX-style operating systems do provide complete fixed-width Unicode fonts, e.g. for xterm. Windows has the Courier New font, which includes characters like {{nowrap|┌{{tsp}}╥{{tsp}}─{{tsp}}╨{{tsp}}┐}}♥{{hsp}}☺{{nowrap|{{tsp}}Ƹ̵̡{{tsp}}Ӝ̵̨̄{{tsp}}Ʒ}}). Also, the common practice of rendering Unicode with a mixture of variable width fonts is likely to make predictable display hard, if more than a tiny subset of Unicode is used. {{nowrap|≽<sup>ʌ</sup>ⱷ҅<sub>ᴥ</sub>ⱷ<sup>ʌ</sup>≼}} is an adequate representation of a cat's face in a font with varying character widths.
Control and combining characters
{{original research section|date=May 2015}}
{{Further information|Zalgo text}}
The combining characters mechanism of Unicode provides considerable ways of customizing the style, even obfuscating the text (e.g. via an online generator like Obfuscator,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://obfuscator.uo1.net/|titleOnline Text Obfuscator|websiteobfuscator.uo1.net}}</ref> which focuses on the filters<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://stackoverflow.com/questions/3470669/should-unicode-be-allowed-in-usernames|titleweb services - Should Unicode be allowed in usernames?|websiteStack Overflow}}</ref>). 'Glitcher' is one example of Unicode art, initiated in 2012: "These symbols, intruding up and down, are made by combining lots of diacritical marks. It’s a kind of art. There’s quite a lot of artists who use the Internet or specific social networks as their canvas."<ref>{{cite web|lastZakas| first Laimonas| titleFacebook Page Performance Art Glitchr|url https://techcrunch.com/2012/01/11/facebook-page-performance-art-glitchr-purposefully-tries-to-activate-code-glitches/| websiteTechCrunch| date 12 January 2012|publisherAOL| access-date 23 June 2015|ref = Glitchr}}
</ref> The corresponding creations are favored in web browsers (thanks to their always better support<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/~richard/unicode-sample-3-2.html|titleUnicode 3.2 test page|websitewww.ltg.ed.ac.uk}}</ref>), as geekily stylized usernames for social networks. With a fair compatibility, and among different online tools, Facebook symbols<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://fsymbols.com/generators/facebook-name/|titleFacebook profile name style with symbols (fb name font generator)|websitefsymbols.com}}</ref> showcases various types of Unicode art, mainly for aesthetic purpose (Ɯıḳĭƥḙȡḯả Wîkipêȡıẚ Ẉǐḳîṗȅḍȉā Ẃįḵįṗẻḑìẵ Ẉĭḵɪṕḗdïą Ẇïƙỉpểɗĭà Ẅȉḱïṕȩđĩẵ etc.). Besides, the creations can be hand-crafted (by programming), or pasted from mobile applications (e.g. the category of 'fancy text'<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://play.google.com/store/search?qfancy+text&capps|titlefancy text - Android Apps on Google Play|websiteplay.google.com}}</ref> tools on Android). The underlying technique dates back to the old systems that incorporated control characters, though. E.g. the German composite <code>ö</code> would be imitated on ZX Spectrum by overwriting<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap16.html|titleWorld of Spectrum - Documentation - ZX Spectrum manual - Chapter 16|websitewww.worldofspectrum.org}}</ref> <code>"</code> after backspace and <code>o</code>.
Overprinting (surprint)
In the 1970s and early 1980s it was popular to produce a kind of text art that relied on overprinting. This could be produced either on a screen or on a printer by typing a character, backing up, and then typing another character, just as on a typewriter. This developed into sophisticated graphics in some cases, such as the PLATO system (circa 1973), where superscript and subscript allowed a wide variety of graphic effects. A common use was for emoticons, with WOBTAX and VICTORY both producing convincing smiley faces.<ref>[http://www.platohistory.org/blog/2012/09/plato-emoticons-revisited.html PLATO Emoticons, revisited], Brian Dear, [http://www.platohistory.org/ PLATO History: Remembering the future], 19 September 2012</ref> Overprinting had previously been used on typewriters, but the low-resolution pixelation of characters on video terminals meant that overprinting here produced seamless pixel graphics, rather than visibly overstruck combinations of letters on paper.
Beyond pixel graphics, this was also used for printing photographs, as the overall darkness of a particular character space dependent on how many characters, as well as the choice of character, were printed in a particular place. Thanks to the increased granularity of tone, photographs were often converted to this type of printout. Even manual typewriters or daisy wheel printers could be used. The technique has fallen from popularity since all cheap printers can easily print photographs, and a normal text file (or an e-mail message or Usenet posting) cannot represent overprinted text. However, something similar has emerged to replace it: shaded or colored ASCII art, using ANSI video terminal markup or color codes (such as those found in HTML, IRC, and many internet message boards) to add a bit more tone variation. In this way, it is possible to create ASCII art where the characters only differ in color.
See also
* Micrography
* Types and styles: Alt code, ASCII stereogram, box-drawing characters, emoticon, FILE_ID.DIZ, .nfo (release info file)
* Pre-ASCII history: Calligram, Concrete poetry, Typewriter, Typewriter mystery game, Teleprinter, Radioteletype
* Related art: ANSI art, ASCII porn, ATASCII, Fax art, PETSCII, Shift JIS art, Text semigraphics
* Related context: Bulletin board system (BBS), Computer art scene, :Category:Artscene groups
* Software: AAlib, cowsay
* Unicode: Homoglyph, Duplicate characters in Unicode
References
{{Reflist|refs<ref name"Markup_2004">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/Devel/markup.html |titleDocument Markup Format |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040626171001/http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/Devel/markup.html |archive-date26 June 2004 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name"Circuits">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ee.washington.edu/circuit_archive/circuits/|titleCircuits in the Circuits Archive|date9 January 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130109212449/http://www.ee.washington.edu/circuit_archive/circuits/ |archive-date9 January 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name"Schematics">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.repairfaq.org/ELE/F_ASCII_Schem.html|titleSci.electronics FAQ: Assorted ASCII Schematics|websitewww.repairfaq.org}}</ref>
<ref name"Cunningham_2010">{{cite web |urlhttps://makezine.com/2010/02/04/ascii-schematic-editor/ |titleSchematics just look cooler in ASCII |lastCunningham |firstCollin |date4 February 2010 |websiteMake: |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160911182910/http://makezine.com/2010/02/04/ascii-schematic-editor/ |archive-date11 September 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
<ref name"ASCII-Circuits">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.tech-chat.de/ascii-circuits.html|titleAACircuit - ASCII-Circuits|date13 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150213012524/http://www.tech-chat.de/ascii-circuits.html |archive-date13 February 2015 }}</ref>
<ref name"Paul_2005_SR-T">{{cite web |author-firstMatthias R. |author-lastPaul |titleMinolta SR-T Batterieadapter |trans-titleUsing a Bandgap voltage reference as Mercury battery replacement |date12 December 2005 |languagede |workMinolta-Forum |urlhttp://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic11119&viewfindpost&p130223 |access-date26 February 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011185451/http://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic11119&st0&p130223&#entry130223 |archive-date=11 October 2016}}</ref>
<ref name"Paul_2009_SR-T">{{cite web |author-firstMatthias R. |author-lastPaul |titleMinolta SR-T Batterieadapter |trans-titleUsing a 7×7 mm SMD transistor-based low-side voltage regulator circuit as Mercury battery replacement |languagede |workMinolta-Forum |date14 March 2009 |urlhttp://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic11119&viewfindpost&p241848 |access-date26 February 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160327222617/http://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic11119&st20&p241848&#entry241848 |archive-date=27 March 2016}}</ref>
<ref name"Paul_2005_Remote">{{cite web |author-firstMatthias R. |author-lastPaul |titleEigenbau eines Kabelauslösers - Problem mit der Funktion… |trans-titleBuilding your own remote camera trigger - problem with function… |date7 March 2005 |languagede |workMinolta-Forum |urlhttp://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic6555 |access-date31 March 2016 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160331184713/http://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic6555 |archive-date=31 March 2016}}</ref>
<ref name"Paul_2007_PT-04">{{cite web |author-firstMatthias R. |author-lastPaul |titleFunkblitzauslöser PT-04 m. Minolta-Blitz 5600HS(D) - Funkauslöser funktioniert, aber Blitz löst trotzdem nicht aus |trans-titleWireless remote flash control PT-04 with Minolta flash 5600HS(D) - wireless triggering works, but still flash does not fire |date26 April 2009 |orig-year2007-11-01 |languagede |workMinolta-Forum |urlhttp://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic18866&st0&p215814&#entry215814 |access-date6 June 2016 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160606192151/http://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic18866&st0&p215814&#entry215814 |archive-date6 June 2016}}</ref>
<ref name"Paul_2009_4000AF">{{cite web |author-firstMatthias R. |author-lastPaul |titleAuto-Off-Deaktivierung bei Minolta Program 4000 AF - Automatische Abschaltung des 4000 AF für Slave-Betrieb deaktivieren? |trans-titleDeactivating auto-off function of Minolta Program 4000 AF |date9 April 2010 |orig-year2009-04-17 |languagede |workMinolta-Forum |urlhttp://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic23553 |access-date27 March 2016 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160327044441/http://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic23553 |archive-date27 March 2016}}</ref>
<ref name"Paul_2012_PCT-100">{{cite web |author-firstMatthias R. |author-lastPaul |titleInnenschaltung Minolta PC Terminal Adapter PCT-100 |trans-titleInternal circuitry of Minolta PC Terminal Adapter PCT-100 |date9 May 2012 |languagede |workMinolta-Forum |urlhttp://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic31845 |access-date4 August 2016 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160804062754/http://www.mi-fo.de/forum/index.php?showtopic31845 |archive-date=4 August 2016}}</ref>
<ref name"Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP">{{cite book |titleNWDOS-TIPs – Tips & Tricks rund um Novell DOS 7, mit Blick auf undokumentierte Details, Bugs und Workarounds |trans-titleNWDOS-TIPs - — Tips & tricks for Novell DOS 7, with a focus on undocumented details, bugs and workarounds |author-firstMatthias R. |author-lastPaul |date30 July 1997 |orig-year1994-05-01 |edition3 |versionRelease 157 |languagede |urlhttp://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/nwdostip.htm |access-date6 August 2014 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170910194752/http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/nwdostip.htm |archive-date=10 September 2017}} (NB. The top of the NWDOSTIP.TXT file shows a large text logo in typewriter-style art.) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190601152204/https://www.sac.sk/download/text/mpdostip.zip<!-- An older version 155 from 1997-05-13 of the 1997-07-15 distribution archive. -->]</ref>
}}
Further reading
<!-- Please replace any deadlinks with archive.org links, instead of removing them -->
<!-- alphabetical order -->
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite web| lastBeal| first Vangie| urlhttp://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/textmessageabbreviations.asp#smiley| date 2008| titleText Messaging Abbreviations: A Guide to Understanding Online Chat Acronyms & Smiley Faces| website Webopedia| access-date 5 March 2008| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080306032531/http://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/textmessageabbreviations.asp| archive-date6 March 2008| url-status live}}
*{{cite web| last1Carlsson| first1 Anders| last2Miller| first2 A. Bill|urlhttp://goto80.com/chipflip/06/ | date 2012| titleFuture Potentials for ASCII art| access-date 8 July 2014| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140708122352/http://goto80.com/chipflip/06/
| archive-date8 July 2014| url-status live}}
*{{cite web| lastCumbrowski| first Carsten| urlhttp://www.roysac.com/blog/2007/02/history-of-text-art-video-by-rad-man-acid/| date 2 November 2007| titleHistory of Text Art Video by RaD Man / ACiD| publisher roysac.com| access-date29 March 2014| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080302081249/http://www.roysac.com/blog/2007/02/history-of-text-art-video-by-rad-man.html| archive-date2 March 2008| url-status live}}
*{{cite web| lastJones| first Mike| titleThe First Smiley :-)| publisher Microsoft Research| date12 September 2002| url http://research.microsoft.com/~mbj/Smiley/Smiley.html| access-date5 March 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080305013423/http://research.microsoft.com/~mbj/smiley/smiley.html| archive-date5 March 2008| url-status live}}
*{{cite web| lastnb-pl.jogger.pl | title [ Nerdboy PL ]| urlhttp://nb-pl.jogger.pl/| date 2006| access-date14 May 2006| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20060514214623/http://nb-pl.jogger.pl/| archive-date= 14 May 2006}} (Polish translators: Ania Górecka [ag], Asia Mazur [as], Błażej Kozłowski [bug], Janusz [jp], Łukasz Dąbrowski [luk], Łukasz Tyrała [lt.], Łukasz Wilk [wilu], Marcin Gliński [fsc])
*{{cite web| lastWilk| first Łukasz | titleStrona grupy dyskusyjnej PL.REC.ASCII-ART| url http://ascii.art.pl/nerd.htm| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060115054807/http://ascii.art.pl/nerd.htm| url-status dead| archive-date15 January 2006| date 2006| access-date30 November 2006| language pl}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
*{{cite AV media| lastWirth| first Christian| urlhttps://archive.org/details/hackercons-notacon-2007-Building_Character_ANSI| date 2007| titleBuilding Character: ANSI From the Ground Up| publisher Notacon| access-date= 7 July 2013}}
<!--Place new references above this line-->
{{refend}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.media4u.ch/en/the-matrix.html/ media4u.ch - ASCII Art] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190821202348/http://www.media4u.ch/en/the-matrix.html/ |date2019-08-21 }} (ASCII Art Movie. The Matrix in ASCII Art)
* [http://textart.io/art# TexArt.io ASCII Art collection]
* [http://artscene.textfiles.com/ Textfiles.com archive]
* [https://archive.today/20121220052340/http://sixteencolors.net/ Sixteen Colors ANSI Art and ASCII Art Archive]
* [http://www.defacto2.net/documents.cfm Defacto2.net Scene NFO Files Archive]
* [https://asciiart.website/ Chris.com ASCII art collection]
* [http://www.pictoriano.com/ "As-Pixel Characters" ASCII art collection] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190706040403/http://www.pictoriano.com/ |date2019-07-06 }}
* [http://www.asciimation.co.nz/ ASCII Art Animation of Star Wars, "ASCIIMATION"]
* [http://textimage.my1.ru/news ASCII Keyboard Art Collection]
* [https://animasci.com Animasci]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P6CnxAf5njc Video to ASCII Demonstration in 4 stages]
<!----- Do not add any more links to this section. ----->
<!----- If you believe that the site you want to add is of extraordinary importance and must be linked to, ---->
<!----- please elaborate this at the article's talk page. ----->
{{Digital art}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ascii Art}}
Category:Computer art
Category:Digital art
Category:New media art
Category:Internet art
Category:Multimedia
Category:Wikipedia articles with ASCII art
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_art
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.410939
|
1887
|
Alexius
|
Alexius is the Latinized form of the given name Alexios (, polytonic , "defender", cf. Alexander), especially common in the Byzantine Empire. The female form is Alexia () and its variants such as Alessia (the masculine form of which is Alessio) in Italian.
The name belongs to the most ancient attested Greek names (a-re-ke-se-u in the Linear B tablets KN Df 1229 and MY Fu 718).
Rulers
Alexios I Komnenos (1048–1118), Byzantine emperor
Alexios II Komnenos (1167–1183), Byzantine emperor
Alexios III, Byzantine emperor
Alexios IV, Byzantine emperor
Alexios V Doukas, Byzantine emperor
Alexios I of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
Alexios II of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
Alexios III of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
Alexios IV of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
Alexios V of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
Alexius Mikhailovich (1629–1676), Tsar of Russia
Alexius Petrovich (1690–1718), Russian tsarevich
Religious figures
Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow (1354–1378)
Patriarch Alexius I of Constantinople (1025–1043)
Alexius (c. 1425–1488), Russian archpriest who converted to Judaism
Patriarch Alexius I of Moscow and All Russia (r. 1945–1970)
Patriarch Alexius II of Moscow and All Russia (r. 1990–2008)
Alexius of Nicaea, metropolitan bishop
Saint Alexius of Rome, fifth-century eastern saint
Other
Alexios Apokaukos, Byzantine statesman
Alexios Aspietes, Byzantine governor
Alexios Branas, Byzantine general
Alexios Halebian, American tennis player
Alexius Meinong, Austrian philosopher
Alexios Mosele (Caesar), Byzantine heir-apparent
Alexios Palaiologos (despot), Byzantine heir-apparent
Alexios Philanthropenos, Byzantine general
Alexios Raoul (protovestiarios), Byzantine general
Alexios Strategopoulos, Byzantine general
Alexios Xiphias, Byzantine Catepan of Italy
Alexios (Assassin's Creed), a fictional character in Assassin's Creed: Odyssey
Alexius in other languages
English – Alexis, Aleck
German – Alexius, Alexis
Greek – Αλέξιος [Alexios], Αλέξης [Alexis]
French – Alexis
Italian – Alessio
Spanish – Alejo, Alexis
Portuguese – Aleixo
Latvian – Alexius, Aleksis, Aleksejs
Polish – Aleksy
Czech – Aleš, Alexej
Slovak – Aleš
Estonian – Aleksei
Bulgarian – Алексей [Aleksej]
Serbian – Aleksa
Finnish – Aleksi, Aleksis
Macedonian – Aleksio
Georgian – ალექსი, [Aleksi ]
Belarusian – Аляксей [Aleksiej]
Russian – Алексей [Alexei, Alexey, Aleksei, Aleksey], Алексий [Alexiy], Алёша [Alyosha], Лёша [Lyosha]
Ukrainan – Олексій [Oleksii, Oleksiy], Олекса [Oleksa]
Hungarian – Elek
Category:Given names of Greek language origin
Category:Greek masculine given names
Category:Masculine given names
Category:Given names
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexius
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.416730
|
1890
|
American English
|
{{Short description|Varieties of English native to the United States}}
{{Redirect|U.S. English|the political organization|U.S. English (organization)|the English language throughout North America|North American English|other uses|American English (disambiguation)}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2017}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name = American English
| region = United States
| speakers = 242 million, all varieties of English in the United States
| date = 2019
| ref | speakers2
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = Germanic
| fam3 = West Germanic
| fam4 = North Sea Germanic
| fam5 = Anglo–Frisian
| fam6 = Anglic
| fam7 = English
| fam8 = North American English
| ancestor = Old English
| ancestor2 = Middle English
| ancestor3 = Early Modern English
| dia1 = Southern
| dia2 = African-American
| dia3 = Western
| dia4 = New England
| dia5 = Pittsburghese
| dia6 = Wisconsin-Minnesota
| dia7 = New York
| dia8 = Midland
| dia9 = Delaware Valley
| dia10 = Northern
| dia11 = Native American
| dia12 = Pennsylvania Dutch English
| dia13 = Cajun
| dia14 = Chicano
| dia15 = Miami
| dia16 = New York Latino
| nation = United States (main language, 32 U.S. states, five U.S. territories; see article)
| script = {{Ubl
| {{nowrap|Latin (English alphabet)}}
| Unified English Braille<ref namebraille>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.brailleauthority.org/ueb.html|titleUnified English Braille (UEB)|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|dateNovember 2, 2016|publisherBraille Authority of North America (BANA)|access-dateJanuary 2, 2017|archive-dateNovember 23, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161123220211/http://www.brailleauthority.org/ueb.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>}}
| isoexception = dialect
| glotto = none
| ietf = {{wikidata|property|references|P305}}
| notice = IPA
}}
American English, sometimes called United States English or U.S. English,{{Efn|American English is variously abbreviated AmE, AE, AmEng, USEng, and en-US.{{Efn|namefn2}}}} is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States.<ref>{{cite book |lastCrystal |firstDavid |author-linkDavid Crystal |year1997 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/englishasgloball0000crys_j7o0 |url-accessregistration |titleEnglish as a Global Language |locationCambridge |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-53032-3}}</ref> English is the most widely spoken language in the United States. It is an official language in 32 of the 50 U.S. states and the de facto common language used in government, education, and commerce in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and in all territories except Puerto Rico.<ref name"WestVirginia"/> Since the late 20th century, American English has become the most influential form of English worldwide.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |lastEngel |firstMatthew |year2017 |titleThat's the Way It Crumbles: The American Conquest of English |urlhttps://archive.org/details/thatswayitcrumbl0000enge |url-accessregistration |locationLondon |publisherProfile Books |isbn9781782832621 |oclc989790918}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |dateJuly 20, 2017 |titleFears of British English's disappearance are overblown |urlhttps://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2017/07/20/fears-of-british-englishs-disappearance-are-overblown |url-accesssubscription |newspaperThe Economist |issn0013-0613 |access-dateApril 18, 2019}}</ref><ref namebbc>{{Cite web |lastHarbeck |firstJames |dateJuly 15, 2015 |titleWhy isn't 'American' a language? |urlhttp://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20150715-why-isnt-american-a-language |publisherBBC Culture |languageen-GB |access-dateApril 18, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastReddy |firstC Rammanohar |dateAugust 6, 2017 |titleThe Readers' Editor writes: Why Is American English Becoming Part of Everyday Usage in India? |urlhttps://scroll.in/article/846112/the-readers-editor-writes-why-is-american-english-becoming-part-of-everyday-usage-in-india |access-dateApril 18, 2019 |publisherScroll.in |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleCookies or biscuits? Data shows use of American English is growing the world over |urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/more-lifestyle/cookies-or-biscuits-data-shows-use-of-american-english-is-growing-the-world-over/story-0j23x5n3jYiF3cTDJm3R0O.html |workHindustan Times |dateJuly 17, 2017 |agencyThe Guardian |access-dateSeptember 10, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Gonçalves |first1Bruno |last2Loureiro-Porto |first2Lucía |last3Ramasco |first3José J. |last4Sánchez |first4David |titleMapping the Americanization of English in Space and Time |journalPLOS ONE |dateMay 25, 2018 |volume13 |issue5 |pagese0197741 |arxiv1707.00781 |bibcode2018PLoSO..1397741G |doi10.1371/journal.pone.0197741 |doi-accessfree |pmid29799872 |pmc=5969760}}</ref>
Varieties of American English include many patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and particularly spelling that are unified nationwide but distinct from other forms of English around the world.{{sfn|Kretzchmar|2004|pages262–263}} Any American or Canadian accent perceived as lacking noticeably local, ethnic, or cultural markers is known in linguistics as General American;<ref name":0" /> it covers a fairly uniform accent continuum native to certain regions of the U.S. but especially associated with broadcast mass media and highly educated speech. However, historical and present linguistic evidence does not support the notion of there being one single mainstream American accent.{{sfn|Labov|2012|pp1–2}}{{sfn|Kretzchmar|2004|page262}} The sound of American English continues to evolve, with some local accents disappearing, but several larger regional accents having emerged in the 20th century.<ref name"PBS">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/speak/ahead/|titleDo You Speak American?: What Lies Ahead?|publisherPBS|access-dateAugust 15, 2007}}</ref>HistoryThe use of English in the United States is a result of British colonization of the Americas. The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America during the early 17th century, followed by further migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, dialects from many different regions of England and the British Isles existed in every American colony, allowing a process of extensive dialect leveling and mixing in which English varieties across the Thirteen Colonies became more homogeneous compared with the varieties in the British Isles.{{sfn|Kretzchmar|2004|pp258–9}}{{sfn|Longmore|2007|pp=517, 520}} English thus predominated in the colonies even by the end of the 17th century's first immigration of non-English speakers from Western Europe and Africa.
Firsthand descriptions of a fairly uniform American English (particularly in contrast to the diverse regional dialects of British English) became common after the mid-18th century,{{sfn|Longmore|2007|p537}} while at the same time speakers' identification with this new variety increased.<ref name "Paulsen2022">{{Cite book
| vauthors=Paulsen I
| title = The emergence of American English as a discursive variety Tracing enregisterment processes in nineteenth-century U.S. newspapers
| place = Berlin
| publisher = Language Science Press
| date = 2022
| format = pdf
| url = http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/341
| doi = 10.5281/zenodo.6207627
| doi-access = free
| isbn = 9783961103386
}}
</ref>
Since the 18th century, American English has developed into some new varieties, including regional dialects that retain minor influences from waves of immigrant speakers of diverse languages, primarily European languages.<ref name"Hickey">Hickey, R. (2014). Dictionary of varieties of English. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 25.</ref><ref namebbc/>
Some racial and regional variation in American English reflects these groups' geographic settlement, their de jure or de facto segregation, and patterns in their resettlement. This can be seen, for example, in the influence of 18th-century Protestant Ulster Scots immigrants (known in the U.S. as the Scotch-Irish) in Appalachia developing Appalachian English and the 20th-century Great Migration bringing African-American Vernacular English to the Great Lakes urban centers.<ref name"Hickey"/><ref>Mufwene, Salikoko S. (1999). "North American Varieties of English as Byproducts of Population Contacts." The Workings of Language: From Prescriptions to Perspectives. Ed. Rebecca Wheeler Westport, CT: Praeger, 15–37.</ref>Phonology{{see also|American and British English pronunciation differences|Comparison of General American and Received Pronunciation}}General American
{{main|General American}}
Most American English accents fall under an umbrella known as General American. Rather than one particular accent, General American is a spectrum of those American accents that Americans themselves do not associate with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. General American features are used most by Americans in formal contexts or who are highly educated. Regional accents whose native features are perceived as General American include the accents of the North Midland (parts of the Midwest), Western New England, and the West.
The General American sound system's scope of influence and degree of expansion has been debated by linguists since the term was first used roughly a century ago. Many late-20th and early-21st century studies are showing that it is gradually ousting the regional accents in urban areas of the South and the interior North, New York City, Philadelphia, and many other areas. It can generally be said that younger Americans are avoiding their traditional local features in favor of this more nationwide norm. Furthermore, even General American itself appears to be evolving, with linguists identifying new features in speakers born since the last quarter of the 20th century, like a merger of the low-back vowels and a potentially related vowel shift, that are spreading across the nation.
Phonological features
Phonological (accent) features that are typical of American dialects&mdash;in contrast to, for example, British dialects&mdash;include features that concern consonants, such as rhoticity (full pronunciation of all historical {{IPA|/r/}} sounds), T-glottalization in certain environments (with satin pronounced {{IPA|[ˈsæʔn̩]}}, not {{IPA|[ˈsætn̩]}}), T- and D-flapping (with metal and medal pronounced the same, as {{IPA|[ˈmɛɾɫ̩]}}), velarization of L in all contexts (with filling pronounced {{IPA|[ˈfɪɫɪŋ]}}, not {{IPA|[ˈfɪlɪŋ]}}), and yod-dropping after alveolar consonants (with new pronounced {{IPA|/nu/}}, not {{IPA|/nju/}}). American features that concern vowel sounds include various vowel mergers before {{IPA|/r/}} (so that Mary, marry, and merry are all commonly pronounced the same), raising and gliding of pre-nasal {{IPA|/æ/}} (with man having a higher and tenser vowel sound than map), the weak vowel merger (with affecting and effecting often pronounced the same), and at least one of the {{sc2|LOT}} vowel mergers; the {{sc2|LOT}}–{{Sc2|PALM}} merger is complete among most Americans and the {{sc2|LOT}}–{{Sc2|THOUGHT}} merger among roughly half. A three-way {{sc2|LOT}}–{{sc2|PALM}}–{{Sc2|THOUGHT}} merger is also very common. Most Americans pronounce the diphthong {{IPA|/aɪ/}} before a voiceless consonant different from that same vowel before a voiced consonant: thus, in price and bright versus in prize and bride. For many, outside the South, the first element of the diphthong is a higher and shorter vowel sound when in pre-voiceless position as opposed to pre-voiced position. All of these phenomena are explained in further detail under General American.{{efn|name=fn3}}
Studies on historical usage of English in both the United States and the United Kingdom suggest that, while spoken American English deviated away from period British English in many ways, it is conservative in a few other ways, preserving certain features 20th- and 21st-century British English has since lost: namely, rhoticity. Unlike American accents, the traditional standard accent of (southern) England has evolved a trap–bath split. Moreover, American accents preserve {{IPA|/h/}} at the start of syllables, while perhaps a majority of the regional dialects of England participate in /h/ dropping, particularly in informal contexts.
Vocabulary
{{main|American English vocabulary|American English regional vocabulary}}
{{see also|Comparison of American and British English#Vocabulary}}
The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking colonists in North America began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from the Native American languages.<ref name"Skeat">{{cite book|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_M7kCAAAAIAAJ |page[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_M7kCAAAAIAAJ/page/n1 1] |quotemoose etymology. |titlePrinciples of English etymology: The native element – Walter William Skeat |publisherAt the Clarendon Press |access-dateJune 1, 2015|last1Skeat |first1Walter William |year1892 }}</ref> Examples of such names are opossum, raccoon, squash, moose (from Algonquian),<ref name"Skeat" /> wigwam, and moccasin. American English speakers have integrated traditionally non-English terms and expressions into the mainstream cultural lexicon; for instance, en masse, from French; cookie, from Dutch; kindergarten from German,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://german.about.com/library/blvoc_gerloan.htm|titleYou Already Know Some German Words!|websiteAbout.com|access-dateJanuary 9, 2017|archive-dateJune 7, 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110607060111/http://german.about.com/library/blvoc_gerloan2.htm|url-statusdead}}</ref> and rodeo from Spanish.<ref>{{cite thesis |urlhttp://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI9308630/ |title"The history of Mexican folk foodways of South Texas: Street vendors, offal foods" |pages1–421 |publisherRepository.upenn.edu |dateJanuary 1, 1992 |access-dateJune 1, 2015|last1Montano |first1Mario }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idROmDu-bYMRYC&qrodeo&pgPA1 |titleWhat's in a Word?: Etymological Gossip about Some Interesting English Words – Robert M. Gorrell |access-dateJune 1, 2015|isbn9780874173673 |last1Gorrell |first1Robert M. |year2001 |publisherUniversity of Nevada Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idp1krAAAAYAAJ&qgaufre%20&pgPA9|titleThe Pocket Gophers of the United States|lastBailey|firstVernon|date1895|publisherU.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy|languageen|access-dateJune 1, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idosQAtpUtDvkC&qstoop&pgPR7 |titleThe American Language: A Preliminary Inquiry Into the Development of English ... – H. L. Mencken |date January 1, 2010|access-dateJune 1, 2015|isbn9781616402594 |last1Mencken |first1H. L. |publisher=Cosimo }}</ref> Landscape features are often loanwords from French or Spanish, and the word corn, used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the maize plant, the most important crop in the U.S.
