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"---------------------- Forwarded by Vince J Kaminski/HOU/ECT on 08/09/2000 \n04:29 PM ---------------------------\n\n\nShirley Crenshaw\n08/09/2000 03:01 PM\nTo: Brad Aimone/NA/Enron@Enron, Hector Campos/HOU/ECT@ECT, Yanna \nCrystal/Corp/Enron@ENRON, Amitava Dhar/Corp/Enron@ENRON, Cantekin \nDincerler/HOU/ECT@ECT, Youyi Feng/NA/Enron@Enron, Ainsley \nGaddis/NA/Enron@Enron, Shalesh Ganjoo/HOU/ECT@ECT, Stinson \nGibner/HOU/ECT@ECT, Tom Halliburton/Corp/Enron@Enron, Alex \nHuang/Corp/Enron@ENRON, Paulo Issler/HOU/ECT@ECT, Vince J \nKaminski/HOU/ECT@ECT, Gwyn Koepke/NA/Enron@Enron, Kevin \nKindall/Corp/Enron@ENRON, Pinnamaneni Krishnarao/HOU/ECT@ECT, Bob \nLee/NA/Enron@Enron, Zimin Lu/HOU/ECT@ECT, Grant Masson/HOU/ECT@ECT, Maureen \nRaymond/HOU/ECT@ECT, Osman Sezgen/HOU/EES@EES, Vasant Shanbhogue/HOU/ECT@ECT, \nChonawee Supatgiat/Corp/Enron@Enron, Samer Takriti/Corp/Enron@Enron, Tanya \nTamarchenko/HOU/ECT@ECT, Clayton Vernon/Corp/Enron@ENRON, Datren \nWilliams/NA/Enron@Enron, Sevil Yaman/Corp/Enron@Enron\ncc: \nSubject: Journal of Finance\n\nHello everyone:\n\nI need your help! ",
" I had a request for an article that was in the February \n2000 \nissue of the \"Journal of Finance\", which the Research Group subscribes to. ",
" \nHowever, when I went to look for that particular issue, I only found two \nissues \n(April and August) for the year 2000.",
"\n\nPlease check your desk or home and see if maybe you checked some of \nthe missing issues out and let me know.",
"\n\nThanks!",
"\n\nShirley"
] |
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"[ELISA tests for detection of Helicobacter pylori antibodies].",
"\nThe efficacy of commercial ELISA tests for detection of Helicobacter pylori antibodies was investigated. ",
"Some investigators reported that six commercial ELISA tests had sensitivities of 81-96%, and had specificities of 29-96%. ",
"It is possible that some of false-negative results by ELISA may occur for patients who are in the acute phase of infection. ",
"When ELISA tests gave false-positive results, it should be taken into account that there might be some false negative diagnoses for the gastric H. pylori status, arising from sampling errors. ",
"Some of the false-positive results by ELISA might indicate the previous infection only."
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"Complete list of the discounted apps in Google’s “7 Days to Play” $0.49 app sale\n\nGoogle just announced that the Android Market is morphing into “Google Play”. ",
"Everything looks and acts the same but they also declared an app celebration sale, not as spectacular as the 10 billion app download sale, but still a good deal. ",
"Currently there are 24 apps discounted to $0.49 in Google’s “7 Days to Play” sale. ",
"Not sure if the apps will change on a daily basis, but here’s the complete list:\n\nA lot of people are cheap and think the world should be given to them for free. ",
"When apps were 0.10 people STILL complained that they should be free…obviously these people have NO idea on the amount of work and time that goes into programming and developing apps.",
"\n\nmonsterduc1000\n\nMake sure to look around more. ",
"I got Dead Space for 49 cents as well!",
"\n\nOmid\n\nYou should be so dumb to ask for s.th free.",
"If you want it, you have to pay!! ",
"nothing is free.",
"What a lame some people are.",
"\n\njonny\n\nWheres My Water is on for $0.25 today.",
"\n\nshaggyskunk\n\nnot really sure what’s new here? ",
"the market works just as well, but at least the market is phone friendly. ",
"it IS great to see more paid apps discounted!!",
"\n\nCell Hell\n\nWhat a deal, I’ll go to Android market and buy them.",
"\n\nOh wait, I can’t because Google screwe dup my Nexus with the last ICS update and the market doesn’t work.",
"\n\nThanks Google.",
"\n\ntechnodork\n\nJust log in through your computer and purchase it in your browser and it will OTA install it. ",
"Haha easy fix around the market not working.",
"\n\nsaffant\n\nHow’s that mSecure app? ",
"Heard a lot of goods things about it, but not really sure If I’d really be needing it.",
"\n\nWhoCares\n\nNOVA 2 and Shadowgun have amazing graphics!",
"\n\nDalex\n\nShadowgun just looks amazing on the SGS2’s Mali 400 GPU so its quite a steal at 49c. ",
"I got SwiftkeyX for 10c last time, but its still a steal at 49c. ",
"It’s the best keyboard available and you will never return to stock. ",
"It’s a bit creepy just how smart it is, sometimes I only press space for a whole sentence and it knows what I want to write…"
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"Isradipine for the treatment of hypertension following coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a randomized trial versus sodium nitroprusside.",
"\nIn a randomized trial, a calcium antagonist, isradipine (ISR) and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) were compared in the management of hypertension in the early period following coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). ",
"Patients with a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of greater than 100 mmHg were treated with a 6 h i.v. ",
"infusion of ISR (n = 98) or SNP (n = 100). ",
"Mean MAP at baseline was 113 (ISR) and 112 mmHg (SNP). ",
"Blood pressure control (MAP less than or equal to 90 mmHg within 25 min) was achieved in 92% (ISR) and 84% (SNP), within a mean of 12 and 15 min, respectively (P less than 0.01 between groups). ",
"At 25 min, mean percentage changes from baseline for ISR and SNP were: MAP -24.3% vs. -21.4% (P less than 0.05), heart rate +4.1% vs. +8.4% (P less than 0.01), rate-pressure-product -16.9% vs. -10.6% (P less than 0.001), cardiac index +19.2% vs. +4.6% (P less than 0.001), stroke volume index +16.1% vs. -1.9% (P less than 0.001), and peripheral vascular resistance -35.4% vs. -22.0%, (P less than 0.001). ",
"Treatment was discontinued before 6 h in 24 patients in each group because of low blood pressure. ",
"Hypotension (MAP less than 70 mmHg) and tachycardia were less frequent with ISR than with SNP. ",
"In conclusion, ISR is effective and well tolerated in the treatment of hypertension following CABG, and has a haemodynamic profile which may be more favourable than that seen after treatment with SNP."
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"PowerBall has worlds highest jackpot\n\nThe US multi state game, PowerBall has world highest jackpot going into the weekend as no players managed to pick the winning numbers for the draw on Wednesday, causing it to rollover again. ",
"Currently standing at a massive $103 million, the PowerBall will be undoubtedly be the most popular lottery game in the US this weekend. ",
"Now that tickets for many lottery games are available online, anyone can play if they have access to the internet, so many players all over the world will be interested in the PowerBall this weekend.",
"\n\nThe PowerBall is not the only lottery game in the US that has a more than attractive jackpot this weekend. ",
"Those people who buy lottery tickets for the MegaMillions will be playing for a huge $63 million for the next draw taking place on Friday 2nd April. ",
"The PowerBall will still be the one that most players show the greatest interest in and lottery fever will be inevitable in the US, as the draw on Saturday 3rd April gets nearer.",
"\n\nIn all there is a PowerBall and MegaMillions combined lottery jackpot of almost $170 million to play for this weekend, not forgetting of course the individual lottery games that individual states also run, which too can offer some fabulous jackpot prizes.",
"\n\nIf you prefer the European lottery games then the Italians rank the highest this weekend. ",
"The SuperEnalotto was at a staggering €54.8 million for last nights draw, set to increase if there is no winner, while the EuroMillions has returned to starting jackpot of €15 million after being won last Friday."
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[
"The brand new ultra-rapid electric car charger that was launched last Tuesday at the Sunshine Coasts’s Coochin Creek was inundated with vehicles parking under the site’s solar canopy on Sunday in what might be the worst case of “ICE-ing” seen to date.",
"\n\nAn image shared by Evie Networks on Monday shows that most of the vehicles parked in the EV charging station are internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles – but they weren’t there to deliberate thwart from EV owners from charging their car – they were trying to escape a deluge of hail that hit the area.",
"\n\nThat anti-social act is know as “ICEing”, and has become quite the thing in the US. ",
"But the fact that this event was caused by ICEing of different kind was not lost on the charging network provider.",
"\n\n“Funnily, the site was “iced” both literally and figuratively,” Evie Networks CEO Chris Mills tells The Driven.",
"\n\n“The weekend was obviously an extreme case. ",
"The photo was taken from our on-site camera, which was installed to capture the build process for a possible time-lapse presentation.”",
"\n\nAs Evie Networks points out, the super-cell thunderstorm event took place even as huge swathes of Queensland and NSW are battling unprecedented bush fires – a testimony to the weather extremes being experienced across the country and which will be exacerbated by climate change.",
"\n\nIt’s entirely likely that many of the ICE owners did not consider the fact the location they are parking in is for electric vehicles only as they attempted to avoid damage to their vehicles, but the mass ICEing does raise an issue that is becoming more common.",
"\n\nICEing is a behaviour that has historically been on the rise in the US and other countries that have a higher penetration of electric vehicles, but with the arrival of the Tesla Model 3 in August Australia’s electric vehicle fleet it is also now on the rise here.",
"\n\nIn some cases, ICEing of carparks is a deliberate act by people who resent the shift to clean, zero emissions, electric transport – however it usually happens in locations such as shopping centres.",
"\n\n“As to enforcement, other than an on-site presence there’s little that we can do. ",
"More particularly what we will review is whether we need additional bollard protection of the equipment given where the cars parked during the hail-storm,” says Mills.",
"\n\n“We haven’t seen too many adverse impacts over the week we’ve been operational [at the Coochin site]”, Evie Network’s Geoff Brady told The Driven.",
"\n\nHowever, even when it is not a deliberate act, the behaviour is considered poor form as it blocks an electric vehicle owner from charging their vehicle.",
"\n\nIn a country where electric vehicle charging infrastructure is still sparse – particularly 350kW DC chargers (such as at the Coochin Creek location) which can recharge several hundred kilometres driving range in as little as 15 minutes – just one ICEd park can mean all the difference for an EV owners.",
"\n\nThe Coochin Creek site is located at the Glasshouse Mountains service stations on the Bruce Highway, and is currently free to EV owners using the facility.",
"\n\nThe solar canopy on the site helps to power the site and also offers protection from the sun – and it is now obvious, more serious weather events such as hail.",
"\n\nThere are currently two 350kW chargers at the site with room and capacity for up to six.",
"\n\nYou can listen to our recent interview with Chris Mills on The Driven podcast here."
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"The Speaker of the House of Commons today condemned publicly a \"racial profiling\" incident involving a group of black visitors to Parliament Hill.",
"\n\nThe incident happened on Feb. 4, when a coalition of black, human rights, labour and youth groups were attending the Black Voices on the Hill Day. ",
"About 150 members took part in meetings with eight cabinet ministers.",
"\n\nThe visitors later reported that a government employee had complained to the Parliamentary Protective Service (PPS) about them, taking their picture and referring to them as \"dark-skinned people.\"",
"\n\nWe can and must do better, and we will. - ",
"Speaker of the House of Commons Geoff Regan\n\nThe group alleged a member of the PPS who responded to the employee's complaint used the term \"dark-skinned\" and told them to leave the cafeteria, even though they had valid passes allowing them to be there.",
"\n\n\"The racial profiling incident cannot be condoned and must be dealt with swiftly and purposefully,\" said Speaker Geoff Regan in a statement delivered in the House today.",
"\n\nThe PPS issued an apology and launched an internal investigation of the incident, insisting it has \"zero tolerance\" for any type of discrimination.",
"\n\nApology 'first step'\n\n\"The apology is a welcome first step; however, it should not be construed as either a final step or a way to erase the harsh and unacceptable reality of what happened,\" he said.",
"\n\n\"Instead, we are resolved to learn from it and to do better going forward. ",
"While one transgression does not represent the actions of all, one is too many and none can be overlooked, dismissed, or excused.\"",
"\n\nRegan went on to say that everyone who visits Parliament Hill must know \"unequivocally\" that they will be treated with dignity and respect.",
"\n\n\"To experience anything less here on Parliament Hill, the centre of our democracy, is a failure on our part and for that I offer my sincere apologies. ",
"We can and must do better, and we will,\" he said.",
"\n\nRegan's statement was in response to a question of privilege by Liberal MP Greg Fergus. ",
"The Speaker ruled that it did not constitute a question of privilege because it did not involve a member of Parliament or a proceeding in the House or a committee, but he said the incident was grave enough to warrant a strong rebuke.",
"\n\nAt the time, the coalition expressed interest in a meeting with Prime Minister Justin Trudeau to discuss systemic issues of racism, but a spokesperson from the Federation of Black Canadians told CBC News that to date, the PMO has not been in contact to request a meeting.",
"\n\n\"We are not aware of any discipline and have not been contacted by the PPS,\" said Richard Picart in an email.",
"\n\nPM to engage 'meaningfully'\n\nPMO spokeswoman Chantal Gagnon noted that in his remarks to mark Black History Month, Trudeau said that \"anti-black racism and unconscious bias are real\" and that it's unacceptable to judge people or deny them opportunities because of the colour of their skin.",
"\n\nJoseph Law, chief of staff to the director of the PPS, said the internal investigation has been completed. ",
"He would not offer specific details of the outcome, or say if disciplinary action has been taken.",
"\n\n\"Following this incident, we have taken steps to review our training and procedures to address any gaps in an effort to avoid a similar situation from re-occurring,\" he wrote in an email.",
"\n\nWith files from the CBC's Peter Zimonjic"
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"Implantable neurostimulation systems have proven therapeutic in a wide variety of diseases and disorders. ",
"Pacemakers and Implantable Cardiac Defibrillators (ICDs) have proven highly effective in the treatment of a number of cardiac conditions (e.g., arrhythmias). ",
"Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) systems have long been accepted as a therapeutic modality for the treatment of chronic pain syndromes, and the application of tissue stimulation has begun to expand to additional applications, such as angina pectoris and incontinence. ",
"Further, in recent investigations, Peripheral Nerve Stimulation (PNS) systems have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of chronic pain syndromes and incontinence, and a number of additional applications are currently under investigation. ",
"More pertinent to the present inventions described herein, Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) has been applied therapeutically for well over a decade for the treatment of neurological disorders, including Parkinson's Disease, essential tremor, dystonia, and epilepsy, to name but a few. ",
"Further details discussing the treatment of diseases using DBS are disclosed in U.S. Pat. ",
"Nos. ",
"6,845,267, 6,845,267, and 6,950,707, which are expressly incorporated herein by reference.",
"\nEach of these implantable neurostimulation systems typically includes one or more electrode carrying stimulation leads, which are implanted at the desired stimulation site, and a neurostimulator implanted remotely from the stimulation site, but coupled either directly to the neurostimulation lead(s) or indirectly to the neurostimulation lead(s) via a lead extension. ",
"A single stimulation lead may contain electrodes of different sizes. ",
"The neurostimulation system may further comprise a handheld external control device to remotely instruct the neurostimulator to generate electrical stimulation pulses in accordance with selected electrical stimulation parameters.",
"\nElectrical stimulation energy may be delivered from the neurostimulator to the electrodes in the form of an electrical pulsed waveform. ",
"Thus, the stimulation energy may be controllably delivered to the electrodes to stimulate the tissue. ",
"The set of electrodes, including those on and off the lead, used to deliver the electrical pulses to the targeted tissue constitutes an electrode set, with the electrodes capable of being selectively programmed to act as anodes (positive), cathodes (negative), and/or left off (zero). ",
"In other words, an electrode set represents the polarity being positive, negative, or zero. ",
"Other parameters that may be controlled or varied include, but are not limited to, the amplitude, width, rate, regularity, and ramp of the electrical pulses provided through the electrode array. ",
"Each electrode set, along with its electrical pulse parameters, can be referred to as a “stimulation parameter set.”",
"\nWith some neurostimulation systems, and in particular, those with independently controlled current and/or voltage sources, the distribution of the current to the electrodes (including the case of the neurostimulator, which may act as an electrode) may be varied such that the current is supplied via numerous different electrode configurations. ",
"In different configurations, the electrodes may provide current or voltage in different relative percentages of positive and negative current or voltage to create different electrical current distributions (i.e. fractionalized electrode sets).",
"\nAs briefly discussed above, an external control device can be used to instruct the neurostimulator to generate electrical stimulation pulses in accordance with selected stimulation parameters. ",
"Typically, the stimulation parameters programmed into the neurostimulator can be adjusted by the user by manipulating controls on the external user control device to modify the electrical stimulation provided by the neurostimulator system to the patient. ",
"Thus, in accordance with the stimulation parameters programmed by the external control device, electrical pulses can be delivered from the neurostimulator to the stimulation electrode(s) to stimulate, activate, or affect a volume of tissue in accordance with the set of stimulation parameters and provide the desired efficacious therapy to the patient. ",
"The best stimulus parameter set will typically be one that delivers stimulation energy to the volume of tissue that must be stimulated in order to provide the therapeutic benefit (e.g., treatment of pain), while minimizing the amount of non-target tissue that is stimulated. ",
"A typical stimulation parameter set may include the electrodes that acting as anodes or cathodes, as well as the amplitude, duration, and rate of the stimulation pulses.",
"\nTo facilitate the selection of the stimulation parameters, the clinician generally programs the external control device, and if applicable the neurostimulator, through a computerized programming system. ",
"This programming system can be a self-contained hardware/software system, or can be defined predominately by software that is run on a standard personal computer (PC). ",
"The PC or custom hardware may actively control the characteristics of the electrical stimulation generated by the neurostimulator to allow the optimum stimulation parameters to be determined based on patient feedback, or other means, and to subsequently program the external control device with the optimum electrical stimulation parameters.",
"\nWhen electrical leads are implanted within the patient, the computerized programming system may be used to instruct the neurostimulator to apply electrical stimulation to test placement of the leads and/or electrodes, thereby assuring that the leads and/or electrodes are implanted in effective locations within the patient. ",
"Once the leads are correctly positioned, a fitting procedure, which may be referred to as a navigation session, may be performed using the computerized programming system to program the external control device, and if applicable the neurostimulator, with a set of stimulation parameters that best addresses the disorder or painful site.",
"\nSignificantly, there are limits to how much charge (both in terms of total charge per pulse (or phase) and charge density per pulse) can be injected into tissue using one manner (e.g. biphasic, charge-balanced waveforms) without causing cell trauma and/or electrochemical damage (i.e., corrosion) to the electrodes. ",
"Each electrode, depending upon its physical properties (which include, but are not limited to, its size, shape, material, surface characteristics, and/or state), has a charge threshold level (which may also be affected by implant location, adjacent tissue type, and other biological factors) that should not be exceeded to ensure that the amount of charge applied to the electrode will not cause irreparable electrochemical harm to the electrode or induce cellular trauma. ",
"Smaller sized electrodes generally have lower charge threshold levels than larger sized electrodes that are manufactured of the same material because the smaller sized electrodes have higher charge densities.",
"\nThus, with regard to tissue safety, both total charge and charge density have been taken into account to avoid cell trauma. ",
"As such, the Shannon model, which accounts for a single electrode of a surface area “A” through which a charge amount “Q” is injected, was created in 1992 for evaluating tissue safety limits. ",
"In particular, the Shannon model calculates a k-value in accordance with the equation:\n k = log 10 ( Q A ) + log 10 ( Q ) = log 10 ( Q 2 A ) . ",
" [ 1 ] (See Shannon, R. V., A Model of Safe Levels for Electrical Stimulation, IEEE-TBME, Vol. ",
"39, No. ",
"4, pp. ",
"424-426, April 1992). ",
"It should be appreciated that the value of k comprises two terms: the log of the charge density, and the log of the charge. ",
"The author proposed that a tissue safety limit of k equal to 1.5 or lower should be maintained to ensure tissue safety given the assumptions listed in the publication.",
"\nManagement of charge injection for safe stimulation in commercial stimulators today is performed using one variable (charge density) on an electrode-by-electrode basis. ",
"This approach is sufficient for present-day stimulation systems and electrode surface areas, because side-effects prohibit a clinician from practically reaching a tissue safety limit. ",
"In particular, a patient undergoing neurostimulation therapy would be expected to exhibit side effects well before cell trauma would occur. ",
"The onset of side-effects is primarily caused by the total charge per pulse, thereby naturally limiting the total charge per pulse (as well as the charge density per pulse) that can be applied to the patient. ",
"Due to the relatively large area, and resulting low charge density, of prior art electrodes, the charge density per pulse is also naturally limited by the side-effects experienced by the patient.",
"\nWhile managing charge injection for safe stimulation based on the charge density for each electrode may be acceptable for conventional neurostimulation systems, such charge injection management does not adhere to the Shannon model. ",
"For example, if electrical current at 450 μs and 4 mA is delivered to a single active electrode having a surface area of 0.06 cm2, the charge, charge density, and k-value are 1.8 μs, 30 μC/cm2, and 1.73, respectively. ",
"If the amplitude of the electrical current is doubled to 8 mA, and the surface area of the electrode is doubled to 0.12 cm2, the charge-density remains the same (30 μC/cm2), but the k-value increases substantially to 2.03. ",
"This example shows that a charge-density limit alone does not manage the k-value, and can result in breaches of a k-value threshold designed for one electrode.",
"\nAlthough conformance with the Shannon model may not be necessary when an electrode is relatively large, as the size of electrodes becomes smaller (e.g., the use of segmented electrodes is becoming prevalent in the context of DBS), thereby effectively increasing the charge density per pulse, it may be possible to cause cell trauma before the onset of side-effects. ",
"Therefore, an improved charge management solution is needed as new leads are developed with smaller electrodes and side-effects cannot be relied on to naturally manage adherence to the Shannon model.",
"\nIt is possible that for a case of multiple active electrodes, an approach that relies on the Shannon model (or a surrogate parameter for k, such as charge-density or charge as a function of surface area), but which replaces the electrode surface area with a cumulative or effective contact surface area (e.g., could be a sum of active electrode surface areas or the sum of active electrode surface areas multiplied by a dispersion factor greater than 1 to get credit for the expanded spatial distribution) could be used. ",
"Such an approach, which is in essence a reduction of the problem to the Shannon model, seems reasonable for the case where a single electrical source is used and all active electrodes (of the same polarity) are at the same potential. ",
"However, use of independent electrical sources (e.g., like multiple independent current control (MICC) devices) can create distributions of currents that are not readily reduced to the Shannon model, and a new approach is needed."
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"06 November 2010 2 - 4 PM\n\npresented by Elysian Park Museum of Art\n\nCome by the EPMoA Visitor's Center at LACE for the climactic unveiling of artifacts uncovered during the Elysian Park Dig, a collaboration between Lauren Mackler and Riah Buchanan. ",
"This unveiling event will include a presentation of objects, audio and imagery relating to a few stories the collective have unearthed. ",
"These include the life and death of the native Gabrielinos, the dark undertone of the 1932 Olympics shooting event, the disturbing case of the Marion Parker's dismemberment, the amazing moving mountain and the 1967 Love-In. ",
"Each event marks a moment in the park's history and underscores the lingering desperation of the site. ",
"Los Angeles-based musician Emily Lacy has composed an original cover of the folk songs written about the Murder of Marion Parker to be played during the event.",
"\n\nThe Elysian Park Dig, a collaborative project between Lauren Mackler and Riah Buchanan, is on loan from the Museum of Public Fiction, a small and shapeshifting museum currently located in Highland Park. ",
"In the model of curiosity cabinets, the shows combine made & found objects to create slightly unusual environments to frame art, artifact, and facsimile in one fictional place.",
"\n\nVisit www.epmoa.org for more on Elysian Park Museum of Art. ",
"Find out more about the Public Fiction at www.publicfiction.org"
] |
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[
"Spin multiplicity and symmetry breaking in vanadium-benzene complexes.",
"\nWe present accurate quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) calculations which enabled us to determine the structure, spin multiplicity, ionization energy, dissociation energy, and spin-dependent electronic gaps of the vanadium-benzene system. ",
"From total and ionization energy we deduce a high-spin state with vastly different energy gaps for the two spin channels. ",
"For this purpose we have used a multistage combination of techniques with consecutive elimination of systematic biases except for the fixed-node approximation in QMC calculations. ",
"Our results significantly differ from the established picture based on previous less accurate calculations and point out the importance of high-level many-body methods for predictive calculations of similar transition metal-based organometallic systems."
] |
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"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
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[
"//\n// ip/v6_only.hpp\n// ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\n//\n// Copyright (c) 2003-2015 Christopher M. Kohlhoff (chris at kohlhoff dot com)\n//\n// Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (",
"See accompanying\n// file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)\n//\n\n#ifndef BOOST_ASIO_IP_V6_ONLY_HPP\n#define BOOST_ASIO_IP_V6_ONLY_HPP\n\n#if defined(_MSC_VER) && (_MSC_VER >= 1200)\n# pragma once\n#endif // defined(_MSC_VER) && (_MSC_VER >= 1200)\n\n#include <boost/asio/detail/config.hpp>\n#include <boost/asio/detail/socket_option.hpp>\n\n#include <boost/asio/detail/push_options.hpp>\n\nnamespace boost {\nnamespace asio {\nnamespace ip {\n\n/// Socket option for determining whether an IPv6 socket supports IPv6\n/// communication only.",
"\n/**\n * Implements the IPPROTO_IPV6/IP_V6ONLY socket option.",
"\n *\n * @par Examples\n * Setting the option:\n * @code\n * boost::asio::ip::tcp::socket socket(io_service); \n * ...\n * boost::asio::ip::v6_only option(true);\n * socket.set_option(option);\n * @endcode\n *\n * @par\n * Getting the current option value:\n * @code\n * boost::asio::ip::tcp::socket socket(io_service); \n * ...\n * boost::asio::ip::v6_only option;\n * socket.get_option(option);\n * bool v6_only = option.value();\n * @endcode\n *\n * @par Concepts:\n * GettableSocketOption, SettableSocketOption.",
"\n */\n#if defined(GENERATING_DOCUMENTATION)\ntypedef implementation_defined v6_only;\n#elif defined(IPV6_V6ONLY)\ntypedef boost::asio::detail::socket_option::boolean<\n IPPROTO_IPV6, IPV6_V6ONLY> v6_only;\n#else\ntypedef boost::asio::detail::socket_option::boolean<\n boost::asio::detail::custom_socket_option_level,\n boost::asio::detail::always_fail_option> v6_only;\n#endif\n\n} // namespace ip\n} // namespace asio\n} // namespace boost\n\n#include <boost/asio/detail/pop_options.hpp>\n\n#endif // BOOST_ASIO_IP_V6_ONLY_HPP\n"
] |
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"pile_set_name": "Github"
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0.014492753623188406,
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0.014198782961460446,
0.0019267822736030828
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[
"The device can be used for everything from studying stars, galaxies and black holes to exploring the quantum world and developing quantum computers.",
"\n\nWorld Bulletin / News Desk\n\nResearchers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the California Institute of Technology, both in Pasadena, have developed a new type of amplifier for boosting electrical signals.",
"\n\nThe device can be used for everything from studying stars, galaxies and black holes to exploring the quantum world and developing quantum computers.",
"\n\n\"This amplifier will redefine what it is possible to measure,\" said Jonas Zmuidzinas, chief technologist at JPL, who is Caltech's Merle Kingsley Professor of Physics and a member of the research team.",
"\n\nAn amplifier is a device that increases the strength of a weak signal. \"",
"Amplifiers play a basic role in a wide range of scientific measurements and in electronics in general,\" said Peter Day, a principal scientist at JPL and a visiting associate in physics at Caltech. \"",
"For many tasks, current amplifiers are good enough. ",
"But for the most demanding applications, the shortcomings of the available technologies limit us.\"",
"\n\nOne of the key features of the new amplifier is that it incorporates superconductors-materials that allow an electric current to flow with zero resistance when lowered to certain temperatures. ",
"For their amplifier, the researchers are using titanium nitride and niobium titanium nitride, which have just the right properties to allow the pump signal to amplify the weak signal.",
"\n\nAlthough the amplifier has a host of potential applications, the reason the researchers built the device was to help them study the universe. ",
"The team built the instrument to boost microwave signals, but the new design can be used to build amplifiers that help astronomers observe in a wide range of wavelengths, from radio waves to X-rays.",
"\n\n\"It's hard to predict what all of the applications are going to end up being, but a nearly perfect amplifier is a pretty handy thing to have in your bag of tricks,\" Zmuidzinas said. ",
"And by creating their new device, the researchers have shown that it is indeed possible to build an essentially perfect amplifier. \"",
"Our instrument still has a few rough edges that need polishing before we would call it perfect, but we think our results so far show that we can get there.\"",
"\n\nThe team recently described the new instrument in the journal Nature Physics.",
"\n\nLegal Notice: Copyright, trade marks and other intellectual property rights in this website can not be reproduced without the prior permission."
] |
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"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
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"Miku Tanaka\n\nis a Japanese idol singer, a member of the idol girl group HKT48. ",
"She is a member of HKT48's Team H.\n\nBiography\n\nDiscography\n\nHKT48 singles\n\nAKB48 singles\n\nAppearances\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:2001 births\nCategory:Living people\nCategory:Japanese idols\nCategory:Japanese female pop singers\nCategory:Musicians from Kumamoto Prefecture\nCategory:HKT48 members\nCategory:21st-century Japanese singers\nCategory:21st-century women singers"
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)"
}
|
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0.012658227848101266,
0.007957559681697613
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| 5
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[
"This invention relates to improved field-effect transistors, especially those used in applications demanding high-frequency and/or high-power output, typically microwave field-effect transistors.",
"\nField-effect transistors (FET's), including microwave FET's, have been in existence for some time. ",
"See, e.g., J. V. DiLorenzo and D. D. Khandelwal, GaAs FET Principles and Technology, Artech House, 1982, whose disclosure is incorporated by reference herein. ",
"One well-known microwave device uses single crystal GaAs (gallium arsenide) or InGaAs (indium gallium arsenide) as a channel (or conduction material). ",
"In these materials, the electron carriers suffer from the Gunn effect as shown in FIG. ",
"1. ",
"The carriers \"slow down\" when a large field is applied to the device. ",
"This effect is due to scattering of electrons, e.g., by phonons, into higher energy valleys which have poorer transport properties associated therewith. ",
"This \"slowing down\" of the carriers is detrimental to the frequency response of the device because the transit time of electrons is given by: EQU Frequency Response=V/A (1)\nThe power output of a device (per unit area) is proportional to voltage.times.current or: EQU Power Output=(A)(E)(v)(n) (2)\nwhere A=channel length; E=electric field; v=average velocity; and n=carrier density. ",
"For a given channel length, A, Equations (1) and (2) demonstrate the desirability of having both the highest velocity, v, and the highest field, E, for a good high frequency, high power amplifier. ",
"FIG. ",
"1 shows that this condition cannot be met simultaneously in conventional GaAs and InGaAs FET's because of the Gunn effect.",
"\nOther prior art microwave FET devices have extremely short channel lengths. ",
"In these devices, a velocity overshoot or ballistic transport can occur and the Gunn effect can be overcome (DiLorenzo and Khandelwal, supra, p. 735). ",
"However, due to the short length, A, these are (from Equation 2) low power devices.",
"\nThe High Electron Mobility Transistor (DiLorenzo and Khandelwal, supra, p. 741) is another device wherein a heterojunction is used to spearate the doped and undoped regions of the channel to provide very high electron mobilities (corresponding to applied fields below 5 kV/cm in FIG. ",
"1). ",
"The electrons flow in a very thin layer (a two-dimensional electron gas) at the heterojunction interface. ",
"These are not power devices because of the thin conducting layer and because they suffer the Gunn effect at high fields.",
"\nAnother restriction in prior art FETs is the choice of substrate materials on which a FET is fabricated. ",
"Lattice mismatches >0.1% result in very poor material quality. ",
"Most prior art microwave FETs are made from GaAs or AlGaAs on GaAs substrates, or InGaAs on InP substrates because these materials are lattice matched. ",
"Very few such matches exist for semiconductor combinations otherwise satisfying the requirements of various prior art devices.",
"\nU.S. Pat. ",
"No. ",
"4,163,237 discloses an FET having a lattice matched superlattice as its channel material. ",
"The device is based on the technique of modulation doping. ",
"It possesses improved low field transport at low temperatures. ",
"No mention is made of improved high-frequency response or of improved carrier velocity at high electric fields."
] |
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[
"Q:\n\nCombinatorial proof of $k\\binom{n}{k} = n\\binom{n-1}{k-1}$\n\nI'm trying to prove this combinatorially. ",
"$$k\\binom{n}{k} = n\\binom{n-1}{k-1}$$\nI know the first step is to relate a question to the equation. ",
"My question was if you have $n$ friends how many ways can you choose $k$ of them. ",
"I know this isn't correct because that would be the question if the left side wasn't being multiplied by k. Can anyone help me figure out what multiplying ${n \\choose k}$ by $k$ means?",
"\n\nA:\n\nThe standard example is that you have a group of $n$ people, and want to pick a committee of $k$, including a designated committee Chair. ",
"We count the number of ways to do this in two ways.",
"\n(a) You can pick $k$ people, and then pick one of these to be Chair. ",
"This can be done in $\\binom{n}{k}\\cdot k$ ways.",
"\n(b) You can pick a Chair, and pick $k-1$ people to join her. ",
"This can be done in $n\\binom{n-1}{k-1}$ ways.",
"\nRemark: A less bureaucratic example would be nice. ",
"You have $n$ friends and a large van, and want to pick $k$ friends to go drinking, with one of them the designated driver. ",
"\n\n"
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"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
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[
"Transcription and regulatory signals at the mating type locus in yeast.",
"\nThe mating type locus with two alleles (MATa and MAT alpha) determines cell type in yeast by activating and repressing sets of cell-type-specific genes. ",
"The two genes at MAT alpha, alpha 1 and alpha 2, are transcribed divergently from a central promoter region. ",
"Deletions in this intergenic region have been used to map DNA sequences involved in the transcription and regulation of the MAT alpha genes. ",
"A single promoter region, essential for transcription of both alpha 1 and alpha 2, is found in the region between alpha 1 and alpha 2. ",
"Deletions removing the alpha 1 or alpha 2 TATA box are still transcribed but the transcripts fail to initiate properly. ",
"A separate regulatory region is also found between alpha 1 and alpha 2. ",
"Deletions of this region lead to the constitutive expression of these genes. ",
"These regulatory mutants synthesize alpha 1 mRNA in diploids, but this is not sufficient to activate the alpha-specific genes."
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
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[
"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s Energy Efficiency Standards Group is hosting a competition for college teams to come up with innovative ideas for appliance and equipment efficiency. ",
"The Max Tech and...\n\nMaxLite has expanded its self-driven, dimmable plug-and-play LED lightbars to include two- and four-foot lengths in three color temperatures. ",
"The new styles provide lighting solutions for architects, specifiers and builders...\n\nMaxLite has expanded its self-driven, dimmable plug-and-play LED lightbars to include two- and four-foot lengths in three color temperatures. ",
"The new styles provide lighting solutions for architects, specifiers and builders...\n\nEnergy efficiency programs targeted at the multifamily housing sector can create sizable savings for utilities, according to a report released by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy and CNT...\n\nEnergy efficiency programs targeted at the multifamily housing sector can create sizable savings for utilities, according to a report released by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy and CNT...\n\nThe abundance of data available in the digital era is the driving force behind a whole raft of energy efficiency technologies, according to a feature in Time magazine. ",
"Cutting energy waste – a key goal..."
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
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0.005263157894736842,
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0.0043859649122807015,
0.004437869822485207,
0
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[
"Introduction {#s1}\n============\n\n*Ricinus communis*, a large red and green leaved castor bean plant, can be found in tropical and subtropical climates throughout the world, which has the therapeutic effect on considered anodyne, antidote, bactericide, cathartic, expectorant, insecticide, et al. ",
"The castor seed contains about 40% oil, 1--5% ricin, and 0.3--0.8% ricinine [@pone.0090416-National1]--[@pone.0090416-Kang1].",
"\n\nRicinine (Nr- methyl-3-cyano-4-methoxy-2-pyridone) is a toxic alkaloid that is derived from the leaves and seeds of the castor bean plant [@pone.0090416-Worbs1], [@pone.0090416-Robinson1]. ",
"Ricinine may cause vomiting and various other toxic reactions, including liver and kidney damage, convulsions, hypotension, and death. ",
"There has been no report to demonstrate the toxicity mechanism of ricinine. ",
"Meanwhile, little is known about the changes in the whole metabolites of the organism after treatment with ricinine.",
"\n\nMetabonomics based on the analysis of entire pattern of low molecular weight compounds rather than focusing on individual metabolites, indicates a general procedure that gives information on whole organism functional integrity over time following exposition of a perturbation. ",
"It could be defined as an attempt to measure the variation in the metabolites that are presented within cell, biofluid or tissue during the genetic modification or physiological stimulus. ",
"Metabonomics has been applied to the study of a variety of diseases and the effects of diet, drugs, toxins, and stress [@pone.0090416-Lindon1]--[@pone.0090416-Brindle2]. ",
"A number of analytical tools have been currently employed including ^1^H NMR spectroscopy [@pone.0090416-Hasim1], HPLC/MS [@pone.0090416-Wang1] and GC/MS [@pone.0090416-GuallarHoyas1], [@pone.0090416-Dunn1]. ",
"UPLC/MS has enabled better chromatographic peak resolution and increased speed and sensitivity to be obtained for complex mixture separation. ",
"It has been considered to have a brighter future in the research of metabonomics.",
"\n\nThe toxic effects of ricinine on the metabolic profiles of rats based UPLC/MS was studied in this paper. ",
"Principal component analysis (PCA) of the chromatographic data was used to identify the control and the dosed rats based on the differences of their metabolic profiles. ",
"Biomarkers associated with the renal damage were determined. ",
"Furthermore, histopathology and clinical chemistry studies were also used to confirm the success of hepatic injury.",
"\n\nMaterials and Methods {#s2}\n=====================\n\nEthics statement {#s2a}\n----------------\n\nThis study was carried out in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes of Health. ",
"The protocol was approved by the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of the University of China (Permit Number: SYXK 2003-0013).",
"\n\nChemicals, reagents, and herbal material {#s2b}\n----------------------------------------\n\nAcetonitrile (HPLC grade) was purchased from Tedia (Fairfield, OH, USA). ",
"Formic acid (HPLC grade) was obtained from Dikma Corp (Richmond Hill, NY, USA). ",
"The reference standards of phenylalanine, tryptophan, and phosphatidylcholines (38∶6 PC, 36∶4 PC), lysophosphatidylcholines (C18∶2 LPC, C20∶4 LPC, C0∶0/16∶0 LPC, C16∶0/0∶0 LPC, C18∶1/0∶0 LPC, C18∶0/0∶0 LPC) were supplied by Sigma Corporation (St. Louis, MO, USA). ",
"Water was purified by redistillation and filtered through 0.22 µm membrane filter before use. ",
"Castor seed were purchased from Liaoning Chinese Herbal Medicine Factory (Shenyang, China).",
"\n\nHerbal material processing {#s2c}\n--------------------------\n\nThe crude drug was extracted 4 times by refluxing with chloroform (1∶20, w/v) for 4 h each time. ",
"The solution obtained was concentrated under reduced pressure until a yellow sticky paste, which was washed 3 times by petroleum ether to remove grease, tannins and so on. ",
"Then the yellow residue was recrystallized from anhydrous ethanol under 72°C to obtain ricinine crystal, dried and stored at room temperature until it was administered to rats. ",
"The ricinine was indentified by ^1^H-NMR (Bruker Biospin, Germany).",
"\n\nAnimals and treatments {#s2d}\n----------------------\n\nA total of 16 male Wistar rats (180 g--220 g) were provided by Experimental Animal Center of China Medical University (Shenyang, China). ",
"The rats were maintained under environmentally controlled breeding room (temperature of 21±2°C, relative humidity of 55±10%, and 12 h/12 h light/dark cycle). ",
"They were fed freely available with food and water and housed individually in metabolism cages after acclimation for one week. ",
"After that they were separated randomly into four groups (*n* = 6). ",
"Three subgroups within the treated group were given ricinine orally twice daily with dosages of 15 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg and 60 mg/kg respectively. ",
"The normal control group was given the same volume of water by oral administration. ",
"The oral treatment process was proceeded for two weeks continuously.",
"\n\nSample collection and preparation {#s2e}\n---------------------------------\n\nThe blood was collected in heparinized tubes for each day from one day before dosing to the end of the experiment. ",
"These samples were obtained from the retro-orbital venous plexus and immediately centrifuged at 13 000 rpm for 5 min. ",
"The serum was transferred into clean tubes and stored at −80°C until analysis. ",
"Prior to the analysis, the serum samples were thawed at room temperature and aliquots of 200 µL were mixed with 200 µL of acetonitrile. ",
"The mixture was vortexed for 60 s and centrifuged at 13000 rpm for 10 min. ",
"The supernatant was dried by Bath Nitrogen Blow Instrument (L-128B, Beijing, China), reconstituted in 100 µL of the mixture of acetonitrile and water (10∶90, v/v) and vortexed for 60 s, then centrifuged at 13000 rpm for 5 min, and the supernatant was injected for UPLC--MS analysis.",
"\n\nSerum biochemistry {#s2f}\n------------------\n\nThe blood was collected in different time-points before and after the administration of ricinine to test for hepatic function. ",
"These samples were obtained from the retro-orbital venous plexus. ",
"Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were determined for the evaluation of hepatotoxicity disorders.",
"\n\nHistopathology {#s2g}\n--------------\n\nThe livers were collected immediately after the rats were killed on the last day of the experiment. ",
"After fixed in 10% neutral-buffered formalin solution for at least 24 h and dehydrated, embedded in paraffin, the hepatic samples were cutted into 5 µm wax sections. ",
"Tissue sections were subsequently stained with hematoxylin--eosin (H--E) for light microscope examination.",
"\n\nUPLC/MS analysis of serum samples {#s2h}\n---------------------------------\n\nRat serum metabolite profiling was performed on a Waters ACQUITY ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) system (Waters Corp., Milford, USA). ",
"Chromatographic separation was achieved on a 100 mm×2.1 mm--1.7 µm C18 column (Waters Corp., Milford, MA, USA) with temperature maintained at 40°C. ",
"The UPLC mobile phase consisted of 0.1% formic acid in water (solution A) and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile (solution B), which was pumped at the flow rate of 0.25 mL/min without split. ",
"The gradient elution program is shown in [Table 1](#pone-0090416-t001){ref-type=\"table\"}. ",
"All the samples were maintained at 4°C during the analysis.",
"\n\n10.1371/journal.pone.0090416.t001\n\n###### Gradient elution program of serum metabolite profiles by UPLC/MS.",
"\n\n![](",
"pone.0090416.t001){#pone-0090416-t001-1}\n\n Time (min) Flow (mL/min) A (%) B (%)\n ------------ --------------- ------- -------\n 0 0.25 100 0\n 0.5 0.25 100 0\n 20 0.25 5 95\n 21 0.25 5 95\n 22 0.25 100 0\n 25 0.25 100 0\n\nA: water (0.1% formic acid), B: acetonitrile (0.1% formic acid).",
"\n\nMass spectrometry was performed on a Micromass Quattro Micro API mass spectrometer (Waters Corp., Milford, MA, USA) equipped with an electrospray ionization interface and triple quadrupole mass analyzer in both positive and negative modes using full scan (m/z 110--1000). ",
"The following parameters were employed: source temperature of 120°C and desolvation temperature of 350°C, capillary voltage of 3.0 kV and 2.8 kV for positive and negative ionization mode respectively, cone voltage of 35 V for both positive ionization mode negative ionization mode. ",
"Nitrogen was used as the desolvation and cone gas, with the flow rate of 400 and 30 L/h, respectively. ",
"In the MS/MS experiments, Argon was used as the collision gas and the collision energy was altered between 5 and 25 eV. The mass was corrected with NaCsI before the study. ",
"The data were collected in centroid mode.",
"\n\nMethod validation {#s2i}\n-----------------\n\nFor method validation study [@pone.0090416-Gika1], a quality control (QC) sample was prepared by pooling equal volumes (100 µL) of serum from all the analytes that would be encountered during the analysis. ",
"The system stability was evaluated by five replicates analysis of QC samples. ",
"The precision of the injection was measured with five successive injections of QC sample and the post-preparative stability of sample was evaluated by analyzing five prepared QC samples left at autosampler (maintained at 4°C) for 0, 4, 8, 12 and 24 h. The method repeatability was tested by analysis of five replicates of QC samples.",
"\n\nData analysis {#s2j}\n-------------\n\nThe mass data files were processed using the Micromass MarkerLynx Applications Manager version 4.0 (Waters Corp., Milford, USA). ",
"This applications manager incorporates a peak deconvolution package that allows detection of the retention time, mass, and intensity of the peaks eluting in each chromatogram. ",
"The area of each peak, after being recognized and aligned, was normalized to the summed total ion intensity per chromatogram. ",
"The resulting three-dimensional data, peak number (t~R~\\_m/z pair), sample name and normalized ion intensity were introduced to SIMCA-P 11.5 software package (Umetrics, Umea, Sweden) for principal component analysis (PCA). ",
"Mean-centered was used for data scaling and centering. ",
"ANOVA was performed in succession to reveal the statistical differences for the variables between normal control group and model group. ",
"The homogeneity of the variance was tested before ANOVA analysis. ",
"Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (version 19.0; Beijing Stats Data Mining Co. Ltd., China) and one-way ANOVA or Student\\'s t test. ",
"P-values less than 0.05 were considered significant and values less than 0.01 were considered highly significant.",
"\n\nIdentification of biomarkers {#s2k}\n----------------------------\n\nThe potential biomarkers were indentified by available biochemical databases. ",
"The following databases have been used: HMDB (<http://www.hmdb.ca/>), METLIN (<http://metlin.scripps.edu/>), ChemSpider (<http://www.chemspider.com>/), KEGG (<http://www.kegg.com/>), and LIPID MAPS (<http://www.lipidmaps.org/>).",
"\n\nResults and Discussion {#s3}\n======================\n\nAnalysis of ricinine by ^1^H-NMR {#s3a}\n--------------------------------\n\nThe ricinine was indentified by ^1^H-NMR (Bruker Biospin, Germany). ",
"^1^H-NMR (300 Hz, DMSO): δ8.10 (1H, d, J = 7.8 Hz, 6-H), 6.43 (1H, dd, J = 7.8 Hz and J = 1.8 Hz, 5-H), 3.98 (3H, s, OCH~3~), 3.43 (3H, s, CH~3~). ",
"The results are consistent with the literature.",
"\n\nClinical chemistry results {#s3b}\n--------------------------\n\nSeveral clinical serum biochemistry results were measured to monitor the toxic effects of ricinine. ",
"Compared with the pre-dose and control groups, the serum ALT and AST concentrations of the low dose groups did not significant difference, but which were elevated significantly (p\\<0.05) in the middle and high dose groups in 2nd week ([Figure 1](#pone-0090416-g001){ref-type=\"fig\"}).",
"\n\n{#pone-0090416-g001}\n\nHistopathology {#s3c}\n--------------\n\nThe histopathology of hepar exposed to ricinine for 2 weeks was examined. ",
"As demonstrated in [Figure 2](#pone-0090416-g002){ref-type=\"fig\"}, the hepatocytes were normal in the control group and low dose group. ",
"Whereas, the hepatocytes were in vacuolar degeneration and some nucleus were dissolved in the middle dose group. ",
"The hepar sections from high dose group showed extensive hepatocyte necrosis and vacuolar degeneration.",
"\n\n{#pone-0090416-g002}\n\nValidation of UPLC--MS conditions {#s3d}\n---------------------------------\n\nExtracted ion chromatographic peaks of 14 ions were selected according to their chemical polarities and m/z values. ",
"The paired retention m/z-time of these ions are 117.1254_1.0, 136.2317_3.0, 146.2154_4.3, 218.1064_7.8, 353.2543_10.4, 524.1346_17.6, 568.4082_14.8 in positive ion mode and 215.1043_1.0, 203.2172_4.2, 201.1363_7.1, 581.1004_9.2, 408.2213_11.4, 564.4331_14.9, 851.1042_20.7 in negative ion mode with retention times covering the whole analytical time. ",
"PCA analysis was applied to the system stability. ",
"The first two injection samples were separated from the other three samples, while the latter were tight clustered, which gives an indication of the reliability of the data (shown in [Figure 3](#pone-0090416-g003){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"The precision of injection, within-day stability and repeatability of sample preparation (RSD %) of retention times and peak areas of 14 selected ions in pooled serum samples were calculated ([Table 2](#pone-0090416-t002){ref-type=\"table\"} and [Table 3](#pone-0090416-t003){ref-type=\"table\"}). ",
"The results of precision, stability, and repeatability indicated that the method could be utilized to the analysis of serum samples.",
"\n\n{#pone-0090416-g003}\n\n10.1371/journal.pone.0090416.t002\n\n###### Precision of injection, within-day stability, repeatability of sample preparation of the serum analytical method in positive ion mode (n = 5).",
"\n\n![](",
"pone.0090416.t002){#pone-0090416-t002-2}\n\n m/z_t~R~ Precision of injection Within-day stability Repeatability of sample prepartion \n --------------- ------------------------ ---------------------- ------------------------------------ ------ ----- -----\n 117.1254_1.0 2.3 12.9 3.3 7.9 1.1 8.5\n 136.2317_3.0 0.3 8.5 0.2 6.4 0.2 9.4\n 146.2154_4.3 0.5 8.6 0.6 3.1 0.2 8.4\n 218.1064_7.8 0.9 7.1 0.8 6.8 0.5 5.6\n 353.2543_10.4 2.4 12.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 8.9\n 524.1346_17.6 2.1 7.6 3.1 8.9 0.2 6.6\n 568.4082_14.8 0.6 8.1 0.9 10.1 0.9 7.8\n\n10.1371/journal.pone.0090416.t003\n\n###### Precision of injection, within-day stability, repeatability of sample preparation of the serum analytical method in negative ion mode (n = 5).",
"\n\n![](",
"pone.0090416.t003){#pone-0090416-t003-3}\n\n m/z_t~R~ Precision of injection Within-day stability Repeatability of sample prepartion \n --------------- ------------------------ ---------------------- ------------------------------------ ----- ----- -----\n 215.1043_1.0 3.7 11.2 2.6 9.5 1.4 5.2\n 203.2172_4.2 0.6 4.3 0.9 6.5 1.2 3.4\n 201.1363_7.1 1.5 7.6 2.1 4.6 3.1 2.5\n 581.1004_9.2 2.6 5.4 1.8 3.7 2.4 2.9\n 408.213_11.4 1.2 6.9 0.5 2.8 2.3 3.6\n 564.4331_14.9 0.6 8.1 0.9 1.9 1.4 7.5\n 851.1042_20.7 0.5 9.6 1.2 4.1 3.4 8.6\n\nData analysis {#s3e}\n-------------\n\nThe typical positive and negative ion base peak intensity (BPI) chromatograms of a rat serum sample from the normal control group and high dose group were showed in [Figure 4](#pone-0090416-g004){ref-type=\"fig\"} and [Figure 5](#pone-0090416-g005){ref-type=\"fig\"}. ",
"Although some differences could be visually noted among the sets of detail lustrated in BPI, more subtle changes could be found using a pattern recognition approach, such as PCA. ",
"PCA is a chemometric model which reduces matrix of data to their lowest dimension of the most significant factors, was used to detect subtle metabolic changes after ricinine administration. ",
"The PCA score plot based on the serum metabolic profiles in different dose-points was showed in [Figure 6](#pone-0090416-g006){ref-type=\"fig\"}. ",
"At the dose-points of normal control group, low dose group, middle dose group and high dose group, the PCA score plots could be readily divided into four distinct clusters in both positive and negative ion modes, which indicated serum metabolic pattern significantly changed after ricinine administration.",
"\n\n{#pone-0090416-g004}\n\n{#pone-0090416-g005}\n\n{#pone-0090416-g006}\n\nIn order to evaluate dose-dependent effect of ricinine on the serum metabolic pattern, a PCA model was constructed to analyze all the data acquired from model group and treatment group. ",
"At the different dose-points of 15 mg·kg^−1^ ([Figure 7](#pone-0090416-g007){ref-type=\"fig\"}), 30 mg·kg^−1^ ([Figure 8](#pone-0090416-g008){ref-type=\"fig\"}), and 60 mg·kg^−1^ ([Figure 9](#pone-0090416-g009){ref-type=\"fig\"}) in positive and negative modes, the PCA score plots could be readily divided into two clusters, which indicated serum metabolic pattern significantly changed after the treatment of ricinine.",
"\n\n{#pone-0090416-g007}\n\n{#pone-0090416-g008}\n\n{#pone-0090416-g009}\n\nBiomarker identification {#s3f}\n------------------------\n\nThe loading profiles ([Figure 7](#pone-0090416-g007){ref-type=\"fig\"}, [Figure 8](#pone-0090416-g008){ref-type=\"fig\"} and [Figure 9](#pone-0090416-g009){ref-type=\"fig\"}) that visualizes the influences of variables, was used for the selection of biomarkers. ",
"Judged by the distance from the origin, a series of ions which were found predominantly in the loading plot were chosen as biomarkers ([Table 4](#pone-0090416-t004){ref-type=\"table\"}). ",
"Based on the relative intensities of the metabolites from the normalized spectrum, ANOVA was used to reveal the significant differences of identified metabolites between the control group and treated group. ",
"The significant variables were showed gradual rising trend along with dose and were summarized in [Figure 10](#pone-0090416-g010){ref-type=\"fig\"}.",
"\n\n{#pone-0090416-g010}\n\n10.1371/journal.pone.0090416.t004\n\n###### Potential biomarkers of control group and treated group based on serum metabolite profiles detected by UPLC/MS.",
"\n\n![](",
"pone.0090416.t004){#pone-0090416-t004-4}\n\n t~R~(min) m/z(Da) Scan mode Quasi-molecular ion Identification Change trend compared with the control Fold change compared with the control\n ----------- ------------ ----------- ----------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------\n 3.5 119.7486 \\+ \\[M+H−HCOOH\\]^+^ phenylalanine ↑ 1.18\n 4.3 146.0154 \\+ \\[M−NH~3~−HCOOH+H\\]^+^ tryptophan ↑ 1.71\n 188.0432 \\+ \\[M−NH~3~+H\\]^+^ \n 13.7 357.4052 \\+ \\[M+H−2H20\\]+ deoxycholic acid ↑ 4.02\n 437.421 − \\[M+HCOO\\]^−^ \n 14.4 407.1061 − \\[M−H\\]^−^ cholic acid ↑ 2.24\n 815.1432 − \\[2M−H\\]^−^ \n 14.9 184.0064 \\+ \\[H~2~O~3~PO−CH~2~CH~2~N(CH~3~)~3~\\]^+^ C18∶2 LPC ↓ 0.95\n 504.2021 − \\[M−CH~3~\\]^−^ \n 520.2123 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ \n 14.9 544.0104 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ C20∶4 LPC ↓ 0.86\n 15.3 184\\. 0064 \\+ \\[H~2~O~3~PO−CH~2~CH~2~N(CH~3~)~3~\\]^+^ C0∶0/16∶0 LPC ↓ 0.45\n 496.2211 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ \n 15.7 184\\. 0064 \\+ \\[H~2~O~3~PO−CH~2~CH~2~N(CH~3~)~3~\\]^+^ C16∶0/0∶0 LPC ↓ 0.95\n 480.2026 − \\[M−CH~3~\\]^−^ \n 496.2211 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ \n 540.3012 − \\[M+HCOO\\]^−^ \n 16.1 184.0064 \\[H~2~O~3~PO−CH~2~CH~2~N(CH~3~)~3~\\]^+^ C18∶1/0∶0 LPC ↓ 0.88\n 522.2001 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ \n 506.1342 − \\[M−CH~3~\\]^−^ \n 17.7 184.0064 \\+ \\[H~2~O~3~PO−CH~2~CH~2~N(CH~3~)~3~\\]^+^ C18∶0/0∶0 LPC ↓ 0.85\n 508.2031 − \\[M−CH~3~\\]^−^ \n 524.1346 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ \n 568.4082 − \\[M+HCOO\\]^−^ \n 19.3 783.1213 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ PC 18∶2/18∶2 ↓ 0.61\n 20 759.1042 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ PC 16∶0/18∶2 ↑ 3.03\n 20.4 781.1432 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ 36∶5 PC ↑ 3.75\n 20.7 809.972 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ 38∶6 PC ↑ 1.83\n 22 783.2213 \\+ \\[M+H\\]^+^ 36∶4 PC ↑ 1.14\n\n\\* The identified metabolites were confirmed by standards (see Supporting Information).",
"\n\nThe identification of the biomarkers was performed on a comparison of their MS/MS spectra and retention time with those of commercially available standards, data in the literature, and database resources. ",
"The related pathway of each biomarker was also given by searching HMDB, KEGG database et al. ",
"The biomarker with the retention time and m/z pair 14.9_544 in positive ion mode was identified as C20∶4 LPC, which is used as an example to illustrate the identification process. ",
"In positive ion spectrum ([Figure 11A](#pone-0090416-g011){ref-type=\"fig\"}), besides the base peak ion at m/z 544.0, the ions at m/z 526.1, 184.0 and 103.8 were found. ",
"The initial assessment is that the quasimolecular ion is m/z 544.0 (\\[M+H\\]^+^) and the ions at m/z 526.1 is the adduction\\[M+H-H~2~O\\]^+^. The ions at m/z 184.0 and 103.8 are typical fragment ions of phosphatidylcholine, which are \\[H~2~O~3~PO-CH~2~CH~2~N(CH~3~)~3~\\]^+^ and \\[HOCH~2~CH~2~N(CH~3~)~3~\\]^+^, respectively. ",
"Thus, the ion at m/z 544.0 is phosphatidylcholine was inferred. ",
"Then, the MS/MS information about high abundance fragment of m/z 194 was acquired from the high tension scan mode ([Figure 11B](#pone-0090416-g011){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"The m/z of two major fragment ions were 258.0 and 485.4, which represented the fragments \\[M+H-OCOC~19~H~31~\\] and \\[M+H-NH(CH~3~)~3~\\], respectively. ",
"Finally, it was identified as C20∶4 LPC by comparing with the fragmentation pattern of compound (HMDB10396) in HMDB database. ",
"Literature retrieval was also performed [@pone.0090416-Takatera1]. ",
"The possible fragment mechanism was deduced ([Figure 11C](#pone-0090416-g011){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"Finally, standard compounds phenylalanine, tryptophan, phosphatidylcholines (38∶6 PC, 36∶4 PC), lysophosphatidylcholines (C18∶2 LPC, C20∶4 LPC, C0∶0/16∶0 LPC, C16∶0/0∶0 LPC, C18∶1/0∶0 LPC, C18∶0/0∶0 LPC) were used to confirm the identified metabolites, and the deoxycholic acid, cholic acid, phosphatidylcholines (18∶2/18∶2, 16∶0/18∶2, 36∶5) were indentified by biochemical databases. ",
"The MS/MS spectra of standards information was available as supporting Information (see Supplementary materials).",
"\n\n{#pone-0090416-g011}\n\nBiochemical interpretation {#s3g}\n--------------------------\n\nAccording to the 14 days after administration of ricinine, PCA scores and loading plots and the histopathology results suggested that hepatic damage was clearly induced by ricinine. ",
"The change trends of the metabolites identified are given in [Table 4](#pone-0090416-t004){ref-type=\"table\"}. ",
"The results effectively indicated that these metabolites may be the biomarkers of hepatotoxicity effects of ricinine, which were related to the action mechanism of hepatotoxicity. ",
"In the ricinine-treated group, phenylalanine, tryptophan, deoxycholic acid, cholic acid, PC 16∶0/18∶2, 36∶5 PC, 38∶6 PC and 36∶4 PC were significantly increased compared with that in the normal control group. ",
"However, C18∶2 LPC, C20∶4 LPC, C0∶0/16∶0 LPC, C16∶0/0∶0 LPC, C18∶1/0∶0 LPC, C18∶0/0∶0 LPC and PC 18∶2/18∶2 were significantly decreased. ",
"The difference was more and more obvious with the dose increased.",
"\n\nPhenylalanine and tryptophan are essential amino acids, which belongs to aromatic amino acid. ",
"Phenylalanine is biologically converted into tyrosine, another one of the DNA-encoded amino acids. ",
"Tyrosine in turn is converted into DOPA, which is further converted into dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline). ",
"The latter three are known as the catecholamines. ",
"Tryptophan acts as building blocks in protein biosynthesis, which were synthesized 5-hydroxy tryptamine about 1%--2% and most of the rest of the tryptophan metabolise in the liver. ",
"It were reported that branched chain amino acid was decreased and aromatic amino acid was increased in hepatotoxicity metabolites [@pone.0090416-Limberg1]--[@pone.0090416-Morgan1]. ",
"In this study, increase of phenylalanine and creatinine were observed in serum metabolite profiles of high dose group compared with normal control group, which showed that hepatotoxicity are involved in amino acid metabolism.",
"\n\nDeoxycholic acid and cholic acid is a bile acid, which is often used as potential biomarker in hepatotoxicity [@pone.0090416-Li1]. ",
"Bile acids are synthesized in the liver and secreted in the gallbladder or in the intestine, conjugated mainly with taurine and glycine. ",
"In hepatobiliary and intestinal disease, disturbances of synthesis, metabolism, and clearance by the liver and absorption by the intestine will affect the concentration and profile of bile acids in various pool compartments [@pone.0090416-Palmeira1], [@pone.0090416-Ostrow1]. ",
"In our study, high dose of ricinine caused the elevated level of cholic acid, which showed that hepatotoxicity is involved in enterohepatic circulation.",
"\n\nPhosphatidylcholines (PC) are a major component of biological membranes. ",
"Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) is the intermediate metabolites of PC. ",
"Predominantly polyunsaturated LPC are produced by phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and saturated LPCs are principally resulted from the activity of lecithin: cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) [@pone.0090416-Sekas1]--[@pone.0090416-Brindley1]. ",
"LPC are biologically active lipids regulating a variety of cellular functions. ",
"LPC has been suggested to play a functional role in various diseases, and data indicate a potential use of LPC as a diagnostic marker. ",
"However, evidence variation suggests that LPC also exerts direct biological effects, especially on lipometabolism. ",
"LPC also promote inflammation and participate in the regulation of autoimmune [@pone.0090416-Fuchs1], [@pone.0090416-Kabarowski1]. ",
"In our study, high dose of ricinine caused the elevated level of PC and lessened level of LPC, which showed that hepatotoxicity are involved in lipometabolism and immune system.",
"\n\nConclusions {#s4}\n===========\n\nA metabonomics method based on UPLC/MS has been developed to study the toxic effects treated with ricinine. ",
"With pattern recognition analysis (PCA), a clear separation of ricinine-treated group and control group was achieved. ",
"Some potential biomarkers such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, cholic acid, LPC and PC have been found and identified. ",
"Their changes indicated pharmacological effects of ricinine on amino acid metabolism, enterohepatic circulation, lipometabolism and immune system. ",
"This study indicates that UPLC/MS-based metabonomic analysis is useful for predicting the hepatotoxicity induced by ricinine.",
"\n\nSupporting Information {#s5}\n======================\n\n###### \n\n**The MS/MS spectrum of phenylalanine.**",
"\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The MS/MS spectrum of tryptophan.**",
"\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The MS/MS spectrum of C18∶2 LPC, A: ES+, B: ES−.**\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The MS/MS spectrum of C20∶4 LPC.**",
"\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The MS/MS spectrum of C0∶0/16∶0 LPC.**",
"\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The MS/MS spectrum of C16∶0/0∶0 LPC. ",
"A: ES+, B: ES−.**\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The MS/MS spectrum of C18∶1/0∶0 LPC. ",
"A: ES+, B: ES−.**\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The MS/MS spectrum of C18∶0/0∶0 LPC.**",
"\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The Ms Spectrum of 36∶4PC.**",
"\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n###### \n\n**The Ms Spectrum of 38∶6PC.**",
"\n\n(TIF)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.",
"\n\n[^1]: **Competing Interests:**The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.",
"\n\n[^2]: Conceived and designed the experiments: JP SC FHM. ",
"Performed the experiments: LW NZ. ",
"Analyzed the data: TJZ ZXC. ",
"Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: LW. ",
"Wrote the paper: JP SC FHM.",
"\n"
] |
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[
"Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of consanguineous marriages in Turkey.",
"\nThe aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of consanguineous marriages in Turkey using data derived from the 2003 Turkey Demographic and Health Survey (TDHS-2003). ",
"Demographic surveys conducted in the last 40 years consistently show that Turkey is a country with a high level of consanguinity. ",
"In the latest demographic survey (TDHS-2003), a nationally representative sample of 8075 ever-married women, consanguineous marriages accounted for 22% of the total, which is equivalent to a mean coefficient of inbreeding (alpha) of 0.011. ",
"There are changing secular profiles in the rates of consanguinity in general and of the specific sub-types of cousin marriages in particular in Turkey. ",
"The prevalence of first cousin marriages among all consanguineous marriages presents a steady decline from one marriage cohort to the next. ",
"The changes observed over time may be attributable to several factors such as the increase in educational level of women, the nuclearization of the family system, the mobility from rural to urban settings, a better socioeconomic status of families, an increase in women's labour force participation in formal sectors, lower fertility rates resulting in a smaller number of cousins available for marriage, and an increased awareness of the effects of consanguineous unions on child health in cases where there is an inherited recessive disease in the family. ",
"Any attempts to discourage consanguinity at the population level appear to be inappropriate and undesirable, especially when the consanguineous union remains an integral part of the cultural and social life of Turkey. ",
"Nevertheless the WHO-recommended approach to minimizing the negative effects of consanguinity on child health should be followed, i.e. the identification of families with a high risk of a genetic disease and the provision of prospective genetic counselling."
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[
"Barry - Neill or maybe could be O'neill\n\nBarry - Neill or maybe could be O'neill\n\nI am looking for siblings from the above parents Robert Barry b abt1894 and Alice Neill or O'Neill b abt 1889. ",
"Any help would be appreciated they lived in either Tipperary or Waterford I think. ",
"sorry to be so vauge."
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"Q:\n\nDisabling viewer options for birt reports J2EE (Eclispe)\n\nHi\nI have to display a birt report where I need to disable the viewer options. ",
"For example on top of every report there is run report option where I can change the parameters and see the report. ",
"I want to disable that option. ",
"\nI am displaying this report on click of a link in the browser.",
"\nAny Ideas?",
"\nThanks\n\nA:\n\nGot answer myself!! ",
"\nChanges needed to be done in ToolbarFragment.jsp.",
"\n\n"
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"“You advocate the values that prevail in the world today, such as democracy and freedom of speech,” Sarkisian said. “",
"You try to expose problems that exist in Armenia, the government tries to respond to this criticism, and this dialogue is very useful for the country.”",
"\n\nSarkisian visited RFE’s Armenian Service, locally known as Radio Azatutyun, on May 7, a holiday still marked in some former Soviet Bloc countries as Radio Day in honor of the 19th-century Russian radio pioneer Alexander Popov.",
"\n\nThe prime minister said he listens to RFE’s Armenian Service programs, but added that he hoped democratic advances in the country could one day mean the station would no longer be needed."