Other common differences between UK and American English include: aerial (UK) vs. antenna, biscuit (UK) vs. cookie/cracker, car park (UK) vs. parking lot, caravan (UK) vs. trailer, city centre (UK) vs. downtown, flat (UK) vs. apartment, fringe (UK; for hair hanging over the forehead) vs. bangs, and holiday (UK) vs. vacation.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.studyenglishtoday.net/british-american-english.html|titleBritish vs. American English – Vocabulary Differences|websitewww.studyenglishtoday.net|access-dateApril 18, 2019}}{{dead link|dateMarch 2025|botmedic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
Most Mexican Spanish contributions came after the War of 1812, with the opening of the West, like ranch (now a common house style). Due to Mexican culinary influence, many Spanish words are incorporated in general use when talking about certain popular dishes: cilantro (instead of coriander), queso, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, tostadas, fajitas, burritos, and guacamole. These words usually lack an English equivalent and are found in popular restaurants. New forms of dwelling created new terms (lot, waterfront) and types of homes like log cabin, adobe in the 18th century; apartment, shanty in the 19th century; project, condominium, townhouse, mobile home in the 20th century; and parts thereof (driveway, breezeway, backyard).{{Citation needed|dateApril 2010}} Industry and material innovations from the 19th century onwards provide distinctive new words, phrases, and idioms through railroading (see further at rail terminology) and transportation terminology, ranging from types of roads (dirt roads, freeways) to infrastructure (parking lot, overpass, rest area), to automotive terminology often now standard in English internationally.<ref>A few of these are now chiefly found, or have been more productive, outside the U.S.; for example, jump, "to drive past a traffic signal"; block meaning "building", and center, "central point in a town" or "main area for a particular activity" (cf. Oxford English Dictionary).</ref> Already existing English words—such as store, shop, lumber—underwent shifts in meaning; others remained in the U.S. while changing in Britain. Science, urbanization, and democracy have been important factors in bringing about changes in the written and spoken language of the United States.<ref>{{cite thesis|urlhttps://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article9117&contextgradschool_disstheses|titleTrends in Word Compounding in American Speech|authorElizabeth Ball Carr|dateAugust 1954|publisherLouisiana State University}}</ref> From the world of business and finance came new terms (merger, downsize, bottom line), from sports and gambling terminology came, specific jargon aside, common everyday American idioms, including many idioms related to baseball. The names of some American inventions remained largely confined to North America (elevator [except in the aeronautical sense], gasoline) as did certain automotive terms (truck, trunk).{{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}
New foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from Yiddish (chutzpah, schmooze, bupkis, glitch) and German (hamburger, wiener).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date19970923 |titleThe Maven's Word of the Day: gesundheit |publisherRandom House |access-dateMay 29, 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Trudgill|2004}} A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7), while others have not (have a nice day, for sure);<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.oup.com/oald-bin/web_getald7index1a.pl?navon&which_entry009421%23x1%23x1%23day&selected_wordday&search_wordday |titleDefinition of day noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary|publisherOup.com |access-dateMay 29, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.oup.com/oald-bin/web_getald7index1a.pl?navon&which_entry036903%23x1%23x1%23sure&selected_wordsure&search_wordsure#sure_adv |titleDefinition of sure adjective from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary|publisherOup.com |access-date=May 29, 2013}}</ref> many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey, boost, bulldoze and jazz, originated as American slang.
American English has always shown a marked tendency to use words in different parts of speech and nouns are often used as verbs.{{sfn|Trudgill|2004|p69}} Examples of nouns that are now also verbs are interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, hashtag, head, divorce, loan, estimate, X-ray, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, bad-mouth, vacation, major, and many others. Compounds coined in the U.S. are for instance foothill, landslide (in all senses), backdrop, teenager, brainstorm, bandwagon, hitchhike, smalltime, and a huge number of others. Other compound words have been founded based on industrialization and the wave of the automobile: five-passenger car, four-door sedan, two-door sedan, and station-wagon (called an estate car in British English).<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.theword.cz/inotherwords/american-vs-british-smackdown-station-wagon-vs-estate-car/|titleThe Word » American vs. British Smackdown: Station wagon vs. estate car|access-dateApril 18, 2019}}</ref> Some are euphemistic (human resources, affirmative action, correctional facility). Many compound nouns have the verb-and-preposition combination: stopover, lineup, tryout, spin-off, shootout, holdup, hideout, comeback, makeover, and many more. Some prepositional and phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin (win out, hold up, back up/off/down/out, face up to and many others).<ref>British author George Orwell (in English People, 1947, cited in OED s.v. lose) criticized an alleged "American tendency" to "burden every verb with a preposition that adds nothing to its meaning (win out, lose out, face up to, etc.)".</ref>
Noun endings such as -ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster) and -cian (beautician) are also particularly productive in the U.S.{{sfn|Trudgill|2004|p=69}} Several verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize, prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, weatherize, etc.; and so are some back-formations (locate, fine-tune, curate, donate, emote, upholster and enthuse). Among syntactic constructions that arose are outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of, etc. Americanisms formed by alteration of some existing words include notably pesky, phony, rambunctious, buddy, sundae, skeeter, sashay and kitty-corner. Adjectives that arose in the U.S. are, for example, lengthy, bossy, cute and cutesy, punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky.
A number of words and meanings that originated in Middle English or Early Modern English and that have been in everyday use in the United States have since disappeared in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in Lowland Scots. Terms such as fall ("autumn"), faucet ("tap"), diaper ("nappy"; itself unused in the U.S.), candy ("sweets"), skillet, eyeglasses, and obligate are often regarded as Americanisms. Fall, however, came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year".<ref>{{OEtymD|fall}}</ref>{{better source needed|dateAugust 2020}} Gotten (past participle of get) is often considered to be largely an Americanism.<ref namebbc/><ref>A Handbook of Varieties of English, Bernd Kortmann & Edgar W. Schneider, Walter de Gruyter, 2004, p. 115.</ref> Other words and meanings were brought back to Britain from the U.S., especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include hire ("to employ"), I guess (famously criticized by H. W. Fowler), baggage, hit (a place), and the adverbs overly and presently ("currently"). Some of these, for example, monkey wrench and wastebasket, originated in 19th century Britain. The adjectives mad meaning "angry", smart meaning "intelligent", and sick meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American (and Irish) English than British English.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/images/elt/oald7/synald7_angry.gif |titleangry |publisherOxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary |url-statusdead |access-dateMay 29, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130309172328/http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/images/elt/oald7/synald7_angry.gif |archive-dateMarch 9, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/images/elt/oald7/synald7_intelligent.gif |titleintelligent |publisherOxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary |url-statusdead |access-dateMay 29, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130309172334/http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/images/elt/oald7/synald7_intelligent.gif |archive-dateMarch 9, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/ill |titleDefinition of ill adjective from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary |publisherOald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com |access-dateMay 29, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130527173051/http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/ill |archive-dateMay 27, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Linguist Bert Vaux created a survey, completed in 2003, polling English speakers across the United States about their specific everyday word choices, hoping to identify regionalisms.<ref>Vaux, Bert and Scott Golder. 2003. [http://dialect.redlog.net/ The Harvard Dialect Survey] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160430083828/http://dialect.redlog.net/ |dateApril 30, 2016 }}. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Linguistics Department.</ref> The study found that most Americans prefer the term sub for a long sandwich, soda (but pop in the Great Lakes region and generic coke in the South) for a sweet and bubbly soft drink,<ref>Katz, Joshua (2013). [http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jakatz2/files/dialectposter.png "Beyond 'Soda, Pop, or Coke{{' "}}]{{dead link|dateMarch 2025}}. North Carolina State University.</ref> you or you guys for the plural of you (but ''y'all in the South), sneakers for athletic shoes (but often tennis shoes outside the Northeast), and shopping cart for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods.Grammar and orthography
{{Main|American and British English grammatical differences|American and British English spelling differences}}
American English and British English (BrE) differ in somewhat minor ways in their grammar and writing conventions. The first large American dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language'', known as Webster's Dictionary, was written by Noah Webster in 1828, codifying several of these spellings.
Differences in grammar are relatively minor, and do not normally affect mutual intelligibility; these include: typically a lack of differentiation between adjectives and adverbs, employing the equivalent adjectives as adverbs he ran quick/he ran quickly; different use of some auxiliary verbs; formal (rather than notional) agreement with collective nouns; different preferences for the past forms of a few verbs (for example, AmE/BrE: learned/learnt, burned/burnt, snuck/sneaked, dove/dived) although the purportedly "British" forms can occasionally be seen in American English writing as well; different prepositions and adverbs in certain contexts (for example, AmE in school, BrE at school<!--when it means "to be a student"-->); and whether or not a definite article is used, in very few cases (AmE to the hospital, BrE to hospital; contrast, however, AmE actress Elizabeth Taylor, BrE the actress Elizabeth Taylor). Often, these differences are a matter of relative preferences rather than absolute rules; and most are not stable since the two varieties are constantly influencing each other,<ref>Algeo, John (2006). British or American English?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-37993-8}}.</ref> and American English is not a standardized set of dialects.
Differences in orthography are also minor. The main differences are that American English usually uses spellings such as flavor for British flavour, fiber for fibre, defense for defence, analyze for analyse, license for licence, catalog for catalogue and traveling for travelling. Noah Webster popularized such spellings in America, but he did not invent most of them. Rather, "he chose already existing options on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology."<ref>Algeo, John. "The Effects of the Revolution on Language", in A Companion to the American Revolution. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. p.599</ref> Other differences are due to the francophile tastes of the 19th century Victorian era Britain (for example they preferred programme for program, manoeuvre for maneuver, cheque for check, etc.).<ref>Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-62181-X}}, pp. 34 and 511.</ref> AmE almost always uses -ize in words like realize. BrE prefers -ise, but also uses -ize on occasion (see: Oxford spelling).
There are a few differences in punctuation rules. British English is more tolerant of run-on sentences, called "comma splices" in American English, and American English prefers that periods and commas be placed inside closing quotation marks even in cases in which British rules would place them outside. American English also favors the double quotation mark ("like this") over the single ('as here').<ref name="APA">{{cite web
|url= http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2011/08/punctuating-around-quotation-marks.html
|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->
|title=Punctuating Around Quotation Marks
|publisher=Style Guide of the American Psychological Association
|year=2011
|format=blog
|access-date=March 21, 2015}}</ref>
AmE sometimes favors words that are morphologically more complex, whereas BrE uses clipped forms, such as AmE transportation and BrE transport or where the British form is a back-formation, such as AmE burglarize and BrE burgle (from burglar). However, while individuals usually use one or the other, both forms will be widely understood and mostly used alongside each other within the two systems.
Sub-varieties
{{image frame
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|max-width=600
|captionThe map above shows the major regional dialects of American English (in all caps) plus smaller and more local dialects, as demarcated primarily by Labov et al.'s The Atlas of North American English,{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p148}} as well as the related Telsur Project's [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/home.html#regional regional maps]. Any region may also contain speakers of a "General American" accent that resists the marked features of their region. Furthermore, this map does not account for speakers of ethnic or cultural varieties (such as African-American English, Chicano English, Cajun English, etc.).
|mode=scrollable
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While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents, alongside mostly minor distinctions in vocabulary, grammatical structures, and other features.
Regional accents
{{Main|Regional vocabularies of American English|North American English regional phonology}}
The regional sounds of present-day American English are reportedly engaged in a complex phenomenon of "both convergence and divergence": some accents are homogenizing and leveling, while others are diversifying and deviating further away from one another.{{sfn|Labov|2012}} In 2010, William Labov noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone "vigorous new sound changes" since the mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they "are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago", while other accents, like those of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame.{{sfn|Labov|2012}}
Having been settled longer than the American West Coast, the East Coast has had more time to develop unique accents, and it currently comprises three or four linguistically significant regions, each of which possesses English varieties both different from each other as well as quite internally diverse: New England, the Mid-Atlantic states (including a New York accent as well as a unique Philadelphia–Baltimore accent), and the South. As of the 20th century, the middle and eastern Great Lakes area, Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, also ushered in certain unique features, including the fronting of the {{sc2|LOT}} {{IPA|/ɑ/}} vowel in the mouth toward {{IPA|[a]}} and tensing of the {{sc2|TRAP}} {{IPA|/æ/}} vowel wholesale to {{IPA|[eə]}}. These sound changes have triggered a series of other vowel shifts in the same region, known by linguists as the "Inland North".{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p190}} The Inland North shares with the Eastern New England dialect (including Boston accents) a backer tongue positioning of the {{Sc2|GOOSE}} {{IPA|/u/}} vowel (to {{IPA|[u]}}) and the {{Sc2|MOUTH}} {{IPA|/aʊ/}} vowel (to {{IPA|[ɑʊ~äʊ]}}) in comparison to the rest of the country.{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp230}} Ranging from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, another Northern regional marker is the variable fronting of {{IPA|/ɑ/}} before {{IPA|/r/}},{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p111}} for example, appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston shibboleth Park the car in Harvard Yard.<ref>{{cite book|lastVorhees|firstMara|titleBoston. Con Pianta. Ediz. Inglese|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ida0sQ5UzkiQUC&pgPA52|year2009|publisherLonely Planet|isbn978-1-74179-178-5|page=52}}</ref>
throughout the whole country.<ref>Labov, p. 48.{{incomplete short citation|date=March 2025}}</ref>]]
Several other phenomena serve to distinguish regional U.S. accents. Boston, Pittsburgh, Upper Midwestern, and Western U.S. accents have fully completed a merger of the {{Sc2|LOT}} vowel with the {{Sc2|THOUGHT}} vowel ({{IPA|/ɑ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, respectively):{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p60}} a cot–caught merger, which is rapidly spreading throughout the whole country. However, the South, Inland North, and a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserve an older cot–caught distinction.{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p190}} For that Northeastern corridor, the realization of the {{sc2|THOUGHT}} vowel is particularly marked, as depicted in humorous spellings, like in tawk and cawfee (talk and coffee), which intend to represent it being tense and diphthongal: {{IPA|[oə]}}.<ref>{{cite book |chapterNew England |chapter-urlhttp://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/Atlas_chapters/Ch16_2nd.rev.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/Atlas_chapters/Ch16_2nd.rev.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive |last1Labov |first1William |last2Ash |first2Sharon |last3Boberg |first3Charles |titleThe Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology and Sound Change |dateJanuary 1, 2005 |quoteThis phonemic and phonetic arrangement of the low back vowels makes Rhode Island more similar to New York City than to the rest of New England}}</ref> A split of {{sc2|TRAP}} into two separate phonemes, using different a pronunciations for example in gap {{IPA|[æ]}} versus gas {{IPA|[eə]}}, further defines New York City as well as Philadelphia–Baltimore accents.{{sfnp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=173}}
Most Americans preserve all historical {{IPA|/r/}} sounds, using what is known as a rhotic accent. The only traditional r-dropping (or non-rhoticity) in regional U.S. accents variably appears today in eastern New England, New York City, and some of the former plantation South primarily among older speakers (and, relatedly, some African-American Vernacular English across the country), though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird", "work", "hurt", "learn", etc. usually retains its r pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic American accents. Non-rhoticity among such speakers is presumed to have arisen from their upper classes' close historical contact with England, imitating London's r-dropping, a feature that has continued to gain prestige throughout England from the late 18th century onwards,{{sfn|Trudgill|2004|pp46–47}} but which has conversely lost prestige in the U.S. since at least the early 20th century.{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp5, 47}} Non-rhoticity makes a word like car sound like cah or source like sauce.{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=137, 141}}
New York City and Southern accents are the most widely recognized regional accents in the country, as well as the most stigmatized and socially disfavored.<ref>{{multiref|1Hayes, Dean (2013). "[http://digitalrepository.unm.edu/ling_etds/15 The Southern Accent and 'Bad English': A Comparative Perceptual Study of the Conceptual Network between Southern Linguistic Features and Identity]". UNM Digital Repository: Electronic Theses and Dissertations. pp. 5, 51.|2Gordon, Matthew J.; Schneider, Edgar W. (2008). "[https://books.google.com/books?idbGjixKTt9JcC&pgPA67 New York, Philadelphia, and other northern cities: Phonology]". Varieties of English 2: 67–86.|3Hartley, Laura (1999). [https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/lang_fac/17 A View from the West: Perceptions of U.S. Dialects from the Point of View of Oregon]. Faculty Publications – Department of World Languages, Sociology & Cultural Studies. 17.|4Yannuar, N.; Azimova, K.; Nguyen, D. (2014). "[http://kata.petra.ac.id/index.php/ing/article/view/18880 Perceptual Dialectology: Northerners and Southerners' View of Different American Dialects]". k@ta, 16(1), pp. 11, 13.}}</ref> Southern speech, strongest in southern Appalachia and certain areas of Texas, is often identified by Americans as a "country" accent,<ref name"Hayes, 2013, p. 51">Hayes, 2013, p. 51.</ref> and is defined by the {{IPA|/aɪ/}} vowel losing its gliding quality: {{IPA|[aː]}}, the initiation event for a complicated Southern vowel shift, including a "Southern drawl" that makes short front vowels into distinct-sounding gliding vowels.{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p125}} The fronting of the vowels of {{sc2|GOOSE}}, {{sc2|GOAT}}, {{sc2|MOUTH}}, and {{sc2|STRUT}} tends to also define Southern accents as well as the accents spoken in the "Midland": a vast band of the country that constitutes an intermediate dialect region between the traditional North and South. Western U.S. accents mostly fall under the General American spectrum.
Below, ten major American English accents are defined by their particular combinations of certain vowel sounds:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Accent name !! |Most populous city !! Strong {{IPA|/aʊ/}} fronting !! Strong {{IPA|/oʊ/}} fronting !! Strong {{IPA|/u/}} fronting !! Strong {{IPA|/ɑr/}} fronting !! Cot–caught merger !! Pin–pen merger !! /æ/ raising system
|-
| General American || || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Partial|Mixed}} || {{No}} || pre-nasal
|-
| Inland Northern || Chicago || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || general
|-
| Midland || Indianapolis || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{Partial|Mixed}} || {{Partial|Mixed}} || pre-nasal
|-
| New York City || New York City || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || split
|-
| North-Central (Upper Midwestern) || Minneapolis || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{Partial|Mixed}} || {{No}} || pre-nasal & pre-velar
|-
| {{nowrap|Northeastern New England}} || Boston || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || pre-nasal
|-
| Philadelphia/Baltimore || Philadelphia || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || split
|-
| Southern || San Antonio<!-- Houston is the largest city in Texas, but it barely falls under the Southern dialect, according to ANAE p. 131 -->|| {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{Partial|Mixed}} || {{Yes}} || Southern
|-
| Western || Los Angeles || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || pre-nasal
|-
| Western Pennsylvania || Pittsburgh || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{Partial|Mixed}} || pre-nasal
|}
Other varieties
Although no longer region-specific,{{sfn|Trudgill|2004|p42}} African-American Vernacular English, which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class African Americans, has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including hip hop culture. Hispanic and Latino Americans have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are Chicano English, spoken in the West and Midwest, and New York Latino English, spoken in the New York metropolitan area. Additionally, ethnic varieties such as Yeshiva English and "Yinglish" are spoken by some American Orthodox Jews, Cajun Vernacular English by some Cajuns in southern Louisiana, and Pennsylvania Dutch English by some Pennsylvania Dutch people. American Indian Englishes have been documented among diverse Indian tribes. The island state of Hawaii, though primarily English-speaking, is also home to a creole language known commonly as Hawaiian Pidgin, and some Hawaii residents speak English with a Pidgin-influenced accent. American English also gave rise to some dialects outside the country, for example, Philippine English, beginning during the American occupation of the Philippines and subsequently the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands; Thomasites first established a variation of American English in these islands.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastDayag|firstDanilo|date2004|titleThe English-language media in the Philippines|journalWorld Englishes|volume23|pages33–45|doi10.1111/J.1467-971X.2004.00333.X|s2cid145589555}}</ref>
Nationwide usage and status
{{main|Languages of the United States}}
thumb|upright1.35 |altMap of United States Official Language Status By State|Map of U.S. official language status by state.
{{Legend|#000081|English declared the official language}}
{{Legend|#8181ff|Multiple official languages, including English (Alaska, Hawaii, South Dakota), or languages with special status (New Mexico)}}
{{Legend|#d4d4d4|No official language specified.}}
In 2021, about 245 million Americans, aged 5 or above, spoke English at home: a majority of the United States total population of roughly 330 million people.<ref name"ACS2021">{{cite web |titleACS B16001 |urlhttps://data.census.gov/table?qB16001:+LANGUAGE+SPOKEN+AT+HOME+BY+ABILITY+TO+SPEAK+ENGLISH+FOR+THE+POPULATION+5+YEARS+AND+OVER&g0100000US&tidACSDT1Y2021.B16001&moetrue |websiteACS B16001 |publisherU.S. Census Bureau |access-dateApril 12, 2024}}</ref>
Of the 50 states, 32 have adopted legislation granting official (or co-official) status to English within their jurisdictions, in some cases as part of what has been called the English-only movement.<ref name"WestVirginia">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.us-english.org/view/1034 |titleU.S. English Efforts Lead West Virginia to Become 32nd State to Recognize English as Official Language |publisherU.S. English |dateMarch 5, 2016 |url-statusdead |access-dateMay 13, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160401151700/http://us-english.org/view/1034 |archive-dateApril 1, 2016 }}</ref><ref>"[https://www.usenglish.org/us-states-official-english-laws/ Official English]". U.S. English, 2022.</ref> Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American", meaning American English.)<ref>{{cite news |lastCrews |firstHaibert O. |dateJanuary 23, 1923 |titleTalk American, Not English |page10 |workChampaign-Urbana Courier |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/74230858/talk-american-not-english/ |viaNewspapers.com |accessdateMarch 23, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |lastDavis |firstRobert |dateSeptember 24, 1969 |titleNews Briefs: Its Legal—We Speak English |atsec. 1, p. 3 |workChicago Tribune |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/74217269/news-briefs-its-legal-we-speak-english/ |viaNewspapers.com |accessdate=March 23, 2021}}</ref>
While English has always been the language used at the federal and state levels, no official language technically ever existed at the federal level before 2025,<ref>{{Cite web |lastKaur |firstHarmeet |dateMay 20, 2018 |titleFYI: English isn't the official language of the United States |urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2018/05/20/us/english-us-official-language-trnd/index.html |websiteCNN |languageen |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230604020429/https://edition.cnn.com/2018/05/20/us/english-us-official-language-trnd/index.html |archive-date June 4, 2023 }}</ref> when President Donald Trump issued an executive order declaring English the official language.
Puerto Rico is the only United States territory in which another language – Spanish – is the common language at home, in public, and in government.
See also
{{Portal|United States|Language}}
* American and British English spelling differences
* Canadian English
* Dictionary of American Regional English
* International English
* Sound correspondences between English accents
* International Phonetic Alphabet chart for the English Language
* List of English words from Indigenous languages of the Americas
* Phonological history of English
* Regional accents of English
Notes
{{notelist|refs{{efn|namefn2|<code>en-US</code> is the language code for U.S. English, as defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) and Internet standards (see IETF language tag).}}
{{efn|name=fn3|Dialects are considered "rhotic" if they pronounce the r sound in all historical environments, without ever "dropping" this sound. The father–bother merger is the pronunciation of the unrounded {{IPA|/ɒ/}} vowel variant (as in cot, lot, bother, etc.) the same as the {{IPA|/ɑ/}} vowel (as in spa, haha, Ma), causing words like con and Kahn and like sob and Saab to sound identical, with the vowel usually realized in the back or middle of the mouth as {{IPA|[ɑ~ɑ̈]}}. Finally, most of the U.S. participates in a continuous nasal system of the "short a" vowel (in cat, trap, bath, etc.), causing {{IPA|/æ/}} to be pronounced with the tongue raised and with a glide quality (typically sounding like {{IPA|[ɛə]}}) particularly when before a nasal consonant; thus, mad is {{IPA|[mæd]}}, but man is more like {{IPA|[mɛən]}}.}}
}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
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* {{cite journal
|last1=Delattre
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|last2=Freeman
|first2=D.C.
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|title=A dialect study of American R's by x-ray motion picture
|journal=Linguistics
|volume=44
|pages=29–68
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Duncan
|first=Daniel
|year=2016
|chapter='Tense' /æ/ is still lax: A phonotactics study
|editor1-last=Hansson
|editor1-first=Gunnar Ólafur
|editor2-last=Farris-Trimble
|editor2-first=Ashley
|editor3-last=McMullin
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|editor4-last=Pulleyblank
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|title=Supplemental Proceedings of the 2015 Annual Meeting on Phonology
|series=Proceedings of the Annual Meetings on Phonology
|volume=3
|location=Washington, D.C.
|publisher=Linguistic Society of America
|doi=10.3765/amp.v3i0.3653
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* {{cite journal
|doi=10.1006/jpho.1999.0097
|last1=Hallé
|first1=Pierre A.
|last2=Best
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|last3=Levitt
|year=1999
|title=Phonetic vs. phonological influences on French listeners' perception of American English approximants
|journal=Journal of Phonetics
|volume=27
|pages=281–306
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|issue=3
}}
* {{cite book |last1Jones |first1Daniel |last2Roach |first2Peter |last3Hartman |first3James |titleEnglish Pronouncing Dictionary |date2006 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-68086-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjGSXwqTCwpkC |access-dateFebruary 20, 2021 |languageen}}
* {{cite book |last1Kortmann |first1Bernd |last2Schneider |first2Edgar W. |titleA Handbook of Varieties of English |date2004 |publisherWalter de Gruyter GmbH & Company KG |isbn978-3-11-017532-5 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDptsvykgk3IC |access-dateFebruary 20, 2021 |languageen}}
* {{citation|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmtd3a-56ysUC|titleA Handbook of Varieties of English|author-firstWilliam A.|author-lastKretzchmar|editor-firstBernd|editor-lastKortmann|editor2-firstEdgar W.|editor2-lastSchneider|publisherMouton de Gruyter|locationBerlin/New York|year2004|isbn= 9783110175325}}
* {{cite book |lastLabov |firstWilliam |date2012 |titleDialect diversity in America: The politics of language change |publisher=University of Virginia }}
* {{cite journal
|last=Labov
|first=William
|year=2007
|title=Transmission and Diffusion
|journal=Language
|volume=83
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|doi=10.1353/lan.2007.0082
|jstor=40070845
|citeseerx=10.1.1.705.7860
|s2cid=6255506
|urlhttps://www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/Papers/TD.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/Papers/TD.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 |url-statuslive
}}<!-- Referenced in Template:/æ/ raising in North American English -->
* {{Cite book|last1Labov|first1William|author-linkWilliam Labov|last2Ash|first2Sharon|last3Boberg|first3Charles|author3-linkCharles Boberg|year2006|titleThe Atlas of North American English|locationBerlin|publisherMouton de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-016746-7}}
* {{cite journal |lastLongmore |firstPaul K. |date2007 |jstor4139476 |title'Good English without Idiom or Tone': The Colonial Origins of American Speech |journalThe Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume37 |issue4 |pages513–542 |publisherMIT |doi10.1162/jinh.2007.37.4.513 |s2cid143910740 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |author-linkPeter Trudgill |lastTrudgill |firstPeter |date2004 |title=New-Dialect Formation: The Inevitability of Colonial Englishes }}
* {{cite book |last1Wells |first1John |titleLongman Pronunciation Dictionary |date2008 |publisherPearson |isbn978-1-4058-8118-0 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWKIV967F1n4C |access-dateFebruary 20, 2021 |languageen}}
* {{Accents of English}}
* {{cite journal
|doi=10.1159/000259995
|last1=Zawadzki
|first1=P.A.
|last2=Kuehn
|first2=D.P.
|year=1980
|title=A cineradiographic study of static and dynamic aspects of American English /r/
|journal=Phonetica
|volume=37
|issue=4
|pages=253–266
|pmid=7443796
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{{Refend}}
Further reading
* Bailey, Richard W. (2012). Speaking American: A History of English in the United States 20th–21st-century usage in different cities
* {{Cite book|lastBartlett|firstJohn R.|author-linkJohn Russell Bartlett|year1848|titleDictionary of Americanisms: A Glossary of Words and Phrases Usually Regarded As Peculiar to the United States|locationNew York|publisher=Bartlett and Welford}}
* Garner, Bryan A. (2003). ''Garner's Modern American Usage. New York: Oxford University Press.
* {{cite book|lastMencken|firstH. L.|author-linkH. L. Mencken|orig-year1921|year1977|titleThe American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States |edition4th |locationNew York|publisherKnopf|title-linkThe American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States}}
History of American English
* Bailey, Richard W. (2004). "American English: Its origins and history". In E. Finegan & J. R. Rickford (Eds.), Language in the USA: Themes for the twenty-first century (pp.&nbsp;3–17). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Finegan, Edward. (2006). "English in North America". In R. Hogg & D. Denison (Eds.), A history of the English language (pp.&nbsp;384–419). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
External links
{{Wiktionary|American English}}
{{NIE Poster|Americanisms|year=1905}}
{{Wikiversity|American English}}
* [https://www.pbs.org/speak/ Do You Speak American]: PBS special
* [http://www4.uwm.edu/FLL/linguistics/dialect/maps.html Dialect Survey] of the United States, by Bert Vaux et al.'', Harvard University.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150713193617/http://us.english.uga.edu/cgi-bin/lapsite.fcgi/ Linguistic Atlas Projects]
* [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/home.html Phonological Atlas of North America] at the University of Pennsylvania
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080821121056/http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/ Speech Accent Archive]
* [http://dare.wisc.edu Dictionary of American Regional English]
* [http://aschmann.net/AmEng/ Dialect maps based on pronunciation]
{{Navboxes
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Category:Dialects of English
Category:North American English
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.482389
|
1893
|
Albert Spalding
|
{{Short description|American pitcher, manager, and business executive (1849–1915)}}
{{other people}}
{{Infobox baseball biography
| name = Albert Goodwill Spalding
| alt = AG Spalding
| image = AGSpalding.jpg
| caption = Spalding in 1910
| position = Pitcher
| bats = Right
| throws = Right
| birth_date September 2, 1849|birth_placeByron, Illinois, U.S.
| death_date {{death date and age|mfyes|1915|9|9|1849|9|2}}|death_place=San Diego, California, U.S.
| debutleague = MLB
| debutdate = May 5
| debutyear = 1871
| debutteam = Boston Red Stockings
| finalleague = MLB
| finaldate = August 31
| finalyear = 1878
| finalteam = Chicago White Stockings
| statleague = MLB
| stat1label = Win–loss record
| stat1value = 252–65
| stat2label = Earned run average
| stat2value = 2.14
| stat3label = Strikeouts
| stat3value = 248
| stat4label = Batting average
| stat4value = .313
| stat5label = Hits
| stat5value = 613
| stat6label = Runs batted in
| stat6value = 338
| teams =
;&nbsp; National Association of Base Ball Players
: Rockford Forest Citys ({{baseball year|1866}}–{{baseball year|1870}})
;&nbsp; League Player
: Boston Red Stockings ({{baseball year|1871}}–{{baseball year|1875}})
: Chicago White Stockings ({{baseball year|1876}}–{{baseball year|1878}})
;&nbsp; League Manager
: Chicago White Stockings ({{baseball year|1876}}–{{baseball year|1877}})
| highlights =
* 4× NA pennant (1872–1875)
* NL pennant (1876)
* 6× Wins leader (1871–1876)
* Chicago Cubs Hall of Fame
|hoflink = National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum
|hoftype = National
| hofdate = 1939
| hofmethod = Old-Timers Committee
}}
Boston Red Stockings baseball card.]]
Albert Goodwill Spalding (September 2, 1849 – September 9, 1915) was an American pitcher, manager, and executive in the early years of professional baseball, and the co-founder of the Spalding sporting goods company. He was born and raised in Byron, Illinois, yet graduated from Rockford Central High School in Rockford, Illinois. He played major league baseball between 1871 and 1878. Spalding set a trend when he started wearing a baseball glove.
After his retirement as a player, Spalding remained active with the Chicago White Stockings as president and part-owner. In the 1880s, he took players on the first world tour of baseball. With William Hulbert, Spalding organized the National League. He later called for the commission that investigated the origins of baseball and falsely credited Abner Doubleday with creating the game.