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[
"\"Save our Estate\" \" Can you go inside?\" \" ",
"I don't wanna go inside.\" \"",
"Have you seen what time it is?\" \" ",
"I don't care what time it is!\" \" ",
"How long have you been outside?\" \"",
"You're not my dad, so don't tell me what to do, innit?\" \" ",
"When did I say I was your dad?\" \" ",
"I don't care!\" \" ",
"Think of your family, yeah?\" \" ",
"This is my family, innit?\" \" ",
"This is your family?\" \" ",
"Yes, it is.\" \" ",
"What do you think this is, huh?\" \" ",
"I don't care.\" \" ",
"What?\" \" ",
"What?\" \" ",
"Come home with me.\" \" ",
"Let go off me, man!\" \"",
"Come you, men.\" \" ",
"Fahad.\" \" ",
"Yo, Bobby!\" \" ",
"You're alright, man?\" \" ",
"You know me, man, it's all bless.\" \"",
"Family issues, yeah.\" \"",
"These youngers...\" \"So how long are you back for?\" \"",
"I'm out, so...\" \" Out?\" \"",
"For real?\" \" ",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"What happened?\" \"",
"Taliban done blown you up again?\" \"",
"Or you joining them now?\" \" ",
"So, what you gonna do now, man?\" \" ",
"I have no idea.\" \"",
"Have no idea.\" \"",
"I shit you not, he stuck the place up, at fucking gun point.\" \"",
"They bagged him up for 2 years.\" \"",
"2 years!\" \"",
"A fucking rapist does less time.\" \"",
"Two pints.\" \"",
"Anyway... he said he did it 'cause no one would give him a job.\" \"",
"We die like fucking flies out here.\" \"",
"Nobody gives a fuck, we're totally fucking redundant, you know, no purpose.\" \"",
"You want that?\" \"",
"No, I'm alright.\" \"",
"I keep having that fucking dream about Tomo getting hit in the hip with that 40 cal.\" \"",
"Except, in the dream, I saved the rest of us.\" \"",
"I mean, the grenade still done explode when it hits him... still kills him, no?\" \"",
"How is that even possible?\" \" ",
"Did you get any of that?\" \" ",
"What?\" \"",
"You look...\" \"What's the matter, you alright?\" \"",
"Yeah, no, I'm fine.\" \" ",
"Cheers.\" \" ",
"Thanks.\" \"",
"Don't worry about it, mate, nothing's gonna happen to us, 'cause I've got a plan for us.\" \"",
"Fucking privates don't die.\" \"",
"We'd reorg in hell.\" \" ",
"Cheers.\" \" ",
"Cheers.\" \"",
"What the fuck, Miller!\" \"",
"You fucking frontin' or somethin'?\" \"",
"This is our end, you get me?\" \" ",
"Fucking bare rude, man!\" \" ",
"It's a bit late for you boys, isn't it?\" \"",
"Now, fuck off.\" \"",
"You're a fucking dead man, Miller!\" \"",
"So, you're the real life.\" \"\"",
"Call of Duty\"?\" \"",
"I heard you tried to teach my liquer man how to play.\" \"",
"Well, you know...\" \"You should've taught him if he's gonna play with guns, he should learn how to use one.\" \"",
"Them youngers, huh?\" \"",
"They all wanna have a rep.\" \"",
"They think it's the strap that gives 'em that power, that respect.\" \"",
"Ah, don't worry, I got time.\" \"",
"I'm not some liquer, you know.\" \"",
"I ain't strapped.\" \"",
"You know, I could use men like you in my operation.\" \"",
"School my people in some urban combat, teach them how to shoot properly.\" \"",
"I don't think you wanna turn your home into a war zone, do you?\" \"",
"Look around you.\" \"",
"Greeting this place, isn't it?\" \"",
"Let me tell you something:\" \"You already been working for me.\" \"",
"Them Taliban, they done put the drug trade in recession before 9/11.\" \"",
"You're not fighting the drug trade...\" \"You're protecting it.\" \"",
"The army brainwashed you, man, into believing... that the invasion was about fucking al-Qaeda...\" \"Capturing Mr. Bin Laden, yeah?\" \"",
"Sorry to burst your bubble, soldier.\" \"",
"It's all about protecting supply lines.\" \"",
"Making sure that the Afghan opium finds its way to the Russians.\" \"",
"And then they get the KLA to bring it in.\" \"",
"And the whole thing, is protected by the CIA.\" \"",
"The government needs my product, see.\" \"",
"It's the only thing generating proper cash for them banks nowadays, understand?\" \"",
"Liquidity.\" \"",
"I mean, all that money, it's gotta go somewhere.\" \"",
"Through them banks there, comes out clean.\" \"",
"There is always a war party waiting to ambush you, Miller.\" \"",
"Come on, you should know that!\" \"",
"Anyway...\" \"like your man Bush said:\" \"\"Either you're with us\"...\" \"\"or you're against us\".\" \"",
"Think about it.\" \"",
"I'll come check you later, soldier.\" \" ",
"You're alright mate?\" \" ",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"How's it going?\" \"",
"You alright?\" \" ",
"Chris, Robert Miller.\" \" ",
"Hello, sir.\" \"",
"Nice to meet you.\" \" ",
"Good to meet you, mate.\" \"",
"Have a seat.\" \" ",
"Thank you, sir.\" \"",
"Danny, why don't you go get the man a drink?\" \"",
"So, uh...\" \"you two brothers then, are you?\" \" ",
"What's that?\" \" ",
"You two brothers?\" \"",
"Aye, but we, uh...\" \"different mommy, same dad.\" \"",
"I hear you're something of a hero.\" \" ",
"Who said that, did Dan?\" \" ",
"No.\" \" ",
"No, I'm a human behavior specialist.\" \" ",
"Are you?\" \"",
"By the way, I understand as the Army had big plans for you.\" \"",
"Why'd you quit?\" \" ",
"Afghanistan?\" \" ",
"Aye.\" \"",
"Didn't have the zest for it anymore, if you know what I mean, sir?\" \"",
"We'll negotiate with the Taliban before the politicians realize it.\" \" ",
"Did you find a job yet?\" \" ",
"Nah.\" \"",
"There's not much use for your skill set in civilian world, is there?\" \"",
"So, Danny, your, uh...\" \"your pal Miller here tells me... you're so far back in the closet, you're in fucking Narnia.\" \"",
"So, is he in or what?\" \"",
"Why don't you sit down and shut up.\" \" ",
"Cheers, lads.\" \" ",
"Cheers.\" \"",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"These youngers think Jones is such a bad man... all 'cause he murdered Errol Cox for the Estate.\" \"",
"And Errol was a fucking psycho, you get me?\" \"",
"Jones is gonna fuck my little brother up, you know.\" \"",
"My family didn't come to this country, for this shit.\" \"",
"Fuck it!\" \"",
"Maybe I should just murder Jones myself, man.\" \"",
"Nah, what you need to do... is... get Ryan off the Estate, and then, the pair of you... get as far the fuck away from here as possible.\" \"",
"Out there?\" \"",
"How do I survive out there, man?\" \"",
"How many Taliban you killed in Afghanistan, Bobby?\" \"",
"Hundreds.\" \"",
"Alright, give her a go.\" \"",
"Fawaz Abdullah.\" \"",
"He's a UK national of Saudi origin.\" \"",
"He came to school here and had the time of his life.\" \"",
"Screwed anything that wasn't nailed down and drank his way into the O.R.\" \"Then he goes home, and finds God.\" \"",
"Goes off to live with a tribe in Baluchistan, region of Pakistan.\" \"",
"A spiritual pilgrimage to the birth place of Ramzi Yousef.\" \"",
"He went through the Madrassas in Pakistan, al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan in the 90s.\" \"",
"He's completely committed.\" \"",
"He has the backing of any number of rich Saudis, who are sympathetic to his cause.\" \"",
"He's highly organized and very disciplined.\" \"",
"A few years ago he, uh...\" \"disappeared into Peshawar.\" \"",
"Two years ago, he turns up here in London.\" \"",
"I'm looking for reliable men, I can trust.\" \"",
"Well, I appreciate the offer.\" \"",
"I'm offering you the chance to get the job done right, this time.\" \"",
"So, what would I have to do?\" \" ",
"Delta, Bravo, check.\" \" ",
"Delta, okay.\" \"",
"Bravo, okay.\" \"",
"Stand by, stand by.\" \"",
"Two targets moving towards a black Jaguar.\" \"",
"Registration R-2-8-2.\" \" ",
"2-8-2.\" \" ",
"Facing up the hill.\" \"",
"Up the hill.\" \"",
"Targets are on the move.\" \" ",
"He's turning left off the main.\" \" ",
"Roger that.\" \"",
"Stop, stop, stop.\" \"",
"On the right, 200 off the main.\" \"",
"Roger that.\" \"",
"Changing vehicles to a black X5...\" \"Last 3:\" \"Victor-Tango-Lima.\" \" ",
"Roger that.\" \"",
"On the move to the main, repeat, on the move to the main.\" \"",
"They're on the move.\" \"",
"Bobby, target is on the move.\" \"",
"Roger that, let them go, stick with their contact.\" \"",
"What're you doing?\" \"",
"He's not the priority, we stick with the target.\" \"",
"Negative, trust me on this, Dan.\" \"",
"Do you have the eyeball?\" \"",
"Roger that.\" \"",
"New target's moving.\" \" ",
"He's turning right off the main.\" \" ",
"Roger that.\" \"",
"Stop, stop, stop.\" \"",
"He's out of the car, walking away.\" \"",
"Roger that.\" \"",
"I'm after him on foot.\" \"",
"He's turning left at the junction, you take him, yeah.\" \"",
"Heads up.\" \" ",
"What time is it?\" \" ",
"Midnight.\" \"",
"Give it a couple of hours.\" \"",
"If there's no movement, I'll go in.\" \"",
"It was Dan's idea, to follow the bloke.\" \"",
"Dan, I need you to take care of that thing for me, alright?\" \" ",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"See you later.\" \" ",
"Yeah.\" \" ",
"Is that it?\" \" ",
"Not quite.\" \"",
"Come with me.\" \"",
"Robert Miller, Jerry is with the home office.\" \" ",
"Hello Sir, nice to meet you.\" \" ",
"Chris tells me you served in The Paras.\" \"",
"I heard about the ambush at Kajaki.\" \"",
"Very heroic.\" \"",
"Well, that depends on your point of view, sir.\" \"",
"Very confusing, this war on terror.\" \"",
"Our enemy does not make the distinction between a civilian and combatant.\" \"",
"There are over 2000 suspected terrorists operating in the UK alone... and that number is increasing daily.\" \"",
"Please, sit down.\" \"",
"Thank you, sir.\" \"",
"Contest 2 Program.\" \"",
"A government initiative... 60,000 civilians being trained, to deal with the terrorist threat.\" \"",
"Everyone from shopping center managers, to security guards.\" \"",
"Chris and I, act as...\" \"consultants to the program.\" \"",
"No disrespect, I've put my time in, sir.\" \"",
"You did, without reservation.\" \"",
"And I'm gonna ask you for your help, once more.\" \"",
"This is the business, we've chosen.\" \"",
"Conolly's great game, is still being played.\" \"",
"We need men, with your particular skill set.\" \"",
"Until today we had no idea, that the plot you uncovered, even existed.\" \"",
"But we should have.\" \"",
"Do you recognize this young woman?\" \"",
"Her name is Alayna Wallace.\" \" ",
"Yeah, I saw her with Abdullah.\" \" ",
"She's our informant.\" \"",
"Informant?\" \"",
"We were told that al-Qaeda never use women.\" \"",
"Every parasite adapts to its host and evolves.\" \"",
"It's only a question of time.\" \"",
"Why her?\" \"",
"Why's she so special?\" \"",
"Because she bridges two worlds, east and west, and she can move freely in both.\" \"",
"She met Abdullah, at the University of London, as a student.\" \"",
"He, uh...\" \"wanted to... radicalize her.\" \"",
"Instead she came to us.\" \"",
"We've been unable to make contact with her, for the last three months.\" \"",
"We think there's another plot, but what that is exactly, we haven't been able to assertain.\" \" ",
"What does she do for Abdullah?\" \" ",
"Whatever he requires.\" \" ",
"Do you trust her?\" \" ",
"We want you to make contact with her.\" \"",
"And find out what's going on.\" \"",
"Fahad!\" \"",
"Fahad!\" \"",
"What the fuck you're doing?\" \"",
"That's Jones' drug hole.\" \" ",
"So what?\" \" ",
"You want to get yourself killed?\" \"",
"I'll burn his fucking drugs.\" \"",
"You happy?\" \" ",
"Ramush.\" \" ",
"That's a big order my friend.\" \" ",
"I know.\" \" ",
"Are you planning a war?\" \"",
"It's necessary, I'm starting an army.\" \"",
"Gotta get my people trained up.\" \"",
"Where you training, here, in this shit hole?\" \"",
"Wherever.\" \"",
"Stay away from Jones.\" \"",
"Yeah?\" \"",
"Oh...\" \"Who'd you upset?\" \"",
"What is it Tse-tung says, about warfare?\" \"",
"You never...\" \"let your enemy impose his win on you.\" \"",
"You need any help, Miller...\" \"you let me know.\" \"",
"This tracker is magnetised, so it's great for use in all cars.\" \"",
"Just pop in the SIM card and call it from your mobile.\" \"",
"Black coffee, please, mate.\" \" ",
"Alana Wallace?\" \" ",
"Alyana.\" \" ",
"You're one of Turner's men?\" \" ",
"That's right.\" \" ",
"What's your name?\" \" ",
"Miller.\" \"",
"Interesting meeting place.\" \" ",
"You often hang around women's toilets?\" \" ",
"Yeah.\" \" ",
"What do you want?\" \" ",
"Information about Abdullah.\" \"",
"Your people seem to have a good enough handle on that.\" \"",
"Tell Turner...\" \"I don't know anything...\" \"Miller.\" \" ",
"She's terrified.\" \" ",
"Abdullah stepped up her security too.\" \"",
"He's hired a bunch of Chechens.\" \"",
"They're not here for the Jihad, they're here for the money.\" \"",
"Also, we have to consider the possibility... that she's been feeding us false intel, maybe even from the start.\" \" ",
"You don't trust her?\" \" ",
"You earn trust.\" \"",
"What does she gain by feeding us false intel?\" \"",
"She came to us two years ago.\" \"",
"Since then, she's been working with these people non-stop.\" \"",
"Who knows what effect that could have.\" \" ",
"And she's perfect cover for him.\" \" ",
"She came out of Ain al-Hilweh.\" \"",
"A refugee camp in Lebanon.\" \"",
"That's a tough town.\" \"",
"She's dual nationality.\" \"",
"Her father was a British aid worker.\" \"",
"She speaks five languages.\" \"",
"That's perfect cover.\" \"",
"Hey, you know you're the first bloke I've sent in... who she didn't tell, to fuck off?\" \"",
"Good job.\" \"",
"You stay on her.\" \" ",
"Zero, this is Alpha 3-1 contact, over.\" \" ",
"Zero... over.\" \"",
"This is Alpha 3-1, large explosion, 3 minutes ago, near the road junction.\" \"",
"We have three injured and looks like two dead.\" \"",
"Request immediate medevac, Roger so far?\" \"",
"Over.\" \" ",
"Zero, roger.\" \" ",
"Alpha 3-1, enemy fire at the moment, there are people on the ridge to the east.\" \" ",
"Request overwatch air support.\" \" ",
"Zero, over.\" \" ",
"Contact right...\" \" Contact right.\" \"",
"Wait, wait, someone's coming out of the building.\" \"",
"Fuck me, it's a shelter!\" \"",
"Request air support.\" \"",
"Request air support.\" \"",
"Green smoke 300 meters west of my location behind the building, over.\" \"",
"Zero, over and out.\" \"",
"Chris, they're dead, she's dead.\" \"",
"Dan, they're all dead.\" \"",
"Bobby, leave her.\" \"",
"Leave her, she's dead.\" \"",
"We have to go now!\" \"\"",
"She's dead.\" \"",
"She's dead, she's dead\".\" \"",
"Fucking Chris got me running all over, otherwise I'd be able to help you out with this bird.\" \"",
"Haven't had this much excitement since Kajaki.\" \"",
"Just make sure we don't let this one end up with a sign on her.\" \"",
"Well, let's do our job then, won't we Dan?\" \"",
"Why don't you get some kip, man.\" \"",
"You look fucked.\" \"",
"I'll take this first one.\" \"",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"Do not turn around, just listen.\" \"",
"Whatever you know, you need to come clean.\" \"",
"They think you're feeding them shit.\" \"",
"They're getting impatient.\" \"",
"Hold out your hand.\" \"",
"Make contact.\" \" ",
"Don't turn around, just walk.\" \" ",
"Oh, fuck off you benders!\" \"",
"I'm going to ask you some questions.\" \"",
"You answer truthful, no more pain.\" \"",
"You understand?\" \" ",
"You understand?\" \"!\" \" ",
"Yes, I understand, alright?\" \"",
"Good.\" \" ",
"What is your name?\" \" ",
"Dave.\" \"",
"My name is Dave.\" \" ",
"You lie to me again, I'll open you up.\" \" ",
"Robert O'Neil.\" \"",
"Yeah, see?\" \" ",
"And what you do, Robert O'Neil?\" \" ",
"What do you mean what do I do?\" \" ",
"Unemployed, alright?\" \"",
"I don't do shit.\" \" ",
"But today you do something, huh?\" \" ",
"Why do you follow that couple?\" \" ",
"Because they looked like they had money.\" \" ",
"Military, huh?\" \" ",
"I was.\" \"",
"That redundant now, huh?\" \"",
"You have no business in this country, so you steal from people.\" \"",
"Where your troops serve?\" \"",
"Iraq?\" \"",
"Afghanistan?\" \"",
"Afghanistan.\" \" ",
"Hm, stupid war.\" \" ",
"So I've heard.\" \"",
"You want me to kill him?\" \"",
"Dan!\" \"",
"I've had fucking nightmares.\" \"",
"Come and get me, will ya?\" \"",
"I'm down by the water, some fucking place.\" \"",
"I'm gonna stand in the main road.\" \"",
"Alright!\" \"",
"Alright!\" \" ",
"Fuck!\" \" ",
"Alright.\" \"",
"Okay.\" \"",
"Alright.\" \"",
"Pressure.\" \" ",
"Okay.\" \" ",
"That's good mate.\" \"",
"I need to lie down, Dan.\" \" ",
"Okay.\" \"",
"Alright.\" \"",
"On the floor?\" \" ",
"Hm-hm.\" \"",
"Up.\" \"",
"Okay.\" \"",
"Nah, nah, nah mate, this way, right this way.\" \" ",
"Head up.\" \" ",
"Oh, fuck...\" \"Okay.\" \" ",
"Water?\" \" ",
"I need some water, mate, yeah.\" \"",
"Bobby?\" \"",
"I'm off.\" \"",
"Come on.\" \"",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"There, wipe your nose.\" \" ",
"No, it's no good.\" \" ",
"What?\" \"",
"You're still an ugly bastard.\" \"",
"Was it Jones?\" \" ",
"What about you?\" \" ",
"Was it Jones?\" \"",
"It was Ryan...\" \"and his youths.\" \"",
"Bastards.\" \"",
"You could go up there... with a strap.\" \"",
"Blow his fucking head off.\" \" ",
"You could do that, you've killed people.\" \" ",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"I've got money.\" \"",
"What the fuck you want?\" \" ",
"I'd like to speak to Jones.\" \" ",
"Shut the fuck up, Milo!\" \"",
"You can go.\" \"",
"Hold on, arms out.\" \"",
"Bang!\" \"",
"See that?\" \"",
"You get your men trained up.\" \"",
"I mean some proper army shit, you feel me?\" \"",
"He'd be more dangerous than these liquer dickheads out here.\" \" ",
"You seeing this?\" \" ",
"Yeah, so many joltin'.\" \"",
"Some bullshit blood.\" \"",
"March men into death.\" \"",
"That's power.\" \" ",
"Well?\" \" ",
"I need something.\" \"",
"So, you want a favour now?\" \"",
"Let Ryan go.\" \" ",
"Why would I do that?\" \" ",
"Because I've asked you.\" \"",
"Oh... we're negotiating?\" \"",
"Go on, give me something in return.\" \"",
"You get to feel good about yourself.\" \"",
"Oh, come on, drop it, man, you're acting all soft, Miller.\" \"",
"Making me feel well choked up.\" \" ",
"You don't need him.\" \" ",
"You're right, actually.\" \"",
"I don't need him, but I am his older.\" \"",
"I'm the one he looks up to, me!\" \"",
"I really think you're missing the point, you know?\" \"",
"We're all somebody's bitch.\" \"",
"Even you, soldier.\" \"",
"You tell that fucking Fahad, he don't have a brother.\" \"",
"What you gonna do, when they put this shit all down?\" \"",
"Where you gonna go then?\" \"",
"A year ago I arranged...\" \"I arranged for twelve Muslim men from across the country, to go to Pakistan.\" \"",
"To train for Jihad...\" \"I recruited them, indoctrinated them.\" \"",
"And shipped them off to the training camps.\" \"",
"I brought them back to the UK and turned them loose.\" \" ",
"Why?\" \" ",
"Remember Mumbai?\" \"",
"Four three-men teams.\" \"",
"We...\" \"They were assigned designated locations.\" \"",
"The targets, they selected for themselves.\" \"",
"One thing for sure, it's...\" \"high value targets.\" \"",
"Tourist locations.\" \"",
"I was told to let it develop.\" \"",
"I was assured that it would be stopped, at the eleventh hour.\" \"",
"I did everything Turner asked.\" \"",
"Why not shut it down, now?\" \"",
"Turner didn't tell you about the plot, did he?\" \"",
"Did he tell you that Abdullah is an asset of the Pakistani I.S.I.?\" \"",
"The Intelligence service?\" \"",
"They finance this operation.\" \"",
"I was there when it was given the go-ahead.\" \" ",
"So, when is it gonna happen?\" \" ",
"They're waiting for the weapons to arrive.\" \"",
"How do we know, when the weapons arrive?\" \"",
"All I know, is that they're being brought in by boat.\" \"",
"I don't know times, or dates.\" \"",
"Just that it's gonna happen, very soon.\" \"",
"What about the cells?\" \"",
"Does Abdullah know where they are?\" \"",
"No one knows where they are.\" \"",
"They become ghosts.\" \" ",
"All we know is where to drop the weapons.\" \" ",
"Where is that?\" \" ",
"I should've been told, Chris.\" \" ",
"You're right, I'm sorry.\" \"",
"But you gained her trust, that's what matters.\" \"",
"She's talking to you.\" \"",
"She doesn't know, where the cells are, so...\" \"It's not your job to save this girl, Miller.\" \"",
"She knew what she was getting into to.\" \"",
"This is not Afghanistan.\" \"",
"She knows, believe me, she knows.\" \" ",
"That's why I want you to bring her in.\" \" ",
"I don't think that's good idea.\" \"",
"I'm not asking you.\" \" ",
"Chris, listen...\" \" No, you listen!\" \"",
"Do you honestly want the deaths of hundreds of civilians on your hands?\" \"",
"Because that's what this is.\" \"",
"So, why don't we shut this thing down, then?\" \"",
"We would have...\" \"if we knew where the cells were.\" \"",
"Whether you know where the cells are or not, you need to be thinking about it.\" \"",
"Hello Alyana.\" \"",
"You're aware why we've asked you here today.\" \"",
"If I knew where the cells were, don't you think I would've told you?\" \"",
"That's what we're here, to find out.\" \" ",
"I thought your men were watching them.\" \" ",
"Why the silence?\" \"",
"Your men were becoming sloppy.\" \"",
"I couldn't take the risk.\" \"",
"After all, I'm the one with everything to lose.\" \"",
"Tell us about the weapons.\" \"",
"When and how are they being brought in?\" \"",
"They're being brought in by an ex-KLA gangster...\" \"Kosov.\" \" ",
"Where's the weapons drop?\" \" ",
"I don't know.\" \"",
"Is there anything you do know?\" \"",
"I know that the member of the I.S.I... can only be appointed with the approval of the CIA.\" \" ",
"What?\" \" ",
"Abdullah is an I.S.I. asset.\" \"",
"If they are funding this operation, who sanctioned it?\" \"",
"Who gave the order?\" \"",
"The fact that Al-Qaeda might have infiltrated the Pakistani I.S.I...\" \" is irrelevant...\" \" Not infiltrated.\" \"",
"The I.S.I. and the CIA is Al-Qaeda.\" \"",
"What exactly you hope to achieve with this nonsense?\" \"",
"We're neither I.S.I. or CIA.\" \"",
"You knew where the cells were when they were brought back to the UK.\" \"",
"You could've arrested them, but you didn't.\" \"",
"Why?\" \"",
"Why didn't you warn us, about the bomb factory?\" \"",
"I didn't know.\" \"",
"Find the cells and will put an end to this.\" \"",
"You know what I realized today?\" \"",
"Whatever the outcome is, I'm easily disposable.\" \"",
"Do you know where the cells are?\" \"",
"Alyana you can trust me, you know you can.\" \"",
"The war on terror will escalate.\" \"",
"Al-Qaeda defines our very existence now.\" \"",
"We're the enemy, at war with ourselves.\" \"",
"Where'd you say you served?\" \"",
"Afghanistan?\" \"",
"Iraq?\" \"",
"Both.\" \"",
"Then you know that the only option we have in Afghanistan, is pull out, or negotiate.\" \"",
"Pull over here.\" \"",
"We'll figure out a way, I promise.\" \"",
"You're not alone, alright?\" \"",
"Fahad!\" \" ",
"Fahad!\" \" ",
"He ain't there.\" \" ",
"Where is he?\" \" ",
"Gone, man.\" \" ",
"Gone where?\" \" ",
"Feds is lookin' for him, you get me?\" \"",
"Why?\" \"",
"What happened?\" \"",
"Fuckin' dude tried to assassinate Tyrone, man.\" \"",
"He's a dead man, same as you'll be.\" \"",
"The weapons are being delivered tonight.\" \" ",
"By the Kosovan?\" \" ",
"Yeah, Ramush.\" \"",
"Where?\" \"",
"Come with me.\" \"",
"Alyana, this is Dan.\" \"",
"We served together.\" \" ",
"How's it going, alright?\" \" ",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"Dan will look after you.\" \" ",
"I don't need babysitting.\" \" ",
"I know.\" \"",
"Be back in a while, yeah?\" \" ",
"Miller...\" \"You sure about this?\" \" ",
"Jesus!\" \" ",
"Bobby, you didn't even tell her your name?\" \" ",
"I'll find the weapons, this ends.\" \"",
"That's my boy!\" \"",
"You did it!\" \"",
"We got these bastards!\" \"",
"Right, let's have them then.\" \" ",
"So, what do we do now?\" \" ",
"Now we take out the cells.\" \" ",
"I killed him.\" \" ",
"Who, Ramush?\" \" ",
"I got him on his boat.\" \" ",
"Forget about it.\" \"",
"He'll be taken care of.\" \"",
"You go home and get some rest.\" \" ",
"I won't forget what you did.\" \" ",
"Hey...\" \" Take care of yourself.\" \" ",
"You too.\" \" ",
"Where's Dan?\" \" ",
"Had to leave.\" \"",
"Why didn't you tell me he's Chris's brother?\" \" ",
"I trust Dan with my life.\" \" ",
"But I don't trust Chris.\" \"",
"Let's not do this... now, Alyana, okay?\" \"",
"What happened to you?\" \"",
"What?\" \"",
"Robert?\" \"",
"What's done is done, can't undo it.\" \" ",
"But it's not over.\" \" ",
"No, Ramush is dead.\" \"",
"I fucked up.\" \"",
"I have to put it right.\" \"",
"I've located one of the cells.\" \"",
"Shit never changes.\" \"",
"Read it!\" \" ",
"Let's just do it.\" \" ",
"Read it!\" \"",
"You fucking read it.\" \"",
"Read it, shit head!\" \"",
"Fuck it, let's get this over with!\" \"",
"Go ahead, fucking saw it then!\" \"",
"Pull that flat...\" \"Pull that flat.\" \"",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"Oh, my God, I know him.\" \"",
"He's one of Turner's men.\" \"",
"Cowboy...\" \"Come on.\" \"",
"Just breathe, just breathe, in...\" \" and out.\" \" ",
"I can't breathe.\" \" ",
"You're alright, okay?\" \" ",
"They'll hunt us.\" \"",
"You saved my life, Alyana.\" \"",
"Alyana, listen, I'm gonna take you to the train station.\" \"",
"You get on a train, you disappear.\" \"",
"You know how to do that.\" \"",
"They wanted the attack to happen the whole time.\" \"",
"I was just put there to make sure that Abdullah carried out their orders.\" \"",
"You did what you had to.\" \"",
"Somethings are only solved one way.\" \"",
"Chris used us both.\" \"",
"He's running the cells.\" \" ",
"What you gonna do?\" \" ",
"Don't worry about me.\" \"",
"Goodbye, Robert.\" \"",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"So you're my assassin then, Danny.\" \"",
"They know what you've been doing.\" \"",
"You've been well dipped, buddy.\" \"",
"They're all over you.\" \"",
"They've picked up Alyana.\" \"",
"Look, I'm sorry.\" \" ",
"Where is she?\" \" ",
"I don't fucking know.\" \"",
"Hey, I swear on my life, I don't know.\" \"",
"They don't tell me shit.\" \"",
"I was just ordered to tell you...\" \"Ordered?\" \"",
"You're a mercenary now, Dan.\" \"",
"Not in the army.\" \" ",
"I won't ask you again, Dan.\" \" ",
"She's gone.\" \"",
"Alright?\" \"",
"She's gone.\" \"",
"And there ain't nothing you can do about it.\" \"",
"Is she dead?\" \"",
"You need to walk away, 'cause they're gonna fucking slaughter you Bobby, do you understand that?\" \"",
"Where is she?\" \"",
"Alright, you give them a message from me.\" \"",
"Bobby, as your friend, I'm telling you to get as far the fuck away, as possible.\" \"",
"Paratroopers don't die.\" \"",
"They reorg in hell.\" \"",
"You can.\" \"",
"Go!\" \"",
"Hello, Jerry.\" \"",
"Where is she?\" \"",
"We put her on a plane, this morning.\" \"",
"To Lebanon.\" \"",
"That's where she wanted to go.\" \" ",
"Bullshit.\" \" ",
"Is the gun really necessary?\" \"",
"Where is she?\" \"",
"The organizing principle of any society, is for war.\" \"",
"The basic authority of a modern state of rich people... resides in it's war powers.\" \"",
"Today it's oil, tomorrow, water.\" \"",
"It's what we like to call, the God business:\" \"Guns, Oil and Drugs.\" \" ",
"But there's a problem...\" \" I don't give a shit!\" \"",
"Our way of life... it's over.\" \"",
"It's unsustainable and in rapid decline.\" \"",
"That's why we implement demand destruction.\" \"",
"We continue to make money, as the world burns.\" \"",
"But for this to work, the people have to remain ignorant of the problem, until it's too late.\" \"",
"That's why we have triggers in place:\" \"9-11, 7-7, W.M.D's.\" \"",
"A population in a permanent state of fear, does not ask questions.\" \"",
"Our desire for war, becomes its' desire.\" \"",
"A willing sacrifice.\" \"",
"You see?\" \"",
"Fear is just a vacation, fear is control, fear... is money.\" \"",
"You're a brilliant soldier, and I could still use someone like you.\" \"",
"I'll ask you one more time:\" \"Where is she?\" \"",
"Do you know the term \"train tracking\" and \"battery\"?\" \"",
"Perhaps you should look closer to home.\" \"",
"The young men of your Estate...\" \"So vicious.\" \"",
"Poor Alayna wouldn't stand...\" \"Miller's here!\" \"",
"Miller's here!\""
] |
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| 5
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[
"Light and ultrastructural relationship between oxytalan fibers in the periodontal ligament of the guinea pig.",
"\nThe interfaces and the relationships between collagen and oxytalan fibers were observed under light and electron microscopy. ",
"Guinea pig periodontal ligament was prepared for light and electron microscopy with perfusion using Peter's buffered formalin for light microscopy and GTA-S-collidine and OSO4 for electron microscopic studies. ",
"The tissue for light microscopy was stained with a modified Gomori's aldehyde fuchsin technique, in which pre-oxidization with potassium monopersulfate was carried out before staining so as to demonstrate the oxytalan fibers. ",
"EM tissues were routinely stained with lead citrate and uranyl acetate. ",
"Two different structural relationships were observed. ",
"First, the subcomponents of the collagen and oxytalan fiber types interweave with each other; and, second, some of these two-fiber subcomponents appear attached to each other. ",
"These relationships and the known orientation of oxytalan fibers as seen in the periodontal ligament provide insight as to the function of oxytalan fibers. ",
"The oxytalan fibers may provide increased structural integrity and increased distribution of forces over a wider area of the periodontal ligament. ",
"Because of their close relationship to blood and lymph vessels in the periodontal ligament, they may also help to stabilize these elements by the same structural relationships to collagen fibers."
] |
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| 5
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[
"You are here:\n\nWorld War III\n\nIn the thick and rush of news related to Greece, it seems world media has missed something. ",
"Something very, very important and that too it’s happening right in the neighborhood of the Indian Subcontinent and has major global implications. ",
"I am sure those amongst you who have read ‘The Third World War‘ book authored by Dr. Aniruddha D. Joshi might have already guessed it by now. ",
"Yes, I am talking about\n\nPosts navigation\n\n‘Hellenic’ means relating to Greece. ",
"Off late Greece is the country where so called proverbial ‘hell has been breaking loose’. ",
"We have been hearing various news reports related to Greece and the acute economic crises that it is currently facing. ",
"For many of us in India, we haven’t looked at this situation as a major global event except for some of those from stock markets or from impex sector who\n\nA fortnight back, Indians across the world would have felt proud of their armed forces who daringly tracked the terrorists who had killed our soldiers and hunted them deep inside Myanmar. ",
"Preceding this event the whole nation saw yet another victorious thump by the Government of India. ",
"Taking a leaf out of book of late Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi and Founder of Bangladesh, Sheikh Mujibur Rehman, the Prime Minister\n\nIt has been just over a year since the ‘Look East’ policy of Government of India has actually transformed into ‘Act East’. ",
"And the last five days have been an epitome in it. ",
"The Prime Minister of India went on his maiden tour of Bangladesh and sealed the much-awaited border treaty. ",
"The event was totally historic and rather awaited for last 41 years. ",
"And following this groundbreaking treaty since the\n\n(continued from yesterday’s post…) Therefore the entry strategy of Russia into Indo-Pacific region (so far referred as Asia-Pacific region) through signing this deal with China assumes paramount importance for both China and Russia. ",
"The developing economies in the Indo-Pacific region bode well for Russia to emerge as the leading supplier of natural gas to the region in the years to come. ",
"The deal seems to be the first milestone in\n\n‘The Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation’, a strategic accord was signed between China and Russian for twenty-years in the year 2001. ",
"This treaty broadly outlines to serve as a basis for peaceful relations, economic cooperation, as well as diplomatic and geopolitical reliance between the two nations. ",
"It also can be seen as an implicit defence understanding pointing at increasing military cooperation, including the sharing of military technology between the\n\n[continued from Part I (dated: 5th October 2013)…] Both the US and Russia have significant vested interests in this region. ",
"Continuance of a favourable regime in Syria is of utmost importance to Russia. ",
"Russia maintains an extremely important military base in Syria at its port city of Tartus, in form of a naval installation which is their sole existing military facility outside the former Soviet Union. ",
"This is the very\n\nJust when the situation in the Middle East was reaching boiling point and waiting to explode in the form of an expected US-led attack on Syria, a piece of smart and shrewd diplomacy by the Russian President, Vladimir Putin undid it all for the US. ",
"Putin’s op-ed in the New York Times, while questioning the US plan of attacking Syria, without seeking UN approval, saw this as an attack\n\nIsrael’s attack on the Syrian Naval base of Latakia on the 5th of July, 2013, supposedly launched from Turkish soil, in which Syria’s Yakhont P-800 missile depot was specifically targeted, has ever since been a topic of continuous discussion and debate. ",
"Yakhont are advanced anti-ship cruise missiles which were sold to Syria by Russia. ",
"Several blasts were heard after the reported Israeli strikes, at this critical Syrian naval base. ",
"The\n\nJust a couple of weeks back, I finished reading an extremely interesting book titled Digital Fortress;a techno-thriller novel written by the renowned American author Dan Brown who has authored the international bestseller novel, The Da Vinci Code. ",
"I read the Marathi translation of the book which was wonderfully done by Ashok Padhye. ",
"Its great to see Mehta Publishing House making these quality novels available to Marathi readers. ",
"Digital Fortress transports\n\nJust last week, the Secretary General of Red Cross, Bekele Geleta, warned that the ever increasing unemployment and poverty in some of the European countries is fuelling unrest and that these issues may result in a sudden uprising of the masses if proper measures are not taken to resolve them. ",
"Wolfgang Schaeuble, Finance Minister of Germany, while talking about the same issues, warned of disintegration of Europe if unemployment was\n\nGeneral Elections to elect the 14th Parliament of Pakistan have been announced. ",
"For a nation riddled by military takeovers and coups, this will be the first time in its history when a democratically elected central government will complete its full-term and handover governance to another democratically elected government. ",
"Voting will begin on 11th May 2013 in all parliamentary constituencies of Pakistan, to elect members to the National Assembly and\n\n(Courtesy: Dainik Pratyaksha) Japan and South Korea have started the build-up of their troops on their respective borders after North Korea conducted its third nuclear test, defying international pressure. ",
"A team of scientists from South Korea has also been deployed to investigate the nature of the nuclear test. ",
"South Korea has hinted at development of a long range ballistic missile, to give a befitting reply to North Korea. ",
"Although North Korea has not\n\nll Hari Om ll We have been seeing what has been recently happening on the Line of Control between India and Pakistan in Jammu & Kashmir. ",
"Pakistan violated the ceasefire between the two countries which was in-force since 2003. ",
"Pakistani Army regulars crossed the Line of Control and beheaded 2 Indian Army soldiers in the most inhumane and barbaric manner. ",
"Further to this the violation of ceasefire has continued from\n\nll Hari Om ll UN Peace Envoy, Mr. Lakhdar Brahimi Yes indeed Syria paints a distressing picture on the canvas of the world. ",
"Is the Syrian conflict merely one that pitches the Syrian ruling powers against the Syrian commoners? ",
"Peculiarly, both sides have support and aid from outside the country. ",
"The allies of the Syrian government are obviously then opposed to those on the side of the rebels. ",
"And"
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[
"\"Turn.\" \"",
"There's another.\" \"",
"Circuit board epsilon 14598, red corridor 357.\" \" ",
"Re-routed.\" \" ",
"Turn.\" \"",
"And another.\" \"",
"Circuit board theta 29555, blue corridor 212.\" \"",
"What's happening, guys?\" \"",
"I thought we were playing poker?\" \" ",
"Didn't you get the message?\" \" ",
"What message?\" \"",
"A skutter went bananas and rewired the maintenance decks upside down.\" \"",
"We've got over 2,000 wiring faults.\" \"",
"Don't breathe.\" \"",
"Don't touch anything.\" \" ",
"The ship's a gigantic booby trap.\" \" ",
"No poker, then?\" \"",
"We can't find the auto-destruct system.\" \"",
"It's wired up to something.\" \"",
"Tell the Cat.\" \"",
"It's taken me ages to mark these cards.\" \" ",
"We can't touch anything?\" \" ",
"Not until we get the all-clear.\" \" ",
"How long's that?\" \" ",
"God knows.\" \"",
"Milk shake and a crispy bar.\" \"",
"Poker's gone for a burton.\" \"",
"Auto-destruct sequence initiated.\" \"",
"The ship will detonate in 15 minutes.\" \"",
"14 minutes, 55 seconds and counting.\" \" ",
"That was a very dumb thing to do.\" \" ",
"I wasn't thinking.\" \"",
"Red Dwarf will self-destruct in 14 minutes and 50 seconds.\" \"",
"Cancel.\" \"",
"Clear.\" \"",
"Abandon ship.\" \"",
"You have 13 minutes and 45 seconds to detonation.\" \" ",
"Cancel!\" \" ",
"You have 12 minutes and 45 seconds...\" \" Cancel!\" \" ",
"You have 10 minutes...\" \" Cancel!\" \" ",
"You have 9 minutes...\" \"I said touch nothing, didn't I?\" \"",
"I just ordered a shake and a crispy bar.\" \" ",
"Lucky it wasn't a double cheeseburger!\" \" ",
"Eight minutes, 20 seconds and counting.\" \" ",
"How do we switch it off?\" \" ",
"Only the Captain can override it.\" \" ",
"Dead.\" \" ",
"Or a senior officer.\" \" ",
"Dead.\" \" ",
"I suppose, really,\" \"I should have updated the system.\" \"",
"Could we trick it into thinking one of us is the Captain?\" \"",
"No.\" \"",
"It checks his voice and brain scan.\" \"",
"Self-destruct in eight minutes, 10 seconds and counting.\" \"",
"Think of something.\" \"",
"You're supposed to have an IQ of 6,000.\" \"",
"Think of something.\" \" ",
"I'm thinking.\" \" ",
"Self-destruct in eight minutes.\" \" ",
"Well?\" \" ",
"I've collated every single option, and there are three realistic alternatives.\" \"",
"One - sit here and get blown up.\" \"",
"Two - stand here and get blown up.\" \"",
"Three - jump up and down, shout at me, then get blown up.\" \" ",
"There must be something?\" \" ",
"Perhaps we could try a mind-swap?\" \"",
"It's something we tried once on the Nova 5.\" \"",
"It uses exactly the same science as generating a hologram.\" \"",
"We wipe all your brain patterns and put them on a storage disk.\" \"",
"Then we transfer the Captain's mind from his hologram disk into your empty brain.\" \" ",
"You tried this on Nova 5?\" \" ",
"Oh, yes.\" \" ",
"Did it work?\" \" ",
"No, but I'm sure I know what went wrong.\" \"",
"Two minutes to self-destruct and counting.\" \" ",
"So, I'll have the Captain's mind?\" \" ",
"Yes.\" \"",
"Then, hopefully, the machine will think you're the Captain, and you can override it.\" \" ",
"But where will my mind be?\" \" ",
"On this.\" \"",
"One minute, 50 seconds and counting.\" \"",
"We couldn't find the Captain's disk, but Brown was executive officer.\" \"",
"Yeah.\" \"",
"Brown's got clearance.\" \" ",
"What's that for?\" \" ",
"It's a mental emetic.\" \" ",
"A what?\" \" ",
"A mind enema...\" \" To flush out your brain.\" \" ",
"Nobody's flushing' out my brain.\" \" ",
"We'll transfer it back.\" \" ",
"You're not sticking that in my head!\" \"",
"One minute and 40 seconds and counting.\" \" ",
"It's our only chance.\" \" ",
"Smeg off!\" \"",
"Look, man, I'm not asking just for me.\" \"",
"I'm asking...\" \"I'm beggin' you, do it for the sake of my suits.\" \"",
"Are you gonna let my scarlet PVC morning suit with the imitation penguin-fur collars get blown to smithereens?\" \" ",
"Could you live with yourself?\" \" ",
"One minute, 30 seconds and counting.\" \"",
"Look, I agree, it's a stupid idea.\" \"",
"It almost certainly won't work, but the very worst that can happen, the bottom line, is that you spend the rest of your life as a gibbering vegetable.\" \"",
"But if the rest of your life is 30 seconds, what the hell?\" \"",
"Do it.\" \"",
"Keep that safe.\" \"",
"It's Lister's mind.\" \"",
"55 seconds to detonation.\" \" ",
"What's going on?\" \" ",
"No time to explain, but the auto-destruct system has started, and we need you to deactivate it.\" \"",
"Something's wrong.\" \"",
"Something's different.\" \"",
"Wait a minute, I never used to be a man!\" \" ",
"Look, we'll explain later.\" \" ",
"Why have I got male sexual organs?\" \"",
"If we don't override the auto-destruct in the next 20 seconds, those sexual organs will be in orbit around the nearest planet, along with every one else's organs, sexual or otherwise.\" \" ",
"15 seconds to detonation.\" \" ",
"Abort sequence X-1-X.\" \" Identify.\" \" ",
"Carol Brown, Executive Officer, security clearance 0-1-0-1-0-1.\" \"",
"Pause for verification.\" \"",
"Verification rejected.\" \"",
"Abort denied.\" \"",
"Auto-destruct sequence continued.\" \"",
"Detonation in 5 seconds.\" \" ",
"Sen-smegging-sational.\" \" ",
"Well done, fink face.\" \" ",
"Three...\" \" What a brilliant plan.\" \" ",
"Two...\" \" Just great.\" \"",
"One.\" \"",
"Initiate self-destruct.\" \"",
"Thank you for using Auto-Serve Dispensing Machines.\" \" ",
"Number one in quality.\" \" ",
"What happened?\" \"",
"It was wired to the warning system,\" \" but not the bomb.\" \" ",
"So where's the bomb?\" \"",
"We haven't got a bomb.\" \" ",
"What?\" \" ",
"I got rid of it ages ago.\" \" ",
"Why didn't you say?\" \" ",
"You never asked.\" \"",
"Fine.\" \"",
"Terrific!\" \"",
"But remember this - you're getting my underwear bill, buddy.\" \" ",
"You awake?\" \" ",
"Yeah, can't sleep.\" \" ",
"Probably those kippers.\" \" ",
"Nothin' wrong with kippers.\" \"",
"But kippers vindaloo?\" \"",
"It can't be good for you.\" \"",
"A curry every night cannot be good for you.\" \"",
"It's certainly no good for me.\" \"",
"I'm thinking of getting a canary.\" \" ",
"Why?\" \" ",
"To check if it's safe to come in.\" \" ",
"It's not that bad!\" \" ",
"Not that bad?\" \"",
"You don't sweat sweat, you sweat madras sauce.\" \" ",
"Why the sudden interest in my diet?\" \" ",
"It's not just your diet, Lister.\" \"",
"It's your health in general.\" \"",
"You eat crap, you don't exercise, you smoke, you drink...\" \"Frankly, it's beginning to show.\" \" ",
"I'm OK.\" \" ",
"You're getting porky.\" \"",
"Porky?\" \"",
"Last week, during that lights failure, your silhouette was cast onto the wall.\" \" ",
"I thought it was Alfred Hitchcock.\" \" ",
"Are you sayin' I've got a gut?\" \"",
"You've got more gut than a Turkish butcher's shop.\" \"",
"No, really, have I put on weight?\" \"",
"You've reached that age, Listy.\" \"",
"When you're younger, you can eat and drink what you like and still climb into your 26-inch-waist trousers and zip them closed.\" \"",
"Then you reach that age - 24, 25- your muscles give up, wave a white flag, then without warning, you're suddenly a fat bastard.\" \"",
"I'm not fat, I'm porky!\" \"",
"Have you never held up a frog by its head?\" \"",
"You know how its belly sticks out above its spindly little legs?\" \"",
"That's what I see when you get down from the bunk.\" \"",
"Maybe you're right.\" \"",
"Yeah, I'm gonna start working out in the gym.\" \"",
"Of course, you could always...\" \" No, you'd never agree to it.\" \" ",
"What?\" \"",
"We do a swap.\" \"",
"My mind in your body, yours in mine.\" \"",
"You saw how easy it was.\" \"",
"Lend me your body for a while, and I'll get it fit.\" \"",
"Plenty of exercise, sensible diet, no more booze, no more ciggies.\" \"",
"It'll be like a 12,000-mile service for your body.\" \" ",
"And in the meantime, I'm a hologram?\" \" ",
"It's only for a couple of weeks.\" \"",
"You're talking like it's a pair of hedge trimmers or somethin'.\" \"",
"I'd return it intact.\" \"",
"More than intact, it'd be fitter.\" \"",
"Rimmer, you're not having my body.\" \"",
"Why are you worried?\" \"",
"How can I treat it any worse?\" \"",
"You admit you don't look after it properly.\" \"",
"I would.\" \"",
"What do you say?\" \"",
"No welchin'.\" \"",
"Of course not.\" \"",
"A fortnight.\" \"",
"14 days.\" \" ",
"Two weeks.\" \" ",
"Absolutely-doodly.\" \"",
"This hat is smeggin' stupid.\" \"",
"I look like Captain Emerald.\" \" ",
"Holly, do somethin' about it, man.\" \" ",
"OK, Dave.\" \"",
"Brutal.\" \"",
"What's this under his nails?\" \"",
"Oh, my God!\" \"",
"I'm going to have this dirt carbon dated.\" \"",
"Luncheon, sir.\" \"",
"Ah!\" \"",
"Food.\" \"",
"Real food.\" \"",
"To eat, perchance to taste.\" \"",
"It's exactly as you ordered, sir.\" \"",
"Lightly poached Mimian bladder fish, four dozen oysters, duck's feet in abalone sauce...\" \"I can touch, I can taste, I can smell!\" \"",
"Roast suckling pig stuffed with chestnuts and truffles.\" \" ",
"Mmm!\" \" ",
"Mashed potato.\" \" ",
"With cream and butter?\" \" ",
"A pint of cream and a pound of butter.\" \"",
"Let the orgy commence!\" \"",
"How's the diet goin'?\" \"",
"Do you know, I think I went temporarily insane.\" \"",
"It was just too much.\" \"",
"I haven't tasted food in three million and two years.\" \"",
"I was like an animal.\" \" ",
"I want my body back.\" \" ",
"It won't happen again.\" \" ",
"It's out of my system.\" \" ",
"MY system.\" \"",
"Why are you smoking?\" \" ",
"One cigar!\" \" ",
"You should be gettin' me fit.\" \" ",
"I'll start tomorrow.\" \" ",
"You better bleeding' had.\" \"",
"Hey!\" \"",
"What are you doin' dressed like that?\" \"",
"Why do you want to look like Goalpost-Head?\" \"",
"Have you flipped?\" \"",
"You want to look like a man with ears so large that they pick up satellite TV?\" \"",
"Why do you want to look like that smeg-head Rimmer?\" \"",
"Because...\" \"I am that smeg-head Rimmer.\" \"",
"Please!\" \"",
"These are supposed to be women?\" \"",
"Ah, this is what I call training.\" \"",
"That letter, that letter, that letter.\" \"",
"There.\" \"",
"Hey, hey, hey!\" \"",
"I've got you now, buddy!\" \"",
"J\" \" O-Z-X-Y-Q-K.\" \" That's not a word.\" \" ",
"It's a cat word.\" \" ",
"Jozxyqk?\" \" ",
"That's not how you pronounce it.\" \" ",
"What's it mean?\" \" ",
"It's the sound you make when you trap your sexual organs in something - \"Jozxyqk!\"\" \" ",
"Is it in the dictionary?\" \" ",
"It could be.\" \"",
"If you were reading in the nude and closed the book too quick... \"Jozxyqk!\"\" \"",
"Ah!\" \"",
"What a session!\" \"",
"What a work out!\" \"",
"No pain, no gain, Listy.\" \" ",
"On the scales.\" \"",
"I'm weighing you.\" \" ",
"No need.\" \"",
"See that stomach.\" \"",
"Hasn't been that flat in years.\" \" ",
"Scales, please.\" \" ",
"There's really no need.\" \"",
"On the scales!\" \" ",
"You've put on two stone!\" \" ",
"Of course I have.\" \"",
"I've been taking yeast extract, building up your body.\" \" ",
"Take the robe off.\" \" ",
"Why?\" \" ",
"Take it off.\" \" ",
"You're not seeing my naked body.\" \" ",
"It's mine!\" \" ",
"What's he hiding?\" \" ",
"Off with the robe.\" \" ",
"Just...\" \"Off!\" \"",
"Oh, this?\" \"",
"This is a hernia-prevention belt.\" \" ",
"I forgot to take it off.\" \" ",
"It's a girdle.\" \" '",
"Course it isn't.\" \" ",
"It's got dangly things for stockings.\" \"",
"They're for attaching extra weights to, so you can get fit as you walk around.\" \"",
"I want me body back now.\" \"",
"Look, OK.\" \"",
"I went a bit bananas at first, but that's all over now.\" \"",
"It's in my interest to get you into shape.\" \"",
"This could be a regular thing.\" \"",
"14 days a year, I have your body.\" \"",
"In fact, next year, I'd like the last two weeks of July.\" \" ",
"I want it back.\" \" ",
"One last chance?\" \" ",
"No more troughin'.\" \" ",
"I promise.\" \"",
"And take that girdle off.\" \"",
"It doesn't suit me.\" \"",
"Holly, lights!\" \"",
"That's it!\" \"",
"I'm completely sick of it.\" \" ",
"Mmmph?\" \"",
"Mmmm?\" \" ",
"That is IT!\" \" ",
"What is it?\" \" ",
"You've been porkin' again.\" \" ",
"I have not!\" \" ",
"I want my body back now.\" \" ",
"I've only had it a week!\" \" ",
"This wasn't the deal.\" \"",
"You've welched.\" \"",
"And what's this in the bin?\" \"",
"Me locks are in the bin!\" \" ",
"You said you pinned 'em up?\" \" ",
"I did but they... fell off.\" \"",
"Fell off?\" \"",
"Science lab, now!\" \"",
"It's the middle of the night.\" \"",
"Kryten's on down time.\" \"",
"Now.\" \"",
"How much did you smoke?\" \"",
"Me lungs feel like they've been through a cheese grater!\" \" ",
"You got your body back.\" \"",
"Leave me alone.\" \" ",
"Oh!\" \"",
"I only have a few rollies.\" \"",
"It feels like you've smoked an entire Cuban tobacco harvest.\" \" ",
"I had the odd one.\" \" ",
"No respect, that's what.\" \"",
"You've shown my body no respect whatsoever.\" \"",
"You've treated it like smeg.\" \"",
"Look...\" \"You've given me breasts.\" \"",
"There's a distinct cleavage there.\" \"",
"One week in my body and you've given me a bosom.\" \"",
"These scales are wrong.\" \"",
"These scales have to be wrong.\" \"",
"It's average for your height.\" \"",
"Rimmer, it would be average for my height if I happened to be a pregnant hippo.\" \"",
"You weren't exactly Charles Atlas to start with, were you?\" \"",
"You haven't been treating my athlete's foot.\" \"",
"Frankly, I was afraid of touching it.\" \"",
"I told you, you have to wash and powder my feet three times a day, and buff with a pumice stone.\" \"",
"I couldn't touch those things three times a day.\" \"",
"I was only brave enough to remove your socks once.\" \"",
"Look at my stomach.\" \"",
"Look at it!\" \"",
"Paint \"Goodyear\" on it, you could float me over the Super Bowl.\" \"",
"Look, I refuse to take the rap for that body.\" \"",
"I added a few pounds to its already ample frame, but it was a wreck before I got anywhere near it.\" \"",
"A wreck?\" \"",
"If it was a car you would be an insurance write-off.\" \"",
"Nothing works.\" \"",
"Your taste buds are clapped out.\" \"",
"You've killed them stone dead with 25 years of non-stop curries.\" \"",
"All the aches and pains you never mention?\" \"",
"Twinges in your back, crimps in your neck.\" \"",
"Oh, and a little tip - urine should only be green if you're Mr Spock.\" \"",
"It's the last time you borrow it, that's for goddamn sure.\" \"",
"What about next year?\" \"",
"We agreed.\" \"",
"Last two weeks in July.\" \"",
"Why do you want it?\" \"",
"It's a wreck.\" \"",
"Unfortunately, if you can't get two weeks in the Caribbean,\" \"Grimsby's better than nothing.\" \" ",
"You can't back out.\" \" ",
"I only said that to get it back.\" \"",
"Do you think I'm mad?\" \"",
"You are never borrowing my body again.\" \"",
"Never.\" \"",
"Get some sleep.\" \"",
"You'll feel different in the morning.\" \"",
"I'm really not sure about this.\" \"",
"You're programmed to obey.\" \"",
"Get on with it.\" \" ",
"Surely, we should ask him first?\" \" ",
"I told you, he's perfectly happy about the situation.\" \"",
"Then, why did we chloroform him?\" \"",
"And why did he struggle?\" \"",
"I'm in charge, Kryten.\" \"",
"I'll take full responsibility.\" \" ",
"But, sir...\" \" Science lab, pronto!\" \"",
"If he comes around, give him another whack.\" \"",
"Are you awake, man?\" \"",
"Rimmer?\" \"",
"No, please.\" \"",
"No!\" \"",
"Play message.\" \"",
"Hi!\" \"",
"It's me.\" \"",
"I told you you'd feel different in the morning.\" \"",
"Thing is, this week has been absolute heaven.\" \"",
"I couldn't just let you have your body back.\" \"",
"That's why I've taken Starbug and done a runner.\" \"",
"Don't worry, in a month, I'll return it.\" \"",
"Maybe six weeks, but don't try and follow me, otherwise... the body gets it.\" \"",
"Cat.\" \"",
"Cat!\" \"",
"You want my what?\" \"!\" \" ",
"It'll only take a few hours.\" \" ",
"You want my body?\" \"",
"I need your body to get mine back.\" \"",
"You've already lost one body.\" \"",
"Come on!\" \"",
"You really expect me to lend you mine?\" \"",
"I'm a hologram.\" \"",
"How else am I supposed to chase him?\" \"",
"I need your body.\" \"",
"One question.\" \"",
"Would you let a garbage truck driver use your Rolls-Royce?\" \"",
"How else can I pilot White Midget?\" \"",
"I'll do it.\" \"",
"Rimmer!\" \"",
"It's no use running'.\" \"",
"We've got you in visual range.\" \" ",
"Turn around and head back to the ship.\" \" ",
"I told you not to follow me.\" \"",
"Leave me alone or you-know-what happens.\" \" ",
"He's bluffing.\" \" ",
"I'm not bluffing.\" \"",
"I think he means it, man.\" \"",
"He's flipped.\" \"",
"It must be cream cake poisoning.\" \" ",
"I'm going in.\" \" ",
"He must be bluffing.\" \" ",
"Say he isn't?\" \" ",
"It's gastronomic terrorism!\" \" ",
"We can't just let it happen.\" \" ",
"Go ahead, punks.\" \"",
"Make my day.\" \" ",
"You're right.\" \"",
"He's bluffing'.\" \" ",
"Smeg!\" \"",
"Get him!\" \"",
"This is getting stupid.\" \"",
"Back off, let him go.\" \" ",
"We're almost on him.\" \" ",
"It's too dangerous.\" \"",
"Let him go.\" \"",
"Chickens!\" \"",
"Oh, smeg!\" \"",
"What the smegging' smeg's he smeggin' done?\" \"",
"He's smeggin' killed me!\" \" ",
"Whoops!\" \" ",
"Are you all right?\" \" ",
"You're going to go spare.\" \" ",
"What is it?\" \"",
"You're going to go absolutely spare.\" \" ",
"You've lost me arm!\" \" ",
"I've lost your watch too.\" \" ",
"You bastard!\" \" ",
"No, you're right.\" \"",
"It's my fault.\" \"",
"My hands are up...\" \"Well, my hand is up!\" \"",
"You think this is funny?\" \"",
"No.\" \"",
"But this is!\" \"",
"Oh, hello.\" \"",
"It's Captain Chloroform.\" \"",
"Please, Mr David, sir.\" \"",
"My guilt chip is already in overdrive.\" \"",
"I feel terrible!\" \"",
"You feel terrible?\" \"",
"What about my head?\" \"",
"I had to obey him.\" \"",
"It's in my programming to obey all humans, no matter how insane.\" \"",
"Dinner is served, sir.\" \"",
"Lettuce and a grated carrot.\" \"",
"I'm on this for six months.\" \"",
"What's wrong?\" \"",
"You look like you've seen a ghost.\" \"",
"I was asleep, OK?\" \"",
"Then Plastic Percy puts a sponge on my face and out go the lights.\" \"",
"It was an order!\" \"",
"Just one night, I promise.\" \"",
"I'll give it back first thing tomorrow.\" \"",
"Maybe Thursday.\" \"# ",
"It's cold outside There's no kind of atmosphere\" \"# I'm all alone, more or less\" \"# Let me fly far away from here\" \"# Fun, fun, fun\" \"# In the sun, sun, sun\" \"# I want to lie, shipwrecked and comatose\" \"# Drinking fresh mango juice\" \"# Goldfish shoals, nibbling at my toes\" \"# Fun, fun, fun\" \"# In the sun, sun, sun\" \"# Fun, fun, fun\" \"# In the sun, sun, sun #\""
] |
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[
"# Event 1014 - GPIObankinterruptflowthroughMSGPIOCLX\n###### Version: 1\n\n## Description\nNone\n\n## Data Dictionary\n|Standard Name|Field Name|Type|Description|Sample Value|\n|---|---|---|---|---|\n|TBD|EnableRegister|UInt64|None|`None`|\n|TBD|MaskRegister|UInt64|None|`None`|\n|TBD|StatusRegister|UInt64|None|`None`|\n|TBD|NonEnabledActiveInterrupts|UInt64|None|`None`|\n|TBD|ReplayRegister|UInt64|None|`None`|\n\n## Tags\n* etw_level_Informational\n* etw_opcode_InterruptPinState\n* etw_task_GPIObankinterruptflowthroughMSGPIOCLX"
] |
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[
0.001941747572815534
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| 5
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[
"Pope Francis in plea for poor as inauguration Mass held Published duration 19 March 2013\n\nmedia caption Watch key moments from the inauguration Mass\n\nPope Francis has inaugurated his papacy at a Mass in Rome, calling on global leaders and all the people of the world to defend the poor and the weak.",
"\n\nUp to 200,000 people attended the Mass in St Peter's Square.",
"\n\nHis homily focused on protection - of the environment, children, the elderly and those in need, who he said were \"often the last we think about\".",
"\n\nFrancis was elected by a conclave of cardinals last week to take over from Benedict XVI.",
"\n\nBenedict became the first pontiff in 600 years to abdicate last month. ",
"Citing his age, 85, he said he could no longer continue in the post.",
"\n\nPapal ring\n\nPope Francis, formerly Argentine Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio and now the first pontiff from the Americas, has since his election called for a \"Church for the poor\" and has struck an informal and spontaneous tone.",
"\n\nHis chosen name, Francis, honours St Francis of Assisi, the 13th-Century son of an aristocrat who spurned a life of luxury to live with and for the poor.",
"\n\nPope Francis' homily at the Mass began by focusing on Joseph and his role as protector - of Mary, Jesus and the Church.",
"\n\nFrancis, 76, expanded the image, referring to Francis of Assisi and saying that the role of protector was not just a Christian one.",
"\n\nHe said: \"It means protecting all creation, the beauty of the created world... It means respecting each of God's creatures and respecting the environment in which we live.",
"\n\n\"It means protecting people, showing loving concern for each and every person, especially children, the elderly, those in need, who are often the last we think about.\"",
"\n\nFrancis called on \"all those who have positions of responsibility in economic, political and social life\" to be protectors of creation.",
"\n\n\"To protect creation, to protect every man and every woman, to look upon them with tenderness and love, is to open up a horizon of hope,\" Francis said.",
"\n\nWithout care for the environment and fellow humans, \"the way is opened to destruction and hearts are hardened\", he said.",
"\n\n\"Let us not allow omens of destruction and death to accompany the advance of this world.\"",
"\n\nFrancis said the pope himself must be inspired by the lowly - \"the poorest, the weakest, the least important, those who Matthew lists in the final judgment on love: the hungry, the thirsty, the stranger, the naked, the sick, those in prison\".",
"\n\nFrancis had begun the day by touring St Peter's Square in an open-topped Popemobile.",
"\n\nAt one point he stepped down from the vehicle and approached the barriers to bless a disabled man.",
"\n\nimage caption Francis blessed a disabled man on his tour of St Peter's Square before the Mass\n\nFrancis spent 20 minutes touring the square, waving to the pilgrims who flew flags and shouted: \"Long live the Pope!\"",
"\n\nIsaac Adroamabe from Uganda, said: \"My first impression is that the Pope is very humble, and has taken the Church in his heart.\"",
"\n\nSeven-year-old Pietro Loretti, from Italy, said: \"I like him because he loves the poor.\"",
"\n\nAs the Mass began, Francis was presented with his papal pallium made of lambs' wool - symbolising his role as shepherd of his flock - and the fisherman's ring bearing the image of St Peter holding two keys.",
"\n\nWith this, Francis officially began his office as the 266th pope.",
"\n\nCommunion was distributed by some 500 priests throughout the crowd.",
"\n\nThe Mass was co-celebrated by around 180 clergymen, including Adolfo Nicolas, the superior general of Pope Francis' Jesuit order.",
"\n\nThe list of attendees also included Bartholomew, the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople.",
"\n\nmedia caption Alistair Leithead says the crowd joined in during the prayers\n\nHe is the first Orthodox patriarch to attend a papal inauguration Mass since the two branches of Christianity split nearly 1,000 years ago.",
"\n\nThe Pope later greeted the assembled dignitaries individually in St Peter's Basilica.",
"\n\nHundreds of people also gathered in the early hours of Tuesday in Plaza de Mayo, the main square in Buenos Aires, to watch the Mass broadcast on giant screens set up outside the cathedral.",
"\n\nThey erupted in joy as a call from the Pope, made an hour before his Mass, was played via loudspeakers."
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"Assessing Bone Type of Implant Recipient Sites by Stereomicroscopic Observation of Bone Core Specimens: A Comparison With the Assessment Using Dental Radiography.",
"\nThe aim of the study is to determine if bone quality evaluation of surgically obtained bone core specimens using a stereomicroscope is reliable for determining bone quality at implant recipient sites. ",
"Bone quality was presurgically assessed in 122 edentulous ridges obtained from 62 patients using periapical radiographs and categorized according to the Lekholm and Zarb classification. ",
"During surgery, bone specimens were trephined, and bone types were immediately classified using a stereomicroscope. ",
"Microarchitectural characteristics of bone cores were evaluated after being scanned using microcomputed tomography (micro-CT). ",
"Bone types of implant sites categorized from radiography and stereomicroscope had statistically similar distribution but poor interrater agreement. ",
"Using micro-CT, maxillae and mandibles showed significant differences in microarchitectural characteristics of bone cores. ",
"Bone volume (BV), total volume (TV), and trabecular thickness (Tb.",
"Th) increased, whereas bone surface density (BS/BV) and open porosity (Po.[Op]) decreased in mandibular bone cores compared with those in maxillary bone cores. ",
"Moreover, micro-CT values of BV/TV and Po.(Op) statistically correlated with bone types assessed by stereomicroscopy, particularly in mandibles (adjusted means of BV/TV of Type 2 to 4 versus Type 1 decreasing from -9.88%, -15.09%, -29.31%; those of Po.(Op) ranged from 9.77%, 15.06%, 29.52% in an upward trend). ",
"However, such correlations were not found in maxillae or when bone types were classified using periapical radiographs. ",
"Caution is needed when using presurgical periapical radiographs to predict bone quality at implant recipient sites. ",
"Surgically preserved bone core specimens, whenever obtainable, might offer additional information to accurately assess bone quality, particularly at mandibular implant sites."
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"The function of the nervous system is dependent on complex interactions between networks of neurons. ",
"Understanding how these networks function in both health and disease is dependent on understanding the function of the fine-scale connections between neurons. ",
"The research proposed here is aimed at revealing the functions of specific connections between similar and different types of neurons in the same or different cortical layer. ",
"A rabies-based tracing system will reveal the direct monosynaptic connections between neurons in the primary visual cortex of mice. ",
"Visual stimulation combined with calcium imaging will then reveal the visual response properties of connected neurons. ",
"This method will be the first to simultaneously assess both connectivity and function in a live animal without limitations on the distance between connected cells. ",
"The cortical sources and functional contributions of excitatory and inhibitory inputs to single functionally characterized excitatory neurons will be uncovered, and the principles by which a single neuron integrates many inputs to produce a single functional output will be studied. ",
"The results of these experiments will shed light on various hypotheses about the functional roles of fine-scale connections in cortical information processing."
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"SEATTLE — What if the Everything Store couldn’t sell everything because of disruptions from the coronavirus?",
"\n\nThat’s the situation that Amazon — which typically stocks more than 100 million items, from toilet paper to yoga pants — is working to avoid as the deadly outbreak continues to shut down and slow factories in China that produce the world’s goods.",
"\n\nOver the past few weeks, Amazon has responded to the crisis by making larger and more frequent orders of Chinese-made products that had already been shipped to the United States, according to company emails and consultants who work with major brands. ",
"Some of its suppliers have cut back on advertising and promotions on the site so they don’t run out of products too quickly.",
"\n\nAmazon also sent an urgent email to brands on Wednesday about Prime Day, its midsummer mega sale, indicating that it has begun worrying about inventory for the event. ",
"And the company has contacted some of its third-party merchants, whose dog leashes, crayons and other products account for about 60 percent of its sales, to figure out how their flow of goods might be impeded."
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[
"/*\n * Copyright (c) Facebook, Inc. and its affiliates.",
"\n *\n * This source code is licensed under the MIT license found in the\n * LICENSE file in the root directory of this source tree.",
"\n */\n\n#include \"ToolsCommon.h\"\n\n#include <boost/filesystem.hpp>\n#ifdef __GNUC__\n#pragma GCC diagnostic push\n#pragma GCC diagnostic ignored \"-Wdeprecated-declarations\"\n#endif\n#include <boost/iostreams/filtering_stream.hpp> // uses deprecated auto_ptr\n#ifdef __GNUC__\n#pragma GCC diagnostic pop\n#endif\n#include <iostream>\n#include <json/json.h>\n\n#include \"CommentFilter.h\"\n#include \"DexLoader.h\"\n#include \"DexOutput.h\"\n#include \"DexPosition.h\"\n#include \"DexUtil.h\"\n#include \"IRMetaIO.h\"\n#include \"InstructionLowering.h\"\n#include \"JarLoader.h\"\n#include \"Macros.h\"\n#include \"Show.h\"\n#include \"Timer.h\"\n#include \"Walkers.h\"\n\n#if IS_WINDOWS\n#include <io.h>\n#endif\n\nnamespace {\n/**\n * Entry file contains the list of dex files, config file and original command\n * line arguments.",
"\n */\nconst std::string ENTRY_FILE = \"/entry.json\";\nvoid load_entry_file(const std::string& input_ir_dir, Json::Value* entry_data) {\n std::ifstream istrm(input_ir_dir + ENTRY_FILE);\n istrm >> *entry_data;\n}\n\nvoid write_entry_file(const std::string& output_ir_dir,\n const Json::Value& entry_data) {\n std::ofstream ostrm(output_ir_dir + ENTRY_FILE);\n ostrm << entry_data;\n}\n\n/**\n * Init the IR meta to default values.",
"\n */\nvoid init_ir_meta(DexStoresVector& stores) {\n Timer t(\"Init default meta\");\n Scope classes = build_class_scope(stores);\n walk::parallel::classes(classes, [](DexClass* cls) {\n cls->set_deobfuscated_name(show(cls));\n for (DexField* field : cls->get_sfields()) {\n field->set_deobfuscated_name(show(field));\n }\n for (DexField* field : cls->get_ifields()) {\n field->set_deobfuscated_name(show(field));\n }\n for (DexMethod* method : cls->get_dmethods()) {\n method->set_deobfuscated_name(show(method));\n }\n for (DexMethod* method : cls->get_vmethods()) {\n method->set_deobfuscated_name(show(method));\n }\n });\n}\n\n/**\n * Write meta data to file.",
"\n * Development usage only\n */\nvoid write_ir_meta(const std::string& output_ir_dir, DexStoresVector& stores) {\n Timer t(\"Dumping IR meta\");\n Scope classes = build_class_scope(stores);\n ir_meta_io::dump(classes, output_ir_dir);\n}\n\n/**\n * Write intermediate dex to files.",
"\n * Development usage only\n */\nvoid write_intermediate_dex(const RedexOptions& redex_options,\n ConfigFiles& conf,\n const std::string& output_ir_dir,\n DexStoresVector& stores,\n Json::Value& dex_files) {\n Timer write_int_dex_timer(\"Write intermediate dex\");\n {\n Timer t(\"Instruction lowering\");\n instruction_lowering::run(stores);\n }\n std::unique_ptr<PositionMapper> pos_mapper(PositionMapper::make(\"\"));\n for (size_t store_number = 0; store_number < stores.size(); ++store_number) {\n auto& store = stores[store_number];\n Timer t(\"Writing intermediate dexes\");\n\n dex_files.append(Json::nullValue);\n Json::Value& store_files = dex_files[dex_files.size() - 1];\n store_files[\"name\"] = store.get_name();\n store_files[\"list\"] = Json::arrayValue;\n\n for (size_t i = 0; i < store.get_dexen().size(); i++) {\n if (store.get_dexen()[i].empty()) {\n continue;\n }\n std::string filename =\n redex::get_dex_output_name(output_ir_dir, store, i);\n write_classes_to_dex(redex_options,\n filename,\n &store.get_dexen()[i],\n nullptr /* locator_index */,\n store_number,\n i,\n conf,\n pos_mapper.get(),\n nullptr,\n nullptr,\n nullptr /* IODIMetadata* */,\n stores[0].get_dex_magic());\n auto basename = boost::filesystem::path(filename).filename().string();\n store_files[\"list\"].append(basename);\n }\n }\n}\n\n/**\n * Load intermediate dex\n */\nvoid load_intermediate_dex(const std::string& input_ir_dir,\n const Json::Value& dex_files,\n DexStoresVector& stores) {\n Timer t(\"Load intermediate dex\");\n dex_stats_t dex_stats;\n for (const Json::Value& store_files : dex_files) {\n DexStore store(store_files[\"name\"].asString());\n stores.emplace_back(std::move(store));\n for (const Json::Value& file_name : store_files[\"list\"]) {\n auto location = boost::filesystem::path(input_ir_dir);\n location /= file_name.asString();\n // `string().c_str()` to get guaranteed `const char*`.",
"\n DexClasses classes =\n load_classes_from_dex(location.string().c_str(), &dex_stats);\n stores.back().add_classes(std::move(classes));\n }\n }\n}\n\n/**\n * Load IR meta data\n */\nbool load_ir_meta(const std::string& input_ir_dir) {\n Timer t(\"Loading IR meta\");\n return ir_meta_io::load(input_ir_dir);\n}\n\nstatic void assert_dex_magic_consistency(const std::string& source,\n const std::string& target) {\n always_assert_log(source.compare(target) == 0,\n \"APK contains dex file of different versions: %s vs %s\\n\",\n source.c_str(), target.c_str());\n}\n} // namespace\n\nnamespace redex {\n\nbool dir_is_writable(const std::string& dir) {\n if (!",
"boost::filesystem::is_directory(dir)) {\n return false;\n }\n#if IS_WINDOWS\n return _access(dir.c_str(), 2) == 0;\n#else\n return access(dir.c_str(), W_OK) == 0;\n#endif\n}\n\nJson::Value parse_config(const std::string& config_file) {\n std::ifstream config_stream(config_file);\n if (!",
"config_stream) {\n std::cerr << \"error: cannot find config file: \" << config_file << std::endl;\n exit(EXIT_FAILURE);\n }\n\n boost::iostreams::filtering_istream inbuf;\n inbuf.push(CommentFilter());\n inbuf.push(config_stream);\n Json::Value ret;\n inbuf >> ret; // parse JSON\n return ret;\n}\n\n/**\n * Dumping dex, IR meta data and entry file\n */\nvoid write_all_intermediate(ConfigFiles& conf,\n const std::string& output_ir_dir,\n const RedexOptions& redex_options,\n DexStoresVector& stores,\n Json::Value& entry_data) {\n Timer t(\"Dumping all\");\n redex_options.serialize(entry_data);\n entry_data[\"dex_list\"] = Json::arrayValue;\n write_ir_meta(output_ir_dir, stores);\n write_intermediate_dex(redex_options, conf, output_ir_dir, stores,\n entry_data[\"dex_list\"]);\n write_entry_file(output_ir_dir, entry_data);\n}\n\n/**\n * Loading entry file, dex files and IR meta data\n */\nvoid load_all_intermediate(const std::string& input_ir_dir,\n DexStoresVector& stores,\n Json::Value* entry_data) {\n Timer t(\"Loading all\");\n load_entry_file(input_ir_dir, entry_data);\n load_intermediate_dex(input_ir_dir, (*entry_data)[\"dex_list\"], stores);\n\n // load external classes\n Scope external_classes;\n if (!(*",
"entry_data).get(\"jars\", Json::nullValue).empty()) {\n for (const Json::Value& item : (*entry_data)[\"jars\"]) {\n const std::string jar_path = item.asString();\n always_assert(load_jar_file(jar_path.c_str(), &external_classes));\n }\n }\n\n init_ir_meta(stores);\n if (!",
"load_ir_meta(input_ir_dir)) {\n std::string error =\n \"Use default IR meta instead. ",
"The process result may be greatly \"\n \"different from the result of running whole optimization passes with \"\n \"redex-all\\n\";\n std::cerr << error;\n TRACE_NO_LINE(MAIN, 1, \"%s\", error.c_str());\n }\n}\n\n/**\n * Helper to load classes from a list of input dex files into a DexStoresVector.",
"\n * Processes dex (.dex) files as well as DexMetadata files (.json)\n */\nvoid load_classes_from_dexes_and_metadata(\n const std::vector<std::string>& dex_files,\n DexStoresVector& stores,\n dex_stats_t& input_totals,\n std::vector<dex_stats_t>& input_dexes_stats) {\n always_assert_log(!stores.empty(),\n \"Cannot load classes into empty DexStoresVector\");\n for (const auto& filename : dex_files) {\n if (filename.size() >= 5 &&\n filename.compare(filename.size() - 4, 4, \".dex\") == 0) {\n assert_dex_magic_consistency(stores[0].get_dex_magic(),\n load_dex_magic_from_dex(filename.c_str()));\n dex_stats_t dex_stats;\n DexClasses classes = load_classes_from_dex(filename.c_str(), &dex_stats);\n input_totals += dex_stats;\n input_dexes_stats.push_back(dex_stats);\n stores[0].add_classes(std::move(classes));\n } else {\n DexMetadata store_metadata;\n store_metadata.parse(filename);\n DexStore store(store_metadata);\n for (const auto& file_path : store_metadata.get_files()) {\n assert_dex_magic_consistency(\n stores[0].get_dex_magic(),\n load_dex_magic_from_dex(file_path.c_str()));\n dex_stats_t dex_stats;\n DexClasses classes =\n load_classes_from_dex(file_path.c_str(), &dex_stats);\n\n input_totals += dex_stats;\n input_dexes_stats.push_back(dex_stats);\n store.add_classes(std::move(classes));\n }\n stores.emplace_back(std::move(store));\n }\n }\n}\n\n/**\n * Helper to get the output name of a specific dex file when a series of dex\n * files are being output by redex programs.",
"\n * Index corresponds to the position in the order dex files are passed into\n * the redex programs: classes.dex -> 0, classes2.dex -> 1, classes3.dex -> 2...\n */\nstd::string get_dex_output_name(const std::string& output_dir,\n const DexStore& store,\n int index) {\n std::ostringstream ss;\n ss << output_dir << \"/\" << store.get_name();\n if (store.get_name().compare(\"classes\") == 0) {\n // primary/secondary dex store, primary has no numeral and secondaries\n // start at 2\n if (index > 0) {\n ss << (index + 1);\n }\n } else {\n // other dex stores do not have a primary,\n // so it makes sense to start at 2\n ss << (index + 2);\n }\n ss << \".dex\";\n return ss.str();\n}\n} // namespace redex\n"
] |
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"<?xml version=\"1.0\" encoding=\"utf-8\"?",
">\n<xs:schema xmlns:xs=\"http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema\">\n <!-- ",
"This file was generated by Fody. ",
"Manual changes to this file will be lost when your project is rebuilt. --",
">\n <xs:element name=\"Weavers\">\n <xs:complexType>\n <xs:all>\n <xs:element name=\"Costura\" minOccurs=\"0\" maxOccurs=\"1\">\n <xs:complexType>\n <xs:all>\n <xs:element minOccurs=\"0\" maxOccurs=\"1\" name=\"ExcludeAssemblies\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A list of assembly names to exclude from the default action of \"embed all Copy Local references\", delimited with line breaks</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:element>\n <xs:element minOccurs=\"0\" maxOccurs=\"1\" name=\"IncludeAssemblies\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A list of assembly names to include from the default action of \"embed all Copy Local references\", delimited with line breaks.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:element>\n <xs:element minOccurs=\"0\" maxOccurs=\"1\" name=\"Unmanaged32Assemblies\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A list of unmanaged 32 bit assembly names to include, delimited with line breaks.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:element>\n <xs:element minOccurs=\"0\" maxOccurs=\"1\" name=\"Unmanaged64Assemblies\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A list of unmanaged 64 bit assembly names to include, delimited with line breaks.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:element>\n <xs:element minOccurs=\"0\" maxOccurs=\"1\" name=\"PreloadOrder\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>The order of preloaded assemblies, delimited with line breaks.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:element>\n </xs:all>\n <xs:attribute name=\"CreateTemporaryAssemblies\" type=\"xs:boolean\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>This will copy embedded files to disk before loading them into memory. ",
"This is helpful for some scenarios that expected an assembly to be loaded from a physical file.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"IncludeDebugSymbols\" type=\"xs:boolean\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>Controls if .pdbs for reference assemblies are also embedded.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"DisableCompression\" type=\"xs:boolean\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>Embedded assemblies are compressed by default, and uncompressed when they are loaded. ",
"You can turn compression off with this option.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"DisableCleanup\" type=\"xs:boolean\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>As part of Costura, embedded assemblies are no longer included as part of the build. ",
"This cleanup can be turned off.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"LoadAtModuleInit\" type=\"xs:boolean\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>Costura by default will load as part of the module initialization. ",
"This flag disables that behavior. ",
"Make sure you call CosturaUtility.",
"Initialize() somewhere in your code.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"IgnoreSatelliteAssemblies\" type=\"xs:boolean\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>Costura will by default use assemblies with a name like 'resources.dll' as a satellite resource and prepend the output path. ",
"This flag disables that behavior.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"ExcludeAssemblies\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A list of assembly names to exclude from the default action of \"embed all Copy Local references\", delimited with |</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"IncludeAssemblies\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A list of assembly names to include from the default action of \"embed all Copy Local references\", delimited with |.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"Unmanaged32Assemblies\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A list of unmanaged 32 bit assembly names to include, delimited with |.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"Unmanaged64Assemblies\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A list of unmanaged 64 bit assembly names to include, delimited with |.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"PreloadOrder\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>The order of preloaded assemblies, delimited with |.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n </xs:complexType>\n </xs:element>\n </xs:all>\n <xs:attribute name=\"VerifyAssembly\" type=\"xs:boolean\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>'true' to run assembly verification (PEVerify) on the target assembly after all weavers have been executed.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"VerifyIgnoreCodes\" type=\"xs:string\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>A comma-separated list of error codes that can be safely ignored in assembly verification.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n <xs:attribute name=\"GenerateXsd\" type=\"xs:boolean\">\n <xs:annotation>\n <xs:documentation>'false' to turn off automatic generation of the XML Schema file.</xs:documentation>\n </xs:annotation>\n </xs:attribute>\n </xs:complexType>\n </xs:element>\n</xs:schema>"
] |
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"pile_set_name": "Github"
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[
"852 F.2d 565Unpublished Disposition\nNOTICE: Fourth Circuit I.O.P. 36.6 states that citation of unpublished dispositions is disfavored except for establishing res judicata, estoppel, or the law of the case and requires service of copies of cited unpublished dispositions of the Fourth Circuit.",
"Norman Allen AYERS, Plaintiff-Appellant,v.Marjorie A. JENNINGS; Leronia A. Josey; CommissionersMaryland Parole Commission, Defendants-Appellees.",
"\nNo. ",
"88-6024.",
"\nUnited States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit.",
"\nSubmitted: May 31, 1988.Decided: July 20, 1988.",
"\n\nNorman Allen Ayers, appellant pro se.",
"\nBefore WIDENER, K.K. HALL and CHAPMAN, Circuit Judges.",
"\nPER CURIAM:\n\n\n1\nNorman Allen Ayers appeals from the district court's order denying relief under 42 U.S.C. Sec. ",
"1983. ",
" Our review of the record and the district court's opinion discloses that this appeal is without merit. ",
" Accordingly, we affirm on the reasoning of the district court. ",
" Ayers v. Jennings, C/A No. ",
"88-687-JH (D.Md. ",
"Mar. 15, 1988). ",
" We dispense with oral argument because the facts and legal contentions are adequately presented in the materials before the Court and argument would not aid the decisional process.",
"\n\n\n2\nAFFIRMED.",
"\n\n"
] |
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[
"Q:\n\nhow to get values in an array in jQuery\n\nI'm having a following set of html codes:\n<div class=\"carousel-inner\" id=\"nitsslider\">\n <div class=\"item active\" style=\"background-image: url(../nits-img/global/templates/himu/slider/slide3.jpg)\">\n <div class=\"carousel-caption\">\n <div>\n <h2 class=\"heading animated bounceInDown\">'Himu' Onepage HTML Template</h2>\n <p class=\"animated bounceInUp\">Fully Professional one page template</p>\n <a class=\"btn btn-default slider-btn animated fadeIn\" href=\"#\">Get Started</a>\n </div>\n </div>\n </div>\n <div class=\"item\" style=\"background-image: url(../nits-img/global/templates/himu/slider/slide2.jpg)\">\n <div class=\"carousel-caption\">\n <div>\n <h2 class=\"heading animated bounceInDown\">Get All in Onepage</h2>\n <p class=\"animated bounceInUp\">Everything is outstanding </p> <a class=\"btn btn-default slider-btn animated fadeIn\" href=\"#\">Get Started</a>\n </div>\n </div>\n </div>\n <div class=\"item\" style=\"background-image: url(../nits-img/global/templates/himu/slider/slide1.jpg)\">\n <div class=\"carousel-caption\">\n <div>\n <h2 class=\"heading animated bounceInRight\">Fully Responsive Template</h2>\n <p class=\"animated bounceInLeft\">100% Responsive HTML template</p>\n <a class=\"btn btn-default slider-btn animated bounceInUp\" href=\"#\">Get Started</a>\n </div>\n </div>\n </div>\n </div>\n\nI want the text values of h2 tags, p tags and a tag into an array, like I've the background image illustrated below:\n$('#nitsslider > .item').each(function (i) {\n var sliderimage = [];\n var sliderheading = [];\n var sliderpara = [];\n var sliderbutton = [];\n sliderimage[i] = $(this).css('background-image').replace(/^url\\(['\"](.+)['\"]\\)/, '$1');\n sliderheading[i] = $('.item > h2').text();\n console.log(sliderimage[i]);\n console.log(sliderheading[i]);\n});\n\nI want to use these values to appending into the code.",
"\nPlease help me out guys. ",
"Thanks\n\nA:\n\nUse iteration context this along with find selector to find child element in it:\nsliderheading[i] = $(this).find('h2').text();\n\n"
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"Citation or identification of any reference in Section 2 or any other section of this application shall not be construed as an admission that such reference is available as prior art for the present invention."
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[
"Q:\n\nCancel fax in vbscript\n\nI can't find a way to do this anywhere, not even a mention of it. ",
" But is there is a way to programmatically cancel a fax using, say, a faxserver or faxdocument object? ",
" My current code looks something like this:\nSet doc=CreateObject(\"FaxComEx.",
"FaxDocument\")\nSet server=CreateObject(\"FaxComEx.",
"FaxServer\")\nserver.",
"Connect \"\"\ndoc.",
"Body=\"c:\\somefile.txt\"\ndoc.",
"DocumentName=\"test fax\"\ndoc.",
"Recipients.",
"Add \"1555555555555\"\ndoc.",
"Priority = 1\ndoc.",
"ConnectedSubmit(server)\n\nUsing the faxserver.faxserver and faxserver.faxdoc objects doesn't look much more promising, as the only faxdoc method I see is Send. ",
" Is canceling a fax just not possible? ",
" Thanks!",
"\n\nA:\n\nA related class to FaxDocument is FaxOutgoingJob that has a Cancel method.",
"\nI've never used it myself but I think that what you have to do is to use the FaxAccountFolders object and it's OutgoingQueue property which has a GetJobs method.",
"\n\n"
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"[Torsion of an ectopic spleen as a cause of acute abdomen].",
"\nA case of torsion of an ectopic spleen is presented. ",
"Diagnosis was obtained by echography, CAT and arteriography. ",
"We review the cases reported in literature and discuss the diagnostic and therapeutic problems raised by this rare condition as the cause of acute abdomen as well as for the differential diagnosis of abdominal masses."
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"530 F.2d 961\nU. S.v.",
"Garafola\n74-1363\nUNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS First Circuit\n1/13/76\n\n1\nD.Mass.",
"\n\nAFFIRMED\n"
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"Avoid contact with greasy substances, cosmetics, perfume, and hydroalcoholic solutions, as well as any material (magazines, other leathers, etc.) ",
"that may transfer their colored pigments onto the product.",
"\n\nKeep your product away from water. ",
"Should it get wet or dirty on the surface, dry with a lint free, light-colored, absorbent cloth. ",
"Never use soap or solvent.",
"\n\nIf your lining gets dirty or in case of superficial stains, we recommend that you wipe it with a soft and light-colored cloth.",
"\n\nIn order to protect your product when you are not using it, store it in the felt protective pouch provided.",
"\n\nNatural cowhide leather:\n\nThe trimmings are in natural cowhide leather, the skin is finished through a vegetal tanning process. ",
"Some natural marks or genuine irregularities in the leather may show through. ",
"Over time, this delicate leather, which is sensitive to scratches, will acquire a beautiful patina.",
"\n\nTaking proper care of your Louis Vuitton product will allow you to fully appreciate its beauty for many years.",
"\n\nFor any enquiries about your product, please do not hesitate to contact any Louis Vuitton store.",
"\n\nShipping & Delivery\n\nCOMPLIMENTARY FATHER'S DAY SHIPPING\n\nOrder by 6/13, 12PM ET for Father’s Day Delivery | Shop your favorite gifts early. ",
"Availability may be limited.",
"\n\nQuick Facts\n\n- Orders may take 24 to 36 hours to process, once your order has been processed you will receive an email confirming your order has shipped\n\nShipping Fees & Timing\n\nSTANDARD\n\nDelivery Timing: 2-5 business days from the time you receive shipping confirmation email\n\nExceptions:\n\n- If a standard order is placed over the weekend, the earliest it will ship is Monday\n\n- Additional validation may be required for all orders and can delay delivery\n\n- Alaska and Hawaii: Allow 5-7 business days from the time you receive shipping confirmation email. ",
"For expedited delivery, we recommend you select Express or Overnight Shipping\n\nEXPRESS\n\nFee: $15 for all orders under $3,000 | Complimentary for orders $3,000 and above\n\nDelivery Timing: 1-4 business days from the time you receive the shipping confirmation email\n\nExceptions:\n\n- If an order is placed on Friday or over the weekend, the earliest it will ship is Monday\n\n- Some zip codes are not available for this service\n\n- Additional validation may be required for all orders and can delay delivery\n\nOVERNIGHT\n\nFee: $20 for all orders under $3,000 | Complimentary for orders $3,000 and above\n\nDelivery Timing: Orders placed by 3pm (ET) Monday ' Friday or by 12pm (ET) Saturday should arrive the following business day. ",
"If an order is placed after these times, it will be processed the following business day.",
"\n\nExceptions:\n\n- Orders placed after the cutoff, on Sunday's or Holidays will be processed the following business day\n\n- Some zip codes are not available for this service\n\n- Additional validation may be required for all orders and can delay delivery\n\nSAME DAY\n\nAvailable to select New York Manhattan and Brooklyn zip codes. ",
"Please enter your zip code at checkout to confirm eligibility\n\n- Orders placed after the cutoff, on weekends or Holidays will be processed the following business day\n\n- Due to the high value of our products there will be a signature required on all Same Day Delivery orders\n\nMON MONOGRAM, MON DAMIER GRAPHITE & MY LV WORLD TOUR PRODUCTS\n\nFee: Complimentary Standard Shipping\n\nDelivery Timing: Please allow up to 8 weeks for bags and small leather goods and 12 weeks for rolling luggage for delivery from the time you receive the shipping confirmation email\n\nExceptions: Express, Overnight and Same Day delivery is not available. ",
"Additional validation may be required for all orders and can delay delivery\n\nFRAGRANCE ENGRAVING\n\nPlease allow an additional day of processing for all bottle engraving orders\n\nALASKA AND HAWAII DELIVERY\n\nIf you select standard shipping, your order should arrive in approximately 5-7 business days from time you receive the shipping confirmation email, however, remote addresses may require additional delivery time. ",
"For expedited delivery, we recommend you select Express or Overnight Shipping.",
"\n\nCollect-In-Store\n\nHave your order delivered to the store of your choice within 1 business day, now available in select Louis Vuitton stores\n\nFee: Complimentary for all orders\n\nDelivery Timing: Collect in Store orders placed by 12pm (ET) Monday ' Saturday, will be delivered to the store of your choice in 1 business day\n\nExceptions: Collect in Store orders placed on Sunday will be processed the following business day. ",
"Additional validation may be required for all orders and can delay delivery\n\nHOW TO COLLECT IN STORE\n\n- Notification: You will receive an email and text message confirmation notification when your order is ready to be collected from the store\n\n- Collecting yourself you need:\n\n(A) Original method of payment or PayPal confirmation\n\n(B) Government issued photo identification\n\n(C) Confirmation email\n\n- Representative needs:\n\n(A) Original method of payment or PayPal confirmation\n\n(B) Purchaser's government issued photo identification\n\n(C) Representative's government issued photo identification\n\n(D) Confirmation email\n\n- Ready-to-Wear Item: If you are picking up a Ready-to-Wear item, please note not all Louis Vuitton locations offer fitting rooms and alterations. ",
"Please check our STORE LOCATOR for a list of stores that sell Ready-to-Wear\n\n- If you do not collect your order: Your order will be available in-store for 30 days. ",
"If not collected, it will be sent back and your original method of payment will be refunded (except personalized and Mon Monogram and Mon Damier Graphite items)\n\nSignature Required\n\nDue to the high value of our products there will be a signature required on all shipments above $50 regardless of service type.",
"\n\nThe above processing and delivery costs are for merchandise pictured and described on us.louisvuitton.com; Costs are calculated according to the total cost of the merchandise in your order. ",
"All prices reflect U.S. currency. ",
"All orders are shipped by UPS.",
"\n\nNext Day Collect-In-Store\n\nHave your order delivered to the store of your choice within 1 business day, now available in select Louis Vuitton stores\n\nFee: Complimentary for all orders\n\nDelivery Timing: Collect in Store orders placed by 12pm (ET) Monday ' Saturday, will be delivered to the store of your choice in 1 business day\n\nExceptions: Collect in Store orders placed on Sunday will be processed the following business day. ",
"Additional validation may be required for all orders and can delay delivery\n\nHOW TO COLLECT IN STORE\n\n- Notification: You will receive an email and text message confirmation notification when your order is ready to be collected from the store\n\n- Collecting yourself you need:\n\n(A) Original method of payment or PayPal confirmation\n\n(B) Government issued photo identification\n\n(C) Confirmation email\n\n- Representative needs:\n\n(A) Original method of payment or PayPal confirmation\n\n(B) Purchaser's government issued photo identification\n\n(C) Representative's government issued photo identification\n\n(D) Confirmation email\n\n- Ready-to-Wear Item: If you are picking up a Ready-to-Wear item, please note not all Louis Vuitton locations offer fitting rooms and alterations. ",
"Please check our STORE LOCATOR for a list of stores that sell Ready-to-Wear\n\n- If you do not collect your order: Your order will be available in-store for 30 days. ",
"If not collected, it will be sent back and your original method of payment will be refunded (except personalized and Mon Monogram and Mon Damier Graphite items)\n\nReturns\n\nPrepare your package: Place your item in its original packaging and with the original receipt\n\nPut the pre-paid label, included within your order, on your package: Cover old address labels with the new pre-paid label and securely seal your package using the adhesive strip on the inside of the box.",
"\n\nDeliver your package to UPS: Drop your package off at any UPS store or pick-up location"
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"/*\r\n\tCOCI 2012/13, Round 1, task SNAGA\r\n\tAuthor: Adrian Satja Kurdija\r\n\r\n\tALTERNATIVE SOLUTION.",
"\r\n\tUsing some math, we can show that strength(n) = 3, except for the\r\n\tfollowing (pairwise disjoint) arithmetic progressions\r\n\t(intial term is denoted by a, and the common difference by d):\r\n\r\n\ti) a = 3, d = 2 (progression 3, 5, 7, 9, ...) --> strength(n) = 2\r\n\tii) a = 6, d = 12 (progression 6, 18, 30, ...) --> strength(n) = 4\r\n\tiii) a = 420, d = 840 (progression 420, 1260, ...) --> strength(n) = 4\r\n\tiv) a = 360360, d = 2*360360 --> strength(n) = 4\r\n\tv) a = 72201776446800, d = 2*72201776446800 --> strength(n) = 4\r\n\r\n\tThere is more of them, but with too large terms.",
"\r\n*/\r\n\r\n#include<iostream>\r\nusing namespace std;\r\n\r\nlong long count(long long N, long long a, long long d) {\r\n\treturn ((N -= a) < 0? ",
"0 : 1 + N/d);\r\n}\r\n\r\nint main()\r\n{\r\n\tlong long a[5] = {3, 6, 420, 360360, 72201776446800LL};\r\n\tlong long d[5] = {2};\r\n\tlong long strength[5] = {2};\r\n\r\n\tfor (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {\r\n\t\td[i] = 2 * a[i];\r\n\t\tstrength[i] = 4;\r\n\t}\r\n\r\n\tlong long A, B, solution = 0;\r\n\tcin >> A >> B;\r\n\tlong long remaining = B - A + 1;\r\n\r\n\tfor (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {\r\n\t\t// How many terms of i-th arithmetic progression\r\n\t\t// is between A and B?",
"\r\n\t\tlong long how_much = count(B, a[i], d[i]) - count(A-1, a[i], d[i]);\r\n\t\tsolution += strength[i] * how_much;\r\n\t\tremaining -= how_much;\r\n\t}\r\n\tcout << solution + 3 * remaining << endl;\r\n}\r\n"
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"More comics\n\n. ",
"You can\n\n!",
"\n\n|\n\n|\n\n| or buy me\n\nto keep me drawing! ",
"♥\n\nPlease share by\n\nto my work, and crediting me by name. ",
"Thank you!",
"\n\n[edit] No, I did not dye my hair recently, this is teen miki, aged about 16, 17 or so when I was an angry goth. ",
"C:This comic was made for LICAF 2017 (Kendal, UK) as a collaboration with Chris Gooch John Martz and Jake Phillips . ",
"Thanks for having me on board!The theme was 'starting', and I decided to draw something personal about starting out as an artist."
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[
"---\nabstract: 'Constructing neural networks for function approximation is a classical and longstanding topic in approximation theory. ",
"In this paper, we aim at constructing deep neural networks (deep nets for short) with three hidden layers to approximate smooth and sparse functions. ",
"In particular, we prove that the constructed deep nets can reach the optimal approximation rate in approximating both smooth and sparse functions with controllable magnitude of free parameters. ",
"Since the saturation that describes the bottleneck of approximate is an insurmountable problem of constructive neural networks, we also prove that deepening the neural network with only one more hidden layer can avoid the saturation. ",
"The obtained results underlie advantages of deep nets and provide theoretical explanations for deep learning.'",
"\naddress: '1. ",
"School of Sciences, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an 710048, China'\nauthor:\n- 'Xia Liu$^{1^*}$'\ntitle: Approximation smooth and sparse functions by deep neural networks without saturation \n---\n\nApproximation theory, deep learning, deep neural networks, localized approximation, sparse approximation.",
"\n\nIntroduction\n============\n\nMachine learning [@Bishop2006] is a key sub-field of artificial intelligence (AI) which abounds in sciences, engineering, medicine, computational finance and so on. ",
"Neural network [@Maiorov2006; @Mhaskar; @Hagan1996; @Lin2016] is an eternal topic of machine learning that makes machine learning no longer just like a machine to execute commands, but makes machine learning have the ability to draw inferences about other cases from one instance. ",
"Deep learning [@Goodfellow2016; @Hinton2006] is a new active area of machine learning research based on deep structured learning model with appropriate algorithms, and is acclaimed as a magical approach to deal with massive data. ",
"Indeed, neural networks with more than one hidden layer are one of the most typical deep structured models in deep learning [@Goodfellow2016]. ",
"In current literature [@Lin2016; @Pinkus1999], it was showed that deep nets outperform shallow neural networks (shallow nets for short) in the sense that deep nets break through some lower bounds for shallow nets. ",
"Furthermore, some studies [@Eldan2015; @Sanguineti2013; @Lin2017; @Mhaskar2016; @Raghu2016; @Telgarsky2016] have demonstrated the superiority of deep nets via showing that deep nets can approximate various functions while shallow nets fail with similar number of neurons.",
"\n\nConstructing neural networks to approximate continuous functions is a classical and prevalent topic in approximation theory. ",
"In 1996, Mhaskar [@Mhaskar1996] proved that neural networks with single hidden layer are capable of providing an optimal order of approximating smooth functions. ",
"The problem is, however, that the weights and biases of the constructrs shallow nets are huge, which usually leads to extremely large capacity [@guo2019]. ",
"Besides this partly positive approximation results, it was shown in [@Chui1996; @Lin2017] that there is a bottleneck for shallow nets in approximating smooth functions in the sense that there is some lower bound for approximation. ",
"Moreover, Chui et al. [",
"@Chui1994] showed that shallow nets with an ideal sigmoidal activation function cannot provide localized approximation in Euclidean space. ",
"Furthermore, it was proved in [@Chui2019] that shallow nets cannot capture the rotation-invariance property by showing the same approximate rates in approximating rotation-invariant function and general smooth function. ",
"All these results presented limitations of shallow nets from the approximation theory view point.",
"\n\nTo overcome these limitations of shallow nets, Chui et al. [",
"@Chui1994] demonstrated that deep nets with two hidden layers can provide localized approximation. ",
"Further than that, Chui et al. [",
"@Chui2019] showed that deep nets with two hidden layers and controllable norms of weights can approximate the univariate smooth functions without saturation and adding depth can realize the rotation-invariance. ",
"Here, saturation [@Lin2016] means that the approximation rate cannot be improved once the smoothness of functions achieves a certain level, which was proposed as an open question by Chen [@chen1993]. ",
"The general results by Lin [@Lin2019] indicated that deep nets with two hidden layers and controllable weights possess both localized and sparse approximation properties in the spatial domain. ",
"They also proved that learning strategies based on deep nets can learn more functions with almost optimal learning rates than those based on shallow nets. ",
"The problem in [@Lin2019] is that the saturation cannot be overcome. ",
"The above theoretical verifications demonstrate that deep nets with two hidden layers can really overcome some deficiency of shallow nets, but that is just partially.",
"\n\nRecent literature in deep nets [@Yarotsky2017; @Han2019] proved that deep nets with ReLU activation function (denoting deep ReLU nets) are more efficiently in approximating smooth function and possess better generalization performance for numerous learning tasks than shallow nets. ",
"Nevertheless, the constructed deep ReLU nets are too deep, which results in several difficulty in training, including the gradient vanishing phenomenon and disvergence issue [@Goodfellow2016]. ",
"Furthermore, how to select the depth is still an open problem, and there is a common phenomenon that deep nets with huge hidden layers will lead to inoperable [@Hinton2006]. ",
"Under this circumstance, we hope to construct a deep net with good approximation capability, controllable parameters, non-saturation and not too deep. ",
"To this end, we construct in this paper a deep net with three hidden layers that possesses the following properties: localized approximation, optimal approximation rate, controllable parameters, non-saturation and spatial sparsity. ",
"Our main tool for analysis is the localized approximation [@Chui1996; @Lin2019], “product gate” strategy [@Chui2019; @Petersen2018; @Yarotsky2017] and localized Taylor polynomials [@Han2019; @Petersen2018].",
"\n\nMain results\n============\n\nLet $I=[0,1]$, $d\\in \\mathbb{N}$, $x\\in X:=I^d$, $C(\\mathbb{R}^d)$ be the space of continuous functions with the norm $$\\|f\\|_{\\infty}:=\\|f\\|_{C(\\mathbb{R}^d)}:=\\max_{x\\in {\\mathbb{R}^d}}|f(x)|.$$ For $x\\in X$, the set of shallow nets can be mathematically expressed as $$\\label{shallow}\nF_{\\sigma,n}(x)=\\left\\{\\sum_{i=1}^{n_0}c_i\\sigma(w_i\\cdot x+b_i): w_i\\in\\mathbb{R}^d, b_i,c_i\\in \\mathbb{R}\\right\\}$$ where $\\sigma: \\mathbb{R}\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}$ is an activation function, $n_0$ is the number of hidden neurons (nodes), $c_i\\in \\mathbb{R}$ is the outer weights, $w_i:=(w_{ji})_{j=1}^d \\in \\mathbb{R}^d$ is the inner weight, and $b_i$ is the bias (threshold) of the $i$-$th$ hidden nodes.",
"\n\nLet $l\\in \\mathbb{N}$, $d_0=d, d_1, \\cdots, d_l\\in \\mathbb{N}$, $\\sigma_k: \\mathbb{R}\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}~(k=1,2,\\cdots,l)$ be univariate nonlinear functions. ",
"For $\\vec{h}=(h^{(1)},\\cdots,h^{(d_k)})^T\\in \\mathbb{R}^{d_k}$, define $\\vec{\\sigma}(\\vec{h})=(\\vec{\\sigma}(h^{(1)}),\\cdots,\\vec{\\sigma}(h^{(d_k)}))^T$. Denote $\\mathcal{H}_{\\{\\sigma_j, l, \\tilde{n}\\}}$ as the set of deep nets with $l$ hidden layers and $\\tilde{n}$ free parameters that can be mathematically represented by $$\\label{DL-L}\nh_{\\{\\sigma_j, l, \\tilde{n}\\}}(x)=\\vec{a}\\cdot\\vec{h}_l(x)$$ where $$\\vec{h}_k(x)=\\vec{\\sigma}_k(W_k\\cdot \\vec{h}_{k-1}(x)+\\vec{b}_k),~k=1,2,\\cdots,l,$$ $h_0(x)=x, \\vec{a}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{d_l}, \\vec{b}_k\\in \\mathbb{R}^{d_k}$, $W_k:=(W_{i,j}^k)_{d_k\\times d_{k-1}}$ is a $d_k\\times d_{k-1}$ matrix, and $\\tilde{n}$ denotes the number of free parameters, i.e., $\\tilde{n}=\\sum_{k=1}^l(d_k\\cdot d_{k-1}+d_k)+d_l$. The structure of deep nets, depicted in Figure 1, depends mainly on the structures of the weight matrices $W_k$ and the parameter vectors $\\vec{b}_k$ and $\\vec{a}$, $k=1,2,\\cdots,l$. It is easy to see that when $l=1$, the function defined by (\\[DL-L\\]) is a shallow net.",
"\n\n{height=\"8cm\" width=\"12.0cm\"}\n\nApproximation of smooth function by Deep Nets\n---------------------------------------------\n\nIn this part, we focus on approximating smooth functions by deep nets. ",
"The smooth property is a widely used priori-assumption in approximation and learning theory [@Chui2018; @Cucker2007; @Gyorfi2002; @Lin2018; @Yarotsky2017]. ",
"Let $c_0$ be a positive constant, $r=k+v$ with $k\\in \\mathbb{N}_0:=\\{0\\}\\bigcup \\mathbb{N}$ and $0<v\\leq 1$. A function $f: X\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}$ is said to be $(r,c_0)$-smooth if $f$ is $k$-times differentiable and for any $\\alpha_j\\in \\mathbb{N}_0, j=1,\\cdots,d$ with $\\alpha_1+\\cdots+\\alpha_d=k$, then for any $x, z\\in X$, the partial derivatives $\\partial^kf/{\\partial x_1^{\\alpha_1}\\cdots \\partial x_d^{\\alpha_d}}$ exist and satisfy $$\\label{smooth}\n\\left|\\frac{\\partial^kf}{\\partial x_1^{\\alpha_1}\\cdots \\partial x_d^{\\alpha_d}}(x)-\\frac{\\partial^kf}{\\partial x_1^{\\alpha_1}\\cdots \\partial x_d^{\\alpha_d}}(z)\\right|\\leq c_0\\|x-z\\|^v.$$ Throughtout this paper, $\\|x\\|$ denotes the Euclidean norm of $x$. In particular, if $0<r\\leq 1$, then (\\[smooth\\]) coincides the well known Lipschitz condition: $$\\label{lip}\n|f(x)-f(z)|\\leq c_0\\|x-z\\|^r, \\forall x, z\\in X.$$ Denote by $Lip(r,c_0)$ be the family of $(r,c_0)$-Lipschitz functions satisfying (\\[lip\\]). ",
"In fact, the Lipschitz property depicts the smooth information of $f$ and has been adopted in huge literature [@Pinkus1999; @Chui1994; @Chui2019; @Lin2019; @Lin2014] to quantify the approximation ability of neural networks.",
"\n\nAs we know, different activation functions used in neural networks will lead to different results [@Pinkus1999]. ",
"Among all the activation functions, the sigmoidal function and Heaviside function are two commonly used ones. ",
"Similar as [@Lin2019], we use these two activation functions to construct deep nets. ",
"The main reason is that the usage of Heaviside function can enhance the localized approximation performance [@Lin2019] and the adoption of sigmoidal function can improve the capability to approximate algebraic polynomials [@Chui2019]. ",
"Let $\\sigma_0$ be the Heaviside function, i.e., $$\\sigma_0(t)=1,\\mbox{if~} t\\geq 0;~\\sigma_0(t)=0, \\mbox{if~} t<0,$$ and $\\sigma: \\mathbb{R}\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}$ be a sigmoidal function, i.e., $$\\label{sigmoid}\n\\lim_{t\\rightarrow +\\infty}\\sigma(t)=1,\\lim_{t\\rightarrow -\\infty}\\sigma(t)=0.$$ Due to (\\[sigmoid\\]), for any $\\varepsilon>0$, there exists a $K_\\varepsilon=K(\\varepsilon, \\sigma)>0$ such that $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{k}\n\\left\\{\\begin{array}{cc}\n|\\sigma(t)-1|<\\varepsilon,\\mbox{~if~}t\\geq K_{\\varepsilon},\\\\\n|\\sigma(t)|<\\varepsilon,\\mbox{~~if~}t\\leq -K_{\\varepsilon}.",
"\n\\end{array}\\right.\\end{aligned}$$\n\nBefore presenting the main results, we should introduce some assumptions. ",
"Assumption 1 is the $r$-Lipschitz continuous condition for the target function, which is a standard condition in approximation and learning theory.",
"\n\n[**[Assumption 1]{}**]{} We assume $g\\in \\mbox{Lip}(r,c_0)$ with $r=k+v$, $k\\in \\mathbb{N}_0$, $0<v\\leq1$, $c_0>0$.\n\nAssumption 2 concerns the smoothness condition on activation function $\\sigma$, which has already been adopted in [@Lin2014almost].",
"\n\n[**[Assumption 2]{}**]{} For $r>0$ with $r=k+v$, $k\\in \\mathbb{N}_0$, $0<v\\leq 1$, let $\\sigma$ be a non-decreasing sigmoidal function with $\\|\\sigma'\\|_{L_\\infty(R)}\\leq 1$, $\\|\\sigma\\|_{L_\\infty(R)}\\leq 1$ and there exists at least a point $b_0\\in \\mathbb{R}^d$ satisfies $\\sigma^{(j)}(b_0)\\neq 0$ for all $j=0,1,2,\\cdots,k_0$, and $k_0\\geq\\max\\{k,2\\}+1$.\n\nThere are many functions satisfy the above restrictions such as: the Logistic function $\\sigma(t)=\\frac{1}{1+e^{-t}}$, the Hyperbolic tangent function $\\sigma(t)=\\frac{1}{2}(\\tanh(t)+1)$, the Gompertz function $\\sigma(t)=e^{-ae^{-bt}}$ with $a, b>0$ and the Gaussian function $\\sigma(t)=e^{-t^2}$.\n\nOur first main result is the following theorem, in which we construct a deep net with three hidden layers to approximate smooth functions. ",
"Denote by $\\mathcal{H}_{3,\\tilde{n}}:=\\mathcal{H}_{\\{\\sigma_0,\\sigma,\\sigma,3,\\tilde{n}\\}}$ be the set of deep net with three hidden layers and $\\tilde{n}$ free parameters, where $\\sigma_0, \\sigma, \\sigma$ are the activation functions in the first, second and third hidden layers, respectively.",
"\n\n\\[theorem1\\] Let $0<\\varepsilon\\leq1$, under Assumptions 1 and 2, there exists a deep net $H(x)\\in \\mathcal{H}_{\\{3,\\tilde{n}\\}}$ such that $$|g(x)-H(x)|\\leq C(\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r}{d}}+\\tilde{n}\\varepsilon),$$ where all parameters of this deep net are bounded by $\\mbox{poly}(\\tilde{n},\\frac{1}{\\varepsilon})$, $\\mbox{poly}(\\tilde{n},\\frac{1}{\\varepsilon})$ denotes some polynomial function with respect to $\\tilde{n}$ and $\\frac{1}{\\varepsilon}$, and $C$ is a constant independent of $\\tilde{n}$ and $\\varepsilon$.\n\nThe proof of Theorem \\[theorem1\\] will be postponed in Section 4, and a direct consequences of Theorem \\[theorem1\\] is as follows.",
"\n\n\\[corollary-1\\] Under Assumptions 1 and 2, if $\\varepsilon=\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r+d}{d}}$, then there holds $$|g(x)-H(x)|\\leq \\bar{C}\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r}{d}},$$ where $\\bar{C}$ is a constant independent of $\\tilde{n}$, and all the parameters of the deep net are bounded by $\\mbox{poly}(\\tilde{n})$.\n\nThe approximation rate of shallow nets and deep nets with two hidden layers are $\\mathcal{O}(\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r}{d}})$ [@Maiorov2006; @Chui2019], which is the same as Corollary \\[corollary-1\\]. ",
"However, as far as the norm of weights is considered, all the weights in Corollary \\[corollary-1\\] are controllable, and are much less than those of shallow nets. ",
"Specifically, for shallow nets, the norm of weights is at least exponential with respect to $\\tilde{n}$ [@Mhaskar1996], while for deep nets in Corollary \\[corollary-1\\], the norm of weights is only polynomial respect to $\\tilde{n}$. Such a difference is essentially according to the capacity estimate [@guo2019], where a rigorous proof was presented that the covering number of deep nets with controllable norms of free parameters can be tightly bounded. ",
"Furthermore, compared with similar results for deep nets with two hidden layers [@Lin2019], we find that our constructed deep net avoids the saturation. ",
"To sum up, the constructed deep net with three hidden layers performs better than shallow nets and deep nets with two hidden layers in overcoming their shortcomings.",
"\n\nSparse Approximation for Deep Nets\n----------------------------------\n\nSparseness in the spatial domain is a prevalent data feature that abounds in numerous applications such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analysis [@Akkus2017], handwritten digit recognition [@Cire2010] and so on. ",
"The spatial sparseness means that the response (or function) of some actions only happens on several small regions instead of the whole input space. ",
"In other words, the response vanishes in most of regions of the input space. ",
"Mathematically, the spatially sparse function is defined as follows [@Lin2019].",
"\n\nLet $s, N\\in \\mathbb{N}$, $s\\leq N^d$, $N_N^d=\\{1,2,...,N\\}^d$. Denote by $\\{B_{N,\\jmath}\\}_{\\jmath\\in N_N^d}$ a cubic partition of $I^d$ with centers $\\{\\zeta_\\jmath\\}_{\\jmath\\in N_N^d}$ and side length $\\frac{1}{N}$. Define $$\\Lambda_s:=\\{\\mathbf{k}_{\\ell}:\\mathbf{k}_{\\ell}\\in N_N^d,1\\leq {\\ell} \\leq s\\}$$ and $$S:=\\bigcup_{\\jmath\\in \\Lambda_s}B_{N,\\jmath}.$$\n\nFor any function $f$ defined on $I^d$, if the support of $f$ is $S$, then we say that $f$ is $s$-sparse in $N^d$ partitions. ",
"We use $Lip(N,s,r,c_0)$ to quantify both the smoothness property and sparseness, i.e., $$Lip(N,s,r,c_0)=\\left\\{f:f\\in Lip(r,c_0) ~\\mbox{and}~f~\\mbox{is s-sparse in}~N^d~\\mbox{partition}\\right\\}.$$\n\nFor $n \\in \\mathbb{N}$ with $n\\geq\\hat{c}N$ for some $\\hat{c}>0$, let $\\{A_{n,j}\\}_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}$ be another cubic partition of $I^d$ with centers $\\{\\xi_j\\}_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}$ and side length $\\frac{1}{n}$. For each $\\jmath \\in \\mathbb{N}_N^d$, define $$\\bar{\\Lambda}_{\\jmath}:=\\{j\\in N_n^d: A_{n,j}\\cap B_{N,\\jmath}\\neq\\emptyset\\},$$ it is easy to see that the set $\\bigcup_{\\jmath\\in \\bigwedge_s} \\bar{\\Lambda}_{\\jmath}$ is the family of $A_{n,j}$ where $f$ is not vanished.",
"\n\nWith these helps, we present a spareness assumption of $f$ as follows.",
"\n\n[**[Assumption 3]{}**]{} We assume $f\\in \\mbox{Lip}(N,s,r,c_0)$ with $r=k+v$, $k\\in \\mathbb{N}_0$, $0<v\\leq1$, $c_0>0$, $N,s \\in \\mathbb{N}$.\n\nIn [@Chui2019], Chui et al. ",
"only discussed the approximating performance of deep nets with two hidden layers in approximating smooth function. ",
"Lin [@Lin2019] extended the results in [@Chui2019] to approximate spatially sparse functions. ",
"Specifically, Lin [@Lin2019] proved that deep nets with two hidden layers can approximate spatially sparse function much better than shallow nets. ",
"However, their results suffered from the saturation. ",
"In this subsection, we aim at conquering the above deficiency by constructing a deep net with three hidden layers. ",
"Theorem \\[theorem2\\] below is the second main result of this paper, and the proof also be verified in Section 4.",
"\n\n\\[theorem2\\] Let $0<\\varepsilon\\leq1$, $\\tilde{n}\\geq \\tilde{c}N^d$ for some $\\tilde{c}>0$. Under Assumptions 2 and 3, there exists a deep net $H(x)\\in \\mathcal{H}_{\\{3,\\tilde{n}\\}}$ such that $$|f(x)-H(x)|\\leq c_0\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r}{d}}+\\tilde{C}\\tilde{n}\\varepsilon,~\\forall x\\in X.$$ If $ x\\in {I^d} \\setminus \\bigcup_{\\jmath\\in \\Lambda_s} \\bar{\\Lambda}_\\jmath$, then $$|H(x)|\\leq \\tilde{C}\\tilde{n}\\varepsilon$$ where all the parameters of the deep net are bounded by $\\mbox{poly}(\\tilde{n},\\frac{1}{\\varepsilon})$, and $\\tilde{C}$ is a constant independent of $\\tilde{n}$ and $\\varepsilon$.\n\n\\[corollary-2\\] Let $T$ be arbitrary positive number satisfies $T\\geq \\frac{r+d}{d}$ and $\\varepsilon=\\tilde{n}^{-T}$. Under the Assumptions 2 and 3, if $\\tilde{n}\\geq \\tilde{c}N^d$ for some $\\tilde{c}>0$, then there holds $$\\label{sparse-1}\n|f(x)-H(x)|\\leq \\hat{C} \\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r}{d}},~\\forall x\\in X.$$ If $ x\\in X \\setminus \\bigcup_{\\jmath\\in \\Lambda_s} \\bar{\\Lambda}_\\jmath$, then $$\\label{sparse-2}\n|H(x)|\\leq \\tilde{n}^{-T}$$ where $\\hat{C}$ is a constant independent of $\\tilde{n}$.\n\nTo be detailed, (\\[sparse-1\\]) shows that the approximation rate of deep nets is as fast as $\\mathcal{O}(\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r}{d}})$, and (\\[sparse-2\\]) states their performance in realizing the spatial sparseness, when $T$ is large. ",
"However, too large $T$ may lead to extremely large weights, which implies huge capacity measured by the covering number of $\\mathcal{H}_{\\{3,\\tilde{n}\\}}$ according to [@guo2019]. ",
"A preferable choice of $T$ should be $T= \\mathcal{O}(\\frac{r+d}{d})$.\n\nPrevious studies [@Blum1991; @Chui1994] indicated that shallow nets cannot provide localized approximation, which is a special case for sparse approximation with $s=1$. Lemma \\[3.4\\] (in Section 4) shows that deep nets with two hidden layers have the localized approximation property, which is the building-block to construct deep nets possessing sparse approximation property. ",
"To the best our knowledge, [@Lin2019] is the first work to construct deep nets to realize sparse features. ",
"Compared with [@Lin2019], our main novelty is to deepen the network to conquer the saturation.",
"\n\nRelated work\n============\n\nConstructing neural networks to approximate the functions is a classic problem [@Maiorov2006; @Mhaskar1996; @Mhaskar2016; @Petersen2018; @Cucker2007; @Gyorfi2002; @Lin2019] in approximation theory. ",
"Traditional method to deal with this problem can be divided into three steps. ",
"Step 1, constructing a neural network to approximate polynomials; Step 2, utilizing polynomials to approximate target functions; Step 3, combining the above two steps to reach the final approximation results between neural networks and target functions. ",
"Tayor formula is usually be used in Step 1 to obtain the approximation results, which usually leads to extremely large weights, i.e., $|w_i|\\sim e^m$, where $m$ is the degree of the polynomial. ",
"However, larger weight leads to large capability and consequently bad generalization and instable algorithms. ",
"Typical example includes [@Mhaskar1996] and [@Maiorov1999]. ",
"In order to overcome this drawback, we introduce a new function by the product of Taylor polynomial and a deep net with two hidden layers to instead of the polynomial in Step 1 to reduce the weights of neural networks from $e^m$ to $\\mbox{poly}(m)$.\n\nFor deep nets, [@Yarotsky2017] and [@Petersen2018] stated that deep ReLU networks are more efficient to approximate smooth functions than shallow nets. ",
"But their results are slightly worse than Theorem \\[theorem1\\] in this paper, in the sense that there is either an additional logarithmic term or under the weaker norm. ",
"Recently, Han et al. [",
"@Han2019] indicated that deep ReLU nets can achieve the optimal generalization performance for numerous learning tasks, but the depth of [@Petersen2018] is much larger than ours. ",
"Recently, Zhou [@Zhou2018A; @Zhou2018B] also verified that deep convolutional neural network (DCNN) is universal, i.e., DCNN can be used to approximate any continuous function to an arbitrary accuracy when the depth of the neural network is large enough.",
"\n\nAll the above literature [@Yarotsky2017; @Petersen2018; @Han2019; @Zhou2018A; @Zhou2018B] demonstrated that deep nets with ReLU activation function and DCNN have good properties both in approximation and generalization. ",
"However, there are too deep to be particularly used in real tasks. ",
"Compared with these results, we constructed a deep net only with three hidden layers to approximate smooth and sparse functions, respectively. ",
"We proved in Theorem \\[theorem1\\] and Theorem \\[theorem2\\] that the constructed deep net with three hidden layers and with controllable weights, can realize smoothness and spatial sparseness without saturation, simultaneously.",
"\n\nProofs\n======\n\nLet $\\mathcal{P}_m=\\mathcal{P}_m(\\mathbb{R}^d)$ be the set of multivariate algebraical polynomials on $\\mathbb{R}^d$ of degree at most $m$, i.e., $${\\mathcal{P}}_m=span\\{x^k\\equiv x_1^{k_1}\\cdots x_d^{k_d}:|k|=k_1+...+k_d\\leq m \\}.$$ Consider $\\mathcal{P}_m^h$ as the set of homogeneous polynomials of degree $m$, i.e., $$\\mathcal{P}_m^h=span\\{x^k=x_1^{k_1}\\cdots x_d^{k_d}:|k|=k_1+...+k_d=m\\}.$$\n\nLocalized Approximation for Deep Nets\n-------------------------------------\n\nLet $\\mathbb{N}_n^d=\\{1,2,\\cdots,n\\}^d$, $n\\in \\mathbb{N}$, $\\{A_{n,j}\\}_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}$ be the cubic partition of $X$ with centers $\\{\\xi_j\\}_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}$ and side length $\\frac{1}{n}$. If $x$ lies on the boundary of some $A_{n,j}$, then $j_x$ is the set to be the smallest integer satisfying $x\\in A_{n,j}$, i.e., $$j_x=\\left\\{j|j\\in N_n^d, x\\in A_{n,j}\\right\\}.$$ Then, for $K>0$, any $j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d$, $x\\in X$, we construct a deep net with two hidden-layer $N^*_{n,j,K}(x) \\in \\mathcal{H}_{\\{\\sigma_0,\\sigma,2,2d+1\\}}$ as $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{N*}\nN^*_{n,j,K}(x)=\\sigma \\left\\{2K\\left[\\sum_{l=1}^d\\sigma_0\\left[\\frac{1}{2n}+x^{(l)}-\\xi_j^{(l)}\\right]+\n\\sum_{l=1}^d\\sigma_0 \\left[\\frac{1}{2n}-x^{(l)}+\\xi_j^{(l)}\\right]-2d+\\frac{1}{2}\\right]\\right\\}. ",
"\\nonumber \\\\\\end{aligned}$$\n\nLocalized approximation of neural networks [@Chui1994] implies that if the target function is modified only on a small subset of the Euclidean space, then only a few neurons, rather than the entire network, need to be retrained. ",
"Lemma [\\[3.4\\]]{} below that was proved in [@Lin2019] states the localized approximation property of deep nets which is totally different from the shallow nets. ",
"We refer [@Chui2019] (section 3.3) for details in the localized approximation of neural networks.",
"\n\n\\[3.4\\] For any $\\varepsilon >0$, if $N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}$ is defined by (\\[N\\*\\]) with $K_\\varepsilon$ satisfying (\\[k\\]) and $\\sigma$ being a nondecreasing sigmoidal function, then\n\n\\(i) For any $x \\not\\in A_{n,j}$, there holds $|N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)|<\\varepsilon$;\n\n\\(ii) For any $x\\in A_{n,j}$, there holds $|1-N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)|\\leq\\varepsilon$.\n\nIt is easy to see that if $\\varepsilon\\rightarrow 0$, then $N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}$ is an indicator function for $A_{n,j}$. Moreover, when $n\\rightarrow \\infty$, it indicates that $N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}$ can recognize the location of $x$ in an arbitrarily small region and will vanish in some of partitions of the input space.",
"\n\nIn order to overcome the deficiency of traditional method in neural networks approximation. ",
"We defined a new function $\\Phi_g(x)$ by a product of Taylor polynomial and a deep network function with two hidden layers to instead of polynomials: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{fai}\n\\Phi_g(x)=\\sum_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}P_{k,\\eta_{j},g}(x)N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x),~x\\in X,\\end{aligned}$$ where $N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}$ and $K_\\varepsilon$ are defined by (\\[N\\*\\]) and (\\[k\\]). ",
"$P_{k,\\eta_{j},g}(x)$ is the Taylor polynomial of $g$ with degree $k$ around $\\eta_{j}$, $\\eta_j \\in A_{n,j}$ and $j\\in N_n^d$.\n\nBased on the localized approximation results and the localized Taylor polynomial in (\\[fai\\]), we construct a deep net with three hidden layers to approximate both smooth and sparse functions.",
"\n\nProof of Theorem \\[theorem1\\]\n-----------------------------\n\nThe following proposition indicates that constructing a shallow net with one neuron can replace a minimal.",
"\n\n\\[3.1\\] Let $c_0>0, L=\\mathcal{O}(m^{d-1})$, $\\sigma\\in Lip(r_0,c_0)$ is a sigmoidal function with $(m+1)-$times bounded derivatives, and $\\parallel {\\sigma}' \\parallel_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$, $\\sigma^{(j)}(0)\\neq 0$ for all $j=0,1,...,s_0$. For arbitrary $P_m\\in \\mathcal{P}_m$ and any $\\varepsilon \\in (0,1)$, we have $$\\label{proposition3.1}\n\\left| P_m(x)-\\sum_{i=1}^L\\frac{C(i,m)m!}{\\delta_m^m\\sigma^{(m)}(0)}\\sigma(\\delta_m(w_i\\cdot x))-P^*_{m-1}(x)\\right|<\\varepsilon.$$ where $$P_{m-1}^*(x)=\\sum_{j=0}^{m-1}\\sum_{i=1}^LD(i,j)(w_i\\cdot x)^j,~\nD(i,j)=C(i,j)-\\frac{C(i,m)m!\\sigma^{(j)}(0)}{\\delta_m^m\\sigma^{(m)}(0)j!},$$ $$\\delta_m=\\min\\left\\{\\frac{\\varepsilon}{M_m},\\frac{\\varepsilon}{\\sum_{i=1}^L|C(i,m)|M_m}\\right\\},~\nM_m=\\max_{-1\\leq \\xi\\leq1} \\frac{\\sigma^{(m+1)}(\\xi)}{\\sigma^{(m)}(0)},$$ and $C(i,j)$ is an absolute constant.",
"\n\nWe use the Taylor formula [@Chui2019] to prove the above Proposition \\[3.1\\].",
"\n\n\\[lemma3.2\\] Let $k\\geq 1$ and $\\varphi$ be $k-$times differentiable on ${\\mathbb R}$. Then for any $u,u_0 \\in {\\mathbb R}$, there holds $$\\label{proposition3.1}\n\\varphi(u)=\\varphi(x_0)+\\frac{\\varphi^{'}(u_0)}{1!}(u-u_0)+...+\\frac{\\varphi^{k}(u_0)}{k!}(u-u_0)^k+R_k(u)$$ where $$\\label{proposition3.1R1}\nR_k(u)=\\frac{1}{(k-1)!}\\int_{u_0}^u[\\varphi^{(k)}(t)-\\varphi^{(k)}(u_0)](u-t)^{k-1}dt.$$\n\nIn addition, under the condition of Lemma \\[lemma3.2\\], for any $a\\in { \\mathbb{R}}$, there holds $$\\label{proposition3.1-tui}\n\\varphi(au)=\\varphi(u_0)+\\frac{\\varphi^{'}(u_0)}{1!}(au-u_0)+...+\\frac{\\varphi^{k}(u_0)}{k!}(au-u_0)^k+R_k(u)$$ where $$\\label{proposition3.1R2}\nR_k(u)=\\frac{a^k}{(k-1)!}\\int_{u_0}^u[\\varphi^{k}(at)-\\varphi^{k}(u_0)](u-t)^{k-1}dt.$$\n\nLemma \\[lemma3.3\\] which was proved in [@Maiorov1999] plays an important role in proving Proposition \\[3.1\\].",
"\n\n\\[lemma3.3\\] Let $m\\in \\mathbb{N}$ and $L=\\mathcal{O}(m^{d-1})$. For any $P_m \\in {\\mathcal{P}}_m$, there exists a set of points $\\{w_1,...,w_L\\}\\subset I^d$ such that $$\\label{lemma3.3-1}\nP_m(x)=span \\{(w_i\\cdot x)^j: x, w_i\\in I^d, 0\\leq j\\leq m, 1\\leq i\\leq L \\}.$$\n\nFor any $t\\in[0,1]$, ${\\delta_k}\\in(0,1)$, $k\\in [1,s_0]$, it follows from Lemma \\[lemma3.2\\] that $$\\label{proof1}\n\\sigma({\\delta_k} t)=\\sigma(0)+\\frac{\\sigma^{'}(0)}{1!}{\\delta_k} t+...+\\frac{\\sigma^{k}(0)}{k!}({\\delta_k} t)^k+\\tilde{R}_k(t)$$ where $$\\label{proof2}\n\\tilde{R}_k(t)=\\frac{\\delta_k^k}{(k-1)!}\\int_{0}^t[\\sigma^{(k)}({\\delta_k} u)-\\sigma^{(k)}(0)](t-u)^{k-1}du.$$ Denote $$Q_{k-1}(t)=\\sum_{j=0}^{k-1}\\frac{\\sigma^{(j)}(0)}{j!}({\\delta_k} t)^j.$$ Then (\\[proof1\\]) yields $$t^k=\\frac{k!}{\\delta_k^k \\sigma^{(k)}(0)}\\sigma({\\delta_k} t)-\\frac{k!}{\\delta_k^k\\sigma^{(k)}(0)}Q_{k-1}(t)-\\frac{k!}{\\delta_k^k\\sigma^{(k)}(0)}\\tilde{R}_k(t),$$ which implies $$\\label{proof3}\nt^k=\\frac{k!}{\\delta_k^k\\sigma^{(k)}(0)}\\sigma({\\delta_k} t)+q_{k-1}(t)+r_k(t)$$ where $$q_{k-1}(t)=-\\frac{k!}{\\delta_k^k\\sigma^{(k)}(0)}Q_{k-1}(t)$$ and $$\\label{rk}\nr_k(t)=-\\frac{k!}{\\delta_k^k\\sigma^{(k)}(0)}\\tilde{R}_k(t).$$ Since $$|\\sigma^{(k)}({{\\delta_k}}u)-\\sigma^{(k)}(0)|\\leq\\max_{0<\\xi<1}|\\sigma^{(k+1)}(\\xi)||{\\delta_k}||u|,$$ then by (\\[proof2\\]) and (\\[rk\\]), there holds $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{R22}\n|r_k(t)|&=&\\left|-\\frac{k!}{\\delta_k^k\\sigma^{(k)}(0)}\\tilde{R}_k(t)\\right| \\nonumber \\\\\n&=&\\frac{k}{|\\sigma^{(k)}(0)|}\\left|\\int_{0}^t[\\sigma^{(k)}({\\delta_k} u)-\\sigma^{(k)}(0)](t-u)^{k-1}du\\right| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\frac{k|\\sigma^{(k+1)}(\\xi)|}{|\\sigma^{(k)}(0)|}\\left|\\int_{0}^t {\\delta_k} u(t-u)^{k-1}du\\right|=\\frac{{\\delta_k} k|\\sigma^{(k+1)}(\\xi)|}{|\\sigma^{(k)}(0)|}\\left|\\int_{0}^1 u(1-u)^{k-1}du\\right| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& k {\\delta_k} M_k(\\frac{1}{k}-\\frac{1}{1+k})\n\\leq {\\delta_k} M_k.\\end{aligned}$$ From Lemma \\[lemma3.3\\], for any $P_m\\in \\mathcal{P}_m$, it follows $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{P}\nP_m(x)&=&\\sum_{j=0}^m\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,j)(w_i\\cdot x)^j\\nonumber \\\\\n&=&\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,m)(w_i\\cdot x)^m+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,m-1)(w_i\\cdot x)^{m-1}\\nonumber \\\\\n&&+\\cdots+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,1)(w_i\\cdot x)+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,0).\\end{aligned}$$ Since $x, w_i\\in I^d$, we have $|w_i\\cdot x|\\leq 1$. Then, for an arbitrary $\\varepsilon>0$, there exists a $\\delta_m\\in(0, 1)$ such that $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{C}\n\\sum_{i=1}^L |C(i,m)|M_m\\delta_m\\leq \\varepsilon.\\end{aligned}$$ Due to (\\[proof3\\]) and $\\delta_m|w_i\\cdot x|\\in [0,1]$, there holds $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{mi}\n(w_i\\cdot x)^m=\\frac{m!}{\\delta_m^m\\sigma^{(m)}(0)}\\sigma(\\delta_m(w_i\\cdot x))+q_{m-1}(w_i\\cdot x)+r_m(w_i\\cdot x).\\end{aligned}$$ Inserting the above (\\[mi\\]) into (\\[P\\]), we obtain $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{PP}\nP_m(x)&=&\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,m)\\left(\\frac{m!}{\\delta_m^m\\sigma^{(m)}(0)}\\sigma(\\delta_m(w_i\\cdot x))\n+q_{m-1}(w_i\\cdot x)+r_m(w_i\\cdot x)\\right)\\nonumber \\\\\n&&+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,m-1)(w_i\\cdot x)^{m-1}+\\cdots+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,1)(w_i\\cdot x)+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,0)\\nonumber \\\\\n&=&\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,m)\\frac{m!}{\\delta_m^m\\sigma^{(m)}(0)}\\sigma(\\delta_m(w_i\\cdot x))+P_{m-1}^*(x)+R_m(x)\\end{aligned}$$ where $$R_m(x)=\\sum_{i=1}^LC(i,m)r_m(w_i\\cdot x)$$ and $$\\begin{aligned}\nP_{m-1}^*(x)&=& \\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,m)q_{m-1}(w_i\\cdot x)+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,m-1)(w_i\\cdot x)^{m-1}\\nonumber \\\\\n&&+\\cdots+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,1)(w_i\\cdot x)+\\sum_{i=1}^L C(i,0)\\nonumber \\\\\n&=& \\sum_{i=1}^L D(i,m-1)(w_i\\cdot x)^{m-1}+\\sum_{i=1}^L D(i,m-2)(w_i\\cdot x)^{m-2}\\nonumber \\\\\n&&+\\cdots+\\sum_{i=1}^L D(i,1)(w_i\\cdot x)+\\sum_{i=1}^L D(i,0)\\nonumber \\\\\n&=&\\sum_{j=0}^{m-1}\\sum_{i=1}^LD(i,j)(w_i\\cdot x)^j\\end{aligned}$$ with $D(i,j)=C(i,j)-\\frac{C(i,m)m!\\sigma^{(j)}(0)}{\\delta_m^m\\sigma^{(m)}(0)j!}$. It then follows from (\\[R22\\]) and (\\[C\\]) that $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{RR}\n|R_m(x)|\\leq \\varepsilon.\\end{aligned}$$ Combining (\\[PP\\])-(\\[RR\\]), we have $$\\left| P_m(x)-\\sum_{i=1}^L\\frac{C(i,m)m!}{\\delta_m^m\\sigma^{(m)}(0)}\\sigma(\\delta_m(w_i\\cdot x+b_i))-P^*_{m-1}(x)\\right|<\\varepsilon.$$ This completes the proof of Proposition \\[3.1\\].",
"\n\nNext, we show the performance of shallow nets in approximating.",
"\n\n\\[3.2\\] Let $\\sigma$ be a non-decreasing sigmoidal function with $\\|{\\sigma}' \\|_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$, $\\| {\\sigma}\\|_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$, $\\sigma^{(j)}(0)\\neq 0$ for all $j=0,1,...,m+1$. For any $P_m\\in \\mathcal{P}_m$ and $\\varepsilon \\in (0,1)$, there exists a shallow net $$h_{m+1}(x)=\\sum_{j=0}^{m}\\sum_{i=1}^L a(i,j)\\sigma(\\delta_j(w_i\\cdot x))$$ with $a(i,j)=\\frac{C(i,j)j!}{\\delta_j^j\\sigma^{(j)}(0)}$ and $\\delta_m$ being a polynomial with respect to $\\frac{1}{\\varepsilon}$ such that $$|P_m(x)-h_{m+1}(x)|\\leq\\varepsilon.$$\n\nFrom Proposition \\[3.1\\], it holds that $$\\label{Pn}\n\\left| P_m(x)-\\sum_{i=1}^La(i,m)\\sigma(\\delta_m(w_i\\cdot x))-P^*_{m-1}(x)\\right|<\\frac{\\varepsilon}{m+1}$$ where $a(i,m)=\\frac{C(i,m)m!}{\\delta_m^m\\sigma^{(m)}(0)}$ and $\\delta_m\\sim\\mbox{poly}(\\frac{1}{\\varepsilon})$. Similar methods as above $$\\label{Pn-1}\n\\left| P_{m-1}^*(x)-\\sum_{i=1}^La(i,m-1)\\sigma(\\delta_{m-1}(w_i\\cdot x))-P^*_{m-2}(x)\\right|<\\frac{\\varepsilon}{m+1},$$ $$\\cdots$$ $$\\label{P1}\n\\left| P_{1}^*(x)-\\sum_{i=1}^La(i,1)\\sigma(\\delta_1(w_i\\cdot x))-P^*_{0}(x)\\right|<\\frac{\\varepsilon}{m+1},$$ and $$\\label{P0}\n\\left|P_{0}^*(x)-\\frac{P_{0}^*(x)}{\\sigma(0)}\\sigma(0\\cdot x)\\right|=0<\\frac{\\varepsilon}{m+1}$$ Then, it follows from (\\[Pn\\])-(\\[P0\\]) that $$\\left| P_m(x)-\\sum_{j=0}^m\\sum_{i=1}^La(i,m)\\sigma(\\delta_j(w_i\\cdot x))\\right|<\\varepsilon.$$ This completes the proof of Proposition \\[3.2\\].",
"\n\n\\[corollary3.2\\] Let $m\\in \\mathbb{N}$, $L=\\mathcal{O}(m^{d-1})$ and $\\sigma$ be a non-decreasing sigmoidal function with $\\|{\\sigma}' \\|_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$, $\\| {\\sigma}\\|_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$. If $\\sigma^{(j)}(b)\\neq 0$ for some $b\\in \\mathbb{R}$ and all $j=0,1,...,m+1$, then there exists a shallow net $$h_{m+1}(x)=\\sum_{j=0}^{m}\\sum_{i=1}^L a(i,j)\\sigma(\\delta_j(w_i\\cdot x+b))$$ such that $$|P_m(x)-h_{m+1}(x)|\\leq\\varepsilon.$$\n\nBased on the above Proposition [\\[3.2\\]]{}, we are able to yield a “product-gete” property of deep nets in the following Proposition [\\[3.3\\]]{}, whose proof can be found in [@Chui2019].",
"\n\n\\[3.3\\] Let $m\\in \\mathbb{N}$ and $L=\\mathcal{O}(m^{d-1})$. If $\\sigma$ is a non-decreasing sigmoidal function with $\\|{\\sigma}' \\|_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$, $\\| {\\sigma}\\|_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$, $\\sigma^{(j)}(0)\\neq 0$ for all $j=0,1,...,m+1$, then for any $\\varepsilon>0$, there exists a shallow net $$h_3(x)=\\sum_{j=1}^3a_j\\sigma(w_j\\cdot x)$$ such that for any $u_1,u_2\\in [-1,1]$ $$\\left|u_1u_2-\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{u_1+u_2}{2}\\right)-\\frac{1}{2}h_3(u_1)-\\frac{1}{2}h_3(u_2)\\right)\\right|<\\varepsilon.$$\n\n\\[corollary3.3\\] Let $m\\in \\mathbb{N}$, $L=\\mathcal{O}(m^{d-1})$ and $\\sigma$ be a non-decreasing sigmoidal function with $\\|{\\sigma}' \\|_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$, $\\| {\\sigma}\\|_{L_{\\infty}(\\mathbb{R})}\\leq 1$. If there exists a point $b_0\\in \\mathbb{R}$ satisfying $\\sigma^{(j)}(b_0)\\neq 0$ for all $j=1,2,3$, then for any $\\varepsilon>0$, there exists a shallow net $$h_3(x)=\\sum_{j=1}^3a_j\\sigma(w_j\\cdot x+b_0)$$ such that for any $u_1,u_2\\in [-1,1]$ $$\\left|u_1u_2-\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{u_1+u_2}{2}\\right)-\\frac{1}{2}h_3(u_1)-\\frac{1}{2}h_3(u_2)\\right)\\right|<\\varepsilon.$$\n\nIn our proof, we also need the following Lemma \\[a2\\], which can be found in [@Han2019].",
"\n\n\\[a2\\] Let $x\\in I^d$, $r=k+v$ with $k\\in \\mathbb{N}_0$ and $0<v\\leq 1$. If $f\\in Lip(r,c_0)$ and $P_{k,x_0,f}(x)$ is the Taylor polynomial of $f$ with degree $k$ around $x_0$, then $$\\label{lemma 3.5}\n|f(x)-P_{k,x_0,f}(x)|\\leq \\widetilde{c}_1\\|x-x_0\\|^r, ~x_0\\in \\mathbb{R}^d,$$ where $\\widetilde{c}_1$ is a constant depending only on $k,c_0$ and $d$.\n\nThe following Lemma [\\[3.5\\]]{} illustrates the approximation property of the product of Taylor polynomial and deep nets.",
"\n\n\\[3.5\\] If $g\\in \\mbox{Lip}(r,c_0)$ with $r=k+v, k\\in \\mathbb{N}_0$, $0<v\\leq1, c_0>0$, $\\sigma$ is a non-decreasing sigmoidal function and $\\Phi(x)$ is defined by (\\[fai\\]), then $$|g(x)-\\Phi_g(x)|\\leq \\tilde{c_1} n^{-r}+n^dB_0\\varepsilon ,~x\\in X,$$ where $B_0:=\\|g\\|_{L_{\\infty}(X)}+\\tilde{c_1}$.\n\nFrom Lemma [\\[a2\\]]{}, we observe $$\\label{bound}\n|P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},g}(x)| \\leq \\|g\\|_{L_{\\infty}(X)}+\\tilde{c_1}\\|x-\\eta_{j_x}\\|^r \\leq \\|g\\|_{L_{\\infty}(X)}+\\tilde{c_1}:=B_0$$ where $B_0:=\\|g\\|_{L_{\\infty}(X)}+\\tilde{c_1}$.\n\nSince $I^d=\\bigcup_{j\\in {\\mathbb{N}_n^d}}A_{n,j}$, for each $x\\in X$, there exists a $j_x$ such that $x\\in A_{n,j_x}$. Therefore, it follows from Proposition \\[3.4\\] that $$\\begin{aligned}\n&&|g(x)-\\Phi_g(x)| \\nonumber \\\\\n&=&\\left|g(x)-P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},g}(x)-\\sum_{j\\neq j_x}P_{k,\\eta_{j},g}(x)N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)\n+P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},g}(x)(1-N^*_{n,j_x,K_\\varepsilon}(x))\\right| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& |g(x)-P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},g}(x)|+\\left|\\sum_{j\\neq j_x}P_{k,\\eta_{j},g}(x)N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)]|\n+|P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},g}(x)(1-N^*_{n,j_x,K_\\varepsilon}(x))\\right| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\tilde{c_1}\\|x-\\eta_{j_x}\\|^r+(n^d-1)B_0\\varepsilon+B_0\\varepsilon \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\tilde{c_1} n^{-r}+n^dB_0\\varepsilon\\end{aligned}$$ This completes the proof of Lemma \\[3.5\\].",
"\n\nThe proof can be divided into three steps: the first one is to give estimates for the product function and shallow net; then, we consider the approximation between Taylor polynomial and shallow net; finally, we give approximation errors by combining the above two steps.",
"\n\nStep 1: By the definition of $N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)$ in (\\[N\\*\\]), we observe $$|N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)|\\leq 1.$$ Furthermore, it follows from Lemma [\\[a2\\]]{} that $$\\label{bound1}\n|P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)|\\leq \\|g\\|_{L_{\\infty}(X)}+\\tilde{c_1}\\|x-\\eta_j\\|^r\n\\leq \\|g\\|_{L_{\\infty}(X)}+\\tilde{c_1}.$$ Denote $B_1:=4(\\|g\\|_{L_{\\infty}(X)}+\\tilde{c_1}+1)$. Hence, for an arbitrary $x\\in X$, we have $\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_1} \\in [-\\frac{1}{4}, \\frac{1}{4}]$ and $\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{B_1} \\in [-\\frac{1}{4}, \\frac{1}{4}]$. It then follows from Corollary [\\[corollary3.3\\]]{} with $u_1=\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_1}$, $u_2=\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{B_1}$ that there exists a shallow net $$h_3(x)=\\sum_{j=1}^3a_j\\sigma(w_j\\cdot x+b_j)$$ such that $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{bound3-2}\n&&\\left|P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)-B_1^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)+P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{2B_1}\\right)\n-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_1}\\right)}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{B_1}\\right)}{2}\\right)\\right| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& B_1^2\\varepsilon.\\end{aligned}$$ For the sake of convenience, denote $$\\Delta_1=B_1^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)+P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{2B_1}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_1}\\right)}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{B_1}\\right)}{2}\\right).$$ Noting $\\|\\sigma^{'}\\|_{L_{\\infty}(R)}\\leq1$, for any $x_1, x_2 \\in X$, there holds $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{H}\n|h_3(x_1)-h_3(x_2)|&\\leq& \\left|\\sum_{j=1}^3a_j\\sigma(w_j\\cdot x_1+b_j)-\\sum_{j=1}^3a_j\\sigma(w_j\\cdot x_2+b_j)\\right| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\sum_{j=1}^3|a_j||\\sigma(w_j\\cdot x_1+b_j)-\\sigma(w_j\\cdot x_2+b_j)| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\sum_{i=1}^3|a_j|\\|w_j\\|\\|x_1-x_2\\| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& 3\\tilde{c}_2\\|x_1-x_2\\|,\\end{aligned}$$ where $\\tilde{c}_2=\\max_{j\\in \\{1,2,3\\}}|a_j|\\max_{i\\in \\{1,\\cdots,d\\}}\\{|w_{j1}|,\\cdots,|w_{jd}|\\}$ and $w_j=(w_{j1}$, $\\cdots,w_{jd})^T$.\n\nStep 2: It from Corollary [\\[corollary3.2\\]]{} with $P_k(t-\\eta_j)=\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{B_1}$ that there exists a shallow net $$\\label{*}\nh_{k+1,L}(x)=\\sum_{j=1}^{k+1}\\sum_{i=0}^La(i,j)\\sigma(w_j\\cdot(x-x_i)+b_j)$$ such that $$\\left|\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{B_1}-h_{k+1,L}(x)\\right|\\leq \\varepsilon_1.$$\n\nStep 3: Define $$\\label{HK}\nH(x):=\\sum_{j=1}^{n^d}H_j(x)$$ where $$\\label{***}\nH_j(x)=B_1^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{h_{k+1,L}(x)}{2}+\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{2B_1}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3(h_{k+1,L}(x))}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_1}\\right)}{2}\\right).$$ By (\\[fai\\]) and (\\[bound3-2\\]), we get $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{H-fai-1}\n&&|H(x)-\\Phi_g(x)|\\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\sum_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}|H_j(x)-\\Delta_1+\\Delta_1-P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(t)N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\sum_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}\\left|B_1^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{h_{k+1,L}(x)}{2}+\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{2B_1}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3(h_{k+1,L}(x))}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_1}\\right)}{2}\\right)\\right.\\nonumber \\\\\n&&\\left.-B_1^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)+P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{2B_1}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_1}\\right)}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,g}(x)}{B_1}\\right)}{2}\\right)\\right|\n+n^dB_1^2\\varepsilon\\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& n^dB_1^2\\left(\\frac{9}{2}\\tilde{c_2}\\varepsilon_1+\\varepsilon\\right) \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\bar{C_2}n^d\\varepsilon\\end{aligned}$$ where we set $\\varepsilon_1=2\\varepsilon$ and $\\bar{C_2}$ is a constant depending only on $B_1$ and $\\tilde{c_2}$. Noting (\\[H-fai-1\\]) and Lemma [\\[3.5\\]]{}, we obtain $$\\begin{aligned}\n|g(x)-H(x)|&\\leq& |g(x)-\\Phi_g(x)|+|\\Phi_g(x)-H(x)| \\\\\n&\\leq& \\tilde{c_1}n^{-r}+B_0n^d\\varepsilon+\\bar{C_2}n^d\\varepsilon \\\\\n&=& C(n^{-r}+n^d\\varepsilon),\n$$ where $C$ is a constant depending only on $k,c_0,d,B_0$. Due to (\\[N\\*\\]) (\\[\\*\\]) (\\[HK\\]) and (\\[\\*\\*\\*\\]), there exists a deep net $H(x)\\in \\mathcal{H}_{3,\\tilde{n}}$ with $\\tilde{n}=6n^d((L+1)(k+1)+2d+1)$ free parameters satisfying $$|g(x)-H(x)|\\leq C(\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r}{d}}+\\tilde{n}\\varepsilon).$$ Furthermore, it is easy to check (see [@Chui2019] for detailed proof) that all the parameters in $H(x)$ can be bounded by $\\mbox{poly}(\\tilde{n},\\frac{1}{\\varepsilon})$. This completes the proof of Theorem \\[theorem1\\].",
"\n\nThis result can be directly deduced from Theorem \\[theorem1\\] with $\\varepsilon=\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r+d}{d}}$. This completes the proof of Corollary \\[corollary-1\\].",
"\n\nProof of Theorem \\[theorem2\\]\n-----------------------------\n\nSince the spatial sparseness depends heavily on the localized approximation property, we first show that $\\Phi_f(x)$ succeeds to realizing the sparseness of the target function $f$ that breaks through the bottleneck of shallow nets [@Chui1994]. ",
"For different partitions $\\{A_{n,j}\\}_{j\\in N_n^d}$ and $\\{B_{N,j}\\}_{j\\in N_N^d}$, we assume $n\\geq \\hat{c}N$ for some $\\hat{c}>0$ throughout the proof.",
"\n\n\\[4.1\\] Let $0<\\varepsilon<1$, under Assumptions 2 and 3, if $\\Phi_f(x)$ is defined by (\\[fai\\]) and $K_\\varepsilon$ satisfies (\\[k\\]), then $$\\label{proposition4.1-1}\n|f(x)-\\Phi_f(x)|\\leq c_0n^{-r}+B_2 n^d\\varepsilon,$$ where $B_2=\\|f\\|_{L_\\infty (X)}+\\tilde{c}_1$. Furthermore, if $n\\geq \\hat{c}N$, there holds $$\\label{proposition4.1-2}\n|\\Phi_f(x)|\\leq B_2n^d\\varepsilon, ~\\forall x\\in I^d \\setminus \\bigcup_{k\\in \\Lambda_s} \\bar{\\Lambda}_k.$$\n\nSince $I^d=\\bigcup_{j\\in N_n^d}A_{n,j}$, for each $x\\in X$, there exists a $j_x\\in \\mathbb{N}$ such that $x\\in A_{n,j_x}$. By Lemma \\[3.4\\], we know that for any $x\\in A_{n,j}$, $|1-N_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}^*(x)|\\leq\\varepsilon$ and for any $x\\not\\in A_{n,j}$, $|N_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}^*(x)|\\leq\\varepsilon$. From (\\[bound1\\]), we also get $$\\label{pf}\n|P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)|\\leq B_2,$$ where $B_2=\\|f\\|_{L_\\infty (X)}+\\tilde{c}_1$. Then $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{sparse1}\n&&|f(x)-\\Phi_f(x)|\\nonumber\\\\\n&=&|f(x)-P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},f}(x)-\\sum_{j\\neq j_x}P_{k,\\eta_{j},f}(x)N_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}^*(x)+P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},f}(x)(1-N_{n,j_x,K_\\varepsilon}^*(x))| \\\\\n&\\leq&|f(x)-P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},f}(x)|+|\\sum_{j\\neq j_x}P_{k,\\eta_{j},f}(x)N_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}^*(x)|+|P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},f}(x)(1-N_{n,j_x,K_\\varepsilon}^*(x))| \\\\\n&\\leq& c_0\\|x-\\eta_{j_x}\\|^r+(n^d-1)B_2\\varepsilon+B_2\\varepsilon \\nonumber\\\\\n&\\leq& c_0 n^{-r}+B_2n^d\\varepsilon.\\end{aligned}$$\n\nSince $n>\\hat{c}N$, $x\\in I^d \\setminus \\bigcup_{k\\in \\Lambda_s} \\bar{\\Lambda}_k$ implies $A_{n,j_x}\\bigcap S=\\emptyset$. This together with $f\\in Lip(N,s,r,c_0)$ yields $f(x)=P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},f}(x)=0$. From Lemma \\[3.4\\] and (\\[pf\\]), we have $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{sparse2}\n|\\Phi_f(x)|&=&|\\sum_{j\\neq j_x}P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)N_{n,j,K(\\varepsilon)}^*(x)|+\n|P_{k,\\eta_{j_x},f}(x)N_{n,j_x,K(\\varepsilon)}^*(x)| \\\\\n&\\leq&|P_{k,\\eta_{j},f}(x)|\\sum_{j\\neq j_x}|N_{n,j,K(\\varepsilon)}^*(x)|\\\\\n&\\leq& (n^d-1)B_2\\varepsilon\\\\\n&\\leq& B_2 n^d\\varepsilon.\\end{aligned}$$ This completes the proof of Lemma \\[4.1\\].",
"\n\nThe proof of this theorem is similar to the proof of Theorem \\[theorem1\\]. ",
"Similar as Step 1 and Step 2 in the proof of Theorem \\[theorem1\\], we obtain $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{bound2}\n&&\\left|P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)-B_3^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{2N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)+P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)}{2B_3}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_3}\\right)}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)}{B_3}\\right)}{2}\\right)\\right| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& B_3^2\\varepsilon,\\end{aligned}$$ where $B_3:=2(\\|f\\|_{L_\\infty(X)}+\\tilde{c}_1+1)$. Denote $$\\Delta_2=B_3^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{2N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)+P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)}{2B_3}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_3}\\right)}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)}{B_3}\\right)}{2}\\right).$$ Define $$H(x):=\\sum_{j=1}^{n^d}H_j(x)$$ where $H_j(x)=B_3^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{2N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)+h_{k+1,L}(x)}{2B_3}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_3}\\right)}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{h_{k+1,L}(x)}{B_3}\\right)}{2}\\right)$.\\\nProposition [\\[3.2\\]]{} implies that there exists a shallow net $$h_{k+1,L}(x)=\\sum_{j=1}^{k+1}\\sum_{i=0}^La(i,j)\\sigma(w_j\\cdot(x-x_i)+b_j)$$ such that $$\\label{**}\n\\left|\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)}{B_3}-h_{k+1,L}(x)\\right|\\leq \\varepsilon_1.$$ Since $f\\in Lip(N,s,r,c_0)$ with (\\[\\*\\*\\]), we obtain $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{H-fai}\n&&|H(x)-\\Phi_f(x)|\\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\sum_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}|H_j(x)-\\Delta_2+\\Delta_2-P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)| \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\sum_{j\\in \\mathbb{N}_n^d}\\left|B_3^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{h_{k+1,L}(x)}{2}+\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{2B_3}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3(h_{k+1,L}(x))}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}{B_3}\\right)}{2}\\right)\\right.\\nonumber \\\\\n&&\\left.-B_3^2\\left(2h_3\\left(\\frac{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)+P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)}{2B_3}\\right)-\n\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{{N^*_{n,j,K_\\varepsilon}(x)}}{B_3}\\right)}{2}-\\frac{h_3\\left(\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)}{B_3}\\right)}{2}\\right)\\right|\n+B_3^2 n^d\\varepsilon\\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\frac{9\\tilde{c_2}B_3^2n^d}{2}\\left|h_{k+1,L}(x)-\\frac{P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)}{B_3}\\right|+B_3^2n^d\\varepsilon\\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq& \\frac{9\\tilde{c_2}B_3^2n^d}{2}\\varepsilon_1+B_3^2n^d\\varepsilon\\nonumber \\\\\n&=& B_3^2n^d\\varepsilon(9\\tilde{c_2}+1)\\nonumber \\\\\n&=&\\tilde{c}_3n^d\\varepsilon\\end{aligned}$$ where $\\varepsilon_1=2\\varepsilon$, $\\tilde{c}_3$ is a constant depending only on $B_3$ and $\\tilde{c}_2$.\\\nDue to (\\[H-fai\\]) and Lemma [\\[4.1\\]]{}, for any $x\\in X$, we get $$\\begin{aligned}\n|f(x)-H(x)|&\\leq& |f(x)-\\Phi_f(x)|+|\\Phi_f(x)-H(x)| \\\\\n&\\leq& c_0n^{-r}+B_2n^d\\varepsilon+\\tilde{c}_3n^d\\varepsilon \\\\\n&=& c_0n^{-r}+\\tilde{C}n^d\\varepsilon,\\end{aligned}$$ where $\\tilde{C}$ is a constant depending only on $\\tilde{c_3},B_2$.\\\nMoreover, if $x\\in I^d \\setminus \\bigcup_{\\jmath\\in \\Lambda_s} \\bar{\\Lambda}_\\jmath$, we have $f(x)=P_{k,\\eta_j,f}(x)=0$ and $|\\Phi_f(x)|\\leq B_2n^d\\varepsilon$, then it is easy to obtain that $$\\begin{aligned}\n|H(x)|&\\leq& |\\Phi_f(x)|+|\\Phi_f(x)-H(x)| \\\\\n&\\leq& |\\Phi_f(x))|+|\\Phi_f(x)-H(x)|\\\\\n&\\leq& B_2n^{d}\\varepsilon+\\tilde{c}_3n^d\\varepsilon\\\\\n&=&\\tilde{C}n^d\\varepsilon,\\end{aligned}$$ where $\\tilde{C}$ is a constant depending only on $k,c_0,d,B_2$. It is easy to see that there are totally $\\tilde{n}:=6n^d((L+1)(k+1)+2d+1)$ free parameters in $H(x)$. In this case, we obtain $$|f(x)-H(x)|\\leq c_0\\tilde{n}^{-\\frac{r}{d}}+\\tilde{C}\\tilde{n}\\varepsilon.$$ Furthermore, if $ x\\in X \\setminus \\bigcup_{\\jmath\\in \\Lambda_s} \\bar{\\Lambda}_\\jmath$ and $\\tilde{n}\\geq \\tilde{c}N^d$, then $$|H(x)|\\leq \\tilde{C}\\tilde{n}\\varepsilon.$$ It is noticeable that all the parameters of deep nets are controllable, which is bounded by $\\mbox{poly}(\\tilde{n},\\frac{1}{\\varepsilon})$. This completes the proof of Theorem \\[theorem2\\].",
"\n\nThe result (\\[sparse-1\\]) can be deduced directly from Theorem \\[theorem2\\] with $\\varepsilon=\\tilde{n}^{-T}$ for $T\\geq \\frac{r+d}{d}$. This completes the proof of Corollary \\[corollary-2\\].",
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] |
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"pile_set_name": "ArXiv"
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[
"SUBSCRIBE TO OUR Newsletter\n\nPuppy Whose Paws Froze to the Ground After Being Abandoned in Park Finally Gets Love\n\nA Pit Bull-Lab mix named Bindi was recently found with her paws frozen to the ground in a Brooklyn park. ",
"Abandoned by her owner, Bindi was left tied to a tree overnight. ",
"Given the frigid temperatures, it’s a miracle she survived! ",
"Luckily, a woman named Jennifer found Bindi and took her to the Sean Casey Animal Rescue. ",
"The poor pup arrived in terrible condition, vomiting blood and rubber.",
"\n\nSoon Bindi was doing much better and was approved for release from the hospital. ",
"She still has a long road to recovery and needs to be monitored closely due to high kidney values and a stomach ulcer. ",
"She is now in the able hands of Sean Casey Animal Rescue where she will recover and hopefully find a forever home!",
"\n\nIt’s so amazing that Bindi is on her way to a full recovery, and the days with her cruel human are behind her; we know she’ll find a loving home in no time. ",
"Sadly, thousands of dogs are subjected to neglect and abandonment just like Bindi was. ",
"The good news is, we can all help dogs in need by choosing to adopt, don’t shop for a new furry BFF. ",
"If you ever come across an animal in need, try these animal rescue hotlines for help.",
"\n\nWant to read more posts like this? ",
"Sign up for our newsletter below!\n\nBrowse through some recent posts below:\n\nCreating pink hutches to support women’s health issues for calves stolen from their mothers … all so the mother cows can be impregnated over and over again until their bodies are so taxed and spent, they lose the ability to hold themselves up and are sent to slaughter for meat … WTH!?",