He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1939.<ref name"fame">{{cite web|urlhttp://baseballhall.org/hof/spalding-al|titleSpalding, Al|workNational Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum|access-date19 November 2013}}</ref>Baseball careerPlayer
Having played baseball throughout his youth, Spalding first played competitively with the Rockford Pioneers, a youth team, which he joined in 1865. After pitching his team to a 26–2 victory over a local men's amateur team (the Mercantiles), he was approached at the age of 15 by the Rockford Forest Citys, for whom he played for five years. Following the formation of baseball's first professional organization, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (which became known as the National Association, the Association, or NA) in 1871, Spalding joined the Boston Red Stockings (precursor club to the modern Atlanta Braves) and was highly successful; winning 206 games (and losing only 53) as a pitcher and batting .323 as a hitter.
William Hulbert, principal owner of the Chicago White Stockings, did not like the loose organization of the National Association and the gambling element that influenced it, so he decided to create a new organization, which he dubbed the National League of Baseball Clubs. To aid him in this venture, Hulbert enlisted the help of Spalding. Playing to the pitcher's desire to return to his Midwestern roots and challenging Spalding's integrity, Hulbert convinced Spalding to sign a contract to play for the White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs) in 1876. Spalding then coaxed teammates Deacon White, Ross Barnes and Cal McVey, as well as Philadelphia Athletics players Cap Anson and Bob Addy, to sign with Chicago. This was all done under complete secrecy during the playing season because players were all free agents in those days and they did not want their current club and especially the fans to know they were leaving to play elsewhere the next year. News of the signings by the Boston and Philadelphia players leaked to the press before the season ended and all of them faced verbal abuse and physical threats from the fans of those cities.
He was "the premier pitcher of the 1870s", leading the league in victories for each of his six full seasons as a professional.<ref name "fame" /> During each of those years he was his team's only pitcher.<ref name"PBS">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/theymadeamerica/whomade/spalding_hi.html|titleAlbert G. Spalding|workWho Made America?|publisherPBS|access-date19 November 2013}}</ref> In 1876, Spalding won 47 games as the prime pitcher for the White Stockings and led them to win the first-ever National League pennant by a wide margin.<ref name "fame" />
In 1877, Spalding began to use a glove to protect his catching hand. People had used gloves previously, but they were not popular, and Spalding himself was skeptical of wearing one at first. However, once he began donning gloves, he influenced other players to do so.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYOcPDQAAQBAJ&pgPA79|titleOld Time Baseball: America's Pastime in the Gilded Age|lastFrommer|firstHarvey|publisherRowman and Littlefield|year2016|isbn9781630760076|locationGuilford, Connecticut|pages=79–80}}</ref>
Spalding retired from playing baseball in 1878 at the age of 27, although he continued as president and part owner of the White Stockings and a major influence on the National League. Spalding's .796 career winning percentage (from an era when teams played about once or twice a week) is the highest ever by a baseball pitcher, .058 ahead of Negro league star Dave Brown's .738.<ref>[https://www.baseball-reference.com/leaders/jaws_P.shtml Major league pitcher statistics at Baseball Reference]</ref> Spalding was the first pitcher to reach 200 wins.{{fact|dateNovember 2024}}Organizer and executiveIn the months after signing for Chicago, Hulbert and Spalding organized the National League by enlisting the two major teams in the East and the four other top teams in what was then considered to be the West, also known as the jungle. Joining Chicago initially were the leading teams from Cincinnati, Louisville, and St. Louis. The owners of these western clubs accompanied Hulbert and Spalding to New York where they secretly met with owners from New York City, Philadelphia, Hartford, and Boston. Each signed the league's constitution, and the National League was officially born. "Spalding was thus involved in the transformation of baseball from a game of gentlemen athletes into a business and a professional sport."<ref name"Starr">{{cite journal|lastStarr|firstRaymond|dateWinter 1986|titleBook review: A. G. Spalding and the Rise of Baseball|journalJournal of San Diego History|volume32|issue1|urlhttp://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/86winter/spalding.htm}}</ref> Although the National Association held on for a few more seasons, it was no longer recognized as the premier organization for professional baseball. Gradually, it faded out of existence and was replaced by myriad minor leagues and associations around the country.
In 1886, with Spalding as president of the franchise, the Chicago White Stockings (today's Chicago Cubs), began holding spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas,<ref>{{cite web |titlearlington hotel, oaklawn, gangster museum, hot springs baseball trail, historical landmarks |urlhttp://www.hotsprings.org/pages/history-buffs/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180216151214/http://www.hotsprings.org/pages/history-buffs/ |archive-date2018-02-16 |access-date |websiteHot Springs, Arkansas}}</ref><ref name"encyclopediaofarkansas.net">{{cite encyclopedia|urlhttp://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID6221|titleMajor League Spring Training in Hot Springs |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Arkansas}}</ref> which subsequently has been called the "birthplace" of spring training baseball. The location and the training concept was the brainchild of Spalding and his player/manager Cap Anson, who saw that the city and the natural springs created positives for their players. They first played in an area called the Hot Springs Baseball Grounds. Many other teams followed the concept and began training in Hot Springs and other locations.<ref name="encyclopediaofarkansas.net" />
In 1905, after Henry Chadwick wrote an article saying that baseball grew from the British sports of cricket and rounders, Spalding called for a commission to find out the real source of baseball. The commission called for citizens who knew anything about the founding of baseball to send in letters. After three years of searching, on December 30, 1907, Spalding received a letter that (erroneously) declared baseball to be the invention of Abner Doubleday. The commission was biased, as Spalding would not appoint anyone to the commission if they believed the sport was somewhat related to rounders or cricket. Just before the commission issued its findings, in a letter to sportswriter Tim Murnane, Spalding noted, "Our good old American game of baseball must have an American Dad." The project, later called the Mills Commission, concluded that "Base Ball had its origins in the United States" and "the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence available to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, N.Y., in 1839."
Receiving the archives of Henry Chadwick in 1908, Spalding combined these records with his own memories (and biases) to write ''America's National Game'' (published 1911) which, despite its flaws, was probably the first scholarly account of the history of baseball.<ref name="PBS" />
In 1912, Spalding wrote "Neither our wives, our sisters, our daughters, our sweethearts, may play Base Ball on the field... they may play Basket Ball, and achieve laurels; they may play Golf, and receive trophies, but Base Ball is too strenuous for womankind, except as she may take part in grandstands, with applause for the brilliant play, with waiving kerchief to the hero of the three-bagger."<ref name"auto">Playing America's Game, by Adrian Burgos Jr.</ref>BusinessmanIn 1876 while Spalding was playing and organizing the league, Spalding and his brother Walter began a sporting goods store in Chicago, which grew rapidly (14 stores by 1901) and expanded into a manufacturer and distributor of all kinds of sporting equipment. The company became "synonymous with sporting goods"<ref name "Starr" /> and is still a going concern.
Spalding Athletic Library
Spalding, from 1892<ref>Library of Congress. [http://www.memory.loc.gov/service/gdc/scd0001/2013/20130904007ho/20130904007ho.pdf//] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220727040739/http://www.memory.loc.gov/service/gdc/scd0001/2013/20130904007ho/20130904007ho.pdf |date2022-07-27 }} Retrieved Oct. 23, 2020</ref> to 1941,<ref>{{Cite news |date1942-05-22 |titleDoyle, Sports Guides Publisher, Dies in N.Y. |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/press-and-sun-bulletin-doyle-sports-gui/156951786/ |access-date2024-10-11 |workPress and Sun-Bulletin |pages26 |viaNewspapers.com}}</ref> sold books under the name Spalding Athletic Library on many different sports.World Tour
{{main|Spalding World Tour}}
In 1888–1889, Spalding took a group of major league players around the world to promote baseball and Spalding sporting goods. This was the first-ever world baseball tour.<ref name="fame" /> Playing across the western U.S., the tour made stops in Hawaii (although no game was played), New Zealand, Australia, Ceylon, Egypt, Italy, France, and England. The tour returned to grand receptions in New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. The tour included future Hall of Famers Cap Anson and John Montgomery Ward.
The tour was also touted by Spalding as a launching point for baseball to reach the global stage. At a celebratory dinner in Manhattan, he celebrated the tour – perhaps prematurely – for establishing “our national game throughout the world.” Following Spalding's statements, Mark Twain proclaimed that the tour “carried the American name to the outermost parts of the earth, and covered it with glory every time.”
While Spalding and company gushed about their schlep around the world, waxing lyrical about baseball's future as a global sport, in reality, the tour had very little impact on the sport's hold overseas. Sports like soccer, rugby, and cricket had already been established in many other countries due to the presence of European imperialism so baseball had a difficult time gaining popularity in these regions. While baseball did reach a wider global audience, it was due to a larger scale diffusion of the sport rather than the efforts of one magnate, like Spalding envisioned.<ref>{{cite book |last1Ruck |first1Rob |titleThe Oxford Handbook of Sports History |last2Edelman |first2Robert |last3Wilson |first3Wayne |date2020 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn9780197520956 |locationNew York, NY |pages197–198 |access-date=}}</ref>
While the players were on the tour, the National League instituted new rules regarding player pay that led to a revolt of players, led by Ward, who started the Players' League the following season (1890). The league lasted one year, partially due to the anti-competitive tactics of Spalding to limit its success. The tour and formation of the Player's League is depicted in the 2015 movie Deadball.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt4531902/|titleDeadball|date15 March 2015|publisherInternet Movie Database}}</ref>
1900 Olympics
In 1900 Spalding was appointed by President McKinley as the USA's Commissioner at that year's Summer Olympic Games.<ref name "PBS" />Other activitiesSpalding had been a prominent member of the Theosophical Society under William Quan Judge. In 1900, Spalding moved to San Diego having recently married his second wife, Elizabeth<ref name"Starr" /> and became a prominent member and supporter of the Theosophical community Lomaland, which was being developed on Point Loma by Katherine Tingley. He built an estate in the Sunset Cliffs area of Point Loma where he lived with Elizabeth for the rest of his life. The Spaldings raised race horses and collected Chinese fine furniture and art.
The Spaldings had an extensive library which included many volumes on Theosophy, art, and literature. In 1907–1909 he was the driving force behind the development of a paved road, known as the "Point Loma boulevard," from downtown San Diego to Point Loma and Ocean Beach; the road also provided good access to Lomaland. It later provided the basis for California State Route 209.<ref>{{cite news |titleStreet Work Pay is Puzzle |workThe San Diego Union and Daily Bee |dateApril 23, 1909 |authorStaff |page8}}</ref> He proposed the project, supervised it on behalf of the city, and paid a portion of the cost out of his own pocket. He joined with George Marston and other civic-minded businessmen to purchase the site of the original Presidio of San Diego, which they developed as a historic park and eventually donated to the city of San Diego.<ref name"Marston">{{cite journal|lastEpstein |firstMichael J.|dateSummer–Fall 2004|titleGeorge White Marston: Baseball Player|journalJournal of San Diego History|volume50|issue3–4|page93 |urlhttp://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/v50-3/baseball.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/v50-3/baseball.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> He ran unsuccessfully for the United States Senate in 1911 as a Republican, but lost to eventual winner John D. Works by a vote of 92–21 in the California legislature.<ref name"Marston" /> He helped to organize the 1915 Panama–California Exposition, serving as second vice-president.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sandiegohistory.org/pancal/sdexpo30.htm|titlePanama-California Exposition, San Diego, 1915–1916|workSan Diego History Center|access-date19 November 2013|archive-date3 April 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160403135711/https://www.sandiegohistory.org/pancal/sdexpo30.htm|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Death
He died of a stroke on September 9, 1915, in San Diego, one week after his 66th birthday.<ref>{{cite web |lastMcMahon |firstBill |titleAl Spalding |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/Al-Spalding/ |access-date2024-10-11 |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research}}</ref> His ashes were scattered at his request.<ref name"retrospalding">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.retrosheet.org/boxesetc/S/Pspala101.htm|titleAl Spalding's career statistics|workretrosheet.org|publisherRetrosheet, Inc|access-date25 November 2009}}</ref><ref name"referspalding">{{cite web |titleAl Spalding's career statistics |urlhttps://www.baseball-reference.com/players/s/spaldal01.shtml |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100105004125/http://www.baseball-reference.com/players/s/spaldal01.shtml |archive-date5 January 2010 |access-date2024-10-11 |workBaseball-Reference.com}}</ref>
Legacy
He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in 1939, as one of the first inductees from the 19th century at that summer's opening ceremonies. His plaque in the Hall of Fame reads "Albert Goodwill Spalding. Organizational genius of baseball's pioneer days. Star pitcher of Forest City Club in late 1860s, 4-year champion Bostons 1871–75 and manager-pitcher of champion Chicagos in National League's first year. Chicago president for 10 years. Organizer of baseball's first round-the-world tour in 1888."<ref name="fame"/>
His nephew, also named Albert Spalding, was a renowned violinist.
{{Commons category|Albert Spalding}}
See also
{{Portal|Baseball}}
*List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders
*List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders
*List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders
*List of Major League Baseball player-managers
*Major League Baseball titles leaders
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
*{{cite book
| last =Lamster
| first =Mark
| title =Spalding's World Tour
| publisher =Public Affairs
| year =2006
| location =New York
| isbn = 1-58648-311-0 }}
*{{cite book
| last =Levine
| first =Peter
| title =A.G. Spalding and the Rise of Baseball
| publisher =Oxford University Press
| year =1985
| location =New York
| isbn =0-19-503552-6
| url-access =registration
| url =https://archive.org/details/agspaldingriseof0000levi
}}
*Bales, Jack (2019). [https://mcfarlandbooks.com/product/Before-They-Were-the-Cubs/ Before They Were the Cubs: The Early Years of Chicago’s First Professional Baseball Team.] Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
External links
* {{Baseballhof|spalding-al}}
* {{Baseballstats | br=s/spaldal01 }}
* {{Internet Archive author |snameAlbert Goodwill Spalding |soptt}}
* [http://www.spalding.com Official webpage of Spalding's company]
{{S-start}}
{{Succession box
| before=William Hulbert
| title=Owner of the Chicago Cubs
| years=1882 &mdash; 1902
| after=Jim Hart}}
{{S-end}}
{{1872 Boston Red Stockings}}
{{1873 Boston Red Stockings}}
{{1874 Boston Red Stockings}}
{{1875 Boston Red Stockings}}
{{1876 Chicago White Stockings}}
{{Chicago Cubs Hall of Fame}}
{{Chicago Cubs HOF}}
{{Chicago Cubs Opening Day starting pitchers}}
{{Chicago Cubs managers|width=100%}}
{{Chicago Cubs owners}}
{{Chicago Cubs Presidents}}
{{NL wins champions}}
{{Presidents of the United States Olympic Committee}}
{{1939 Baseball HOF}}
{{Baseball Hall of Fame members}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Spalding, Albert}}
Category:Baseball executives
Category:Sports equipment makers
Category:1849 births
Category:1915 deaths
Category:19th-century baseball players
Category:19th-century American sportsmen
Category:American Theosophists
Category:Baseball players from Rockford, Illinois
Category:Boston Red Stockings players
Category:Chicago White Stockings (original) managers
Category:Chicago White Stockings players
Category:Major League Baseball pitchers
Category:Major League Baseball player-managers
Category:National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Category:National League (baseball) wins champions
Category:Point Loma, San Diego
Category:People from Byron, Illinois
Category:Rockford Forest Citys (NABBP) players
Category:Chicago Cubs owners
Category:American company founders
Category:Presidents of the United States Olympic Committee
Category:Baseball players from San Diego
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Spalding
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.493573
|
1894
|
Africa Alphabet
|
{{Short description|Letters created for African languages}}
{{distinguish|African Reference Alphabet}}
{{Infobox writing system
|name=African Alphabet
|type=alphabet
|time=1928–present
|languages=Languages of Africa
}}
The Africa Alphabet (also International African Alphabet or IAI alphabet) is a set of letters designed as the basis for Latin alphabets for the languages of Africa. It was initially developed in 1928 by the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures from a combination of the English alphabet and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Development was assisted by native speakers of African languages and led by Diedrich Hermann Westermann, who served as director of the organization from 1926 to 1939. The aim of the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures, later renamed the International African Institute (IAI), was to enable people to write for practical and scientific purposes in all African languages without the need of diacritics.
The Africa Alphabet influenced the development of orthographies of many African languages, serving "as the basis for the transcription" of about 60 by one count.<ref>{{harvp|Sow|Abdulaziz|1993|p527}}</ref> Discussion of how to harmonize these with other systems led to several largely abortive proposals such as the African Reference Alphabet and the World Orthography.OverviewThe Africa Alphabet was built from the consonant letters of the English alphabet and the vowel letters, and any additional consonants, of the IPA. Capital forms of IPA letters were invented as necessary. Thus J and Y are pronounced {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}} and {{IPAblink|j}} as in English, while Ɔ, Ɛ and Ŋ are pronounced {{IPAblink|ɔ}}, {{IPAblink|ɛ}} and {{IPAblink|ŋ}} as in the IPA.{{citation needed|dateJuly 2023}}
Characters
{| class="wikitable"
|+International African Alphabet
|-
|{{letter|ch2a|ch1A|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2b|ch1B|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2ɓ|ch1Ɓ|colorblack|note{{noteTag|nameƁ|groch1letters|The capital Ɓ has the form of Ƃ in the original document, which is not the current standard in most languages, but is still preferred for Dan and Kpelle languages of Liberia. Some fonts, such as Gentium, provide for this via character variants.}} }}
|{{letter|ch2c|ch1C|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2d|ch1D|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2ɖ|ch1Ɖ|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2e|ch1E|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2ɛ|ch1Ɛ|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1Ə|ch2ə|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2f|ch1F|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2ƒ|ch1Ƒ|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch2g|ch1G|color=black}}
|-
|{{letter|ch1Ɣ|ch2ɣ|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1H|ch2h|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1X|ch2x|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1I|ch2i|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1J|ch2j|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1K|ch2k|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1L|ch2l|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1M|ch2m|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1N|ch2n|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1Ŋ|ch2ŋ|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1O|ch2o|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1Ɔ|ch2ɔ|color=black}}
|-
|{{letter|ch1P|ch2p|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1R|ch2r|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1S|ch2s|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1Ʃ|ch2ʃ|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1T|ch2t|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1U|ch2u|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1V|ch2v|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1Ʋ|ch2ʋ|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1W|ch2w|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1Y|ch2y|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1Z|ch2z|color=black}}
|{{letter|ch1Ʒ|ch2ʒ|colorblack|note{{noteTag|nameƷ|groch1letters|In the original document, the capital Ʒ has the form of a reversed Σ, which is still preferred for Dagbani language in Ghana. Some fonts, such as Gentium, provide for this via character variants.}} }}
|}
{{noteFoot|groch1letters}}See also
*African Reference Alphabet
*Latin-script alphabet
*Dinka alphabet
*ISO 6438
*Pan-Nigerian alphabet
*Lepsius Standard Alphabet
*Writing systems of Africa
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
*{{cite book |lastCoulmas |firstFlorian |titleThe Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems |year1996 |publisherBlackwell |locationOxford |doi10.1002/9781118932667 |isbn9780631194460}}
*{{cite book |authorInternational Institute of African Languages and Cultures |urlhttp://www.bisharat.net/Documents/poal30.htm |titlePractical Orthography of African Languages |editionRevised |locationLondon |publisherOxford University Press |year1930 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230928031022/http://www.bisharat.net/Documents/poal30.htm |archive-date=2023-09-28}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1Sow |first1Alfa I. |last2Abdulaziz |first2Mohamed H. |titleLanguage and Social Change |editor-firstAli A. |editor-lastMazrui |volume8 |encyclopediaGeneral History of Africa |publisherUniversity of California Press |year=1993}}
Category:Latin alphabets
Category:Writing systems of Africa
Category:Writing systems introduced in 1928
Category:Orthography
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_Alphabet
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.501030
|
1896
|
Acquire
|
{{short description|Business themed board game}}
{{italic title}}
{{for multi|the game developer|Acquire (company)|other uses|Acquisition (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox game
| title = Acquire
|italic title=yes
| subtitle | image_link
| image_caption = The 1999 Hasbro version of Acquire
| designer = Sid Sackson
| illustrator | publisher Hasbro
| date = {{start date and age|1964}}
| players = 2–6
| setup_time = 5 minutes
| playing_time = 90 minutes
| random_chance = Tile drawing
| skills = Tile laying, resource management
| footnotes =
}}
Acquire is a board game published by 3M in 1964 that involves multi-player mergers and acquisitions. It was one of the most popular games in the 3M Bookshelf games series published in the 1960s, and the only one still published in the United States.
Description
Acquire is a board game for 2–6 players in which players attempt to earn the most money by developing and merging hotel chains. When a chain in which a player owns stock is acquired by a larger chain, players earn money based on the size of the acquired chain. At the end of the game, all players liquidate their stock in order to determine which player has the most money. It is played with play money, stock certificates, and tiles representing hotels that are arranged on the board. The components of the game have varied over the years. In particular, the tiles have been made from wood, plastic, and cardboard in various editions of the game.
Set up
Before play begins, the players must decide whether the numbers of players' shares will be public or private information. Keeping this information private can greatly extend the game since players will be less certain of their status, and therefore less willing to end the game.
Each player receives play cash and a small random set of playing tiles and becomes the founder of a nascent hotel chain by drawing and placing a tile representing a hotel on the board. Tiles are ordered, and correspond to spaces on the board. Position of the starting tiles determines order of play.
Gameplay
Play consists of placing a tile on the board and optionally buying stock. The placed tile may found a new hotel chain, grow an existing one or merge two or more chains. Chains are sets of edge-wise adjacent tiles. Founders receive a share of stock in new chains. A chain can become "safe", immune to acquisition, by attaining a specified size. Following placement of a tile, the player may then buy a limited number of shares of stock in existing chains. Shares have a market value determined by the size and stature of the hotel chain. At the end of his or her turn, the player receives a new tile to replace the one played.
When mergers occur, the smaller chain becomes defunct, and its tiles are then part of the acquiring chain. The two largest shareholders in the acquired chain receive cash bonuses; players may sell their shares in the defunct chain, trade them in for shares of the acquiring chain, or keep them. Mergers between 3 or more chains are handled in order from larger to smaller.
Ending the game
A player during their turn may declare the game at an end if the largest chain exceeds a specified size (about 40% of the board), or all chains on the board are too large to be acquired. When the game ends, shareholder bonuses
are paid to the two largest shareholders of each chain, and players cash out their shares at market price (shares in any defunct chains are worthless). The player with the most money wins.
Publication history
When Sid Sackson was a child, he played a Milton Bradley gambling-themed board game titled Lotto. When he became a game designer, Sackson reworked the game into a wargame he called Lotto War. In 1962, Sackson and Alex Randolph were commissioned by 3M to start a new games division. When Sackson submitted Lotto War to 3M the following year, he retitled the game Vacation. 3M suggested changing the name to Acquire, and Sackson agreed. The game was test marketed in several U.S. cities in 1963, and production began in 1964 as a part of the 3M Bookshelf games series.<ref name"HG">{{Cite book | contributionAcquire | titleHobby Games: The 100 Best | lastShelley | firstBruce C. | author-linkBruce Shelley | editor-lastLowder | editor-firstJames | editor-linkJames Lowder | publisherGreen Ronin Publishing | year2007 | pages1–4 | isbn=978-1-932442-96-0}}</ref>
In 1976, the 3M game division was sold to Avalon Hill and Acquire became part of their bookcase game series. Four years later, Avalon Hill published the computer game Computer Acquire for the PET, Apple II, and TRS-80.<ref name"SG">{{cite magazine|last Mishcon |firstJon |dateNovember 1981 |titleCapsule Reviews|magazineThe Space Gamer|publisherSteve Jackson Games|issue45|pages=33}}</ref>
In 1998, Avalon Hill became part of Hasbro. The new owners reissued a slightly revised version of Acquire in 2000, in which the hotel chains were replaced by fictitious corporations, though the actual gameplay was unchanged. Hasbro soon thereafter discontinued it. In the mid-2000s, the game was transferred to a Hasbro subsidiary, Wizards of the Coast (WotC). In 2008, WotC celebrated "50 years of Avalon Hill Games" with the release of a new edition of Acquire, although the game was not yet 50 years old. In 2016, the game was transferred back to the Hasbro games division and republished in 2016 under the Avalon label, with hotels chains reinstated.
Reception
In ''The Playboy Winner's Guide to Board Games, game designer Jon Freeman compared Cartel (A Gamut of Games) and Acquire, noting that both were "better games which focus on the joining of companies into conglomerates." Freeman thought Acquire had an edge over Cartel "in the quality of its components [...] Acquire''{{'}}s higher price is unquestionably reflected in its packaging and presentation [and deserves] a place in your game library."<ref>{{cite book| last Freeman| first Jon| author-link Jon Freeman (game designer) | title The Playboy Winner's Guide to Board Games| publisher Playboy Press| date 1979| location Chicago| pages 19–21| isbn =0872165620 }}</ref>
Games Magazine included Acquire in their "Top 100 Games" in four consecutive years:
* In 1980 the editors praised it as a "classic game of getting in on the ground floor" and "proof that you need money to make money", noting that "a delicate sense of timing is important, but greed and a lust for power also help."<ref>{{cite magazine | dateNovember–December 1980 |titleTop 100 Games of 1980 | magazineGames | issue20 | pages=44 }}</ref>
* In 1981, the editors noted that it "combines the flavors of Monopoly and the stock market" and cautioned that "Since the object is to acquire cash, careful timing of investments (and raids on competitors' chains!) is critical to winning".<ref>{{cite magazine | dateNovember–December 1981 |titleTop 100 Games of 1981 | magazineGames | issue26 | pages=42 }}</ref>
* In 1982, the editors commented that "Among family games, this is one of the most strategic."<ref>{{cite magazine|editor-lastSchmittberger|editor-first R. Wayne | dateNovember 1982 |titleThe Top 100 Games 1982|magazineGames| issue33|pages=44}}</ref>
* In 1983, the editors commented "Adding to chains increases their value, but you must anticipate mergers, which occur when someone plays the right connecting tile at the right time."<ref>{{cite magazine|editor-lastSchmittberger|editor-first R. Wayne | dateNovember 1983 |titleThe Top 100 Games 1983|magazineGames| issue45|pages=36}}</ref>
In the December 1993 edition of Dragon (Issue 200), Allen Varney advised readers to ignore the hotel theme: "Supposedly a game of hotel acquisitions and mergers, this is actually a superb abstract game of strategy and capital." Varney called the game "An early masterpiece from [Sid] Sackson, game historian and one of the great designers of our time."<ref namedragon200>{{cite magazine|lastVarney|firstAllen|author-linkAllen Varney| dateDecember 1993 |titleSocial Board Games|magazineDragon|publisherTSR, Inc.|issue200|pages120}}</ref>
Awards
The game was short-listed for the first Spiel des Jahres board game awards in 1979.<ref name="sjd">Spiel des Jahres page for Acquire in German</ref>
GAMES magazine inducted Acquire into their buyers' guide Hall of Fame.<ref name"hof">[http://www.gamesmagazine-online.com/gameslinks/hallofame.html GAMES Magazine Hall of Fame] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100417062722/http://www.gamesmagazine-online.com/gameslinks/hallofame.html |date=2010-04-17 }}. Retrieved 2010-07-26</ref> The magazine's stated criteria for the Hall of Fame encompasses "games that have met or exceeded the highest standards of quality and play value and have been continuously in production for at least 10 years; i.e., classics."
Acquire was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design's Hall of Fame, along with game designer Sid Sackson, in 2011.<ref name"Origins">Origins Awards Hall of Fame for Acquire [http://www.gama.org/OriginsAwards/tabid/2720/Default.aspx Academy Hall of Fame]</ref> It is also one of the Mind Sports Olympiad games.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAcquire |urlhttps://mindsportsolympiad.com/product/acquire-2022/ |access-date2022-07-29 |languageen-US}}</ref>Reviews*Jeux & Stratégie #1 (as "Trust")<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://archive.org/details/jeux-et-strategie-01/page/10/mode/2up | titleJeux & stratégie 01 | dateFebruary 1980 }}</ref>
*Jeux & Stratégie #6<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://archive.org/details/jeux-et-strategie-06/page/46/mode/2up | titleJeux & stratégie 06 | date=December 1980 }}</ref>
*Jeux & Stratégie #51<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://archive.org/details/jeux-et-strategie-51/page/16/mode/2up | titleJeux & stratégie 51 | date=June 1988 }}</ref>
*Games & Puzzles #11<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://archive.org/details/sim_games-and-puzzles_1973-03_11/page/4/mode/2up | titleGames and Puzzles 1973-03: Iss 11 | dateMarch 1973 | publisherA H C Publications }}</ref>
*Games & Puzzles #69<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://boardgamegeek.com/wiki/page/Games_and_Puzzles_magazine | titleGames and Puzzles magazine &#124; Wiki &#124; BoardGameGeek }}</ref>
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons cat}}
* {{bgg|5|Acquire}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151219220614/http://avalonhill.wizards.com/games/acquire Acquire] Wizards of the Coast page
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061231145545/http://www.webnoir.com/bob/sid/acquire.htm Acquire] Webnoir page
* [https://www.acquisitiongames.com/index.php/history-of-acquire/the-origin-of-acquire "The Origin of ACQUIRE"] Acquisition Games page
{{3M bookshelf games}}
{{Avalon Hill}}
{{Hasbro}}
Category:3M bookshelf game series
Category:Avalon Hill games
Category:Board games introduced in 1964
Category:Economic simulation board games
Category:Multiplayer games
Category:Sid Sackson games
Category:Stock market in popular culture
Category:Tile-laying board games
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquire
|
2025-04-05T18:25:49.507975
|
1897
|
Australian English
|
{{Short description|Set of varieties of the English language}}
{{For|Australians of English descent|English Australians}}
{{Use Australian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Australian English
| speakers = 18.5&nbsp;million in Australia
| date = 2021
| ref <ref name"ethn">{{e19|eng|English (Australia)}}</ref>
| speakers2 = 5&nbsp;million L2 speakers of English in Australia (approx. 2021)
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = Germanic
| fam3 = West Germanic
| fam4 = North Sea Germanic
| fam5 = Anglo-Frisian
| fam6 = Anglic
| fam7 = English
| fam8 = British English
| ancestor = Old English
| ancestor2 = Middle English
| ancestor3 = Early Modern English
| ancestor4 = Modern English
| ancestor5 = 18th century British English
| script Latin (English alphabet)<br />Unified English Braille<ref namebraille>{{cite web|urlhttp://brailleaustralia.org/unified-english-braille/|titleUnified English Braille|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date18 May 2016|websiteAustralian Braille Authority|access-date2 January 2017}}</ref>
| isoexception = dialect
| glotto = aust1314
| ietf = {{wikidata|property|references|P305}}
| notice = IPA
| states = Australia
}}
{{ English language}}
Australian English (AusE, AusEng, AuE, AuEng, en-AU) is the set of varieties of the English language native to Australia. It is the country's common language and de facto national language. While Australia has no official language, English is the first language of the majority of the population, and has been entrenched as the de facto national language since the onset of British settlement, being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of Australians in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |titleAustralia |urlhttps://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS |access-date6 March 2025 |websiteAustralian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> It is also the main language used in compulsory education, as well as federal, state and territorial legislatures and courts.