"\n\nYes, yes, yes! ",
"The Guggenheim Museum in New York City is removing three pieces featuring animals from an upcoming exhibit called “Art and China after 1989” by couple Peng Yu and Sun Yuan. ",
"Speaking up works!",
"\n\nDisclosure: One Green Planet accepts advertising, sponsorship, affiliate links and other forms of compensation, which may or may not influence the advertising content, topics or articles written on this site. ",
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"\n\n0 comments on “Puppy Whose Paws Froze to the Ground After Being Abandoned in Park Finally Gets Love”"
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[
"Introduction {#S0001}\n============\n\nLa surdité est le déficit sensoriel le plus fréquent chez l\\'enfant \\[[@CIT0001]\\]. ",
"Son retentissement socio-économique justifie la nécessité d\\'un diagnostic précoce. ",
"Ce dernier fait appel à un dépistage ciblé ou systématique, un bilan audiologique et étiologique et une prise en charge à la fois prothétique et orthophonique \\[[@CIT0002]\\]. ",
"La sévérité de la surdité influence considérablement les répercussions sur le langage et donc l'âge de suspicion. ",
"Le degré de surdité est établi en fonction des seuils d\\'audition mesurés par l\\'audiométrie tonale, selon les critères établis parle Bureau International d\\'Audiophonologie \\[[@CIT0003]\\]: on calcule la moyenne des seuils sur les fréquences 500,1000, 2000 et 4000 Hz, sur la meilleure oreille. ",
"La surdité sévère signifie une perte moyenne de plus de 70 dB alors que dans une profonde elle est de 90 dB. L′âge moyen de diagnostic est de 7 mois pour la surdité profonde et 11 mois et de 17 mois pour la surdité sévère en dehors d′un dépistage universel \\[[@CIT0004]\\]. ",
"De ce fait le diagnostic d\\'une surdité sévère et profonde de l\\'enfant est toujours une urgence.",
"\n\nMéthodes {#S0002}\n========\n\nC′est une étude rétrospective allant de Juin 2009 au mois de Janvier 2012 ayant recensé 250 cas d\\'enfants porteurs d\\'une surdité sévère ou profonde. ",
"Nos patients ont bénéficié d\\'un examen clinique, une exploration fonctionnelle de l\\'audition, une imagerie, une consultation de génétique (pour les surdités congénitales) systématiques. ",
"Les autres consultations étaient demandées en fonction des signes d\\'appel. ",
"Les surdités post otitiques (Otite externe, otite séro-muqueuse, otite moyenne aigue et otite moyenne chronique) ont été exclu de ce travail.",
"\n\nLe bilan étiologique commence d′abord par un interrogatoire minutieux sur le déroulement de la grossesse et de l′accouchement à la recherche des facteurs favorisant la surdité pré ou néonatale. ",
"Les antécédents de prise médicamenteuse ototoxique, de méningite, de fracture des rochers, de chirurgie de l′oreille et les antécédents familiaux de surdité sont recherchés. ",
"Les étapes de développement psychomoteur et du langage ainsi que le statut vaccinal de l′enfant sont notés sur le dossier. ",
"L′examen clinique recherche une malformation des oreilles et les autres malformations cranio-faciales. ",
"Devant une surdité de l′enfant sans causes acquises évidente une consultation génétique à la recherche d′une mutation causale de la surdité, une tomodensitométrie des rochers à la recherche des malformations de l′oreille externe, moyenne et interne. ",
"L′ECG (allongement de l′espace QT dans le syndrome de Jervell Lange Nielsen) et la recherche d′une hématurie par bandelette urinaire en cas de surdité évolutive (syndrome d′Alport) sont systématiques. ",
"Le reste du bilan est fonction des cas cliniques et de pathologies associées.",
"\n\nRésultats {#S0003}\n=========\n\n250 enfants répartis en 53.2% (n=133) de sexe féminin et 46.8% (n=117) de sexe masculin sont inclus dans ce travail. ",
"La médiane d′âge au moment d′annonce du diagnostic est 3,7 ans avec des extrêmes allant de 4 mois à 16 ans ([Figure 1](#F0001){ref-type=\"fig\"}).",
"\n\n{#F0001}\n\nLe retard d′acquisition du langage de l′enfant et les troubles de comportement rapportés par les parents, sont les motifs de consultation les plus fréquents (210 cas soit 84%). ",
"Les autres consultations étaient demandées par des pédiatres ou bien des ORL pour suspiscion de surdité.",
"\n\nL′origine des enfants selon les villes et régions est comme suit: Fès 118 cas, Taounate 45 cas, Immouzerkandar 32 cas, Taza 22 cas, Meknès 13 cas Errachidia 11 cas, Oujda 6 cas, Khmissat 1 cas, Rabat 1 cas et Azrou 1 cas. ",
"Le mariage consanguin parental est retrouvé dans 32% (n=80), essentiellement pour les parents habitant dans les régions rurales. ",
"Les antécédents familiaux de surdité sont présents dans 12% des familles (n=30). ",
"Le suivi médical de la grossesse n′est renseigné que dans 60% des cas. ",
"L′accouchement était dans un milieu médicalisé dans 80% et 25% des cas pour les enfants originaires des milieux urbain et rural respectivement. ",
"Le droulement de la grossesse était pathologique dans 4% (n=10) avec 6 infections urinaires traitées avec des médicaments ototoxiques et 4 retards de croissance intra-utérine dont la cause reste indétérminée. ",
"8% des naissances (n=20) ont eu un séjour en réanimation néonatale avec 7 cas de souffrance néonatale, 5 cas d′ictère néonatal ayant nécéssité une exsanguino-transfusion 5 cas d′infection néonatale sévère traitée avec des médicaments ototoxiques et 3 cas de prématurité avec un âge gestastionnel de 33 semaines. ",
"La méningite est retrouvée dans 16% des cas (n=40) avec 29 cas à pneucoque, 9 cas à méningocoque et 2 cas à Hémophilus influenzae. ",
"5 enfants (2%) avaient des antécédants de traiement par des médicaments ototoxiques. ",
"Un traumatisme crânien occasionnant une fracture du rocher associée à une surdité profonde homalatérale, suite à un accident de la voie publique est retrouvé dans 2 cas (soit 0.8%). ",
"En résumé les surdités acquises représentent 30.8% des cas (n=77) avec 4% de causes prénatales, 8% de causes périnatales et 18.8% de causes post-natales.",
"\n\nLe bilan audiologique trouve: une surdité bilatérale dans 96% des cas (n=240) et unilatérale dans 4% des cas (n=10). ",
"La surdité est profonde dans 86% des cas (n=215) et sévère dans 14% des cas (n=25). ",
"La tomodensitométrie des rochers faite dans 52% des cas (n=130) objective dans 35 cas une labyrinthite ossifiante, dans 14 cas une dilatation de l′acqueduc du vestibule et dans 3 cas une malformation de Mondini. ",
"Aucune sérologie de Cytomégalovirus n′est demandée.",
"\n\nLes surdités génétiques sont retrouvées dans 35.6% des cas (n=89):\n\nLes surdités génétiques isolées retrouvées dans 31.6% des cas ( n=79): les surdités autosomiques récessives sont prédominantes et représentées essentiellement par la mutation 35 delG de la connexine 26 retrouvée dans 28% des cas (70/250) dont 82.9% (n=58) à l′état homozygote et 17.1% (n=12) à l′état hétérozygote. ",
"Les autres mutations 3.6% (n=9) sont représentés dans le [Tableau 1](#T0001){ref-type=\"table\"}. ",
"Aucune mutation du gène GJB6 n′a été retrouvée.",
"\n\n###### \n\nFréquence des mutations des surdités génétiques isolées par rapport au total des surdités congénitales\n\n Génotype Nombre de muation Pourcentage (%) / surdités congénitales (n=173)\n ------------------- ------------------- -------------------------------------------------\n **35delG/35delG** 58 33.5\n **E47X/35delG** 5 2.9\n **35delG/wt** 7 4.1\n **V371/wt** 9 5.2\n **Total** 79 45.7\n\nLes surdités génétiques syndromiques retrouvées dan 4% des cas (n=10): 6 cas de syndrome de Pendred (2.4%) chez 2 sœurs jumelles et 3 filles et un garçon de familles différentes présentant une surdité sévères bilatérales avec un goitre et une dilatation de l′aqueduc du vestibule sur le scanner des rochers \\*2 garçons de 11ans et 14 ans présentent un syndrome d′Alport (0.8%) suivis pour une insuffisance rénale débutante et dont l′audiométrie révèle une surdité sévère bilatérale évolutive; deux frères (0.8%) de 14 ans et 16 ans issus d′un mariage consanguin présentent un syndrome de Bardet et Biedel avec une surdité sévère bilatérale évolutive, une rétinite pigmentaire et microphtalmie bilatérale, une gynécomastie, un diabète type II, un hypogonadisme hypergonadotrope et une bradydactylie.",
"\n\nDans 33.6% des cas soit 84 cas de surdité l′étiologie n′est pas encore déterminée. ",
"Les différents résultats sont représentés dans le [Tableau 2](#T0002){ref-type=\"table\"}.",
"\n\n###### \n\nProportion des étiologies des surdités neurosensorielles de 250 enfants\n\n Nombre Pourcentage\n ------------------------ -------------------------- -------------\n Surdités acquise 77 30.8%\n causes prénatales 4% \n causes périnatales 8% \n causes post-natales18,8% \n Surdités génétiques 89 35.6%\n Isolées 31.6% \n Syndromiques 4% \n Etiologie indétérminée 84 33.6%\n Total 250 100\n\nDiscussion {#S0004}\n==========\n\nLa surdité est le déficit neurosensoriel le plus fréquent chez l′enfant. ",
"La prévalence des surdités bilatérales sévères et profondes est estimée entre 0.5 à deux enfants pour 1000 naissances \\[[@CIT0001], [@CIT0002]\\]. ",
"Au Maroc on compte environ 640000 naissances par an \\[[@CIT0005]\\] ce qui correspondrait à 640 nouveau-nés qui naissent avec une surdité bilatérale sévère ou profonde par an sans énumérer les surdités acquises. ",
"Un autre enfant sur mille devient sourd profond avant l′âge adulte \\[[@CIT0006]\\]. ",
"Ces chiffres démontrent bien que la surdité de l′enfant doit être considérée comme un problème de la santé publique au Maroc. ",
"De nos jours, au Maroc, plusieurs équipes hospitalières sont entrain d′instaurer un dépistage systématique universel de la surdité.",
"\n\nEn l′absence d′un dépistage de la surdité, cette dernière doit être évoquée devant \\[[@CIT0007]\\]: des antécédents familiaux de surdité, l\\'absence de réaction aux bruits ou d\\'orientation versla source sonore (à partir de 6 mois), une absence ou un retard d\\'apparition du langage, un langage qui se dégrade (en faveur d\\'une surdité évolutive), des troubles du comportement (agressivité, anxiété, apathie), un doute des parents.",
"\n\nLe diagnostic de surdité doit alors être posé le plus rapidement possible et avec précision pour permettre une prise en charge adaptée et la plus précoce possible. ",
"Il repose essentiellement surla réalisation d\\'une audiométrie comportementale.",
"\n\nSelon la littérature, environ 50% des surdités neurosensorielles de l′enfant sont d\\'origine génétique \\[[@CIT0001], [@CIT0008]\\], contre 34.8% dans notre série, environ 25% des surdités sont d\\'origine acquise contre 30.8% dans notre série et environ 25% restent d′origine inconnue contre 34.4% dans notre série. ",
"Les surdités génétiques peuvent être congénitales ou d\\'apparition post-natale. ",
"Les surdités acquises peuvent s\\'installer en période pré, péri ou post-natales.",
"\n\nParmi ces surdités génétiques, 30% sont associées à d\\'autres symptômes ou malformations: elles sont alors dîtes syndromiques \\[[@CIT0006]\\]. ",
"Dans les 70% restants, la surdité est le seul symptôme: elle est dite isolée. ",
"Ces surdités isolées sont classées selon leur mode de transmission \\[[@CIT0009]\\]: **les surdités autosomiques récessives ou DFNB (deafness B):** sont les plus fréquentes représentent 70% à 80% des cas de surdité génétiques de l′enfant \\[[@CIT0010]\\]. ",
"La surdité est congénitale, profonde et peu évolutive. ",
"Les deux parents hétérozygotes sont normoentendants mais présentent chacun une mutation sur le gène et peuvent le transmettre aussi bien à leurs filles qu'à leurs fils.",
"\n\nLa mutation d′un gène occupant le locus DFNB1 est responsable de plus 50% des surdités autosomiques récessives \\[[@CIT0004]\\]: le GJB2 codant la connexine 26. ",
"Cette dernière joue un rôle important dans la genèse du potentiel endocochléaire. ",
"La proportion de la mutation 35delG, par rapport à d′autres, du gène GJB2 prédomine largement dans les pays méditerranéens et représente 80% des cas \\[[@CIT0011]--[@CIT0017]\\]. ",
"La mutation 35delG homozygote représente la cause de 33.5% des surdités congénitales dans notre série et ressemble aux résultats d′autres pays méditerranéens ([Tableau 3](#T0003){ref-type=\"table\"}).",
"\n\n###### \n\nLa prévalence de la mutation du GJB2 et la 35delG/35delG dans le pourtour méditerranéen\n\n Pays Patients (n) GJB2 (%) 35delG/35delG (%) Références\n ---------------- -------------- ---------- ------------------- -------------\n France 88 39.8 28.4 11\n Italie/Espagne 136 36.8 32.4 12\n Grèce 210 33.3 30 13\n Turquie 60 31.7 21.7 14\n Lebanon 48 33.3 31.3 15\n Egypte 111 14.4 9 16\n Tunisie 102 22.55 20.55 17\n Maroc 173 40.4 33.5 Notre série\n\nDans notre étude 5 patients avaient une mutation E47X/35delG, 7 patients avaient une mutation 35delg/wt et 9 enfants avaient une mutation V371/wt. ",
"Ces génotypes ont été décrits dans plusieurs publications de surdités sévères et profondes \\[[@CIT0018]--[@CIT0023]\\]. ",
"La mutation du gène GJB6 fréquente en Europe et aux USA \\[[@CIT0024], [@CIT0025]\\] n′a pas été retrouvée dans notre série et dans d′autres études faites au Maroc \\[[@CIT0026]\\].",
"\n\nLes surdités autosomiques dominantes ou DFNA (deafness A) représentent 12 à 15% des cas des surdités neurosensorielles de l′enfant \\[[@CIT0010], [@CIT0027]\\]. ",
"Un des parents sourds transmet l′allèle muté à ses filles ou à ses fils. ",
"La surdité est souvent progressive, ou retardée au cours de l\\'enfance ou à l'âge adulte, et moins sévères \\[[@CIT0009]\\].",
"\n\nLes surdités liées à l\\'X ou DFN ne représentent que 1 à 3% des cas de surdité isolée. ",
"La mutation est située dans un gène localisé sur le chromosome X. Une mère normoentendante peut transmettre le gène malade à ses fils. ",
"La surdité est sévère et profonde \\[[@CIT0008], [@CIT0027]\\].",
"\n\nDix enfants de notre série présentaient une surdité syndromique avec 6 cas de syndrome de Pendred 2 cas de syndrome d′Alport et 2 cas de syndrome de Bardet et Biedel.",
"\n\nLe syndrome de Pendred représente 5% des surdités d\\'origine génétique pour certains. ",
"Il doit être évoqué devant une surdité évolutive, parfois fluctuante. ",
"Cette surdité de perception est de transmission autosomique récessive, prélinguale ou postlinguale précoce, bilatérale, profonde, prédominant sur les fréquences aiguës \\[[@CIT0008]\\]. ",
"La surdité associe un goitre qui se développe dans la deuxième décennie et des malformations de l\\'oreille interne à la tomodensitométrie des rochers (dilatation de l′aqueduc du vestibule, dysplasie de la cochlée à type Mondini). ",
"Ce syndrome est dû à des mutations localisées dans le gène PDS ou SLC26A4, localisé sur le chromosome 7 \\[[@CIT0028]\\].",
"\n\nLe syndrome d′Alport est en général transmis selon le mode dominant lié à l\\'X et du à des mutations du gène COL4A5 ainsi les garçons et les filles peuvent être atteints. ",
"Cependant, les filles sont moins sévèrement atteintes et leur maladie débute plus tardivement. ",
"La surdité progressive, qui débute dans la première ou la deuxième décennie (postlinguale) \\[[@CIT0029]\\], est associée à une atteinte rénale, objectivée initialement par une hématurie, et qui évolue progressivement vers l\\'insuffisance rénale. ",
"La bandelette urinaire systématique chez l\\'enfant sourd permet un diagnostic et une prise en charge précoces du syndrome d\\'Alport \\[[@CIT0004]--[@CIT0008]\\].",
"\n\nLe syndrome de Bardet-Biedl, considéré pour longtemps comme est une maladie héréditaire complexe (plus de 17 gènes responsables) et rare. ",
"Il touche 1/160000. ",
"Il associe une obésité, une rétinite pigmentaire, une hexadactylie postaxiale, un hypogonadisme, une atteinte rénale et un retard mental très variable et souvent modéré. ",
"Une grande variété de gènes a été définie; mais seules six qui ont pu être identifiés. ",
"Le diagnostic est clinique reposant sur la présence de critères majeurs. ",
"La surdité de perception n′est retrouvée que dans 10% des cas \\[[@CIT0030]\\].",
"\n\nNéanmoins un groupe de surdités reste d'étiologie indéterminée, ceci pourrait être expliqué, hormis le faite d\\'une enquête étiologique insuffisante, par une hérédité polygénique et multifactorielle ou par une double hétérozygotie. ",
"Selon la littérature les causes acquises ne représentent que 25% des surdités de l′enfant \\[[@CIT0004]--[@CIT0032]\\] alors qu′elles représentent 30.8% de l′ensemble des surdités dans notre série.",
"\n\nPour les surdités acquis es on distingue trois sous groupes: - Les surdités prénatales représentent, dans la littérature, 10% de toutes les surdités neurosensorielles de l\\'enfant alors que leur taux dans notre série est de 4%. ",
"Les causes principales sont les infections du groupe TORSCH (Toxoplasmose, Rubéole, Syphilis, Cytomégalovirus, Herpès), les troubles de développement intra-utérin, le traitement ototoxique au cours de la grossesse \\[[@CIT0032]\\]. ",
"Dans les pays développés l′infection au CMV est en nette augmentation depuis la généralisation du dépistage. ",
"L′infection touche jusqu′à 2% des naissances vivantes dans le monde entier, et peut résulter du passage transplacentaire de la primo-infection maternelle. ",
"Seulement 5 à 10% des enfants atteints par cette infection ont une surdité neurosensorielle à la naissance et environ 20% avant l′âge de 3 ans \\[[@CIT0032]--[@CIT0034]\\]. ",
"Les sérologies CMV n′ont pas été demandées dans notre série. ",
"Ceci s′explique par le faible intérêt de cet examen après les premiers six mois de vie. ",
"Après ce délai, seule la négativité de ce test présente l′intérêt d′exclure cette étiologie \\[[@CIT0001]\\].",
"\n\nEn raison de le programme de vaccination, les enfants avec déficience auditive due à une infection prénatale de la rubéole sont de plus en plus peu fréquents. ",
"L′infection maternelle pendant le premier trimestre peut entraîner, en plus d′une surdité de perception sévère ou profonde bilatérale, un faible poids de naissance, un retard mental, des anomalies cardiaques, une cataracte et une rétinopathie \\[[@CIT0034]\\].",
"\n\nLa toxoplasmose prénatale peut être transmise d′une mère asymptomatique avec une primo-infection, en particulier dans le premier trimestre, et se manifeste classiquement chez le fœtus par une choriorétinite, une hydrocéphalie et des calcifications intracrâniennes. ",
"L′association d′une surdité neurosensorielle est rare et peut se présenter plus tard dans l′enfance \\[[@CIT0034], [@CIT0035]\\].",
"\n\nLa syphilis congénitale est rare (0.002% des naissances vivantes). ",
"Elle peut provoquer une surdité neurosensorielle d′installation tardive pouvant aller jusqu′à l′âge de 30 à 40 ans \\[[@CIT0032]\\].",
"\n\nLes médicaments ototoxiques, l′alcoolisme, les troubles métaboliques et les anomalies de développement de l′oreille interne au cours de la grossesse peuvent être responsables d′une surdité neurosensorielle \\[[@CIT0034]\\].",
"\n\nLes surdités périnatales représentent environ 15% de l\\'ensemble des surdités neurosensorielles selon la littérature contre 8% dans notre étude. ",
"Plusieurs facteurs sont en cause: le faible poids de naissance (\\< 1.5 kg), la prématurité avec un âge gestationnel inférieur à 34 semaines, l′hyperbilirubinémie requérant une exsanguino-transfusion, la médication ototoxique, un score d\\'APGAR \\<5 à 1 minute, et de \\<7 à 5 min et une ventilation artificielle pendant 5 jours ou plus \\[[@CIT0002], [@CIT0004], [@CIT0033], [@CIT0034], [@CIT0036]\\]. ",
"Dans notre étude les antécédents d′une pathologie périnatale causale d′une surdité neurosensorielle sont retrouvés chez 20 enfants.",
"\n\nLes surdités post-natales qui représentent selon la littérature entre 7 à 11% des surdités neurosensorielles de l\\'enfant, leur taux dans notre étude est de 18%. ",
"Elles sont liées à l\\'administration de médications ototoxiques, aux fractures du rocher (fractures labyrinthiques) et aux méningites bactériennes.",
"\n\nSelon plusieurs auteurs la méningite peut être responsable de plus de 6% des surdités neurosensorielles de l′enfant contre 16% dans notre série. ",
"Parmi lesquelles les méningites à pneumocoques comportent un risque de surdité d\\'environ 30% par rapport à 10% pour les méningites à méningocoques et 6% pour les méningites à Hemophilus influenzae \\[[@CIT0033], [@CIT0034]\\]. ",
"Ces méningites provoquent des labyrinthites ossifiantes qui peuvent parfois s\\'installer très rapidement et rendre extrêmement difficile, voire aléatoire, une implantation cochléaire. ",
"L′Académie américaine des pédiatres recommande l′association du dexaméthasone dans le traitement des méningites pour diminuer le risque de surdité \\[[@CIT0036]\\].",
"\n\nBeaucoup d′agents pharmacologiques peuvent avoir des effets toxiques sur l′oreille interne responsables ainsi de surdités neurosensorielles et/ou des troubles de l′équilibre. ",
"La liste comprend les aminosides (par exemple la gentamicine, la streptomycine), les produits de la chimiothérapie (par exemple cisplatine), les salicylates, la quinine, et les diurétiques de l′anse \\[[@CIT0034]--[@CIT0038]\\]. ",
"L′ototoxicité est généralement associée à une surdité neurosensorielle bilatérale symétrique et peut être temporaire ou irréversible et des acouphènes. ",
"La surdité touche d′abord les fréquences aigues puis si le traitement perdure elle concerne toutes les fréquences. ",
"L′apparition est imprévisible et peut survenir même après une seule dose, ou après plusieurs semaines. ",
"La physiopathologie dépend de l′agent, et comprend la formation de radicaux libres responsables de la destruction des cils des cellules cochléaires, et des dommages au niveau de la strie vasculaire \\[[@CIT0038], [@CIT0039]\\]. ",
"Les aminosides perturbent la synthèse mitochondriale des protéines surtout pour les enfants porteurs de la mutation de l′ARN mitochondrial 12S rRNA \\[[@CIT0040], [@CIT0041]\\].",
"\n\nAutres causes peuvent être responsables de surdités neurosensorielles chez l′enfant en particulier les fractures transversales du rocher translabyrinthique créant une ouverture des cavités labyrinthiques vers l\\'oreille moyenne avec fistule périlymphatique majeure et apparition d\\'air intralabyrinthique (pneumolabyrinthe).",
"\n\nElles sont fréquemment associées à une brèche méningée \\[[@CIT0042]--[@CIT0044]\\]. ",
"Ces lésions sont généralement immédiates, définitives et complètes, rarement partielles. ",
"Il s\\'agit d\\'un grand vertige rotatoire avec nausées et vomissements accompagné d\\'une surdité de perception sévère (2 surdités profondes dans notre étude). ",
"Une paralysie faciale est associée dans 20% des cas \\[[@CIT0043]\\]. ",
"Le bilan tomodensitométrique met en général en évidence le trait de fracture ou un pneumolabyrinthe \\[[@CIT0042]--[@CIT0045]\\].",
"\n\nDans notre 33.6% des cas (n=84) de surdité l′étiologie n′est pas encore déterminée. ",
"Ce chiffre varie dans la littérature entre 25-40% \\[[@CIT0001], [@CIT0002], [@CIT0006], [@CIT0036]\\]. ",
"La différence d′âge de nos patients (avec des extrêmes de 4 mois et 16 ans) peut induire des oublis de la part des parents sur différents éléments cliniques et compromettre la recherche étiologique. ",
"Selon les auteurs les infections materno-fœtales sont sous estimés de même que les causes génétiques en raison de gènes non encore identifiés ou non testés systématiquement \\[[@CIT0001], [@CIT0046], [@CIT0047]\\].",
"\n\nConclusion {#S0005}\n==========\n\nL\\'enquête étiologique d\\'une surdité neurosensorielle de l\\'enfant se base avant tout sur un interrogatoire minutieux systématique, un examen clinique complet et des explorations paracliniques hiérarchisés. ",
"Ces dernières années, des progrès significatifs ont été réalisés tant en matière du bilan génétique que sérologique et d\\'imagerie, permettant ainsi à l\\'enfant atteint d\\'une surdité sévère ou profonde une prise en charge adaptée pour atténuer les effets négatifs de la privation auditive au niveau de la structuration du système auditif central et une évolution beaucoup plus facilement dans le monde entendant.",
"\n\nConflits d\\'intérêts {#S0006}\n====================\n\nLes auteurs ne déclarent aucun conflit d\\'intérêts.",
"\n\nContributions des auteurs {#S0007}\n=========================\n\nMohammed Ridal: Ecriture de l\\'article. ",
"Mohamed norreddine El Alami: Correction de l\\'articles. ",
"Les autres auteurs ont participé pour l'élaboration de ce travail.",
"\n"
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Central"
}
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[
"Effect of gestational smoke exposure on atopic dermatitis in the offspring.",
"\nThe adverse impact of smoking on respiratory diseases and birth outcomes in children is well-known. ",
"However, the influence of smoke exposure including environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and maternal smoking during pregnancy on atopic dermatitis (AD) is not clear. ",
"The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of gestational smoke exposure on the development of AD in the offspring on the basis of the maternal and cord blood cotinine. ",
"We recruited 261 mother and newborn pairs in 2004. ",
"Cord blood and information on perinatal factors of children were gathered at birth. ",
"At 2 yr of age, information about development of AD and environmental exposures were collected. ",
"We compared AD with non-AD children for the concentration of cotinine in cord and maternal blood measured by high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. ",
"Multiple logistic regressions were performed to estimate the relationship of cotinine levels and AD. ",
"About 150 mother and child pairs completed the follow-up study and specimen collection with 38 (25.3%) children developing AD. ",
"Two (1.3%) out of 150 mothers smoked during pregnancy, while 38 (25.3%) mothers reported having ETS exposure. ",
"Cotinine levels in cord blood and maternal blood were highly correlated (r = 0.71, p < 0.001). ",
"The risk of AD was found to increase with maternal and cord blood cotinine levels in a dose-response manner (p for trend = 0.01). ",
"Children exposed to high levels (>75th percentile) had a significantly increased risk of AD. ",
"Smoke exposure during pregnancy might increase the risk of AD in children. ",
"Avoidance of prenatal smoke exposure may be warranted for early prevention."
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"It's with a heavy heart that I must inform you that this site, Guild Wars Guru, will be shutting down on July 1st and will remain in Archive Mode. ",
"Over the past 11 years, we've become, and continued to remain, the #1 fansite for Guild Wars, and it's all because to you guys. ",
"Without such a strong and passionate community, Guru would have never made it this far and so we thank you for that.",
"\n\nAnd while we will be saying good-bye to our home here, we will continue to host forums for the GW community over at our sister site, Guild Wars 2 Guru. ",
"In fact, you are more than welcome to head on over now and begin posting. ",
"If you have any threads you'd like to transfer over, now would be the time.",
"\n\nSo once again thank you, and especially those that contributed their time and knowledge to make Guru the amazing place it was. ",
"We'll see you over at Guild Wars 2 Guru!",
"\n\nThe mursaat hidden city is said to be along the ullen river in prophesies right?",
"\n\n\"The Mursaat are a race of powerful spell casters. ",
"They are humanoid in shape, and float above the ground dressed in golden attire.\"",
"\n\n\"The mysterious race of the Seers is an enemy of the Mursaat for reasons that are also unknown at this time.\"",
"\n\n\"Mursaat can be found in the Southern Shiverpeaks and the Ring of Fire Islands, and in lore it is said that the Unseen Ones have a city deep inside the Maguuma Jungle. ",
"The ferryman Old Joness speaks of a shadow hanging over the Ullen River that hides what lies beyond its shores. ",
"He says it is cast by something \"unseen\".\"",
"\n\n\"In some Elonian legends, they have the power to act unseen. ",
"Like humans, they’re allegedly capable of choosing a path of good or evil. ",
"In a sense, djinn really can act unseen—many are shapeshifters, capable of assuming a human form when interacting with human beings and other species.\"",
"\n\n\"Most djinn are bound to the locations and places they protect, most commonly rivers, lakes, and stretches of desert.\"",
"\n\n\"In more recent accounts, adventurers have shared stories of djinn who offered them magical knowledge and powerful magical items... including some salvaged from mighty heroes who dared to disturb the djinn.\"",
"\n\n\"The Hidden City of Ahdashim is an explorable area in the northern area of Vabbi, Elona continent. ",
"It is a well-hidden city controlled by the Vabbian princes and the Djinn which serve to protect them.\"",
"\n\nwell Ring of Fire is where the Door of Khomali is so they have reason to be there originally. ",
"And the Shiverpeaks is a large staging area for \"The Great Destroyer\" which gives more reason for them to be around that area too.",
"\n\nThe Mursaat are a powerful race of spellcasters who seem to be advanced and know more than humans (eg the Flameseeker Prophecies).They do everything they can to stop the extinction of their race as it was fortold.",
"\n\nDjinn are guardians. ",
"The ones in Sorrows Furnace seemed to be bound to the Iron Golem and the ones in Elona seem to protect certain places/people in Vabbi.",
"\n\nThe only things similiar are the facts they both float.",
"\n\nI wish people would stop instantly comparing when the word Unseen comes up.",
"\n\nI liked the theory i read somewhere that the Enchanted of the Crystal Desert is enchanted old mursaat armor, before the mursaat \"ascended\" and learnt the power of being \"floaty-light\" and wore new, gold armor.",
"\n\nI don't think the Djinn and Mursaat have anything in common, tbh, I think the Mursaat have more in common with Margonites than Djinn...at least they're the same shapes and float in the same way, particularly the Margonite Warlocks.",
"\n\nI'm very intrigued about the seers, I had originally thought they could be Margonites...or at least a branch of them, sent to the shiverpeaks to aid in the destruction of the Mursaat. ",
"Alternatively, haveing now seen more screenshots of GW:EotN, they could be linked to the Great Destroyer. ",
"There are a lot of \"black\" creatures it would seem...maybe these Seers are agents of the Great Destroyer who wants the Mursaat out of the way for different reasons.",
"\n\nI'm really excited about Eyes of the North and can't wait to see if everything else that needs explaining, gets explained.",
"\n\nWell Celest, I read over on the Gamespot topic that is currently going here on the forums that Ben Miller said that they plan on bringing old characters and finishing some of their stories as well, so hopefully the story of the Seers we encountered will be finished. ",
"The question we have until then is this though: Are the Mursaat agents of good or on such a level of Chaotic/Insane Good that they will even attempt to hurt their fellow Good aligned beings in the name of Good, or are they just the same in the way of Evil?",
"\n\nAlso - something I noticed last night clicking on things. ",
"Jade Bows/Armor faces are much like that of Abbadon's face/mask. ",
"We really didn't get to see anything tied or explained about the Murr's and Marg's, but it would be nice to understand more."
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[
"That's cool about lunch. ",
" My tummy is feeling pretty gross anyway so it's best that I just live off salads and sandwiches this week anyway. ",
" I am supposed to go to the meeting on Thursday, and would greatly appreciate a ride there and home. ",
" After the meeting would you drive me to my car or home because I can get Mom to take me to the bus in the morning on Thursday if you'd rather take me home than drive all the way to the park&ride. ",
" It's up to you, just let me know what's easier for you. ",
" Did you get your board book yet for the meeting? ",
" I mailed them all out this morning and put a little note for you in yours. ",
" :) I hope you're having a good day. ",
" I'll talk to you tonight. ",
" I love you!!",
"\nLove,\nCaron"
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"The cardiac inotropic responses to insulin in the rat heart.",
"\nInsulin (5 to 40 I.U.) produced dose-dependent positive inotropic effect in the isolated rat heart. ",
"The responses to insulin were markedly inhibited in the presence of propranolol (1 . ",
"1X10(-6) M). ",
"Insulin responses were markedly reduced in reserpine pretreated (5 mg/kg, i.p.) ",
"rats. ",
"Theophylline (4.4 mM), the phosphodiesterase inhibitor, potentiated the responses to insulin, whereas imidazole (20 mM), the phosphodiesterase stimulator inhibited the responses to insulin. ",
"The data suggest that the positive inotropic effects of insulin in rat heart is mediated through the release of cardiac catecholamines which stimulates beta-adrenoceptors. ",
"The final mediator of cardiac action seems to be cyclic-AMP."
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"// Code generated by protoc-gen-go. ",
"DO NOT EDIT.",
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"\n\nIt is generated from these files:\n\tgoogle/rpc/status.proto\n\nIt has these top-level messages:\n\tStatus\n*/\npackage status\n\nimport proto \"github.com/golang/protobuf/proto\"\nimport fmt \"fmt\"\nimport math \"math\"\nimport google_protobuf \"github.com/golang/protobuf/ptypes/any\"\n\n// Reference imports to suppress errors if they are not otherwise used.",
"\nvar _ = proto.",
"Marshal\nvar _ = fmt.",
"Errorf\nvar _ = math.",
"Inf\n\n// This is a compile-time assertion to ensure that this generated file\n// is compatible with the proto package it is being compiled against.",
"\n// A compilation error at this line likely means your copy of the\n// proto package needs to be updated.",
"\nconst _ = proto.",
"ProtoPackageIsVersion2 // please upgrade the proto package\n\n// The `Status` type defines a logical error model that is suitable for different\n// programming environments, including REST APIs and RPC APIs. ",
"It is used by\n// [gRPC](https://github.com/grpc). ",
"The error model is designed to be:\n//\n// - Simple to use and understand for most users\n// - Flexible enough to meet unexpected needs\n//\n// # Overview\n//\n// The `Status` message contains three pieces of data: error code, error message,\n// and error details. ",
"The error code should be an enum value of\n// [google.rpc.",
"Code][google.rpc.",
"Code], but it may accept additional error codes if needed. ",
" The\n// error message should be a developer-facing English message that helps\n// developers *understand* and *resolve* the error. ",
"If a localized user-facing\n// error message is needed, put the localized message in the error details or\n// localize it in the client. ",
"The optional error details may contain arbitrary\n// information about the error. ",
"There is a predefined set of error detail types\n// in the package `google.rpc` that can be used for common error conditions.",
"\n//\n// # Language mapping\n//\n// The `Status` message is the logical representation of the error model, but it\n// is not necessarily the actual wire format. ",
"When the `Status` message is\n// exposed in different client libraries and different wire protocols, it can be\n// mapped differently. ",
"For example, it will likely be mapped to some exceptions\n// in Java, but more likely mapped to some error codes in C.\n//\n// # Other uses\n//\n// The error model and the `Status` message can be used in a variety of\n// environments, either with or without APIs, to provide a\n// consistent developer experience across different environments.",
"\n//\n// Example uses of this error model include:\n//\n// - Partial errors. ",
"If a service needs to return partial errors to the client,\n// it may embed the `Status` in the normal response to indicate the partial\n// errors.",
"\n//\n// - Workflow errors. ",
"A typical workflow has multiple steps. ",
"Each step may\n// have a `Status` message for error reporting.",
"\n//\n// - Batch operations. ",
"If a client uses batch request and batch response, the\n// `Status` message should be used directly inside batch response, one for\n// each error sub-response.",
"\n//\n// - Asynchronous operations. ",
"If an API call embeds asynchronous operation\n// results in its response, the status of those operations should be\n// represented directly using the `Status` message.",
"\n//\n// - Logging. ",
"If some API errors are stored in logs, the message `Status` could\n// be used directly after any stripping needed for security/privacy reasons.",
"\ntype Status struct {\n\t// The status code, which should be an enum value of [google.rpc.",
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"\n\tCode int32 `protobuf:\"varint,1,opt,name=code\" json:\"code,omitempty\"`\n\t// A developer-facing error message, which should be in English. ",
"Any\n\t// user-facing error message should be localized and sent in the\n\t// [google.rpc.",
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"\n\tMessage string `protobuf:\"bytes,2,opt,name=message\" json:\"message,omitempty\"`\n\t// A list of messages that carry the error details. ",
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"Any `protobuf:\"bytes,3,rep,name=details\" json:\"details,omitempty\"`\n}\n\nfunc (m *Status) Reset() { *m = Status{} }\nfunc (m *Status) String() string { return proto.",
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[
"Friday, 30 December 2016\n\nI'm writing this sat in a cafe around the corner from our place, waiting for a toastie and some sweet potato fries to arrive my way. ",
"There's a child which has just started crying which is just what I need right now to think properly, and two woman gossiping across the room from me. ",
"But lets do this, let write this post because I've been meaning to write for a while now and it is indeed drawing to the end of the year.",
"\n\nMy Christmas turned out to be totally amazing. ",
"Loads of time with family and friends, dancing and having a laugh. ",
"I didn't take too many photos over the period - a few on my Diana Mini I think which I'll be hoping to develop in the new year if I have the money. (",
"5 week pay yay)... I've been consistently taken photos around the apartment, it's becoming a bit of an obsession, but I'm really enjoying capturing the sunlight hitting different spots at different points of the day, and just the light the room holds in general.",
"\n\nMe and Tom spent our Boxing Day having a lovely lazy morning of opening presents in bed and then slowly getting ready and having breakfast. ",
"We enjoyed a lovely fresh walk to Penarth, amused by the children wizzing about on their new scooters and hoverboards. ",
"In Penarth we had a lovely variety of food fit for a feast. ",
"Dishes of baked sweet potatoes with chickpeas, a ratatouille dish, plates of cheeses and hams and salads and plenty of dips and sauces. ",
"It was marvelous. ",
"Shortly after the plates were cleared and the dessert finished, the drinking began and so followed the singing and dancing. ",
"It was so much fun.",
"\n\nSo the end of the year is drawing very close. ",
"With my plans pretty non-existent apart from having the girls round tonight for some food (I'm cooking for people eeeek), I'm just kind of enjoying the little things. ",
"Like just having a few days off from work to focus on me time and me and Tom time. ",
"Keeping it simple. ",
"I want to keep writing as much as possible this next month. ",
"I've got more photos to show and eventually more film to develop. ",
"I'm also really trying to use our digital camera more so I'll have even more photos to show you before long. ",
"Internet isn't so much of an issue now that I've realised that I can use our neighbouring cafe for some cheap (delicious) lunch and some internet. ",
"On the 11th January we should hopefully be having our internet set up and then I have the freedom to blog whenever I want!",
"\n\nFinally the photos below are taken in the week drawing up to Christmas. ",
"Cooking, wrapping presents, early mornings and lazing about. ",
"Everything is appriciated at the moment.",
"\n\nSaturday, 24 December 2016\n\nSo its Christmas Eve and we've been living in the apartment for almost two weeks now. ",
"What can I say? ",
"I love it!! ",
"It just feels so right that me and Tom finally have a place of our own. ",
"Getting the apartment to feel finally like home took a few days of moving our own things in and a fair few furniture shops. ",
"I loved making up all the furniture though and finding the right place for all our belongings. ",
"We've done a big food shop now (no longer living off cereal) and are in full cooking swing. ",
"I've had plenty of early mornings where I've snuck out the bedroom and got ready by myself, it still dark outside and everything still and quiet, those are nice as its only a two minute cycle to work. ",
"So far I've made two new foxy friends who were out hunting one morning (foxes are such beautiful creatures). ",
"Boxing Day will be mine and Tom's first day where we're both off and able to have a nice lazy morning together, I can't wait for that to be honest.",
"\n\nSo everything is really good at the moment. ",
"And I'm just back home today to have a lovely meal with my family and then we'll be transporting all my plants over to the apartment ( a delicate procedure).",
"\n\nThis post is just a few pictures I've been taking on our DSLR whilst we were moving in, you can probably tell from things being added and shifted about throughout the photos. ",
"I hope you enjoy and I'll be writing soon hopefully (although we still don't have internet at the apartment). ",
"I want to do one more post just with a couple more pictures of us all settled in and maybe even a post about over the Christmas period.",
"\n\nFriday, 16 December 2016\n\nSo much love for these pictures. ",
"Reminising of sunny summer days on the island of Ibiza. ",
"My first holiday with a friend and inspirational talks with Agnese. ",
"Lazing about on a balcony, dancing all night and doing photoshoots by the sea. ",
"Was a perfect couple of days!"
] |
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"Hasbro's robotic cat is designed to move and act like a real cat.",
"\n\nIt's the first product in Hasbro's Joy For All range, a series of products aimed at the elderly.",
"\n\nWe introduced the robocat to Rosalie, a cat owned by Kirsten Brown, a technology journalist for California-based website Fusion."
] |
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"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
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[
"nuffnang\n\nLilipie - Fifth Birthday\n\ncopyright text\n\nSunday, 26 May 2013\n\nBonne fête des mères / Happy Mothers Day!",
"\n\nToday they are celebrating Bonne fête des mères or Happy Mothers Day back in France. ",
"The good thing about living in different countries, you get to celebrate 3 mothers day and this happens to me. ",
"In Dubai they have mothers day on the 21st of March, then in Malaysia on the 12th of May and finally in France on the 26th of May. So the thing is my hubby was outstationed on both occasions mothers day in Dubai and also mothers day in Malaysia so finally he was here this weekend to celebrate fête des mères or Happy Mothers Day with the family :)\n\nSo here is a photo of us at the restaurant just below our building. ",
"Had a wonderful dinner and I ate with all my heart and I enjoyed my 'Kitchen Free\" weekend with all my heart :)\n\nAnd here is the newly opened restaurant Al Finique just below our building that we had them yummylicious dinner :)\n\nAnd to top it all hubby got me a Mothers Day gift and it's something I have been secretly admiring since it was launced last year, and here it is the new addition to my Photography hobby and also my numerous camera collection Miss all perfect, Samsung Galaxy Camera :)\nNow I dont have to haul the heavy and bulky Nikon D300 anymore when travelling alone with miss M coz this little miss is as light as a feather :) Merci mon coeur et Je t'aime :)\n\nFirst few photos taken using this camera ,just around our apartment building.",
"\nEnjoy!",
"\n\nAnd spend some time scrapbooking using digikits I bought from GoDigital\n\nHappy Mothers day!",
"\n\nAnd happy mothers day to my dearest mom et je voudrais souhaiter à ma belle-mère (MIL) fête des mèresand finally to my beloved granmother who left us 11 years ago, you are not here with us but you are never forgotten,Happy mothers day to you too dearest mummy-nenek!Je t'aime!À bientôt\n\nHappy Days! ",
"Happy Chinese New Year 2012\n-\n[image: Vege 1]\nAlmost everyday of Chinese New year I ate the same food like above.",
"\n[image: family 1]\nme & my family during 1st day of CNY\n[image: family 2]...\n\nBaby #3 :)\n\nAbout Me\n\nA Sabahan married to a French and currently residing in Versailles, France. ",
"Our Globe Trotting life have brought us to many places and experiences and has open our minds for us to suck up on the different cultures, languages and foods that we came across in our journey . ",
"All this has prompt us both to write and document everything that we have encountered so far in our lives as a couple and now as a growing family. ",
"Hopefully by sharing our experiences to all will help somehow to prepare someone on their own journey to these places that we have been :)\nWith this renewed hope, i would also hope to hear some feedback and sharing of new tips and skills that everyone can share and apply in their daily life. ",
"Happy blogging and happy viewing to everyone :)\n\nParis Je T'aime!",
"\n\nLearning French Everyday! :)",
"\n\nMy Clocks\n\nmy tail gaters :)\n\nParis Weather\n\nBloggers.com\n\nSearch Me Do!",
"\n\nCounting Crows :-)\n\nDisclosure Policy\n\nDisclosure Policy\nThis policy is valid from 1 Febuary 2009 This blog is a personal blog written and edited by me. ",
"This blog does not accept any form of advertising, sponsorship, or paid insertions. ",
"We write for our own purposes. ",
"However, we may be influenced by our background, occupation, religion, political affiliation or experience. ",
"This blog abides by word of mouth marketing standards. ",
"We believe in honesty of relationship, opinion and identity. ",
"The compensation received may influence the advertising content, topics or posts made in this blog. ",
"That content, advertising space or post will be clearly identified as paid or sponsored content. ",
"The owner(s) of this blog is not compensated to provide opinion on products, services, websites and various other topics. ",
"The views and opinions expressed on this blog are purely the blog owners. ",
"If we claim or appear to be experts on a certain topic or product or service area, we will only endorse products or services that we believe, based on our expertise, are worthy of such endorsement. ",
"Any product claim, statistic, quote or other representation about a product or service should be verified with the manufacturer or provider. ",
"This blog does not contain any content which might present a conflict of interest. ",
"To get your own policy, go to http://www.disclosurepolicy.org"
] |
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[
"Q:\n\ninvalid_grant Returned using Service Account and Google Drive API\n\nI've spent 2 days messing around with various Drive API tutorials using a Service Account.",
"\nThe most recent tutorial i used was this one: https://developers.google.com/drive/delegation\nI keep getting this error when trying to upload a file:\nProtocolException was unhandled\nError occurred while sending a direct message or getting the response.",
"\n\nI installed Fiddler and determined that when POST /o/oauth2/token was returning:\n{\n \"error:\"invalid_grant\"\n}\n\nI have already triple+ checked the scope of my application.",
"\nWhat am I doing wrong?",
"\n\nA:\n\nTurns out the time on my server was 5 min fast.",
"\nWhen I corrected the time on the server everything worked.",
"\nI believe this was causing some kind of authentication issue because the Google Server time didn't accept the timestamp of the request coming from my server or something along those lines...\n(Hope this saves someone some head banging)\n\n"
] |
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"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
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[
"Background:The incidence of obesity in females ≥15 years of age in Egypt is one of the highest all over the world (33%)we investigated the impact of increased BMI on breast cancer incidence and survival. ",
"Methods:we reviewed files for 1873 female patients with breast cancer, presented at ACOD, from Jan. 1996 to Dec. 2005. , ",
"only 907 were eligible BMI of every patient was calculated and four groups were formed.",
"The duration of follow-up was calculated from the date of registration to the date of death or last follow-up. ",
"The locoregional control period was between the end of treatment and failure of local control at 5 years or death or last follow-up OS was measured as the interval between the beginning of treatment and death or last follow-up evaluation. ",
"Results: patients were classified into 4 groups, the first group included 100 patients of BMI less than 18.5, the second group including 299 patients of BMI more than or equal to 18.5 and less than 25, the third group including 336 patients of BMI more than or equal to 25 and less than 30, and the fourth group including 172 patients of BMI more than 30. ",
"the highest peak of breast cancer incidence was in the age group 55-65 years (32.4%), while the lowest incidence was in the age group more than 65 (8.6%). ",
"Obese patients had the tendency to have breast cancer in younger age than normal weight patients with a mean of 38.6 years vs. 58.6 years. ",
"results showed that over weight patients constituted more than 37% while obese patients only constituted 19 %, normal weight 33% and underweight 11%. ",
"In our study, the majority of cases were staged as stage II and III (42.6 and 45.9 % respectively). ",
"Only 10.2% of patients in our series were recorded with stage IV; most of them were obese.",
"Patients with increased BMI, in our study, had a significantly lower DFS ( p < 0.013).there was a statistically significant correlation between overall survival and BMI of patients (p=0.0015); there was an increase in mortality with increasing BMI. ",
"Conclusions: Our results report an increase in the incidence of breast cancer in overweight and obese patients in our population. ",
"Patients with high BMI were diagnosed at younger age, had more advanced stage and a statistically significant lower DFS & OS as compared to normal weight patients."
] |
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"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
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"In home entertainment systems, it is known to include a device, sometimes called a Digital Video Recorder (DVR) or Personal Video Recorder (PVR), to allow home television subscribers to record television programming for viewing at a time that is more convenient for the subscriber. ",
"To support this function, a DVR may present a user interface through which a user may enter recording requests for one or more programs. ",
"The device may maintain a list of such requests and, at an appropriate time, record television information.",
"\nConventional DVR's support multiple formats by which a user may enter a request for recording. ",
"A user may enter a date, time, duration and channel for recording. ",
"At the specified time, the DVR may control a tuner to tune to the specified channel and record television information for the indicated duration.",
"\nAlternatively, a DVR may have access to an Electronic Program Guide (EPG). ",
"The EPG may indicate the time and channel during which programs are presented by television service providers. ",
"The DVR may use the EPG to offer a menu of recording options, allowing a user to input a recording request by identifying a program by name. ",
"The DVR may then relate the program name to a date, time, duration and channel for recording.",
"\nUse of an EPG to relate a program name to a specific date, time, duration and channel also supports requests specified in other ways. ",
"A user, for example, may specify recording a series of programs. ",
"The DVR can access the EPG to find each instance of that program that is scheduled. ",
"Also, use of the EPG may allow the DVR to accept a keyword from the user and identify programs described in the EPG by the specified keyword."
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"pile_set_name": "USPTO Backgrounds"
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[
"Deccan Education Society\n\nThe Deccan Education Society is an organisation that runs 43 education establishments in Maharashtra, India. ",
"Its main branch is situated in Pune.",
"\n\nHistory \nIn 1880 Vishnushastri Chiplunkar, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Gopal Ganesh Agarkar established the New English School, one of the first native-run schools offering Western education in Pune. ",
"In 1884 they created the Deccan Education Society with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev Ballal Namjoshi, V. S. Apte, V. B. Kelkar, M. S. Gole and N. K. Dharap\n\nIn 1885, the society established Fergusson College, named after the then Governor of Bombay presidency Sir James Fergusson. ",
"The college was initially operated out of Gadre Wada in Shaniwar peth area of Pune. ",
"At its inception, the college was the first indigenously run higher-education institution in Pune. ",
"In its early years Tilak and Agharkar served as academic staff. ",
"Congress party leader, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and social reformer, Dhondo Keshav Karve were also life members of the society and taught at the college in the 1890s.",
"\n\nThe society established many schools and colleges in pune and other towns during following decades such as New English school of Satara in 1899. ",
"The society took over the Mawjee Madhavjee English School in Umbergaon in 1919, and the Dravid High School of Wai in 1934. ",
"In 1919, the society opened the Willingdon College in Sangli in order to satisfy demand for higher education in southern Maharashtra region. ",
"In 1939, the Society deceded to enter the field of secondary education for girls by starting the Ahilyadevi High School for Girls in the historic premises of the Holkar Wada in Pune. ",
"In 1943, the society started the Brihan Maharashtra College of Commerce, for which the Brihan Maharashtra Sugar Syndicate Ltd. gave to the Society a donation of Rs. ",
"2,00,000. ",
"Rulers of many Princely states such as Bhor and Sangli were patrons of the society.",
"\n\nInstitutions \nInstitutes run by the Deccan Education Society include:\n\nSee also \n Maharashtra Education Society\n\nExternal links\n\nReferences\n11. ",
"Fegusson college official website - http://www.fergusson.edu/blocks/index/id/5\n\nCategory:Educational organisations in Maharashtra\nCategory:Bal Gangadhar Tilak\nCategory:Deccan Education Society"
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"[Provision of quality control in hemoglobin studies].",
"\nHemolysate with 30% of ethylene glycol was used for plotting calibration graph and for calibration of micropipets employed in blood collection and hemoglobin determination. ",
"The hemolysate was treated for 20 days; statistical characteristics were determined (mean value, root-mean-square deviation, coefficient of variations). ",
"A control chart was plotted for every laboratory assistant engaged in blood collection and measurement of hemoglobin concentration. ",
"Errors possible in estimation of hemoglobin concentration at clinical diagnostic laboratories are analyzed."
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"Health Pledge\n\nDear Friends,\nLife and living is a conscious choice. ",
"Our sickness, diseased conditions are creation of our own self and we only have the power to overcome it and lead to a happy and healthy life. ",
"We may at times need support of experts to do so but surpassing is only and only in our own hands. ",
"By being healthy and happy, not just we can live a life of our own dreams, we can also be the inspirations to many other lives. ",
"There's Hero in each of us.",
"\n\nToday, from this moment we all take a Pledge that we will together do whatever needed to invoke our power of within, our own Hero and live a life of our own aspirations.",
"Dr. Sejal Sanghavi\n\nMy Pledge To Live Healthy Life\n\nToday is the most important day of my life. ",
"Today I am deciding to live a healthy life from now on.. Today I am deciding to remove all mental, emotional and physical sickness from my life and do everything to prevent them to best possible extent in future.",
"\n\nMy health is important for me. ",
"It is important for my own life, my success, my happiness and my meaningful living. ",
"My being healthy is also as well important for my family and my loved ones. ",
"I realize that slightest symptoms of disease or uncomforting indicate some disturbance at all levels and I have to make timely, judicious decisions & efforts to restore my health. ",
"It is for my good to cultivate attitude of healthy living and I would do all to cultivate the same.",
"\n\nToday I Pledge that I will -\n\nMake good health a priority of my life.",
"\n\nKeep the determination and commitment to cultivate attitude of healthy living.",
"\n\nNeither be too anxious nor too casual about my health.",
"\n\nHave a positive lifestyle and organized life.",
"\n\nCreate and maintain healthy environment around myself.",
"\n\nDo all that is needed in balanced manner to take curative and preventive measures for my healthy mind, healthy emotions and healthy body.",
"\n\nLearn to prevent and manage stress.",
"\n\nBecome icon of healthy living myself and inspire others to the same.",
"\n\nI pledge today to live in good health for myself and my loved ones\n\nUpcoming Events\n\nDate: 4th Feb, 2014: World Cancer Day\nCancer is a leading cause of death around the world, according to WHO, which estimates that 84 million people will die of cancer between 2005 and 2015 without intervention. ",
"Read More\n\nDate: 14th March, 2014: World Kidney Day\nWorld Kidney Day was first celebrated in 2006, and from that date on, the world still celebrates this world day with a different theme and certain massages every year. ",
"Read More"
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"#ifndef _HVM_H\n#define _HVM_H\n\n/** @file\n *\n * Xen HVM driver\n *\n */\n\nFILE_LICENCE ( GPL2_OR_LATER_OR_UBDL );\n\n#include <stdint.h>\n#include <ipxe/xen.h>\n#include <xen/hvm/hvm_op.h>\n#include <xen/hvm/params.h>\n\n/** Minimum CPUID base */\n#define HVM_CPUID_MIN 0x40000000UL\n\n/** Maximum CPUID base */\n#define HVM_CPUID_MAX 0x4000ff00UL\n\n/** Increment between CPUID bases */\n#define HVM_CPUID_STEP 0x00000100UL\n\n/** Magic signature */\n#define HVM_CPUID_MAGIC \"XenVMMXenVMM\"\n\n/** Get Xen version */\n#define HVM_CPUID_VERSION 1\n\n/** Get number of hypercall pages */\n#define HVM_CPUID_PAGES 2\n\n/** PCI MMIO BAR */\n#define HVM_MMIO_BAR PCI_BASE_ADDRESS_1\n\n/** A Xen HVM device */\nstruct hvm_device {\n\t/** Xen hypervisor */\n\tstruct xen_hypervisor xen;\n\t/** CPUID base */\n\tuint32_t cpuid_base;\n\t/** Length of hypercall table */\n\tsize_t hypercall_len;\n\t/** MMIO base address */\n\tunsigned long mmio;\n\t/** Current offset within MMIO address space */\n\tsize_t mmio_offset;\n\t/** Length of MMIO address space */\n\tsize_t mmio_len;\n};\n\n/**\n * Get HVM parameter value\n *\n * @v xen\t\tXen hypervisor\n * @v index\t\tParameter index\n * @v value\t\tValue to fill in\n * @ret xenrc\t\tXen status code\n */\nstatic inline int xen_hvm_get_param ( struct xen_hypervisor *xen,\n\t\t\t\t unsigned int index, uint64_t *value ) {\n\tstruct xen_hvm_param param;\n\tint xenrc;\n\n\tparam.domid = DOMID_SELF;\n\tparam.index = index;\n\txenrc = xen_hypercall_2 ( xen, __HYPERVISOR_hvm_op, HVMOP_get_param,\n\t\t\t\t virt_to_phys ( ¶m ) );\n\t*value = param.value;\n\treturn xenrc;\n}\n\n#endif /* _HVM_H */\n"
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[
"11.30am: Good morning. ",
"Here are the latest WikiLeaks developments:\n\n• Swiss banking whistleblower Rudolf Elmer is in London today, where he intends to give WikiLeaks the \"offshore banking secrets of the rich and famous\" ahead of trial later this week in Switzerland. ",
"From the Observer's story yesterday:\n\nBritish and American individuals and companies are among the offshore clients whose details will be contained on CDs presented to WikiLeaks at the Frontline Club in London. ",
"Those involved include, Elmer tells the Observer, \"approximately 40 politicians\". ",
"Elmer, who after his press conference will return to Switzerland from exile in Mauritius to face trial, is a former chief operating officer in the Cayman Islands and employee of the powerful Julius Baer bank, which accuses him of stealing the information\n\n• Julian Assange has said it is \"no coincidence\" he gave cables from the US's embassy in The Hague to two Dutch media organisations. ",
"Dutch MPs are about to vote on whether to participate in a Nato police training mission in Afghanistan. ",
"Assange said: \"If there is relevant material, it has to come out before they do.\"",
"\n\nOne story to come out so far is that Dutch civil servants urged US officials to pressure former Labour party leader Wouter Bos to support a continued military mission in Afghanistan. \"",
"They complain 'he just doesn't get it',\" the cables says of the Dutch officials attitude to Bos.",
"\n\nThe US ambassador, Hartog Levin, suggested the following tactic for the Pittsburgh G20 summit in her cable back to Washington (pdf):\n\nA pull-aside for Bos by a senior USG official such as NSA General Jones at the Pittsburgh Summit would be beneficial. ",
"It would make Bos aware of how important we view international leadership -- measured by a country's actions across the board. ",
"A pull-aside would also demonstrate to Prime Minister Balkenende our support for his efforts to get Cabinet approval of continued Dutch deployment\n\nIf you can read Dutch (or skip the Dutch and read the English quotes) RTL has a page on the Netherlands and the G20, with pdfs of relevant cables.",
"\n\n• Question: what links Muammar Gaddafi and Teresa Scanlan, winner of Miss America 2011? ",
"The answer is they both made strong statements over the weekend against WikiLeaks.",
"\n\nGaddafi blamed the Tunisia uprising on cables written by \"ambassadors in order to create chaos\". ",
"In answer to a question on WikiLeaks at the pageant, Scanlan, who (more conventionally) also played the piano and wore a bikini, said the release of the cables \"was actually based on espionage, and when it comes to the security of our nation, we have to focus on security first and then people's right to know.\"",
"\n\n• Here is a link to Friday's WikiLeaks blog.",
"\n\n11.50am: The Elmer press conference is underway at the Frontline Club in London. ",
"You can watch it streaming on Frontline's website or its ustream channel.",
"\n\n12.03pm: Esther Addley tweets that Assange has arrived at the Elmer press conference and is fighting through banks of cameras to get to the microphone.",
"\n\n12.11pm: Assange is now talking: he is explaining how Julius Baer, Elmer's former bank, tried to use a US court in 2008 to take down the WikiLeaks.org domain. ",
"He said it was then WikiLeaks realised that the techniques it had developed to deal with Chinese censorship would be needed for operating in western countries too.",
"\n\nThe bank lost their injunction on first ammendment (freedom of speech) grounds with WikiLeaks supported in the case by US campaigners and media organisations, Assange tells the conference. ",
"He compares this to what he calls the \"McCarthyist\" state of play today.",
"\n\n12.12pm: Interesting: Assange says he does not know if Elmer is WikiLeaks' source or not. ",
"He says WikiLeaks is structured in such a way to make that impossible to know.",
"\n\n12.16pm: Elmer holds up the two CDs of data he is to hand over to WikiLeaks. ",
"He says his relationship is not with Assange but with WikiLeaks (\"I'll say it again. ",
"WikiLeaks,\" he says) and his intention is not to reveal individual's names but to get the information looked at. ",
"Elmer also adds that he is taking full responsibility for the data. ",
"Assange is asked when the information will be released - he says it depends how long it takes to deal with, that the organisation is \"attending to other matters\".",
"\n\nAssange says he won't be taking questions on his own legal process as it is Elmer's press conference – and the Swiss whistleblower himself has a court date this week.",
"\n\n12.36pm: The press conference to hand over the Swiss banking data - containing the offshore account details of 2,000 prominent people and companies - is now over, but here is a summary of some of Assange's later answers.",
"\n\n• Assange says he wants to go the \"safe route\" and have professionals look at the Elmer CDs; he also says WikiLeaks has found \"sources need to be protected before the information is passed out to others.\"",
"\n\n• He says some journalists can be opportunists who \"twist and hype up the material and distort the historical record\" so WikiLeaks makes \"primary source documents available so honest journalists rise high and dishonest journalists struggle.\"",
"\n\n• He is also asked about the embassy cables release. ",
"Assange says 2.3% has been released and the process will continue over the coming months.",
"\n\n• Assange says WikiLeaks has had more legal threats from banks \"than any other organisations\". (",
"Update Elmer said of the Swiss banking system: \"I started pulling on the tail of a mouse and it became a fire-breathing dragon.\")",
"\n\n2.17pm: There is some scepticism in the comments and it is probably worth pointing out that, for the moment, only Elmer knows what is on the CDs. ",
"WikiLeaks presumably won't until its people have had a look at them. ",
"So despite this morning's events at the Frontline Club, which proves if nothing else that Assange is still in business, we don't really know how dramatic or not their contents will be.",
"\n\n2.45pm: Gregg Mitchell at the Nation reports that Norway's Aftenposten, which was leaked a set of the cables, has shared its cache with more media organisations. ",
"Die Welt, the German paper, has been named and there are three more to come, a contact at the paper tells him.",
"\n\nThe Aftenposten set has also been shared with Politilken in Denmark, Svenska Dagbladet in Sweden and the Dutch broadcaster RTL and newspaper NRC Handelsblad, as mentioned below.",
"\n\nKeen readers may note that Assange has also said he gave the cables to the Dutch pair.",
"\n\n5.03pm: Cables published by the Swedish press have disclosed that the US made efforts to get two Swedish companies - Colenco and Mahacos - from working with Iran on civilian nuclear reactors.",
"\n\n5.30pm: There is a Canada connection to the Iranian nuclear programme too. ",
"In August 2009, the US told its Ottawa embassy to pressure the Canadian government into blocking the sale of Canadian company Forsys, owner of a uranium mine in Namibia, to Belgium company GFI. ",
"Washington feared that if GFI bought Forsys, Iran was more likely to be supplied with the uranium it sought.",
"\n\nThe Forsys deal collapsed that month and is now the subject of lawsuits between the two sides. ",
"Canada's Globe and Mail (which has the story following an Aftenposten cable release) notes that what happened is still the subject of some dispute:\n\nGFI's takeover of Forsys died for old-fashioned business reasons in August 2009 – because GFI missed several deadlines for transferring the money to pay for the takeover. ",
"But it's not clear whether Industry Canada's intervention to put the deal on hold a week earlier scuttled GFI's attempts to finance it.",
"\n\n6.40pm: Assange and Elmer at the WikiLeaks press conference.",
"\n\nThat's all for this blog today. ",
"Back tomorrow."