Australian English began to diverge from British and Hiberno-English after the First Fleet established the Colony of New South Wales in 1788. Australian English arose from a dialectal melting pot created by the intermingling of early settlers who were from a variety of dialectal regions of Great Britain and Ireland,<ref name"Burridge 2020 178¬-181">{{cite book |lastBurridge |firstKate |editor-lastWilloughby |editor-firstLouisa |titleAustralian English Reimagined: Structure, Features and Developments |publisherRoutledge |date2020 |pages178¬–181 |chapterChapter 11: History of Australian English |isbn978-0-367-02939-5}}</ref> though its most significant influences were the dialects of South East England.<ref name"Moore 2008 69">{{cite book |lastMoore |firstBruce |titleSpeaking our Language: the Story of Australian English |publisherOxford University Press |year2008 |isbn978-0-19-556577-5 |locationSouth Melbourne |page69}}</ref> By the 1820s, the native-born colonists' speech was recognisably distinct from speakers in Britain and Ireland.<ref name":0">{{cite book |lastBurridge |firstKate |titleAustralian English Reimagined: Structure, Features and Developments |date2020 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-367-02939-5 |editor-lastWilloughby |editor-firstLouisa |pages181, 183 |chapter=Chapter 11: History of Australian English}}</ref>
Australian English differs from other varieties in its phonology, pronunciation, lexicon, idiom, grammar and spelling.<ref>{{cite book |lastCox |firstFelicity |editor-lastWilloughby |editor-firstLouisa |titleAustralian English Reimagined: Structure, Features and Developments |publisherRoutledge |date2020 |pages15 |chapterChapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology of Australian English |isbn978-0-367-02939-5}}</ref> Australian English is relatively consistent across the continent, although it encompasses numerous regional and sociocultural varieties. "General Australian" describes the de facto standard dialect, which is perceived to be free of pronounced regional or sociocultural markers and is often used in the media.
{{toc limit|3}}
History
Similar to early American English, Australian English passed through a process of extensive dialect levelling and mixing which produced a relatively homogeneous new variety of English which was easily understood by all.<ref name="Burridge 2020 178¬-181" />
The earliest Australian English was spoken by the first generation of native-born colonists in the Colony of New South Wales from the end of the 18th century. These native-born children were exposed to a wide range of dialects from across the British Isles. The dialects of South East England, including most notably the traditional Cockney dialect of London, were particularly influential on the development of the new variety and constituted "the major input of the various sounds that went into constructing" Australian English. All the other regions of England were represented among the early colonists. A large proportion of early convicts and colonists were from Ireland (comprising the 25% of the total convict population), and many of them spoke Irish as a sole or first language. They were joined by other non-native speakers of English from the Scottish Highlands and Wales. Peter Miller Cunningham's 1827 book Two Years in New South Wales described the distinctive accent and vocabulary that had developed among the native-born colonists.<ref name="Moore 2008 69" />
The first of the Australian gold rushes in the 1850s began a large wave of immigration, during which about two percent of the population of the United Kingdom emigrated to the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria.<ref>{{cite book|lastBlainey|firstGeoffrey|titleThe Rush that Never Ended: a History of Australian Mining|year1993|publisherMelbourne University Press|locationCarlton, Vic.|isbn0-522-84557-6|edition4}}</ref> The Gold Rushes brought immigrants and linguistic influences from many parts of the world. An example was the introduction of vocabulary from American English, including some terms later considered to be typically Australian, such as bushwhacker and squatter.<ref>{{cite book|lastBaker|firstSidney J.|titleThe Australian Language|year1945|publisherAngus and Robertson|locationSydney|edition1st}}</ref> This American influence was continued with the popularity of American films from the early 20th century and the influx of American military personnel that settled in Australia and New Zealand during World War II; seen in the enduring persistence of such universally-accepted terms as okay and guys.<ref name"Bell">{{cite book|last1Bell|first1Philip|last2Bell|first2Roger|titleAmericanization and Australia|year1998|publisherUniversity of New South Wales Press|locationSydney|isbn0-86840-784-4|edition1. publ.}}</ref>
The publication of Edward Ellis Morris's Austral English: A Dictionary Of Australasian Words, Phrases And Usages in 1898, which extensively catalogued Australian English vocabulary, started a wave of academic interest and codification during the 20th century which resulted in Australian English becoming established as an endonormative variety with its own internal norms and standards. This culminated in publications such as the 1981 first edition of the Macquarie Dictionary, a major English language dictionary based on Australian usage, and the 1988 first edition of The Australian National Dictionary, a historical dictionary documenting the history of Australian English vocabulary and idiom.
<gallery>
File:The First Fleet entering Port Jackson, January 26, 1788, drawn 1888 A9333001h.jpg|The First Fleet, which brought the English language to Australia
File:Doudiet Swearing allegiance to the Southern Cross.jpg|The Australian gold rushes saw many external influences on the language.
</gallery>
Phonology and pronunciation
{{Main|Australian English phonology}}
The most obvious way in which Australian English is distinctive from other varieties of English is through its unique pronunciation. It shares most similarity with New Zealand English.<ref>Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, 4th ed. London: Arnold. {{ISBN|0-340-80834-9}}, p. 4.</ref> Like most dialects of English, it is distinguished primarily by the phonetic quality of its vowels.<ref>{{cite journal |author1Harrington, J. |author2F. Cox |author3Z. Evans |name-list-styleamp |titleAn acoustic phonetic study of broad, general, and cultivated Australian English vowels |journalAustralian Journal of Linguistics |year1997 |volume17 |pages155–84 |doi10.1080/07268609708599550 |issue 2 }}</ref>Vowels
The vowels of Australian English can be divided according to length. The long vowels, which include monophthongs and diphthongs, mostly correspond to the tense vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation (RP) as well as its centring diphthongs. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, correspond to the RP lax vowels.
There exist pairs of long and short vowels with overlapping vowel quality giving Australian English phonemic length distinction, which is also present in some regional south-eastern dialects of the UK and eastern seaboard dialects in the US.<ref>{{cite web|firstRobert| lastMannell |urlhttp://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/ausenglish/impressionistic.html |titleAustralian English – Impressionistic Phonetic Studies |publisherClas.mq.edu.au|date14 August 2009|access-date26 July 2011| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114743/http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/ausenglish/impressionistic.html| archive-date6 July 2011 | url-status live}}</ref> An example of this feature is the distinction between ferry {{IPA|/ˈfeɹiː/}} and fairy {{IPA|/ˈfeːɹiː/}}.
As with New Zealand English and General American English, the weak-vowel merger is complete in Australian English: unstressed {{IPA|/ɪ/}} is merged into {{IPA|/ə/}} (schwa), unless it is followed by a velar consonant. Examples of this feature are the following pairings, which are pronounced identically in Australian English: ''Rosa's and roses, as well as Lennon and Lenin. Other examples are the following pairs, which rhyme in Australian English: abbott with rabbit, and dig it with bigot.
Most varieties of Australian English exhibit only a partial trap-bath split. The words bath, grass and can't are always pronounced with the "long" {{IPA|/aː/}} of father. Throughout the majority of the country, the "flat" {{IPA|/æ/}} of man is the dominant pronunciation for the a vowel in the following words: dance, advance, plant, example and answer. The exception is the state of South Australia, where a more advanced trap-bath split is found, and where the dominant pronunciation of all the preceding words incorporates the "long" {{IPA|/aː/}} of father.
{|class=wikitable
|-
! colspan="4" |monophthongs
! colspan"2" rowspan"2" |diphthongs
|-
! colspan="2" |short vowels
! colspan="2" |long vowels
|-
! valign"top" align"center" |IPA
!examples
! valign"top" align"center" |IPA
!examples
! valign"top" align"center" |IPA
!examples
|-
|{{IPA|ʊ}}
|foot, hood, chook
|ʉː<ref group="nb">The vowel /ʉː/ is diphthongised in all the major Australian accents; in General Australian, the most widespread Australian accent, the vowel is pronounced as [ɪ̈ɯ]. See Australian English phonology for a more detailed analysis.</ref>
|goose, boo, who'd
|{{IPA|ɪə}}
|near, beard, hear<ref group="nb">The boundary between monophthongs and diphthongs is somewhat fluid: {{IPA|/ɪə/}}, for example, is commonly realised as {{IPA|[ɪː]}}, particularly in closed syllables, though also found in open syllables such as we're, here, and so on. In open syllables particularly, the pronunciation varies from the bisyllabic {{IPA|[ɪːa]}}, through the diphthong {{IPA|[ɪə]}}, to the long vowel {{IPA|[ɪː]}}.</ref>
|-
|ɪ
|kit, bid, hid,
|{{IPA|iː}}<ref group="nb">The vowel /iː/ has an onset [ɪi̯], except before laterals. The onset is often lowered to [əi], so that "beat" is [bəit] for some speakers.</ref>
|fleece, bead, heat
|{{IPA|æɔ}}
|mouth, bowed, h'''ow'<nowiki/>'d
|-
|e
|dress, led, head
|{{IPA|eː}}
|square, bared, haired
|{{IPA|əʉ}}
|goat, bode, hoed
|-
|ə
|comma, about, winter
|{{IPA|ɜː}}
|nurse, bird, heard
|{{IPA|æɪ}}
|face, bait, made
|-
|{{IPA|æ}}
|trap, lad, had
|æː
|bad, sad, mad
|{{IPA|ɑɪ}}
|price, bite, hide
|-
|{{IPA|a}}
|strut, bud, hud
|{{IPA|aː}}
|start, palm, bath
|{{IPA|oɪ}}
|choice, boy, oil
|-
|{{IPA|ɔ}}
|lot, cloth, hot
|oː
|thought, north, force
|
|
|-
| colspan"6" |{{reflist|groupnb}}
|}
Consonants
There is little variation in the sets of consonants used in different English dialects but there are variations in how these consonants are used. Australian English is no exception.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
|-
|+ Australian English consonant phonemes{{sfnp|Cox|Palethorpe|2007|p=343}}
! colspan="2" |
! Labial
! Dental
! Alveolar
! Post-<br />alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| {{IPA link|m}}
|
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plosive
! {{small|fortis}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
|
| {{IPA link|t}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
|
|-
! {{small|lenis}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
|
| {{IPA link|d}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Affricate
! {{small|fortis}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|tʃ}}
|
|
|
|-
! {{small|lenis}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|dʒ}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! {{small|fortis}}
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|θ}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! {{small|lenis}}
| {{IPA link|v}}
| {{IPA link|ð}}
| {{IPA link|z}}
| {{IPA link|ʒ}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
! {{small|central}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɹ}}
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|-
! {{small|lateral}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|
|
|}
Australian English is uniformly non-rhotic; that is, the {{IPA|/ɹ/}} sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant.<ref name":0" /> As with many non-rhotic dialects, linking {{IPA|/ɹ/|catno}} can occur when a word that has a final {{angbr|r}} in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. An intrusive {{IPA|/ɹ/|cat=no}} may similarly be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have {{angbr|r}} in the spelling in certain environments, namely after the long vowel {{IPA|/oː/}} and after word final {{IPA|/ə/}}. This can be heard in "law-r-and order", where an intrusive R is voiced between the AW and the A.
As with North American English, intervocalic alveolar flapping is a feature of Australian English: prevocalic {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} surface as the alveolar tap {{IPA|[ɾ]}} after sonorants other than {{IPA|/m, ŋ/}} as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel in the same breath group. Examples of this feature are that the following pairs are pronounced similarly or identically: latter and ladder, as well as rated and raided.
Yod-dropping generally occurs after {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, {{IPA|/θ/}} but not after {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/n/}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Filppula |first1Markku |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQdk-DgAAQBAJ |titleThe Oxford Handbook of World Englishes |last2Klemola |first2Juhani |last3Sharma |first3Devyani |date2017-02-14 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-067144-0 |pages412 |languageen}}</ref> Accordingly, suit is pronounced as {{IPA|/sʉːt/}}, lute as {{IPA|/lʉːt/}}, Zeus as {{IPA|/zʉːs/}} and enthusiasm as {{IPA|/enˈθʉːziːæzəm/}}. Other cases of {{IPA|/sj/}} and {{IPA|/zj/}}, as well as {{IPA|/tj/}} and {{IPA|/dj/}}, have coalesced to {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}} and {{IPA|/dʒ/}} respectively for many speakers. {{IPA|/j/}} is generally retained in other consonant clusters.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}
In common with most varieties of Scottish English and American English, the phoneme {{IPA|/l/}} is pronounced by Australians as a "dark" (velarised) l ({{IPA|[ɫ]}}) in almost all positions, unlike other dialects such as Received Pronunciation, Hiberno (Irish) English, etc.
Pronunciation
Differences in stress, weak forms and standard pronunciation of isolated words occur between Australian English and other forms of English, which while noticeable do not impair intelligibility.
The affixes -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, -berry and -mony (seen in words such as necessary, mulberry and matrimony) can be pronounced either with a full vowel ({{IPA|/ˈnesəseɹiː, ˈmalbeɹiː, ˈmætɹəməʉniː/}}) or a schwa ({{IPA|/ˈnesəsəɹiː, ˈmalbəɹiː, ˈmætɹəməniː/}}). Although some words like necessary are almost universally pronounced with the full vowel, older generations of Australians are relatively likely to pronounce these affixes with a schwa as is typical in British English. Meanwhile, younger generations are relatively likely to use a full vowel.
Words ending in unstressed -ile derived from Latin adjectives ending in -ilis are pronounced with a full vowel, so that fertile {{IPA|/ˈfɜːtɑɪl/}} sounds like fur tile rather than rhyming with turtle {{IPA|/ˈtɜːtəl/}}.
In addition, miscellaneous pronunciation differences exist when compared with other varieties of English in relation to various isolated words, with some of those pronunciations being unique to Australian English. For example:
* As with American English, the vowel in yoghurt {{IPA|/ˈjəʉɡət/}} and the prefix homo- {{IPA|/ˈhəʉməʉ/}} (as in homosexual or homophobic) are pronounced with {{sc2|GOAT}} rather than {{sc2|LOT}};
* Vitamin, migraine and privacy are all pronounced with {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}} in the stressed syllable ({{IPA|/ˈvɑɪtəmən, ˈmɑɪɡɹæɪn, ˈpɹɑɪvəsiː/}}) rather than {{IPA|/ˈvɪtəmən, ˈmiːɡɹæɪn, ˈpɹɪvəsiː/}};
* Dynasty and patronise, by contrast, are usually subject to trisyllabic laxing ({{IPA|/ˈdɪnəstiː, ˈpætrɔnɑɪz/}}) like in Britain, alongside US-derived {{IPA|/ˈdɑɪnəstiː, ˈpæɪtrɔnɑɪz/}};
* The prefix paedo- (as in paedophile) is pronounced {{IPA|/ˈpedəʉ/}} rather than {{IPA|/ˈpiːdəʉ/}};
* In loanwords, the vowel spelled with {{angbr|a}} is often nativized as the {{sc2|PALM}} vowel ({{IPA|/aː/}}), as in American English, rather than the {{sc2|TRAP}} vowel ({{IPA|/æ/}}), as in British English. For example, pasta is pronounced {{IPA|/ˈpaːstə/}}, analogous to American English {{IPA|/ˈpɑstə/}}, rather than {{IPA|/ˈpæstə/}}, as in British English.
* Urinal is stressed on the first syllable and with the schwa for I: {{IPA|/ˈjʉːɹənəl/}};
* Harass and harassment are pronounced with the stress on the second, rather than the first syllable;
* The suffix -sia (as in Malaysia, Indonesia and Polynesia, but not Tunisia) is pronounced {{IPA|/-ʒə/}} rather than {{IPA|/-ziːə/}};
* The word foyer is pronounced {{IPA|/ˈfoɪə/}}, rather than {{IPA|/ˈfoɪæɪ/}};
* Tomato, vase and data are pronounced with {{IPA|/aː/}} instead of {{IPA|/æɪ/}}: {{IPA|/təˈmaːtəʉ, vaːz, ˈdaːtə/}}, with {{IPA|/ˈdæɪtə/}} being uncommon but acceptable;
* Zebra and leisure are pronounced {{IPA|/ˈzebɹə/}} and {{IPA|/ˈleʒə/}} rather than {{IPA|/ˈziːbɹə/}} and {{IPA|/ˈliːʒə/}}, both having disyllabic laxing;
* Status varies between British-derived {{IPA|/ˈstæɪtəs/}} with the {{sc2|FACE}} vowel and American-derived {{IPA|/ˈstætəs/}} with the {{sc2|TRAP}} vowel;
* Conversely, precedence, precedent and derivatives are mainly pronounced with the {{sc2|FLEECE}} vowel in the stressed syllable, rather than {{sc2|DRESS}}: {{IPA|/ˈpɹiːsədəns ~ pɹiːˈsiːdəns, ˈpɹiːsədənt/}};
* Basil is pronounced {{IPA|/ˈbæzəl/}}, rather than {{IPA|/ˈbæɪzəl/}};
* Conversely, cache is usually pronounced {{IPA|/kæɪʃ/}}, rather than the more conventional {{IPA|/kæʃ/}};
* Buoy is pronounced as {{IPA|/boɪ/}} (as in boy) rather than {{IPA|/ˈbʉːiː/}};
* The E in congress and progress is not reduced: {{IPA|/ˈkɔnɡɹes, ˈpɹəʉɡɹes/}};
* Conversely, the unstressed O in silicon, phenomenon and python stands for a schwa: {{IPA|/ˈsɪlɪkən, fəˈnɔmənən, ˈpɑɪθən/}};
* In Amazon, Lebanon, marathon and pantheon, however, the unstressed O stands for the {{sc2|LOT}} vowel, somewhat as with American English: {{IPA|/ˈæməzɔn, ˈlebənɔn, ˈmæɹəθɔn, ˈpænθæɪɔn/}};
* The colour name maroon is pronounced with the {{sc2|GOAT}} vowel: {{IPA|/məˈɹəʉn/}}.
Variation
{| class"wikitable" style"float: right;"
|+ Variation in Australian closing diphthongs<ref>{{citation
|last=Wells
|first=John C.
|author-link=John C. Wells
|year=1982
|page=597
|title=Accents of English
|location=Cambridge
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
}}</ref>
! rowspan"2" | Phoneme !! rowspan"2" | Lexical set !! colspan="3" | Phonetic realization
|-
! Cultivated !! General !! Broad
|-
| {{IPA|/iː/}}
| {{sc2|FLEECE}}
| {{IPA|[ɪi]}}
| {{IPA|[ɪ̈i]}}
| {{IPA|[əːɪ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/ʉː/}}
| {{sc2|GOOSE}}
| {{IPA|[ʊu]}}
| {{IPA|[ɪ̈ɯ, ʊʉ]}}
| {{IPA|[əːʉ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/æɪ/}}
| {{sc2|FACE}}
| {{IPA|[ɛɪ]}}
| {{IPA|[æ̠ɪ]}}<!-- Wells's [ʌ], which represents a near-open near-front unrounded vowel, is written [æ̠] here. -->
| {{IPA|[æ̠ːɪ, a̠ːɪ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/əʉ/}}
| {{sc2|GOAT}}
| {{IPA|[ö̞ʊ]}}
| {{IPA|[æ̠ʉ]}}
| {{IPA|[æ̠ːʉ, a̠ːʉ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}}
| {{sc2|PRICE}}
| {{IPA|[a̠e]}}
| {{IPA|[ɒe]}}
| {{IPA|[ɒːe]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/æɔ/}}
| {{sc2|MOUTH}}
| {{IPA|[a̠ʊ]}}
| {{IPA|[æo]}}
| {{IPA|[ɛːo, ɛ̃ːɤ]}}
|}
{{Main|Variation in Australian English}}
Relative to many other national dialect groupings, Australian English is relatively homogeneous across the country. Some relatively minor regional differences in pronunciation exist. A limited range of word choices is strongly regional in nature. Consequently, the geographical background of individuals may be inferred if they use words that are peculiar to particular Australian states or territories and, in some cases, even smaller regions. In addition, some Australians speak creole languages derived from Australian English, such as Australian Kriol, Torres Strait Creole and Norfuk.
Academic research has also identified notable sociocultural variation within Australian English, which is mostly evident in phonology.<ref>{{cite web|firstRobert | lastMannell |urlhttp://www.ling.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/ausenglish/impressionistic.html |titleRobert Mannell, "Impressionistic Studies of Australian English Phonetics" |publisherLing.mq.edu.au |date14 August 2009 |access-date26 July 2011| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081231163640/http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/ausenglish/impressionistic.html| archive-date31 December 2008| url-status live}}</ref>
Regional variation
Although Australian English is relatively homogeneous, there are some regional variations. The dialects of English spoken in the various states and territories of Australia differ slightly in vocabulary and phonology.
Most regional differences are in word usage. Swimming clothes are known as cossies, {{IPA|/ˈkɔziːz/}} togs or swimmers in New South Wales, togs in Queensland, and bathers in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-01-05/what-do-you-call-battered-deep-fried-potato-snack-linguistic/7069684|titleDivide over potato cake and scallop, bathers and togs mapped in 2015 Linguistics Roadshow|publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation|firstKellie|lastScott|newspaperABC News|date5 January 2016|access-date5 January 2016}}</ref> What Queensland calls a stroller is usually called a pram in Victoria, Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, and Tasmania.<ref name="Pauline Bryant 1985">Pauline Bryant (1985): Regional variation in the Australian English lexicon, Australian Journal of Linguistics, 5:1, 55–66</ref>
Preference for some synonymous words also differ between states. Garbage (i.e., garbage bin, garbage truck) dominates over rubbish in New South Wales and Queensland, while rubbish is more popular in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia.<ref name="Pauline Bryant 1985"/>
Additionally, the word footy generally refers to the most popular football code in an area; that is, rugby league or rugby union depending on the local area, in most of New South Wales and Queensland. More commonly "rugby" is used to distinguish rugby union from "footy" which refers to the more popular rugby league. Footy commonly is used for Australian rules football elsewhere however the term refers to the both prominent codes, rugby league and Australian rules football, interchangeably, depending on context of usage outside of regional perrameters. In some pockets of Melbourne & Western Sydney "football" and more rarely "footy" will refer to Association football although unlike more common international terminology, Australian English uses the term soccer and not football or footy. Beer glasses are also named differently in different states. Distinctive grammatical patterns exist such as the use of the interrogative eh (also spelled ay or aye), which is particularly associated with Queensland. Secret Santa ({{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}) and Kris Kringle are used in all states, with the former being more common in Queensland.
;South Australia
The most pronounced variation in phonology is between South Australia and the other states and territories. The trap–bath split is more complete in South Australia, in contrast to the other states. Accordingly, words such as dance, advance, plant, example and answer are pronounced with {{IPA|/aː/}} (as in father) far more frequently in South Australia while the older {{IPA|/æ/}} (as in mad) is dominant elsewhere in Australia.<ref name="Pauline Bryant 1985"/> L-vocalisation is also more common in South Australia than other states.
;Centring diphthongs
In Western Australian and Queensland English, the vowels in near and square are typically realised as centring diphthongs ({{IPA|[nɪə, skweə]}}), whereas in the other states they may also be realised as monophthongs: {{IPA|[nɪː, skweː]}}.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://clas.mq.edu.au/australian-voices/regional-accents |titleregional accents &#124; Australian Voices |publisherClas.mq.edu.au |access-date26 July 2011}}</ref>
;Salary–celery merger
A feature common in Victorian English is salary–celery merger, whereby a Victorian pronunciation of Ellen may sound like Alan and Victoria's capital city Melbourne may sound like Malbourne to speakers from other states. There is also regional variation in {{IPA|/ʉː/}} before {{IPA|/l/}} (as in school and pool).
;Full-fool allophones
In some parts of Australia, notably Victoria, a fully backed allophone of {{IPA|/ʉː/}}, transcribed {{IPA|[ʊː]}}, is common before {{IPA|/l/}}. As a result, the pairs full/fool and pull/pool differ phonetically only in vowel length for those speakers. The usual allophone for {{IPA|/ʉː/}} is further forward in Queensland and New South Wales than Victoria.
Sociocultural variation<!-- General Australian redirects here-->
The General Australian accent serves as the standard variety of English across the country. According to linguists, it emerged during the 19th century.<ref>Bruce Moore (Australian Oxford Dictionary) and Felicity Cox (Macquarie University) [interviewed in]: Sounds of Aus (television documentary) 2007; director: David Swann; Writer: Lawrie Zion, Princess Pictures (broadcaster: ABC Television).</ref> General Australian is the dominant variety across the continent, and is particularly so in urban areas.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.international.mq.edu.au/globe/default.aspx?id244&EditionID162| title Australia's unique and evolving sound| access-date 22 January 2009| archive-date 27 September 2009| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090927000652/http://www.international.mq.edu.au/globe/default.aspx?id244&EditionID162| url-status dead}} Edition 34, 2007 (23 August 2007) – The Macquarie Globe</ref> The increasing dominance of General Australian reflects its prominence on radio and television since the latter half of the 20th century.
Recent generations have seen a comparatively smaller proportion of the population speaking with the Broad sociocultural variant, which differs from General Australian in its phonology. The Broad variant is found across the continent and is relatively more prominent in rural and outer-suburban areas.<ref>{{cite news|lastDas|firstSushi|titleStruth! Someone's nicked me Strine|urlhttp://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Struth-Someones-nicked-me-Strine/2005/01/28/1106850102203.html|newspaperThe Age|date29 January 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|lastCorderoy|firstAmy|titleIt's all English, but vowels ain't voils|urlhttp://www.smh.com.au/national/its-all-english-but-vowels-aint-voils-20100125-mukf.html|newspaperSydney Morning Herald|date26 January 2010}}</ref>
A largely historical Cultivated sociocultural variant, which adopted features of British Received Pronunciation and which was commonplace in official media during the early 20th century, had become largely extinct by the onset of the 21st century.<ref>{{cite news|lastJamieson|firstMaya|titleAustralia's accent only now starting to adopt small changes|urlhttps://www.sbs.com.au/news/australia-s-accent-only-now-starting-to-adopt-small-changes|newspaperSBS News|date12 September 2017}}</ref>
Australian Aboriginal English is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Australia, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to Standard Australian English to more non-standard forms. There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use.
Academics have noted the emergence of numerous ethnocultural dialects of Australian English that are spoken by people from some minority non-English speaking backgrounds.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://clas.mq.edu.au/australian-voices/australian-english |titleaustralian english &#124; Australian Voices |publisherClas.mq.edu.au |date30 July 2010 |access-date26 July 2011}}</ref> These ethnocultural varieties contain features of General Australian English as adopted by the children of immigrants blended with some non-English language features, such as Afro-Asiatic languages and languages of Asia. Samoan English is also influencing Australian English.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.abc.net.au/article/13079360| title Reference at www.abc.net.au| website Australian Broadcasting Corporation}} {{dead link|dateMarch 2023}}</ref> Other ethnolects include those of Lebanese and Vietnamese Australians.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/learn-english-six-facts-about-the-aussie-accent/8963136 |titleSix facts about the Australian accent |date18 Dec 2017 |websiteABC Education |publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date= 9 April 2023}}</ref>
A high rising terminal in Australian English was noted and studied earlier than in other varieties of English.{{citation needed|dateNovember 2022}} The feature is sometimes called Australian questioning intonation. Research published in 1986, regarding vernacular speech in Sydney, suggested that high rising terminal was initially spread by young people in the 1960s. It found that the high rising terminal was used more than twice as often by young people than older people, and is more common among women than men.<ref name"guy">{{cite journal |last1Guy |first1G. |last2Horvath |first2B. |last3Vonwiller |first3J. |last4Daisley |first4E. |last5Rogers |first5I. |titleAn intonational change in progress in Australian English |journalLanguage in Society |volume15 |year1986 |pages23&ndash;52 |issn0047-4045 | doi 10.1017/s0047404500011635 |s2cid146425401 }}</ref> In the United Kingdom, it has occasionally been considered one of the variety's stereotypical features, and its spread there is attributed to the popularity of Australian soap operas.<ref name"aqi">{{cite news |firstChris |lastStokel-Walker |titleThe unstoppable march of the upward inflection? |workBBC News |date11 August 2014 |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28708526 |access-date17 February 2022 }}</ref>
Vocabulary
Intrinsic traits
{{Main|Australian English vocabulary}}
captured the Australian vocabulary of the 19th century in their bush ballads.]]
Australian English has many words and idioms which are unique to the dialect.
Commonly known
Internationally well-known examples of Australian terminology include outback, meaning a remote, sparsely populated area, the bush, meaning either a native forest or a country area in general, and ''g'day, a greeting. Dinkum, or fair dinkum means "true", "legitimate" or "is that true?", among other things, depending on context and inflection.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.anu.edu.au/andc/pubs/ozwords/November_98/index.html| title Frederick Ludowyk, 1998, "Aussie Words: The Dinkum Oil On Dinkum; Where Does It Come From?" (0zWords, Australian National Dictionary Centre)| access-date 5 November 2007| archive-date 16 March 2011| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110316062047/http://www.anu.edu.au/andc/pubs/ozwords/November_98/index.html| url-status dead}}. Access date: 5 November 2007.</ref> The derivative dinky-di means "true" or devoted: a "dinky-di Aussie" is a "true Australian".{{citation needed|dateFebruary 2024}}Historical referencesAustralian poetry, such as "The Man from Snowy River", as well as folk songs such as "Waltzing Matilda", contain many historical Australian words and phrases that are understood by Australians even though some are not in common usage today.{{citation needed|dateFebruary 2024}}
British English similarities and differences
Australian English, in common with British English, uses the word mate to mean friend, as well as the word bloody as a mild expletive or intensifier.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} "Mate" is also used in multiple ways including to indicate "mateship" or formally call out the target of a threat or insult, depending on internation and context.
Several words used by Australians were at one time used in the UK but have since fallen out of usage or changed in meaning there. For example, creek in Australia, as in North America, means a stream or small river, whereas in the UK it is typically a watercourse in a marshy area; paddock in Australia means field, whereas in the UK it means a small enclosure for livestock; bush or scrub'' in Australia, as in North America, means a natural, uncultivated area of vegetation or flora, whereas in England they are commonly used only in proper names (such as Shepherd's Bush and Wormwood Scrubs).{{citation needed|dateFebruary 2024}}Aboriginal-derived words
{{further|List of English words of Australian Aboriginal origin}}
Some elements of Aboriginal languages have been adopted by Australian English—mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example dingo) and local culture. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as kangaroo, boomerang, budgerigar, wallaby and so on have become international. Other examples are cooee and hard yakka. The former is used as a high-pitched call, for attracting attention, (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈkʉːiː/}}) which travels long distances. Cooee is also a notional distance: "if he's within cooee, we'll spot him". Hard yakka means "hard work" and is derived from yakka, from the Jagera/Yagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region.
The word bung, meaning "dead" was originally a Yagara word which was used in the pidgin widely spoken across Australia.<ref nameludowyk2004>{{cite journal| urlhttps://slll.cass.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/andc/Ozwords%20Oct.%202004.pdf |dateOctober 2004 | volume 11 |issue2| journalOzwords|titleAussie Words: Of Billy, Bong, Bung, & 'Billybong' |page7|last1Ludowyk |first1Frederick| author-linkFrederick Ludowyk| viaAustralian National University| publisherAustralian National Dictionary Centre}} Also [https://web.archive.org/web/20160623044356/http://andc.anu.edu.au/pubs/ozwords/October_2004/Billy.html here]</ref>PlacesMany towns or suburbs of Australia have also been influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The best-known example is the capital, Canberra, named after a local Ngunnawal language word thought to mean "women's breasts" or "meeting place".<ref>{{cite web|titleCanberra Facts and figures|urlhttp://www.visitcanberra.com.au/Visitor-Info/Facts-and-figures.aspx|access-date15 August 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121109134755/http://www.visitcanberra.com.au/Visitor-Info/Facts-and-figures.aspx|archive-date9 November 2012|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref nameFrei>{{cite web |lastFrei |firstPatricia |titleDiscussion on the Meaning of 'Canberra' |urlhttp://www.canberrahistoryweb.com/meaningofcanberra.htm |workCanberra History Web |publisherPatricia Frei |access-date11 August 2013 |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130927182307/http://www.canberrahistoryweb.com/meaningofcanberra.htm |archive-date27 September 2013}}</ref>
Figures of speech and abbreviations
Litotes, such as "not bad", "not much" and "you're not wrong", are also used.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}
Diminutives and hypocorisms are common and are often used to indicate familiarity.<ref>{{Cite news|lastAstle|firstDavid|date12 March 2021|titleWhy do Aussies shorten everything an itsy-bitsy-teeny-weeny bit?|workThe Sydney Morning Herald|urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/culture/books/why-do-aussies-shorten-everything-an-itsy-bitsy-teeny-weeny-bit-20210308-p578qe.html|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220331125115/https://www.smh.com.au/culture/books/why-do-aussies-shorten-everything-an-itsy-bitsy-teeny-weeny-bit-20210308-p578qe.html|archive-dateMar 31, 2022}}</ref> Some common examples are arvo (afternoon), barbie (barbecue), smoko (cigarette break), Aussie (Australian) and Straya (Australia). This may also be done with people's names to create nicknames (other English speaking countries create similar diminutives). For example, "Gazza" from Gary, or "Smitty" from John Smith. The use of the suffix -o originates in {{langx|ga|ó}},{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2020}} which is both a postclitic and a suffix with much the same meaning as in Australian English.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}
In informal speech, incomplete comparisons are sometimes used, such as "sweet as" (as in "That car is sweet as."). "Full", "fully" or "heaps" may precede a word to act as an intensifier (as in "The waves at the beach were heaps good."). This was more common in regional Australia and South Australia{{When|dateSeptember 2014}} but has been in common usage in urban Australia for decades. The suffix "-ly" is sometimes omitted in broader Australian English. For instance, "really good" can become "real good".{{citation needed|dateFebruary 2024}}
Measures
Australia's switch to the metric system in the 1970s changed most of the country's vocabulary of measurement from imperial to metric measures.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.measurement.gov.au/measurementsystem/Pages/HistoryofMeasurementinAustralia.aspx |titleHistory of Measurement in Australia |author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |workweb page |publisherAustralian Government National Measurement Institute |access-date14 February 2013}}</ref> Since the switch to metric, heights of individuals are listed in centimetres on official documents and distances by road on signs are listed in terms of kilometres and metres.<ref>{{cite book|last1Wilks|first1Kevin|titleMetrication in Australia: A review of the effectiveness of policies and procedures in Australia's conversion to the metric system|date1992|publisherAustralian Government Publishing Service|locationCanberra|isbn0-644-24860-2|page114|urlhttp://themetricmaven.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Metrication-in-Australia-built-2013-06-24.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://themetricmaven.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Metrication-in-Australia-built-2013-06-24.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|access-date5 August 2017|quoteMeasurements used by people in their private lives, in conversation or in estimation of sizes had not noticeably changed nor was such a change even attempted or thought necessary.}}</ref>
Comparison with other varieties
Where British and American English vocabulary differs, sometimes Australian English shares a usage with one of those varieties, as with petrol (AmE: gasoline) and mobile phone (AmE: cellular phone) which are shared with British English, or truck (BrE: lorry) and eggplant (BrE: aubergine) which are shared with American English.
In other circumstances, Australian English sometimes favours a usage which is different from both British and American English as with:<ref name="Fourth Edition 2005">"The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005.</ref>
{{columns-list|colwidth=16em|
* (the) bush (AmE and BrE: (the) woods)
* bushfire (Ame and BrE: wildfire)
* capsicum (AmE: bell pepper; BrE (green/red) pepper)
* Esky (AmE and BrE: cooler or ice box)
* doona (AmE: comforter; BrE duvet)
* footpath (AmE: sidewalk; BrE: pavement)
* ice block or icy pole (AmE: popsicle BrE: ice lolly)
* lollies (AmE: candy; BrE: sweets)
* overseas (AmE and BrE: abroad)
* peak hour (Ame and BrE: rush hour)
* powerpoint (AmE: electrical outlet; BrE: electrical socket)
* thongs (AmE and BrE: flip-flops)
* ute {{IPA|/jʉːt/}} (AmE and BrE: pickup truck)
}}
Differences exist between Australian English and other varieties of English, where different terms can be used for the same subject or the same term can be ascribed different meanings. Non-exhaustive examples of terminology associated with food, transport and clothing is used below to demonstrate the variations which exist between Australian English and other varieties:
Food – capsicum (BrE: (red/green) pepper; AmE: bell pepper); (potato) chips (refers both to BrE crisps and AmE French fries); chook (sanga) (BrE and AmE: chicken (sandwich)); coriander (shared with BrE. AmE: cilantro); entree (refers to AmE appetizer whereas AmE entree is referred to in AusE as main course); eggplant (shared with AmE. BrE: aubergine); fairy floss (BrE: candy floss; AmE: cotton candy); ice block or icy pole (BrE: ice lolly; AmE: popsicle); jelly (refers to AmE Jell-o whereas AmE jelly refers to AusE jam); lollies (BrE: sweets; AmE: candy); marinara (sauce) (refers to a tomato-based sauce in AmE and BrE but a seafood sauce in AusE); mince or minced meat (shared with BrE. AmE: ground meat); prawn (which in BrE refers to large crustaceans only, with small crustaceans referred to as shrimp. AmE universally: shrimp); snow pea (shared with AmE. BrE mangetout); pumpkin (AmE: squash, except for the large orange variety – AusE squash refers only to a small number of uncommon species; BrE: marrow); tomato sauce (also used in BrE. AmE: ketchup); zucchini (shared with AmE. BrE: courgette)
Transport – aeroplane (shared with BrE. AmE: airplane); bonnet (shared with BrE. AmE: hood); bumper (shared with BrE. AmE: fender); car park (shared with BrE. AmE: parking lot); convertible (shared with AmE. BrE: cabriolet); footpath (BrE: pavement; AmE: sidewalk); horse float (BrE: horsebox; AmE: horse trailer); indicator (shared with BrE. AmE: turn signal); peak hour (BrE and AmE: rush hour); petrol (shared with BrE. AmE: gasoline); railway (shared with BrE. AmE: railroad); sedan (car) (shared with AmE. BrE: saloon (car)); semitrailer (shared with AmE. BrE: artic or articulated lorry); station wagon (shared with AmE. BrE: estate car); truck (shared with AmE. BrE: lorry); ute (BrE and AmE: pickup truck); windscreen (shared with BrE. AmE: windshield)
Clothing – gumboots (BrE: Wellington boots or Wellies; AmE: rubber boots or galoshes); jumper (shared with BrE. AmE: sweater); nappy (shared with BrE. AmE: diaper); overalls (shared with AmE. BrE: dungarees); raincoat (shared with AmE. BrE: mackintosh or mac); runners or sneakers (footwear) (BrE: trainers. AmE: sneakers); sandshoe (BrE: pump or plimsoll. AmE: tennis shoe); singlet (BrE: vest. AmE: tank top or wifebeater); skivvy (BrE: polo neck; AmE: turtleneck); swimmers or togs or bathers (BrE: swimming costume. AmE: bathing suit or swimsuit); thongs (refers to BrE and AmE flip-flops (footwear). In BrE and AmE refers to g-string (underwear))
Terms with different meanings in Australian English
There also exist words which in Australian English are ascribed different meanings from those ascribed in other varieties of English, for instance:<ref name="Fourth Edition 2005"/>
* Asian in Australian (and American) English commonly refers to people of East Asian ancestry, while in British English it commonly refers to people of South Asian ancestry
* Biscuit in Australian (and British) English refers to AmE cookie and cracker, while in American English it refers to a leavened bread product
* (potato) Chips refers both to British English crisps (which is not commonly used in Australian English) and to American English French fries (which is used alongside hot chips)
* Football in Australian English most commonly refers to Australian rules football, rugby league or rugby union. In British English, football is most commonly used to refer to association football, while in North American English football is used to refer to gridiron
* Pants in Australian (and American) English most commonly refers to British English trousers, but in British English refers to Australian English underpants
* Nursery in Australian English generally refers to a plant nursery, whereas in British English and American English it also often refers to a child care or daycare for pre-school age children<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSCHLEEF |firstERIK |last2TURTON |first2DANIELLE |date2016-09-19 |titleSociophonetic variation of like in British dialects: effects of function, context and predictability |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1017/s136067431600023x |journalEnglish Language and Linguistics |volume22 |issue01 |pages35–75 |doi10.1017/s136067431600023x |issn=1360-6743}}</ref>
* Paddock in Australian English refers to an open field or meadow whereas in American and British English it refers to a small agricultural enclosure
* Premier in Australian English refers specifically to the head of government of an Australian state, whereas in British English it is used interchangeably with Prime Minister
* Public school in Australian (and American) English refers to a state school. Australian and American English use private school to mean a non-government or independent school, in contrast with British English which uses public school to refer to the same thing
* Pudding in Australian (and American) English refers to a particular sweet dessert dish, while in British English it often refers to dessert (the food course) in general
* Thongs in Australian English refer to British and American English flip-flop (footwear), whereas in both American and British English it refers to Australian English G-string (underwear) (in Australian English the singular "thong" can refer to one half of a pair of the footwear or to a G-string, so care must be taken as to context)
* Vest in Australian (and American) English refers to a padded upper garment or British English waistcoat but in British English refers to Australian English singlet
Idioms taking different forms in Australian English
In addition to the large number of uniquely Australian idioms in common use, there are instances of idioms taking different forms in Australian English than in other varieties, for instance:
* A drop in the ocean (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE a drop in the bucket
* A way to go (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE a ways to go
* Home away from home (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to BrE home from home
* Take (something) with a grain of salt (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to BrE take with a pinch of salt
* Touch wood (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE knock on wood
* ''Wouldn't touch (something) with a ten-foot pole (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to BrE wouldn't touch with a barge pole
British and American English terms not commonly used in Australian English
There are extensive terms used in other varieties of English which are not widely used in Australian English. These terms usually do not result in Australian English speakers failing to comprehend speakers of other varieties of English, as Australian English speakers will often be familiar with such terms through exposure to media or may ascertain the meaning using context.
Non-exhaustive selections of British English and American English terms not commonly used in Australian English together with their definitions or Australian English equivalents are found in the collapsible table below:<ref name"ReferenceA">"The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005. Note: Entries with Chiefly British usage note in the Macquarie Dictionary and reference to corresponding Australian entry.</ref><ref name"The Macquarie Dictionary 2005">The Macquarie Dictionary, Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005. Note: Entries with Chiefly US usage note in the Macquarie Dictionary and reference to corresponding Australian entry.</ref>
British English terms not widely used in Australian English<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
{{div col}}
* Allotment (gardening): A community garden not connected to a dwelling
* Artic or articulated lorry (vehicle): Australian English semi-trailer
* Aubergine (vegetable): Australian English eggplant
* Bank holiday: Australian English public holiday
* Barmy: Crazy, mad or insane.
* Bedsit: Australian English studio (apartment)
* Belisha beacon: A flashing light atop a pole used to mark a pedestrian crossing
* Bin lorry: Australian English: rubbish truck or garbage truck
* Bobby: A police officer, particularly one of lower rank
* Cagoule: A lightweight raincoat or windsheeter
* Candy floss (confectionery): Australian English fairy floss
* Cash machine: Australian English automatic teller machine
* Chav: Lower socio-economic person comparable to Australian English bogan
* Child-minder: Australian English babysitter
* Chivvy: To hurry (somebody) along. Australian English nag
* Chrimbo: Abbreviation for Christmas comparable to Australian English Chrissy
* Chuffed: To be proud (especially of oneself)
* Cleg (insect): Australian English horsefly
* Clingfilm: A plastic wrap used in food preparation. Australian English Glad wrap/cling wrap
* Community payback: Australian English community service
* Comprehensive school: Australian English state school or public school
* Cooker: A kitchen appliance. Australian English stove and/or oven
* Coppice: An area of cleared woodland
* Council housing: Australian English public housing
* Counterpane: A bed covering. Australian English bedspread
* Courgette: A vegetable. Australian English zucchini
* Creche: Australian English child care centre
* (potato) Crisps: Australian English (potato) chips
* Current account: Australian English transaction account
* Dell: A small secluded hollow or valley
* Do: Australian English party or social gathering
* Doddle: An easy task
* Doss (verb): To spend time idly
* Drawing pin: Australian English thumb tack
* Dungarees: Australian English overalls
* Dustbin: Australian English garbage bin/rubbish bin
* Dustcart: Australian English garbage truck/rubbish truck
* Duvet: Australian English doona
* Elastoplast or plaster: An adhesive used to cover small wounds. Australian English band-aid
* Electrical lead: Australian English electrical cord
* Estate car: Australian English station wagon
* Fairy cake: Australian English cupcake
* Father Christmas: Australian English Santa Claus
* Fen: A low and frequently flooded area of land, similar to Australian English swamp
* Free phone: Australian English toll-free
* Gammon: Meat from the hind leg of pork. Australian English makes no distinction between gammon and ham
* Git: A foolish person. Equivalent to idiot or moron
* Goose pimples: Australian English goose bumps
* Hacked off: To be irritated or upset, often with a person
* Hairgrip: Australian English hairpin or bobbypin
* Half-term: Australian English school holiday
* Haulier: Australian English hauler
* Heath: An area of dry grass or shrubs, similar to Australian English shrubland
* Hoover (verb): Australian English to vacuum
* Horsebox: Australian English horse float
* Ice lolly: Australian English ice block or icy pole
* Juicy bits: Small pieces of fruit residue found in fruit juice. Australian English pulp
* Kip: To sleep
* Kitchen roll: Australian English paper towel
* Landslip: Australian English landslide
* Lavatory: Australian English toilet (lavatory is used in Australian English for toilets on aeroplanes)
* Lido: A public swimming pool
* Lorry: Australian English truck
* Loudhailer: Australian English megaphone
* Mackintosh or mac: Australian English raincoat
* Mangetout: Australian English snow pea
* Marrow: Australian English squash
* Minidish: A satellite dish for domestic (especially television) use
* Moggie: A domestic short-haired cat
* Moor: A low area prone to flooding, similar to Australian English swampland
* Nettled: Irritated (especially with somebody)
* Nosh: A meal or spread of food
* Off-licence: Australian English bottle shop/Bottle-o
* Pak choi: Australian English bok choy
* Pavement: Australian English footpath
* Pelican crossing: Australian English pedestrian crossing or zebra crossing
* Peaky: Unwell or sickly
* (red or green) Pepper (vegetable): Australian English capsicum
* People carrier (vehicle): Australian English people mover
* Pikey: An itinerant person. Similar to Australian English tramp
* Pillar box: Australian English post box
* Pillock: A mildly offensive term for a foolish or obnoxious person, similar to idiot or moron. Also refers to male genitalia
* Plimsoll (footwear): Australian English sandshoe
* Pneumatic drill: Australian English jackhammer
* Polo neck (garment): Australian English skivvy
* Poorly: Unwell or sick
* Press-up (exercise): Australian English push-up
* Pushchair: A wheeled cart for pushing a baby. Australian English: stroller or pram
* Pusher: A wheeled cart for pushing a baby. Australian English: stroller or pram
* Rodgering: A mildly offensive term for sexual intercourse, similar to Australian English rooting
* Saloon (car): Australian English sedan
* Scratchings (food): Solid material left after rendering animal (especially pork) fat. Australian English crackling
* Sellotape: Australian English sticky tape
* 'Shan't': Australian English will not
* Skive (verb): To play truant, particularly from an educational institution. Australian English to wag
* Sleeping policeman: Australian English speed hump or speed bump
* Snog (verb): To kiss passionately, equivalent to Australian English pash
* Sod: A mildly offensive term for an unpleasant person
* Spinney: A small area of trees and bushes
* Strimmer: Australian English whipper snipper or line trimmer
* Swan (verb): To move from one plact to another ostentatiously
* Sweets: Australian English lollies
* Tailback: A long queue of stationary or slow-moving traffic
* Tangerine: Australian English mandarin
* Tipp-Ex: Australian English white out or liquid paper
* Trainers: Athletic footwear. Australian English runners or sneakers.
* Turning (noun): Where one road branches from another. Australian English turn
* Utility room: A room containing washing or other home appliances, similar to Australian English laundry
* Value-added tax (VAT): Australian English goods and services tax (GST)
* Wellington boots: Australian English gumboots
* White spirit: Australian English turpentine
{{div col end}}
American English terms not widely used in Australian English<ref name="The Macquarie Dictionary 2005"/>
{{div col}}
* Acclimate: Australian English acclimatise
* Airplane: Australian English aeroplane
* Aluminum: Australian English aluminium
* Baby carriage: Australian English stroller or pram
* Bangs: A hair style. Australian English fringe
* Baseboard (architecture): Australian English skirting board
* Bayou: Australian English swamp/billabong
* Bell pepper: Australian English capsicum
* Bellhop: Australian English hotel porter
* Beltway: Australian English ring road
* Boondocks: An isolated, rural area. Australian English the sticks or Woop Woop or Beyond the black stump
* Broil (cooking technique): Australian English grill
* Bullhorn: Australian English megaphone
* Burglarize: Australian English burgle
* Busboy: A subclass of (restaurant) waiter
* Candy: Australian English lollies
* Cellular phone: Australian English mobile phone
* Cilantro: Australian English coriander
* Comforter: Australian English doona
* Condominium: Australian English apartment
* Counter-clockwise: Australian English anticlockwise
* Coveralls: Australian English overalls
* Crapshoot: A risky venture
* Diaper: Australian English nappy
* Downtown: Australian English central business district
* Drapes: Australian English curtains
* Drugstore: Australian English pharmacy or chemist
* Drywall: Australian English plasterboard
* Dumpster: Australian English skip bin
* Fall (season): Australian English autumn
* Fanny pack: Australian English bum bag
* Faucet: Australian English tap
* Flashlight: Australian English torch
* Freshman: A first year student at a highschool or university
* Frosting (cookery): Australian English icing
* Gasoline: Australian English petrol
* Gas pedal: Australian English accelerator
* Gas Station: Australian English service station or petrol station
* Glove compartment: Australian English glovebox
* Golden raisin: Australian English sultana
* Grifter: Australian English con artist
* Ground beef: Australian English minced beef or mince
* Hood (vehicle): Australian English bonnet
* Hot tub: Australian English spa or spa bath
* Jell-o: Australian English jelly
* Ladybug: Australian English ladybird
* Mail-man: Australian English postman or postie
* Mass transit: Australian English public transport
* Math: Australian English maths
* Mineral spirits: Australian English turpentine
* Nightstand: Australian English bedside table
* Out-of-state: Australian English interstate
* Pacifier: Australian English dummy
* Parking lot: Australian English car park
* Penitentiary: Australian English prison or jail
* Period (punctuation): Australian English full stop
* Play hooky (verb): To play truant from an educational institution. Equivalent to Australian English (to) wag
* Popsicle: Australian English ice block or icy pole
* Railroad: Australian English railway
* Railroad ties: Australian English Railway sleepers
* Rappel: Australian English abseil
* Realtor: Australian English real estate agent
* Root (sport): To enthusiastically support a sporting team. Equivalent to Australian English barrack
* Row house: Australian English terrace house
* Sales tax: Australian English goods and services tax (GST)
* Saran wrap: Australian English plastic wrap or cling wrap
* Scad: Australian English a large quantity
* Scallion: Australian English spring onion
* Sharpie (pen): Australian English permanent marker or texta or felt pen
* Shopping cart: Australian English shopping trolley
* Sidewalk: Australian English footpath
* Silverware or flatware: Australian English cutlery
* Soda pop: Australian English soft drink
* Streetcar: Australian English tram
* Sweater:Australian English jumper
* Sweatpants: Australian English tracksuit pants/trackies
* Tailpipe: Australian English exhaust pipe
* Takeout: Australian English takeaway
* Trash can: Australian English garbage bin or rubbish bin
* Trunk (vehicle): Australian English boot
* Turn signal: Australian English indicator
* Turtleneck: Australian English skivvy
* Upscale and downscale: Australian English upmarket and downmarket
* Vacation: Australian English holiday
* Windshield: Australian English windscreen
{{div col end}}
Grammar
The general rules which apply to Australian English are described at English grammar. Grammatical differences between varieties of English are minor relative to differences in phonology and vocabulary and do not generally affect intelligibility. Examples of grammatical differences between Australian English and other varieties include:
*Collective nouns are generally singular in construction, e.g., the government was unable to decide as opposed to the government were unable to decide or the group was leaving as opposed to the group were leaving.<ref>{{cite journal |lastPena |firstYolanda Fernandez |date5 May 2016 |titleWhat Motivates Verbal Agreement Variation with Collective Headed Subjects |journal=University of Vigo LVTC}}</ref> This is in common with American English.
*Australian English has an extreme distaste for the modal verbs shall (in non-legal contexts), shan't and ought (in place of will, won't and should respectively), which are encountered in British English.<ref name"Collins 2012">{{cite journal |lastCollins |firstPeter |date2012 |titleAustralian English: Its Evolution and Current State |journalInternational Journal of Language, Translation and Intercultural Communication|volume1 |page75 |doi10.12681/ijltic.11 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> However, shall is found in the Australian Constitution, Acts of Parliament, and other formal or legal documents such as contracts, and ought sees use in some academic contexts (such as philosophy).
*Using should with the same meaning as would, e.g. I should like to see you, encountered in British English, is almost never encountered in Australian English and is often contracted to I'd.
*River follows the name of the river in question, e.g., Brisbane River, rather than the British convention of coming before the name, e.g., River Thames''. This is also the case in North American and New Zealand English. In South Australian English however, the reverse applies when referring to the following three rivers: Murray, Darling and Torrens.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.sa.gov.au/topics/planning-and-property/planning-and-land-management/suburb-road-and-place-names/geographical-names-guidelines |titleGeographical names guidelines |author<!--Not stated--> |dateAugust 2020 |websitePlanning and property |publisherAttorney-General's Department (Government of South Australia) |access-date=8 February 2021 }}</ref> The Derwent in Tasmania also follows this convention.
*While prepositions before days may be omitted in American English, i.e., She resigned Thursday, they are retained in Australian English: She resigned on Thursday. This is shared with British English.
*The institutional nouns hospital and university do not take the definite article: ''She's in hospital, He's at university.<ref>{{cite book |lastSiegel |firstJeff |date2010 |titleSecond Dialect Acquisition |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-51687-7}}</ref> This is in contrast to American English where the is required: In the hospital, At the university.
*On the weekend is used in favour of the British at the weekend which is not encountered in Australian English.<ref>{{cite book |lastHewings |firstMatthew |date1999 |titleAdvanced Grammar in Use |page=214}}</ref>
*Ranges of dates use to, i.e., Monday to Friday, rather than Monday through Friday. This is shared with British English and is in contrast to American English.
*When speaking or writing out numbers, and is always inserted before the tens, i.e., one hundred and sixty-two rather than one hundred sixty-two. This is in contrast to American English, where the insertion of and is acceptable but nonetheless either casual or informal.
*The preposition to in write to'' (e.g. "I'll write to you") is always retained, as opposed to American usage where it may be dropped.
*Australian English does not share the British usage of read (v) to mean "study" (v). Therefore, it may be said that "He studies medicine" but not that "He reads medicine".
*When referring to time, Australians will refer to 10:30 as half past ten and do not use the British half ten. Similarly, a quarter to ten is used for 9:45 rather than (a) quarter of ten, which is sometimes found in American English.
*Australian English does not share the British English meaning of sat to include sitting or seated. Therefore, uses such as ''I've been sat here for an hour are not encountered in Australian English.
*To have a shower or have a bath are the most common usages in Australian English, in contrast to American English which uses take a shower and take a bath.<ref>{{cite book |lastCetnarowska |firstBozena |date1993 |titleThe Syntax, Semantics and Derivation of Bare Normalisations in English |page48 |publisherUniwersytet Śląski |isbn=83-226-0535-8}}</ref>
*The past participle of saw is sawn (e.g. sawn-off shotgun) in Australian English, in contrast to the American English sawed.
*The verb visit is transitive in Australian English. Where the object is a person or people, American English also uses visit with, which is not found in Australian English.
*An outdoor event which is cancelled due to inclement weather is rained out in Australian English. This is in contrast to British English where it is said to be rained off.<ref>"The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005</ref><ref>"Collins English Dictionary", 13th Edition. HarperCollins, 2018</ref>
*In informal speech, sentence-final but'' may be used, e.g. "I don't want to go but" in place of "But I don't want to go".<ref name="Collins 2012"/> This is also found in Scottish English.
*In informal speech, the discourse markers yeah no (or yeah nah) and no yeah (or nah yeah) may be used to mean "no" and "yes" respectively.<ref>{{cite thesis |typeHonours |lastMoore |firstErin |date2007 |titleYeah-no: A Discourse Marker in Australian English |publisherUniversity of Melbourne}}</ref> Extended discourse markers of this nature are sometimes used for comedic effect, but the meaning is generally found in the final affirmative/negative.
Spelling and style<!-- Australian spelling redirects here-->
As in all English-speaking countries, there is no central authority that prescribes official usage with respect to matters of spelling, grammar, punctuation or style.
Spelling
There are several dictionaries of Australian English which adopt a descriptive approach. The Macquarie Dictionary and the Australian Oxford Dictionary are most commonly used by universities, governments and courts as the standard for Australian English spelling.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSpelling |urlhttps://www.stylemanual.gov.au/grammar-punctuation-and-conventions/spelling |access-date2024-04-12 |websiteAustralian Government Style Manual}}</ref>
Australian spelling is significantly closer to British than American spelling, as it did not adopt the systematic reforms promulgated in Noah Webster's 1828 Dictionary. Notwithstanding, the Macquarie Dictionary often lists most American spellings as acceptable secondary variants.
The minor systematic differences which occur between Australian and American spelling are summarised below:<ref name="Macquarie Dictionary 8th Edition">"The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.</ref>
* French-derived words which in American English end with or, such as color, honor, behavior and labor, are spelt with our in Australian English: colour, honour, behaviour and labour. Exceptions are the Australian Labor Party and some (especially South Australian) placenames which use Harbor, notably Victor Harbor.
* Words which in American English end with ize, such as realize, recognize and apologize are spelt with ise in Australian English: realise, recognise and apologise. The British Oxford spelling, which uses the ize endings, remains a minority variant. The Macquarie Dictionary says that the -ise form as opposed to -ize sits at 3:1. The sole exception to this is capsize, which is used in all varieties.
* Words which in American English end with yze, such as analyze, paralyze and catalyze are spelt with yse in Australian English: analyse, paralyse and catalyse.
* French-derived words which in American English end with er, such as fiber, center and meter are spelt with re in Australian English: fibre, centre and metre (the unit of measurement only, not physical devices; so gasometer, voltmeter).
* Words which end in American English end with log, such as catalog, dialog and monolog are usually spelt with logue in Australian English: catalogue, dialogue and monologue; however, the Macquarie Dictionary lists the log spelling as the preferred variant for analog.
* A double-consonant l is retained in Australian English when adding suffixes to words ending in l where the consonant is unstressed, contrary to American English. Therefore, Australian English favours cancelled, counsellor, and travelling over American canceled, counselor and traveling.
* Where American English uses a double-consonant ll in the words skillful, willful, enroll, distill, enthrall, fulfill and installment, Australian English uses a single consonant: skilful, wilful, enrol, distil, enthral, fulfil and instalment. However, the Macquarie Dictionary has noted a growing tendency to use the double consonant.<ref>{{Cite web|titleMacquarie Dictionary|urlhttps://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/features/word/search/fulfil/|access-date2021-11-23|websitewww.macquariedictionary.com.au}}</ref>
* The American English defense and offense are spelt defence and offence in Australian English.
* In contrast with American English, which uses practice and license for both nouns and verbs, practice and licence are nouns while practise and license are verbs in Australian English.
* Words with ae and oe are often maintained in words such as oestrogen and paedophilia, in contrast to the American English practice of using e alone (as in estrogen and pedophilia). The Macquarie Dictionary has noted a shift within Australian English towards using e alone, and now lists some words such as encyclopedia, fetus, eon<!--see https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/features/word/search/eon/--> or hematite with the e spelling as the preferred variant and hence Australian English varies by word when it comes to these sets of words.
Minor systematic difference which occur between Australian and British spelling are as follows:<ref name="Macquarie Dictionary 8th Edition">"The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.</ref>
* Words often ending in eable in British English end in able in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours livable over liveable, sizable over sizeable, movable over moveable, etc., although both variants are acceptable.
* Words often ending in eing in British English end in ing in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours aging over ageing, or routing over routeing, etc., although both variants are acceptable.
* Words often ending in mme in British English end in m in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours program over programme (in all contexts) and aerogram over aerogramme, although both variants are acceptable. Similar to Canada, New Zealand and the United States, (kilo)gram is the only spelling.
Other examples of individual words where the preferred spelling is listed by the Macquarie Dictionary as being different from current British spellings include analog as opposed to analogue, guerilla as opposed to guerrilla, verandah as opposed to veranda, burqa as opposed to burka, pastie (noun) as opposed to pasty, neuron as opposed to neurone, hicup as opposed to hicough, annex as opposed to annexe, raccoon as opposed to racoon etc.<ref name"Macquarie Dictionary 8th Edition">"The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.</ref> Unspaced forms such as onto, anytime, alright and anymore are also listed as being equally as acceptable as their spaced counterparts.<ref name"Macquarie Dictionary 8th Edition">"The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.</ref>
There is variation between and within varieties of English in the treatment of -t and -ed endings for past tense verbs. The Macquarie Dictionary does not favour either, but it suggests that leaped, leaned or learned (with -ed endings) are more common but spelt and burnt (with -t endings) are more common.<ref name="Macquarie Dictionary 8th Edition">"The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.</ref>
Different spellings have existed throughout Australia's history. What are today regarded as American spellings were popular in Australia throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the Victorian Department of Education endorsing them into the 1970s and The Age newspaper until the 1990s. This influence can be seen in the spelling of the Australian Labor Party and also in some place names such as Victor Harbor. The Concise Oxford English Dictionary has been credited with re-establishing the dominance of the British spellings in the 1920s and 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.paradisec.org.au/blog/2008/01/webster-in-australia/ |titleEndangered Languages and Cultures » Blog Archive » Webster in Australia |publisherParadisec.org.au |date30 January 2008 |access-date20 September 2017}}</ref> For a short time during the late 20th century, Harry Lindgren's 1969 spelling reform proposal (Spelling Reform 1 or SR1) gained some support in Australia and was adopted by the Australian Teachers' Federation and minister Doug Everingham in personal correspondence.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.englishspellingsociety.org/journals/j2/jimmieson.php|titleSpelling Reform 1 – And Nothing Else!|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120730222013/http://www.englishspellingsociety.org/journals/j2/jimmieson.php|archive-date30 July 2012}}</ref>Punctuation and styleProminent general style guides for Australian English include the Cambridge Guide to Australian English Usage, the Australian Government Style Manual<ref>{{cite web |authorDigital Transformation Agency|daten.d.|titleAustralian Government Style Manual |urlhttps://stylemanual.gov.au/|access-date25 October 2021}}</ref> (formerly the Style Manual: For Authors, Editors and Printers), the Australian Handbook for Writers and Editors and the Complete Guide to English Usage for Australian Students.
Both single and double quotation marks are in use, with single quotation marks preferred for use in the first instance, with double quotation marks reserved for quotes of speech within speech. Logical (as opposed to typesetter's) punctuation is preferred for punctuation marks at the end of quotations. For instance, ''Sam said he 'wasn't happy when Jane told David to "go away{{"'}}. is used in preference to Sam said he "wasn't happy when Jane told David to 'go away.{{'"}}''
The DD/MM/YYYY date format is followed and the 12-hour clock is generally used in everyday life (as opposed to service, police, and airline applications).