] |
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"In the short time I see Wild live in action, the main character – a fully-customisable shaman (like a doctor but a bit more magical) – is out on a mission to save a poisoned friend. ",
"You might have seen this in Sony’s conference at Paris Games Week but what you didn’t see was creator Michel Ancel and his friend take control of a baby wild boar. ",
"But I did and I lost my mind.",
"\n\n“This was meant to be just a video but I really wanted to show you how the gameplay works live,” Ancel tells a roomful of journalists while his assistant leaves his shaman’s body and takes control of a massive, brown bear before running down a hillside, while an eagle flies overhead carrying a panicking snake. ",
"This is Wild and for the first time in a long while, it really feels like I’m seeing something new.",
"\n\n“Every animal has its own specific movements but most will have a stealth mode, too.”",
"\n\n“ it really feels like I’m seeing something new.",
"\n\n“We’re not sure yet but one cool thing is that if you take control of a pack’s Alpha, you can then command the entire pack to help you.”",
"\n\nAncel’s assistant takes control of the shaman again and points out just how huge the map is, but insists that the size of the world is there for us to do with what we will.",
"\n\nLoading\n\n“Some people like to explore in games and continually find new areas, others may like to just stay in one place… it’s up to you to make your own stories.”",
"\n\nThis idea of a unique story will start early in Wild too. ",
"You’ll take control of your shaman when they’re a child, choose the sex and appearance and start your journey. ",
"The tattoos we see on the shaman in the demo are indications of that particular shaman's journey, each representative of a story from his life.",
"\n\n“ The tattoos we see on the shaman in the demo are indications of that particular shaman's journey\n\nAncel insists that every story will be different too and he reveals that players may find themselves starting out in a completely different part of the world to others, ensuring that everybody’s experiences are different.",
"\n\nThe subject of multiplayer is broached and Ancel manages to open up the world even further by telling us that you’ll be able to invite players into your world or enter theirs in a way similar to Bloodborne.",
"\n\n“In Bloodborne, players can enter your world and help you or choose to take you on. ",
"We wanted to do that in Wild so that real people can enhance your story.”",
"\n\nThe Bloodborne comparison isn’t immediately apparent in Wild’s colorful and welcoming world, but then the sun sets and in the distance we hear some ominous chanting and I’m back in The Unseen Village of Yahar’gul. ",
"It turns out the Wild chanting is coming from a cannibal tribe who I watch get infiltrated by the cutest bunny rabbit ever before Ancel and his assistant turn a bunch of crows on them.",
"\n\nThis idea that you can control the animals to your own end is one that will feature heavily in the game but again and it will be totally different for everyone. ",
"I can see myself, for example, whacking every tiny bit of effort into becoming King of the Wolves and ensuring that the wolves eat every snake, because you can never trust a snake. ",
"You on the other hand might be all about the snakes, and so your world might be overrun with the slithering Judas’. ",
"If it turns out I need some snakes for a mission, I can always call on my good friend, Monsieur Snake Charmer, to bring some snakes into my world and while you’re here, why not take some wolves back with you for the kids?",
"\n\nIt’s all about giving the tools to the player to make their own fun. ",
"It’s not an entirely new concept, it feels like gaming has been pushing in that direction for some time but Wild actually feels like it’s taken the idea to a place we haven’t seen before.",
"\n\nThere’s a particularly senior, curmudgeonly journalist in the room with us that doesn’t get this concept whatsoever:\n\n“... but… what is the end goal of the game? ",
"Are there objectives?”",
"\n\nAncel insists that there will be goals in the game but they’ll be incredibly open and once again, they’ll be different for every single person.",
"\n\n“We’re releasing Wild exclusively on Playstation which has a unique ‘Share’ button on every gamepad. ",
"What is the point of having that if people are going to share the same thing? ",
"You want to give players something unique that they’ll want to ‘Share’ with their friends and that’s what we’re trying to do with Wild.”",
"\n\nIf I can fulfill my dream of becoming King of the Wolves, I’ll be sharing that experience with just about anybody that will listen.",
"\n\nGav Murphy enjoys digging up mosquitoes fossilized in tree sap and cloning dinosaurs from the blood he finds inside. ",
"If you’ve got any dino DNA, give him a shout on twitter."
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"The novel coronavirus disease 2019, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, is continuing to spread. ",
"Children and newborns generally are asymptomatic or can present with atypical symptoms, such as low grade fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, mild fatigue, and cough without any signs of pneumonia or shortness of breath. ",
"Due to these subdued symptoms, patients can end up visiting outpatient healthcare centres multiple times before becoming a confirmed case, which contributes to the spread of the virus.^[@r1]--[@r3]^\n\nStudies in patients with mild to moderate coronavirus disease 2019 symptoms have suggested benefits of hydroxychloroquine alone or in combination with azithromycin against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and raised hope for treating the disease.^[@r4]^ Although hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin are generally well-tolerated medications used in clinical practice, both can cause corrected QT prolongation.^[@r5],[@r6]^ However, most of the studies and reviews are based on adult data so that studies are needed to evaluate the effects of these medications on children's cardiovascular system.",
"\n\nIn this study, we aimed to characterise the risk and degree of QT prolongation in children with coronavirus disease 2019 in association with their usage of hydroxychloroquine with or without concomitant azithromycin.",
"\n\nMaterials and methods {#s1}\n=====================\n\nThis was a single-centre retrospective study evaluating children with coronavirus disease 2019 who were hospitalised at the Pediatric Department at Sancaktepe Training and Research Hospital Istanbul, Turkey. ",
"The data including demographics, clinical symptoms, severity of disease, co-morbid diseases, laboratory and radiological findings (chest X-ray and CT imaging) as well as electrocardiograms of the patients were obtained retrospectively from hospital records. ",
"We included patients admitted between 10 March, and 10 May, 2020, who received 5 days of hydroxychloroquine with or without concomitant azithromycin while inpatients and at least one positive coronavirus disease 2019 nasopharyngeal polymerase chain reaction test. ",
"Electrocardiograms were manually evaluated before, one day after and at the termination of the treatment which were compared consequently. ",
"The standard regimen was 400 mg of hydroxychloroquine twice on day 1, then 400 mg daily on days 2 through 5. ",
"Azithromycin was given once 500 mg at the first day and 250 mg once a daily for the other four days. ",
"Electrocardiograms were manually evaluated by our clinic's paediatric cardiologist to calculate corrected QT intervals using the Bazett formula and so-called excess correction method for QRS values greater than 120 milliseconds. ",
"Standard 12-lead electrocardiogram tracing at 25 mm/s paper speed at 10 mm/mV amplitude was used for accurate measurement of QT interval duration. ",
"QT interval was determined as a mean value derived from at least 4 cardiac cycles and measured from the beginning of the earliest onset of the QRS complex to the end of the T wave. ",
"The QT measurement was made in leads II and V~5~ or V~6~, with the longest value being used. ",
"If there were T and U waves that are close together, we identified the end of the T wave when it is descending limb returns to the TP segment (TP) baseline that it is not followed by a U wave or it is distinct from the following U wave. ",
"When T-wave deflections of equal or near-equal amplitude result in a biphasic T wave, the QT interval is measured to the time of final return to baseline. ",
"End points of interest were changes in corrected QT higher than 60 milliseconds between consecutive electrocardiograms, development of prolonged corrected QT interval to 500 milliseconds or more, and documented adverse drug events, in the cohort receiving only hydroxychloroquine and hydroxychloroquine plus azithromycin.",
"\n\nStatistical analysis {#s1-1}\n--------------------\n\nNominal data were described using proportions. ",
"Normally distributed discrete data were described with means and medians; and minimums and maximums were used to represent data that were not normally distributed. ",
"Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 25.0 (IBM, Armonk, New York, USA).",
"\n\nResults {#s2}\n=======\n\nA total of 21 patients suspected for coronavirus disease 2019 infection aged 9 to 18 years were evaluated. ",
"The median age was 170 months (range 112--214). % ",
"51, 1 (n = 12) of them were girls and % 48, 9 (n = 9) were boys. ",
"None of patients were critically ill at the time of testing. ",
"None of patients had cardiovascular co-morbidity, and they were not taking corrected QT prolonging medications. ",
"Two of them were asthmatic and one of them had epilepsy. ",
"Coughing was the most common symptom encountered. ",
"16 (76.1%) of the patients had cough as a symptom with other symptoms like fever, loss of smell, malaise, diarrhoea and vomiting. ",
"Their laboratory test results at admission were insignificant and are depicted in Table [1](#tbl1){ref-type=\"table\"}. ",
"However, all were tested positive for coronavirus disease 2019 nasopharyngeal polymerase chain reaction test. ",
"Fifteen patients had ground-glass opacities and air space consolidations on their chest X-rays. ",
"Twelve of them had also ground-glass opacities on their CT images. ",
"Two patients received hydroxychloroquine, and 19 (90.4 %) received hydroxychloroquine plus azithromycin. ",
"The baseline corrected QT values, values one day after the treatment, and at the termination of the treatment are all shown in the table. ",
"After the onset of treatment, patients had a mean Δ corrected QT of 0.8 milliseconds compared with the baseline electrocardiograms, whereas after the termination of the treatment mean Δ corrected QT was 4.9 milliseconds. ",
"One of the patients receiving hydroxychloroquine plus azithromycin developed prolonged corrected QT of 55 milliseconds more than the previous electrocardiogram. ",
"Patient's baseline corrected QT was 361 milliseconds which turned out to be 416 milliseconds after the treatment. ",
"However, the third electrocardiogram revealed a corrected QT of 384 milliseconds. ",
"As the ΔQTc was under 60 milliseconds, we did not change the course of the treatment of the patient.",
"\n\nTable 1.Demographics, laboratory, radiological findings and corrected QT values of the patientsCharacteristicsTotal (n = 21)Hydroxychloroquine (n = 2)Hydroxychloroquine and\\\nazithromycin (n = 19)Age (month) mean (median, min, max)170 (170, 112, 214)183 (193, 159, 206)169 (170, 112, 214)Female (%)12 (57.1)1 (50)11 (52.3)BMI mean (median, min, max)23.7 (22.9, 17.1, 35.5)27.5 (27.25, 19.5, 35)23.3 (22.9, 17.1, 35.5)Baseline laboratory, values, median, (min, max) White blood cell count, cells/μL7400 (3500, 17100)8550 (5500, 11600)7400 (3500, 17100) Neutrophil/lymphocytes, mean2.722,7 Platelet × 1000262 (159, 407)308 (278, 339)255 (159, 407) Haemoglobin, g/dl13.1 (10.6,16,3)13.8 (12.2, 15.5)13.1 (10.6, 16,3) C-reactive protein, mg/dl1.04 (0, 0.9)0.37 (0.01, 0.73)1.12 (0, 0. ",
"9) Serum creatinine, mg/dl0.66 (0.57, 1.02)0.66 (0.6, 0.73)0.66 (0.57, 1.02) D-dimer, μg/mL mean, (min, max)0.1 (0, 0.73)0 (0, 0, 0)0.11 (0, 0.73) Troponin, pg/ml0.7 (0, 16, 9)0.9 (0.6, 1.2)1.66 (0, 16.9) Magnesium, mg/dl1.98 (1.7, 2.31)2.08 (1.88, 2.28)1.98 (1.7, 2.31) Potassium, mmol/l4.2 (3.8, 5.2)4.3 (4.1, 4.5)4.2 (3.8, 5.2) Calcium, mg/dl8.9 (7.5, 10)8.5 (8.5, 8.5)9 (7.5, 10.2)Radiographic findings Chest X-ray findings of pneumonia (%)15 (71.4)2 (100)13 (68.4) CT findings of pneumonia (%)12 (57.1)2 (100)12 (52.6)Electrocardiogram (ms), mean, median, min, max Baseline QTc408 (410, 357, 486)440 (440, 395,486)405 (410, 357, 433) Post-treatment QTc396 (400, 356, 450)415 (415, 404, 426)394 (395, 356, 450) ΔQTc pre- versus post-treatment-8 (-7, -84, 51)-35 (-35, -84, 13)-5 (-7, -52, 51) ΔQTc pre-treatment versus one day after the treatment0.6 (-1, -86, 55)-46 (-46, -86, -7)5.6 (4, -35, 55)BMI calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in metres squaredAbbreviations: BMI = body mass index; ΔQTc = change in corrected QT interval\n\nAlthough the baseline corrected QT was shorter in patients receiving combined azithromycin and hydroxychloroquine than the patients receiving only hydroxychloroquine (median 410 \\[357--433\\] milliseconds versus 440 \\[395--486\\] milliseconds) neither the patients receiving hydroxychloroquine monotherapy, nor the ones receiving hydroxychloroquine plus azithromycin developed prolonged corrected QT of 500 milliseconds or more during or after the termination of medications. ",
"ΔQTc was under 60 milliseconds for all of the patients. ",
"We did not find a relation between the patients receiving concomitant azithromycin compared with those taking hydroxychloroquine alone in terms of Δ corrected QT just after the initiation of the therapy as well as at the termination of it. ",
"Data of corrected QT of individuals receiving hydroxychloroquine plus azithromycin at baseline and one day after use of drugs as well as baseline and at the termination of the treatment are shown in the Figure [1](#f1){ref-type=\"fig\"}.",
"\n\nFigure 1.QTc values of the individuals on hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin at the baseline and one day after the treatment (A), baseline and at the termination of the treatment (B) (QTc = corrected QT interval; QTc 2 = QTc one day after the treatment).",
"\n\nDiscussion {#s3}\n==========\n\nHydroxychloroquine is structurally and mechanically similar to the class The Vaughan Williams classification of an antiarrythmic agent (IA) antiarrhythmic quinidine, which inhibits voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels, prolonging the QT interval and increasing the risk of Torsades de pointes and sudden cardiac death.^[@r5]^ Azithromycin also has been implicated in corrected QT prolongation and proarrhythmic events.^[@r7]^ In a systematic review studying the arrhythmogenic cardiotoxicity of the quinoline and structurally related antimalarial drugs, in total, 177 articles enrolling a total of 39,960 participants were included. ",
"There were no sudden deaths attributed to cardiac arrhythmias recorded in the \\> 35,000 individuals who received the quinoline and structurally related anti-malarials in the 177 clinical trials included. ",
"Despite vast use of chloroquine over the last six decades, only 1076 participants in 17 studies of chloroquine underwent electrocardiogram investigation. ",
"Total number of studies which included children were 6.^[@r8]^ Chloroquine is the most widely used anti-malarial drug in history. ",
"It has a terminal elimination half-life of one month and an annual consumption of hundreds of tons for over 50 years, so it may be the drug to which humans have been exposed to most.^[@r9]^ Despite producing consistent QT prolongation, the only case reports of Torsades de pointes and sudden death have been for its use for non-malaria indications such as systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis, where high doses are used for much longer than in malaria treatment, or in overdose.^[@r5]^ Combined use of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin was associated with a higher risk of dose-dependent QT prolongation than hydroxychroloquine monotherapy. ",
"The maximal mean prolongation with the co administration of azithromycin 500, 1000, and 1500 mg was 5 milliseconds (95% upper confidence interval: 10 milliseconds), 7 milliseconds (95% upper confidence interval: 12 ms), and 9 milliseconds (95% upper confidence interval: 14 milliseconds), respectively.^[@r10]^ There are also conflicting results regarding azithromycin and QTc interval. ",
"Dunker et al. ",
"reported that they had observed no significant change in QTc interval monitoring with baseline or follow-up electrocardiogram monitoring among patients receiving azithromycin.^[@r11]^ Two hundred one patients were treated for coronavirus disease 2019 with chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine on a study conducted on March 2020. ",
"The study revealed that in the largest reported cohort of coronavirus disease 2019 patients to date treated with chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine (plus minus) azithromycin, no instances of Torsades de pointes or arrhythmogenic death were reported. ",
"Although use of these medications resulted in QT prolongation, clinicians seldom needed to discontinue therapy.^[@r12]^ However, on the contrary, a study published in May 2020 showed that patients who received hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of pneumonia associated with coronavirus disease 2019 were at high risk of corrected QT prolongation, and concurrent treatment with azithromycin was associated with greater changes in corrected QT. ",
"Among 90 patients given hydroxychloroquine, 53 received concomitant azithromycin. ",
"Seven patients (19%) who received hydroxychloroquine monotherapy developed prolonged corrected QT of 500 milliseconds or more, and three patients (3%) had a change in corrected QT of 60 milliseconds or more. ",
"Of those who received concomitant azithromycin, 11 of 53 (21%) had prolonged corrected QT of 500 milliseconds or more and 7 of 53 (13 %) had a change in corrected QT of 60 milliseconds or more. ",
"The likelihood of prolonged corrected QT was greater in those who received concomitant loop diuretics. ",
"Ten patients had hydroxychloroquine discontinued early because of potential adverse drug events, including intractable nausea, hypoglycaemia, and one case of torsades de pointes.^[@r13]^ Yet another study of May 2020 also supports this hypothesis. ",
"It is a retrospective study of 251 patients from two centres. ",
"Study conducted by Chorine et al. ",
"showed corrected QT prolongation in parallel with increasing drug exposure and incompletely shortens after its completion. ",
"Extreme new corrected QT prolongation to \\> 500 milliseconds, a known marker of high risk for Torsades de pointes had developed in 23% of patients. ",
"One patient developed polymorphic ventricular tachycardia suspected as Torsades de pointes, requiring emergent cardioversion. ",
"Seven patients required premature termination of therapy.^[@r14]^ Although most of these data are based on adult studies, accumulated data show conflicting results on cardiac rhythm as well as corrected QT. ",
"Our study partially supports this fact as none of our patients showed neither corrected QT prolongation nor other cardiac adverse effects. ",
"However, it is evident that the patients in our study are clinically different from patients who are critically ill and receiving multiple corrected QT prolonging medications with extended half-lives, which augment cardio toxic risks. ",
"They also did not have hypokalaemia, hypocalcaemia or hypomagnesaemia which may lead to QT interval prolongation. ",
"Although our patients had findings of pulmonary involvement none of them had respiratory failure needing mechanical ventilation support. ",
"Moreover, it is imperative to stress that our study population is small and a relatively sterile group as only two of them had asthma which did not intervene with the progression of the disease. ",
"They were treated in our inpatient clinic not in a paediatric ICU where they would be posed to electrolyte imbalances, arrhythmia inducing myocardial damages and different other conditions leading to corrected QT prolongation. ",
"Another important fact is that both of the medications were given for a limited time of five days where as systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, or malaria needs prolonged treatment. ",
"Finally, extreme caution should be exercised while treating patients with inherited and acquired long QT syndrome in the setting of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. ",
"QT intervals should be monitored at baseline and at 4 hours after the administration of hydroxychloroquine and/or azithromycin. ",
"All other non-critical QT prolonging agents must be discontinued. ",
"Serum potassium should be monitored and optimised daily. ",
"If QTc increases by \\>60 milliseconds or absolute QTc \\>500 milliseconds (or \\>530--550 milliseconds if QRS \\> 120 milliseconds), intensified monitoring, raising potassium levels, and/or discontinuation or dose reduction of QT prolonging drugs should be considered re-evaluating the risk/benefit of ongoing therapy.^[@r15],[@r16]^\n\nNone.",
"\n\nConflict of Interest {#s5}\n====================\n\nNone.",
"\n\nFinancial Support {#s4}\n=================\n\nThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.",
"\n\nEthical Standards {#s6}\n=================\n\nThe local ethical committee of our hospital approved this retrospective study on 28.04.2020 with B.10.1.THK.4.34.H.GP.0.01/139 report number. ",
"As the study was retrospective and the patient's routine electrocardiographic data were screened, informed consent form was not taken.",
"\n"
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"While Apple's new TV streaming service will include its own original content, Apple will also be offering customers access to video streaming subscriptions from third-party services, such as HBO and Showtime.",
"\n\nPart of this effort could potentially include bundles of channels from various content providers, according to new reports from Recode and The Information.",
"\n\n\n\nApple has negotiated rights to bundle streaming services together as part of its deals with media firms, which will allow it to offer packages of channels like HBO, Showtime, and Starz at a price that's lower than what each service would cost on a standalone basis. ",
"From Recode:\n\nThat wholesale/retail relationship also means Apple, not the streamers, can set the price for the stuff it sells. ",
"Apple isn't likely to sell, say, HBO for less than HBO sells itself on rival platforms like Roku. ",
"But it definitely plans to sell bundles of pay tv channels at a discount, just like pay TV operators have always done.",
"\n\nIt's not entirely clear when Apple plans to offer bundles like these, but providing discounted access to a group of channels would provide Apple with an edge over Amazon. ",
"Amazon, as The Information points out, allows customers to sign up for streaming services like Showtime through their Amazon account, but customers must pay full price.",
"\n\nAccording to Recode, Apple's service isn't going to be a major Netflix or Hulu competitor because the focus is going to be on selling streaming video subscriptions from other companies and taking a cut of the transaction. ",
"Apple is working on original content, but its own shows and movies \"should be considered very expensive giveaways, not the core product.\"",
"\n\nApple is offering its content partners a revenue share that's similar to Amazon, which keeps 30 to 50 percent of the subscription fee. ",
"Apple, however, won't be offering access to as much data as Amazon provides. ",
"Still, The Information says publishers find bundling \"appealing,\" and Apple has been touting its huge subscriber base to score deals. ",
"Apple's subscription TV content will be made available through its existing TV app which is available on the Apple TV, iPhone, and iPad.",
"\n\nThere's no word on which channels Apple will include in bundles, but Apple has signed deals with 15 streaming channels for separate subscriptions, including digital only services like Cheddar and Tastemade and TV channels like Showtime and Starz. ",
"Apple has not yet inked a deal with HBO.",
"\n\nApple is going to introduce its streaming service at its upcoming March 25 event, and the service is expected to launch in the United States later in the spring before expanding to additional countries.",
"\n\nApple is also unveiling an Apple News subscription service at the event, and rumors have suggested that the TV and news services could be bundled with Apple Music as part of one subscription for Apple users. ",
"Apple is also going to announce an Apple credit card provided by Goldman Sachs."
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"884 F.2d 363\nUNITED STATES of America, Appellee,v.Norman William SMEATHERS, Appellant.",
"\nNo. ",
"89-1581.",
"\nUnited States Court of Appeals,Eighth Circuit.",
"\nSubmitted July 31, 1989.Decided Aug. 31, 1989.",
"\n\nRobert S. Hatala, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, for appellant.",
"\nCharles W. Larson, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, for appellee.",
"\nBefore ARNOLD, FAGG and BEAM, Circuit Judges.",
"\nPER CURIAM.",
"\n\n\n1\nNorman William Smeathers pleaded guilty to possession of a firearm by a felon in violation of 18 U.S.C. Secs. ",
"922(g), 924(a)(1) (Supp. ",
"V 1987). ",
" Using the United States Sentencing Guidelines, the district court sentenced Smeathers to fourteen months in prison and three years supervised release. ",
" Smeathers appeals, and we affirm.",
"\n\n\n2\nSmeathers was convicted of a felony in 1973. ",
" In 1987 he bought a rifle as a gift for his son. ",
" Both Smeathers and his son used the rifle for hunting. ",
" After a quarrel with his wife, Smeathers fired the rifle throughout his home. ",
" He was arrested and charged with unlawful possession of a firearm by a felon.",
"\n\n\n3\nSmeathers's sole argument on appeal is that the district court committed error by failing to apply the reduction listed in section 2K2.1(b)(2) of the guidelines. ",
" Section 2K2.1(b)(2) provides that a sentencing court may reduce the basic offense level assigned to illegal possession of a firearm \"[i]f the defendant obtained or possessed the firearm solely for sport or recreation.\" ",
" U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Sec. ",
"2K2.1(b)(2) (Oct.1987). ",
" Smeathers asserts he should have received this reduction because he obtained his rifle solely for sport or recreation. ",
" The government argues the reduction in section 2K2.1(b)(2) applies only when a firearm is both lawfully obtained and lawfully possessed. ",
" Because Smeathers possessed the rifle on the date of his arrest neither for sport nor for recreation, the government contends section 2K2.1(b)(2) does not apply. ",
" We agree.",
"\n\n\n4\nNormally, the word \"or\" connotes disjunction. ",
" United States v. Moore, 613 F.2d 1029, 1040 (D.C.Cir.1979), cert. ",
"denied, 446 U.S. 954, 100 S.Ct. ",
"2922, 64 L.Ed.2d 811 (1980). ",
" A reference to \"this or that\" ordinarily identifies separate alternatives. ",
" Reiter v. Sonotone Corp., 442 U.S. 330, 339, 99 S.Ct. ",
"2326, 2331, 60 L.Ed.2d 931 (1979). ",
" This rule of construction yields, however, when a disjunctive reading would frustrate a clear statement of legislative intent. ",
" Moore, 613 F.2d at 1040; see also United States v. O'Driscoll, 761 F.2d 589, 597 (10th Cir.1985), cert. ",
"denied, 475 U.S. 1020, 106 S.Ct. ",
"1207, 89 L.Ed.2d 320 (1986). ",
" In the context of the sentencing guidelines, the commentary accompanying each section of the guidelines reflects the intent of the United States Sentencing Commission. ",
" U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Sec. ",
"1B1.7 commentary (Jan.1988).",
"\n\n\n5\nSmeathers would have a sentencing court ignore a defendant's actual use of a firearm whenever that defendant intended at the time of purchase to use the firearm strictly for lawful acts. ",
" This disjunctive reading of \"obtained or possessed\" in section 2K2.1(b)(2) disregards the Sentencing Commission's instruction that \"[a]part from the nature of the [felon's] criminal history, [the felon's] actual or intended use of the firearm is probably the most important factor in determining the sentence.\" ",
" Id. Sec. ",
"2K2.1 commentary (Oct.1987). ",
" Smeathers's reading also disregards the Commission's instruction that intended lawful use is determined in part by \"the location and circumstances of possession.\" ",
" Id. In our view, the commentary makes clear that application of the reduction depends on both intended and actual use. ",
" Thus, the district court committed no error by reading section 2K2.1(b)(2) to require both lawful acquisition and lawful possession.",
"\n\n\n6\nAccordingly, we affirm.",
"\n\n"
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"You do not have JavaScript enabled.",
"The functionality of this site requires the use of JavaScript so\nplease enable before continuing. ",
"For assistance in enabling JavaScript, please contact the\nwebmaster.",
"\n\nCharter a private air plane. ",
"Rent a plane and go anywhere you like, prices are excellent due to the low prices of gasoline in Venezuela.",
"\nSpecifications: Design Cessna Model Cessna 402\nType Twin engine..."
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"Q:\n\nEncoding number to date time\n\nI have 32 bit encoded value for date and time value.",
"I know the sample 32bit encoded value date and time but i don't know how to convert and get this value using c program or any other language or script. ",
"The sample data as below\n54 FE C0 72 =(25-Oct-13 20:34:58)\n55 01 DC 8B =(26-Oct-13 22:34:51)\n57 01 DC 8B =(14-Apr-14 14:34:51)\n42 23 8F 96 =(02-Jun-09 17:06:30)\n3C F5 28 4B= (31-Mar-00 18:51:55)\n3A F4 28 49 =(12-Oct-99 18:51:53)\n\nFor the above sample data i am tried using unix timestamp method but i am getting wrong date time value.",
"The answers using unix time stamp method as below\n54 FE C0 72 =(10 Mar 2015 09:59:14 GMT\n55 01 DC 8B =(12 Mar 2015 18:35:55 GMT)\n57 01 DC 8B =(04 Apr 2016 03:16:27 GMT)\n\nPlease give me your guidance to convert the above 32bit encoded value to correct date and time value. ",
"And please share any other methods other than unix timestamp.",
"And i think some algorithms are encrypted inside the hex code\nEDIT:\nAdding examples from chat:\n30067004 =24-mar-1997 07:57:56\n2C067004=Tue Apr 16 23:57:56 1996\n29567004=Thu Aug 31 15:57:56 1995\n13567004=9-jul-90 7:57:56\n17567004=15-jun-91 15:57:56\n1C567004=15-aug-92 07:57:56\n20567004=23-jul-93 15:57:56\n24867004=15-jul-94 23:57:56\n10067004=29 sep-89 15:57:56\n2B067004=21-jan-96 15:57:56\n\n00000000 = 1-Jan-1986\n00030000 = 1-jan-1986\n00038000 = 1-jan-1994\n\nA:\n\nLet's start by looking at the first two:\n54 FE C0 72 =(25-oct-13 20:34:58)\n54 FE C0 78 =(25-oct-13 20:35:04)\n\nThese two dates are 6 seconds apart, and the values differ by 6. ",
" So we know that at least the last byte specifies seconds.",
"\n55 01 DC 8B =(26-oct-13 22:34:51)\n55 01 E3 93 =(26-oct-13 23:04:51)\n\nSimilarly, these two are are 30 minutes (1800 seconds) apart, and the values differ by 1800. ",
" So at least the last two bytes specify seconds.",
"\n54 FE C0 78 =(25-oct-13 20:35:04)\n55 01 DC 8B =(26-oct-13 22:34:51)\n\nThere's a larger range in the values, but note that the last two bytes seem to be fairly close in value. ",
" Taking DC8Bh - C078h gives us 1C13h = 7187d. ",
" That's a difference of 2 hours (7200 seconds) minus 13 seconds, which is how far apart the time portions of the two dates are. ",
" So it looks like the last two bytes specify the time. ",
" However, there are 86400 seconds in a day, and C078h = 49272d which would be closer to around 13:00:00 than 20:35:04, that and the largest value you can store in 16 bits is 65535. ",
" Also, the first two bytes differ by 3 but the dates differ by 1. ",
" Let's come back to that in a bit.",
"\n55 01 DC 8B =(26-oct-13 22:34:51)\n57 01 DC 8B =(14-Apr-14 14:34:51)\n\nNote here that the last two bytes are the same, and that the minutes and seconds are the same, although the hours differ by 8. ",
" So perhaps the last two bytes specify seconds in part of a day. ",
" Going back to the prior example, the first two bytes differed by 3 when the dates differed by 1. ",
" So perhaps the first two bytes specify an 8 hour interval. ",
" This would account for the last two bytes being the same when the time differs by 8 or 16 hours. ",
" If we take 5701h - 5501h we get 200h = 512d. ",
" Dividing by 3 we get 169 2/3 days. ",
" The two dates above differ by 170 days, and if you take the hours into account it's about 169 2/3.",
"\nSo now we have dates. ",
" 5501h is the third 8-hour interval in 26-oct-13, so the start of the day is 54FFh = 21759d. ",
" Dividing by 3 gives us 7253. ",
" Counting back days, that gives us an epoch date of 1993-12-17.",
"\nNow lets go back to the time. ",
" Assuming the last two bytes are seconds in an 8-hour interval. ",
" That gives us a maximum value of 28800d. ",
" Note that this value only needs 15 bits to store. ",
" DC8Bh has the highest bit set, so let's see what we get if we mask that bit out. ",
" That gives us 5C8Bh = 23691d, and 23691 seconds is 6 hours 34 minutes 51 seconds. ",
" That matches the third and fifth examples with a difference of 8 hours.",
"\nAs for the most significant bit in the third byte, my guess is that is specifies DST. ",
" All the examples have this bit set, and all the dates are when DST is active.",
"\nSo to summarize:\n\nThe first two bytes divided by 3 is number of days since 1993-12-17.",
"\nThe first two bytes mod 3 is the 8-hour interval in the day. ",
" Multiply this value by 28800 (i.e. seconds in 8 hours) to set the initial time in seconds.",
"\nThe last two bytes with the most significant bit masked out are seconds from the start of the 8-hour interval. ",
" Add this value to the value from the prior step to get seconds from midnight.",
"\nCheck the most significant bit in the third byte to set the DST flag.",
"\n\nEDIT:\nSo it seems the result this algorithm gives for 57 01 DC 8B =(14-Apr-14 14:34:51) is ahead by one day. ",
" Let's look at one of the new examples:\n42 23 8F 96 =(02-Jun-09 17:06:30)\n\nOur algorithm give a date of 30-May-09, so it's behind by 3 days. ",
" This is interesting because it differs from what we got for 25-Oct-13 and 26-Oct-13 by about 4 years. ",
" What's different is that there's a leap year in between. ",
" So perhaps this encoding is assuming all years have 366 days. ",
" If we go back to the epoch date of 1993-12-17, we see that there are 15 non-leap years from 1994 to 2013 inclusive. ",
" That give us a new epoch date of 1994-1-1, which makes more sense. ",
" So after doing the initial conversion with 1994-1-1 as the epoch, we need to count the number of non-leap years and subtract that many days.",
"\nNow let's look at this one:\n3A F4 28 49 =(12-Oct-99 18:51:53)\n\nThe time is still correct, but the date is way off. ",
" Notice however that the most significant bit of byte 3 is NOT set. ",
" This seems to indicate a different epoch. ",
" The start of 12-Oct-99 is 3AF2h = 15090d. ",
" Dividing by 3 gives us 5030. ",
" Counting backward gives us an epoch of 1986-01-03. ",
" But then there's this:\n00000000 = 1-Jan-1986\n00030000 = 1-jan-1986\n\nSo it looks like 1986-1-1 is the epoch, but there's a special case in place for this date, so the actual epoch is 1985-12-31.",
"\nBut, we're off by 3 days. ",
" If all years had 366 days, this would not be the case. ",
" It would work however if all years had 365 days. ",
" This means that for the 1985-12-31 epoch, we need to count the number of leap years and add that many days. ",
" This is the opposite of what we need to do with the 1994-1-1 epoch.",
"\nThis now works for almost everything. ",
" Everything except these:\n3C F5 28 4B= (31-Mar-00 18:51:55)\n1C567004=15-aug-92 07:57:56\n\nBut it does work for this:\n2B067004=21-jan-96 15:57:56\n\nSo it looks like this encoding does do a leap year check, but only for the current year.",
"\nTaking these changes to the algorithm and applying them to the code provided by LPs, we now have this:\n#include <stdlib.h>\n#include <string.h>\n#include <stdint.h>\n#include <time.h>\n\nint isleap(int year)\n{\n if (year % 4 !",
"= 0) return 0;\n if (year % 100 !",
"= 0) return 1;\n if (year % 400 !",
"= 0) return 0;\n return 1;\n}\n\nint main(int argc, char *argv[])\n{\n // Read encoding from command line\n uint32_t datetime = strtoul(argv[1],NULL,16);\n\n uint16_t mydate = datetime >> 16;\n uint16_t mytime = datetime & 0xFFFF;\n\n int new_encoding = (mytime & 0x8000) !",
"= 0;\n\n // Calculate days\n time_t linuxSeconds = (mydate/3);\n // Calculate the 8 hours on current day of date\n uint8_t third_Count = mydate % 3;\n\n // Add days from 1/1/1970, that is the base of time in linux\n if (new_encoding)\n {\n // Days between 1970-1-1 and 1994-1-1 minus 1\n linuxSeconds += 8765;\n }\n else\n {\n // Days between 1970-1-1 and 1986-1-1 minus 1\n linuxSeconds += 5843;\n }\n\n // Calculate total amount of hours\n linuxSeconds *= 24;\n\n // Calculate total amount of seconds\n linuxSeconds *= 3600;\n\n // Add seconds of last 8 hours group\n linuxSeconds += (mytime & 0x7FFF);\n\n // Add alla seconds of grups of 8 hours of date\n linuxSeconds += (third_Count * 28800);\n\n // Add or subtract days depending on whether new_encoding is set\n struct tm *mytm = gmtime(&linuxSeconds);\n int daydiff = 0, year;\n for (year = new_encoding ? ",
"1994 : 1986; year <= mytm->tm_year + 1900; year++) {\n if (year < mytm->tm_year + 1900) {\n if (new_encoding) {\n // remove a day for non-leap years\n if (!",
"isleap(year)) {\n daydiff--;\n }\n } else {\n // add a day for leap years unless it's the current year\n if (year !",
"= (mytm->tm_year + 1900) && isleap(year)) {\n daydiff++;\n }\n }\n }\n }\n\n if (mydate < 0x0003) {\n // special case for day 0\n linuxSeconds += 86400;\n } else {\n linuxSeconds += daydiff * 86400;\n }\n\n // Print the date with actual GMT\n printf(ctime(&linuxSeconds));\n\n // Print Greenwich time\n printf(asctime(gmtime(&linuxSeconds)));\n\n return 0;\n}\n\nOne caveat about this code: if it's run on a system where time_t is 32-bit, it won't be able to properly display dates after 2038. ",
" If time_t is 64-bit, those dates will display properly.",
"\nEDIT 2:\nThere was an issue with code 30068000 being one day ahead. ",
" There was a bug in the code when checking the current month. ",
" The tm_mon field in struct tm ranges from 0 to 11, not 1 to 12. ",
" Fixed.",
"\nEDIT 3:\nSo it seems the month/day check when adding/subtracting days was just plain wrong, as it was causing Feb 28 to appear twice. ",
" When I removed that, I found that the 1994 scheme was a day ahead, so it looks like it has the same special case for day 0 that the 1986 scheme has. ",
" Fixed again.",
"\n\nA:\n\nUsing the perfect explanation of @dbush, below you can find a simple linux gcc compiled code.",
"\n#include <stdio.h>\n#include <stdlib.h>\n#include <string.h>\n#include <stdint.h>\n#include <time.h>\n\nvoid decrypt ( uint32_t data )\n{\n uint16_t mydate = data>>16;\n uint16_t mytime = data&0x0000FFFF;\n\n // Calculate days\n time_t linuxSeconds = (mydate/3);\n // Calculate the 8 hours on current day of date\n uint8_t third_Count = mydate % 3;\n\n // Add days from 1/1/1970, that is the base of time in linux\n if (mytime&0x8000)\n {\n // Days from 171/1970 to 17/12/1993\n linuxSeconds += 8751;\n }\n else\n {\n // Days from 171/1970 to 19/03/1984\n linuxSeconds += 5846;\n }\n\n // Calculate total amount of hours\n linuxSeconds *= 24;\n\n // Calculate total amount of seconds\n linuxSeconds *= 3600;\n\n // Add seconds of last 8 hours group\n linuxSeconds += (mytime&0x7FFF);\n\n // Add alla seconds of grups of 8 hours of date\n linuxSeconds += (third_Count * 28800);\n\n // Print the date with actual GMT\n// printf(ctime(&linuxSeconds));\n\n // Print Greenwich time\n printf(asctime(gmtime(&linuxSeconds)));\n}\n\nint main(int argc, char *argv[])\n{\n decrypt(0x54FEC072);\n decrypt(0x5501DC8B);\n decrypt(0x5701DC8B);\n decrypt(0x42238F96);\n decrypt(0x3CF5284B);\n decrypt(0x3AF42849);\n\n return 0;\n}\n\nAs @rmrps pointed out the last example is out of 1 day.",
"\nOUTPUT OF THE EXAMPLE ABOVE\n\nFri Oct 25 20:34:58 2013\nSat Oct 26 22:34:51 2013\nTue Apr 15 14:34:51 2014\nSat May 30 17:06:30 2009\nFri Mar 31 18:51:55 2000\nTue Oct 12 18:51:53 1999\n\nA:\n\nBuilding on dbush' excellent analysis, there still one issue regarding the days.",
"\nThis can be explained by the format, instead of counting days since epoch counts years since epoch and day of year, but ignoring leap years and using a fixed 366 day year. ",
"This sets the epoch to 31 December 1993.",
"\nSo from the days_since_epoch part in dbush' answer, calculate years_since_epoch = days_since_epoch / 366 and day_of_year = days_since_epoch % 366. ",
"Set the epoch at 1993-12-31, and add the lapsed time since epoch (taking leap days into account), and you'll get the correct dates from the timestamp.",
"\nThe last two timestamps you added doesn't fit dbush' analysis and so seem follow a different format. ",
"Note that the bit that dbush assumed was a DST indicator is no longer set - it actually appears to be a date scheme selector rather than DST indicator.",
"\nThe date part of the last two examples is simpler - it's simply days since epoch (but a different epoch - 3 January 1986).",
"\nEdit: following discussion in chat, I'm updating my code samples.",
"\nBecause my implementation - and some of the results differ from dbush' implementation and results, I'm adding an explanation as well. ",
"\nIf the format is based on 4 hex bytes AA BB CC DD, we treat this as a big-endian 32-bit number (AA msb = bit 31, DD lsb = bit 0), the hex timestamp is decoded as follows:\n\nbits 0-14: number of seconds into a 8-hour window\nbit 15: date scheme/epoch selector (see below)\nbits 31-16 mod 3: the 8-hour window of the day.",
"\nbits 31-16 div 3: an indication of days since epoch (let's call it day_count)\n\nday_count is not the actual number of days as both schemes treats every year as having a fixed number of days. ",
"It also includes the current (partial) day, so we should remove the partial day by subtracting one from day_count. ",
"This also means that a zero day_count is probably invalid (This has been confirmed for one of the two schemes 00000000 and 00030000 yield the same date - if 00008000 and 00038000 yield the same value it also holds for the other scheme)\nFor each scheme, there are only two parameters that differ between the schemes, epoch and days_per_year. ",
"Given these parameters, the calculation is the same - work out the following:\n\nyears_since_epoch = day_count / days_per_year\ndays_since_new_year = day_count % days_per_year // whole days\n\nThen calculate the actual number of days since epoch as days_since_new_year plus the number of days in each year since epoch, taking leap days into account.",
"\nThe two schemes are selected by bit 15:\n\nIf 1, epoch is 1994-01-01 and days_per_year is 366\nIf 0, epoch is 1986-01-01 and days_per_year is 365\n\nThe following code decodes both timestamp formats:\n#include <stdint.h>\n#include <time.h>\n\nint isLeapYear( int y )\n{\n if ( y % 400 == 0 ) return 1;\n if ( y % 100 == 0 ) return 0;\n if ( y % 4 == 0 ) return 1;\n return 0;\n}\n\ntime_t decodeTimestamp (uint32_t timestamp)\n{\n time_t result = 0;\n int y, days_since_new_year, years_since_epoch, epoch_year;\n\n int day_count = (timestamp >> 16 ) /3;\n int part_of_day = (timestamp >> 16 ) %3;\n int seconds_in_day = part_of_day * 8 * 3600 + ( (timestamp & 0x7FFF) % 28800 ) ;\n\n if ( day_count > 0 )\n {\n --day_count; // remove current (partial) day from day_count\n }\n if ( ((timestamp >> 15) & 1) == 1 ) // bit 15 is date scheme\n {\n days_since_new_year = day_count % 366;\n years_since_epoch = day_count / 366;\n epoch_year = 1994;\n\n result = 757382400; //1994-01-01\n }\n else\n {\n days_since_new_year = day_count % 365;\n years_since_epoch = day_count / 365;\n epoch_year = 1986;\n\n result = 504921600;//1986-01-01\n }\n result += years_since_epoch * 365 *24*60*60;\n for ( y = epoch_year ; y < epoch_year + years_since_epoch; ++y )\n {\n if ( isLeapYear( y ) )\n {\n result += 24 * 60 * 60;\n }\n }\n result += days_since_new_year * 24 * 60 * 60;\n result += seconds_in_day;\n return result;\n}\n\nI've put this up on http://codepad.org/K4JC0zmf, which also includes a main function which test against all of the examples I've seen in this thread. ",
"The only one it falls over is C0068000, which is explained by time_t being 32 bits not 64 bits.",
"\nEdit 2: Updated dbush' implementation in the side-by-side on codepad.",
"\nI've also put both mine and dbush' (current) implementation on http://codepad.org/vMYzNM4g to see the differences.",
"\nBoth methods give the same correct results, apart from the 2038 overflow case (C0068000). ",
"I expect that they would give the same result with a 64-bit time_t however, so I think both algorithms are now correct.",
"\n\n"
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"Pattern of aromatase mRNA expression in the brain of a weakly electric fish, Apteronotus leptorhynchus.",
"\nAromatase is a steroidogenic enzyme involved in the conversion of testosterone into estradiol. ",
"Teleosts are unique among vertebrates in possessing two distinct aromatase genes that show different expression patterns within the body. ",
"Since the brain is the essential organ underlying the control of behavior, an understanding of the expression pattern of aromatase in the brain can help to identify neural circuits and behaviors that are most likely to be affected by aromatase activity. ",
"In addition, identifying species differences in aromatase expression in the brain can further our understanding of divergence in behaviors regulated by local estradiol production and estrogen signaling. ",
"Apteronotus leptorhynchus is a species of weakly electric fish in which little is known about sex steroid expression within the brain and its role in electric signaling behavior. ",
"The goal of this study was to identify the mRNA expression pattern of aromatase in the brain of A. leptorhynchus. ",
"Aromatase mRNA was detected in several parts of the forebrain and in the pituitary gland; however, no aromatase expression was detected in the midbrain or hindbrain. ",
"These findings in A. leptorhynchus support a role for aromatase activity in reproduction, but no direct role in electric signaling behavior in non-breeding fish. ",
"The findings of this study help to broaden the basis for making phylogenetic comparisons of aromatase expression across teleost lineages as well as different signaling systems, and provide information on behaviors and neural circuits that are potentially affected by local estradiol production in A. leptorhynchus."
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"I saw something on twitter earlier today, though I don't recall who wrote it, that said \"If you don't let us dream we won't let you sleep.\"",
"\n\n~~~~~\n\nMeet the private security force the banksters have hired to oppress you, they're literally the same guys who used to beat up your great-grandparents when they began the American Labor movement over a century ago.",
"\n\nIf you're not familiar with The Pinkertons, they were the Blackwater of the late 19th and early 20th century, an armed and often violent private security force for the Robber-Barons and industrialists of the Gilded Age used to keep striking workers in their place.",
"\n\nI shit you not, history repeats itself . . .",
"\n\nAfter evictions and arrests from Manhattan’s Zuccotti Park to London that began last year, the movement against income inequality and corporate abuse will regain strength, said Brian McNary, director of global risk at Pinkerton Consulting & Investigations, a subsidiary of Sweden’s Securitas AB. (",
"SECUB) He works with international financial firms to “identify, map and track” protesters across social media and at their assemblies, he said. ",
"The companies gather data “carefully and methodically” to prevent business disruptions. ",
"bloomberg.com\n\nEmployers don't always accept a workers' strike calmly. ",
"They can try to fight back against the union, sometimes through lawsuits and legislation, sometimes with violent thugs. ",
"Some employers used companies that offered strikebreaking services, such as the Pinkerton Detective Agency. ",
"Former cooper Allan Pinkerton started the infamous agency in the mid-1800s [ref]. ",
"Although it usually engaged in standard crime-stopping detective work, they discovered there were profits to be made as strikebreakers. ",
"Many other companies were soon offering similar services, but strikebreakers were usually called Pinkertons. ",
"A strikebreaking crew was essentially an armed mob of mercenaries. ",
"They reported to the picket lines to escort scab workers into the business, or to intimidate the strikers. ",
"The crew also acted as guards to prevent strikers from damaging company property. ",
"In the 1800s and early 1900s, conflicts between striking workers and Pinkertons often grew bloody. ",
"money.howstuffworks.com\n\nWant some history on the Pinkertons? ",
"Here are the basics . . ",
".Funny how 'crime-stopping private detective work\" kind of sounds like impersonating a police officer when you say it that way . . .",
"\n\n\"essentially an armed mob of mercenaries\" this statement sums up the banksters, the GOP and the Pinkertons all in one.",
"\n\nMore below the fold . . ."
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[
"Crystallization and preliminary crystallographic data of 2-enoyl-CoA hydratase 2 domain of Candida tropicalis peroxisomal multifunctional enzyme type 2.",
"\nIn yeast, the second and the third reaction of the fatty-acid beta-oxidation spiral are catalysed by peroxisomal multifunctional enzyme type 2 (Mfe2p/Fox2p). ",
"This protein has two (3R)-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase domains and a C-terminal 2-enoyl-CoA hydratase 2 domain. ",
"Here, the purification, crystallization and X-ray diffraction analysis of the hydratase 2 domain [CtMfe2p(dh(a+b)Delta)] from Candida tropicalis Mfe2p is reported. ",
"CtMfe2p(dh(a+b)Delta) was overexpressed as an enzymatically active recombinant protein and crystallized by the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method. ",
"The crystals belong to space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a = 178.57, b = 60.46, c = 130.85 A, beta = 94.48 degrees. ",
"Selenomethionine-labelled protein was used for a multi-wavelength anomalous dispersion (MAD) experiment. ",
"A three-wavelength data set suitable for MAD phasing was collected to 2.25 A resolution using synchrotron radiation."
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
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0.006289308176100629,
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[
"Etymologies\n\nExamples\n\nKAYE: The Family International refused an interview with CNN, but in a statement acknowledges Berg taught sexual liberty without instituting safeguards for the protection of minors, but it says, that was corrected in 1986, and any infractions are an excommunicable offense.",
"\n\nFor do we not see daily, that as soon as men come to a clearer understanding of the mind of God, to say the best of what they hold, that presently all men are excommunicable, if not damnable, that do not agree with them."
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
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"Q:\n\nWhat is the name of this device for back massage?",
"\n\nWhat is the name of the device?",
"\n\nA:\n\nThis thing seems to be an Arco Largo. ",
"I don't know if it has a generic name.",
"\n\n"
] |
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"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
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"Evolution of toxicity upon wet catalytic oxidation of phenol.",
"\nThis work reports on the evolution of the toxicity of phenol-containing simulated wastewater upon catalytic wet oxidation with a commercial copper-based catalyst (Engelhard Cu-0203T). ",
"The results of the study show that this catalyst enhances detoxification, in addition to its effect on the oxidation rate. ",
"The EC50 values of the intermediates identified throughout the oxidation route of phenol have been determined and used to predict the evolution of toxicity upon oxidation. ",
"The predicted values have been compared with the ones measured directly from the aqueous solution during the oxidation process. ",
"To learn about the evolution of toxicity through out the routes of phenol oxidation, experiments have been performed with simulated wastewaters containing separately phenol, catechol, and hydroquinone as original pollutants. ",
"The significant increase of toxicity observed during the early stages of phenol oxidation is not directly related to the development of the brown color that derives mainly from catechol oxidation. ",
"This increase of toxicity is caused by the formation of hydroquinone and p-benzoquinone as intermediates, the former showing the highest toxicity. ",
"Furthermore, synergistic effects, giving rise to a significant increase of toxicity, have been observed. ",
"These effects derive from the interactions among copper leached from the catalyst and catechol, hydroquinone, and p-benzoquinone and demand that close attention be paid to this potential problem in catalytic wet oxidation."
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
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[
"Q:\n\nPHP e Wordpress, executar um script toda vez que fazer uma nova postagem\n\nOlá, eu estou precisando de que toda vez que eu fazer uma nova postagem em Wordpress executar um script. ",
"Não quero perder tempo fazendo aplicativos, apenas quero saber qual é a página responsável para enviar os posts no Wordpress. ",
"Quero saber também se é possível pegar o Título da postagem para passar como parâmetro toda vez que tiver uma nova postagem.",
"\nComo faço isto de maneira rápida?",
"\nO motivo disto? ",
"Preciso executar um script que eu mesmo fiz para enviar notificações push. ",
"Apenas preciso toda vez que fizer uma nova postagem executar o script com Título da postagem.",
"\nSe puder me ajudar; agradeço, obrigado.",
"\n[EDIT]\nDescobri o nome do arquivo do Wordpress, se chama post.php e fica na pasta wp-admin, agora preciso saber aonde eu coloco o script de enviar e-mails e como eu pego o titulo da postagem no post.php\n\nA:\n\nUtilize esta função para retornar um valor booleano:\nfunction is_edit_page($new_edit = null){\n global $pagenow;\n //certifique-se de que estamos no backend\n if (!",
"is_admin()) return false;\n\n if($new_edit == \"edit\")\n\n return in_array( $pagenow, array( 'post.php', ) );\n\n elseif($new_edit == \"new\") //check for new post page\n return in_array( $pagenow, array( 'post-new.php' ) );\n\n else // verifica se há é uma nova postagem ou foi editada\n return in_array( $pagenow, array( 'post.php', 'post-new.php' ) );\n}\n\nAgora utilizaremos as condicionais para validar:\nif (is_edit_page()){\n //sim, é uma edição ou nova página de postagem\n}\n\nChecando se é uma nova postagem(AQUI FICARIA O SEU SCRIPT DE E-MAIL)\nif (is_edit_page('new')){\n //sim é uma nova postagem\n\n}\n\nChecando se foi somente editada:\nif (is_edit_page('edit')){\n //sim é uma nova postagem\n}\n\nLeia mais...\n\n"
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
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[
"This Week in D\n\nWelcome to This Week in D! ",
"Each week, we'll summarize what's been going on in the D community and write brief advice columns to help you get the most out of the D Programming Language. ",
"The D Programming Language is a general purpose programming language that offers modern convenience, modeling power, and native efficiency with a familiar C-style syntax. ",
"This Week in D has an RSS feed. ",
"This Week in D is edited by Adam D. Ruppe. ",
"Contact me with any questions, comments, or contributions.",
"\n\nStatistics\n\nNew Beta and TWO new books!",
"\n\nBeta D 2.068.0-b2 was released this week, use the beta, file bugs to make a more stable relase.",
"\n\nWe also got two books announced about D: \"Learning D\" is available for pre-order, as well as \"D Web Development\". ",
"Both are coming from Packt Publishing, the same as my own \"D Cookbook\".",
"\n\nOpen D Jobs\n\nA jobs page is the D Wiki. ",
"Take a look if you're interested, and add yours if you know of one that is available!",
"\n\nIn the community\n\nCommunity announcements\n\nSee more at digitalmars.D.announce.",
"\n\nSignificant Forum Discussions\n\nBy far, the most significant discussion on the forums last week was Rant after trying Rust a bit - a discussion that started with just a list of features the OP liked in Rust, but quickly shifted course into a traits and concepts vs template constraint argument.",
"\n\nBoth sides seemed frustrated that the other side wasn't listening to them, with the traits/concepts (it was also pointed out that they aren't actually the same thing, but the argument kept mixing the ideas together) side accusing the constraint side as not learning the lesson from dynamic languages and the constraint/duck type side accusing the other side as not seeing the compile-time benefits of unit tests and for shipping untested code.",
"\n\nBoth sides made a number of fair points - reading coverage output is difficult for a large library and a library's user is another developer, so while it is a compile time check for them, it is still analogous to runtime for the library author. ",
"Similarly, the traits or concepts can explode in complexity for many tasks (this was the topic of Andrei's DConf talk too, see a few issues ago for a summary and video link for that).",
"\n\nIt is unlikely much will change in D as a result of this argument, but skimming it may teach you useful tips to mitigate the problems each side sees.",
"\n\nLearn more about D\n\nTo learn more about D and what's happening in D:"
] |
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"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
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"Q:\n\nwso2 : Access to package?",
"\n\nHow can i access to a package?",
"\nI need to use this package in my class for using Mbean.",
"\norg.wso2.carbon.server.admin.service \n\nwhere can i download it?",
"\n\nA:\n\nIt is in the carbon kernel module.",
"You can find the libraries in any of wso2 products.",
"\neg: wso2AS.",
"\nCheck the home\\repository\\components\\plugins folder\n\n"
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"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
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[
"X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis is universally recognized as a very accurate method of measuring the atomic composition and other characteristics of a sample material. ",
"This technique (and its close relatives) involve irradiating a sample area with high energy radiation, such as x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons or particle beams and observing the resulting fluorescence emitted by the sample area.",
"\nAs discussed further below, certain challenges exist in applying XRF techniques to patterned surfaces having many, closely spaced heterogeneous materials—for example, semiconductor integrated circuits (ICs), flat panel displays, surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices, printed circuit boards, planar lightwave circuits, etc. ",
"During IC fabrication, many complicated processes are used to deposit and pattern many differing materials on a wafer. ",
"XRF can assist in monitoring certain material characteristics, for example, the thickness of deposited films. ",
"However, the extremely small feature sizes in chip regions of the IC are difficult to measure directly with XRF. ",
"XRF systems have excitation beam sizes much larger than certain feature sizes in use now, and those planned for the future. ",
"The present invention is directed to improved systems and techniques which overcome these challenges and apply the power and accuracy of XRF measurements to these applications.",
"\nXRF systems generally include a source of excitation radiation, an optic for directing the radiation toward a sample, a radiation detector to detect the stimulated fluorescence emissions from the sample (possibly through another optic), and a display of the spectral output. ",
"As the excitation photons strike the sample, they knock electrons out of their orbits around the nuclei of the atoms in the sample, creating vacancies that destabilize the atoms. ",
"The atoms stabilize when electrons from the outer orbits are transferred to the inner orbits. ",
"These atoms emit a characteristic x-ray fluorescence photon representing the difference between the two binding energies of the corresponding orbits. ",
"The detector collects this spectrum of photons and converts them to electrical impulses proportional to the energies of the various x-rays in the sample's spectrum. ",
"Since each element has a different and identifiable x-ray fluorescence signature, an operator can determine the presence and concentration of the element(s) within the sample by reviewing specific areas of the emitted spectrum.",
"\nThe excitation spectra can be intentionally narrowed to a specific, “monochromatic” range. ",
"This will lower background noise from adjacent radiation bands, enabling a particular concentration of a known material to be measured. ",
"For example, the thickness of a layer of known material can be determined with monochromatic radiation tuned to the material's known fluorescence spectrum. ",
"This is accomplished, for example, using monochromating optical element(s) in the excitation path.",
"\nPatterned surfaces such as integrated circuits (ICs), flat panel displays, surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices, printed circuit boards, planar lightwave circuits, etc. ",
"present special analysis challenges because they include many layers of different materials. ",
"IC materials include the semiconductors themselves (e.g., silicon), the various insulating layers (e.g., oxides) and the metallic materials forming electrical interconnect lines or barrier layers (e.g., titanium or tantalum films). ",
"Feature characteristics, i.e., the thickness of a metallic film, can be measured using XRF techniques. ",
"And because the small feature sizes of IC features require great precision of the various processes used (deposition, etching, implantation, etc.), ",
"XRF measurements also enable accurate monitoring of these processes.",
"\nAccurate XRF techniques in these applications generally require a constant x-ray flux on the sample line itself, and detection of fluorescence attributable only to a calibrated line width of sample material. ",
"Flux directed toward other lines, and the resultant fluorescence emitted from those lines, may confuse the results. ",
"Alternatively, if other sample regions must fall in the beam footprint, the consolidated “coverage ratio” of all such regions should be constant and calibrated into the system—necessitating very accurate alignment and movement during measurement. ",
"In the IC chip regions, however, many different materials of small sizes are spaced by very small distances. ",
"This will affect the accuracy of an XRF measurement directed to a particular sample material. ",
"For example, interconnect lines or barrier layers can have sub-micron line widths in the chip regions. ",
"These widths will only decrease with time and advances in technology. ",
"It is difficult to narrow an x-ray beam to such widths, without stimulating other adjacent regions and confusing the XRF results. ",
"Alternatively, if the system is calibrated to a certain coverage ratio of sample material in the beam footprint for narrower lines, careful alignment and movement is required of the system during measurement to maintain the coverage ratio, and thus the integrity of the calibrated and measured values. ",
"Therefore, it is important to closely control the excitation beam spot size, and also to collect most if not all of the fluorescence emitted from the sample material itself for accurate XRF results.",
"\nCertain techniques may improve analysis of films deposited during IC fabrication. ",
"For example, sacrificial test wafers can be used. ",
"The film material can be deposited over large areas—with no other materials near an XRF sample area. ",
"Comparatively large sample areas can therefore be made available for XRF measurements of film thickness. ",
"However, this technique assumes that measurements made on the test wafer will “predict” the dimensions of the film deposited over the final wafer. ",
"Considering all of the variables in IC deposition and etch processes, this may not be a valid assumption. ",
"Moreover, this technique incurs the time and expense of processing an extra test wafer.",
"\nTherefore, improved techniques are required for analysis of small, patterned features, while exploiting the benefits of well-known measurement techniques (e.g., XRF) normally used for larger sample areas in other applications."
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"It is the due diligence and bank regulation that financial institutions and other regulated companies must perform to identify their customers and ascertain relevant information to do financial business with them.",
"\n\nKYC policies are becoming increasingly important globally to prevent identity theft, fraud, money laundering and terrorist financing. ",
"One aspect of KYC checking is to verify whether the customer is on any list of known fraudsters, terrorists or money launderers, such as the Office of Foreign Assets Controls (OFAC) list of Specially Designated Nationals (SDN)."
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[
"Nokia announces its third-quarter earnings on Thursday. ",
"With so many lemons, why is it not making any lemonade?",
"\n\nImage: CNET\n\nAnalysts are pegging the upcoming earnings results as the \"make or break quarter\" for Nokia, which has struggled in the past couple of years with poor Windows Phone 8 device sales.",
"\n\nNokia is expected to lose €0.04 ($0.05 cents) per share on revenue of €6.63 billion ($8.73bn). ",
"According to analysts, cash is expected to settle at €3.7 billion ($4.87bn) compared to €4.4 billion ($5.79bn) at the fourth-quarter count.",
"\n\nIt's not a great picture, but Nokia can stay afloat a little longer. ",
"The trouble is that Nokia's Windows Phone strategy remains unclear and has, at this point, little direction, except for an attempt to flood the market.",
"\n\nThere are two things to look out for when the earnings break on Thursday:\n\nThe (continued) burn rate of how much Nokia is churning through its cash reserves, as a result of declining revenue and overall profits\n\nThe range of Lumia devices that the Finnish phone maker has on the market has been widely considered as the last gasp of air the company will breathe, with a string of quarterly losses and a declining cash pile.",
"\n\nOf all things to look out for, it's Lumia sales. ",
"Supply was generally problematic during the first quarter, although a growth in the number of regions selling the Windows Phone-powered Lumia may have boosted numbers.",
"\n\nAnalysts are expecting between 4.8 and 5.8 million Lumia devices sold during the three-month period ending March 31.",
"\n\nWith the majority of devices being sold expected to run the latest Windows Phone 8 software — compared to the fourth quarter, which was largely driven by the discounted Windows Phone 7.5-powered Lumia 800 — it's hoped that Nokia's continued Windows Phone 8 strategy may be enough to carry it on in subsequent quarters.",
"\n\nRead this\n\nWhat's preventing Nokia from sinking further is an emerging market grasp on the Asha and Symbian-based devices that still remain popular in certain parts of the world.",
"\n\nThe latest comScore figures show that Symbian's market share remains flat. ",
"While Nokia had been hoping that Symbian figures continued to decline in favor of the higher-profit devices, Symbian's market share remains flat month on month.",
"\n\nNokia is still expected to sell around 72 million devices in total during the first quarter, down around 20 percent year on year, with Lumia devices taking just 7 percent.",
"\n\nAnalysts are expecting the gross margins of Nokia's Smart Device unit — which includes the Lumia range of devices — to increase sequentially, due largely to a lower mix of low or negative margin Symbian devices compared to the fourth quarter.",
"\n\nThe bottom line: Nokia has all the lemons, but will likely make little lemonade. ",
"Windows Phone is a strong platform, and reviewers have fawned over the Lumia hardware. ",
"But by failing to keep ahead of the curve, Nokia has fallen behind out of sight, and can only be heard by its faint whispers at a distance.",
"\n\nNokia's recovery — if there will be one — will start now, or never. ",
"There are only so many times we can keep cheering on the guy at the back of the race."
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"Welcome Our New Restaurant Review Editor !!!!!",
"\n\nWe take great pleasure in introducing Cliff Strutz (BuffetBuster) as the new Roadfood Restaurant Review Editor for the website. ",
"Cliff has been a very active member of the Roadfood forums for many years, submitting excellent reports of his visits to a wide variety of \"RoadFoodie Locations\" all across America. ",
"Traveling with his 'Side-Kick' Cousin Johnny, this pair of food-oriented explorers have introduced literally hundreds of new places to the forum members over the years. ",
"We look forward to reading more of these successful visits in the rejuvenated Restaurant Review Section of the Website. ",
"Members will find that submitting their Reviews and Updates to the site will receive Cliff's full attention so as to add to the large inventory of place-locations already on file. ",
"Start putting together the entries you have been holding and let's all work to help Cliff get off to a flying start on his new activities here on Roadfood.",
"Com. ",
"Further details of the process of publishing entries will be forthcoming from our new EDITOR.Welcome Aboard , Cliff !!",
"\n\nGreat choice, BB gives his heart and soul to seeking out Roadfood places. ",
"Just read one of his trip reports, it will make you want to follow in his footsteps...............Good luck................pnwc\n\nA big thank you to everyone for their kind words and to Al and Paul for the warm welcome to the Roadfood team. ",
"If you see a sudden surge in the amount of pie shops reviewed on Roadfood, you will know who to blame!"
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[
"Main menu\n\nTraveling to Brazil\n\nBrazil is a large country in South America largely occupied by rain-forest. ",
"Did you know that if you travel there, you will find three different types of electrical outlets, all shaped differently? ",
"In North America and most of South America, we are used to seeing only one type of outlet. ",
"All our electronics and appliances are designed for these outlets, but some countries in South America use many different kinds of outlets. ",
"If you’re planning on taking a trip to one of these places, you’ll need to bring a few different types of plug adapters. ",
"Otherwise, you won’t be able to use any of the appliances you’ve brought from North America.",
"\nAnother item you might need to bring is a voltage converter . ",
"In addition to different plugs and wall outlets, foreign countries also use a different voltage. ",
"The electricity coming out of the wall is 220v in most foreign countries, and the appliances purchased there are designed for that voltage. ",
"However in North America and a few other places, like Brazil , the voltage is both 110v and 220v. ",
"This means that if you’re traveling to a place that uses 220v, and you want to bring some electronics with you, you’ll probably need a voltage converter just in case you cannot find an area that uses 110v. ",
"To find out if you need a voltage converter , simply seek out the voltage of your appliances. ",
"It should be listed directly on the devices. ",
"If it lists 110v-220v, it is dual-voltage, and you do not need a voltage converter for it.",
"\nIf it only says 110v, you need a voltage converter , but you should be sure to buy one that has at least a 25% higher wattage than the given appliance. ",
"The wattage is a number that is usually listed on the device itself, along with the voltage and amp. ",
"However, if it is not listed, simply multiply the voltage by the amp. ",
"The product is the wattage. ",
"Now you are ready to buy a voltage converter ."
] |
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[
" \nThe Historical Muhammad\nThe Historical Muhammad\n\nIrving M. Zeitlin\n\npolity\nCopyright © Irving M. Zeitlin 2007\n\nThe right of Irving M. Zeitlin to be identified as Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.",
"\n\nFirst published in 2007 by Polity Press\n\nPolity Press \n65 Bridge Street \nCambridge CB2 1UR, UK\n\nPolity Press \n350 Main Street \nMalden, MA 02148, USA\n\nAll rights reserved. ",
"Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.",
"\n\nISBN-13: 978-0-7456-5488-1\n\nA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.",
"\n\nTypeset in 11 on 12.5 pt Ehrhardt \nby Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Manchester \nPrinted and bound in the United States by Maple-Vail\n\nThe publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that the URLs for external websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press. ",
"However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate.",
"\n\nEvery effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to include any necessary credits in any subsequent reprint or edition.",
"\n\nFor further information on Polity, visit our website: www.polity.co.uk\nContents\n\n**Preface**\n\n**Introduction and Overview of the Life of Muhammad**\n\nDonner's Reply to the Skeptics\n\nEnter Muhammad: An Overview\n\nThe Battle of the Trench\n\n**1 Ibn Khaldun's Social and Economic Theory**\n\nBedouins and Sedentary Peoples\n\n_Asabiyah_\n\n**2 Pre-Islamic Arabia**\n\nThe Hijaz on the Eve of the Rise of Islam\n\nPre-Islamic Religion\n\n**3 The Role of Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael**\n\nWho was the Sacrificial Son?",
"\n\nThe Islamic Theory that Abraham, Ishmael, and Hagar Traveled to the Valley of Mecca\n\nAbraham, Ishmael, and the Kaaba\n\nWilliam Muir on the Abrahamic Question\n\nMuir on the Founding of Mecca and the Abrahamic Legend\n\n**4 Recent and Current Scholarship**\n\nThe Religion of Mecca\n\nThe Kaaba and its Devotees\n\nHanifiya and the Religion of Abraham\n\nMore on Pre-Islamic Religion in the Arabian Peninsula\n\n**5 Possible Influences on Muhammad's Inspiration**\n\nJewish Historians on the Jews of Arabia\n\nBaron on Pre-Islamic, Arab–Jewish Relations in Arabia\n\n**6 The Jews of Arabia: A Recent Re-Examination**\n\n**7 Richard Bell's Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment**\n\n**8 W. Montgomery Watt's Muhammad**\n\nWatt's Muhammad at Mecca\n\nThe Daughters of Allah or the So-Called Satanic Verses\n\nMore on the \"Daughters of Allah\" Affair\n\nA Sociological Argument\n\nWatt's Muhammad at Medina\n\n**9 Muhammad at Medina: William Muir's Analysis**\n\nMuhammad and the Jewish Tribes of Medina\n\nThe Battle of Badr\n\nCurrent Research on the Massacre of the B. Qurayza\n\nThe Conquest of Khaybar\n\n**10 Muhammad and the Jews**\n\nMuhammad and the Jews: G. D. Newby's Re-Examination of the Evidence\n\n**11 Concluding Sociological Reflections**\n\nAbu Bakr and the _Ridda_\n\n**Notes**\n\n**Bibliography**\n\n**Index**\nPreface\n\nIt is entirely coincidental that this effort of mine to understand the Muhammad of history is seeing the light of day at a time when certain political individuals and groups are in the news, presuming to speak for and represent Islam. ",
"I need, therefore, to inform the reader that I began this project before the subject-matter might have been considered \"topical,\" and that I had intended it from the beginning as a scholarly affair. ",
"It was and continues to be my aim to catch a few relatively reliable glimpses of the birth of Islam and the role played by its extraordinary founder, Muhammad.",
"\n\nIslam, as its Prophet came to conceive it, was a strict and absolute monotheism. ",
"And since I am a student of religion and of the monotheistic religions in particular, I felt an inner need to study the origins of Islam carefully from a historical–sociological standpoint. ",
"In the course of my academic career, my primary intellectual interests have been in the history of social and political thought and the sociology of religion. ",
"I consider it my good fortune, then, that in my previously published studies of the two earlier monotheistic religions, I was able to employ some of the insights and conceptual tools of certain classical social theorists. ",
"The first such study I called _Ancient Judaism_ , an analysis of key issues in the interpretation of the Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament) as history. ",
"The second such study was titled _Jesus and the Judaism of His Time_ , the aim of which was to gain an understanding of the man Jesus by situating him in the context of first-century Judaism.",
"\n\nDuring the last few years, as I began to immerse myself in the scholarly literature on Muhammad and early Islam, it occurred to me that more than thirty years ago, in my studies of the development of social thought, I had discovered Ibn Khaldun, who may be regarded as one of the greatest social thinkers of all time, and whose sociology anticipated the major theoretical contributions of several of the outstanding thinkers who wrote centuries later. ",
"One of Ibn Khaldun's chief concerns was with what he termed the interplay between the desert and the sown, between the denizens of the desert, wherever they happen to be on this planet, and the neighboring sedentary cultures. ",
"The more I reflected on the literature on Muhammad and nascent Islam, the more I came to recognize the relevance and analytical power of Ibn Khaldun's theory of that interplay as applied both to the pre-Islamic condition of the Arabian Peninsula, and to the Medinan phase of Muhammad's prophetic career. ",
"Hence, it is Ibn Khaldun's _Muqaddima_ that constitutes, in a large measure, the theoretical framework guiding my quest for the historical Muhammad.",
"\n\nIMZ\nIntroduction and Overview of the Life of Muhammad\n\nIf consequences – political and cultural – are the criteria by which to assess the role of an individual in history, then it is quite evident that Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was an extraordinary historical individual. ",
"Indeed, there is a sense in which he made history, for he initiated the process that led to a world empire and a world religion. ",
"Muhammad had set the process in motion that made it possible for his first two successors, Abu Bakr (632–4) and Umar (634–44), to conquer Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt in only twelve years after the Prophet's death. ",
"And already in the reign of al-Walid (705–15), only 73 years after the Prophet's death, the Islamic Empire reached its greatest extent, embracing all the lands from the Pyrenees through Spain and North Africa to the Indus Valley in the east.",
"\n\nIt is probably true that we know little or nothing about the childhood and early youth of any of the great founders of the world religions. ",
"The likely reason is that no one took any special interest in them until they grew into adults and became known for their theory and practice. ",
"For example, we hear in the Hebrew Bible the story about Moses as an infant in the rushes of the marsh, but we learn nothing more about him until he has reached adulthood. ",
"In the New Testament we read about the birth of the man Jesus and his encounter, at age twelve, with wise men in the Temple. ",
"But we hear nothing about his youth, meeting him again at age thirty, when he already has begun his mission. ",
"The Gospels thus frustrate us with this eighteen-year-long gap, leaving us to speculate concerning Jesus' education, work and general activities during those years. ",
"This lack of information appears to be true of Muhammad's childhood and youth as well.",
"\n\nThe distinguished contemporary scholar, F. E. Peters, has observed, that with regard to Muhammad's Meccan period, practically nothing is known for sure except his marriage and his preaching. ",
"The Quran itself provides no coherent biographical narrative, and as Peters aptly observes, \"For Muhammad, unlike Jesus, there is no Josephus to provide a contemporary political context, no literary apocrypha for a spiritual context and no Qumran scrolls to illuminate a Palestinian 'sectarian milieu.' \"",
"\n\nThe earliest biographer of Muhammad was Ibn Ishaq who died in 767 CE, which means that he lived and wrote about 145 years after the Hijra, that is, after Muhammad's emigration from Mecca and his move to Medina in 622 CE. ",
"The original text of Ibn Ishaq's biography was lost, and no extant copy of the original exists. ",
"All we have is the recension by Ibn Hisham who died more than 200 years after the Hijra. ",
"These earliest \"biographies\" were written from a religious–ideological standpoint, and are based on the oral traditions ( _hadiths_ ) that had developed form the time of Muhammad's death. ",
"The biographers' narratives concerning the Prophet's childhood and youth are a fusion of legendary and factual elements, obliging the scholar to distinguish between them.",
"\n\nThe truth, then, is that the quest for the historical Muhammad is beset with difficulties and problems, the chief of which is the nature of the sources. ",
"One of the most recent and enlightening discussions of the sources is found in Fred M. Donner's _Narratives of Islamic Origins_. ",
"It is the first half-century of Islamic history, from about 610 to about 660 CE, that is most problematic despite its importance. ",
"According to Islamic tradition, it was during those years that the formative events in the life of the Islamic community occurred: the preaching of Islam's Prophet, Muhammad; the creation under his leadership of the first community of believers in Arabia; the rapid military expansion of that community throughout Western Asia following Muhammad's death; the emergence of the first Islamic Empire; and the codification of Islam's holy book, the Quran. ",
"Muslims of all eras have looked upon this period of Islamic origins as a \"golden age,\" from which to seek guidance in how to live their lives.",
"\n\nFrom the standpoint, however, of modern, intellectually rigorous historical research – carried out, ideally, in an objective attitude – the sources are highly problematic. ",
"Indeed, uncertainty about the reliability of the Islamic sources has tended to undermine historians' confidence in almost every aspect of the traditional view of Islamic origins. ",
"Some sources, touching upon the rise of Islam, were produced outside the Islamic tradition, and scholars justifiably have tried to use them. ",
"But those sources too, are, for the most part, neither contemporary with the events they purport to describe, nor consistent in what they say. ",
"So Donner begins his critical analysis by turning our attention first to the copious literary sources in Arabic that purport to inform us about the earliest phase of Islamic history. ",
"These include, among other items, collections of _hadiths_ , or sayings, attributed to the Prophet and his companions, in addition to the text of the Quran itself. ",
"The _hadiths_ are also not contemporary sources, some having been written centuries after the events they discuss. ",
"Moreover, one finds in these collections chronological discrepancies, implausibilities, and contradictions. ",
"Many accounts are anachronistic; others show evidence not only of embellishment, but outright invention to serve some sort of political or religious purpose.",
"\n\nThe first approach taken by Western scholars toward early Islamic history was to accept the traditional picture of Islamic origins presented by the Muslim sources. ",
"This was, of course, a decisive advance in historical method over the anti-Islamic polemic that dominated Western writing about Islam from the Middle Ages until the eighteenth century, and which had ignored Muslim sources. ",
"When Western scholars began to try to be more objective, they worked with three main assumptions about the Muslim sources: (1) that the text of the Quran contained documentary value for the life and teaching of the Prophet Muhammad; (2) that the _akhbar_ , or copious reports making up the narratives about Islamic origins found in Muslim chronicles were reliable for reconstructing \"what actually happened\"; and (3) that the many _hadiths_ attributed to the Prophet were a _religious_ literature distinct from the _akhbar_ and, therefore, not directly relevant to the task of historical reconstruction of the early Islamic period.",
"\n\nDonner reminds us that this approach has resulted in the fact that the majority of Western surveys of Islamic history have presented the story of Islamic origins along lines remarkably similar to those laid down in the traditional Islamic sources. ",
"He cites as examples a long list of such studies, including some on which I rely in my own re-examination of issues in the present work. ",
"Donner illustrates the reliance on traditional Islamic sources by showing that it applies not only to early works like those of William Muir and Philip K. Hitti, but also to recent works by G. E. von Grunebaum, M. A. Shaban, M. G. S. Hodgson, Hugh Kennedy, Albert Hourani, and many others. ",
"This comfortable replication of the Islamic tradition's own view, Donner remarks, would be perfectly acceptable if it could withstand critical scrutiny. ",
"But it became more and more evident in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, that the Islamic texts contained contradictions among different sources, logical and chronological absurdities, implausibilities, and, on top of it all, patent sectarian political bias.",
"\n\nThis gave rise to a second approach that Donner calls the _Source-Critical Approach_. ",
"It was a central premise of this \"school\" that the existing narrative sources contained much accurate, early historical material, but that it was intermixed with unreliable material, presumably also of early date. ",
"The aim, therefore, was somehow to distinguish between the trustworthy, less trustworthy and untrustworthy accounts. ",
"A second premise was, that non-Muslim sources (particularly Christian sources in Syriac and Greek) provided an independent source of evidence against which one could compare specific accounts in the Muslim narratives, to determine whether they were reliable. ",
"The third and fourth assumptions of this school were that the _hadith_ material was of marginal importance because of its non-historical and religious concerns. ",
"Famous scholars like Julius Wellhausen sought to distinguish reliable from unreliable sources, thus establishing tentative criteria for fairly comprehensive syntheses of early Islamic history; he addressed, in particular, the _ridda_ wars (the revolt of certain Arabian tribes after the death of Muhammad), the early Islamic conquests, and the history of the Umayyads, subject-matter for which the evidence seemed to be more sound. ",
"He refrained, however, from tackling directly the life of the Prophet Muhammad, perhaps, Donner surmises, \"because of uncertainty over how to use the _hadith_ material\" (11). ",
"This source-critical approach, Donner avers, contributed some sound insights that continue to be of value, such as the role of later interpolation for dogmatic or political reasons, the misplacement of individual accounts, and the question of the interdependence of different written sources. ",
"This method marked a definite advance over the approach of simply relying on and repeating the traditional Muslim narratives.",
"\n\nHowever, although this source-critical method was an advance, it was most useful only as applied to cases where one could safely assume that the texts in question were transmitted in written form. ",
"As it became evident, however, that in the earliest period of Islamic writing first and second centuries AH, i.e., After the _Hijra_ , material was often if not usually transmitted orally or in only partially written form, a new methodological approach emerged, which Donner dubs the _traditional-critical approach_ , inaugurated by the publication in 1890 of Ignaz Goldziher's epochal study of _hadith_. ",
"Donner describes this study as\n\nthe first by a Western scholar to view the _hadith_ in the context of conflicting political, religious, and social interests in the Islamic community during its first several centuries, and thus to see it [the _hadith_ ] as of central importance to an understanding of the whole of early Islamic civilization. ",
"Goldziher demonstrated convincingly that many of the _hadiths_ ,far from being authentic sayings of the Prophet, could only be understood as reflections of those later interests, despite the fact that each _hadith_ was equipped with an _isnad_ , or chain of informants, who were supposedly the ones through whom the saying had been handed down from the Prophet to later generations of _hadith_ collectors. (",
"13–14)\n\nWhat made Goldziher's findings especially significant is that he had analyzed the supposedly sound _hadiths_ , many of which turned out to be forgeries. ",
"His work therefore called into question the whole corpus of _hadiths_ and the presumed authenticity of _isnads_ as records of a _hadith's_ origins and transmission.",
"\n\nGoldziher, however, despite his deep skepticism regarding the transmission of the _hadiths_ , remained quite positive where the reliability of the Islamic historiographical tradition was concerned. ",
"He and some of the later critical scholars continued to maintain that there was a valid \"historical kernel\" in the traditional material, even if uncovering it in the mass of accretions was an extraordinarily difficult task. ",
"But there were also scholars who contended that the application of the source-critical and tradition-critical methods to reports about Islamic origins seemed to reduce the \"historical kernel\" to the vanishing point. \"",
"It was pointed out,\" Donner writes,\n\nThat _isnads_ were found not only in the _hadiths_ , but also in many historical accounts, and that it had been on the basis of such _isnads_ that source-critics like de Goeje and Wellhausen had relied to identify their different historio-graphic \"schools.\" ",
"If some _hadiths_ could be shown by various means to be not the words of the Prophet, but inventions of the second, or third, or fourth centuries A. H., despite an apparently flawless chain of transmitters, how could we be sure that other _hadiths_ were not also forgeries which had simply escaped detection? ",
"And if forgeries were rife among even the most apparently trustworthy _hadiths_ , how could we be sure that other kinds of accounts, including apparently early historical ones relying on similar chains of authorities for their warrant of authenticity, were not also merely later fabrications made for political, religious, or other ends? (",
"19–20)\n\nThis gave rise to what Donner calls the s _keptical approach_. ",
"Like the tradition-critics, the skeptics view the traditions about Islamic origins as the products of long and partly oral development, but unlike the tradition-critics, \"they deny that there is any recoverable kernel of historical fact that might tell us 'what actually happened' \" (20). ",
"Donner cites as a precursor of the radically skeptical position the works of the Jesuit scholar Henri Lammens who around the beginning of the twentieth century published a series of detailed studies of the background and rise of early Islam. ",
"It was his conviction that the _Sira_ material, the traditional biography of the Prophet, was not an independent set of recollections of the Prophet's life, but rather an outgrowth of earlier works of Quran commentary ( _tafsir_ ) and _hadith_ , or sayings, attributed to the Prophet, most of the latter of which were, in Lammens' view, false. ",
"Donner applies the term \"skeptical\" to this school because \"they exhibit a radical skepticism toward the whole received picture of Islamic origins\" (20, fn. ",
"47). ",
"Among contemporary scholars, it is Patricia Crone whom Donner regards as the most articulate of the recent wave of skeptical writers. ",
"In her study, _Slaves on Horses_ , she contends that \"whether one approaches Islamic historiography from the angle of the religious or the tribal tradition, its overall character remains the same: the bulk of it is debris of an obliterated past\" (Crone, p. 10).",
"\n\nDonner cites in addition to Crone, several other skeptics whose names one runs across in the specialist literature: John Wansbrough, Michael Cook, Suliman Bashear, Gerald Hawting, Moshe Sharon, Judith Koren and Yehuda D. Nevo, and Norman Calder. ",
"Underlying the work of these radical skeptics are three propositions: (1) the Quran was codified as a closed canon of sacred text much later than assumed by the Muslim tradition – during the second or even the third century A. H., not in the first century as Muslims and most Western scholars have assumed. ",
"The Quran itself, therefore, cannot be used as evidence for the origins of Islam, but only for its later development. (",
"2) The narratives of Islamic origins are idealized or polemicized visions of the past that originated in a later period; they contain no \"kernel\" of historical information, for such information \"either was never conveyed, or was completely suppressed, or if it did survive is inextricably entangled with later interpolations\" (23). (",
"3) The narratives about the life of the Prophet contain no evidence about Islamic origins independent of the Quran text itself or of later legal traditions. ",
"Of these three revisionist propositions, the notion that the Quranic text crystallized generations or perhaps even centuries after Islam's beginnings is the most radical. ",
"What the radical, skeptical position implies, in effect, is either that one should look elsewhere for evidence or give up trying altogether.",
"\n\n**Donner's Reply to the Skeptics**\n\nDonner counters the extreme methodological pessimism of these skeptics by reminding them and us that it is quite unlikely, a priori, that the whole tradition has been totally reshaped. ",
"For such a notion implies that certain unnamed \"authorities,\" \"whoever they were, could have tracked down every book and tradition contained in every manuscript in the whole Islamic community, from India to Spain, so that no view dissenting from the standard orthodox position was allowed to survive\" (27). ",
"For Donner, the traditional material, taken as a whole, and notwithstanding extensive redaction of particular portions of it, contains within it enough material to enable us to catch at least a few reliable glimpses of the early Islamic period. ",
"For, as Donner convincingly observes, there are many accounts in the Islamic tradition that seem to contain vestigial evidence of very early historical matters relevant to our quest for the historical Muhammad. ",
"We can, for example, glimpse in the sources some of the very early tensions in the community of believers: the rivalry between the _Muhajirun_ , Muhammad's emigrants from Mecca, and the _Ansar_ , his helpers in Medina; concerns over the proliferation of wealth among the believers during the conquest period, and more.",
"\n\nOne of Donner's most persuasive arguments against the radical skeptics is based on his comparative analysis of the Quran and the _hadiths_. ",
"He calls attention to their radically different content in order to defend the Quran text as a literary product of the earliest community of believers in Arabia. ",
"One of the most striking aspects of the corpus of the _hadith_ is the degree to which it reflects the salient _political_ issues of the first and second centuries A. H. Donner remarks on a humorous anachronism: that in the _hadith_ literature the Prophet even has a considerable amount to say about the Caliphate, even though the office of the Caliph (Khalifa) did not arise until after his death. ",
"In sharp contrast, however, to the deep concerns in the _hadith_ literature over questions of political leadership, the Quran text has almost nothing to say about political or religious leadership except as it relates to Muhammad himself. ",
"The discrepancy between the Quran and _hadith_ , where political leadership is concerned, suggests strongly that the two bodies of material came not from a so-called common \"sectarian milieu,\" but from different historical contexts. ",
"Moreover, Donner avers, a \"much more natural way to explain the Quran's virtual silence on the question of political leadership is to assume that the Quran text, as we now have it, _antedates_ the political concerns enshrined so prominently in the _hadith_ literature\" (45). ",
"Donner notes, in addition, the frequent references in the _hadith_ to such figures as Muhammad's cousin Ali, his uncles Abu Talib and al-Abbas, the Meccan clan chief, Abu Sufyan, and more; while the Quran, in contrast, makes absolutely no mention of these figures, even in the most innocuous way. ",
"And the most telling of Donner's critical responses to the radical skeptics is his recognition of the most obvious and fundamental discrepancy between the Quran and _hadith_ : \"the fact that the Quran itself is totally devoid of obviously anachronistic references to people, groups, or events dating to periods long after the life of Muhammad\" (47–8).",
"\n\nStill another indisputable contrast between the Quran and _hadith_ , is their fundamentally different treatments of Muhammad. ",
"The overwhelming majority of Quranic passages involving prophets and prophethood are devoted to the many prophets who preceded Muhammad, not to Muhammad himself. ",
"In the Quran Muhammad's mortality is affirmed; and although he is the recipient and vehicle of God's revelations, he is in all other respects an ordinary mortal. ",
"Indeed, as Donner observes, \"the Quran presents Muhammad as suffering indignities from those who, in view of Muhammad's ordinariness and the absence of miracles, could not believe he was truly a prophet: they say: 'what is with this apostle? ",
"He eats food and walks in the market. ",
"Why has no angel been sent down to be a warner ( _nadhir_ ) with him?' \" (",
"Sura 25; Donner, 51). ",
"In the _hadith_ , in contrast, Muhammad is no ordinary mortal. ",
"There he is frequently portrayed as a miracle-worker who, in Donner's words,\n\nis able to feed multitudes, heal the sick with his spittle, procure water by pressing the ground with his heel, see behind himself, predict the future, or divine hidden knowledge such as the names of people whom he has not yet met or the origins of a piece of stolen meat served to him. ",
"This vision of Muhammad... does not coincide with the Quranic image of Muhammad as a normal man, and once again casts doubt on Wansbrough's [and other radical skeptics'] proposition that the Quran originated in the same cultural environment that produced the countless miracle-stories related in the _hadith_ literature and origins narratives. (",
"51–2)\n\nIn Donner's superb analysis of the issues concerning the narratives of Islamic origins, he makes a strong case for not giving up the quest for the historical Muhammad. ",
"A historical–sociological method can, perhaps, help us in this quest – a method derived from the great Ibn Khaldun, whose substantive and methodological insights will be presented in chapter 1 to illustrate their fruitfulness. ",
"But first we need a brief overview of the life of Muhammad, basing it on traditional sources while trying to take into account their problematic character.",
"\n\n**Enter Muhammad: An Overview**\n\nFortunately, the biographical narratives regarding the Prophet's Medinan period are largely reliable; for as F. E. Peters explains, the biographies by Ibn Ishaq and the others, were little more than accounts of the \"... raids conducted by or under Muhammad; and they took the watershed battle of Badr as their starting point and anchor, and dated major events in Muhammad's life from it. ",
"But for the years from Badr (624 CE) back to the migration to Medina (622 CE) there is great uncertainty and, for the entire span of the Prophet's life at Mecca, hardly any chronological data at all (264).\" ",
"In what follows, then, we shall rely not only on Ibn Hisham, Tabari, and other Muslim historians, but also on outstanding Western scholars.",
"\n\nAccording to tradition, a child was born to the Quraysh at Mecca in or about 570 or 571 CE, and called by his tribe al-Amin, \"the faithful,\" apparently an honorific title. ",
"In the Quran (3: 138; 33: 40; 48: 29; 47: 2) his name is Muhammad (highly praised), a quite common name, and he is referred to once as Ahmad. ",
"The baby's father, Abdullah, died before the child's birth, and the mother, Aminah, when he was about six years of age. ",
"It therefore became the responsibility of the grandfather, Abd-al-Muttalib, to raise the boy and, after the grandfather's death, the duty fell upon Muhammad's uncle, Abu-Talib.",
"\n\nThe tradition tells us that when Muhammad was twelve years old, he accompanied his uncle on a caravan journey to Syria where he met a Christian monk to whom legend has given the name Bahira. ",
"We use words like \"tradition\" and \"legend\" because there is no way to confirm the reliability of stories about the Prophet's early life. ",
"There are no non-Arabic, non-Muslim sources for the early period of nascent Islam. ",
"The first Byzantine chronicle to record some events of Muhammad's career was Theophanis who wrote in the ninth century.",
"\n\nWhat does seem to be a fact, however, is Muhammad's marriage at the age of twenty-five to a wealthy widow named Khadijah, fifteen years his senior. ",
"She was a member of the Quraysh tribe and a well-to-do merchant's widow – now conducting the business herself and independently – who employed Muhammad and gave him considerable responsibility. ",
"Thus lifted out of the relative poverty of his childhood, Muhammad now had the leisure to follow his inclinations, and was often noticed secluding himself and meditating in a small cave on a hillside called Hira, outside of Mecca. ",
"Sura 93 seems to confirm that before marrying Khadijah he had been poor, and that until the age of forty or thereabouts, he followed the religion of his tribe and countrymen: \"Did He [the Lord] not find thee an orphan and gave thee a home? ",
"And found thee erring and guided thee, and found thee needy and enriched thee.\"",
"\n\nIt was during one of those periods of seclusion that he is said to have heard a voice commanding him to \"recite\" in the name of the Lord. ",
"The word _qaraa_ , which is the root of the word Quran, parallel to the rabbinic _mikra_ , means to recite or address, and its etymology and use in related dialects means _to call_ , _cry aloud_ , _proclaim_. ",
"The speaker in this as in most of the Suras, is Gabriel of whom Muhammad had, as he believed, a vision on the hill, Hira. ",
"After a brief interval, the second vision came, and Muhammad, feeling the chill of great emotional stress, rushed home to Khadijah, asking her to enwrap him in his mantle. ",
"The call and the message he was told to recite was this: God is one, all-powerful and the creator of the universe. ",
"There is a judgment day at which great rewards in paradise await those who obey God's commandments; and terrible punishments in hell await those who ignore or disobey them.",
"\n\nNow regarding himself as the messenger ( _rasul_ ) of Allah, Muhammad began to go among his own people, preaching, teaching, and bringing his new message. ",
"But they failed to take him seriously, and even laughed at his pretension, which turned him into a _nadhir_ ,a \"warner\" (Quran 67: 26; 51: 50, 51) aiming to win over converts by means of vivid descriptions of the joys of paradise and the terrors of hell. ",
"That is the impression we get from the early revelations, the Meccan Suras. ",
"However, he gained few converts, and it was his wife Khadija, influenced by her _hanif_ or Christian cousin Waraqa-ibn-Nawfal, who became the first of the few who responded to his call. ",
"Muhammad's cousin Ali and his kinsman Abu-Bakr followed; but Abu-Sufyan, representing the privileged and influential Umayyad branch of Quraysh, continued to oppose the Prophet. ",
"For them, Muhammad's views not only flouted the sacred principles of their polytheism, but also threatened the economic interests of the Quraysh as custodians of the center for Arabian pilgrimages. ",
"It seems to be highly probable that Muhammad's few other converts came primarily from the slave and lower strata, and were even what Ibn Hisham calls a \"despised minority.\" ",
"The reaction of the Quraysh leaders to Muhammad's success with these recruits was to switch from sarcasm and ridicule, which had become less-than-effective weapons, to active persecution. ",
"This, in turn, prompted the new converts to flee to Abyssinia and to seek refuge there.",
"\n\nIn the year 615, eleven Meccan families followed by 83 other men, found asylum in the domain of the Christian Negus, who adamantly refused to deliver them into the hands of their oppressors (Ibn Hisham, pp. ",
"146–51). ",
"The beliefs of these fugitives were so close in some ways to those of the Christians, that the Negus might have viewed them as Christians. ",
"Meanwhile, revelations continued to descend upon Muhammad.",
"\n\nSoon Umar ibn-al-Khattab (also transliterated as Omar), who would later play a key role in establishing the Islamic state, became a follower of the Prophet's new view of Allah. ",
"It was in this period too, about three years before the Hijra, that the Prophet's beloved Khadija died, followed soon afterward by Abu-Talib, who though he never professed Islam, never ceased to defend his nephew, his protégé. ",
"Abu-Talib's defense and protection of Muhammad explains why he had no need to flee with the other persecuted Muslims to Abyssinia. ",
"In reality it was the Prophet's clan and not merely his uncle who protected him in accordance with the powerful Arabian custom. ",
"The fact that Muhammad's followers had to flee from persecution suggests strongly that they were, as Ibn Hisham stated, a \"despised minority\" recruited from slaves and the lowest strata of Meccan society. ",
"In this pre-Hijra period there also occurs the dramatic _isra_ , the night journey in which the Prophet is said to have been carried from the sacred temple of Mecca \"to the temple that is more remote,\" that is, Jerusalem (Sura 17: 1). ",
"Although Muslim tradition interprets the phrase, \"temple that is more remote\" as referring to Jerusalem, the city's name does not actually appear in the passage. ",
"Nevertheless, Jerusalem, already sacred to the Jews and Christians, became in the Muslim world, the third holiest city after Mecca and Medina.",
"\n\nIn the year 620 some people from Yathrib-Medina, mainly of the Khazraj tribe, or perhaps from both the Aws and the Khazraj tribes, met Muhammad at the Ukaz fair and showed interest in what he had to say. ",
"Living in close proximity to the Medinan Jews, they had learned that the Jews were looking forward to the coming of a Messiah. ",
"The men of the Arab tribes, having heard by this time of the Prophet of Mecca, believed that he might in fact be the prophet eagerly awaited by the Jews. ",
"The Yathribites hoped that by inviting Muhammad to make Medina his home, they would accomplish two things to their advantage: they would win him over to their cause instead of that of the Jews; and they would gain a prophet-mediator who might succeed in reconciling the mutually hostile Aws and Khazraj tribes. ",
"Muhammad, on his part, having had even less success in Taif than in his native town, allowed or encouraged about 200 followers to escape from the Quraysh and make their way to Medina. ",
"He himself followed soon afterward, arriving there on September 24, 622 – the famous _Hijra_ , the migration that apparently had been carefully considered for two years. ",
"It was the second Caliph, Umar, who, seventeen years later, designated the lunar year in which the Hijra had taken place, as the official beginning of the Muslim era.",
"\n\nThe Hijra definitely marked a turning point in the life of Muhammad. ",
"He left the city of his birth as a despised prophet and entered his newly adopted city as an honored chief. ",
"The prophet-preacher in him now recedes, and the man of practical politics comes to the fore. ",
"What becomes most salient in Medina is his role as political leader, military strategist and warrior. ",
"We come now to the circumstances that led to the battle of Badr, and its long-range consequences. ",
"It was under the leadership of the new chief, during the months of the \"holy truce,\" that the Medinan Muslims, now termed _Ansar_ (supporters), developed a scheme by which to offer sustenance to the _Muhajirun_ (emigrants). ",
"They intercepted a summer caravan on its return from Syria to Mecca. ",
"The caravan leader, Abu-Sufyan, had got wind of the scheme and sent to Mecca for reinforcements. ",
"The clash between the reinforcements and the Medinans, mostly Emigrants, took place at Badr, 85 miles southwest of Medina in Ramadan, 624 CE. ",
"The victory of the Medinans under the inspired leadership of the Prophet, acquired long-range, religious significance; for it was a complete victory of 300 Muslims over 1,000 Meccans of the Quraysh. ",
"The solidarity of the Medinan Muslims was immeasurably strengthened by the meaning assigned to the victory as divine sanction of the new faith. ",
"As Philip Hitti observed, \"the spirit of discipline and contempt of death manifested at this first armed encounter of Islam proved characteristic of it in all its later and greater conquests.\"",
"\n\nIn the following year (625), however, the Muslims suffered defeat at the battle of Uhud (Ibn Hisham, pp. ",
"370f). ",
"The Meccans, under the leadership of Abu-Sufyan, avenged their earlier defeat and even wounded the Prophet. ",
"But this proved to be only a temporary setback, for after Uhud, Islam recovered and turned from the defensive to the offensive in which military victories and the propagation of its faith went hand-in-hand and seemed always assured. ",
"In Mecca, nascent Islam was a religion; in Medina after Badr, it became more than a religion – it became what the world has ever since recognized it to be, a religion and a militant polity.",
"\n\n**The Battle of the Trench**\n\nIn 627, some three years after Badr, an alliance which the Quran calls \"confederates,\" consisting of Meccans, Bedouins, and Abyssinian mercenaries, gathered for the invasion of Medina (Sura 33: 9–25). ",
"In the face of so formidable a force, it seemed to the Medinans that there was no way they could successfully defend themselves against it. ",
"But a Persian follower, it is said, advised Muhammad to dig a wide trench around Medina, a military innovation that struck the Bedouins as the most unfair tactic they had ever seen. ",
"Disgusted, they lifted the month-long siege and withdrew with the loss of some twenty men on both sides.",
"\n\nWe come now to Muhammad's relations with the Yathrib–Medinan Jewish tribes, to which later chapters will be devoted. ",
"After the besiegers in the Battle of the Trench withdrew, Muhammad launched a campaign against the Jewish tribes on the pretext of their having \"sided with the confederates.\" ",
"To grasp adequately the underlying socioeconomic causes of the growing antagonism between Muhammad and the Jews, we have to invoke Ibn Khaldun's theory of the interplay between the desert and the sown, between Bedouins and sedentary cultures, a theory discussed in detail in the next chapter. ",
"In the context of Yathrib–Medina and its environs, the Jews represented the sown and were correspondingly better off than the Emigrants and the Medinan supporters of Muhammad. ",
"It was, therefore, not merely religious–ideological differences, but also and, primarily, material economic and political differences that resulted in the killing of between 600 and 900 men of the Jewish tribe, Banu-Qurayza, and the selling of the women and children into slavery. ",
"These men were systematically beheaded after they had surrendered, which appears to have been an unprecedented atrocity in the Hijaz. ",
"Muhammad then turned over the now-ownerless date plantations of the Jews to the Emigrants. ",
"A year before the massacre, Muhammad had sent into exile the Banu-al-Nadir, a second Jewish tribe of Medina, and confiscated their land as well. ",
"The Jews of Khaybar, a strongly fortified oasis north of Medina, came next. ",
"Most of the settlements surrendered in the year 628, and, in order to save their lives, agreed to pay as tribute 50 percent of their yield. ",
"Muhammad agreed to this arrangement, most likely because by this time he had come to understand that he had more to gain from such an arrangement than from killing or expelling the Khaybar Jews: he realized that his Bedouin followers possessed neither the knowledge, the skills, nor the will to engage in agricultural labor.",
"\n\nIt was in the Medinan period that Muhammad decisively severed his relationship with both Judaism and Christianity. ",
"More than earlier his self-understanding defined him as a prophet sent to the Arabs, which meant that all the institutions of the new religion ought to be Arabianized so as to appeal to the latent Arabian national sentiment. ",
"This was the apparent motive behind the substitution of Friday for the Jewish and Christian Sabbaths; for the _adhan_ (the call from the minaret) in place of trumpets and gongs; for Ramadan as a definite month of fasting; for Mecca as the _qibla_ (the direction faced in prayer) instead of Jerusalem; for the pilgrimage to the Kaaba; and for sanctioning the kissing of the Black Stone, a pre-Islamic fetish. ",
"In sum, Muhammad's Arabianization of Islam was accomplished by retaining virtually all of the key elements of the old faith and by infusing these elements with new meaning – a meaning that would not only continue to resonate with the ethnic sentiments of the Bedouin, but create an _inter-_ tribal \"group feeling\" in Ibn Khaldun's sense.",
"\n\nMuhammad's \"group feeling\" or solidarity with his own tribe never waned. ",
"On the contrary, it remained strong and intense in spite of their treatment of him and his followers. ",
"He had left Mecca and his tribe as a prophet without honor. ",
"But now that he was an armed prophet, he was determined to regain his honor with the Quraysh. ",
"His attachment to his tribe is so great that he eventually places them in positions of leadership and privilege in his militant Islamic polity. ",
"In the year 628 Muhammad deliberately led a _small_ group of some 200 followers – so as not to appear intent upon aggression – to a settlement, al-Hudaybiya, nine miles from Mecca, where he exacted a pact from the Meccans in which they and the Muslims were to be treated on equal terms. ",
"This treaty brought to an end the war with his own people, the Quraysh. ",
"Members of his tribe, including several who had been the Prophet's bitter opponents, were recruited to his cause. ",
"Most notable were Khalid ibn-al-Walid and Amr ibn-al-As, who became the two \"mighty swords\" of militant Islam. ",
"In January 630, the murder of a Muslim by a Meccan in what appears to have been a personal quarrel, served as _casus belli_ for the final attack and conquest of Mecca. ",
"Entering its sanctuary, Muhammad smashed the hundreds of idols and exclaimed that \"truth has come and falsehood has vanished\" (Hitti, 118; Quran 17: 83).",
"\n\nAnother sign of the affection Muhammad felt for his tribe, is the magnanimity with which he treated the people. ",
"Scholars propose that it was at this time that Muhammad declared the environs of the Kaaba as _haram_ (sacred), and dictated the passage in Sura 9: 28: \"O Believers! ",
"Only those who join gods with God are unclean! ",
"Let them not, therefore, after this... year, come near the sacred Temple.\" ",
"This verse was evidently intended to forbid only polytheists from approaching the Kaaba during the annual pilgrimage, but the verse was later interpreted as prohibiting all non-Muslims from approaching the sacred shrine.",
"\n\nIn 631, Muhammad's forces were numerous and strong enough for him to station a garrison as far north as Tabuk on the frontier of the Ghassanids, and without a single military engagement to conclude peace treaties with the Christian chief of Aqaba and the Jewish tribes of the oases to the south. ",
"The Jews and the Christians were now taken under the protection of the Islamic community in return for a payment of tribute later called _jizyah_. ",
"This became a precedent largely followed by the Caliphs. ",
"It was also in the years 630–1 that delegations came even from great distances to offer allegiance to the Prophet who had now become a prince. ",
"Tribes joined largely out of material considerations – the allure of booty – and the extent of their religious conviction was demonstrated by a brief verbal profession of faith and a payment of _zakah_ (poor tax). ",
"Arabia, which had never before bowed to the will of one man, appeared now willing to be ruled by Muhammad and incorporated into his political and religious movement.",
"\n\nTen years after the Hijra, Muhammad, at the head of the annual pilgrimage, entered Mecca, his new religious capital, peacefully. ",
"Three months after his return to Medina, he became ill and, complaining of a headache, died (June 8, 632). ",
"Scholars agree that even in the height of his glory, Muhammad had led a modest and unpretentious life. ",
"He was often seen mending his own clothes, and he stayed at all times within the reach of his people.",
"\n\nThe new community of Emigrants and Supporters that Muhammad had established in Medina was the first attempt in the history of Arabia at a social organization based on religion rather than on kinship. ",
"In his last sermon, Muhammad enjoined his followers to take these words to heart, that every Muslim is a brother to every other Muslim. ",
"As Hitti observes,\n\nthus by one stroke the most vital bond of Arab relationship, that of tribal kinship, was replaced by a new bond, that of faith; a sort of Pax Islamica was instituted for Arabia... Its mosque was its public forum and military drill ground as well as its place of common worship. ",
"The leader in prayer, the _Imam_ , was also to be commander-in-chief of the army of the faithful, who were enjoined to protect one another against the entire world. ",
"All Arabians who remained heathen were outside the pale, almost outlaws. ",
"Islam cancelled the past. ",
"Wine and gambling – next to women the two indulgences dearest to the Arabian heart – were abolished in one verse [Quran 5: 92]... (Hitti, 120–1).4\n\nIn this brief overview, much of importance has been left unsaid. ",
"So we need to start again and address key questions, problems and issues. ",
"And to do so most effectively, we need to introduce the great Ibn Khaldun.",
"\n1\n\nIbn Khaldun's Social and Economic Theory\n\n**Bedouins and Sedentary Peoples**\n\nFor Ibn Khaldun, Bedouins and sedentary peoples are what he calls \"natural groups,\" by which he means socio-economically determined groups. ",
"The differences of condition among people are largely the result of the different ways in which they make their living. ",
"Social organization enables them to cooperate, starting with the provision of the basic necessities of life. ",
"From the earliest periods of history, some people were able to adopt agriculture – the cultivation of vegetables and grains – as their way of making a living, while others adopted animal husbandry, the raising of sheep, goats, bees, and silkworms for breeding and for their products. ",
"Those who live by animal husbandry cannot avoid the call of the desert. ",
"Their way of life seldom takes them beyond the bare subsistence level. ",
"If and when they do produce surpluses, they use them to build large houses and towns for their protection. ",
"This brings with it comfort and ease and the development of luxurious customs. ",
"They thus become sedentary, the inhabitants of cities, some adopting crafts as their way of making a living, others choosing commerce. ",
"They therefore earn more and live more comfortably than Bedouins.",
"\n\nIn contrast to sedentary peoples, the Arabs use tents of hair and wool, or houses of wood, clay or stone, and provide themselves with the other bare necessities of life: food, shade, and shelter, and nothing beyond that. ",
"All this was true of the Arabs of pre-Islamic Arabia. ",
"Those who cultivate grain and practice agriculture are bound to remain stationary, settling in small communities and villages. ",
"In early history they were predominantly non-Arabs. ",
"Those who raise sheep, goats, and cattle are frequently on the move, seeking pasture and water for their animals. ",
"They go not deep into the desert because good pastures are rare there. ",
"But those who make their living by raising camels, as did the Arabs of the Hijaz (the region about Mecca and Medina), wander deep into the desert where the camels are capable of feeding on desert shrubs and drinking the salty desert water. ",
"In winter, the camels are driven even deeper into the desert, fleeing the cold and seeking the warm desert air. ",
"It is also in the warm desert sands that the female camels can find hospitable places in which to give birth to their young.",
"\n\nBecause the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula live almost exclusively on camels, they are more deeply rooted in desert life than are other groups who live for the most part on sheep and cattle, but on camels as well. ",
"Temporally, Bedouins are prior to sedentary people. ",
"The toughness of desert life precedes the relative softness of sedentary life. ",
"Bedouins are more courageous than settled peoples because the latter become used to ease, laziness, and luxury, entrusting their safety and the defense of their property to a ruler and his armed men. ",
"They rely on the fortified walls surrounding them, and they become so carefree that they carry no weapons. ",
"The Bedouins, in contrast, being remote from the sedentary ruler's militias, walls, and gates, provide their own defense, and are always armed. ",
"Their chief characteristics are fortitude and courage.",
"\n\n_**Asabiyah**_\n\nIbn Khaldun now introduces one of his key concepts, _asabiyah_ , which may be translated as \"group feeling\" or \"solidarity.\" ",
"As Franz Rosenthal, the distinguished translator of the _Muqaddimah_ observes: \"Islam generally condemned _asabiyah_ if it took the form of 'a blind support for one's group without regard for the justice of its cause.' ",
"As such, any show of _asabiyah_ is deprecated as an atavistic survival of the pagan, pre-Islamic mentality\" (vol. ",
"I, lxxi). ",
"Ibn Khaldun was, of course, aware of this negative connotation; but he distinguishes between this objectionable form and the natural _asabiyah_ that is a part of being human. ",
"The latter is the affection one feels for others when they are treated unjustly or killed. ",
"Nothing can take it away. ",
"It is equivalent in some ways to what Rousseau later referred to as the natural pity or compassion one feels for one's fellows, or even for other sentient creatures. ",
"This form of _asabiyah_ is not forbidden by Muslim religious law. ",
"On the contrary, it is something desirable and useful in connection with the holy war ( _Jihad_ ) and with propaganda for Islam (lxxix). ",
"A preponderance of _asabiyah_ renders one group stronger than others.",
"\n\nIbn Khaldun stresses that only tribes held together by group feeling and loyalty can live in the desert. ",
"They have to be united because they are in a state of conflict, actual or potential, with other tribes due to the scarcity of pasture and water. ",
"Group feeling results from \"blood\" ties, or something corresponding to it – the notion or fact of common descent. ",
"The advantage of such a notion or fact consists in the group feeling or solidarity that derives from it, and which leads to mutual affection, devotion, and aid – and unity against hostile external forces.",
"\n\nOwing, then, to the strength of their _asabiyah_ , savage peoples are better able to achieve superiority than others. ",
"Savage groups, like the Arab– Bedouin, are braver than others. ",
"They are therefore better able to achieve superiority in battle and to rob things that are in the hands of other peoples. ",
"It is the socio-economic condition of their daily lives that accounts for their superiority in that respect. ",
"Just as it is the socio-economic condition of people who settle in the fertile valleys and begin to live in luxury that accounts for their diminished bravery. ",
"Ibn Khaldun now gives us an additional insight: \"Superiority,\" he avers, \"comes to peoples through enterprise and courage. ",
"The more firmly rooted in desert habits and the wilder a group is, the closer does it come to achieving superiority over others, if both parties are approximately equal in number, strength, and group feeling\" (vol. ",
"I, 283). ",
"We shall see, in due course, how fruitful this insight is for an understanding of early Islam.",
"\n\nIbn Khaldun now proceeds to provide historical evidence to support his theoretical proposition. ",
"Tribes that remained in the desert longer than others successfully took away and appropriated what the other tribes and groups possessed. ",
"Sustained desert habits tended to preserve the strength of the successful groups' feeling. ",
"And it is such groups that eventually become the most powerful among the Arabs. ",
"Ibn Khaldun now anticipates Thomas Hobbes by recognizing another implication of group feeling in the desert context of tribal particularism. ",
"According to their nature, Ibn Khaldun writes,\n\nhuman beings need someone to act as a restraining influence and mediator in every social organization, in order to keep the members from fighting each other. ",
"That person must, by necessity, have superiority over others in the matter of group feeling. ",
"If not, his power to exercise a restraining influence could not materialize. ",
"Such superiority is royal authority ( _mulk_ ). ",
"It is more than leadership. ",
"Leadership means being a chieftain, and the leader is obeyed, but has no power to force others to accept his rulings. ",
"Royal authority [a leviathan or common power in Hobbes' terms] means superiority and the power to rule by force [if necessary].(I, 284)\n\nIbn Khaldun goes further in anticipating Hobbes' view of the international arena as existing in what he calls a \"state of nature and war of each against all.\" ",
"Even if an individual tribe has several clans and households, and allegiances to them, \"still there must exist a group feeling that is stronger than all the other [particular] group feelings combined, that is superior to them all and makes them subservient, and in which all the diverse group feelings coalesce... to become one greater group feeling. ",
"Otherwise, splits would occur and lead to dissension and strife\" (vol. ",
"I, 285). ",
"Furthermore, once such an overarching group feeling has established itself under a central authority, it will strive to gain superiority over other groups. ",
"If the two groups are relatively equal, each will maintain its sway over its own domain and people \"as is the case with tribes and nations all over the earth\" (Ibid.). ",
"Moreover, if one such solidified group overpowers the other and makes it subservient to itself, the two group feelings add power to the victorious group feeling, thus setting its goal of superiority and domination higher than before. ",
"This process continues until the power of the victor becomes a ruling dynasty. ",
"But then a new tendential law becomes operative, and in time the ruling dynasty grows senile; and if no defender arises from among its friends who share in its group feeling, a new and oppositional group feeling takes over, deprives the preceding dynasty of its power and displaces it.",
"\n\nIn Ibn Khaldun's theory of this historical process, it is the very victory of the group that tends to undermine the conditions that had led to its victory; for the victorious group has now gained control over a considerable amount of wealth, and comes to share the prosperity and luxuries of which the vanquished group has been dispossessed. ",
"Now, members of the victorious group are primarily concerned with leading an easy, restful life, with the result that the toughness of desert life is lost and the virtue of courage declines steadily in succeeding generations; and the formerly victorious group's new vulnerability is such that it invites its own destruction. ",
"Meekness and docility – due to the relaxed and luxurious way of life – that become more and more characteristic of the settled cultures and their dynasties, tend to undermine the vigor and strength of their group feeling. ",
"Meekness and docility are, then, for Ibn Khaldun, an effect rather than a cause, for when a people has become meek and docile, that shows that their group feeling is lost. ",
"They do not become meek until they have become too weak to defend themselves.",
"\n\nStill reflecting on the Arabs of both pre-Islamic and Islamic history, Ibn Khaldun proposes that when a people is savage, as are the Arabs of the desert, its power is more effective, for they are, among human beings, as beasts of prey among domestic animals. ",
"Savage peoples, moreover, have no permanent homelands that they might use as fertile pasture, and therefore no fixed base. ",
"All regions and places are the same to them. ",
"Hence, they do not restrict themselves to the possession and protection of their own and neighboring regions. ",
"Instead, they swarm across distant zones and achieve superiority over faraway nations, at least temporarily.",
"\n\nArabs or Bedouin, Ibn Khaldun observes, can gain control most easily over flat territory, because they \"plunder and cause damage. ",
"They plunder whatever they are able to lay their hands on without having to fight or to expose themselves to danger. ",
"They then retreat to their pastures in the desert\" (I, 302). ",
"What is quite striking and remarkable in the following characterization of the Arab-Bedouins, is Ibn Khaldun's scholarly objectivity. ",
"He states that \"places that succumb to the Arabs are quickly ruined\" (I, 302). \"",
"The reason for this,\" he writes,\n\nis that the Arabs are a savage nation, fully accustomed to savagery and the things that cause it. ",
"Savagery has become their character and nature. ",
"They enjoy it, because it means freedom from authority and no subservience to rulers. ",
"Such a... disposition is the negation and antithesis of civilization. ",
"All the customary activities of the Arabs lead to travel and movement. ",
"This is the antithesis and negation of stationariness, which produces civilization. ",
"For instance, the Arabs need stones to set them up as supports for their cooking pots. ",
"So, they take them from buildings which they tear down to get the stones, and use them for that purpose. ",
"Wood, too, is needed by them for props for their tents and for use as tent poles for their dwellings. ",
"So, they tear down roofs to get the wood for that purpose. (",
"vol. ",
"I, 303)\n\nFurthermore, it is their socially determined second nature \"to plunder whatever other people possess. ",
"Their sustenance lies wherever the shadow of their lances falls. ",
"They recognize no limit in taking the possessions of other people...\" (Ibid.). ",
"And \"since they use force to make craftsmen and professional workers do their work, they do not see any value in it and do not pay them for it...\" (Ibid.).",
"\n\nIn his characterization of the Arab–Bedouins, there are several more \"furthermores.\"",
"\n\nFurthermore, the Arabs are not concerned with laws... They care only for the property that they might take away from people through looting and imposts. ",
"When they have obtained that, they have no interest in anything further, such as taking care of people, looking after their interests, or forcing them not to commit misdeeds... (vol. ",
"I, 304).",
"\n\nFurthermore, every Arab is eager to be the leader. ",
"Scarcely a one of them would cede his power to another, even to his father, his brother, or the eldest member of the family. (",
"Ibid.)",
"\n\nIt is noteworthy how civilization always collapsed in places the Arabs took over and conquered, and how such settlements were depopulated and the very earth there turned into something that was no longer earth. ",
"The Yemen where the Arabs live is in ruins, except for a few cities. ",
"Persian civilization in the Arab Iraq is likewise completely ruined. ",
"The same applies to contemporary Syria. (",
"vol. ",
"I, 305)\n\nIt is, of course, Ibn Khaldun as an Arab here speaking, for he claims Arab descent through the male line. ",
"On that subject, Franz Rosenthal writes:\n\nWhile Ibn Khaldun's Arab descent has occasionally been questioned, it has also been considered a major influence in forming his outlook on life and history. ",
"Neither point of view has anything to recommend it. ",
"Ibn Khaldun's claim to Arab descent through the male line cannot reasonably be doubted... Decisive in itself is the fact that he believed himself to be of Arab descent, a circumstance that, in a sense, conferred title of nobility. ",
"However, even if Ibn Khaldun was proud of his ancient Arab lineage, there is no indication that it colored his historical views or influenced his reactions to his environment... In fact, it would seem that not his Arab descent, but his Spanish origin was the crucial factor in his intellectual development and outlook... (vol. ",
"I, xxxiv)\n\nIt is certainly Ibn Khaldun's consistent striving for objectivity and his hard-headed realism that is so impressive even when discussing the Arab–Bedouin character, or perhaps one should say especially when discussing that subject. ",
"Perhaps his realistic, unsentimental view of desert Arabs was colored by the fact that he belonged to a clan of _South_ Arabian origin, for there was a world of difference between the south-Arabian, sedentary cultures and the north-Arabian desert Arabs of the Hijaz. ",
"The clan Khaldun, from whom the family name was derived, is believed to have immigrated to Spain in the eighth century, in the early years of the Muslim conquest. ",
"Hence, Ibn Khaldun's experience in the high Muslim culture of Spain at the time may have influenced _not_ his objective views of the desert Arab–Bedouin, but, perhaps, the way he expressed his views, which sound, occasionally, as if they are derogatory (Rosenthal, vol. ",
"I, lxxxiii).",
"\n\nAs we continue with a few more of Ibn Khaldun's observations, it becomes evident that he is interpreting the results of Muhammad's mission in the Arabian Peninsula. \"",
"Arabs,\" he writes, \"can obtain royal authority [and inter-tribal unity] only by making use of some religious coloring, such as prophecy, or sainthood, or some great religious event in general\" (vol. ",
"I, 305). \"",
"The reason for this,\" Ibn Khaldun explains, \"is that because of their savagery, the Arabs are the least willing of nations to subordinate themselves to each other, as they are rude, proud, ambitious, and eager to be the leader... But when there is religion among them through prophecy or sainthood, then they have some restraining influence in themselves. ",
"The qualities of haughtiness and jealousy leave them. ",
"It is then easier for them to subordinate themselves and unite as a social organization. ",
"This is achieved by the common religion they now have\" (vol. ",
"I, Ibid.).",
"\n\nAgain employing a proto-Hobbesian proposition, Ibn Khaldun explains why the Arabs are of all peoples most remote from \"royal leadership.\" ",
"Due to the attributes acquired in the deep desert, they remain remote from the inter-tribal unity made possible by the establishment of a \"common power\" or leviathan in Hobbes' sense, which Ibn Khaldun calls \"royal leadership.\" ",
"Again referring implicitly to Muhammad's contribution, Ibn Khaldun writes that the Arabs attain \"royal leadership\" \"... only once their nature has undergone a complete transformation under the influence of some religious coloring that... causes them to have a restraining influence on themselves...\" (vol. ",
"I, 307). ",
"This is illustrated by the Arab dynasty in Islam where religion cemented leadership with the religious law and its ordinances, which are concerned with what is good for civilization. ",
"As the Caliphs followed one another, the royal authority and government of the Arabs became great and strong. ",
"But writing in the fourteenth century after careful reflection on the history of the Arabs, Ibn Khaldun recognized that the particularistic, centrifugal forces of the desert-Arabian tribes had never ceased to operate in spite of Islam, which proved to be only a temporarily unifying ideology. ",
"For the Arabs neglected their religion, and eventually lost the central political leadership or common power that is the _sine qua non_ of inter-tribal solidarity. ",
"They thus returned to their desert, and to domination by the adjacent, neighboring populations.",
"\n\nFor Ibn Khaldun, \"royal authority\" or what Hobbes calls a \"common power,\" is attained only through a strong group feeling. ",
"The reason is clear: both aggressive and defensive strength are obtained only through a group feeling which creates real mutual affection and willingness to fight and die for one another. ",
"Such willingness applies not merely to one's own clan or tribe, but to the larger organization of several or many tribes. ",
"How did this come about in the history of the Arabs?",
"\n\nIbn Khaldun's answer is, that what he calls \"religious propaganda\" gives a social organization a substantial increment of power in addition to that of the group feeling it had possessed owing to the number of its supporters. ",
"The acceptance of Islam, therefore, not only diminished the inter-tribal conflicts of the desert Arabs, it created a higher form of solidarity among them. ",
"This he illustrates with the experience of the Arabs at the beginning of Islam during the Muslim conquests. ",
"Though the Persians and the Byzantines under Heraclius vastly outnumbered the Arabs, neither of the two imperial armies was able to withstand the Arabs who routed them and seized their possessions. ",
"Ibn Khaldun further clarifies his point by maintaining that \"religious propaganda cannot materialize without group feeling\" (vol. ",
"I, 322).",
"\n\nTo appreciate the profundity of this insight we have to understand it to mean that the higher form of solidarity cannot result from just any kind of religious propaganda. ",
"The new religious ideas have, rather, to resonate with the basic values, sentiments, and interests of the groups in question, in this case the tribes of northern Arabia. ",
"Following this logic, we can say that Muhammad's preaching at Mecca for thirteen years, had failed, apparently, to resonate with the sentiments and interests of the majority of Meccans, for he succeeded in producing there only a small sect of followers, who had ultimately to flee from persecution. ",
"When did Muhammad's message begin to capture the imagination of the Arab tribes of the Hijaz? ",
"The answer, as we shall soon demonstrate in detail, is that it was only in Medina that his message began to acquire an increasingly wide appeal, which was due to the new strategy he adopted, the sword instead of the sermon, or more correctly, the sword _and_ the sermon. ",
"Hence, as Ibn Khaldun observed, when God united the power of the Arabs in Islam, it enabled them to take possession of the realms of the Persians and the Byzantines who were the greatest powers of the time – \"as well as the realms of the Turks in the East, of the European Christians and Berbers in the West (Maghrib), and of the Goths in Spain. ",
"They [the Arab Muslims] went from the Hijaz to as-Sus in the far West, and from Yemen to the Turks in the farthest north. ",
"They gained possession of all seven zones\" (I, 330).",
"\n\nCharles Issawi has provided a splendid summary of Ibn Khaldun's theoretical framework with which we can appropriately conclude this introductory discussion and prepare for the detailed analyses of the forthcoming chapters.",
"\n\nThe social life of the pre-Islamic desert Arabs was, on the whole, \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short,\" owing to the tribal wars of each against all. ",
"Hence, where _asabiyah_ is concerned, it existed only within each tribe, but not as a force unifying the tribes with one another. ",
"Moreover, the poverty of the desert means that little or nothing ties them to the land of their birth. ",
"A new religion can establish itself only by _strife_ , and will succeed only if it enlists the help of a powerful social solidarity; but once established, a religion can not only greatly reinforce social solidarity within each tribe, but even create an overarching social solidarity to the extent of eliminating the war of each against all, at least for a time.",
"\n\nThe new, religiously determined inter-tribal solidarity mobilizes and concentrates a multitude of wills and emotions around a common purpose. ",
"The combination of religious and inter-tribal solidarity is formidable, and to it Ibn Khaldun attributes the rapid and sweeping conquests of the Muslim Arabs of the seventh century. ",
"But if inter-tribal solidarity can found empires, it can also check them. ",
"Ibn Khaldun contrasts the easy task of ruling sedentary peoples like Egypt with the difficulties encountered in Morocco, owing to the existence of many independent tribes; or the struggle of the Israelites to subjugate the tribes of ancient Canaan. ",
"His general sociological proposition, then, is that the extent of an empire will vary directly with the strength of the original solidarity that created it, and inversely with the strength of the solidarities it encounters. ",
"Although this proposition may now appear to be obvious or merely common-sensical, it emerged from Ibn Khaldun's careful study of history.",
"\n\nA state can arise only on the basis of some original solidarity. ",
"Once established, however, the need for solidarity decreases, as the unquestioned power of the ruler secures the required acquiescence and obedience of the subjects. ",
"But the State, like any other social institution, is subject to the laws of change, and, indeed, decline. ",
"The State, created originally by inter-tribal solidarity, is characterized in its early stages by a cohesiveness and comradeship that enables the people to participate in government. ",
"But owing to the disintegrating effects of sedentary and luxurious living, the ruler seeks to make his power absolute. ",
"The pattern Ibn Khaldun perceived was that the ruler now created a new class of clients personally attached to him, and substituted mercenary soldiers for his erstwhile primitive comrades in arms and counsel. ",
"What follows is an increase in pomp and ceremony, the concentration of power in the hands of the ruler, and a fundamental estrangement between ruler and subjects. ",
"The pomp and luxury lead to financial crises; taxes are raised, and the pay of the officials and soldiers becomes overdue, thus creating fertile soil for violent uprisings, civil war or external aggression and a change of rulers.",
"\n\nIn underscoring the originality of this theory, Issawi notes that although Ibn Khaldun cites outstanding Muslim historians such as Tabari, Masudi, Waqidi, and others, they rarely rise above the level of chroniclers. ",
"It is therefore almost certain that Ibn Khaldun could not have derived from them his sociological search for general patterns and tendencies.",
"\n\nAs we reflect, then, on Ibn Khaldun's extraordinary contribution to our understanding of history in general, and of Arab and Muslim history in particular, it is easy to see why we shall rely on him periodically in this quest for the historical Muhammad. ",
"Ibn Khaldun has been favorably compared with Thucydides and Machiavelli for his realism and objectivity. ",
"And Arnold Toynbee, in his _Study of History_ , stated that the _Muqaddima_ \"... is undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has ever been created by any mind in any time or place.\"",
"\n2\n\nPre-Islamic Arabia\n\nThe Arabian Peninsula comprises an area of almost continental proportions, being as large as Europe west of the Vistula, including the British Isles. ",
"This great expanse, however, is about nine-tenths desert. ",
"It is only here and there that one might find fertile spots, the most extensive of which is the strip along the Red Sea. ",
"Before Muhammad, as we have seen, the Peninsula was inhabited principally by nomadic, Bedouin tribes without a common government. ",
"They lived a pastoral life, herding sheep, goats, and cattle, and moving from one grassy plot to another. ",
"The most absorbing interests of their lives were cattle and caravan raiding and intertribal conflicts over pasture lands. ",
"During four months of the year, however, on the occasion of religious pilgrimages, festivals, and fairs, a truce was called during which raiding, by common agreement, was prohibited. ",
"At all times, however, the custom of according hospitality even to the most inveterate enemy – an unwritten and unbreakable law – was observed. ",
"These Bedouin tribes had no literature or plastic arts, but the poets or bards who recited in sonorous language the heroic exploits of their tribes, were greatly honored.",
"\n\nNot all tribes lived a nomadic life. ",
"In the fertile strip along the Red Sea were a number of settlements, the most important of which were Mecca and Medina. ",
"They were inhabited by the more sedentary Arabs who – according to an earlier view – were mainly engaged in commerce. ",
"There appeared to have been a much traveled caravan route extending from the southwestern tip of Arabia northward through Mecca and Medina into Syria and Mesopotamia. ",
"The conventional view is that along that route passed caravans carrying goods from India and perhaps even China, a view which needs to be challenged in a later context. ",
"The inhabitants of Mecca also profited from the fact that their settlement or town possessed a famous shrine called the Kaaba. ",
"In addition to numerous idols, the shrine contained a black stone that was the special object of veneration of the surrounding tribes. ",
"According to legend, it had fallen from heaven, which suggests that it might have been a meteorite. ",
"Polytheism, therefore, may be the appropriate term with which to describe the religion of the Arabs of the Hijaz.",
"\n\nArabia is one of the driest and hottest of regions. ",
"In the Hijaz, the birthplace of Islam, droughts can last as long as three or four years. ",
"Rain, when it occurs, takes the form of violent storms of short duration, following which the hardy pastoral flora of the desert makes its appearance. ",
"In the northern Hijaz it is the few isolated oases, the largest covering an area of 10 square miles, that are the only support of settled life. ",
"Most of these fertile tracts were cultivated at the time of Muhammad by Jews. ",
"Apart from the springs that exist in the few oases, there is no other major source of water. ",
"The Peninsula possesses not a single river of significance that flows constantly and reaches the sea. ",
"The absence of a system of rivers means that the inhabitants rely on a network of wadis to carry away the flood waters. ",
"The wadis tend to determine the routes of the caravans and the pilgrimages. ",
"The dry air and the salty soil inhibit the possibility of any luxurious growth, although the Hijaz oases are rich in dates. ",
"Indeed, the date-palm tree, most probably introduced by the oasis-dwelling Jews, who were experienced in agriculture, bears the most common and esteemed fruit ( _tamr_ ). ",
"It is this fruit which, together with milk, constitutes the chief item in the Bedouins' daily diet; and except for the occasional meal of camel flesh, is his only solid food.",
"\n\nThe Bedouins' principal domestic animals are the camel, the ass, the watch dog, the greyhound, the cat, the sheep and the goat. ",
"Although the horse has become renowned in Muslim literature, it was a late importation into ancient Arabia. ",
"The horse is an animal of luxury whose feeding and care is difficult for the denizen of the desert. ",
"Its possession requires wealth and its main value lies in providing the speed necessary for a successful Bedouin raid. ",
"Moreover, the horse in the Arabian environment, requires water even more frequently than humans. ",
"So it is the camel, from the nomad's standpoint, that is the most useful. ",
"Without this animal, humans would find the deeper regions of the desert uninhabitable. ",
"Philip Hitti explains just how essential is the camel to the Bedouin's way of life: \"It is the Bedouin's constant companion, his _alter ego_ , his foster parent. ",
"He drinks its milk instead of water (which he spares for the cattle); he feasts on its flesh; he covers himself with its skin; he makes his tent of its hair. ",
"Its dung he uses as fuel, and its urine as a hair tonic and medicine.\" ",
"The paramount importance of the camel in the economic life of the Arab–Bedouin is dramatically illustrated by the fact that there may be as many as one-hundred names for the camel in the Arabic language. ",
"This animal can serve his master without water, if necessary, for about twenty-five days in winter and five in the summer. ",
"The camel was a factor accounting for the success of the early Muslim conquests, for in providing more mobility, it became a definite advantage over the settled peoples.",
"\n\nThe Arab–Bedouin represents the best human adaptation to Near Eastern desert conditions. ",
"As Ibn Khaldun was among the first to observe, the interaction between the desert and the settled peoples was dictated by self-interest and self-preservation. ",
"The nomad feels no compunction about taking from his more favorably situated neighbor whatever he himself lacks. ",
"He does so, for the most part, by means of violence – raids. ",
"Hunting and raiding are his staple occupation and to his mind the only occupations worthy of a man. ",
"As he regards himself as a noble warrior, he looks with contempt on agriculture and all forms of trade and craft. ",
"We have already mentioned the principle of hospitality, which together with fortitude and manliness are considered supreme virtues. ",
"We need, however, to add another principle that was honored in pre-Islamic Arabia. ",
"Although the sharp competition for water and pasturage had split the desert populace into warring tribes, there were, nevertheless, rules of the game: no blood should be shed except in cases of extreme necessity. ",
"The relevance of this important fact will become clear in a later discussion of raids and war in early Islam.",
"\n\nClan organization is the basis of Bedouin society. ",
"Each family lives in a tent; an encampment of tents forms a _hayy_ ; members of one _hayy_ make up a clan ( _qawm_ ). ",
"A number of kindred clans constitute a tribe ( _qabilah_ ). \"",
"Banu\" (children of) is the title with which clan and/or tribal members prefix their joint name. _",
"Asabiyah_ in the pre-Islamic era, implied unconditional, chauvinistic loyalty to fellow clansmen. ",
"Hitti, stating what we have already learned from Ibn Khaldun, writes:\n\nThis ineradicable particularism in the clan, which is the individualism of the member of the clan magnified, assumes that the clan or tribe, as the case may be, is a unit by itself, self-sufficient and absolute, and regards every other clan or tribe as its legitimate victim and object of plunder... The unsocial features of individualism and _asabiyah_ were never outgrown by the Arab character as it developed and unfolded itself after the rise of Islam, and were among the determining factors that led to the disintegration and ultimate downfall of the various Islamic states. (",
"Hitti, 27–8)\n\n**The Hijaz on the Eve of the Rise of Islam**\n\nMuslim scholars refer to the pre-Islamic era as the _Jahiliyah_ period, the \"time of ignorance\" or \"barbarism,\" the period in which Arabia had no inspired prophet, no revealed book. ",
"As the Arabs of the Hijaz had no system of writing, our sources are limited to legends, traditions, proverbs, and above all to poems, all of which were committed to writing two-to four-hundred years after the events which they were supposed to commemorate. ",
"Eloquence, the ability to express oneself forcefully and well in both prose and poetry, was as essential an attribute of the perfect man as excellence in archery and horsemanship. ",
"In this heroic age of the Hijaz, prior to the emergence of a system of writing, poetry was the only means of literary expression. ",
"The poet served diverse functions. ",
"In battle, his tongue raised his tribe's morale by singing its praise and by denigrating its opponents. ",
"There is a sense in which the Bedouin character itself is expressed in poetry. ",
"Alan Jones, in his _Early Arabic Poetry_ illustrates how central was the role of the poet in the life of the Bedouin. ",
"Jones opens by citing the views of early Muslim commentators: \"In the days of Ignorance verse was to the Arabs the register of all they knew, and the utmost compass of their wisdom; with it they began their affairs, and with it they ended them\" (Year 845). ",
"More illuminating are the words of another early Muslim commentator:\n\nWhen there appeared a poet in a family of the Arabs, the other tribes round about would gather together to that family and wish them joy for their good luck. ",
"Feasts would be got ready, the women of the tribe would join together in bands, playing upon lutes, as they were wont to do at bridals, and the men and boys would congratulate one another; for a poet was a defense to the honor of them all, a weapon to ward of insult from their good name, and a means of perpetuating their glorious deeds and of establishing their fame for ever. ",
"And they used not to wish one another joy but for three things – the birth of a boy, the coming to light of a poet, and the foaling of a noble mare. (",
"Year 1070)\n\nJones comments that both passages accurately reflect the basic importance of poetry in early Arabic tribal society. ",
"The poetry of a tribe helped to distinguish it from other tribes. \"",
"It was a projection into words,\" Jones writes,\n\nof the life of the tribe, its solidarity and its aspirations, its fears and its sorrows... Poetry helped to emphasize a tribe's uniqueness and its virtues and to vaunt them against similar claims made by neighboring rivals. ",
"Moreover, poetry had a quality not possessed by a tribe's worldly possessions. ",
"Land, camels, goods and chattels, even members of the tribe could be seized or destroyed by enemies; but as long as the collective memory survived, so would the tribe's poetry, together with two other bulwarks of separate identity, both close to the hearts of the _bedu_ : _ansab_ \"genealogies\" and _akhbar_ \"legends of the tribe's history.\" ",
"However, neither _ansab_ nor _akhbar_ had the force, the quasi-magical power of poetry. (",
"1)\n\nPhilip Hitti explains the quasi-magical role of the Arabian poet: \"The Arabian poet ( _shair_ ), as the name indicates, was originally one endowed with knowledge hidden from the common man, which knowledge he received from a demon, his special _shaytan_ (Satan). ",
"As a poet he was in league with the unseen powers and could by his curses bring evil upon the enemy. ",
"Satire ( _hija_ ) was therefore a very early form of Arabic poetry\" (94). ",
"Hitti remarks in a footnote that Balaam of the Hebrew Bible (Num. ",
"23:7) was a type of primitive Arabian satirist. ",
"Jones, agreeing with Hitti, writes that \"poetry had a number of facets that took it into the realm of magic. ",
"First, each poet was believed to be inspired by his own spirit, who was one of the _jinn_ (equivalent to the Greek _daimon_ ). ",
"Secondly, a poet's poetic utterances were believed to have a magical force.\" ",
"Jones then cites approvingly Hitti's strong statement about the Arabic language:\n\nNo people in the world, perhaps, manifest such enthusiastic admiration for literary expression and are so moved by the word, spoken or written, as the Arabs. ",
"Hardly any language seems capable of exercising over the minds of their users such irresistible influences as Arabic. ",
"Modern audiences in Baghdad, Damascus, and Cairo can be stirred to the highest degree by the recital of poems, only vaguely comprehended, and by the delivery of orations in the classical tongue, though it be only partially understood. ",
"The rhythm, the rhyme, the music, produce on them the effect of what they call \"lawful magic.\" (",
"Hitti, 90)\n\nEarly Arabic poetry, then, is essentially tribal poetry, the substance of which reflects what we have learned so far about the Bedouin's way of life – their nomadic character, their dependence on camels and to a lesser extent on their sheep and goats; their environs in the desert and semi-desert areas, and the surrounding mountains; their tribal raids and feuds and the consequent outlook on life as hard and dangerous. ",
"From the poetry we also learn that a complex code of social conduct regulated both intra-tribal and inter-tribal relationships, and that there was an ethical code based on the notion of _muruwwa_ (manliness).",
"\n\n**Pre-Islamic Religion**\n\nAlan Jones, in his Introduction to the Quran (Koran), observes that the Bedouin had an outlook on life that was dominated by the concept of FATE, what the ancient Greeks called _moira_.\"Their poetry makes it clear,\" Jones writes,\n\nthat there basic belief was that Fate ruled their destiny and that sooner or later Fate would bring death. ",
"They knew about gods and idols, but there are lines of poetry that show that the gods, even Allah, were less important to the _bedu_ than Fate...\n\nThough the _bedu_ seem to have had little expectation that Fate might be propitiated in this manner [by means of rituals and pilgrimages], they appear to have sought to avoid its final, fatal appearance in somewhat less formal ways, and divination and soothsayers ( _kahins_ ) were all popular. (",
"Jones, _Koran_ , xii)\n\nJones stresses that throughout the early Muslim period, right up to the first Caliphates, the majority of poets were _bedu_ and\n\npoetry was associated much more with nomadic life than it was with settled places. ",