With the exception of screen sizes, metric units are used in everyday life, having supplanted imperial units upon the country's switch to the metric system in the 1970s, although imperial units persist in casual references to a person's height. Tyre and bolt sizes (for example) are defined in imperial units where appropriate for technical reasons.
In betting, decimal odds are used in preference to fractional odds, as used in the United Kingdom, or moneyline odds in the United States.
Keyboard layout
There are two major English language keyboard layouts, the United States layout and the United Kingdom layout. Keyboards and keyboard software for the Australian market universally uses the US keyboard layout, which lacks the pound (£), euro and negation symbols and uses a different layout for punctuation symbols from the UK keyboard layout.
See also
{{Portal|Australia|Language}}
* The Australian National Dictionary
* Australian English vocabulary
* New Zealand English
* South African English
* Zimbabwean English
* Falkland Islands English
* Commonwealth English
* Diminutives in Australian English
* Sound correspondences between English accents
* Strine
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Works cited
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last1Cox |first1Felicity |last2Palethorpe |first2Sallyanne |year2007 |titleAustralian English |journalJournal of the International Phonetic Association |volume37 |issue3 |pages341–350 |doi10.1017/S0025100307003192 |s2cid232349884 |urlhttp://clas.mq.edu.au/felicity/Papers/Illustration_Australian.pdf |doi-accessfree |access-date17 May 2018 |archive-date31 July 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090731062731/http://clas.mq.edu.au/felicity/Papers/Illustration_Australian.pdf |url-statusdead }}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite thesis |last Korhonen |first Minna |title Perspectives on the Americanisation of Australian English: A Sociolinguistic Study of Variation |institution University of Helsinki |year2017 |isbn 978-951-51-3559-9 |degree PhD |url http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-51-3560-5 }}
* Mitchell, Alexander G. (1995). The Story of Australian English. Sydney: Dictionary Research Centre.
{{refend}}
External links
{{Wiktionary|Appendix:Australian English vocabulary}}
* [http://alanwood.id.au/aussie-english/ Aussie English, The Illustrated Dictionary of Australian English]
* [http://www.anu.edu.au/ANDC/ Australian National Dictionary Centre]
* [https://www.oup.com.au/dictionaries/australian-national-dictionary/ozwords free newsletter from the Australian National Dictionary Centre, which includes articles on Australian English]
* [http://abc.net.au/wordmap/ Australian Word Map] at the ABC—documents regionalisms
* [http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/index.html R. Mannell, F. Cox and J. Harrington (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090120122833/http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/index.html |date20 January 2009 }}, Macquarie University
* [http://www.nma.gov.au/kidz/aussie_english_for_the_beginner/ Aussie English for beginners]—the origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge at the National Museum of Australia.
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.614941
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1902
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American Airlines Flight 77
|
{{Short description|9/11 hijacked passenger flight}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox aircraft occurrence
| occurrence_type = Hijacking
| name = American Airlines Flight 77
| image = Flightpath-AA77.gif
| image_upright = 1.15
| caption = Path of AAL77 from Dulles International Airport to the Pentagon, just outside of Washington, D.C.
| date = {{start date|2001|9|11}}
| type = Terrorist suicide hijacking
| site = West wall of the Pentagon, Arlington County, Virginia, U.S.
38°52'16.2"N 77°03'29.7"W
| total_fatalities = 189
| fatalities = 64
| occupants = 64
| survivors = 0
| ground_fatalities = 125
| ground_injuries = 109
| plane1_image = N644AA Boeing 757-223 American Airlines - AA, Phoenix Sky Harbor Int Airport December 2000.jpg
| plane1_image_upright = 1.15
| plane1_caption = N644AA, the aircraft involved, seen in December 2000
| aircraft_type = Boeing 757-223{{efn|The aircraft was a Boeing 757-200 model; Boeing assigns a unique code for each company that buys one of its aircraft, which is applied as an infix to the model number at the time the aircraft is built, hence "757-223" designates a 757-200 built for American Airlines (customer code 23).}}
| origin = Dulles International Airport, Sterling, VA, United States
| destination = Los Angeles International Airport, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| operator = American Airlines
| IATA = AA77
| ICAO = AAL77
| callsign = AMERICAN 77
| tail_number = N644AA
| passengers = 58 (including 5 hijackers)
| crew = 6
}}
{{Coord|38|52|16|N|77|03|29|W|display=title}}
American Airlines Flight 77 was a scheduled domestic transcontinental passenger flight from Dulles International Airport in Northern Virginia to Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles. The Boeing 757-200 aircraft serving the flight was hijacked by five al-Qaeda terrorists on the morning of September 11, 2001, as part of the September 11 attacks. The hijacked airliner was deliberately crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, killing all 64 aboard and another 125 in the building.
Flight 77 became airborne at 08:20 ET. Thirty-one minutes after takeoff, the attackers stormed the cockpit and forced the passengers and crew to the rear of the cabin, threatening the hostages but initially sparing all of them. Lead hijacker Hani Hanjour assumed control of the aircraft after having undergone extensive flight training as part of his preparation for the attack. In the meantime, two people aboard discreetly made phone calls to family members and relayed information on the situation without the knowledge of their assailants.
Hanjour flew the airplane into the west side of the Pentagon at 09:37. Many people witnessed the impact, and news sources began reporting on the incident within minutes, but no clear footage of the crash itself is available to the public. The 757 severely damaged an area of the Pentagon and caused a large fire that took several days to extinguish. By 10:10, the damage inflicted by the aircraft and ignited jet fuel led to a localized collapse of the Pentagon's western flank, followed forty minutes later by another five stories of the structure. Flight 77 was the third of four passenger jets to be commandeered by terrorists that morning, and the last to reach a target intended by al-Qaeda. The hijacking was to be coordinated with that of United Airlines Flight 93, which was flown in the direction of Washington, D.C., the U.S. capital. The terrorists on Flight 93 had their sights set on a federal government building not far from the Pentagon, but were forced to crash the plane in a Pennsylvania field when the passengers fought for control after being alerted to the previous suicide attacks, including Flight 77's.
The damaged sections of the Pentagon were rebuilt in 2002, with occupants moving back into the completed areas that August. The 184 victims of the attack are memorialized in the Pentagon Memorial adjacent to the crash site. The {{convert|1.93|acre|m2|adjon}} park contains a bench for each of the victims, arranged according to their year of birth.BackgroundThe flight was commandeered as part of the September 11 attacks. The attacks themselves cost somewhere in the region of $400,000 and $500,000 to execute, but the source of this financial support remains unknown.<ref>{{cite web |title9/11 Commission Staff Report |urlhttps://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf |dateSeptember 2005 |access-dateMay 6, 2023 |pages202–203}}</ref> Led by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who was described as being the "principal architect" of the attacks in the 9/11 Commission Report,{{sfn|9/11 Commission|2004a|p372}} al-Qaeda was motivated by several factors, not least of which was anti-Americanism and anti-Western sentiment. Because al-Qaeda only had the resources to commandeer four passenger jets, there was disagreement between Mohammed and Osama bin Laden over which targets should be prioritized. Mohammed favored striking the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center complex in New York City, while bin-Laden was bent on toppling the United States federal government, a goal he believed could be accomplished by destroying the Pentagon, the White House and the United States Capitol.<ref>{{cite web |title9/11 Commission Staff Report |urlhttps://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf |dateSeptember 2005 |access-dateMay 6, 2023 |page18}}</ref> Though bin Laden himself expressed a preference for the destruction of the White House over the Capitol, his subordinates disagreed, citing its difficulty in striking from the air. Hani Hanjour―likely while in the presence of fellow Flight 77 accomplice Nawaf al-Hazmi―scoped out the Washington metropolitan area on July 20, 2001, by renting a plane and taking a practice flight from Fairfield, New Jersey to Gaithersburg, Maryland in order to determine the feasibility of each of the possible candidates.<ref>{{cite web |title9/11 Commission Staff Report |urlhttps://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf |dateSeptember 2005 |access-dateMay 6, 2023 |page=19}}</ref>
In the end, 19 terrorists participated in the attacks against the United States, consisting of three groups of five men each and one group of four. The nine hijackers on Flight 77 and United Airlines Flight 93 were assigned the task of striking governmental structures in or near the national capital of Washington, D.C., and as such, the objective was for the two hijackings to be coordinated insofar as both planes being aimed towards targets in the Washington metropolitan area.{{sfn|9/11 Commission|2004a|p=50}} Significant complications faced by the four terrorists on Flight 93 ensured that Flight 77 was the only one to successfully attack a target intended by al-Qaeda when it struck the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia at 09:37, while a passenger uprising forced the hijackers aboard Flight 93 to crash the plane in rural Pennsylvania.
Regardless, the degree of coordination between Flight 77 and Flight 93 was evidently less than that of American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, the two airliners that were flown into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center 17 minutes apart in a joint attack on New York City. Flights 11 and 175 both departed from Logan International Airport in Boston for Los Angeles International Airport, and crashed into targets that stood next to each other, in contrast to the Pentagon and the federal government building Flight 93 was set to crash into, which were simply located in the same general area.
One noteworthy difference between the attacks in the National Capital Region and those in New York is that the teams on Flights 77 and 93 did not follow suit with their counterparts on Flights 11 and 175 by booking planes from the same airport with the same California destination in mind. Flight 77's group hijacked a plane out of Dulles International Airport in Virginia, conveniently situated near the Pentagon and consequently the capital, on a flight path destined for LAX. Conversely, Flight 93 departed from Newark International Airport in New Jersey, nearly 200 miles northeast of D.C., bound for San Francisco International Airport. There was also no contact between Hanjour and Flight 93 hijacker pilot Ziad Jarrah on the day of the attacks, whereas Mohamed Atta and Marwan al-Shehhi spoke over the phone while preparing to board their respective flights, apparently to confirm the attacks were ready to begin.{{sfn|9/11 Commission|2004a|p20}}Hijackers
{{Multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 150
| image1 = Hani Hanjour 2.jpg
| caption1 = Hani Hanjour (pilot)
| image2 = Khalid al-mihdhar 2.jpg
| caption2 = Khalid al-Mihdhar
| image3 = Nawaf al-Hazmi.jpg
| caption3 = Nawaf al-Hazmi
| image4 = Salem al-Hazmi.jpg
| caption4 = Salem al-Hazmi
| image5 = Majed Moqed.jpg
| caption5 = Majed Moqed
| perrow = 1 / 2 / 2
| header = American Airlines Flight 77 hijackers
| caption_align = center
}}
The hijackers on American Airlines Flight{{spaces}}77 were five Saudi men between the ages of 20 and 29. They were led by Hanjour, who piloted the aircraft into the Pentagon.<ref name"NYTimes1">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/18/us/nation-challenged-suspect-man-traveled-across-us-his-quest-be-pilot.html |titleA Nation Challenged: The Suspect – Man Traveled Across U.S. In His Quest to Be a Pilot |authorDavid W. Chen |workThe New York Times |dateSeptember 19, 2001 |access-dateFebruary 8, 2015 |archive-dateNovember 12, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141112205350/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/18/us/nation-challenged-suspect-man-traveled-across-us-his-quest-be-pilot.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> Hanjour first arrived in the United States in 1990.<ref>{{cite news |lastYardley |firstJim |author2Thomas, Jo |titleTraces of Terror: The F.B.I.; For Agent in Phoenix, the Cause of Many Frustrations Extended to His Own Office |urlhttps://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9E0DE0DD173FF93AA25755C0A9649C8B63 |dateJune 19, 2002 |workThe New York Times |access-dateJune 4, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090317084525/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9E0DE0DD173FF93AA25755C0A9649C8B63 |archive-dateMarch 17, 2009}}</ref>
Hanjour trained at the CRM Airline Training Center in Scottsdale, Arizona, earning his FAA commercial pilot's certificate in April 1999.<ref>{{cite news |titleFour Planes, Four Coordinated Teams |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/graphics/attack/hijackers.html |newspaperThe Washington Post |year2001 |access-dateJune 17, 2001 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110224023643/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/graphics/attack/hijackers.html |archive-dateFebruary 24, 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref> He had wanted to be a commercial pilot for Saudia but was rejected when he applied to the civil aviation school in Jeddah in 1999. Hanjour's brother later explained that, frustrated at not finding a job, Hanjour "increasingly turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers."<ref>{{cite news |lastSennott |firstCharles M. |titleWhy bin Laden plot relied on Saudi hijackers |urlhttps://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1.shtml |workThe Boston Globe |dateMarch 3, 2002 |access-dateMay 29, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080513135327/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1.shtml |archive-dateMay 13, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Hanjour returned to Saudi Arabia after being certified as a pilot, but left again in late 1999, telling his family he was going to the United Arab Emirates to work for an airline.<ref name"911 ch7">{{cite book |chapterThe Attack Looms |urlhttp://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |year2004 |title9/11 Commission Report |publisherNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-dateMay 29, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131023214223/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |archive-dateOctober 23, 2013}}</ref> Hanjour likely went to Afghanistan, where Al-Qaeda recruits were screened for special skills they might have. Already having selected the Hamburg cell members, Al Qaeda leaders selected Hanjour to lead the fourth team of hijackers.<ref>{{cite book |authorWright, Lawrence |titleLooming Tower |urlhttps://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig |url-accessregistration |chapterChapter 18, "Boom" |year2006 |publisherAlfred P. Knopf |isbn978-0375414862 |access-dateNovember 14, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200110182508/https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig |archive-dateJanuary 10, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{quote box|quote=
'I guess I was the more senior agent. So I went up to the individual that had the ticket on the Yemeni cell, the Yemeni operatives. And I said to her, I said, "What's going on? You know, we've got to tell the Bureau about this. These guys clearly are bad. One of them, at least, has a multiple-entry visa to the U.S. We've got to tell the FBI."
And then [the CIA officer] said to me, "No, it's not the FBI's case, not the FBI's jurisdiction."
So I go tell Doug. And I'm like, "Doug, what can we do?" If we had picked up the phone and called the Bureau, I would have been violating the law. I would have broken the law. I would have been removed from the building that day. I would have had my clearances suspended, and I would be gone.'
|source—Mark Rossini, The Spy Factory<ref namerossini1>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html |titleThe Spy Factory |publisherPBS |authorBamford, James |author-linkJames Bamford |author2Willis, Scott |dateFebruary 3, 2009 |access-dateJuly 2, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140411200414/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html |archive-dateApril 11, 2014}}</ref>|alignright|width25%}}
In December 2000, Hanjour arrived in San Diego, joining "muscle" hijackers Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, who had been there since January of that year.<ref name"911 ch7" /><ref>{{cite news |lastGoldstein |firstAmy |titleHijackers Led Core Group |newspaperThe Washington Post |urlhttp://www.pulitzer.org/year/2002/national-reporting/works/093001.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080505123208/http://www.pulitzer.org/year/2002/national-reporting/works/093001.html |archive-dateMay 5, 2008 |dateSeptember 30, 2001 |access-dateMay 29, 2008}}</ref> Alec Station, the CIA's unit dedicated to tracking Osama bin Laden, had discovered that al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar had multiple-entry visas to the United States. An FBI agent inside the unit and his supervisor Mark Rossini (Former Federal Bureau of Investigation Supervisory Agent) sought to alert FBI headquarters, but the CIA officer supervising Rossini at Alec Station rebuffed him on the grounds that the FBI lacked jurisdiction.<ref name"bam1">[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html The Spy Factory], PBS Frontline episode based on James Bamford's book, Shadow Factory {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140411200414/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html|date=April 11, 2014}}</ref>
Soon after arriving in San Diego, Hanjour and Hazmi left for Mesa, Arizona, where Hanjour began refresher training at Arizona Aviation.<ref name"911 ch7" /> In April 2001, they relocated to Falls Church, Virginia, where they awaited the arrival of the remaining "muscle" hijackers.<ref name"911 ch7" /> One of these men, Majed Moqed, arrived on May 2, 2001, with Flight{{spaces}}175 hijacker Ahmed al-Ghamdi from Dubai at Dulles International Airport. They moved into an apartment with Hazmi and Hanjour.<ref name"travel">{{cite book |urlhttp://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Ch2.pdf |titleMonograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |chapterChronology |publisherNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |page22 |access-dateMay 25, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080529193648/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Ch2.pdf |archive-dateMay 29, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
On May 21, 2001, Hanjour rented a room in Paterson, New Jersey, where he stayed with other hijackers through the end of August.<ref name"newark">{{cite news |lastMartin |firstJohn P. |titleLandlord Identifies Terrorists as Renters |newspaperThe Star-Ledger |dateSeptember 27, 2001}}</ref> The last Flight{{spaces}}77 "muscle" hijacker, Salem al-Hazmi, arrived on June 29, 2001, with Abdulaziz al-Omari (a hijacker of Flight{{spaces}}11) at John F. Kennedy International Airport from the United Arab Emirates. They stayed with Hanjour.<ref name="travel" />
Hanjour received ground instruction and did practice flights at Air Fleet Training Systems in Teterboro, New Jersey, and at Caldwell Flight Academy in Fairfield, New Jersey.<ref name"911 ch7" /> Hanjour moved out of the room in Paterson and arrived at the Valencia Motel in Laurel, Maryland, on September 2, 2001.<ref name "newark"/> While in Maryland, Hanjour and fellow hijackers trained at Gold's Gym in Greenbelt.<ref>{{cite news |lastMasters |firstBrooke A. |author2Smith, Leef |author3Shear, Michael D. |titleDulles Hijackers Made Maryland Their Base; Residents Recall Men as Standoffish |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateSeptember 19, 2001 |quoteThe men who hijacked Flight{{spaces}}77 also made a concerted effort to stay in shape. All five visited the Gold's Gym on Greenbelt Road during the first week of September}}</ref> On September 10, he completed a certification flight, using a terrain recognition system for navigation, at Congressional Air Charters in Gaithersburg, Maryland.<ref>{{cite news |authorOlson, Bradley |urlhttp://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/bal-te.md.terrorist09sep09,0,238349.story |titleMD. Was Among Last Stops For Hijackers; Those Who Recall Encounters Are Haunted By Proximity To Agents Of Tragic Event |workThe Baltimore Sun |dateSeptember 9, 2006 |access-dateMay 30, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121022071751/http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/bal-te.md.terrorist09sep09%2C0%2C238349.story |archive-dateOctober 22, 2012 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"911-notes">{{cite book |urlhttp://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Notes.htm |author9/11 Commission |chapterNotes |year2004 |title9/11 Commission Report |publisherNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-dateMay 30, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080530161252/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Notes.htm |archive-dateMay 30, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
On September 10 Nawaf al-Hazmi, accompanied by other hijackers, checked into the Marriott in Herndon, Virginia, near Dulles Airport.<ref name"timeline">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.911myths.com/index.php/Image:Hijackers_Timeline_OCR.pdf |titleHijackers' Timeline |authorFederal Bureau of Investigation |publisher9/11 Myths |dateFebruary 4, 2008 |access-dateAugust 1, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080803015816/http://www.911myths.com/index.php/Image%3AHijackers_Timeline_OCR.pdf |archive-dateAugust 3, 2008 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Suspected accomplices
According to a U.S. State Department cable leaked in the WikiLeaks dump in February 2010, the FBI has investigated another suspect, Mohammed al-Mansoori. He had associated with three Qatari citizens who flew from Los Angeles to London (via Washington) and Qatar on the eve of the attacks, after allegedly surveying the World Trade Center and the White House. U.S. law enforcement officials said the data about the four men was "just one of many leads that were thoroughly investigated at the time and never led to terrorism charges."<ref name"MSNBC" /> An official added that the three Qatari citizens had never been questioned by the FBI. Eleanor Hill, the former staff director for the congressional joint inquiry on the September&nbsp;11 attacks, said the cable reinforces questions about the thoroughness of the FBI's investigation. She also said that the inquiry concluded the hijackers had a support network that helped them in different ways.<ref name"MSNBC" />
The three Qatari men were booked to fly from Los Angeles to Washington on September 10, 2001, on the same plane that was hijacked and piloted into the Pentagon on the following day. Instead, they flew from Los Angeles to Qatar, via Washington and London. While the cable said Mansoori was currently under investigation, U.S. law enforcement officials said there was no active investigation of him or of the Qatari citizens mentioned in the cable.<ref name"MSNBC">{{cite news |lastIsikoff |firstMichael |publisherMSNBC |titleWikiLeaks cable revives talk of 9/11 support network |dateFebruary 2, 2011 |urlhttp://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/41400106/ns/us_news-security/ |access-dateFebruary 18, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110211203506/http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/41400106/ns/us_news-security/ |archive-dateFebruary 11, 2011 |url-statusdead}}</ref>FlightThe aircraft involved in the hijacking was a Boeing 757-223 registered as {{Airreg|N|644AA| built and delivered to American Airlines in 1991.}}<ref name"fps">{{cite web |titleFlight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77 |urlhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc02.pdf |dateFebruary 19, 2002 |publisherNational Transportation Safety Board |access-dateMay 30, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060824050511/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc02.pdf |archive-dateAugust 24, 2006 |url-statusdead}}</ref> On September 11, the total flight duration was 77 minutes. The crew included Captain Charles Burlingame (51) (a Naval Academy graduate and former fighter pilot), First Officer David Charlebois (39), purser Renee May and flight attendants Michele Heidenberger, Jennifer Lewis and Kenneth Lewis.<ref>{{cite news |titleAmerican Airlines Flight 77 |urlhttp://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/victims/AA77.victims.html |year2001 |workCNN |access-dateMay 29, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512091509/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/victims/AA77.victims.html |archive-dateMay 12, 2008}}</ref> The capacity of the aircraft was 188 passengers, but with 58 passengers on September 11, the load factor was 33 percent. American Airlines said Tuesdays were the least-traveled day of the week, with the same load factor seen on Tuesdays in the previous three months for Flight{{spaces}}77.<ref name"four"/> Passenger Barbara Olson, whose husband Theodore Olson served as the 42nd Solicitor General of the United States, was en route to a recording of the TV show Politically Incorrect.<ref>{{cite news |lastMoraes |firstLisa |titleLetterman's Back Tonight, but Don't Expect a Biting Monologue |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateSeptember 17, 2001}}</ref> A group of three 11-year-old children, their chaperones, and two National Geographic Society staff members were also on board, embarking on an educational trip west to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara, California.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/09/0912_disasterngs.html |titleTeam from National Geographic Killed in Pentagon Crash |publisherNational Geographic Society |dateSeptember 12, 2001 |access-dateJune 10, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080518235900/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/09/0912_disasterngs.html |archive-dateMay 18, 2008 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Former Georgetown University basketball coach John Thompson had originally booked a ticket on Flight{{spaces}}77. As he would tell the story many times in the following years, including a September 12, 2011 interview on Jim Rome's radio show, he had been scheduled to appear on that show on September 12, 2001. Thompson was planning to be in Las Vegas for a friend's birthday on September 13, and initially insisted on traveling to Rome's Los Angeles studio on the 11th. However, this did not work for the show, which wanted him to travel on the day of the show. After a Rome staffer personally assured Thompson he would be able to travel from Los Angeles to Las Vegas immediately after the show, Thompson changed his travel plans. He would later feel the impact from the crash at his home near the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.espn.com/blog/collegebasketballnation/post/_/id/35169/john-thompsons-surreal-911-story |titleJohn Thompson's surreal 9/11 story |firstEamonn |lastBrennan |workCollege Basketball Nation Blog |publisherESPN.com |dateSeptember 12, 2011 |access-dateSeptember 16, 2011 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140408221930/http://espn.go.com/blog/collegebasketballnation/post/_/id/35169/john-thompsons-surreal-911-story |archive-dateApril 8, 2014}}</ref>
Boarding and departure
On the morning of September 11, 2001, the five hijackers arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport. At 07:15 AM ET, Khalid al-Mihdhar and Majed Moqed checked in at the American Airlines ticket counter for Flight{{spaces}}77,<ref name"911-ch1">{{cite book |chapter'We Have Some Planes' |urlhttp://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |year2004 |title9/11 Commission Report |publisherNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-dateMay 30, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080514052417/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |archive-dateMay 14, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> arriving at the passenger security checkpoint a few minutes later at 07:18.<ref name"staff3">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |titleThe Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks – Staff Statement No. 3 |workNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-dateMay 30, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080528201527/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |archive-dateMay 28, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Both men set off the metal detector and were put through secondary screening. Moqed continued to set off the alarm, so he was searched with a hand wand.<ref name"dullesvideo">{{cite episode |urlhttp://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0407/21/acd.01.html |titleNew Video of 9/11 hijackers at Dulles Airport before attacks |seriesAnderson Cooper 360 |networkCNN |air-dateJuly 21, 2004 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130601033213/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0407/21/acd.01.html |archive-dateJune 1, 2013}}</ref> The Hazmi brothers checked in together at the ticket counter at 07:29. Hani Hanjour checked in separately and arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at 07:35.<ref name"911-notes"/> Hanjour was followed minutes later at the checkpoint by Salem and Nawaf al-Hazmi, who also set off the metal detector's alarm. The screener at the checkpoint never resolved what set off the alarm. As seen in security footage later released, Nawaf al-Hazmi appeared to have an unidentified item in his back pocket. Utility knives up to four inches were permitted at the time by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as carry-on items.<ref name"911-ch1"/><ref name"dullesvideo"/> The passenger security checkpoint at Dulles International Airport was operated by Argenbright Security, under contract with United Airlines.<ref>{{cite magazine |lastOrecklin |firstMichele |author2Land, Greg |urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1001252,00.html |titleWhy Argenbright Sets Off Alarms |magazineTime |dateNovember 19, 2001 |access-dateMay 30, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130823121209/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1001252%2C00.html |archive-dateAugust 23, 2013 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
The hijackers were all selected for extra screening of their checked bags. Hanjour, al-Mihdhar, and Moqed were chosen by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS) criteria, while the brothers Nawaf and Salem al-Hazmi were selected because they did not provide adequate identification and were deemed suspicious by the airline check-in agent. Hanjour, Mihdhar, and Nawaf al-Hazmi did not check any bags for the flight. Checked bags belonging to Moqed and Salem al-Hazmi were held until they boarded the aircraft.<ref name"four">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.archives.gov/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-dateMarch 6, 2008 |titleStaff Monograph on the "Four Flights and Civil Aviation Security" |dateSeptember 2005 |publisherNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-dateAugust 14, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
During the boarding process a National Geographic employee took a group photograph of the teachers and students going on the Channel Islands trip and the two employees accompanying them, as well as a picture of the airplane, inadvertently capturing the last images of both the victims and N644AA. Visible in the background of the group photograph is a man whose haircut and dress shirt match that of Nawaf al-Hazmi from Dulles security footage, indicating it may also be the last photograph of any of the Flight 77 hijackers while alive, but this has not been definitely confirmed.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/news/sep21/out-of-the-ashes.html |titleOut of the Ashes: How the Tragedy of September 11 Left Its Mark on the National Marine Sanctuary System}}</ref>
Flight 77 was scheduled to depart for Los Angeles at 08:10; 58 passengers boarded through Gate D26, including the five hijackers. The 53 other passengers on board excluding the hijackers were 26 men, 22 women, and five children ranging in age from three to eleven. On the flight, Hani Hanjour was seated up front in 1B, while Salem and Nawaf al-Hazmi were likewise seated in first class, in seats 5E and 5F. Majed Moqed and Khalid al-Mihdhar were seated farther back in 12A and 12B, in economy class.<ref name"Summary">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/flights/P200054.html |titleSummary of Flight 77 |publisherUnited States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia |access-dateFebruary 4, 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140201185541/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/flights/P200054.html |archive-dateFebruary 1, 2014}}</ref> Flight{{spaces}}77 left the gate on time and took off from Runway 30 at Dulles at 08:20.<ref name"four"/> The attacks were already underway by this point, as American Airlines Flight 11 had been hijacked six minutes earlier.<ref>{{cite book |title9/11 Commission Report |publisherGovernment Printing Office |year2004 |authorNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |chapterChapter 1 |urlhttp://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |page21}}</ref> Shortly after Flight 77 became airborne, FAA flight controller Danielle O'Brien made a routine handoff of the flight to a colleague at the FAA's Indianapolis Center. For reasons she could not explain and would never fully understand, O'Brien did not use one of her normal sendoffs to the pilots: "Good day," or "Have a nice flight." Instead, she wished them, "Good luck."<ref>{{Cite web |titleDulles air traffic controller recalls 'chilling' day - October 24, 2001 |urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/10/24/gen.terror.controller/index.html |url-statuslive |workCNN |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210518155926/http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/10/24/gen.terror.controller/index.html |archive-dateMay 18, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleAir Traffic Controllers Recall 9/11 |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id123822&page1 |url-statuslive |websiteABC News |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090324230843/http://abcnews.go.com:80/2020/story?id123822&page1 |archive-date=March 24, 2009}}</ref>
Flight 77 reached its assigned cruising altitude of {{convert|35,000|feet|m|0}} at 8:46&nbsp;a.m., four minutes after the hijacking of United Airlines Flight 175 commenced and the very same minute Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center.<ref>{{harv|9/11 Commission|2004a|page25|locchpt. 1}}</ref> The final communication between Flight 77 and controllers on the ground occurred four minutes later at 08:50:51, as Hanjour and his team prepared to strike.<ref>{{cite web |lastGregor |firstJoseph A. |urlhttps://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/ATC_Report_AA77.pdf |titleATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisherNational Transportation Safety Board |dateDecember 21, 2001 |access-dateSeptember 25, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121029094317/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/ATC_Report_AA77.pdf |archive-dateOctober 29, 2012}}</ref>HijackingThe terrorists launched their assault at 08:51, by which point the North Tower had been on fire for around five minutes and Flight 175 was within 12 minutes of striking the South Tower. Flight 93 had also become airborne from Newark at 08:42,<ref>{{harv|9/11 Commission|2004a|page27|locchpt. 1}}</ref> but had been delayed on the runway for as long as 42 minutes and would not be seized until 09:28,<ref>{{harv|9/11 Commission|2004a|page28|locchpt. 1}}</ref> preventing al-Qaeda's idea to synchronize its takeover with that of Flight 77. Three minutes after the hijacking began, according to the commission, the attackers on Flight 77 were in full control of the aircraft. The modus operandi of Hanjour's group was in stark contrast to the other three teams, in that while the victims were threatened with knives and box cutters, there were no reports of any injuries or deaths prior to the crash; both pilots were spared when the cockpit was breached, and the use of chemical weapons or bomb threats was not reported by either of the two people who made phone calls from the rear of the cabin.{{efn|Although the two people who made phone calls did not mention the use of chemical weapons or bomb threats, the 9/11 Commission noted that both of them were originally from the first-class cabin and had been moved to the rear, implying the first class area may have been uninhabitable.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |workNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |titleFinal Report of the 9/11 Commission |year2004 |pages26}}</ref>}} At 08:54, as the plane flew in the vicinity over Pike County, Ohio, it began deviating from its normal assigned flight path and turned south.<ref>{{Cite news |last1Sciolino |first1Elaine |last2Cushman |first2John H. Jr. |date2001-09-13 |titleAfter the Attacks: American Flight 77; A Route Out of Washington, Horribly Changed |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/us/after-the-attacks-american-flight-77-a-route-out-of-washington-horribly-changed.html |access-date2021-04-27 |issn0362-4331}}</ref> Two minutes later, the plane's transponder was switched off.<ref name"911-ch1"/> The flight's autopilot was promptly engaged and set on a course heading eastbound towards Washington, D.C.<ref name":0">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |titleStudy of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |lastO'Callaghan |firstJohn |author2Bower, Daniel |publisherNational Transportation Safety Board |dateFebruary 13, 2002 |access-dateJune 1, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110604114258/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |archive-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref>
The FAA was aware at this point there was an emergency on board the airplane. After learning of a second hijacking involving an American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking of a United Airlines jet, American Airlines' executive vice president Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline.<ref name"911-ch1"/> For several minutes, Indianapolis Air Route Traffic Control Center and dispatchers for American Airlines made several failed attempts to contact the hijacked airliner, giving up just as Flight 175 flew into the World Trade Center's South Tower at 09:03.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/Flight_Path_Study_AA77.pdf |titleFlight Path Study - American Airlines Flight 77 |dateFebruary 19, 2002 |access-dateMay 27, 2023}}</ref> The plane had been flying over an area of limited radar coverage at the time of its hijacking.<ref name"Wash4">{{cite news |lastPhillips |firstDon |titlePentagon Crash Highlights a Radar Gap; Limited System in One Area Made Flight 77 Invisible to Controllers for Half-Hour |dateNovember 3, 2001 |newspaperThe Washington Post}}</ref> With air controllers unable to contact the flight by radio, an Indianapolis official declared that it had possibly crashed at 09:09, twenty-eight minutes before it actually did.<ref name"Wash4" /> Sometime between 09:17 and 09:22, Hanjour broadcast a deceptive announcement via the cabin's public address system, advising those aboard that the plane was being hijacked and that their best chance of survival was by not resisting.<ref>{{harv|9/11 Commission|2004a|page29|locchpt. 1}}</ref> This tactic was used on Flight 11 and on Flight 93 with the aim of deceiving the passengers and crew into believing the plan was to land the plane after securing a ransom; in both cases, however, the terrorists’ understanding of the internal communication systems used aboard aircraft was evidently not as good as Hanjour's,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA567866.pdf |titleThe First 109 Minutes: 9/11 and the U.S. Air Force |year2011 |page37}}</ref> as they keyed the wrong microphone and broadcast their message to the ground instead. No passengers aboard Flight 11 reported hearing any intercom messages.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |workNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |titleFinal Report of the 9/11 Commission |year2004 |pages36 and 46}}</ref>CallsTwo people on board the aircraft made a total of three phone calls to contacts on the ground. At 09:12, flight attendant Renee May made a phone call lasting just under two minutes to her mother, Nancy May, in Las Vegas.<ref name"Summary" /> During the phone call, she made the erroneous claim that "six persons" had forced "us" to the rear of the airplane, but did not explain whether the people crowded together were crew members, passengers, or both.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://nsarchive.gwu.edu/ |titleHome &#124; National Security Archive |websitensarchive.gwu.edu}}</ref><ref name"911-ch1"/><ref name"Summary" /> May asked her mother to contact American Airlines, which she and her husband promptly did,<ref name"911-ch1"/> although the company was well aware of the hijacking by this point.