"That is not to say that such centers as Mecca and Medina were without poets, but they do not appear to have flourished in the way that their nomadic counterparts did. ",
"It is not fortuitous that all the poets represented in this book were _bedu_ – that appears to have been the case even with the unknown women – and only one, Labid, ever moved to a settlement, and that under the influence of Islam. (",
"Jones, _Early Arabic_...p. 6)\n\nThe religious beliefs and practices of the pre-Islamic Bedouin may be characterized as a form of polytheism, which included the expectation of reciprocity in a human's relationship with a deity. ",
"This expectation is recognized in classical sociological studies of religion. ",
"Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss, in their study of sacrifice, took for their central theme a Vedic principle that sacrifice is a gift that compels the deity to make a return: I give so that you may give. ",
"It is likely that this earlier work by Hubert and Mauss inspired Mauss' later classic study _The Gift_ , in which he documents his thesis of a morally sustained gift cycle upholding the cycle of social life. ",
"The gift cycle in social life, with its obligatory reciprocity, became the model for the human being's relation to the divine. ",
"Following Mauss' work, subsequent research suggested that hopes and expectations of reciprocity from a deity is a rather general phenomenon. ",
"It is noteworthy in this regard, that a distinguished specialist in Islamic studies, Marshall G. S. Hodgson, has discerned this phenomenon in pre-Islamic Mecca. ",
"He writes:\n\nThe prevailing religious climate in Mecca was still not far removed from Bedouin paganism round about. ",
"Relations with fetishes or with deities were chiefly on the basis of bargaining – for the offering I give you lord, you will give me that favor in return. ",
"That was little removed from magic. ",
"Lots were cast at the Kaaba to foretell fortunes, and vows and sacrifices were made to assure success.",
"\n\nThat the hope and expectation of reciprocity is a general phenomenon and evident in the monotheistic religions as well, can be illustrated where one might least expect it – in the Book of Job. ",
"If anyone had an exquisite love of the Divine, it was certainly Job. ",
"But even the most exquisite such love carries with it a concern for oneself and one's loved ones, and a trust that the Deity will reciprocate for the offerings made to him. ",
"We are told in the Book of Job that when he learned that his sons had invited their sisters to a feast, he \"sanctified them and rose up early in the morning, and offered burnt offerings according to the number of them all; for Job said: 'It may be that my sons have sinned, and blasphemed God in their hearts.' ",
"Thus did Job continually\" (1: 5). ",
"This strongly suggests that in making his offering, Job expected a reciprocal consideration from the Deity.",
"\n\nIn the pre-Islamic, Arabian context, a deity's or oracle's failure to provide a wished-for response might even have evoked anger. ",
"Hitti relates the tale concerning Imru-al-Qays who set out to avenge the murder of his father, and stopped at a shrine to consult the oracle by means of drawing arrows, a ritual later explicitly forbidden by Islam (Quran 5: 4, 92). ",
"Upon drawing the response \"abandon\" thrice, he hurled the broken arrows at the idol, shouting \"Accursed one! ",
"Had it been thy father who was murdered, Thou wouldst not have forbidden my avenging him\" (Hitti, 96).",
"\n\nIt appears that for any knowledge at all about pre-Islamic religion in the Hijaz, we have to rely on the references in the poetry and primarily on the few allusions to polytheism in the Islamic literature. ",
"The Bedouins' religion was basically animistic in the sense introduced by the pioneer anthropologist, E. B. Tylor. ",
"Even after the notion of deities in the form of spirits and idols had emerged, the Bedu continued to regard natural objects such as trees, wells, caves and stones, as sacred objects, either as fetishes or as media through which the individual could get in touch with the deity. ",
"Spring water, not surprisingly, early acquired such a sacred character, as did the spring in the desert, with all of its life-supporting qualities. ",
"The famous well of Zamzam, of which we shall hear more, became holy, according to Arabian authors such as Ibn Hisham, long before the emergence of Islam, and went back to the time that it supplied water to Hagar and Ishmael. ",
"In due course we shall address the question whether the presumed association of Abraham, Hagar and Ishmael with Zamzam and the Kaaba at Mecca is historical.",
"\n\nThe moon in whose light the Bedouin grazed his flocks was the center of his astral beliefs. ",
"It seems to be true that moon-worship or veneration is characteristic of pastoral societies, while sun-centered worship emerged at a later agricultural period. ",
"The beliefs of desert Bedouins included, as already mentioned, animistic spirits, or beings called _jinn_ or demons. ",
"While the deities are believed to be, on the whole, benevolent, the _jinn_ are viewed as hostile. ",
"With Islam the number of _jinn_ increased as the polytheistic deities were then degraded into such beings. ",
"Among the settled peoples of the Hijaz, which constituted a small fraction of the total population, the astral stage of polytheism was evident early. ",
"The three daughters of Allah, Al-Uzza, al-Lat and Manat, had their sanctuaries in the region that later became the birthplace of Islam.",
"\n\nJust as the historicity of Abraham's connection with the Kaaba requires clarification, so does the question of whether Muhammad, in his early conception of monotheism, had believed it was compatible with the three daughters of Allah as intercessors with him. ",
"Certain early Muslim writers such as Tabari, have related that having become thoroughly estranged from the members of his own tribe, the Quraysh, he sought to win them over by making the concession of recognizing these powerful goddesses of Mecca as associates of Allah. ",
"As Hitti writes:\n\nIn a weak moment, the monotheistic Muhammad was tempted (Quran, 22: 51–2; 17: 74–6) to recognize these powerful deities... and make a compromise in their favor, but afterwards he retracted and the revelation is said to have received the form now found in Sura 53: 19–20. ",
"Later theologians explained the case according to the principle of _nasikh_ and _mansukh_ , abrogating and abrogated verses, by means of which God revokes and alters the announcements of His will; this results in the cancellation of a verse and the substitution of another for it (Quran, 2: 100). (",
"Hitti, 99)\n\nThis issue will receive a fuller analysis in a later chapter.",
"\n\nThe Meccan Kaaba, the chief deity of which was Hubal (from the Aramaic word for vapor or spirit), was represented in human form. ",
"A soothsayer ( _kahin_ also Aramaic), on duty with the ritual arrows used for divination, drew lots by means of them. ",
"The pre-Islamic Kaaba, according to tradition, was an unpretentious cube-like (hence the name) structure of primitive simplicity, originally roofless, serving as the domicile for a black meteorite venerated as a fetish. ",
"With the emergence of Islam the structure was rebuilt, presumably with the aid of an Abyssinian, from the wreckage of a Byzantine ship destroyed on the shore of the Red Sea. ",
"The territory around the Kaaba and even beyond it, was regarded as sacred ( _haram_ ). ",
"The traditional pilgrimages were made there and special sacrifices offered. ",
"Muslim tradition maintains that the Kaaba was originally built by Adam according to a celestial prototype, and, after the Deluge, rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael (Quran, 2: 118–21). ",
"The Kaaba, according to tradition, remained in Ishmael's descendants charge until the polytheistic tribe, Banu-Jurhum, and later the Banu-Khuzaah, took possession of it and introduced idol worship.",
"\n\nAllah (meaning \"the god\") appears to have been the principal deity of Mecca, and to the best of our knowledge, there was no iconic representation of him. ",
"Hitti informs us that \"the name is an ancient one. ",
"It occurs in two South Arabia inscriptions, one a Minaean found at al-Ula and the other a Sabaean, but abounds in the form HLH in the Lihyanite inscriptions of the fifth century ... The name occurs as Hallah in the Safa inscriptions five centuries before Islam and also in a pre-Islamic Christian Arabic inscription found in Umm-al-Jimal, Syria, and ascribed to the sixth century. ",
"The name of Muhammad's father was \"Abd-Allah (Abdullah, the slave or worshipper of Allah)\" (Hitti, 101).",
"\n\nThe pre-Islamic Meccans regarded Allah as the creator and supreme provider and _the_ deity to be invoked in times of peril or need. ",
"Those are the qualities attributed to Allah by several Quranic passages: 31: 24, 31; 6: 137, 109; 10: 23. ",
"The Kaaba and its environs made the Hijaz the most important religious area in north Arabia.",
"\n\nThe Bedouins, especially during the four months of \"holy truce,\" frequented the settled towns of the Hijaz and there picked up some of the urban beliefs and were thus introduced to the ritualistic practices of the Kaaba and the offering of sacrifices – camels and sheep at Mecca, and at idols and altars in the vicinity. ",
"The pilgrimage to a notable shrine of the settled Arabs was a most important religious practice of the desert-dwelling Arabs. ",
"Of the four months of the holy truce, the first three were devoted to religious observance, while the fourth was set aside for trade. ",
"The central location of the Hijaz on what appears to have been a main caravan route running north and south, offered hospitable conditions for both religious and commercial activity – I say \"appears to have been,\" because we shall have to call attention to serious challenges to this notion in our later discussion of Muhammad at Mecca.",
"\n\nThe Hijaz, meaning \"barrier,\" is so called because it is in fact barren country standing like a barrier between the uplands of Najd and the low coastal region called Tihamah (low land). ",
"We know of only three urban settlements in the region – Mecca, Medina (earlier called Yathrib) and Taif. ",
"The third of these, situated at an altitude of 6000 feet, and rich in shady trees and a variety of succulent fruits, was a summer resort for the Meccan elite. ",
"The products of this settlement included honey, watermelons, bananas, figs, grapes, almonds, peaches, and pomegranates. ",
"Its roses were known for the attar from which some Meccans produced perfume. ",
"The vines of Taif, we learn from Hitti, citing al-Aghani, were introduced by a Jewish woman who offered the first slips as a present to the local chief. ",
"Hitti remarks that \"of all places in the Peninsula al-Taif came nearest to the Koranic description of paradise in Sura 47: 16–17\" (103).",
"\n\nThe name \"Mecca,\" meaning \"sanctuary,\" suggests that it owes its foundation to some religious group, and that the settlement had been some sort of religious center long before Muhammad was born. ",
"It lies in the southern Hijaz, about 48 miles east of the Red Sea in a barren, rocky valley described in the Quran (14: 40) as \"unfit for cultivation.\" ",
"Hence, the Meccans or more correctly its chief tribe, the Quraysh, sought their prosperity from another source. ",
"For it was under their leadership, as the custodians of the Kaaba, that it became a national shrine and, indeed, a commercially profitable one.",
"\n\nYathrib, some 295–300 miles north of Mecca, was, as Hitti remarks, much more favored by nature than its southern sister. ",
"It was a veritable oasis and, as mentioned earlier, well adapted for the cultivation of date palms. ",
"Now, because the Jewish tribes of Yathrib and Khaybar are a necessary subject in any adequate discussion of Muhammad at Medina, we will first present Hitti's description of the role of the Jews in Yathrib, and then, in a later chapter, analyze in some detail the Prophet's relationship with them. ",
"Hitti writes:\n\nIn the hands of its Jewish inhabitants, the banu-Nadir and banu-Qurayza, the town became a leading agricultural center. ",
"Judging by their proper names and the Aramaean vocabulary used in their agricultural life these Jews must have been mostly Judaized clans of Arabian and Aramaean stock, though the nucleus may have been Israelites who fled from Palestine at the time of its conquest by the Romans in the first century after Christ [70 CE] It was possibly these Aramaic-speaking [and Arabic-speaking] Jews who changed the name Yathrib into Aramaic Medinta, the explanation of the name alMadinah (Medina) as \"the town\" (of the Prophet) being a comparatively late one. ",
"The two leading non-Jewish tribes were the Aws and the Khazraj, who came originally from al-Yaman. (",
"104)\n\nHitti calls attention in this context to another possible phenomenon in the Hijaz: that in addition to Judaism, Christianity, and polytheism, there may have existed a form of monotheism or quasi-monotheism that was distinct from Judaism and Christianity. ",
"The Muslim sources use the term _hanif_ to describe an adherent of a monotheism of that sort. ",
"Hitti alerts us to an inscription (542–3 CE) of Abraha, a version of the name Abraham, the Abyssinian viceroy, dealing with the alleged break of the Marib Dam. ",
"It begins with the words: \"In the power and grace and mercy of the merciful [Rahman-an] and His Messiah and of the Holy Spirit.\" ",
"The word _Rahman-an_ is especially significant because its northern equivalent, _alRahman_ ,later became a prominent attribute of Allah and one of His names in the Quran and in Islamic theology. ",
"The word _Rahman_ is also Hebrew and Aramaic, meaning compassionate and merciful; and there is the related _Rahmanah_ , meaning God the merciful. ",
"Later we shall have to explore in detail the proposition that there had existed in pre-Islamic Arabia some form of non-Judaic, non-Christian monotheism.",
"\n\nIn the century prior to the birth of Islam, Zoroastrian Persia contended with Christian Abyssinia for control of Yemen. ",
"Persian military arts were passing into Arab hands from the south and also from the north through Persian Arabia, with its capital al-Hira near the Euphrates. ",
"Muslim tradition relates that it was Salman the Persian who instructed the Prophet on how to dig a trench for the defense of Medina. ",
"Al-Hira was the main conduit through which not only Persian cultural influences but, later, Aramaean Nestorian influences penetrated Arabia of the pre-Islamic era. ",
"It was the Nestorians who transmitted northern cultural ideas of an Aramaic, Persian and Hellenistic origin into polytheistic Arabia; just as it was, apparently, the Nestorians who later conveyed Hellenistic concepts to nascent Islam. ",
"The kind of influence the Nestorians of al-Hira had on the Arabs near the Persian border, was exerted by the Monophysites of Ghassanland upon the people of the Hijaz. ",
"For several centuries prior to the rise of Islam, these Syrianized, Christian Arabs had been bringing the Arabian Bedouins of the Peninsula in touch not only with Syria, but also with Byzantium. ",
"Hence we find that such personal names as Dawud (David), Sulayman (Solomon), Isa (Jesus), were fairly common among the pre-Islamic Arabians. ",
"We shall need, then, in a separate chapter, to assess the influence of Christianity on nascent Islam.",
"\n\nHitti stresses, however, that one must not overestimate the Christian influence in forming the _hanif_ monotheism or quasi-monotheism of Arabia. ",
"That the Jews were ubiquitous in the Hijaz most scholars would agree; and Jewish colonies flourished in Medina and in the various other oases of the northern Hijaz, such as Khaybar. _",
"Jibril_ (Gabriel), _Surah_ , the word for \"chapter\" in the Quran, _jabbar_ (Heb. _",
"Gibbor_ , \"most powerful\"), illustrate Hebrew words in the Arabic vocabulary. ",
"Hitti agrees that there were individuals in the Peninsula, and individuals in the settlements or towns, who had acquired vague monotheistic concepts and went by the name of _Hanifs_ : \"Umayyah ibn-abi-al-Salt (624 CE), through his mother a second cousin of the Prophet, and Waraqah ibn-Nawfal, a cousin of Khadija, were such Hanifs, though several sources make Waraqah a Christian\" (Hitti, 108).",
"\n3\n\nThe Role of Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael\n\nAccording to Islamic tradition and the Quran, Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian; he was a Hanif, who first preached the Divine Unity and thus became the original Muslim, that is, the first to surrender to God. ",
"It was Abraham and his son Ishmael who, purportedly, had built the original mosque and made Mecca a permanent habitat. ",
"If we had to state the Islamic view concerning Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael, it would read something like the following summary.",
"\n\nAbraham was born in Mesopotamia to a father whose occupation was carpentry and the making and selling of idols for worship. ",
"As Abraham grew up and witnessed his father at work, he was astonished by the people's worship of pieces of wood. ",
"He developed serious doubts that these icons, wrought from wood, were truly deities. ",
"He asked his father how _he_ could worship the products of his hands, and being dissatisfied with the reply, he shared his doubts with his friends. ",
"This aroused his father's fears that if the word got out that his son was questioning the beliefs and practices of the people, it would not only threaten his own trade and means of livelihood, but also place Abraham's life in jeopardy. ",
"Abraham refused, however, to silence himself, and went about seeking to convince his people of the foolishness and futility of idol worship. ",
"Once, when he noticed that the worshippers were absent from the shrine, he seized the opportunity and destroyed all the idols but one, the one revered as the principal deity. ",
"When he was accused publicly of this offense and asked whether it was he who had destroyed the community's gods, he replied: \"No, it was the chief god who destroyed the others. ",
"Ask them, for they would speak, wouldn't they?\"",
"\n\nAbraham thus recognized that the idols were no-gods, but not knowing, as yet, who ought to be the true object of devotion, he began his search. ",
"When night came and he saw a star rise, he thought for the moment that it might be the true God. ",
"But then the star set, so he asked himself, how can that have been the true God if it disappeared? ",
"Then the moon appeared and shone brilliantly, and he thought, perhaps that is the God. ",
"But when the moon also disappeared, he was again disappointed. ",
"Later, Abraham observed the sun in all of its glory, and thought to himself, surely it is the greatest of all and must be the master of the world. ",
"But then it, too, set and disappeared, which brought Abraham the insight that the sun worship common among his people was no less fallacious than worshipping the products of one's hands. ",
"In that way, Abraham, it is said, arrived at the conclusion that it is only He who had created the heavens and the earth who is God. ",
"Thereafter, Abraham became a _hanif_ and dedicated himself to the worship of the one true God.",
"\n\nAlthough Abraham had thus liberated _himself_ from polytheism, he had failed to liberate his people from their foolish and futile notions. ",
"Indeed, the people tried to punish him for his iconoclasm by throwing him into the fire, but God rescued him and allowed him to escape to Canaan together with his wife, Sarah. ",
"From Canaan (Palestine) they moved on to Egypt where the Hyksos or Amalekite kings ruled and were wont to take into their households and harems beautiful women even if they were married.",
"\n\nAbraham, learning of this and fearing for his life, said to Sarah, you are a fair woman to look upon, and it may come to pass that when the Egyptians will see you, they will say, \"she is his wife,\" and they will kill me and make you their captive. ",
"So say that you are my sister, so that I may be protected. ",
"The King, however, did take Sarah, and when he later discovered that she was Abraham's wife, the King blamed him for his lie, returned Sarah to him with gifts, one of which was a slave girl named Hagar. ",
"As Sarah remained barren for many years, she urged Abraham to go into Hagar, which he did, and she bore him his son Ishmael. ",
"Later, when Ishmael was a youth, Sarah bore Abraham a son called Ishaq (Isaac).",
"\n\n**Who was the Sacrificial Son?**",
"\n\nIshmael, according to Islamic tradition, was the sacrificial son. ",
"The only disagreement among Islamic historians is whether it took place before or after the birth of Isaac; and whether it took place in Palestine or in the Hijaz. ",
"Jewish historians insist, of course, that the sacrificial son was Isaac, not Ishmael. ",
"So Haykal rejects the biblical view, citing the work of Shaykh Abd al Wahhab al Najjar, _Qisas al Anbiya_ , who concluded that the sacrificial son was Ishmael. ",
"His evidence he drew from the Quran itself where the text states that the sacrificial son was Abraham's \"unique son,\" who could only be Ishmael, and only as long as Isaac had not yet been born. ",
"Explaining the difference of opinion among Muslim historians, Haykal writes:\n\nFor with the birth of Ishaq, Ibrahim would have no \"unique\" son but two, Ismail and Ishaq. ",
"But to accede to this evidence implies that the sacrifice should have taken place in Palestine. ",
"This would be equally true in case the sacrificial son was Ishaq, for the latter remained with his mother Sarah in Palestine and never left for the Hijaz. ",
"On the other hand, the report [i.e., a _Hadith_ or traditional report] which makes the sacrifice take place on the mountain of Mina near Makkah [Mecca] identifies the sacrificial son as Ismail. ",
"The Quran did not mention the name of the sacrificial son, and hence Muslim historians disagree in this regard. (",
"Haykal, 24–5)\n\nIn the Quranic version of Abraham's readiness to sacrifice his son (37: 100f.), ",
"Abraham saw in a dream God commanding him to sacrifice his son to Him. ",
"Therefore in the morning he took his son and went out to fulfill the command. ",
"When they reached the destination Abraham said, \"my son, I saw in a dream God commanding me to offer you up as a sacrifice. ",
"What will you say to that?\" ",
"Ishmael replied: \"Fulfill whatever God has commanded; for by God's will you will find me patient.\" ",
"When Abraham then threw his son to the ground and prepared for the procedure, God called out to him: \"O Abraham, you have already fulfilled the commandment by intending to obey Me. ",
"We shall reward you as we reward the virtuous. ",
"You have manifestly succeeded in your travail. ",
"We ransomed him with a worthy sacrificial animal\" (Haykal, 25).",
"\n\n**The Islamic Theory that Abraham, Ishmael, and Hagar Traveled to the Valley of Mecca**\n\nIsaac grew up with his brother Ishmael. ",
"Abraham loved both sons equally, but Sarah was displeased with this equation of her son with the son of the slave girl, Hagar. ",
"In time, Sarah refused to live in the same household with Hagar, so Abraham, taking her and Ishmael, traveled south until they arrived at the valley of Mecca. ",
"Although Mecca was a resting place for caravans that came in season, this place was empty at all or most other times. ",
"Abraham deposited Ishmael and Hagar there and left them some sustenance. ",
"Hagar set up a tent in which she and her son settled, and where Abraham could visit when he returned. ",
"When water and food were exhausted, Hagar set out to find the necessities of life, but found none. ",
"As the _hadiths_ or story-tellers of the tradition relate what happened next, Hagar ran towards the valley searching for water, and finding none, ran in another direction. ",
"Running thus back and forth between Safa and Marwah, she returned in despair to her son and was delighted to discover that he, having scratched the earth with his foot, had miraculously uncovered a spring, from which mother and son drank to their satiety. ",
"It was this discovery of the spring called Zamzam, that made it possible for mother and son to continue to live in Mecca, and, indeed, to provide water to caravaneers and other Arab travelers.",
"\n\nIn some versions of the story, the Zamzam attracted tribes to the area, among which the Jurhum was the first to settle in Mecca. ",
"Other versions say that Jurhum was already settled in Mecca even before Hagar and Ishmael arrived. ",
"The most favored tradition, however, is that no tribes settled there until Zamzam had sprung forth and made life possible in this otherwise barren valley. ",
"When Ishmael became a man, he married a woman of the Jurhum tribe and lived with this tribe until he built the holy shrine, around which the town of Mecca arose.",
"\n\nIn his discussion of these traditional stories, Haykal states that although Muslim historians disagree on details, there is a consensus among them that Abraham and Ishmael had in fact emigrated to Mecca. ",
"The only questions on which the historians disagree, as mentioned earlier, is whether, when Hagar and Ishmael arrived, the Zamzam was already a live spring, and whether the Jurhum tribe had already occupied the place and had welcomed Hagar and her son to live in their midst. ",
"Muslim historians also propose that when Ishmael married a Jurhum woman and had several sons with her, it was this mixture of Hebrew, Egyptian, and Arab blood that gave Ishmael's descendants the resoluteness, courage and other virtues of the native Arabs, Hebrews, and Egyptians combined.",
"\n\nHaykal now employs as a foil the famous pioneer Western scholar, Sir William Muir, who not only doubts the whole story of Abraham's and Ishmael's trip to the Hijaz, but denies it altogether. ",
"Summarizing Muir's view, Haykal writes that Muir claims that it is one of the Israelitisms which the Jews had invented long before Islam emerged in order to create a connection with the Arabs by making them descendants of Abraham as father of all. ",
"As the Jews regarded themselves as descendants of Isaac, they would become the cousins of the Arabs and therefore entitled to Arab hospitality if the Arabs were declared the sons of Isaac's brother, Ishmael. ",
"Such a theme, properly advocated, was probably thought to establish the legitimacy of the Jewish presence in the Hijaz. ",
"In making this claim, says Haykal, Muir assumed that the religious situation in Arabia was far removed from the religion of Abraham. ",
"The former was pagan whereas Abraham was a monotheist. ",
"In response to Muir, Haykal writes: \"For ourpart, we do not think that this is sufficient reason to deny a historical truth. ",
"Our evidence for the paganism of the Arabs is centuries later than the arrival of Abraham and Ishmael to the scene. ",
"It cannot therefore constitute any proof that at the time of Abraham's arrival to the Hijaz and his building of the Kaaba with his son Ishmael that the Arabs were pagan\" (28–9).",
"\n\nIn his attempted rebuttal of Muir, then, Haykal questions that the religion of the Arabs was pagan at the time. ",
"Haykal argues that had Abraham called the Arabs to monotheism, as earlier he had called his own people of Mesopotamia without success, the Arabs thus remaining idol worshippers, they would not have allowed Abraham and Ishmael to settle in Mecca. ",
"Haykal believes that this argument tends to corroborate the traditional Muslim reports ( _hadiths_ ). ",
"For Haykal it is logical to assume that \"Abraham, the man who left Iraq to escape from his people and traveled to Palestine and Egypt, was a man who knew how to travel and was familiar with desert crossing. ",
"The road between Palestine and Mecca was one trodden by the caravans for ages. ",
"There is, therefore, no reason to doubt a [purportedly] historical event which [traditional Islamic] consensus has confirmed, at least in its general themes\" (29).",
"\n\n**Abraham, Ishmael, and the Kaaba**\n\nThat Abraham and Ishmael had laid the foundations of the Kaaba, and that it was the first house built for public worship, is a fundamental element of the Islamic faith. ",
"Consequently, Haykal feels the need to address this question: \"How did it happen that Abraham built the house as a place of refuge and security for the people so that the believers in God alone might use it for prayer, and then it became a pantheon full of statues for idol worship?\" (",
"30)\n\nHaykal supports the traditional view that Abraham's and Ishmael's monotheism had preceded any form of paganism. ",
"He asks, therefore, how and when Abrahamic monotheism was superseded by polytheism. ",
"He acknowledges, however, that it is in vain that one turns the pages of Muslim history books for an answer. ",
"In effect, Haykal finds it impossible to answer the question. ",
"All we find in the Muslim _hadiths_ \"are presumptions which their authors think are reports of facts\" (30).",
"\n\nHaykal nevertheless presents some of those presumptions. ",
"The Sabeans, for example, are said to have been star worshippers, and they enjoyed great popularity and prestige in Arabia. ",
"But the Sabeans did not always worship the stars for their own sake. ",
"At an earlier time, they had worshipped God alone and venerated the stars as signs of His creation and power. ",
"However, as the majority of the people were not cultivated enough to understand the transcendent nature of the Godhead, they confused the stars with God and took them as gods. ",
"Also, some of the volcanic or meteoric stones appeared to men to have fallen from heaven, and therefore to be astral in nature. ",
"Consequently, they were taken as manifestations of the astral divinities and sanctified as such. ",
"Later on they were venerated for their own sake, and then worshipped as divinities. \"",
"In fact, the Arabs venerated these stones so much,\" Haykal writes, \"that not only did they worship the Black Stone in the Kaaba, but they would take one of the stones of the Kaaba as a holy object [fetish] in their travels, praying to it and asking it to bless every move they made. ",
"Thus all the veneration and worship due to the stars, or to the creator of the stars, were now conferred upon these stones. ",
"It was in a development similar to this, that paganism was established in Arabia, that the statues were sanctified, and that sacrifices were offered to them. ",
"This is the picture which some [Muslim] historians give of religious development in Arabia after Abraham dedicated the Kaaba to the worship of God\" (30–1). ",
"Haykal, however, then cites Herodotus and Diodorus as witnesses \"to the antiquity of paganism in the Peninsula and therefore to the fact that the religion of Abraham was not always observed there\" (31). ",
"Haykal thus finds himself unable to support the traditional Islamic view by means of sound historical evidence. ",
"As we have now heard the Islamic views concerning Abraham's role, it is time to hear how Western scholars view it. ",
"And as Haykal merely touched upon Muir's analysis, we need to provide a fuller exposition of it.",
"\n\n**William Muir on the Abrahamic Question**\n\nMuir opens with an analysis of the Abrahamic tribes according to the Hebrew Bible and the Arabic tradition. ",
"He begins by noting that the Arabic tradition is comparatively late, and that all that is ancient is derived from the Jews. ",
"The Muslim tradition concerning Abraham is not original, but taken at second hand from the Jews. \"",
"Muhammad,\" Muir writes,\n\nhaving claimed to be of the seed of Ishmael, the Jewish Rabbis who were gained over to his cause endeavored to confirm the claim from the genealogies of the Old Testament and of rabbinical tradition... Muhammad's paternal line (which he himself declared could not be followed beyond Adnan, that is, about a century before the Christian era) was nevertheless traced up by fabricated steps, eighteen centuries farther, to Ishmael. ",
"Both the legends and the ethnological assumptions of Mahometans regarding events prior to the Christian era, being thus directly derived from the Jews, possess no value of their own, and as evidence must be entirely rejected. (",
"cviii)\n\nFor Muir, the books of Moses are our only guide and, according to that source the Abrahamic ethnic groups are: (1) Ishmaelites; (2) Keturahites; (3) Edomites; (4) Moabites and Ammonites; and (5) Nahorites. ",
"It would be fair to say that the northern and central tracts of Arabia were widely peopled by the Abrahamic tribes. ",
"This proposition is strengthened for Muir by indisputable traditional and linguistic evidence. ",
"The popular tradition of some of these tribes is that they are descended from Abraham, and this view of themselves was current as far south as Mecca before the time of Muhammad. ",
"Now Muir makes a point deserving of careful consideration:\n\nIt is, indeed, improbable that a tradition of this nature should have been handed down from the remote age of the patriarch by an independent train of evidence in any particular tribe, or association of tribes; it is far more likely that it was borrowed from the Jews, and kept alive by occasional communication with them. ",
"Still, the bare fact of such a notion gaining even a partial and intermittent currency in any tribe, affords a strong presumption that the tribe was really of Abrahamic descent or connexion; and that the common associations, habits, language, or religious tenets, derived from that origin, naturally fell in with the tradition and rendered easy and natural its adoption. (",
"cxv)\n\nMuir needs, therefore, to address the question of how Abrahamic tradition became blended with what he calls the \"legend of the Kaaba.\" ",
"He writes:\n\nWe learn from the Muslim tradition that the earliest inhabitants of Mecca, Medina, and the deserts of Syria, were Amalekites; and that it was an Amalekite tribe which, attracted to Mecca by the well Zamzam, there adopted and nurtured the youthful Ishmael and his forlorn mother.",
"\n\nMuir, continuing, uses strong words:\n\nThe legend is a myth, or rather a travestied plagiarism from Scripture. ",
"We may conjecture the facts to have been thus: Amalekite or Idumean tribes were scattered over the north and center of the Peninsula. ",
"They formed probably the aboriginal population of Mecca, or settled there in conjunction with immigrants from Yemen, at a very remote period. ",
"Subsequently, an Ishmaelitish tribe, either Nabatean or of some collateral stock, was attracted thither also by the wells, and its favorable position for the caravan trade, and acquired great influence. ",
"This tribe would carry in its train the patriarchal legend of Abrahamic origin, and engraft it upon the local superstitions, which were either native or imported from Yemen. ",
"Hence arose the mongrel worship of the Kaaba, with its Ishmaelitish legends, of which Muhammad took so great advantage. (",
"cxxv–cxxvi)\n\nIt follows from Muir's analysis that some of the Arab tribes may have been acquainted with monotheistic or henotheistic ideas, thus producing what in the Quran and the _hadiths_ are referred to as the phenomenon of the _hanif_. ",
"But this phenomenon early had become mixed with or syncretized with idolatry, fetishism, the belief in Fate and other forms of polytheism. ",
"Muir then advances another cogent proposition, that a decline into total polytheism would eventually have caused the memory of Abraham and his religion to fade and vanish, had it not been for the presence in the neighborhood of the Jews who, in communication with the Arab tribes, revived the knowledge of Abrahamic descent and the nature of the common progenitor's faith. ",
"Social interaction with the Jews, settled at many points throughout the Peninsula, would have extended and deepened this knowledge. ",
"Circumcision, Muir notes, was received among the Arabs apparently as an Abrahamic rite; and the biblical \"story of Abraham, grievously distorted indeed and shorn of its spiritual bearing, but yet possessing a grain of truth, was current at Mecca prior to Islam and, inwrought into the ritual of the Kaaba, was adopted by the whole Arab race [sic]\" (cxxix). ",
"Of course, Christianity reinforced the Abrahamic origin of monotheism.",
"\n\n**Muir on the Founding of Mecca and the Abrahamic Legend**\n\nIn 440 CE, Kussai gathered the scattered members of the Quraysh tribe and settled them at Mecca. ",
"Its main function became the provision of food and water for the pilgrims. ",
"The religious observances of the Kaaba included the _umra_ or lesser pilgrimage, the hasty passing to and fro seven times between the little hills of Safa and Marwa near the Kaaba, which may have been performed at any season of the year, but was especially meritorious if performed in the sacred month of Rajab. ",
"Before entering the sacred territory, the votary put on the pilgrim garb, and at the conclusion of the ceremonies shaved his head and pared his nails. ",
"In addition to the lesser, there was also the greater pilgrimage ( _hajj al Akhbar_ ), involving all the ceremonies of the lesser, but performed only in the holy month Dzul Hijja, and requiring as well, the additional rite of pilgrimage to Arafat, a small mountain composed of granite rocks in a valley ten or twelve miles east of Mecca. ",
"The environs of Mecca for several miles around, as noted earlier, were considered sacred, _Haram_. ",
"The Four Holy months were also regarded as a part of this religious system. ",
"During three consecutive months (the last two of one year and the first of the following) and during the seventh month (Rajab), war was by the mutual consent of the tribes suspended, and a universal truce appears to have prevailed. ",
"Pilgrims from all regions of the Peninsula were then free to make their way to Mecca.",
"\n\nOriginally, the Meccan calendrical year was, most probably, lunar. ",
"This continued until the beginning of the fifth century, when under Jewish influence it was turned, by the insertion of a month at the close of every third year, into a luni-solar calendar.",
"\n\nThis examination by Muir of pre-Islamic religion suggests strongly that there was no Abrahamic element in the ceremonies of the Kaaba – and this in the light of the remote antiquity of the Kaaba. ",
"Muir cites Herodotus who named one of the chief Arab divinities Alilat, which is strong evidence of the worship, at that early period, of Allat, the Meccan idol. ",
"Herodotus alludes also to the Arab veneration of stones. ",
"The conspicuous absence of Abrahamic elements in the religion of the desert Arabs of the Peninsula, is further indicated by the wide extent of the worship of the Kaaba. ",
"Muslim tradition represents Mecca as the scene, from time immemorial, of yearly pilgrimages from all quarters of Arabia. \"",
"The circuit of veneration,\" Muir estimates, \"might be described by the radius of a thousand miles, interrupted only by the sea. ",
"So extensive an homage must have had its beginnings in an extremely remote age; and a similar antiquity must be ascribed to the essential concomitants of the Meccan worship – the Kaaba with its Black Stone, the sacred limits, and the holy months. ",
"The origin of a superstition [ _sic_ ] so ancient and universal may naturally be looked for within the Peninsula itself, and not in any foreign country\" (ccxii).",
"\n\nThe practice of idolatry, fetishism and stone worship was evidently prevalent throughout Arabia even earlier than 200 CE, the time when Muhammad is related to have said that Amr ibn Lohai (the first Khozaite king) dared to change the pure \"religion of Ishmael\" and set up idols brought from Syria. \"",
"Thus,\" writes Muir, \"the religion of Mecca, in its essential points, is connected strictly with forms of superstition [polytheism] native to Arabia, and we may naturally conclude that it grew out of them\" (ccxiv).",
"\n\nThe central question, then, is whether Muir's historical analysis is in any way reconcilable with the notion of the Abrahamic origin of the Kaaba. ",
"The cogent reconciliation proposed by Muir is that the Nabateans or some other mercantile people of Abrahamic stock, attracted to Mecca by its gainful opportunities, brought along with them the Abrahamic legends, which discourse with the ubiquitous Jews had tended to revive and perpetuate. ",
"The mingled stock of Abraham and of others who were polytheists, had required a modification of the original Meccan religion that would correspond with their diverse origins. ",
"Hence, Abrahamic legends were grafted upon the indigenous worship.",
"\n\nTo enable us to understand better how the Abrahamic legend was combined with the indigenous polytheism, Muir reminds us of the historical fact that the Jews were largely settled in northern Arabia where they acquired considerable influence. ",
"There were extensive colonies in Yathrib, Khaybar, and in Wadi al-Qura and on the shores of the Gulf. ",
"The Jews maintained a steady and friendly relationship with Mecca and the Arab tribes who, having learned about the Jews' religion and their holy books, looked with respect and veneration upon their beliefs and practices. ",
"When once the conception of Abraham and Ishmael as the great forefathers of the Arab people was superimposed upon Meccan polytheism, and had received native acceptance, it is understandable how even a purely Jewish tradition would be eagerly welcomed and Jewish legend adopted. \"",
"By a summary and procrustean adjustment,\" writes Muir,\n\nthe story of Palestine became the story of the Hijaz. ",
"The precincts of the Kaaba were hallowed as the scene of Hagar's distress, and the sacred well of Zamzam as the source of her relief. ",
"It was [then purportedly] Abraham and Ishmael who built the Meccan temple, placed in it the black stone, and established for all mankind the pilgrimage to Arafat. ",
"In imitation of him it was that stones were flung by the pilgrims at Satan; and sacrifices were offered at Mina in remembrance of the vicarious sacrifice by Abraham in the stead of his son Ishmael. ",
"And thus, although the indigenous rites may have been little if at all altered by the adoption of the Abrahamic legends, they came to be viewed in a totally different light, and to be connected in the Arab imagination with something of the sanctity of Abraham the Friend of God. (",
"ccxvii–ccxviii)\n\nIn a highly illuminating footnote, Muir adds:\n\nIt is to this source that we may trace the Arab doctrine of a Supreme Being, to whom their gods and idols were subordinate. ",
"The title of _Allah Taa la_ , the most High God, was commonly used long before Mahomet to designate this conception. ",
"But in some tribes, the idea had become so materialized that a portion of their votive offerings was assigned to the Great God, just as a portion was allotted to their idols... The notion of a Supreme Divinity to be represented by no sensible symbol [i.e., as formless, incorporeal and invisible], is clearly not cognate with any of the indigenous forms of Arab superstition [i.e., polytheism]. ",
"It was borrowed directly from the Jews, or from some other Abrahamic... [ethnic group] among whom contact with the Jews had preserved or revived the knowledge of the \"God of Abraham.\" (",
"ccxviii)\n4\n\nRecent and Current Scholarship\n\nIt seems to be relatively clear, then, that the religion of the pre-Islamic, northern Arabs of the Hijaz was a form of polytheism. ",
"The Arabs worshipped a pantheon of divinities, and at no point, apparently, had their indigenous consciousness produced an original monotheistic intuition. ",
"Long before the birth of Muhammad, the two earliest monotheistic religions had taken a firm foothold in the Peninsula, and together contributed to the creation of the third.",
"\n\nFollowing the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, and owing to the enlargement of the Jewish Diaspora in the Near East and Jewish proselytization, Judaism had become a significant social and cultural factor in the Yemen and in the Hijaz. ",
"In the former it had even become the official religion of the last Himyarite King (Yusuf Ashab, called in the Arab tradition, Dhu Nuwas) who is said to have persecuted the Najran Christians, thus inviting Abyssinian intervention. ",
"In the Hijaz, as observed earlier, there were Jewish colonies not only in Medina, but in all the oases of the north. ",
"It was they, almost exclusively, who were the agriculturalists, craftsmen, and goldsmiths. ",
"It will be interesting therefore to listen to recent and contemporary scholars in order to learn whether their findings compel us to change the conception of things we have acquired from earlier scholars. ",
"One central issue, as we have seen, is the origin of the so-called Abrahamic element in Islam.",
"\n\nThe contemporary scholar, F. E. Peters reminds us that the Quran goes directly from Abraham's \"conversion\" to monotheism, to God's command to construct the Kaaba, making no mention at all of Hagar or Sarah or of the Bible's elaborate narrative concerning the births of Ishmael and Isaac. ",
"It was the much later traditions, as we have learned from Muir, which had access to diverse Jewish and Christian sources, who created the details of how Abraham and Ishmael got from Palestine to Mecca. ",
"As Peters observes, there were several Muslim versions of how that occurred, and the historian Tabari (d. 923 CE) presents a fusion of several of them. ",
"Peters' discussion of the Abrahamic question tends to support Muir's analysis. \"",
"Neither the Quran nor the Muslim tradition,\" Peters avers,\n\nhad much sense of what went on among the Israelites after Ishmael, while the Arabs' own long tribal genealogies led back into the past in a direction that had no apparent connection with the Bible. ",
"There was a further complication. ",
"Their own history told the early Muslims that Muhammad's immediate ancestors at Mecca, the people called Quraysh, were in the first place relative newcomers to Mecca, that they replaced another Arab people; and second, that they were pagans. ",
"Thus the appearance in the story of the Jurhum, an Arab people who replaced the sons of Ishmael at Mecca and who introduced paganism into Abraham's sanctuary. (",
"35)\n\nIn a collection of essays by well-known scholars in the field, Peters, as editor, provides a highly illuminating introduction. ",
"He begins by addressing the question of what we really know of pre-Islamic Mecca. ",
"All our literary sources, he reminds us, are Islamic, \"and no pre-Islamic author, even the best-informed, seems to have heard of it.\" ",
"The Quran itself mentions the town by name only once (Sura 48, v. 24). ",
"As for the Jewish presence in the oases north of Yathrib up through the Wadi al-Qura, it is now better attested, as is the relatively influential position of Jews within the Yathrib settlement, and their connections with the Quraysh in Mecca. ",
"As regards Mecca, this town of the Hijaz appears early on to have been a shrine center, probably controlled and administered by the most powerful clans of the Quraysh, the rulers of the settlement. ",
"But there appear to have been serious divisions and conflicts among the clans, which most likely had a social-class dimension – richer and stronger against poorer and weaker. ",
"Such conflicts, Peters suggests, may have been the social and moral dynamic that first stimulated Muhammad's concerns and reflections.",
"\n\nThough Mecca was a tribal society, it was socially open, accepting new groups through formal alliances or by marriages with Meccan women. ",
"There were outsiders in Mecca such as Jews and Christians, which fact, of course, becomes pertinent to the question of influences on Muhammad's inspiration. ",
"In addition, there may have been among the populace Abyssinian mercenaries who might have served as a protective military force for the Quraysh.",
"\n\nPeters now sets the stage for the issues discussed by contributors to the volume: was it primarily religion or commerce that accounted for Mecca's apparent salience and relative prosperity? ",
"Peters, reflecting on the debate, proposes that religion was unmistakably the main business in Mecca, for without its shrine, even in pre-Islamic times, it would not have had much significance. ",
"It became prosperous and rich due to the sacred environs of the Kaaba, with its diverse local deities. ",
"Although, as we shall see, the commercial factor as accounting for the prominence of Mecca is seriously challenged by Patricia Crone, some modern scholars, notably W. Montgomery Watt, imagine the \"town\" to have been the commercial heir to earlier caravan cities such as Petra and Palmyra. ",
"Watt, and those who agree with him, therefore posit economic development as the determining factor in Mecca's social and political growth. ",
"That is the view, says Peters, of later Muslim sources, and the Quran, too, seems to support such a construct. ",
"The Quran employs a certain commercial vocabulary suggesting a familiarity with trade and a condemnation of usury and the \"heaping up of gold and silver,\" which appears to be aimed at a greedy commercialism. ",
"Although Peters observes that the quality and extent of trade of pre-Islamic Mecca is still an open question, he does tend to support Crone's critique by concluding that Mecca of that era bore no resemblance to the earlier caravan cities of the Second and First Centuries BCE. ",
"Neither the Mediterranean consumers nor the eastern consumers of luxury items were accessible to the Quraysh. ",
"Peters agrees, therefore, that Patricia Crone's rereading of the Arabic sources on Meccan trade has yielded dramatically different results from those of the earlier scholar Henri Lammens. ",
"The historical truth appears to be that there was no large-scale trade in Mecca – none, at least, of the kind imagined by W. Montgomery Watt.",
"\n\n**The Religion of Mecca**\n\nThe best-attested aspect of the religious life of the Arabs of Western Arabia has to do with pilgrimages to the various shrines there. ",
"In the earliest Muslim histories of Mecca, Peters observes, we hear of offices being fought over and then enjoyed by the chief families of the Quraysh. ",
"There were struggles, apparently, over gains to be derived from control of the pilgrimages to the Kaaba. ",
"There was _profit_ as well as prestige in these offices: taxes exacted from the pilgrims. ",
"They paid for their food and water; and the Quraysh, or the most powerful among them, had a monopoly on providing these necessities. ",
"So Peters, coming down again on the side of Patricia Crone's critique, avers that\n\nhere if anywhere lies the kernel of truth about the commercial successes of the Quraysh and the renown of Mecca. ",
"Whatever fortune the Quraysh possessed, came from the cult around the Kaaba. ",
"This was not what Muslims later called the _hajj_ , whose ceremonies unfolded well outside Mecca, but rather the _Umra_ , the 'lesser pilgrimage,' as the Muslims later called it. ",
"The _Umra_ was a spring festival (the _hajj_ took place in the fall)... and included the adoption of ritually pure clothing and lifestyle, the performance of sacrifices at prescribed places, and ritual processions around the Kaaba shrine and between the sacred high places of al-Safa and Marwa. (",
"Peters, xxxvii)\n\nPeters calls our attention to another significant fact concerning the peculiarity of the pilgrimages to Mecca: that although many of the pilgrimages of pre-Islamic Arabia had fairs attached to them, during the months of truce, there appears not to have been any fair connected with Mecca. \"",
"The close confines of the town,\" Peters assumes, \"may have been too dangerous a place for the hostilely jostling nomads, whereas all the other fair sites were desert places where the Bedouin could camp at a safe distance from one another.\" ",
"For Peters, since there were no fairs in Mecca, and no sound evidence supporting the notion of Mecca as a center of international trade, it is to the pilgrimages that one must look for the source of the relative prosperity of the stronger Quraysh clans, and the relative poverty of the weaker.",
"\n\n**The Kaaba and its Devotees**\n\nScholarly research re-examining earlier descriptions of the shrine, have introduced a few modifications in our conception of it. ",
"Peters acknowledges that no one really knows the origin of either the Meccan sacred area ( _haram_ ) or the Kaaba. ",
"Muslim sources, as we saw earlier, traced the Kaaba back to Abraham and Ishmael; but modern Western scholarship, unwilling to accept this view, interprets it as an attempt to provide the site with an Islamic legitimacy. ",
"The original Kaaba, scholars suggest, was a rude, perhaps circular, enclosure without a roof; it was hardly cube-like, as the term Kaaba implies, though Muslim sources remember no other description of it. ",
"And, of course, none of the Muslim historians, having written many generations later, had ever seen the original. ",
"What we do know, though, is that however it was shaped, and whatever it was called, the Kaaba underwent reconstruction sometime late in the sixth century, with the wood of an Abyssinian shipwreck washed on to the shores of the Red Sea.",
"\n\nThe Quran provides an impressionistic view of how the pagan gods of Mecca were worshipped. ",
"The liturgy included the sacrifice of animals and cereals, and the rites, including divination, were performed at the Kaaba. ",
"Pilgrimage to Mecca by the surrounding tribes was a popular, seasonal custom, which included ritual processions or circumambulation ( _tawaf_ ) around the Kaaba and between the two hills of al-Safa and Marwa next to the Kaaba. ",
"There was prayer in the pagan era, but it is characterized in the Quran as \"whistling and clapping of hands\" (Sura 8: 35). ",
"One form of prayer, antedating Islam, has been preserved by Muslims: when, as pilgrims, they approach the sanctuary, they cry out again and again a formulaic salutation that opens with: \"We are here, O Allah, we are here.\" ",
"There was also a form of spiritual retreat to a shrine by pre-Islamic Arabs, referred to in Sura 2: 187, connected, perhaps, with fasting in the hope of gaining favor with its god. ",
"The Prophet himself used to go into a kind of retreat on Mount Hira outside Mecca.",
"\n\n**Hanifiya and the Religion of Abraham**\n\nAs regards pre-Islamic Mecca, there are two traditions. ",
"The first is Quranic and states that under divine inspiration Muhammad was restoring the religion of Abraham (Sura 22: 78), beliefs and practices presumably present in Mecca from its patriarchal beginnings. ",
"The other tradition suggests that there were already in Mecca, among Muhammad's contemporaries, individuals who may be described as _Hanifs_ , Abrahamic monotheists. ",
"This concludes Peter's Introduction, and we now turn to several of the volume's essays on the pre-Islamic conditions of the Hijaz.",
"\n\n_G. E. von Grunebaum, \"The Nature of Arab Unity Before Islam\"_\n\nIn von Grunebaum's essay, we will recognize Ibn Khaldun's characterization of the condition of pre-Islamic desert Arab–Bedouins, a condition in which no political institution had ever come close to uniting a majority of them, nor was there an unambiguous geographical limitation to take the place of a political structure. ",
"There was, of course, a certain commonality of language and culture, but no real state-like political organization. ",
"Von Grunebaum thus agrees that the Arabian tribes were in a \"war of each against all\" in the full Hobbesian sense.",
"\n\nSuch Arab states as did exist were dependencies of the two powerful empires of the time, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) and the Persian of the Sassanids. \"",
"This is as true,\" von Grunebaum writes, \"of the Ghassanid and the Lakhmid principalities, to which the sources frequently refer as the 'Arabs of the Romans' and the 'Arabs of the Persians.' \" ",
"The urban settlements of Mecca, Taif and Yathrib, which enjoyed an autonomous political life, included only a small segment of the Arab population, and far from inspiring a sense of Arab identity, represented a way of life that set them apart from the Bedouins.",
"\n\nVon Grunebaum uses the analogy of ancient Greece to convey the political character of the Arabian Peninsula. ",
"The Arabian tribes may be likened to the Greek city-states, which possessed no national unity and even fought each other, but were nonetheless Hellenes. ",
"The sentiment that might be called \"Arabism\" was shared by the tribes, and their perpetual skirmishes appear not to have diminished their sense of identity, in quite the same way in which the incessant, internecine warfare of the Greek city-states left their pan-Hellenic identity intact. ",
"In a word, as Ibn Khaldun had observed, there was no common power that served to unite the Arab tribes in one political federation. ",
"Indeed, von Grunebaum aptly remarks that any Arab identity that might have existed in pre-Islamic Arabia, was felt rather than named.",
"\n\nIt appears that for the overwhelming majority of the Arab clans and tribes, Bedouin and town-dweller alike, there was a strong and persistent aversion to kingship despite the unmistakable fact that only under an approximation to monarchic rule (what Ibn Khaldun called \"royal dynasty\") did the tribes, under Islam, eventually become effective on the larger political stage. ",
"They seem to have regarded those who aspired to positions of power similar to that of kings, as potential tyrants. ",
"Although it was \"glorious\" to lord it over others, it was equally glorious to resist a strong leader and to break out from under the yoke of a _malik_. ",
"The chief virtues of Bedouin life were to be free in a close-knit tribe led by a _sayyid_ , \"spokesman\" and leader who becomes such by assuming definite tribal responsibilities, thus gaining social honor and influence rather than prerogatives. ",
"The Bedouin outlook was, therefore, a blend of extreme individualism and an equally extreme submergence of the individual in the collective \"on whose standing or 'honor,' _ird_ , and cohesiveness his own safety and rank\" was dependent. ",
"Von Grunebaum describes the relation of the desert to the sown in Ibn Khaldun's terms: \"Everywhere, the interdependence of nomad and settler was lived as a series of intermittent conflicts and stigmatized by the same fear and mutual contempt\" (8). ",
"The closer-knit unit within the tribe was the clan – a more intimate and real kinship organization – and the family. ",
"Hence, ancestors were throughout the cultural area objects of a veritable cult, as appears to be evident from the criticism of it in the Quran (2: 199; 31: 21; 43: 22–3).",
"\n\nVon Grunebaum recognizes that it was the change in strategy, adopted by Muhammad in Medina (which we shall analyze in detail in a later chapter), that transformed the Arabs of northern Arabia into a massive social movement and something like a state. ",
"Von Grunebaum further recognizes that in the absence of Islam the northern Arabs were most unlikely to have achieved the unity of a social movement or state, because the pre-Islamic ideology and tribal structure \"... could not be overcome through an inherent dialectics, but had to be depreciated by means of a truly comprehensive principle of organization promulgated by higher authority. ",
"Where the _malik_ failed, the prophet and his _halifa_ succeeded. ",
"What is true for 'foreign policy' is true for the enforcement of rules regulating inter-Arab relationships; only Islam could hope to render effective the application of the principle that no Arab should be enslaved by another\" (15). ",
"But there is also truth in the proposition that despite the unifying Islamic influence, Bedouin attitudes persisted and never died, thus disrupting and weakening the Islamic empire not too long after it was founded. ",
"Indeed, as von Grunebaum observes, \"the intensification of tribal tensions after the conquests, is, in fact, remarkable\" (19). ",
"The social cause of this remarkable phenomenon is the Bedouin individual's identification with his clan or tribe, not with the \"Arabs.\" ",
"The term \"Arab\" is practically unrep-resented in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. ",
"It begins to be used in the work of the Prophet's \"court poets\" and occurs quite freely in poetical texts of the Umayyad age to designate the Arab nation.",
"\n\n_M. J. Kister, \"Al-Hira: Some Notes on its Relations with Arabia\"_\n\nKister explores the significance of the rivalry of the Persian and Byzantine empires over the control of the regions of the Arabian Peninsula at the end of the sixth and the beginning of the seventh century. ",
"Kister shows that the rivalry is reflected in a number of traditions attributed to the Prophet and recorded in some commentaries of the Quran. ",
"Al-Hira is far north of the Hijaz, close to the Euphrates River. ",
"Kister cites Qatada (died 117 AH) who provides a description of the sad situation of the Arab population of the Peninsula before they embraced Islam, commenting on Quran, 8: 26: \"And remember when you were few and abased in the land and were fearful that the _people_ ( _al-Nas_ ) would snatch you away.\" ",
"Qatada describes their sorrowful economic condition and their weakness, stating that they were \"confined on the top of a rock between Faris [Persia] and Rum [Byzantium]. ",
"The \"people\" in the Quranic passage are said to refer to Persians and Byzantines. ",
"A _hadith_ (tradition) reported on the authority of Ibn Ahhas (died 68 AH), states that the Prophet interpreted _al-Nas_ (the \"people\") as referring to the Persians. ",
"But whatever the interpretation of the term, says Kister, it seems evident that the early commentators mirror the apprehensions felt by the Arabs of the Peninsula in the face of the two rival empires and the negative impact their rivalry had on the life of the tribes.",
"\n\nThe struggles of the two empires, in which the two vassal kingdoms of al-Hira and Ghassan took an active part, was closely watched by the unbelievers and the Muslims in the different stages of their respective contexts. ",
"According to the commentaries on 30: 1–2, the sympathies of the unbelievers of Mecca were with Persia whereas the Muslim community inclined towards the Byzantines. ",
"The victories of the Byzantines, it is stressed, coincided with the victories of the Prophet. ",
"The imperial rivalry, then, has to be taken into account in our search for the fertile soil that nourished the birth of Islam.",
"\n\n_Joseph Henninger, \"Pre-Islamic Bedouin Religion\"_\n\nHenninger acknowledges at the outset, that too little documentation is available for highly reliable portraits of the desert-Bedouin's religion. ",
"That is the reason for no attempt in the West, prior to the seventeenth century, to publish monograph-length studies of pre-Islamic beliefs and practices. ",
"Henninger makes the thoughtful point that in searching for relevant evidence, one must be careful in employing the conceptual dichotomy, nomadic-settled. ",
"The dichotomy is not always helpful, he argues, because many of the tribes were partly nomadic, partly settled, and the nomads often maintained a close symbiotic relationship with one or more oases, which also served as religious centers. ",
"Henninger makes the claim that pre-Islamic cultic centers were located in oases, but since Mecca was no oasis, either it was an exception to the rule, or the rule requires qualification. ",
"Whether and to what extent there were also cultic practices in the desert itself is not known, says Henninger, though evidence for portable sanctuaries does exist.",
"\n\nHenninger proposes that the Bedouins appear never to have been especially zealous in the practice of Islam, which is not surprising in view of the fact that Islam is markedly urban in origin and character. ",
"The moral ideal of the pre-Islamic Bedouin was _muruwwa_ (\"virility\"), as we learned earlier, which had little or no religious character. ",
"Henninger thus sees some truth in the notion of the \"religious indifference\" of the Bedouin. ",
"This view of Bedouin religion tends to support Max Weber's theoretical-historical insight, that the noble warrior ethic shows no interest in \"salvation.\"",
"\n\nThe evidence we do have for certain forms of pre-Islamic beliefs and practices – some of which we touched upon earlier – includes fetishism, the existence of sacred stones, raw and unpolished, and a reverential attitude towards them because, presumably, they possess helpful supernatural qualities. ",
"Fetishism, as analyzed originally by E. B. Tyler, takes two forms: either the fetish contains an indwelling spirit; or the object itself, like a charm or rabbit's foot, possesses supernatural powers. ",
"That the belief in spirits was prominent in pre-Islamic Bedouin religion, is attested by the persistence in the Quran of a belief in the _jinn_ ; and the testimony of both pre-Islamic and Islamic literature adequately demonstrates its importance at the beginning of the seventh century. ",
"Henninger cites approvingly Julius Wellhausen's observation that such spirits were thought to inhabit or haunt desolate, dingy and dark places in the desert and that they were feared. ",
"One had to protect oneself from them, but they were scarcely the objects of a true cult.",
"\n\nThere is, however, a problem with the prevalent notion that the belief in the _jinn_ originated with the Bedouin. ",
"William Foxwell Albright, basing himself on certain facts that had already been established by Th. ",
"Nöldeke and M. Lidzbarski, has shown that the word _jinn_ is not Arabic, but derived from Aramaic. ",
"Aramaic-speaking Christians used the term to designate pagan gods reduced to the status of demons. ",
"This suggests that the idea of the _jinn_ was introduced into Arabic folklore only late in the pre-Islamic period. ",
"Nevertheless there may have existed among the Bedouin an autochthonos pre-Christian animism, which was later reinforced by influences from sedentary Arabs.",
"\n\nHenninger calls attention to another element of pre-Islamic, Bedouin religious experience – a cult of ancestors – that seems to have been indigenous. ",
"That this is highly probable may be seen in the extensive diffusion of this cult among Bedouin in more recent times, a fact which cannot be attributed to Islam whose principles are opposed to it. ",
"Henninger is careful to explain what he means by a \"cult of ancestors,\" and what meaning it might have had for the participants in it. ",
"It has not been sufficiently established, he states, that the dead generally were regarded as powerful, superhuman beings. ",
"They appear, rather, as having been deprived of protection, thus needing the charity of the living. ",
"That is why sacrifices for the dead seem not to signify a cult of the dead, but rather a continuation of social obligations beyond the grave. ",
"On the other hand, certain ancestors, especially eponymous heroes of the tribe, and chiefs and warriors were, apparently, objects of real veneration. \"",
"People not only slew animals and made libations by their tombs, but also erected stone structures as they did at the sanctuaries of the local gods\" (116). ",
"As for astral deities, their importance, Henninger believes, has been exaggerated; they present a chaotic picture rather than a pantheon.",
"\n\nHenninger now turns our attention to the significance of the concept of _Allah_. ",
"It is, of course, interesting and of considerable moment that _Allah_ was recognized _before_ Islam as a god, and if not the only god, then at least a supreme god. ",
"The Quran makes it clear that he was recognized at Mecca, though belief in him was certainly more widespread. ",
"Earlier scholars attributed the diffusion of this belief solely or primarily to Christian or Judaic influences. ",
"But now a growing number of scholars hold that this idea had older roots in Arabia itself. ",
"If, for the moment, we assume that _Allah_ was indigenous to Arabia, there is still the question of whether it had a nomadic origin. ",
"For Henninger, there are indications of a nomadic origin, which he infers from a comparative analysis of the beliefs of nomads in central and northern Arabia and northeastern Africa. ",
"Like the supreme being of many other nomads, Allah is a god of the sky and dispenser of rain. ",
"Rain, Henninger reminds us, is, after all, essential not only for settled agricultural peoples, but also for nomads, perhaps even more essential for the latter. ",
"He explains: \"whereas agriculture is possible with artificial systems of irrigation, which lessen the dependence on rain, for the nomads the condition of the pasture lands, vitally important for both animals and people, is much more directly dependent on rain\" (118).",
"\n\n\"Prayer\" is, for the most part, associated with the monotheistic religions and the belief in a personal God. ",
"So Henninger, in addressing the question of whether there is evidence of prayer in the pre-Islamic cult, states that prayer seems not to have been very important. ",
"More frequently mentioned are sacrifices, bloody ones as well as those involving no shedding of blood (vegetables and cereals). ",
"The animals immolated were the camel, the sheep, and the ox; fowl are never mentioned. ",
"Other types of sacrificial offerings were libations of milk, which were indigenous, while libations of wine and oil were of foreign origin. ",
"Human sacrifices, on the whole rather rare among the Bedouin, may be traced to the influence of the northern Semites. ",
"As a rule, such sacrifices ended in a common meal.",
"\n\nAs for festivals of springtime and the sacrifices of the firstborn of a herd, there are solid reasons for supposing that the Arabic feast of the month of Rajab, for which originally the firstborn of the herd was sacrificed, and the Jewish Passover have a common origin. \"",
"Both are derived from a spring festival common to nomadic Semites, although of course, the Passover was given a new significance\" (119).",
"\n\nPilgrimages, as already mentioned several times, appear to have been a definite component of the Bedouin social and religious experience, as were divination, magic, and sorcery, which have received ample attention from Muslim authors in their descriptions of pre-Islamic religion. ",
"The sacrificial cult was often an integral part of the pilgrimage; and as each man was allowed to slaughter his own victim, there is the question whether there was in the cult a specialized role equivalent to the \"priest.\" ",
"The \"priests\" ( _Sadin_ , pl. _",
"Sadana_ ) mentioned in the Arabic sources, were not sacrificers, but rather guardians of the sanctuaries. ",
"Henninger recognizes the need, however, to touch at least briefly on the question suggested by the linguistic identity of the words _kahin_ (soothsayer) in Arabic and _kohen_ (priest) in Hebrew. ",
"Scholars since the time of Julius Wellhausen have seen in this fact proof of a development from the sorcerer through the soothsayer to the priest. ",
"This view, however, was contradicted by W. F. Albright who, on the basis of Ugaritic documents, wrote:\n\nunfortunately... the word _kahin_ is isolated in Arabic and may, therefore, like thousands of other cultural words in that language, be considered equally well as a loanword from the older Canaanite _kahin_ or from the Aramaic _kahana_ , both meaning \"priest\"; should this be true, we have an indication of a specialization in function among the Arabs and not a supposed magical background of the Israelite priesthood. (",
"120)\n\nOne must appreciate the thoroughness with which Henninger has approached the question of the nature of pre-Islamic religion in the Arabian Peninsula.",
"\n\n_Moshe Gil, \"Jews of Yathrib\"_\n\nThis article by Moshe Gil, dealing as it does with the \"Jews of Yathrib,\" is especially important not only for our understanding of Jewish–Arab relations in the pre-Islamic era, but also for their relations in Muhammad's Medinan period. ",
"As we intend in the later chapter on \"Muhammad at Medina\" to review how several great Jewish historians have viewed the origin of the Jews of Yathrib, it will be interesting to hear whether Gil, a contemporary scholar, finds it necessary to revise or correct earlier Jewish historians' analyses.",
"\n\nGil opens by observing that both Talmudic and Islamic traditions are quite unanimous in describing a Jewish population inhabiting the southeastern parts of Palestine (inclusive of Transjordan) and having an extensive common border with the Bedouin tribes. ",
"Jericho, Elat and their surroundings formed the northern edge of the Jewish area, which stretched into the Arabian Peninsula, starting from the \"valley of villages\" ( _Wadi alQura_ ) and reaching the city of Yathrib. \"",
"The Jewish character of the said area,\" Gil writes, \"can be seen from the Hebrew designation _Darum_ used in early Muslim sources for southern Palestine\" (146). ",
"Relying on the Muslim sources, Gil observes that Muslim traditionalists could think of no earlier settlers in Yathrib than the Jews, who are described as the first inhabitants of the agricultural strips of land in northern Hijaz, in Yathrib and its vicinity. ",
"It was the Jews who dug the wells, planted the palm trees, practiced every kind of farming, and who built houses ( _atam_ ), although as we shall see, this word in the context of the Hijaz meant more than mere houses; it meant fortified strongholds.",
"\n\nThe Jews are, in a word, the only real historical _settlers_ known by Muslim sources. ",
"All the concepts and practices of sedentary culture – farming, property, crafts, and so on – were represented by the Jews in contrast to the concepts and practices of the desert Arabs, the Bedouin, the nomads (146). ",
"Gil cites the words of Nuaym b. Masud of the B. Ghatfan, who acted for the Muslims during the battle of Khandaq: \"The Banu Qurayza [one of the three Jewish tribes of the Medinan area] were people of high lineage and of properties, whereas we were but an Arab tribe who did not possess any palm trees nor vineyards, being people of only sheep and camels\" (Waqidi, 480). ",
"During the harvesting of dates, the Jews hired the Bedouin who would come with their camels and transport the bunches of dates to the villages for sale, taking half the revenue for themselves. ",
"In the Bedouin view, such labor was unpleasant and perhaps even demeaning, as one can surmise from the Prophet's encouraging verse when they had to carry bricks or stones to build the first mosque.",
"\n\nIn the earliest period, the Jewish tribes, the B. Nadir and B. Qurayza are described as \"kings\" ( _muluk_ ) over Yathrib/Medina, ruling the Aws and the Khazraj; and that it was the Jews, standing on guard at the gates of Yathrib, to demand tithes from any person wishing to enter the city. \"",
"This general picture,\" writes Gil,\n\nseems to have prevailed at the time the Prophet arrived in Medina, Persian suzerainty, based on the Jews of Medina, being strengthened by the victory over Byzantium. ",
"This appears to lend credibility to the Muslim traditions which have the _ibn ra's al-jalut_ , the son of the exilarch [the spiritual leader of the exilic Jewish community at the time], present in Medina and discussing with the Prophet the matter of the names of the stars in Joseph's dream; those traditions are even aware of his name, Bustanay. ",
"The tradition reflects two facts: the connection of the Medinan Jews with the Babylonian center, and their influential position in the Hijaz... backed by the world power of the time, Persia. (",
"Ibid.)",
"\n\nIn the period before the Prophet and the Medinan Jews became estranged from one another, the Prophet, Gil writes, \"always addresses the Medinan Jews as kinsfolk and offspring of the ancient Banu Israil. ",
"They spoke a language of their own, which Muslim sources call _ratan_ , apparently meaning a non-Arabic tongue, which Tabari says was Persian [but was most probably Aramaic]. ",
"The Prophet ordered Zayd b. Thabit [the Prophet's secretary] to teach himself al-Suryania, i.e., Aramaic... in order to be able to understand what the Jews were writing\" (148). ",
"This should be taken to mean that the Jews spoke Arabic as well – for some even excelled in reciting Arabic poetry – but wrote primarily in Aramaic.",
"\n\nGil now addresses the much-discussed question of whether the Medinan Jews were the offspring of ethnic Jews or of Jewish proselytes. ",
"He cites the view of the famous Semiticist, Nöldeke, who argued that if the Jews of Arabia had been the offspring of immigrants, they could not have been so well absorbed by the tribal society of the Arabs. ",
"Nöldeke was impressed, in particular, by the Jewish contribution to Arab poetry, which he considered an expression of a real Arabic character without any Jewish elements. ",
"Other scholars, such as Winckler, Lammens, and Nau, shared Nöldeke's view. ",
"Indeed, Nau states what he regards as four decisive facts, which Gil summarizes: (1) The Jews conducted an intensive campaign to spread Judaism in various places, including Arabia. (",
"2) Almost all the Jews of Medina mentioned during the Prophet's lifetime have Arab names. (",
"3) They needed spiritual leadership from outside, from Palestine or from Babylonia [but so did other Jewish communities of the Diaspora]. (",
"4) The phenomenon of a Jewish kingdom ( _Himyar_ ) is something outside the Jewish norm of the time, unless that royal family was proselytes [which they might have been]. ",
"The Jewish historian, D. S. Margoliouth, also expressed far-reaching doubts of the Medinan Jews having been real[?] ",
"Jews, preferring to think of them as monotheistic, in his term, _Rahmanists_. ",
"This view was based on – among other considerations – the name of God, _Rahman_ , as found in the Arabian epigraphic sources. ",
"And Gil remarks that \"C. C. Torrey seems to have been the only scholar of that generation who was willing to accept the Judaism of the Yathrib Jews as genuine\" (151). ",
"Torrey's view will receive a full exposition later.",
"\n\nMeanwhile, however, it needs, perhaps, to be said, that the views of Nöldeke, et al., ",
"who question the Judaism of the Yathrib Jews, and ask whether they were originally \"ethnic\" Jews or proselytes, hold, consciously or not, a racial or quasi-racial conception of Judaism. ",
"The Jews from biblical times to the Maccabean era and the Pharisaic Revolution, to the time of Muhammad, never considered Judaism a matter of ethnicity. ",
"A convert or proselyte to Judaism was a Jew regardless of his or her ethnicity. ",
"This continued to be true throughout subsequent Jewish history as well. ",
"Indeed, an examination of the Muslim sources concerning the relations between the Jewish tribes and the Arabs, shows that neither \"side,\" so to speak, had any interest, positive or negative, in their respective ethnic backgrounds. ",
"The issues and conflicts between them were religious, economic and political in nature; conflicts, as we shall see, that may also be characterized in Ibn Khaldun's terms, as rooted in the antagonistic encounter between the desert and the sown.",
"\n\nMoshe Gil's research tends to support the non-ethnic criterion of Judaism that prevailed in the period under discussion. ",
"Much can be found in the Arab sources, he writes,\n\nabout Arab tribes or clans which were influenced by Judaism, many of them accepting it completely. ",
"Suhali informs us, for instance, that besides Qurayza, Nadir and Qaynuqa [the Jewish tribes], there were people of Aws and Khazraj who became Jewish. ",
"Some of their women used to make a vow that if their child lived, they would make it a Jew, since they considered the Jews to be people of knowledge and the Book. ",
"Yaqubi, after describing Yaman [i.e, Yemen] as an area which became mainly Jewish due to the action of the _tubba_ [the royal title of the Himyarite kings], mentions that people of Aws and Khazraj became Jewish as well after they arrived from Yaman, due to their being neighbors of the Jews of Khaybar and Yathrib. ",
"People of the B. Harith b.Ka'b, Ghassan and of Judhum, also accepted Judaism. ",
"In fact it appears that many more clans in Medina were Jewish. ",
"Samhudi mentions many such clans, like B. Qusays, B. Marthad, B. Muawiya, B. Jadhma, B. Naghisa, B. Zaura, B. Hujr, and B. Thalaba. (",
"152)\n\nMore of such evidence is available, and as Gil states, \"no conclusive evidence is yet available of who these Jewish _mawali_ were and whether they stemmed from Arab clans or were the offspring of Jews who settled in the city centuries before Islam. ",
"However, the bulk of traditions on Jews preserved in the [Muslim] sources surveyed so far points to proselytes from among the Bedouin\" (153).",
"\n\nBy means of a fastidious examination of Jewish and Muslim sources, Gil sheds more light on the question of the probable origin of Yathrib's Jews. ",
"He writes that\n\nduring the Byzantine period there was a well-known and a well-established category of proselytes, of Bedouin descent, known as the \"sons of Jethro.\" ",
"The similarity with the Muslim sources on the matter of the Jewish tribes and clans of the Hijaz and their connections with B. Judhum, the inhabitants of the land of Madyan [i.e., Midian; Jethro was prince and/or priest of Midian. ",
"Moses married his daughter, Zipporah], kinsfolk of the ShuayboJethro cannot be ignored... A similar parallelism exists concerning the Jewish refugees who fled from the Romans [in 70 or perhaps also in 135 CE] into Arabia. ",
"It is apparently these refugees who formed the first layer of the Jewish population in northern Hijaz. ",
"During the centuries that followed they increased in number through Arab tribes who converted, and adopted an agricultural life, taking over not only the Jews' religion and way of life, but also their spoken language, Aramaic. (",
"160–1)\n\nAs we shall see, Gil's analysis tends to confirm that of the earlier Jewish historians.",
"\n\n_Fazlur Rahman, \"Pre-Foundations of the Muslim Community in Mecca\"_\n\nRahman's aim, in his important contribution, in the volume edited by F. E. Peters, is to address the question \"of the emergence of the Muslim community in Medina as a separate entity from the Jewish and the Christian communities.\" ",
"Rahman proposes that judging from certain passages of the Quran (e.g., 37: 168–70), it seems evident that some Meccans had desired a new religion of the Judean-Christian type. ",
"This was the result of the penetration of the Judeo-Christian ideas into the Arab milieu, and it attests to the existence of a religious ferment among certain individuals and possibly even groups. ",
"Although, as the evidence suggests, there may not have been a sizeable population of Jews and Christians in Mecca, one must not assume that they were without influence on that account; for it seems highly probable that some non-Jewish, non-Christian individuals had arrived at the concept of monotheism, and some had become Christian. ",
"Moreover, the Quran points frequently to a longing for some kind of Messianism, or a desire for a new prophet – an Arab prophet (35: 42). ",
"This, most probably, expresses Muhammad's own strong longing, desire and wish that the Arabs would acquire and possess a prophet of their own, just as did the Jews and the Christians. ",
"It is possible that Muhammad's longing was a reflection of a more general such longing, prompted by the presence of Jews and Christians, and their religious ideas. ",
"But if the longing took on an ethnic or \"national\" dimension, in the sense that it became an aim to be striven for politically, then it is more likely that such an aim was late, and came to the fore in Medina, rather than Mecca.",
"\n\n_Uri Rubin, \"Hanifiyya and Ka_ _ba: An Inquiry into the Arabian Background of Din Ibrahim\"_\n\nEarlier we explored the question of the Abrahamic element in Islam, and the historicity of the claim that Abraham and Ishmael were associated with the founding of the Kaaba. ",
"Rubin, continuing to examine the question, claims that Muhammad's attachment to the idea of _din Ibrahim_ began already before the _Hijra_ , while he was still at Mecca, where there were some older _hunafa_ (monotheists or quasi-monotheists) who probably introduced the idea to the young Muhammad.",
"\n\nRubin mentions as the most notable of these _hanifs_ , Zayd b. Amr b. Nufayl, who appears in a report recorded by Ibn Ishaq, mentioning four persons including Zayd, who, resolving to abandon the idolatry of Quraysh, left Mecca in search of the true religion. ",
"Zayd is described as the only one who refrained from adopting Judaism or Christianity, and insisted that he worshipped the Lord of Abraham. ",
"The monotheistic attitude of Zayd is implied in some poetic verses attributed to him in which he voices his aversion to the worship of the Daughters of Allah and other deities. ",
"In other verses he professes his exclusive devotion to Allah.",
"\n\nAccording to Rubin's extraordinarily interesting findings, Zayd's views led to strife with his fellow tribesmen, and to his being driven out of Mecca by his paternal uncle, al-Khattab, father of Omar, the second Caliph. ",
"What Khattab feared, apparently, is that other Meccans might follow Zayd's example and abandon the old _din_ of Quraysh. ",
"Highly interesting are the traditions reporting on the meeting between Zayd and the young Muhammad which took place before his first revelation. ",
"In the earliest versions of these traditions, Rubin informs us, Muhammad offers Zayd a bag of meat that Muhammad had sacrificed to the idols, and of which Zayd refused to partake, explaining that he does not eat what has been offered to idols. ",
"Zayd also states on that occasion, that he has been searching for the true religion and has become a follower of the religion of Abraham. ",
"Rubin suggests that the motivation for such a tradition was to underscore the virtues of Zayd as an early mentor of Muhammad's. ",
"Rubin reminds us, however, that even ideologically motivated traditions may contain a nucleus of historical truth, which in this case prompts the fair inference that Zayd was a monotheistic adherent of _din Ibrahim_ while Muhammad was still an idolator. ",