At 09:16, Barbara Olson made a call to her husband Ted, quietly explaining that the plane had been hijacked and that those responsible were armed with knives and box cutters.<ref name"911-ch1" /><ref>{{cite news |lastJohnson |firstGlen |urlhttps://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |titleProbe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |workThe Boston Globe |dateNovember 23, 2001 |access-dateJune 1, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080608210201/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |archive-dateJune 8, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> She revealed that everyone, including the pilots, had been moved to the back of the cabin and that the call was being made without the knowledge of the hostage takers. The connection dropped a minute into the conversation.<ref>{{cite web |lastO'Brien |firstTim |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/11/pentagon.olson/index.html |titleWife of Solicitor General alerted him of hijacking from plane |workCNN |dateSeptember 11, 2001 |access-dateSeptember 25, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130310030535/http://articles.cnn.com/2001-09-11/us/pentagon.olson_1_hijacking-plane-crash?_sPM%3AUS |archive-dateMarch 10, 2013 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Theodore Olson contacted the command center at the Department of Justice, and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft.<ref name"911-ch1" /> Barbara Olson called again five minutes later, informing her husband of the announcement Hanjour―"the pilot"―made over the loudspeaker,<ref>{{harv|9/11 Commission|2004a|page26|locchpt. 1}}</ref> and asked him, "What do I tell the pilot to do?"<ref name"usatoday30-atoday-77-whitehouse">{{cite web |urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2001/09/12/flights-main.htm |titleFour flights, four tales of terror |authorLaura Parker |workUSA Today |dateSeptember 13, 2001 |access-dateFebruary 8, 2015 |archive-dateMarch 8, 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160308232047/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2001/09/12/flights-main.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref> Inquired of her whereabouts, Barbara replied saying that they were flying low over a residential area.<ref>{{cite episode |titleZero Hour |seriesInside 9/11 |series-linkInside 9/11 |air-dateSeptember 23, 2005 |creditsProducers: Colette Beaudry and Michael Cascio |networkNational Geographic Channel}}</ref> In the background, Ted overheard another passenger mentioning that the plane was flying northeast.<ref>{{cite book |title9/11 Commission Report |publisherGovernment Printing Office |year2004 |authorNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |chapterChapter 1 |urlhttp://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |page9}}</ref> He then made his wife aware of the suicide attacks on the World Trade Center, causing her to go quiet; Ted wondered if this meant she had been shocked into silence. After expressing their feelings and reassuring one another, the call cut off for the last time, at 9:26&nbsp;a.m.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://s3.amazonaws.com/911timeline/2002/telegraph030502.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080905105204/http://s3.amazonaws.com/911timeline/2002/telegraph030502.html |url-statuslive |archive-date2008-09-05 |title'She Asked Me How to Stop the Plane' |workThe Telegraph |firstToby |lastHarnden |dateMarch 5, 2002 |author-linkToby Harnden |locationUnited Kingdom |publisherTelegraph Group Limited}}</ref>
Crash
footage of Flight{{spaces}}77 hitting the Pentagon. Impact is at 01:27.<ref name"jw">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.judicialwatch.org/flight77.shtml |titleFlight 77, Video 2 |publisherJudicial Watch |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090212100831/http://www.judicialwatch.org/archive/2006/flight77-2.mpg |archive-dateFebruary 12, 2009}}</ref>]]
{{quote box|alignright|width25%|quote"The speed, the maneuverability, the way that he turned, we all thought in the radar room, all of us experienced air traffic controllers, that that was a military plane. You don't fly a 757 in that manner. It's unsafe."|source —Danielle O'Brien, air traffic controller at Dulles International Airport<ref>{{cite web |titleAir Traffic Controllers Recall 9/11 |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/2020/Story?id123822&page1 |dateOctober 24, 2001 |work20/20 |publisherABC News |access-dateJune 5, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130929181230/https://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id123822&page1 |archive-dateSeptember 29, 2013}}</ref>
}} At 9:29&nbsp;a.m., one minute after Flight 93 was hijacked, the terrorists aboard Flight 77 disengaged the autopilot and took manual control of the plane.<ref name":0" /> Turning and descending rapidly as it made its final approach toward Washington, the airplane was detected again on radar screens by controllers at Dulles, who mistook it for a military fighter at first glance due to its high speed and maneuvering.<ref name"Wash2">{{cite news |lastFisher |firstMarc |author2Phillips, Don |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/09/12/on-flight-77-our-plane-is-being-hijacked/85b3c4b3-876b-4bb5-b1f7-00cc8c37b75e/ |titleOn Flight 77: 'Our Plane Is Being Hijacked' |dateSeptember 12, 2001 |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-dateJune 1, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160111151019/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/09/12/on-flight-77-our-plane-is-being-hijacked/85b3c4b3-876b-4bb5-b1f7-00cc8c37b75e/ |archive-dateJanuary 11, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
While Flight{{spaces}}77 was {{convert|5|mi|km}} west-southwest of the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, it made a 330-degree spiral turn clockwise. By the end of the revolution, the 757 was descending {{convert|2200|ft|m}}, pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington. Advancing the throttles to full power, Hanjour rapidly began diving toward his target.<ref>{{cite book |title9/11 Commission Report |publisherGovernment Printing Office |year2004 |authorNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |chapterChapter 1 |urlhttp://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |page27}}</ref> The wings clipped five street lights as the plane flew level above the ground, while the right wing in particular struck a portable generator, creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nbc4.com/news/8988021/detail.html |title9/11 Survivor Wants Life For Moussaoui |dateApril 25, 2006 |publisherWRC-TV |access-dateJune 2, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081009125250/http://www.nbc4.com/news/8988021/detail.html |archive-dateOctober 9, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |lastCuriel |firstJonathan |urlhttp://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f/c/a/2006/09/03/INGR0KRCBA1.DTL |titleThe Conspiracy to Rewrite 9/11 |workSan Francisco Chronicle |dateSeptember 3, 2006 |access-dateJune 2, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080519053919/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F09%2F03%2FINGR0KRCBA1.DTL |archive-dateMay 19, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Flying at a speed of {{convert|530|mph|km/h m/s kn}} over the Navy Annex Building adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery,<ref>Goldberg et al., p. 14.</ref> Flight{{spaces}}77 crashed into the Pentagon's western flank at 09:37:46.<ref name"fdr">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070926220623/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |archive-dateSeptember 26, 2007 |titleAmerican Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisherNational Transportation Safety Board |dateJanuary 31, 2002 |access-dateJune 2, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The plane struck the establishment at the first-floor level<ref name"Pent17">{{cite book |lastGoldberg |firstAlfred |titlePentagon 9/11 |year2007 |publisherUnited States Government Printing Office |locationWashington, D.C. |page[https://archive.org/details/pentagon911alfre00wash/page/17 17] |isbn978-0160783289 |display-authorsetal |urlhttps://archive.org/details/pentagon911alfre00wash/page/17}}</ref> and was rolled slightly to the left, with the right wing elevated as it crashed.<ref name"PentPerf">{{cite book |lastMlakar |firstPaul F. |author2Dusenberry, Donald O. |author3Harris, James R. |author4Haynes, Gerald |author5Phan, Long T. |author6Sozen, Mete A. |urlhttp://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build03/PDF/b03017.pdf |titleThe Pentagon Building Performance Report |publisherAmerican Society of Civil Engineers |dateJanuary 2003 |access-dateJune 19, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080624212810/http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build03/PDF/b03017.pdf |archive-dateJune 24, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The front part of the fuselage immediately disintegrated upon impact, while the mid and tail sections continued moving for another fraction of a second, with tail section debris penetrating farthest into the building.<ref name"Pent17" /> In total, the aircraft took eight-tenths of a second to pass {{convert|310|ft|m|0}} through the three outermost of the structure's five rings<ref name"washingtonpost-america-under-attack">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/29/AR2008052903149.html |titleAmerica Under Attack |authorJohn N. Maclean |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateAugust 1, 2008 |access-dateFebruary 8, 2015 |archive-dateDecember 18, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141218104155/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/29/AR2008052903149.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> and unleashed a fireball that rose {{convert|200|ft|m|0}} above the building.<ref name"Pent17" /> The 64 people aboard the flight were killed instantly, while a further 125 people in the Pentagon were either killed outright or fatally injured.
In the minutes leading up to the crash, Reagan Airport controllers had asked a passing Air National Guard Lockheed C-130 Hercules to identify and follow the aircraft. The pilot, Lieutenant Colonel Steven O'Brien, told them he believed it was either a Boeing{{spaces}}757 or 767, observing that its silver fuselage meant it was most likely an American Airlines jet. O'Brien mentioned having difficulty picking out the airplane in the "East Coast haze", but moments later reported seeing a "huge" fireball. His initial assumption as he approached the crash site was that the plane had simply hit the ground, but upon closer inspection he saw the damage done to the Pentagon's west side and relayed to Reagan control, "Looks like that aircraft crashed into the Pentagon, sir."<ref name"911-ch1" /><ref>{{cite news |lastSchmitt |firstEric |author2Lichtblau, Eric |titleTo the Minute, Panel Paints a Grim Portrait of Day's Terror |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/18/politics/18minutes.html?pagewanted2&ei5007&enc6fa52b1957732f6&ex1402977600&partnerUSERLAND |dateJune 18, 2004 |workThe New York Times |access-dateJune 1, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140409203540/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/18/politics/18minutes.html?pagewanted2&ei5007&enc6fa52b1957732f6&ex1402977600&partnerUSERLAND |archive-date=April 9, 2014}}</ref>
At the time of the attacks, approximately 18,000 people worked in the Pentagon, 4,000 fewer than before renovations began in 1998.<ref>Goldberg et al., p. 3.</ref> The section of the Pentagon that was struck, which had recently been renovated at a cost of $250{{spaces}}million (~${{Format price|{{Inflation|indexUS-GDP|value250000000|start_year1998}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}),<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/flash/metro/phoenix/phoenix.swf |titlePhoenix Rising: The Rebuilding of the Pentagon |formatFlash |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-dateJune 2, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080409092654/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/flash/metro/phoenix/phoenix.swf |archive-dateApril 9, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> housed the Naval Command Center.<ref>{{cite news |lastZablotsky |firstSarah |urlhttp://www.post-gazette.com/neigh_south/20030611s19kevin0611p6.asp |titleSurvivor of Pentagon attack has a positive attitude |workPittsburgh Post-Gazette |dateJune 11, 2003 |access-dateJune 2, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111205201743/http://www.post-gazette.com/neigh_south/20030611s19kevin0611p6.asp |archive-dateDecember 5, 2011}}</ref>
The fatalities in the Pentagon included 55 military personnel and 70 civilians.<ref name"usatoday30-atoday-survivors-ais">{{cite web |urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-08-20-pentagon_x.htm |titleMilitary's aid and comfort ease 9/11 survivors' burden |authorAndrea Stone |workUSA Today |dateAugust 20, 2002 |access-dateFebruary 8, 2015 |archive-dateMarch 11, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150311101856/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-08-20-pentagon_x.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref> Of those 125 killed, 92 were on the first floor, 31 were on the second floor, and two were on the third.<ref name"PENTGH">Goldberg et al., pp. 23–24.</ref> Seven Defense Intelligence Agency civilian employees were killed while the Office of the Secretary of Defense lost one contractor. The U.S. Army suffered 75 fatalities{{snd}}53 civilians (47 employees and six contractors) and 22 soldiers{{snd}}while the U.S. Navy suffered 42 fatalities{{snd}}nine civilians (six employees and three contractors) and 33 sailors.<ref>Goldberg, Alfred, Pentagon 9/11, pp. 208–212.</ref> Lieutenant General Timothy Maude, an Army deputy chief of staff, was the highest-ranking military officer killed at the Pentagon; also killed was retired Rear Admiral Wilson Flagg, a passenger on the plane.<ref>{{cite press release |urlhttp://www.hqusareur.army.mil/htmlinks/Press_Releases/2002/Apr2002/30Apr2002-02.htm |titleSept. 11 fallen warrior memorialized in building dedication |publisherUnited States Army |dateApril 30, 2002 |access-dateJune 10, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100103080033/http://www.hqusareur.army.mil/htmlinks/Press_Releases/2002/Apr2002/30Apr2002-02.htm |archive-dateJanuary 3, 2010}}</ref> LT Mari-Rae Sopper, JAGC, USNR, was also on board the flight, and was the first Navy Judge Advocate ever to be killed in action.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mari-rae.net/9112001.html |titleMari-Rae Sopper: 9112001 |publisherMari-rae.net |access-dateApril 8, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130805001925/http://www.mari-rae.net/9112001.html |archive-dateAugust 5, 2013}}</ref> Another 106 were injured on the ground and were treated at area hospitals.<ref name="PENTGH" />
{{quote box|alignright|width25%|quote"I don't want to alarm anybody right now, but apparently{{snd}}it felt just a few moments ago like there was an explosion of some kind here at the Pentagon."|source —Jim Miklaszewski, NBC Pentagon correspondent reporting from inside the Pentagon at 09:39<ref>{{cite web |title'Hardball with Chris Matthews' for May 16 |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna12834927 |dateMay 16, 2006 |workHardball with Chris Matthews |publisherNBC News |access-dateMay 30, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140530020945/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12834927/ |archive-dateMay 30, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
On the side where the plane hit, the Pentagon is bordered by Interstate 395 and Washington Boulevard. Motorist Mary Lyman, who was on I-395, saw the airplane pass over at a "steep angle toward the ground and going fast" and then saw the cloud of smoke from the Pentagon.<ref name"Wash3">{{cite news |titleTerrible Tuesday |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateSeptember 16, 2001}}</ref> Omar Campo, another witness, was on the other side of the road:
{{blockquote|1I was cutting the grass and it came in screaming over my head. I felt the impact. The whole ground shook and the whole area was full of fire. I could never imagine I would see anything like that here.<ref name"Guard">{{cite news |title'Everyone was screaming, crying, running. It's like a war zone' |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/12/expertopinions.charlieporteronmensfashion |dateSeptember 12, 2001 |workThe Guardian |access-dateJune 19, 2008 |locationLondon |firstJulian |lastBorger |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080516185757/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/sep/12/expertopinions.charlieporteronmensfashion |archive-dateMay 16, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
Afework Hagos, a computer programmer, was on his way to work and stuck in a traffic jam near the Pentagon when the airplane flew over. "There was a huge screaming noise and I got out of the car as the plane came over. Everybody was running away in different directions. It was tilting its wings up and down like it was trying to balance. It hit some lampposts on the way in."<ref name"Guard" /> Daryl Donley witnessed the crash and took some of the first photographs of the site.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.loc.gov/exhibits/911/911-docphotos.html |titleDocumentary Photographs |publisherLibrary of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division |access-dateNovember 12, 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061111205708/http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/911/911-docphotos.html |archive-dateNovember 11, 2006 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
USA Today reporter Mike Walter was driving on Washington Boulevard when he witnessed the crash:
{{blockquote|1I looked out my window and I saw this plane, this jet, an American Airlines jet, coming. And I thought, 'This doesn't add up, it's really low.' And I saw it. I mean it was like a cruise missile with wings. It went right there and slammed right into the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite news |lastAnderson |firstPorter |urlhttp://archives.cnn.com/2001/CAREER/trends/09/11/witnesses/ |titleWitnesses to the moment: Workers' voices |workCNN |dateSeptember 11, 2001 |access-dateJune 10, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090630075834/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/CAREER/trends/09/11/witnesses/ |archive-dateJune 30, 2009}}</ref>}}
Terrance Kean, who lived in a nearby apartment building, heard the noise of loud jet engines, glanced out his window, and saw a "very, very large passenger jet". He watched "it just plow right into the side of the Pentagon. The nose penetrated into the portico. And then it sort of disappeared, and there was fire and smoke everywhere."<ref>{{cite news |lastSheridan |firstMary B |titleLoud Boom, Then Flames In Hallways; Pentagon Employees Flee Fire, Help Rescue Injured Co-Workers |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2001/09/12/AR2005033108366_2.html |access-dateOctober 12, 2018 |dateSeptember 12, 2001 |newspaperThe Washington Post |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181012214445/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2001/09/12/AR2005033108366_2.html |archive-dateOctober 12, 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Tim Timmerman, who is a pilot himself, noticed American Airlines markings on the aircraft as he saw it hit the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite news |titleTranscripts – America Under Attack: Eyewitness Discusses Pentagon Plane Crash |urlhttp://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/11/bn.32.html |workCNN |dateSeptember 11, 2001 |access-dateJune 10, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130319180218/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/11/bn.32.html |archive-dateMarch 19, 2013}}</ref> Other drivers on Washington Boulevard, Interstate 395, and Columbia Pike witnessed the crash, as did people in Pentagon City, Crystal City, and other nearby locations.<ref name"Wash3"/>
Rescue and recovery
{{quote box|alignright|width25%|quote"In this area{{spaces}}... it's so hot that the debris is melting and dripping off the ceiling onto your skin and it would sear your skin and melt your uniform. We went a little farther, turned a corner and came into this bombed out office space that was a roaring inferno of destruction and smoke and flames and intense heat you could feel searing your face."|source —Lieutenant Commander David Tarantino describing the scene near the Navy Command Center on the first floor.<ref>Goldberg et al., pp. 55–56.</ref>}}
Rescue efforts began immediately after the crash. Almost all the successful rescues of survivors occurred within half an hour of the impact.<ref name"Pent51">Goldberg et al., p. 51.</ref> Initially, rescue efforts were led by the military and civilian employees within the building. Within minutes, the first fire companies arrived and found these volunteers searching near the impact site. The firefighters ordered them to leave as they were not properly equipped or trained to deal with the hazards.<ref name"Pent51" />
The Arlington County Fire Department (ACFD) assumed command of the immediate rescue operation within ten minutes of the crash. ACFD Assistant Chief James Schwartz implemented an incident command system (ICS) to coordinate response efforts among multiple agencies.<ref>Goldberg et al., p. 72.</ref> It took about an hour for the ICS structure to become fully operational.<ref>Goldberg et al., p. 77.</ref> Firefighters from Fort Myer and Reagan National Airport arrived within minutes.<ref>Goldberg et al., p. 78.</ref><ref name"acfd">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.arlingtonva.us/Departments/Fire/edu/about/docs/after_report.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927012831/http://www.arlingtonva.us/Departments/Fire/edu/about/docs/after_report.pdf |archive-dateSeptember 27, 2007 |titleArlington, Virginia After-Action Report |publisherArlington County Fire Department |access-dateJune 10, 2008}}</ref> Rescue and firefighting efforts were impeded by rumors of additional incoming planes. Chief Schwartz ordered two evacuations during the day in response to these rumors.<ref name"Pent80">Goldberg et al., pp. 80–82.</ref>
As firefighters attempted to extinguish the fires, they watched the building in fear of a structural collapse. One firefighter remarked that they "pretty much knew the building was going to collapse because it started making weird sounds and creaking."<ref name"Pent80" /> Officials saw a cornice of the building move and ordered an evacuation. Minutes later, at 10:10, the upper floors of the damaged area of the Pentagon collapsed.<ref name"Pent80" /> The collapsed area was about {{convert|95|ft|m|0}} at its widest point and {{convert|50|ft|m|0}} at its deepest.<ref name"Pent80" /> The amount of time between impact and collapse allowed everyone on the fourth and fifth levels to evacuate safely before the structure collapsed.<ref>Goldberg et al., p. 20.</ref><ref name"Pent86">Goldberg et al., pp. 86–90.</ref> After 11:00, firefighters mounted a two-pronged attack against the fires. Officials estimated temperatures of up to {{convert|2000|°F|°C}}.<ref name"Pent86" /> While progress was made against the interior fires by late afternoon, firefighters realized a flammable layer of wood under the Pentagon's slate roof had caught fire and begun to spread.<ref name"Pent91">Goldberg et al., pp. 91–95.</ref> Typical firefighting tactics were rendered useless by the reinforced structure as firefighters were unable to reach the fire to extinguish it.<ref name"Pent91" /> Firefighters instead made firebreaks in the roof on September 12 to prevent further spreading. At 18:00 on the 12th, Arlington County issued a press release stating the fire was "controlled" but not fully "extinguished". Firefighters continued to put out smaller fires that ignited in the succeeding days.<ref name"Pent91" />
Various pieces of aircraft debris were found within the wreckage at the Pentagon. While on fire and escaping from the Navy Command Center, Lt. Kevin Shaeffer observed a chunk of the aircraft's nose cone and the nose landing gear in the service road between rings B and C.<ref>{{cite news |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040730074824/http://www.hamptonroads.com/pilotonline/special/911/pentagon3.html |urlhttp://www.hamptonroads.com/pilotonline/special/911/pentagon3.html |authorSwift, Earl |titleInside the Pentagon on 9/11: The Call of Duty |publisherThe Virginian-Pilot (Hampton Roads) |archive-dateJuly 30, 2004 |dateSeptember 9, 2002}}</ref> Early in the morning on Friday, September 14, Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue Team members Carlton Burkhammer and Brian Moravitz came across an "intact seat from the plane's cockpit",<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3069699/ |titleWeb Exclusive: Washington's Heroes – On the ground at the Pentagon on Sept. 11 |publisherMSNBC |dateSeptember 28, 2001 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100910124413/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3069699/ |archive-dateSeptember 10, 2010}}</ref> while paramedics and firefighters located the two black boxes near the punch out hole in the A–E drive,<ref>{{cite book |author1Creed, Patrick |author2Rick Newman |year2008 |titleFirefight: Inside the Battle to Save the Pentagon on 9/11 |chapterChapter 41: A Great Find |publisherRandom House}}</ref> nearly {{convert|300|ft|m|0}} into the building.<ref name"PentPerf" /> The cockpit voice recorder was too badly damaged and charred to retrieve any information,<ref>{{cite news |titlePentagon plane voice recorder is too 'cooked' to aid in probe |workThe Washington Times |authorMurray, Frank J. |dateSeptember 15, 2001}}</ref> though the flight data recorder yielded useful information.<ref name"fdr"/> Investigators also found a part of Nawaf al-Hazmi's driver's license in the North Parking Lot rubble pile.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/PE00102.html |titleProsecution Trial Exhibits – Exhibit Number PE00102 |publisherUnited States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia |access-dateJune 19, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140209101019/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/PE00102.html |archive-dateFebruary 9, 2014}}</ref> Personal effects belonging to victims were found and taken to Fort Myer.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/09/09/1031115990939.html |authorWilkinson, Marian |titleCapital punishment |publisherThe Age (Australia) |dateSeptember 9, 2002 |access-dateJune 24, 2008 |locationMelbourne |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131114061814/http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/09/09/1031115990939.html |archive-dateNovember 14, 2013}}</ref>RemainsArmy engineers determined by 17:30 on the first day that no survivors remained in the damaged section of the building.<ref>Goldberg et al., p. 97.</ref> In the days after the crash, news reports emerged that up to 800 people had died.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34177,00.html |titleTwin Towers Demolished, Pentagon Hit in Terrorist Attacks |dateSeptember 12, 2001 |publisherFoxnews.com |access-dateJune 10, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130501110625/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C34177%2C00.html |archive-dateMay 1, 2013 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Army soldiers from Fort Belvoir were the first teams to survey the interior of the crash site and noted the presence of human remains.<ref name"Pent119">Goldberg et al., p. 119.</ref> Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Urban Search and Rescue teams, including Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue assisted the search for remains, working through the National Interagency Incident Management System (NIIMS).<ref name"Pent119" /><ref>{{cite news |lastEversburg |firstRudy |titleThe Pentagon Attack on 9-11: Arlington County (VA) Fire Department Response |urlhttp://www.fireengineering.com/articles/print/volume-155/issue-11/features/the-pentagon-attack-on-9-11-arlington-county-va-fire-department-response.html |workFire Engineering |dateNovember 1, 2002 |access-dateJune 10, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140104123657/http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/print/volume-155/issue-11/features/the-pentagon-attack-on-9-11-arlington-county-va-fire-department-response.html |archive-dateJanuary 4, 2014}}</ref> Kevin Rimrodt, a Navy photographer surveying the Navy Command Center after the attacks, remarked that "there were so many bodies, I'd almost step on them. So I'd have to really take care to look backwards as I'm backing up in the dark, looking with a flashlight, making sure I'm not stepping on somebody."<ref>Goldberg et al., pp. 121–122.</ref> Debris from the Pentagon was taken to the Pentagon's north parking lot for more detailed search for remains and evidence.<ref name="Wash-oct01"/>
Remains recovered from the Pentagon were photographed, and turned over to the Armed Forces Medical Examiner office, located at Dover Air Force Base in Delaware. The medical examiner's office was able to identify remains belonging to 179 of the victims.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.edgewood.army.mil/hld/dl/MFM_Capstone_August_2005.pdf |titleMass Fatality Management for Incidents Involving Weapons of Mass Destruction |publisherU.S. Army Research Development and Engineering Command and the Office for Domestic Preparedness |dateAugust 2005 |access-dateJune 24, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080802031006/http://www.edgewood.army.mil/hld/dl/MFM_Capstone_August_2005.pdf |archive-dateAugust 2, 2008 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Investigators eventually identified 184 of the 189 people who died in the attack.<ref>{{cite news |lastKelly |firstChristopher |urlhttp://www.dcmilitary.com/dcmilitary_archives/stories/112901/12279-1.shtml |titleForensic feat IDs nearly all Pentagon victims |workStripe |dateNovember 29, 2001 |access-dateJune 27, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110513132259/http://www.dcmilitary.com:80/dcmilitary_archives/stories/112901/12279-1.shtml |archive-dateMay 13, 2011}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref> The remains of the five hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, and were turned over as evidence to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).<ref>{{cite news |lastVogel |firstSteve |titleRemains Unidentified For 5 Pentagon Victims; Bodies Were Too Badly Burned, Officials Say |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateNovember 21, 2001}}</ref> On September 21, the ACFD relinquished control of the crime scene to the FBI. The Washington Field Office, National Capital Response Squad (NCRS), and the Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) led the crime scene investigation at the Pentagon.<ref name"acfd" />
By October 2, 2001, the search for evidence and remains was complete and the site was turned over to Pentagon officials.<ref name"Wash-oct01"/> In 2002, the remains of 25 victims were buried collectively at Arlington National Cemetery, with a five-sided granite marker inscribed with the names of all the victims in the Pentagon.<ref name"Wash5">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2002/09/13/AR2006031501324.html |titleLost and, Sometimes, Never Found |authorSteve Vogel |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateSeptember 13, 2002 |access-dateFebruary 8, 2015 |archive-dateOctober 17, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141017221543/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2002/09/13/AR2006031501324.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> The ceremony also honored the five victims whose remains were never found.<ref name"Wash5" />
Flight recorders
from American Airlines Flight{{spaces}}77, as used in an exhibit at the Moussaoui trial]]
About 03:40 on September 14, a paramedic and a firefighter who were searching through the debris of the impact site found two dark boxes, about {{convert|1.5|by|2|ft|cm}} long. They called for an FBI agent, who in turn called for someone from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). The NTSB employee confirmed that these were the flight recorders ("black boxes") from American Airlines Flight{{spaces}}77.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://msnbc.msn.com/id/3069699/ |titleWashington's Heroes: On the ground at the Pentagon on Sept. 11 |access-dateNovember 2, 2009 |lastRosenberg |firstDebra |dateSeptember 28, 2001 |publisherMSNBC |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040526034459/http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3069699/ |archive-dateMay 26, 2004}}</ref> Dick Bridges, deputy manager for Arlington County, Virginia, said the cockpit voice recorder was damaged on the outside and the flight data recorder was charred. Bridges said the recorders were found "right where the plane came into the building".<ref name"usatoday30-atoday-blackboxes">{{cite news |urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2001/09/14/pentagon-fire.htm |titleSearchers find Pentagon black boxes |agencyAssociated Press |workUSA Today |dateSeptember 14, 2001 |access-dateFebruary 8, 2015 |archive-dateNovember 8, 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141108113519/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2001/09/14/pentagon-fire.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref>
The cockpit voice recorder was transported to the NTSB lab in Washington, D.C., to see what data was salvageable. In its report, the NTSB identified the unit as an L-3 Communications, Fairchild Aviation Recorders model A-100A cockpit voice recorder{{snd}}a device which records on magnetic tape. There were several loose pieces of magnetic tape that were found lying inside of the tape enclosure. No usable segments of tape were found inside the recorder; according to the NTSB's report, "[t]he majority of the recording tape was fused into a solid block of charred plastic".<ref>{{cite web |titleSpecialist's Factual Report of Investigation: Cockpit Voice Recorder |dateApril 30, 2002 |urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/14780831/T8-B18-NTSB-Documents-1-of-3-Fdr-CVR-Cockpit-Voice-Recorder-Reports-AA-77-and-UA-93-Paperclipped-Together260 |workNational Transportation Safety Board |access-dateNovember 2, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140411193816/http://www.scribd.com/doc/14780831/T8-B18-NTSB-Documents-1-of-3-Fdr-CVR-Cockpit-Voice-Recorder-Reports-AA-77-and-UA-93-Paperclipped-Together260 |archive-dateApril 11, 2014}}</ref> On the other hand, all the data from the flight data recorder, which used a solid-state drive, was recovered.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/AAL77_fdr.pdf |titleSpecialist's Factual Report of Investigation: Digital Flight Data Recorder |dateJanuary 31, 2002 |access-dateFebruary 28, 2014 |publisherNTSB |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121010093205/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/AAL77_fdr.pdf |archive-dateOctober 10, 2012}}</ref>
Continuity of operations
At the moment of impact, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was in his office on the other side of the Pentagon, away from the crash site. He ran to the site and assisted the injured.<ref>{{cite news |lastVobejda |firstBarbara |title'Extensive Casualties' in Wake of Pentagon Attack |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/metro/daily/sep01/attack.html |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateSeptember 11, 2001 |access-dateJune 20, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110425115144/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/metro/daily/sep01/attack.html |archive-dateApril 25, 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Rumsfeld returned to his office, and went to a conference room in the Executive Support Center where he joined a secure videoteleconference with Vice President Dick Cheney and other officials.<ref>{{cite book |author1Creed, Patrick |author2Rick Newman |titleFirefight: Inside the Battle to Save the Pentagon on 9/11 |year2008 |publisherPresidio Press |isbn978-0891419051 |pages[https://archive.org/details/firefightinsideb00cree/page/276 276–277] |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/firefightinsideb00cree/page/276}}</ref> On the day of the attacks, DoD officials considered moving their command operations to Site R, a backup facility in Pennsylvania. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld insisted he remain at the Pentagon, and sent Deputy Secretary Paul Wolfowitz to Site R. The National Military Command Center (NMCC) continued to operate at the Pentagon, even as smoke entered the facility.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId90696597&ft1&f1012 |titleBattling the Pentagon Blaze After 9/11 |publisherNPR/WHYY – Fresh Air |dateMay 22, 2008 |access-dateJune 24, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140227180849/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId90696597&ft1&f1012 |archive-dateFebruary 27, 2014}}</ref> Engineers and building managers manipulated the ventilation and other building systems that still functioned to draw smoke out of the NMCC and bring in fresh air.<ref>Creed and Newman, p. 278</ref>
During a press conference held inside the Pentagon at 18:42, Rumsfeld announced, "The Pentagon's functioning. It will be in business tomorrow."<ref>{{cite web |titleDoD News Briefing on Pentagon Attack |urlhttp://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid1613 |publisherUnited States Department of Defense |dateSeptember 11, 2001 |access-dateJune 24, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080607170533/http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid1613 |archive-dateJune 7, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Pentagon employees returned the next day to offices in mostly unaffected areas of the building. By the end of September, more workers returned to the lightly damaged areas of the Pentagon.<ref name"Wash-oct01">{{cite news |authorVogel, Steve |titleSearch for Remains Ends at Pentagon |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateOctober 3, 2001}}</ref>Aftermath
{{Main|Aftermath of the September 11 attacks}}
Early estimates on rebuilding the damaged section of the Pentagon were that it would take three years to complete.<ref name"Wash-oct01"/> However, the project moved forward at an accelerated pace and was completed by the first anniversary of the attack.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/09/04/ar911.pentagon.reconstruction/ |titleProject Phoenix: Pentagon offices rise from rubble |workCNN |dateSeptember 4, 2002 |access-dateJune 24, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090610152126/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/09/04/ar911.pentagon.reconstruction/ |archive-dateJune 10, 2009}}</ref> The rebuilt section of the Pentagon includes a small indoor memorial and chapel at the point of impact.<ref name"washingtonpost-public-honors">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/09/AR2006090900576.html |titlePublic Honors 9/11 Fallen at Pentagon |authorKevin Freking |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateSeptember 9, 2006 |access-dateFebruary 8, 2015 |archive-dateFebruary 8, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150208230121/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/09/AR2006090900576.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> An outdoor memorial, commissioned by the Pentagon and designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman, was completed on schedule for its dedication on September 11, 2008.<ref>{{cite news |lastShaughnessy |firstLarry |urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/05/23/pentagon.memorial/ |titleNearly complete Pentagon memorial tells story of 9/11 |workCNN |dateMay 24, 2008 |access-dateSeptember 12, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121025184254/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/05/23/pentagon.memorial/ |archive-dateOctober 25, 2012}}</ref>Security camera videosThe Department of Defense released filmed footage on May 16, 2006, that was recorded by a security camera of American Airlines Flight{{spaces}}77 crashing into the Pentagon, with a plane visible in one frame, as a "thin white blur" and an explosion following.<ref>{{cite news |agencyAssociated Press |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna12818225 |titleVideo of 9/11 plane hitting Pentagon is released |workNBC News |dateMay 16, 2006 |access-dateJune 10, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140530020209/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12818225/ |archive-dateMay 30, 2014 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The images were made public in response to a December 2004 Freedom of Information Act request by Judicial Watch.<ref>{{cite press release |titleJudicial Watch Obtains September 11 Pentagon Video |urlhttp://www.judicialwatch.org/5772.shtml |publisherJudicial Watch |dateMay 16, 2006 |access-dateJune 11, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080511221056/http://www.judicialwatch.org/5772.shtml |archive-dateMay 11, 2008 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Some still images from the video had previously been released and publicly circulated, but this was the first official release of the edited video of the crash.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/03/07/gen.pentagon.pictures/ |titleImages show September 11 Pentagon crash |workCNN |dateMarch 8, 2002 |access-dateJune 11, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080531134018/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/03/07/gen.pentagon.pictures/ |archive-dateMay 31, 2008 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
A nearby Citgo service station also had security cameras, but a video released on September 15, 2006, did not show the crash because the camera was pointed away from the crash site.<ref>{{cite press release |urlhttp://www.judicialwatch.org/5965.shtml |titleCITGO Gas Station Cameras Near Pentagon Evidently Did Not Capture Attack |dateSeptember 15, 2006 |publisherJudicial Watch |access-dateJune 11, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080501110315/http://www.judicialwatch.org/5965.shtml |archive-dateMay 1, 2008 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleVideotapes dispel conspiracy; Plane, not missile seen hitting Pentagon on 9/11 |workThe Washington Times |date=May 17, 2006}}</ref>
The Doubletree Hotel in the nearby neighborhood of Crystal City also had a security camera video. The FBI released the video on December 4, 2006, in response to a FOIA lawsuit filed by Scott Bingham. The footage is "grainy and the focus is soft, but a rapidly growing tower of smoke is visible in the distance on the upper edge of the frame as the plane crashes into the building."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.kwtx.com/home/headlines/4821121.html |titleFBI Releases New Footage of 9/11 Pentagon Attack |publisherKWTX-TV |dateDecember 4, 2006 |access-dateJune 11, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061208062128/http://www.kwtx.com/home/headlines/4821121.html |archive-dateDecember 8, 2006 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Memorials
's South Pool, one of six on which the names of Pentagon victims are inscribed<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://names.911memorial.org/#langen_US&pageperson&id132 |titleSouth Pool: Panel S-74 – Timothy J. Maude |publisherNational September 11 Memorial & Museum |access-dateOctober 29, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130727095710/http://names.911memorial.org/ |archive-date=July 27, 2013}}</ref>]]
, shortly before it opened on September 11, 2008]]
On September 12, 2002, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld and General Richard Myers, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, dedicated the Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery.<ref name"Garamone">[https://web.archive.org/web/20111205190648/http://osd.dtic.mil/news/Sep2002/n09122002_200209123.html Garamone, Jim. "Remains of Pentagon Attack Victims Buried at Arlington". American Forces Press Service. September 12, 2002.] Accessed September 7, 2011.</ref> The memorial specifically honors the five individuals for whom no identifiable remains were found.<ref name"Cass">Cass, Connie. "Cremated Remains of Pentagon Victims Are Laid to Rest at National Cemetery". Associated Press. September 13, 2002.</ref> This included Dana Falkenberg, age three, who was aboard American Airlines Flight{{spaces}}77 with her parents and older sister.<ref name"Cass" /> A portion of the remains of 25 other victims are also buried at the site.<ref name"Honors">[https://www.cnn.com/2002/US/09/12/ar911.pentagon.funeral/index.html "Arlington Funeral Honors Unidentified Victims". CNN.com. September 12, 2002.] Accessed September 7, 2011. [https://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/09/12/ar911.pentagon.funeral/]</ref> The memorial is a pentagonal<ref name"Pusey">Pusey, Allen. "Final Service Honors Victims of Pentagon Attack". Dallas Morning News. September 13, 2002.</ref> granite marker {{convert|4.5|ft|m}} high.<ref name"Cass" /> On five sides of the memorial along the top are inscribed the words "Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon September 11, 2001". Aluminum plaques, painted black, are inscribed with the names of the 184 victims of the terrorist attack.<ref name"Cass" /> The site is located in Section 64,<ref name"VogelNever">Vogel, Steve. "Lost and, Sometimes, Never Found". Washington Post. September 13, 2002.</ref> on a slight rise, which gives it a view of the Pentagon.<ref name="Cass" />
At the National September 11 Memorial, the names of the Pentagon victims are inscribed on six panels at<!--or "on a corner of" or (worse) "on the [guess which] corner of" or (worst) problematic punctuation--> the South Pool.<ref>[http://names.911memorial.org/#langen_US&pageabout&id7 About: The Memorial Names Layout]. Memorial Guide: National 9/11 Memorial. Retrieved December 11, 2011. {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130727095710/http://names.911memorial.org/#langen_US&pageabout&id7 |dateJuly 27, 2013 }}</ref>
The Pentagon Memorial, located just southwest of The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, is a permanent outdoor memorial to the 184 people who died as victims in the building and on American Airlines Flight{{spaces}}77 during the September{{spaces}}11 attacks.<ref name"sked">{{cite web |urlhttp://memorial.pentagon.mil/schedule.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030313032255/http://memorial.pentagon.mil/schedule.htm |url-statusdead |archive-dateMarch 13, 2003 |titlePentagon Memorial Project Schedule |publisherPentagon Renovation Program |access-dateOctober 12, 2006}}</ref> Designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman of the architectural firm of Kaseman Beckman Advanced Strategies<ref name"WPcreating">{{cite news |firstNick |lastMiroff |titleCreating a Place Like No Other |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/10/AR2008091000018.html |newspaperThe Washington Post |dateSeptember 11, 2008 |access-dateJuly 26, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110820073745/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/10/AR2008091000018.html |archive-dateAugust 20, 2011 |url-statuslive}}</ref> with engineers Buro Happold,<ref>{{cite web |titlePentagon Memorial |urlhttp://www.burohappold.com/BH/PRJ_BLD_pentagon_memorial.aspx |access-dateSeptember 12, 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100910035010/http://www.burohappold.com/BH/PRJ_BLD_pentagon_memorial.aspx |archive-dateSeptember 10, 2010}}</ref> the memorial opened on September 11, 2008, seven years after the attack.Nationalities of victims on the aircraft
The 53 passengers (excluding the hijackers) and six crew were from:
{|class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccf;"
!|Nationality|||Passengers|||Crew|||Total
|- valign=top
|United States||47||6||53
|- valign=top
|China||2||0||2<ref>{{Cite web |titleSpokesman on the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington |publisherConsulate General of China, New York |date2001-09-13 |urlhttp://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/17928.html |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20020603060503/http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/17928.html |archive-dateJune 3, 2002 |access-date2002-06-03 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
|- valign=top
|Australia||1||0||1
|- valign=top
|Ethiopia||1||0||1
|- valign=top
|South Korea||1||0||1
|- valign=top
|United Kingdom||1||0||1
|- valign=top
|Total||53||6||59
|}
See also
* Indian Airlines Flight 814
* TWA Flight 847
* Air France Flight 139
* List of aircraft hijackings
References
{{reflist|30em}}
{{notelist}}
Works cited
* {{cite report |titleFinal Report of the 9/11 Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |dateJuly 22, 2004 |publisherNational Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-dateAugust 15, 2021 |urlhttps://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |ref{{harvid|9/11 Commission|2004a}} |archive-dateAugust 16, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210816164111/https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |url-statuslive}}External links
{{commons category|American Airlines Flight 77}}
* [http://www.airliners.net/search?registrationActualN644AA&displaydetail Picture of Aircraft Pre 9-11]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080716174933/http://www.arlingtonva.us/Departments/Fire/edu/about/FireEduAboutAfterReport.aspx Arlington County After-Action Report], July 23, 2002
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.aa.com/ |titleAmerican Airlines site with condolences for deceased |access-dateOctober 18, 2006 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010911233514/http://www.aa.com/ |archive-dateSeptember 11, 2001}} (September 11, 2001)
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.aa.com/ |titleAmerican Airlines site with condolences for deceased |access-dateOctober 18, 2006 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010912191349/http://www.aa.com/ |archive-dateSeptember 12, 2001}} (September 12, 2001)
{{September 11 attacks}}
{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 2001}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in the 2000s}}
{{American Airlines}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:American Airlines Flight 0077}}
Category:2001 fires in the United States
Category:2001 in Virginia
Category:2001 murders in the United States
Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing 757
Category:Aircraft hijackings in the United States
Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by hijacking
Category:Airliner accidents and incidents in Virginia
Category:Airliner accidents and incidents involving deliberate crashes
Category:Airliners involved in the September 11 attacks
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Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Attacks on military installations in 2001
Category:Attacks in the United States in 2001
Category:Attacks on government buildings and structures in the United States
Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 2001
Category:Dulles International Airport
Category:Filmed murder–suicides
Category:Islamic terrorism in the United States
Category:Mass murder in 2001
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Category:Mass murder in the United States in the 2000s
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Category:Murder–suicides in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_77
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.656112
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1905
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Ambush
|
{{short description|Military attack from concealed positions}}
{{Other uses}}
{{redirect|Sneak attack|the album by Buddy Miles Regiment|Sneak Attack (album)}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2007}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
(The Ambush by Évariste Carpentier, 1889)]]
's troops ambushed and decimated by the French and Indians in 1755]]
on a Boer camp in February 1838]]
during the First Anglo-Afghan War in 1842]]
against Russian forces during the January Uprising, 1863]]
{{wikt | ambush}}
An ambush is a surprise attack carried out by people lying in wait in a concealed position.<ref>"Ambush" definition in the New Oxford American Dictionary</ref> The concealed position itself or the concealed person(s) may also be called an "{{linktext|ambush}}". Ambushes as a basic fighting tactic of soldiers or of criminals have been used consistently throughout history, from ancient to modern warfare. The term "ambush" is also used in animal behavior studies, journalism, and marketing to describe methods of approach and strategy.
In the 20th century, a military ambush might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as at a choke point like a mountain pass. Conversely, it could involve a small irregular band or insurgent group attacking a regular armed-force patrol. Theoretically, a single well-armed, and concealed soldier could ambush other troops in a surprise attack.
In recent centuries, a military ambush can involve the exclusive or combined use of improvised explosive devices (IED). This allows attackers to hit enemy convoys or patrols while minimizing the risk of being exposed to return fire.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5gIuAAAAYAAJ&qambush+%22using+ieds%22&pgRA1-PA6|titleArmor|date 2004|publisherU.S. Armor Association|language en|access-date1 October 2020|archive-date 15 July 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240715014917/https://books.google.com/books?id5gIuAAAAYAAJ&qambush+%22using+ieds%22&pgRA1-PA6#vsnippet&qambush%20%22using%20ieds%22&ffalse|url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titleThe improvised explosive solution|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17424830|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230522104428/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna17424830|archive-date22 May 2023 |access-date11 July 2020|websitemsnbc|date5 March 2007}}
</ref>
History
The use of ambush tactics by early people dates as far back as two million years when anthropologists have recently suggested that ambush techniques were used to hunt large game.<ref>{{cite journal|lastBunn|firstHenry T.|author2Alia N. Gurtov|titlePrey Mortality Profiles Indicate That Early Pleistocene Homo at Olduvai Was an Ambush Predator.|journalQuaternary International|date16 February 2014|volume322–323|pages44–53|doi 10.1016/j.quaint.2013.11.002 |bibcode2014QuInt.322...44B}}<!--|access-date=26 March 2014--></ref>
One example from ancient times is the Battle of the Trebia River. Hannibal encamped within striking distance of the Romans with the Trebia River between them, and placed a strong force of cavalry and infantry in concealment, near the battle zone. He had noticed, says Polybius, a "place between the two camps, flat indeed and treeless, but well adapted for an ambuscade, as it was traversed by a water-course with steep banks, densely overgrown with brambles and other thorny plants, and here he proposed to lay a stratagem to surprise the enemy". When the Roman infantry became entangled in combat with his army, the hidden ambush force attacked the Roman infantry in the rear. The result was slaughter and defeat for the Romans. Nevertheless, the battle also displays the effects of good tactical discipline on the part of the ambushed force. Although most of the legions were lost, about 10,000 Romans cut their way through to safety, maintaining unit cohesion. This ability to maintain discipline and break out or maneuver away from a kill zone is a hallmark of good troops and training in any ambush situation.<ref>{{Cite web |date20 July 2013 |title(ebook) US Army Ranger Handbook |urlhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/100897/ebook-US-Army-Ranger-Handbook |access-date5 July 2023 |archive-date20 July 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130720090840/http://www.scribd.com/doc/100897/ebook-US-Army-Ranger-Handbook |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Ambushes were widely used by the Lusitanians, in particular by their chieftain Viriathus.<ref>{{Cite web |lastDyck |firstLudwig Heinrich |titleViriathus |urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/Viriathus/ |access-date20 April 2024 |websiteWorld History Encyclopedia |languageen |archive-date20 April 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240420183156/https://www.worldhistory.org/Viriathus/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Their usual tactic, called concursare, involved repeatedly charging and retreating, forcing the enemy to eventually give them chase, to set up ambushes in difficult terrain where allied forces would be awaiting.<ref>{{Cite web |date10 March 2019 |titleCeltiberia histórica {{!}} Celtiberia {{!}} Celtiberians in campaign |urlhttps://celtiberiahistorica.es/en/celtiberia/celtiberians-in-campaign |access-date20 April 2024 |websiteCELTIBERIA HISTÓRICA |publisherACC TIERRAQUEMADA |languagees-ES |archive-date20 April 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240420183207/https://celtiberiahistorica.es/en/celtiberia/celtiberians-in-campaign |url-statuslive }}</ref> In his first victory, he eluded the siege of Roman praetor Gaius Vetilius and attracted him to a narrow pass next to the Barbesuda river, where he destroyed his army and killed the praetor. Viriathus's ability to turn chases into ambushes would grant him victories over a number of Roman generals.
Another Lusitanian ambush was performed by Curius and Apuleius on Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who led a numerically superior army complete with war elephants and Numidian cavalry. The ambush allowed Curius and Apuleius to steal Servilianus's loot train. However, a tactic error in their retreat led to the Romans retaking the train and putting the Lusitanians to flight. Viriathus later defeated Servilianus with a surprise attack.<ref name"Hina">{{cite book|authorBenjamín Collado Hinarejos|titleGuerreros de Iberia: La guerra antigua en la península Ibérica|date2018|publisherLa Esfera de los Libros|isbn978-84-916437-9-1|languagees}}</ref>{{page needed|dateAugust 2019}}
Germanic war chief Arminius sprung an ambush against the Romans at Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This particular ambush was to affect the course of Western history. The Germanic forces demonstrated several principles needed for a successful ambush. They took cover in difficult forested terrain, allowing the warriors time and space to mass without detection. They had the element of surprise, and this was also aided by the defection of Arminius from Roman ranks prior to the battle. They sprang the attack when the Romans were most vulnerable; when they had left their fortified camp, and were on the march in a pounding rainstorm.<ref>{{Cite web |titleWhat was the Roman Empire's greatest defeat? It might be Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 |urlhttps://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/roman-empire-greatest-defeat-teutoburg-forest-who-was-arminius/ |access-date20 April 2024 |websiteHistoryExtra |languageen |archive-date19 May 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200519134830/https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/roman-empire-greatest-defeat-teutoburg-forest-who-was-arminius/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The Germans did not dawdle at the hour of decision but attacked quickly, using a massive series of short, rapid, vicious charges against the length of the whole Roman line, with charging units sometimes withdrawing to the forest to regroup while others took their place. The Germans also used blocking obstacles, erecting a trench and earthen wall to hinder Roman movement along the route of the killing zone. The result was a mass slaughter of the Romans and the destruction of three legions. The Germanic victory caused a limit on Roman expansion in the West. Ultimately, it established the Rhine as the boundary of the Roman Empire for the next four hundred years, until the decline of the Roman influence in the West. The Roman Empire made no further concerted attempts to conquer Germania beyond the Rhine.<ref>{{Cite web |lastSchousboe |firstKaren |titleBattle of Teutoburg Forest |urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ |access-date20 April 2024 |websiteWorld History Encyclopedia |languageen |archive-date20 April 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240420183206/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1010/battle-of-teutoburg-forest/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
There are many notable examples of ambushes during the Roman-Persian Wars. A year after their victory at Carrhae, the Parthians invaded Syria but were driven back after a Roman ambush near Antigonia. Roman Emperor Julian was mortally wounded in an ambush near Samarra in 363 during the retreat from his Persian campaign. A Byzantine invasion of Persian Armenia was repelled by a small force at Anglon who performed a meticulous ambush by using the rough terrain as a force multiplier and concealing in houses.<ref>{{cite book |last1Bury |first1John Bagnell |titleA History of the Later Roman Empire: From Arcadius to Irene (395 A.D. to 800 A.D.) |date1889 |publisherMacmillan and Company |page436 |languageen}}</ref> Heraclius' discovery of a planned ambush by Shahrbaraz in 622 was a decisive factor in his campaign.Arabia during Muhammad's era
{{Main|List of battles of Muhammad}}
According to Muslim tradition, Islamic Prophet Muhammad used ambush tactics in his military campaigns. His first such use was during the Caravan raids. In the Kharrar caravan raid, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas was ordered to lead a raid against the Quraysh. His group consisted of about twenty Muhajirs. This raid was about a month after the previous one. Sa'd, with his soldiers, set up an ambush in the valley of Kharrar on the road to Mecca and waited to raid a Meccan caravan returning from Syria. However, the caravan had already passed and the Muslims returned to Medina without any loot.<ref name"Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar p. 127">Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar (Free Version), p. 127.</ref><ref name"Haykal 1976">{{citation|titleThe Life of Muhammad |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfOyO-TSo5nEC |firstHusayn |lastHaykal|year1976|publisherIslamic Book Trust |isbn978-983-9154-17-7|pages=217–218}}</ref>
Arab tribes during Muhammad's era also used ambush tactics.<ref>{{Cite web|lastGabriel|firstRichard A.|date17 May 2007|titleMuhammad: The Warrior Prophet|urlhttps://www.historynet.com/muhammad-the-warrior-prophet.htm|access-date24 June 2021|websiteHistoryNet|languageen-US|archive-date24 June 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210624203723/https://www.historynet.com/muhammad-the-warrior-prophet.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref> One example retold in Muslim tradition is said to have taken place during the First Raid on Banu Thalabah. The Banu Thalabah tribe were already aware of the impending attack; so they lay in wait for the Muslims. When Muhammad ibn Maslama arrived at the site, the Banu Thalabah with 100 men ambushed the Muslims while they were making preparation to sleep and, after a brief resistance, killed them all except for Muhammad ibn Maslama, who feigned death. A Muslim who happened to pass that way found him and assisted him to return to Medina. The raid was unsuccessful.<ref namemubarakpuri >{{citation|titleThe Sealed Nectar|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-ppPqzawIrIC|firstSaifur Rahman Al|lastMubarakpuri|year2005|publisherDarussalam Publications|page205|isbn9798694145923}}{{Dead link|dateAugust 2023 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
Procedure
In modern warfare, an ambush can be employed by ground troops up to platoon size against enemy targets, which may be other ground troops, or possibly vehicles. However, in some situations, especially when deep behind enemy lines, the actual attack will be carried out by a platoon. A company-sized unit will be deployed to support the attack group, setting up and maintaining a forward patrol harbour from which the attacking force will deploy, and to which they will retire after the attack.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.atu.edu/rotc/docs/3_21-76_Ranger_HB |titleRanger |dateApril 2000 |publisherRanger Training Brigade }}{{Dead link|dateMay 2024 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>PlanningAmbushes are complex multiphase operations and are therefore usually planned in some detail.<ref name"Moore.Army">{{Cite web |titleMission Command |urlhttps://www.moore.army.mil/Infantry/DoctrineSupplement/ATP3-21.8/chapter_08/CombatPatrols/ActionsontheObjective_Ambush/index.html |access-date20 April 2024 |websitewww.moore.army.mil |archive-date20 April 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240420183206/https://www.moore.army.mil/Infantry/DoctrineSupplement/ATP3-21.8/chapter_08/CombatPatrols/ActionsontheObjective_Ambush/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> First, a suitable killing zone is identified. This is where the ambush will be laid, where enemy units are expected to pass, and gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution, and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a typical example.
Ambush can be described geometrically as:<ref>{{Cite web |date18 November 2023 |titleMilitary Tactics 101: The Anatomy of the Modern Ambush Attack |urlhttps://www.popularmechanics.com/military/research/a45574165/military-tactics-how-ambushes-work/ |access-date20 April 2024 |websitePopular Mechanics |languageen-US |archive-date20 April 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240420183206/https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/research/a45574165/military-tactics-how-ambushes-work/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Moore.Army" />
* Linear, when a number of firing units are equally distant from the linear kill zone. It can easily be controlled under all visibility conditions.
* L-shaped, when a short leg of firing units are placed to enfilade (fire the length of) the sides of the linear kill zone.
* V-shaped, when the firing units are distant from the kill zone where the enemy enters and the firing units lay down bands of intersecting and interlocking fire. This ambush is normally triggered only when the enemy is well into the kill zone. The intersecting bands of fire prevent any attempt of moving out of the kill zone.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/7-85/ch6.htm|titleFM 7–85 Chapter 6 Special Light Infantry Operations|websitewww.globalsecurity.org|accessdate15 July 2024|archive-date16 May 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230516162234/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/7-85/ch6.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref>Viet Cong ambush techniques, 1967<ref>Terrence Maitland, A CONTAGION OF WAR: THE VIETNAM EXPERIENCE SERIES, (Boston Publishing Company), 1983, p. 180</ref>]]Ambush criteria
The terrain for the ambush had to meet strict criteria:
* provide concealment to prevent detection from the ground or air
* enable ambush force to deploy, encircle and divide the enemy
* allow for heavy weapons emplacements to provide sustained fire
* enable the ambush force to set up observation posts for early detection of the enemy
* permit the secret movement of troops to the ambush position and the dispersal of troops during withdrawal
One important feature of the ambush was that the target units should 'pile up' after being attacked, thus preventing them any easy means of withdrawal from the kill zone and hindering their use of heavy weapons and supporting fire. Terrain was usually selected which would facilitate this and slow down the enemy. Any terrain around the ambush site which was not favourable to the ambushing force, or which offered some protection to the target, was heavily mined and booby trapped or pre-registered for mortars.<ref>{{Cite web |titleTactics used in the Vietnam War – The Vietnam War – Edexcel – GCSE History Revision – Edexcel |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z89hg82/revision/4 |access-date20 April 2024 |websiteBBC Bitesize |languageen-GB |archive-date20 April 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240420183156/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z89hg82/revision/4 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Ambush units
The NVA/VC ambush formations consisted of:
* lead-blocking element
* main-assault element
* rear-blocking element
* observation posts
* command post
Other elements might also be included if the situation demanded, such as a sniper screen along a nearby avenue of approach to delay enemy reinforcements.
Command posts
When deploying into an ambush site, the NVA first occupied several observation posts, placed to detect the enemy as early as possible and to report on the formation it was using, its strength and firepower, as well as to provide early warning to the unit commander. Usually, one main OP and numerous secondary OPs were established. Runners and radios were used to communicate between the OPs and the main command post. The OPs were located so that enemy movement into the ambush could be observed. They would remain in position throughout the ambush to report routes of reinforcement and withdrawal by the enemy, as well as his manoeuvre options. Frequently the OPs were reinforced to squad size and served as flank security. The command post was situated in a central location, frequently on terrain which afforded it a vantage point overlooking the ambush site.
Recon methods
Reconnaissance elements observing a potential ambush target on the move generally stayed 300–500 meters away. A "leapfrogging" recon technique can be used. Surveillance units were echeloned one behind the other. As the enemy drew close to the first, it fell back behind the last recon team, leaving an advance group in its place. This one in turn fell back as the enemy again closed the gap, and the cycle rotated. This method helped keep the enemy under continuous observation from a variety of vantage points, and allowed the recon groups to cover one another.<ref name"RAND Corp">RAND Corp, "Insurgent Organization and Operations: A Case Study of the Viet Cong in the Delta, 1964–1966", (Santa Monica: August 1967)</ref>See also
* Ambush predator
* Viet Cong and PAVN battle tactics
* Flanking maneuver
* Flypaper theory (strategy)
* List of military tactics
* Sniper
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References
{{Reflist}}
*[https://www.angelfire.com/art/enchanter/herbert.html Extract from Lt Col Anthony B. Herbert's Soldier's Handbook]
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Ambush}}
Category:Assault tactics
Category:Military tactics
Category:Guerrilla warfare tactics
Category:Military operations by type
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambush
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1908
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Abzyme
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An abzyme (from antibody and enzyme), also called catmab (from catalytic monoclonal antibody), and most often called catalytic antibody or sometimes catab, is a monoclonal antibody with catalytic activity. Abzymes are usually raised in lab animals immunized against synthetic haptens, but some natural abzymes can be found in normal humans (anti-vasoactive intestinal peptide autoantibodies) and in patients with autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, where they can bind to and hydrolyze DNA. They are, however, subjects of considerable academic interest. Studying them has yielded important insights into reaction mechanisms, enzyme structure and function, catalysis, and the immune system itself. Some abzymes have been engineered to use metal ions and other cofactors to improve their catalytic activity.
History
The possibility of catalyzing a reaction by means of an antibody which binds the transition state was first suggested by William P. Jencks in 1969. In 1994 Peter G. Schultz and Richard A. Lerner received the prestigious Wolf Prize in Chemistry for developing catalytic antibodies for many reactions and popularizing their study into a significant sub-field of enzymology.
Abzymes in healthy human breast milk
There are a broad range of abzymes in healthy human breast milk with DNAse, RNAse, and protease activity. researchers S. Planque, Sudhir Paul, Ph.D., and Yasuhiro Nishiyama, Ph.D. of the University Of Texas Medical School at Houston announced that they have engineered an abzyme that degrades the superantigenic region of the gp120 CD4 binding site. This is the one part of the HIV virus outer coating that does not change, because it is the attachment point to T lymphocytes, the key cell in cell-mediated immunity. Once infected by HIV, patients produce antibodies to the more changeable parts of the viral coat. The antibodies are ineffective because of the virus' ability to change their coats rapidly. Because this protein gp120 is necessary for HIV to attach, it does not change across different strains and is a point of vulnerability across the entire range of the HIV variant population.
The abzyme does more than bind to the site: it catalytically destroys the site, rendering the virus inert, and then can attack other HIV viruses. A single abzyme molecule can destroy thousands of HIV viruses.
References
Category:Monoclonal antibodies
Category:Immune system
Category:Enzymes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abzyme
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2025-04-05T18:25:49.673546
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