"Rubin is on strong ground in this respect, for \"such a tradition,\" he convincingly argues, \"could never have been invented, not even for the mere purpose of glorifying Zayd. ",
"From this tradition, which Muslim scholars indeed tried to reshape, one must, therefore, conclude that Zayd was indeed a _hanif_ who introduced to Muhammad the monotheistic idea of _din Ibrahim_ \" (283).",
"\n\nThere are several traditions indicating that Zayd prayed facing the Kaaba. ",
"In one of these he used to say, \"I follow the religion of Abraham and I prostrate myself towards the Kaaba which Abraham built.\" ",
"Rubin then advances this cogent proposition: \"The observation that the _hanifiyya_ [Abrahamic monotheists] at both post _-hijra_ Medina and pre _-hijra_ Mecca was focused on the veneration of the Kaaba, entails the conclusion that the Abrahamic sacredness of the Kaaba is pre-Islamic in origin\" (284). ",
"Rubin also calls our attention to this fact: though the chief pre-Islamic deity in the form of an idol was Hubal, whose statue was the only one inside the Kaaba, rituals performed in front of Hubal nevertheless contained an Abrahamic element, notably circumcision. ",
"That circumcision was common among the Arabs since pre-Islamic times, is a well established fact, which the Muslim tradition, like the Jewish, connects with Abraham who was the first to be circumcised. ",
"This was already known to Joshephus who wrote in his _Antiquities_ that the Arabs \"... circumcise after the thirteenth year, because Ishmael, the founder of the nation, who was born to Abraham of the concubine, was circumcised at that age\" (Bk. ",
"1, ch. ",
"xii/2).",
"\n\nRubin provides _new_ information showing how the Abrahamic element, in the context of the Kaaba rituals, was syncretized with the polytheistic elements: the casting of arrows before Hubal, for example, was considered to be Abrahamic, which shows that in the Kaaba context, at least, the pre-Islamic form of the Abrahamic religion was not a pure or strict monotheism. ",
"As Rubin informs us, the image of Abraham holding these arrows was actually painted inside the Kaaba, and when Mecca was conquered by Muhammad and the Muslims, he ordered it to be erased (286). ",
"More, even the view that the sacred area of Mecca, the _haram_ , was founded by Abraham may be regarded as pre-Islamic in origin (288). ",
"Indeed, it seems to be a fair generalization that the pre-Islamic Arabs were well aware of the tradition according to which they were the descendants of Abraham and Ishmael; even the authority of the Quraysh among the rest of the Arab tribes was based on this tradition. ",
"Ibn Ishaq states that the Arabs recognized the Quraysh as the noblest descendants of Ishmael and, therefore, as their leaders. ",
"Rubin again makes the point that even reports motivated by apologetics do not necessarily consist solely of untruths. ",
"So in light of the rest of the evidence adduced in his essay, he states that \"there does not seem to be any serious reason for doubting the authenticity of the reports about the pre-Islamic Abrahamic sacredness of the Kaaba and Quraysh\" (289).",
"\n\nRubin therefore maintains that the tradition of the Kaaba, as the sacred \"House of Abraham\" is very early. ",
"Its origins may be traced back to the _Book of Jubilees_ , some of the relevant passages of which were already noticed by the outstanding scholar, S. D. Goitein in his _Ha-islam shel Muhammad_ , Jerusalem, 1966 (in Hebrew, pp. ",
"166–7). ",
"According to the Jewish conception the proper place for the eternal Abrahamic sanctuary was on Mt. Moriah in Jerusalem, where Solomon had built the Temple (2 Chronicles, 3: 1). ",
"This place was said to have been the site of the binding of Isaac Gen. 22: 1). ",
"Rubin then makes this enlightening observation:\n\nThe Messianic idea of the building of the \"House of Abraham\" as formulated in _Jubilees_ could easily have been known in pre-Islamic Arabia through Abyssinian Christians for whom this book was sacred. ",
"Thus the Arabian \"monotheistic\" adherents of _din Ibrahim_ in the vicinity of Mecca and Medina could quite naturally locate their own \"House of Abraham\" in the most notable sanctuary of the area, the Kaaba. (",
"291)\n\nHowever, for the majority of the Jews of Arabia, the \"House of Abraham\" was, of course, not in Mecca. \"",
"When Muhammad diverted his _qibla_ [the direction faced in prayer] from Jerusalem to Mecca,\" Rubin writes, \"the leaders of the Medinan Jews reportedly told him that if he claimed to be an adherent of _din Ibrahim_ , he must return to the former _qibla_ (Ibn Hisham, II, 199). ",
"This means that for those Jews the _qibla_ of the true religion of Abraham was Jerusalem\" (291).",
"\n\n**More on Pre-Islamic Religion in the Arabian Peninsula**\n\n_Hamilton A. R. Gibb, \"Pre-Islamic Monotheism in Arabia\"_\n\nThe discussion of the Abrahamic phenomenon in pre-Islamic Arabia continues in Hamilton A. R. Gibb's article, \"Pre-Islamic Monotheism in Arabia.\" ",
"For Gibb, the search for the \"sources\" of Muhammad's revelation tends to be inconclusive, in that Jewish scholars seem to forget that the Old Testament was as much a part of the Christian as of Jewish scripture, and that even _haggadic_ supplements had long since been taken up into Christian writings; and Christian scholars, who argue for a Christian source, are somewhat embarrassed by Muhammad's rejection of Christological doctrine. ",
"Both sides provide good arguments, says Gibb, but neither seems decisive in enabling us to resolve the issue in favor of one side or the other. ",
"As for Muslim doctrine, it has never denied a relationship of Islam with Judaism and Christianity and their commonality of origin; but Muslim doctrine does explicitly reject the claim that either side had \"influenced\" the content of the Quran, since it is considered to be the verbally inspired Word of God, directly communicated to the Prophet by means of Gabriel's mediation. ",
"From the Muslim standpoint, then, even if one sees in the Quran parallels with the earlier scriptures, that proves nothing, since both the earlier and the later emanate from the same divine source. ",
"Gibb therefore proposes that \"... if the teaching of the Quran was to be understood by its first hearers, as is rightly assumed by Muslim scholarship, there must have been not only in existence, but widely enough known in Mecca, an Arabic religious vocabulary applicable to the monotheistic content of the Quran\" (246). ",
"For Gibb, \"it is self-evident that these elements of technical religious vocabulary could have come only from the language of the surrounding monotheistic communities...\" (Ibid.)",
"\n\nAlthough Gibb sees in the Quran words and phrases of Syriac/Aramaic and even of Greek and Persian origin, he acknowledges in a parenthetic comment, that in the early Medinan Suras of the Quran there is evidence of direct adoption of Hebrew terms \"in certain special contexts\" (Ibid.). ",
"But he goes on to argue convincingly that\n\nIt is a far cry from this, however, to infer that pre-Islamic monotheism in Arabia was directly connected with the institutionally organized Jewish or Christian communities. ",
"Such communities certainly existed in Arabia, but there is considerable evidence both from Muslim texts and from external sources that other monotheistic groups were to be found in Arabia, independently of the organized churches and hence \"heretical\" in their eyes. ",
"Such groups may have been offshoots not only of Christianity, but also of Judaism, or Judeo-Christian. (",
"297)\n\nThe very fact that the Islamic tradition speaks of _hanifs_ makes it highly probable that such individuals or groups existed, though, unfortunately, no sound, specific evidence of their character is provided by the tradition. ",
"For Gibb, then, the problem of determining the origin of _hanifs_ is enormously complex because \"there are many details in the Quran which relate evidently to a prophetic tradition that is purely Arabian, even while it links on to the Jewish and Christian traditions.\" ",
"It follows, that \"in these circumstances, it is absurd to postulate even as a hypothesis, a 'Jewish foundation' for Islam [referring evidently to C. C. Torrey's _The Jewish Foundations of Islam_ ]; the phrase 'Christian environment' [referring to Richard Bell's _The Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment_ ] has the merit of being at least less assertive, and leaves room for an intermediate group or groups\" (297).",
"\n\nWe shall soon review both Torrey's and Bell's works, but meanwhile it seems fitting to respond briefly to the above statement of Gibb's. ",
"Is it not equally absurd to deny a Jewish foundation when one recognizes that the _ultimate_ origin of Christianity, _hanifiyya_ and Islam can be found nowhere else but in Judaism? ",
"And if we add to this truism the historical fact that there was a very significant Jewish presence in the Peninsula and in the Hijaz centuries before Islam, what other origin can one posit for _hanif_ monotheism – especially given its pronounced Abrahamic element – than Judaism and its living descendants in the historical context with which we are concerned? ",
"Gibb is right to argue that with the evidence presently available it is impossible to assign causal weightings to the respective influences of Judaism, Christianity, and _hanif_ monotheism on Muhammad's inspiration. ",
"Yet, there is, perhaps, one more pertinent point that needs to be made: where the origins of Muhammad's inspiration are concerned, it seems fair to say that the strictness of the monotheistic conception to which he arrived _after_ the affair of the \"daughters of Allah,\" was such that it had the greatest affinity with the Jewish view of the Deity as an Almighty, Ethical, Creator-Ruler of the universe who is formless and incorporeal. ",
"Moreover, as we have learned from Rubin and other scholars, pre-Islamic, Abrahamic _hanifiyya_ was a syncretic phenomenon that retained polytheistic elements. ",
"Now if we add to this the Islamic repudiation of Christological dogma, as Gibb himself has noted, then we can, perhaps, agree, that since Judaism and Islam are the strictest forms of monotheism, the latter was most influenced by the former.",
"\n\nIn continuing his analysis, Gibb argues against an influential view that Muhammad's message would, in effect, have confronted Meccans with a body of _new_ ideas. ",
"In making his case, Gibb cites a passage from the Quran in which, he argues, \"the existence of pre-Islamic monotheism is most openly acknowledged and its character most clearly presented. ",
"This passage is a self-contained section at the end of Sura 53, and is clearly to be dated in the early Meccan period of Muhammad's mission. ",
"If we read verses 33 to 56 of Sura 53, and take note of the conception of the Deity and the historical individuals mentioned, we find reference to the Deity as the Unseen, and to the Tablets of Moses _and_ Abraham.\" ",
"Gibb makes the cogent point that the situation of the passage, especially verses 33–56, is clear: \"Muhammad turns on a Meccan opponent, and pointedly asks if he does not know 'what is in the Scriptures of Moses.' ",
"The obvious inference is that the 'Scriptures of Moses' were so familiar in Mecca that one could scarcely imagine any Meccan being ignorant of them. ",
"So far from presenting a body of completely new ideas, therefore, the Quranic Revelation was (in its early stages) basically dramatizing and expanding well-known religious teachings\" (273).",
"\n\nGibb now wants to show that the verses in Sura 53 are not a precise reference to the Torah, because the addition, \"of Abraham\" after the \"Tablets of Moses,\" is neither Jewish nor Christian, but rather a first suggestion of a deviant tradition. ",
"For Gibb, the content of these verses appears to have been derived from Christian rather than from Jewish sources. ",
"Verse 38, for example, \"while reflecting a general scriptural theme, is not found in the Torah. ",
"The closest parallel is in St Paul's Epistles (Galatians 6: 5), 'For every man shall bear his own burdens.' ",
"So too, does the maxim in verses 39 and 41 reflect another passage from St Paul (I Cor. ",
"3: 8), 'Every man shall receive his own reward according to his own labor...' \" For Gibb, the central theme of these verses is the \"lordship of God, the personal responsibility of the created being, and God's reward and punishment.\" ",
"But Gibb discerns even in these Quranic verses a deliberate or almost deliberate avoidance of the distinctive confessional elements of both Judaism and Christianity, and an emphasis on the basic themes of a monotheistic faith divorced from both rival creeds. ",
"Gibb observes in this connection that Muslim tradition links these religious rivalries with the political rivalries of the two imperial powers, and the apparent Jewish support of the Persian empire, and the early Muslim support of the Byzantine. ",
"But apart from this political matter, says Gibb, \"there could well have been good reason for a native monotheistic movement in Arabia to seek an independent middle course. ",
"And such was in fact to become a cardinal element in Islam\" (303).",
"\n\nBut if there was, as Gibb surmises, an \"almost deliberate avoidance\" of what was distinctive in Judaism and Christianity, and if the native monotheistic individuals or groups sought an independent middle course, such an attitude on their part pre-supposes enough familiarity with Judaism and Christianity to enable them to seek or steer an independent course. ",
"But what was the nature of that middle course? ",
"If it was in fact a syncretic phenomenon, retaining polytheistic elements, then it was not a strict monotheism. ",
"It seems sensible, therefore, to view Muhammad's inspiration as a _developmental process_ in which he moved from a less-than-strict conception of monotheism, as seems to have been the case in Mecca, to a strict conception in Medina. ",
"Therefore, if the so-called middle course of the _hanifs_ retained polytheistic elements, and the Christological doctrine was rejected by the Quran, it seems to follow that the sole remaining model for Muhammad's strict monotheism was Judaism, from which all polytheistic elements had been expunged.",
"\n\n_W. Montgomery Watt, \"Belief in a 'High God' in Pre-Islamic Mecca\"_\n\nMontgomery Watt, best known for his studies of _Muhammad at Mecca_ and _Muhammad at Medina_ , opens his contribution by reminding the reader that from the time of Julius Wellhausen it has been accepted by scholars that Quranic evidence points to the existence in Mecca of individuals who, although continuing to worship the pagan deities, regarded Allah as the creator of the world, and a \"high god\" superior to the other gods. ",
"Watt's purpose is not to propound a fresh view of this phenomenon, but merely to show how extensive is the Quranic material portraying Allah as the \"High God.\"",
"\n\nWatt cites several Quranic passages that speak of Allah as the Creator, but which then associate other deities with him. ",
"All such passages refer to \"some persons\" in Mecca (39: 38; 43: 9–15) who place Allah's servants on a level with him. ",
"The servants are in some places referred to as \"peers\" and in other places as \"partners\" (2: 21f.; ",
"40: 12; 39: 3/4; 10: 18/19). ",
"Watt therefore infers that such passages reflect the idea prevalent in Mecca at the time that the pagan deities serve to intercede with the high god; which strongly suggests to Watt, that the story of the so-called \"Satanic Verses\" (added after 53: 20) is probably true. ",
"The story is – as mentioned in an earlier chapter – that after the verses, \"Have you considered al-Lat and alUzza, and Manat, the third, the other?\" ",
"Satan inserted the words, \"These are the exalted _qharaniq_ ; their intercession is hoped for (or may be expected).\"",
"\n\nAl-Lat or El-Lat, perhaps the Alilat of Herodotus (3: 8) was an idol at Nakhlah, a place east of Mecca. ",
"Al-Uzza was an idol of the Kinanah tribe. ",
"According to the story originally told by Muslim historians or tradition-alists, the Prophet, at the first recital of this Sura, 53: 20 (\"And Manat the third idol besides\"), added: \"These are the exalted females, and truly their intercession may be expected.\" ",
"These words, however, which were received by the Quraysh idolators with delight, were repudiated by Muhammad a few days later as a Satanic suggestion, and replaced by the text as it now stands. ",
"Western scholars assume that Muhammad's difficulties in Mecca led him to attempt a compromise with the Quraysh by making the \"daughters of Allah\" concession, of which he speedily repented.",
"\n\nThe word _qharaniq_ is often translated as \"swan\" or \"crane.\" ",
"Watt accepts the plausibility of the suggestion that they were Numidian cranes, reputed to fly very high, and so the epithet was appropriate for those who interceded with the high god. ",
"For Watt,\n\nit is clear that the temptation for Muhammad was to acknowledge the pagan goddesses as capable of interceding with God, in accordance with the belief of many of his contemporaries. ",
"The Quran sometimes speaks of the deities as angels and criticizes the pagans for giving them female names (53: 27/28). ",
"A verse before this (53: 26) speaks of many angels whose intercession is of no avail. ",
"The occurrence of these ideas in close proximity to the passage into which the satanic verses were inserted gives strong support to the view that Muhammad's temptation was to interpret Allah as the high god already acknowledged by many in Mecca. (",
"309)\n\nWe shall return to this subject in a later review of Tabari's narrative concerning Muhammad's years in Mecca.",
"\n\n_Uri Rubin, \"The Kaaba: Aspects of Its Ritual Functions and Position in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Times\"_\n\nFrom Uri Rubin's second contribution to this volume edited by F. E. Peters, we gain considerably more understanding of the religious beliefs and practices of that time and place. ",
"His analysis requires a diagram – which I shall attempt to duplicate – of the Kaaba and the sacred area surrounding it. (",
"See figure 4.1.)",
"\n\nRubin cites Ibn Jurayj (died 150 AH/772 CE) who, having been born in Mecca and thus having an excellent knowledge of his hometown, relates that the Kaaba was originally an _arish_ into which cattle could burst, and that it remained in this condition till Quraysh built the Kaaba, 15 years before Muhammad's first revelation. ",
"The term _arish_ has profound ritual significance, for it is the word Arabs used to refer to the Tabernacle built in the Wilderness by the Children of Israel in the time of Moses. ",
"The report by Ibn Jurayj seems to imply that the Kaaba was originally built and treated as a similarly sacred tabernacle. ",
"Due to the danger of frequent floods characteristic of the area, a barrier was built near the Kaaba at a very early period. ",
"The barrier eventually proved to be inadequate, and according to Musa b. Uqba (758 CE), it was eventually overflowed, which prompted the Quraysh to turn the Kaaba into a massive building. ",
"The \"Hijr,\" regarded as an integral part of the Kaaba, refers to the semi-circular, open-air enclosure situated opposite the northwestern wall of the Kaaba. ",
"Rubin cites, in addition, a report from Ma 'mar b. Rashid (770 CE), saying that, \"the Kaaba was built in the Jahaliyya [pre-Islamic era] with loose stones ( _radm_ ), without clay. ",
"Its height was such that young goats could burst into it. ",
"It had no roof, and its clothes [tent material] were merely laid upon it, hanging down. ",
"It had two corners, like this ring: \" (317).",
"\n\nFig. ",
"4.1. ",
"The Kaaba and its surroundings (this figure has been prepared according to the groundplan of the Haram in C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Mekka_ , tr. ",
"by J. H. Monaham, Leiden 1970. ",
"Scale in meters was calculated according to the map in _National Geographic Magazine_ , vol. ",
"154, pp. ",
"584–5).",
"\n\nA few years before Muhammad's first revelation, the ancient _arish_ was turned into a permanent roofed structure, the timber for it having been taken from a ship of a Byzantine merchant named Baqum, which had been cast ashore near Jedda. ",
"Several reports suggest that the new building of the Kaaba was inspired by certain Christian models. ",
"It is known that the interior of the Kaaba was decorated with the images of Jesus and Maria. ",
"When Mecca was conquered, the prophet himself ordered that the images of Jesus and Maria be left untouched; and in the days of Atab Abi Rabah (732 CE), these images were still there. _",
"Christian influence appears, therefore, to be indisputable_.",
"\n\nIn the pre-Islamic period, it seems that the main function of the entire enclosure containing the Kaaba and the Hijr was to mark the boundaries of a sacred ground in which several idols were worshipped. ",
"In the Kaaba itself, however, there appears to have been no statues at all. ",
"Although this may at first seem strange, Rubin reminds us that the Kaaba was considered \"the sacred house of Allah.\" ",
"Allah was worshipped by the Meccans as the High God, as we have seen, and for him there was no statue. ",
"The lesser deities were apparently worshipped outside the Kaaba, in the area of the Hijr, where their statues were located. \"",
"The actual worship of the idols in the Hijr,\" Rubin writes, \"consisted of sacrificial slaughter which was performed near the well of Zamzam. ",
"It is reported that this well was situated in the place where Quraysh used to slaughter the sacrificial animals\" (321). \"",
"The term Hijr itself,\" Rubin explains,\n\nhas a profound ritual significance which is connected with sacrificial slaughter. ",
"This term means \"inviolable,\" \"sacrosanct,\" and the basic function of the area to which this term was applied is elucidated in a Muslim tradition relating that Abraham built the Hijr next to the Kaaba as an _arish_ made of _arak_ trees, into which goats could burst. ",
"It served as a pen ( _zarb_ ) for Ishmael's sheep.",
"\n\nThis legend, Rubin avers,\n\nseems to reflect an authentic reality, namely, that the Hijr, or the area between the ancient _jidar_ [barrier against floods] and the Kaaba, served as a pen, or fold for sheep. ",
"The same is suggested by the term \" _jidar_ ,\" which in ancient Hebrew denotes quite often a fold for sheep. (",
"323)\n\nThe term \"Hijr\" [Rubin continues] appears in a similar context in the Quran. ",
"Sura 6: 138 deals with cattle and cultivated fields which the pre-Islamic Arabs used to consecrate to their idols by labeling them as _Hijr_ , i.e., sacrosanct. ",
"In view of this, one may conclude that \"Hijr\" signifies a fold for sacred animals which were regarded as belonging to the idols. (",
"Ibid.)",
"\n\nIn Islamic times the Hijr continued to function as a place of worship, but now was devoted exclusively to the Lord of the Kaaba, Allah. ",
"For Muhammad, the area served mainly as a place of prayer. ",
"Some traditions report that the Prophet used to pray in the Hijr during the early Meccan period. ",
"More specific traditions say that he used to pray opposite the Black Stone, which served, apparently, as his first _qibla_ , the direction faced in prayer. ",
"For Muslim traditions, the sacredness assigned to the Hijr stems from the idea that the area was the burial place of the noble dead, especially Ishmael.",
"\n\nRubin now explains the significance of the _Hatim_ in the diagram. ",
"This area of the Hijr is often referred to in Muslim sources as al-Hatim, which like \"Hijr,\" is applied today to the semi-circular enclosure opposite the northwestern wall of the Kaaba. ",
"Originally, however, the term seems to have been applied to the area opposite the front wall of the Kaaba. ",
"The term \"Hatim,\" like Hijr, is used in Muslim sources to refer to the residence of sacrosanct animals.",
"\n\nAs for the Black Stone, Rubin cites a report indicating that originally it was located on the mountain of Abu Qubays, where it became an object of veneration due to its unusual brightness, suggesting a celestial origin for it. ",
"People used to ascend the mountain to stroke the stone, which was originally white, until it eventually blackened. ",
"The Quraysh removed the stone from the mountain four years before Muhammad's first revelation. ",
"Rubin points out, however, that the real reason for the originally bright, white stone turning black was that it was stained with blood. ",
"Rubin also explains the Quraysh's interest in establishing its control over the Kaaba and imparting to it centrality in the pilgrimages. ",
"It appears that places such as the mountain of Abu Qubays tended to divert worshippers from the Kaaba, so that the Quraysh did their utmost to make the Kaaba the central place of worship in Mecca. ",
"With that aim, they reconstructed the Kaaba, using stones from the surrounding mountains, including Abu Qubays, and the Kaaba thus became a permanent stone building. ",
"The same aim is evident, Rubin argues quite convincingly, in the Quraysh's decision to take into its cult all the objects of veneration that had been worshipped at other places in the Meccan vicinity. ",
"This appears to have been the reason for transferring the Black Stone from the mountain to the new building of the Kaaba.",
"\n\nRubin also clarifies how the whole area lying between the two famous hills, Safa and Marwa, might have acquired their religious significance. ",
"It was an area abundant with stones of striking qualities, which could become objects of veneration. ",
"This is reflected in the names given to the hills, Safa meaning \"broad smooth stones,\" and Marwa meaning \"bright glittering stone which may produce fire.\" ",
"Rubin, citing early Muslim traditionalists, relates that when Muhammad conquered Mecca, there were 36 idols, one on the Safa, one on Marwa, and the rest covering the area between them. ",
"Describing in detail the nature of the worship between the two hills, Rubin informs us that it consisted of the _tawaf_ , circumambulation between the hills, while stroking the statues of the idols; or, according to other reports, striking at the stones of the two hills. ",
"The circumambulation was performed by running, during one of its stages, upon crossing the valley between the hills. ",
"The original worldly reason for the running appears to have been the fear of flash-floods \"which were quite frequent and dangerous in that area\" (340–1).",
"\n\nApparently, the Quraysh came also to regard the circumambulation as a threat to their interests. ",
"Seeing themselves devoted primarily to the Kaaba, they objected to this practice. ",
"Among the circles of the Quraysh who led the opposition to the practice were the Hums, an organization whose main aim was to preserve the privileged position of the sacred area of Mecca in general, and of the Kaaba in particular. ",
"The attempt of the Hums to turn the Kaaba into the sole or primary place of worship was less than entirely successful. ",
"Some of the tribes continued to worship certain idols at the Safa and the Marwa.",
"\n\nWith the rise of Islam, it was Muhammad himself who, in effect, dashed the Hums' hopes of maintaining the leading position of the Kaaba; for although he had belonged to the organization of the Hums, he nevertheless attended the rites of the Safa and the Marwa during each pilgrimage to Mecca. ",
"His first _Umra_ from Medina was in 629 CE, and during this pilgrimage he not only made the _tawaf_ between the two hills, but also slaughtered sacrificial animals near the Marwa, declaring that this was the place of slaughter, together with the rest of the Meccan area.",
"\n\nIslam adopted the practice of running between the two hills during the _tawaf_ , and in order to legitimize the practice, Islam connected it with Abraham who, purportedly, had run in that area in order to escape the devil; alternatively, the practice was connected with Hagar who, according to the legend, had run to and fro, looking for water. ",
"Rubin concludes that Muhammad's chief aim in adopting the _tawaf_ appears to have been motivated by his desire to make Islam acceptable to all the Arabs, and not just to the Quraysh (343).",
"\n\nWe see, then, that the religious source of Muhammad's inspiration is a complex, central issue requiring further analysis. ",
"We have just learned from Rubin that the new building of the Kaaba was probably inspired by certain Christian models, and that its interior was decorated with images of Jesus and Mary, which the Prophet ordered to be left untouched. ",
"That there was Christian influence of some kind on the Prophet is therefore an undeniable fact. ",
"The question is, what kind of influence? ",
"For as we have seen in our dialogue with Hamilton Gibb, Muhammad ultimately rejected fundamental elements of christological doctrine. ",
"We need, therefore, to dig deeper to learn the nature of the Christian influence upon him. ",
"If we may assume that Muhammad derived the ideational substance of his inspiration from one or another of three possible sources, or from all three, those sources would have to be (1) Judaism and the Prophet's Jewish contemporaries; (2) Christianity and his Christian contemporaries; and (3) the quasi-monotheism of Muhammad's contemporary _hanifs_.",
"\n\nIf Muhammad had no first-hand knowledge of the Scriptures (in the sense of not having read them), as seems to have been the case, this means that virtually all the information he acquired concerning the Bible had come to him through oral communication with contemporaries. ",
"If the affair of the \"daughters of Allah\" is historical, as is most likely, it suggests that at an early stage in the developing process of his conception of monotheism he had believed that the idea of subordinate deities as intercessors with Allah is compatible with monotheism. ",
"By the end of his Medinan career, however, or somewhat earlier, perhaps, it seems clear, as we shall see, that he had definitely arrived at a strict or pure monotheism. ",
"How he arrived at that conception, and owing to what influences, is a question worth pursuing. ",
"It is an especially interesting question because he reached a strict monotheism by transvaluing virtually all of the pre-Islamic religious institutions and practices: Mecca, the Kaaba and its sacred environs, Allah, circumcision, circumambulation, Ramadan, and more. ",
"Such a transvaluation appears to have taken form in his mind late in the Medinan period when, as a rather successful armed prophet, he recognized the need and the possibility of unifying the tribes of the Peninsula by means of an ideology that would resonate with Arab ethnic sentiments. ",
"As we review the possible influences on Muhammad's mature conception of monotheism, let us entertain the hypothesis that it became a deliberate ideological strategy on his part to retain selected elements and symbols of the Arabs' religious experience by transvaluing them.",
"\n5\n\nPossible Influences on Muhammad's Inspiration\n\nCharles Cutler Torrey opens his _The Jewish Foundations of Islam_ by calling attention to the fact that the \"Prophet himself declared Islam to be the heir of the old Hebrew revelation – in which term he would include also the New Testament.\" ",
"Moreover, the revelation was \"designed and expected by its founder to conquer the world.\" ",
"Muhammad believed, Torrey proposes,\n\nthat the new faith was an old faith and that its evident foundations went far outside Arabia. ",
"The first impression gained by a reader of the Quran is that Muhammad had received the material of his new faith and practice mainly from the Jews of the Hijaz. ",
"On almost every page are encountered either episodes of Jewish history, or familiar Jewish legends, or details of rabbinical law or usage, or arguments which say, in effect, that Islam is the faith of Abraham and Moses. ",
"It is natural to suppose that all this is derived from Israelites; and that these Israelites were Muhammad's own neighbors is the inescapable impression constantly produced by his language... (2)\n\nThese facts, taken by themselves, would imply that the Prophet's education was thoroughly Jewish. ",
"But Torrey recognizes that this was not the case, and that many more facts need to be taken into account, such as the fusion of diverse elements in Islam. ",
"What was quite evident to Torrey and what also ought, perhaps, to be evident to us after our review of Arabian polytheism in the pre-Islamic era, is that Muhammad adopted certain polytheistic elements of his culture and transvaluated those elements by adapting them to his conception of monotheism. ",
"Torrey also recognized in the Quran distinctively Christian elements, so he reviews the early controversy between Jewish and Christian scholars over which influences had preponderance in the Prophet's inspiration.",
"\n\nTorrey cites the pioneering study of Abraham Geiger, _was hat Muhammad aus dem Judenthum aufgenommen_? [",
"what did Muhammad take from Judaism?], ",
"published in 1833, which held the field for many years, but which eventually provoked a reaction from Julius Wellhausen, in his _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_ [vestiges of Arabian polytheism], 1887, claiming that the primary source of Muhammad's inspiration was Christian. ",
"Torrey explains that Wellhausen was influenced by the fact that Muhammad's converts were at first called Sabiens by the Meccans and also know as Mandaeans, a Gnostic sect in southern Babylonia. ",
"It appears that Muhammad was stimulated by the report that this ancient community, belonging neither to Judaism nor to Christianity, nevertheless bore a resemblance to both. ",
"Although Wellhausen's arguments were remarkably weak, says Torrey, his verdict remained in force, and several distinguished scholars continued to assert that the Christian influence was more potent than the Jewish in starting Muhammad on the course that he followed and in providing him with the essential materials of his new religion.",
"\n\nTorrey reminds us that the two religions had much in common in that day, each continuing to influence the other, so that one can point to certain Quranic passages and say that they reflect Christian doctrine, and then with equal justification say they have close parallels in the Hebrew scriptures. ",
"Indeed, one can even find similarities with pagan doctrines. ",
"It seems clear, then, that Torrey approaches the question of the respective influences rather objectively and certainly non-dogmatically. ",
"He readily acknowledges that Christian doctrines and terms were much more widespread in Arabia in the Prophet's time than scholars of a former generation had realized; and where the Quran is concerned, that certain doctrines such as the resurrection, judgment day, heaven and hell, the merit of certain ascetic practices, and so on, had become common to both religions.",
"\n\nHowever, Torrey regards it as an undisputable fact, that in the principal cities of the Hijaz, in Muhammad's time, a very large proportion of the population professed Judaism; and he recognizes the substantial adoption of Judaism by native tribes. ",
"He cites D. S. Margoliouth and other outstanding Jewish historians – whose works we shall review in due course – to support the fact that Judaism from the time of the Maccabees and the Pharisaic Revolution, was a highly successful proselytizing religion. ",
"Indeed, Christian emissaries found the soil everywhere prepared for them by Judaism. ",
"Even Wellhausen had acknowledged that the Jewish propagation of its religious ideas was different in quality and in lasting effect from that of any other of the religions of the time. ",
"Torrey also cites George Foote Moore's view ( _Judaism_ , I, 324), that Judaism was \"the first great missionary religion of the Mediterranean world.\"",
"\n\nMargoliouth responded to the extraordinarily successful proselytizing by the Jews as a problem. ",
"He somehow came to believe that it is important to determine whether those who were regarded as Jews in Yathrib, were \"ethnically\" Jewish. ",
"He finds it perplexing that the Jews of Yathrib appear to have had the Arab form of tribal organization; the names of their tribes were Arabic, as were, with few exceptions, the names of individual members of whom we happen to hear. ",
"Margoliouth also observes that there is no record of any outstanding Jewish antagonist of Muhammad; nor did the supposed Jews of Yathrib produce any outstanding individual whose name the community believed was worth preserving. ",
"All this suggested to Margoliouth, that the \"Children of Israel\" whom Muhammad so often addressed, were \"merely\" Arab tribes made Israelites by conversion. ",
"As I remarked earlier, I find this view bizarre, for it sounds as though Margoliouth, a truly outstanding scholar, has in this instance entertained an ethnic or quasi-racial criterion for Jewishness, rather than purely religious criteria.",
"\n\nTorrey's response to Margoliouth is that all through the Quran we find references to Israelite tribes with their rabbis, their sacred books, their faith and their living contact with the past (27). ",
"Even in Mecca, where scholars assume there were few Jews, the Quran takes notice of Jewish scholars ( _ahbar_ ), and rabbis ( _rabbanis_ ), as in 3: 73 and 5: 48, 68. ",
"In 26: 197, Muhammad boasts that \"the learned ( _ulema_ ) of the Children of Israel had given him encouragement\" (34).",
"\n\nFor Torrey, it is quite likely that Muhammad was literate and that he could write. ",
"For if that had not been true, why would the prosperous widow Khadija have chosen him to take charge of her trading ventures. ",
"Muslim scholars prefer to believe that Muhammad was unlettered in order to accentuate the miraculous nature of his having written down the words of God, mediated by Gabriel. ",
"But Torrey believes that Muhammad had possessed \"the three Rs\" from boyhood, and that he did indeed write down the whole of the Quran \"with his right hand.\" ",
"Torrey surmises further, that Muhammad must have frequented the Jewish quarter of his native city, learning much about the Children of Israel \"whom Allah preferred over the rest of the world\" (45: 15 and elsewhere). ",
"The Prophet thus learned about their fundamental beliefs, their forms of worship, their legends and the laws and customs by which they regulated their private and communal lives. ",
"Without such personal experiences on the part of the young Muhammad, without his seeing with his own eyes the actual example of Jewish communal life, Torrey insists, the aspiring prophet could not have conceived Islam. ",
"And though Torrey acknowledges that there are in the Quran at least three passages which seem clearly to be dependent on the New Testament (7: 38; 57: 13; and 19: 1–15), he maintains that it was not from Christians that the Arabian Prophet obtained information about the Gospels, for \"it is utterly impossible to suppose that Muhammad ever had any continuous intercourse with Christians\" (60). ",
"Furthermore, Torrey's argument continues, the name for Jesus in the Quran, Isa, is strange, and he escapes the fate intended for him and is taken up to heaven (Sura 3: 48); and there is no mention of the Second Coming, the Christian doctrine which was more universally held and built upon than any other. ",
"Torrey sees this as support for his view that Muhammad's familiarity with Christian doctrine and his impression of the Prophet Jesus, were derived not from direct Christian informants, but rather from \"Jewish teaching, very shrewdly given\" (81).",
"\n\nFor Torrey, then, if one weighs the relative proportions of Jewish and Christian materials in the Quran, it is indisputable that the materials obtained from Jewish sources greatly predominate. ",
"Moreover, in Quran 7: 156, Muhammad plainly declares his own legislation to be a revision and improvement of the Hebrew laws. ",
"Where religious legislation is concerned, Torrey sees many parallels: the \"religion of Abraham,\" to which Muhammad so often appeals, he viewed as a pure monotheism, sharply opposed to idolatry; the first two commandments of the Hebrew Decalogue were the twin pillars of Islam from the very first, especially the conception of Allah, the one and only God, without image or likeness; the parallel between the Muslim _shahada_ , \"there is no God but Allah,\" and the Hebrew _shema_ is hardly accidental. ",
"Concerning God's unity, Torrey cites Sura 112: 1, and the Islamic warriors' battle-cry, _ahad, ahad_! [",
"one, one!]. ",
"Also, Muhammad began by directing his adherents to face Jerusalem in prayer, and changed the _qibla_ only after his arrival in Medina, when he failed to receive Jewish support. ",
"As for the duty of children to parents (e.g., Sura 46: 14), Muhammad cannot have been ignorant of the fact that this commandment, in particular, was given special weight by the Jews. ",
"In both the Talmud and the oldest _midrashim_ (Heb. ",
"plural, singular, _midrash_ , meaning exposition and explanation of the underlying significance of a biblical text), \"Honor thy father and mother\" and \"Honor the Lord\" are explicitly yoked together. ",
"In addition, Torrey calls attention to \"the great emphasis laid upon almsgiving by the Jewish teachers, from Daniel (4: 24) and the Book of Tobit (4: 7–11, 16f.), ",
"is faithfully reproduced in the Quran and the Muslim tradition (57: 7–12, and other passages). ",
"The Quran and the _hadith_ thus repeat the Jewish doctrine, that almsgiving atones for sin.\" ",
"Torrey makes his case, then, by calling attention to Muhammad's probable encounters with Jews even in Mecca, and by showing Quranic parallels to Jewish scriptures, and to Talmudic and Midrashic teachings.",
"\n\nIn pursuing the issue of the relative weights of Jewish and Christian influences on Muhammad's inspiration, it seems to be a logical next step to listen to several major Jewish historians who have discussed the Jewish presence in Arabia. ",
"Our exposition of their views will be followed by a review of Richard Bell's well-known study, _The Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment_.",
"\n\n**Jewish Historians on the Jews of Arabia**\n\nHeinrich Graetz, the father of Jewish history, views it as historically plausible that Jewish fugitives had escaped to Arabia as early as the time of the destruction of the First Temple by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BCE. ",
"It is a historical fact, however, that the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE prompted a Jewish group to establish itself in northern Arabia.",
"From these fugitives there emerged three Jewish tribes, the B. Nadir, the B. Qurayza and the B. Bahdal, the first two of which were apparently descended from Aaron and therefore called themselves _kohanim_ (AlKahinani), that is, priests. ",
"Another Jewish clan, the B. Qaynuqa, also settled in northern Arabia. ",
"All of these groups settled in Yathrib, situated in a fruitful area where they cultivated palm trees and practiced diverse forms of agriculture. ",
"As the fierce Bedouin tribes often attacked the settlements of the Jews, they built themselves strongholds on the elevated places in the city and the surrounding country, where they sought to protect themselves and preserve their autonomy. ",
"Originally, they were the dominant group in the district, but in about the year 300, they were forced to share power with two Arab tribes, the Aws and the Khazraj, that had settled in the vicinity. ",
"These Arab newcomers to the area sometimes stood in friendly relations, and at other times in hostile relations with the Jews.",
"\n\nNorth of Yathrib was the district of Khaybar, entirely inhabited by Jews who, following the destruction of the First Temple, are said to have wandered from Judea as far as Khaybar, attracted by its abundance of palms and grain. ",
"The Jews of Khaybar who were also periodically menaced by the Bedouin, constructed a line of fortified castles on a rocky formation difficult of access. ",
"Wadi-al-Qura (the valley of villages), a fertile plain a day's journey from Khaybar, was also inhabited exclusively by Jews.",
"\n\nGraetz now addresses the phenomenon touched upon earlier, the saliently Arabic character of these Jews of northern Arabia. ",
"Their language was closely related to Arabic, and their customs, except those of their religion, were not substantially different from those of the sons of Arabia. ",
"The primary difference between the Jews and the Bedouin, apart from religion, was that the Jews led a sedentary existence, practicing agriculture and cattle-breeding. ",
"Graetz calls attention to another important aspect of the Jews' relations with the Bedouin tribes. ",
"A Jewish group, out of security and political considerations, would ally itself with an Arab tribe, and thereby find itself in opposition to its co-religionists who had entered into a different alliance. ",
"This meant that there was no unwavering solidarity among the Jewish groups, a condition, as we shall see, that led to fatal consequences for them.",
"\n\nThe Jews shared with the Bedouin Arabs the virtues of manliness, courage, and poetry, speaking with elegance the Arabic language, and adorning their poetry with sonorous rhymes. ",
"Graetz points out that whereas few northern Arabs before the seventh century were familiar with the art of writing, it was universally understood and practiced by the Jews who, reportedly, made use of the square, or so-called Assyrian characters. ",
"As the few Arabs who succeeded in learning to write generally employed the Hebrew characters, it would appear that they first acquired the art of writing from the Jews. ",
"Virtually every Jew in Arabia was able to read the scriptures, which probably is the reason the Arabs referred to the Jews as the \"nation of writing\" ( _Ahl ul Kitab_ ).",
"\n\nGraetz, now addressing the nature of the Judaism of the Jews of the Hijaz, states that they had absorbed the chief tenets of the religion, which had been transmitted by the Tannaim, the earliest teachers of the rabbinic faith, and also by the Amoraim, the post-Mishnaic teachers. ",
"Supporting this view is the evidence that these Jews strictly observed the dietary laws, the festivals and the fast of Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), which they called _Ashura_. ",
"They honored the Sabbath with such rigor that their sword remained in its scabbard on that day. ",
"In addition, they daily awaited the coming of the Messiah, a fact, as we shall see, that led to Muhammad's invitation to Yathrib-Medina. ",
"The Jews of the Hijaz faced Jerusalem in prayer and also appear to have been in communication with the Jews of Palestine, and willingly subordinated themselves to the religious authorities in Tiberius from whom they received religious instruction and interpretation of the Bible. ",
"Graetz avers that the Arabian Jews might even have been in touch with the Babylonian academics. ",
"Yathrib itself was no backwater where Jewish learning was concerned; it possessed rabbis, or teachers of the Law, a fact also mentioned in the Muslim tradition. ",
"Graetz does say, however, that the direct knowledge of the Bible that these Arabian Jews possessed was not considerable. ",
"They were acquainted with it primarily through the medium of Aggadic exegesis, and for them the history of the past fused so completely with the Aggadic additions, that they seldom made the distinction.",
"\n\nGiven the relative freedom and autonomy of the Jews of the pre-Islamic Hijaz, they practiced their religion without fear and, doubtless, communicated the articles of their faith to their pagan neighbors. ",
"The Arab mind was open to intellectual promptings, says Graetz, and was delighted with the subject matter and narratives of the Bible. ",
"Hence, the Jewish religious ideas, by degree, became familiar and current in Arabia. ",
"Moreover,\n\nthe Arabian Jews made their neighbors acquainted with a calendar-system, without which the latter were completely at sea in the arrangements of their seasons; learned Jews from Yathrib taught the Arabs to insert another month in their lunar year, which was far in arrear of the solar year. ",
"The Arabs adopted the nineteen-years cycle of the Jews ( _c_. ",
"420 _CE_ ), and called the inter-calary month Nasi, doubtless from the circumstance that the Jews were accustomed to receive their calendar for the festivals from their Nasi (patriarch). (",
"III, 59–60)\n\nThe Jews even succeeded in instructing the Arabs with regard to their historical origin, by teaching them their genealogy from the Pentateuch, thus proving their kinship with them as William Muir, we recall, had also argued. ",
"It was under Jewish instruction that the Arabs of the Hijaz came to derive their origin from Ishmael, and they readily accorded the Jews recognition of a common descent from Abraham. ",
"From this it followed that significant numbers of Arabs gained an affection for Judaism, embracing it through conversion. ",
"The tribal and clan structure of the Arabs meant that when a chieftain became a Jew, his whole clan at once followed. ",
"It is explicitly recorded about several Arabian tribes that they were converted to Judaism. ",
"Graetz mentions as examples the B. Qinana, a clan related to the Quraysh, and several other families or clans of the Aws and Khazraj tribes of Yathrib (vol. ",
"III, 61).",
"\n\nGraetz now proceeds to relate the events that enabled the Aws and the Khazraj to achieve dominance in Yathrib. ",
"In the early part of the sixth century, the Jewish religion had made so many converts in southern Arabia, notably in Yemen, that the last Himyarite King, dhu-Nuwas, became a Jew. ",
"Rivalry between the south Arabian converts to the two newly introduced monotheistic religions led to active hostility. ",
"Apparently dhu-Nuwas, representing a nationalistic spirit, associated the native Christians with the hated rule of the Christian Abyssinians; and to him is ascribed a massacre of the Christians of Najran in October, 523 CE. ",
"According to Arabic tradition, Daws dhu-Thalaban survived and implored the Emperor Justin I for aid, the emperor at the time being regarded as the protector of Christians everywhere. ",
"He wrote to the Negus of Abyssinia, the Christian power nearest the scene of the trouble. ",
"The Negus is said to have sent 70,000 men across the Red Sea to Arabia. ",
"This campaign therefore falls within the network of the international politics of that age. ",
"Byzantium was seeking through Abyssinia to bring the Arabian tribes under her influence and use them against Persia. ",
"The Abyssinians were victorious in 523 and again in 525. ",
"The commander on the latter occasion was Abrahah (variant of Abraham). ",
"According to the Muslim historian, Tabari, dhu-Nuwas was defeated in battle and, setting spurs to his steed, plunged into the waves of the sea and was never seen again.",
"\n\nThe Christian Abyssinian rulers were intent upon colonizing the land and creating a rival to pagan Mecca, the center of pilgrimage in the north that was a source of considerable income to the Quraysh. ",
"The Abyssinian overlords were successful in establishing a southern, religious shrine that drew large numbers to the detriment of the Hijaz sanctuary. ",
"The memory of this economic–religious rivalry has been preserved in the local tradition in which two Arabian pagans, attached to the cult of the Kaaba, polluted a cathedral on the eve of a festival, provoking Abrahah to launch a punitive expedition against Mecca. ",
"This event is said to have occurred in the year of the birth of the Prophet, 570 or 571, a year called the year of the elephant, after the elephant that accompanied Abrahah on his northward campaign and which greatly impressed the Arabs of the Hijaz, who had never seen elephants before. ",
"According to tradition, Abrahah's army was destroyed by a smallpox epidemic.",
"\n\nThe earlier victory of the Abyssinians over dhu-Nuwas meant that plundering and killing raged in Himyara. ",
"The Abyssinians were so enraged at the Jews of Himyara that they massacred thousands in revenge for the Christian martyrs of Najran. ",
"Thus ended the short-lived, Jewish kingdom of Himyara.",
"\n\nThe foregoing background is necessary for an understanding of how and why the Jews of Yathrib fell into strife with the neighboring Arab tribes. ",
"The Jews of Yathrib, owing to the close relationship they had had with the King of Himyara, whose power had extended over the province, ruled the Arab tribes with a Jewish chief as governor. ",
"The Aws and the Khazraj envied and hated the privileged position of the Jews, and seized the opportunity to rebel when the Jews could no longer rely on assistance from Himyara. ",
"An Arabian chief of the Ghassanids named Harith, attached to the Byzantine court, was commissioned to lead his troops toward Yathrib. ",
"But in order to avoid alerting the Jews to his mission, Harith gave out that he was heading to Himyara, and merely encamping near Yathrib, where he invited the Jewish chiefs to visit him. ",
"Many accepted the invitation, expecting to be welcomed with a prince's usual generosity. ",
"But as they entered the tent of the Ghassanid prince, they were murdered, one by one. ",
"Thereupon, Harith announced to the Arabs of Yathrib, that he had liberated them from their enemies' chiefs, and that now they should be able to deal effectively with the rest. ",
"But the Arabs of Yathrib, to avoid an open engagement with the Jews, also resorted to a stratagem. ",
"They invited the other Jewish chiefs to a banquet where all of them were murdered. ",
"Now leaderless, the Yathrib Jews were overrun and forced to give up their strongholds ( _c_. ",
"530–5 CE). ",
"In an effort to adapt themselves to the new insecurity of their lives, the Jews gradually placed themselves under the protection of one or another of the Arab tribes and thus became clients or dependents ( _mawali_ ) of either the Aws or the Khazraj, who, themselves were at each other's throats, vying for hegemony in the area.",
"\n\nTowards the end of the sixth century the Yathrib Jews had nearly recovered from the blows dealt them by their Arab neighbors. ",
"The Aws and the Khazraj had exhausted themselves in bloody feuds which had lasted twenty years, thus giving the Jews respite in which they could regain some of their previous importance in Yathrib society. ",
"Their sense of insecurity, however, was still there, owing not only to the memory of their recent history, but also to their awareness of the fact that they had earlier taken sides in the Aws-Khazraj conflict and were, therefore, divided against themselves. ",
"This situation naturally heightened their yearning for the coming of the Messiah, an article of faith with which their Arab neighbors had become familiar. ",
"This was the state of affairs in Yathrib-Medina when the Prophet of Mecca received an invitation to immigrate to Medina. ",
"Those who invited him, thinking that perhaps the Meccan Prophet was the Messianic figure whom the Jews awaited, hastened to win him over in the hope that he would successfully mediate between the Aws and the Khazraj and put an end to their bloody confrontations.",
"\n\nSimon Dubnov, the other \"father\" of Jewish history, providing pretty much the same historical analysis, is in essential agreement with Graetz. ",
"Salo W. Baron, who may be regarded as one of the leading Jewish historians of the twentieth century, also goes over some of the same ground covered by the pioneers Graetz and Dubnov, but provides more details about Jewish–Arab relations in the pre-Islamic Hijaz.",
"\n\n**Baron on Pre-Islamic, Arab–Jewish Relations in Arabia**\n\nBasing himself on more recent investigations than those relied on by Graetz and Dubnov, Baron avers that up to the sixth century, Jewish tribes tended to dominate social and economic life in Yathrib-Medina. ",
"The later Arabic literature mentions about twenty Jewish tribes, but those that stand out as being the most prominent are the B. Nadir, B. Qurayza, and B. Qaynuqa, who between them occupied at one time 59 strongholds and practically the entire fertile area. ",
"This means in Ibn Khaldun's terms, that the Jews of the Hijaz represented the \"sown,\" the sedentary, agricultural societies of the area, a fact the significance of which becomes central in a later analysis of their fate under Muhammad.",
"\n\nBaron regards it as most likely that it was the Jewish settlers who had changed the city's ancient Egyptian name, Yathrib (Athribis), also recorded in Greek sources, to the Hebrew–Aramaic \"Medina,\" meaning city. ",
"The Jewish settlement of Khaybar, about sixty miles north of Medina, took its name from the Hebrew word _heber_ , meaning \"association\" or \"league\" of communities. ",
"Other settlements verifiable as Jewish or predominantly Jewish, were Dedan, Al-Hijr, Teima, Ablaq, central Arabian Yamama, Taif, and perhaps even Mecca. ",
"Baron cites Werner Caskel who described the Jews as the primary representatives of Nabatean culture in the Hijaz after 300 CE \"These were the beginnings,\" wrote Caskel, \"of the Jewish population, which later occupied all the oases in the northwest including Medina\" (Baron, vol. ",
"III, 65).",
"\n\nThese were flourishing settlements which – as particular cases confirming Ibn Khaldun's general sociological theory – attracted irresistibly the Bedouins from all over the Peninsula. ",
"The Bedouins not only regarded these agriculturally prosperous oases as fit objects for raids, but also – for some at least – enviable sources of economic security. ",
"Gradually, several Arab tribes drifted into Medina, and by the sixth century, prevailed over the settled Jewish communities. ",
"Baron, like Graetz, views these Jews as descended from Arab proselytes. ",
"He cites a Muslim source stating that the new Arab arrivals \"... were prevented by the Jews from entering their fort as long as they professed another religion, and only when they embraced Judaism were they admitted.\"",
"\n\nSo Baron views the Jews of northern Arabia as cultivating their particular blend of Arab–Jewish culture. ",
"In Ibn Khaldun's terms, again, it was these Jews of the northern Hijaz who also fostered advances in the technical and economic aspects of the oases. ",
"The Jews of Yathrib, Khaybar, and Teima appear to have pioneered in introducing advanced methods of irrigation and cultivation of the soil. ",
"They also developed new arts and crafts, ranging from metal work to dyeing and the making of fine jewelry; in economic relations, they also taught the neighboring tribes more effective methods of exchanging goods and money. ",
"Most of the agricultural terms and names of tools recorded in pre-Islamic poetry or the Quran are Aramaic, the spoken language of the Jews and, indeed, the lingua franca of the region; and the Arabic traditions themselves attribute to the Jews the introduction of the honey-bee and many new fruits, including the date. ",
"The palm tree, the long glorified symbol of Judaism, now became the object of adulation in Arabic poetry as well. ",
"A Jewish woman, as we learned earlier, was reported to have brought the first vine to Taif near Mecca.",
"\n\nEven more interesting is the fact that by their irrigation system, the observance of their dietary laws, and especially by building their strongholds on hills rather than in the fever-infested valleys, the Jews pioneered in resisting the deadly, contagious diseases of the area. ",
"These Jewish farmers and craftsmen had long recognized not only the \"war of each against all\" raging among the Bedouin tribes themselves; they also recognized what Ibn Khaldun later proposed, that the Bedouin conditions of economic life were such, that it was second nature for them to raid the settled communities for plunder. ",
"This explains the strongholds on hills which the Jews built to stave off raids, and to introduce refinements in the amenities of life, which certainly appeared to the Bedouins as an enviably luxurious way of life. ",
"So although Baron would not go the whole length of Sidney Smith's assertion, that there were thriving cities in northern Arabia, he would say that \"... during the few generations of Jewish control, the focal northern areas were raised almost to the high level of the southern [Arabian] civilization, which had long earned for Himyara and its vicinity the Roman designation of _Arabia Felix_ [Arabia, the fruitful, happy and fortunate]\" (vol. ",
"III, 71).",
"\n\nThese Jews were also cultural pioneers in the region, for they were a \"people of the Book,\" as Muhammad later called them and the Christians; it was these Jews who communicated to their Arab neighbors the chief elements of their religious and ethical outlook. ",
"The Arabs, captivated as they were by excellence in poetry, by the narrative content of a good poem, and by effective story telling, used to gather in Jewish and Christian inns, and, while sipping a glass of wine, would listen with rapt attention to the recitation of the exploits of biblical heroes. ",
"Baron agrees that the stories were naturally adorned with the embroideries of post-biblical Aggadah (legend). ",
"In the minds of the Arab audience and, most likely, of the Jewish listeners as well, the biblical and legendary elements soon became indistinguishable ingredients of a new cultural entity. ",
"In that way, the Jewish settlers introduced to the Bedouins the rudiments of the Hebrew Bible and the monotheistic idea.",
"\n\nBaron recognizes, of course, that besides the Jews there were Christians in the vicinity and also Judeo-Christian sectarians of several kinds. ",
"He also notes that these Jews had direct intellectual contacts with the centers of Jewish life in Babylonia and Palestine, though the contacts do appear to be few in number. ",
"The several distinguished poets among them seem to have been more Arabian than Jewish, judging from a total of some 200 stanzas that have come down to us.",
"\n\nD. S. Margoliouth is apparently alone, among the Jewish historians, in looking most searchingly at these Jewish tribes. ",
"In his review of the Mishna, the Talmud, and later rabbinic writings, he sees no record of the existence of either Jewish colonies in the Hijaz or of a Jewish kingdom in south Arabia. ",
"And in his review of the available epigraphic evidence in which the name Yathrib appears, it seems to have been a pagan, not a Jewish settlement at some time BCE. ",
"On the other hand, the Muslim _tradition_ seems definitely to have known of Jews who inhabited Medina in the Prophet's time; and that tradition has preserved the names of the three Jewish tribes with which we have become familiar: the B. Nadir, the B. Qurayza and the B. Qaynuqa. ",
"The Quran states that these Jews possessed copies of the Law, had rabbis, and observed the Sabbath and the food taboos. ",
"For Margoliouth, however, as noted earlier, there is still a puzzling and perplexing problem, since neither the tribes nor the individuals showed any signs of typically Jewish respect for the Hebrew Bible by naming their children after outstanding biblical personalities, or the patriarchs or the prophets. ",
"And when we hear of conversational encounters between Muhammad and the Jews, their names are either identical with those common among the Arabs, or, if they are unusual, have nothing Jewish about them. ",
"After such considerations, Margoliouth concludes that the Jews of Medina were most probably Arabs who had embraced Judaism (61).",
"\n\nMargoliouth now addresses the _hanif_ phenomenon. ",
"He agrees that there may have existed a form of Arabic monotheism or quasi-monotheism, such as that which Muhammad's biographers report, and which certain inscriptions suggest. ",
"Margoliouth cites the well-known inscription made up of two broken stones described by Glaser and afterwards by Winckler that, however, does not quite settle the matter for Margoliouth. ",
"His reason is that its phraseology is very different from Hebrew or Jewish usage. ",
"The _Rahman_ is there styled as the _Rahman_ who is in heaven and Israel and their god, lord of Yahud (i.e., the Jews). ",
"Moreover, Glaser later admitted the possibility that he may not have copied the inscription accurately, and this admission seriously vitiates the evidence. ",
"For Margoliouth, therefore, the inscription may be trusted as far as _Rahman_ , but no further. ",
"Margoliouth also cites a British museum inscription exhibiting the name _Rahman_ for the deity, which evidently contains doctrines approximating Muhammad's early conception of monotheism including the \"association\" of lesser deities with the high god. ",
"So Margoliouth offers this proposition:\n\nWas Muhammad's theology not, as the Quran so emphatically represents it, a fresh start in Arabia traceable, as the tradition suggests, to contact of the Prophet with Jews and Christians on his travels, or at Mecca, but merely the introduction into North Arabia of a system which had possibly for some centuries been, if not actually dominant, yet at least current in the South? ",
"Was the Judaism even of the King dhu Nuwas monotheism of this type, roughly identified with Judaism by those whose acquaintance with both systems was superficial, just as Muhammad's doctrine was at an early period called Sabiism owing to its resembling that cult in certain ceremonies? (",
"68)\n\nIn those terms, \"The Quranic technicality _shirk_ , association of other deities with Allah, whose source had previously eluded us, is here traced to its home\" (Ibid.).",
"\n\nMargoliouth is therefore inclined to regard the term Judaism as applied to the Medinan Jewish tribes as indicating some form of monotheism, which, for the want of a better term, should be called Rahmanism, \"... such as is found in the southern part of the Peninsula, which may indeed have taken its leading ideas from Judaism, but was by no means identical therewith\" (71). ",
"But does this mean, for Margoliouth, that Judaism itself had no influence on the formation of Muhammad's doctrine? \"",
"Judaism,\" Margoliouth writes:\n\ncannot indeed be removed from the doctrines of Muhammad himself, since the Quran consists largely of material taken from either the Old Testament or the Jewish oral traditions;... (71)\n\nMargoliouth, having thus challenged the nature of the religion professed by the Jewish tribes of Medina, nevertheless concludes his analysis with this statement:\n\nThe origin of Islam from Judaism is far more than a hypothesis; for even if we regard Christianity as a coalescence of Judaism and Hellenism, and suppose the first to have influenced the beginnings of Islam, the Hellenic elements, which percolated were so few as to be negligible. ",
"If we regard Islam as based on the Sabianism of Harran, that, too, appears to have been an Abrahamic system, and not far removed from Judaism; and even the monotheism of South Arabia, of which we as yet know so little, cannot well have been unconnected with the religion of the Israelites... (82)\n6\n\nThe Jews of Arabia: A Recent Re-Examination\n\nIn one of the most recent re-examinations of the issues concerning the Jews of the Hijaz, Gordon Newby's summary of research findings tends to confirm the analyses we have reviewed by the major Jewish historians. ",
"At the time of the birth of Muhammad in 570 CE, the Jewish communities were in a state of decline, economically and politically, while the Arab tribes around Mecca had become dominant. ",
"Arabs replaced Jews in the profitable and powerful posts as tax collectors for the Persian Empire, and Jews everywhere in the Hijaz were losing control over the best land and water. ",
"Yet throughout Arabia, and in the Hijaz in particular, Judaism was a vigorous and flourishing Diaspora culture. ",
"Jews played significant roles in all areas of Arab society, as merchants, farmers, poets, and warriors, and even as Bedouin. ",
"Jews lived not only in castles, as we learned earlier, but in tents as well. ",
"They spoke Arabic as well as Hebrew and Aramaic, and they communicated with the chief Jewish religious centers in Babylonia and Palestine. ",
"And, of course, like other Diaspora communities, they had developed their own distinctive beliefs and practices, including a serious interest in Jewish mystical traditions and in eschatological visions.",
"\n\nThe evidence Newby reviewed confirms the proposition that the Jews had migrated to Arabia in Roman times, where they continued to practice agriculture, but also served as merchants, craftsmen, and scholars. ",
"The same pattern is evident in the Hijaz where Jews became fully integrated into the economic life of the Peninsula. ",
"Living in towns _and_ villages, they worked as sailors, scribes, warriors, sculptors, farmers, and wine merchants. ",
"Newby addresses the relevant question of whether tribes in pre-Islamic and early Islamic Arabia were as cohesive as some early scholars had supposed. ",
"He cites recent studies showing that, as a rule, tribal subgroups operated as independent units, often at odds with the other subgroups of the tribe. ",
"He notes that Arab historical writings concerning the pre-Islamic era have tried to portray tribes as if they were the product of descent from a single ancestor. ",
"This fictional emphasis on common descent masked the fact that tribes were often formed by the association of individuals and groups with common interests and geography. ",
"Though some Western scholars have recognized that fact, others have accepted the fictional account which, in the case of the Jews, has led to the mistaken view that they could not have been Bedouin because they were not Arab.",
"\n\nPursuing this issue, Newby turns to Yathrib/Medina that yields the greatest amount of information about Jewish social groupings, information with which we are now familiar. ",
"The city was a definite unit with a population divided into Arab and Jewish factions. ",
"The Arab tribes were the Aus and the Khazraj, while the three tribes most scholars regard as Jewish were the B. Qurayza, the B. Nadir, and the B. Quaynuqa. ",
"Newby cites Michael Lecker's groundbreaking study showing, among other things, that the process of expelling Jews from their lands had predated the Hijra (when Muhammad moved from Mecca to Medina), and that this was accomplished by relatively small groups moving into positions of advantage. ",
"Common to such groups was their struggle for power regardless of their tribal affiliations. ",
"Medina and other such urban centers in the northern part of Arabia were amalgamations of villages, strongholds, castles, and other types of dwellings. ",
"Some individuals and groups came together out of mutual interest and protection, as did the reported 300 goldsmiths living in Zuhra, not all of whom were Jewish; and some prominent families had their fortified castles in the heart of Medina. ",
"Wadi alQurra, the Valley of Villages, exhibits a similar settlement pattern in which groups, not necessarily of the same ethnic background, merged into a larger urban unit. ",
"The pattern of urban settlement, at least to a certain extent, appears to have cut across ethnic affiliations. ",
"Newby reminds us that this phenomenon is quite relevant to the conflict between Muhammad and the Jews of Medina, where \"the 'fiction' of tribal identifications obscures the real complexity of Medinese life\" (52). ",
"Newby is referring here to what we learned earlier about the Jewish clans, subgroups, and tribes who were divided against themselves, some siding with the Aus, others with the Khazraj.",
"\n\nAnother important finding to which Newby alerts us is that social groups in urban centers of Arabia were not isolated from the rural areas. ",
"One must not regard \"rural\"–\"urban\" as a rigid dichotomy, for there was a steady commercial interaction between the settled and the nomadic population, with some of the pastoralists settling in the towns and gradually assimilating urban culture. ",
"In one case, at least, such assimilation meant becoming Jewish. ",
"The B. Hishna b. Ukarima b. Awf asked to settle in Tayma. ",
"The town was dominated by a strong Jewish population insisting that the Arabs adopt Judaism before settling, and they are reported to have agreed, and later moved to Medina.",
"\n\nNewby also observes – as we learned earlier from other sources – that some of the Aus and Khazraj converted to Judaism or were converted by their mothers who \"used to make a vow that if their child lived they would make it a Jew ( _tahawwadathu_ ), since they considered the Jews to be people of knowledge and the book ( _ilmin wa-kitabin_ ).\" ",
"This resulted in a large number of Jewish clans in Medina, and meant that being Jewish did not necessarily imply affiliation with a particular clan or tribe.",
"\n\nThis brings us to the question raised earlier in our discussion of Margoliouth's view. ",
"Newby addresses the question of whether and to what extent the conversions were made on \"religious\" or on \"social\" or \"economic\" grounds. ",
"The question that has often been asked, is whether the Arabian Jews were \"really Jewish.\" ",
"Newby replies cogently:\n\nFrom the evidence that the tribes and individuals retained their Judaism after conversion, in the instance cited above, after they had moved from Tayma to Medina, and by the fact that the converts were regarded as Jews by other Jews and non-Jews in the Hijaz, we have to assume that they were indeed \"real\" Jews as Judaism was understood in that context. ",
"From another perspective, we see that the process of conversion to Judaism in Arabia in the pre-Islamic period is paralleled by the patterns of conversion to Islam during Muhammad's lifetime. ",
"Whole tribes became Muslim in connection with political and military submission to Muhammad and, apparently, in proportion to his increasing strength and influence. ",
"While it has been argued in the Muslim case also that the conversions were not as \"sincere\" as individual conversions, particularly in light of the apparent apostasies after the death of Muhammad, such an argument seems to derive from a Western overemphasis on the centrality of individual autonomy coupled with Muslim revisions of the history of that same period. ",
"What group conversions do underscore is the social and economic aspects of converting from one religious group to another without denying the spiritual and aesthetic qualities. (",
"53)\n\nIn pre-Islamic Arabia, conversion to Judaism as well as conversion to Monophysite or Nestorian Christianity, meant a radical break with the old social and spiritual order and the adoption of a new political and social matrix. ",
"When, for example, Muhammad turned his back on his ancestral religion, the Quraysh called it _Saba_ , implying not only a departure from the old but also the creation of an active antagonism between the old and the new. ",
"Newby gives the additional example of Dhu Nuwas who, when he acceded to the throne, was joined by all of Himyar in his Judaism, which represented political opposition to the Ethiopian forces. ",
"For Newby, then, the conversion of large groups to Judaism indicates that Judaism was the dominant social force in Arabia in the fifth and sixth centuries.",
"\n\nNewby's review of the evidence tends also to confirm the view that, whatever the origin of the Arabian Jews, they expressed their interest in correct Jewish practice. ",
"They remained in touch with the Babylonian rabbis, consulting them on issues of attire and kosher food. ",
"Jewish women and, perhaps men too, wore veils outside to protect themselves from the windblown sand, a custom borrowed from the Arabs and allowed by the rabbis. ",
"The nomadic existence of some of the Jewish groups dwelling in tents meant that they had to be exempted from some of the requirements incumbent on those residing in fixed abodes. ",
"Especially interesting in this regard is the fact that some Jewish groups were pastoral nomads around the time of the rise of Islam, and that there were Jewish Bedouin in the Hijaz as late as the sixteenth century CE. ",
"But the Jews we hear about in the historical and literary texts possessed a political and economic importance for those who wrote about the rise of Islam. ",
"This means that the Jews we learn most about are urban, literate, and influential, many of whom opposed Muhammad and emerging Islam. ",
"However, we know of several Jewish literary figures who distinguished themselves as outstanding poets in the Arabic language, reflecting the values and pastoral ideals of the pre-Islamic Bedouin, as a noble desert wanderer. ",
"The best known of such pre-Islamic Jewish poets is Samawal b. Adiya, who lived in the sixth century CE in a castle, in the Jewish city of Tayma. ",
"His father was a _cohen_ ,a descendant of the priests and a member of a powerful Jewish group in Arabia. ",
"Samawal is remembered for his loyalty to Amru al-Qays, who had deposited his family's heirloom armaments with him while on a trip to the Byzantine emperor. ",
"According to Arab legend, Amru al-Qays was poisoned by the emperor's agents while returning to Arabia, thus leaving the armaments in the possession of Samawal and Amru al-Qays' daughter, Hind. ",
"According to some sources, Samawal's mother was from the Ghassanids, the Arab tribe that served as a client of the Byzantines, protecting the settled communities from the incursions of the Bedouin Arabs. ",
"The implacable enemy of the Ghassanids and of Amru al-Qays, the Lakhmid King of Hira, sent al-Harith b. Zalim to Samawal's castle demanding that he turn over the armor and Hind to him. ",
"Samawal refused, even after al-Harith had somehow captured Samawal's son, and carried out his threat to kill him before his father's eyes. ",
"Thus Samawal's name became immortalized among the Arabs for the fidelity and honor he had demonstrated, even in the face of great personal tragedy. ",
"The fact that there is nothing particularly Jewish about this poem, and that it runs counter to paramount Jewish ideals of preserving life, has led some scholars to question the reliability of such poems and even the existence of as-Samawal, although most scholars accept the genuineness of most of the corpus of pre-Islamic poetry.",
"\n\nIt is from the Islamic texts and especially the Quran, preserving, as they do, the controversies between Muhammad and the Jews, that we learn much about the beliefs of the Jews of the Hijaz. ",
"Newby singles out two terms that seem to designate a specific community of beliefs and practices. ",
"The terms are _rabbaniyyun_ and _ahbar_ , the first of which occurs three times in the Quran: 3: 79; 5: 44; 5: 63; while the second occurs four times: 5: 44; 5: 63; 9: 31; and 9: 34. ",
"Muslim commentators are in agreement that _rabbaniyyun_ refers to the rabbis among the Jews. ",
"As for the term _ahbar_ , too little is understood about it to warrant comment. ",
"However, from the Quranic evidence and that of the _Hadiths_ or traditions, we would expect the existence of a rabbinic body in Arabia and in the Hijaz in particular, with whom Muhammad had contact. ",
"Newby, relying on David Halperin and Steven Wasserstrom, provides a discussion too detailed to summarize adequately, illuminating the nature of Arabian–Jewish eschatological speculation. ",
"It is highly likely that at least one important element of Arabian–Jewish thought was a concern with Apocalypticism. ",
"But this was hardly unique, since Apocalypticism and Messianism had become a major part of the thinking of Jews in both Palestine and the Diaspora in the years of Roman domination of the eastern Mediterranean. ",
"It was not only the destruction of the Second Temple, but also tragedies like the virtual elimination of the large Egyptian Jewish communities during the Egyptian revolt (114–17 CE), that persuaded many that the Messianic age was near and deliverance would soon come. ",
"Hence, it is quite understandable why Jews are represented in Islamic texts as predicting the imminence of a prophet or a messiah.",
"\n\nNewby also reminds us that by Muhammad's time not only were eschatological expectations at a high pitch, but so also were Jewish forms of mysticism, several features of which David Halperin identifies with Jewish _merkabah_ mysticism. ",
"Gersham Scholem, in his famous study, _Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism_ ,averred that \"we know that in the period of the Second Temple an esoteric doctrine was already taught in Pharisaic circles. ",
"The first chapter of Genesis, the story of Creation ( _Maaseh Bereshith_ ), and the first chapter of Ezekiel, the vision of God's throne-chariot (the _Merkabah_ ), were the favorite subjects of discussion and interpretation which it was apparently considered inadvisable to make public.\" ",
"As Newby explains, the presence of this form of mysticism in the Jewish communities of Arabia helps us grasp some of the accusations leveled against Jews in Islamic texts. ",
"In the pseudepighaphic Jewish literature, Enoch, of the generation of the Flood, was taken up to heaven so as not to be destroyed, as a sign of God's mercy that one pious man would be saved. ",
"When elevated into heaven he was transformed into the powerful angel, Metatron, who was taught by God all the secrets, and given guardianship over the treasures of God and who indeed, became a lesser god of sorts (3 Enoch 48c, verses 1–4).",
"\n\nNewby then turns our attention to early Muslim sources relating that a Jewish boy, Ibn Sayyad, who lived at the time of Muhammad, claimed to be the Apostle of God. ",
"In an early tradition, Muhammad said to him, \"Do you bear witness that I am the Apostle of God?\" ",
"to which Ibn Sayyad replied, \"Do you bear witness that I am the Apostle of God?\" ",
"In some versions, Muhammad does not reply and in others he is noncommittal. ",
"In one variant, Ibn Sayyad admits that Muhammad is an Apostle to the Gentiles, while in others his answers to Muhammad's question indicate that he possesses the right knowledge to substantiate his claim to apostleship. \"",
"Included in that knowledge,\" writes Newby, \"is information gathered from the practice of mystical contemplation in which Ibn Sayyad saw the throne of God in the middle of water surrounded by the _hayyot_ , the Living Creatures of the book of Ezekiel who are identified as bearers of God's throne. ",
"Ibn Sayyad's vision was induced by wrapping himself with a cloak and murmuring incantations in Hebrew...\" (Newby, 62). ",
"In this mystical tradition, the mystic returned as a messenger from the heavenly realm to relate his experiences as a cautionary warning to his fellow Jews. ",
"What Newby next has to say is quite important for an understanding of the circumstances that made it possible for Muhammad to receive an invitation to Medina, and to serve in the role of judge, umpire, magistrate, arbitrator, and prophet. \"",
"From the Arabian Jewish perspective,\" writes Newby,\n\nMuhammad fitted the pattern of the Jewish mystic. ",
"He wrapped himself in a mantle, recited mantic prose, brought a message from the heavenly realms, and toured heaven himself. ",
"Interestingly, Ibn Sayyad practiced his mystical exercises in a palm-grove where Muhammad spied on him. ",
"This feature of _merkabah_ mystic practice seems to be alluded to in the story of al-Walid b. al-Mughira's characterization of Muhammad's speech as sweet and his \"source\" a palm tree whose branches are fruitful. ",
"These traditions seem to imply that Muhammad was perceived by some of his contemporaries as fitting in with the Jewish mystical practice represented by Ibn Sayyad. ",
"Later Muslims transformed Ibn Sayyad into the anti-Messiah, while interpreting Muhammad's role as quasi-messianic. ",
"These traditions still, however, preserve Muhammad and Ibn Sayyad as reflexes of one another. (",
"63)\n\nClearly, the circulation of Jewish materials for use as the basis of Quran commentary was present in Muhammad's lifetime. ",
"Muhammad, Abu Bakr, and Umar are reported to have made several trips to the Bet Midrash in Medina; and Muhammad's amanuensis, Zayd b. Thabit, who was quite central where Quranic materials were concerned, is reported to have gone so far, at Muhammad's request, as to learn _al-yahudiyyah_ in a Bet Midrash in order to read Jewish material.",
"\n\nTurning our attention again to the economic life of the Arabian Jews, although they followed a wide range of occupations, as we have seen, it was trade and agriculture that had first sustained the Jews when they came into Arabia, and those professions continued to sustain most of them right up to Islamic times. ",
"The city of Medina and most of the other Jewish communities in the Hijaz, were basically agricultural communities, unlike Mecca, which was based on religious pilgrimages and, perhaps, on trade, but to a much lesser extent, if we take Patricia Crone's research into account. ",
"The evidence Newby cites concerning agriculture confirms what we have learned from the early Western and Jewish scholars. ",
"The chief crop was dates, which required considerable knowledge, skill, and intensive effort to grow and maintain. ",
"The Jews had brought Nabataean techniques of artificial irrigation to the oases of Western Arabia, and they employed the techniques of manual pollination of the date flowers to ensure a good yield. ",
"Dates, as we have seen, were a major source of nourishment in the Arabian diet, and provided the fruit for a fermented drink. ",
"Wine made by Jews was regarded by most in pre-Islamic Arabia as the best available. ",
"In Medina, Tayma, and Khaybar the Jews were predominant in the date fields; and one of the sources of conflict between the Arab tribes of the B. Aus and the B. Khazraj of Medina and the Jews, was the control the Jews exercised over those fields. ",
"Newby agrees with the proposition that when Muhammad arrived in Medina, displacement of the Jews provided a source of revenue for the new community. ",
"However, the nonagricultural Muslims had a limited ability to derive benefit from an agricultural technology in which they were not trained. ",
"Such practical realities were the basis for Muhammad's treaty with the defeated Jews of Khaybar, in which he consented to their remaining on their lands in return for 50 percent of the yield.",
"\n\nNewby notes that the Jews played a similarly key role in the trade and markets of the Hijaz, which meant that market day for the week was Friday, the time before Shabbat, the Jewish Sabbath. ",
"This day, called _aruba_ in the old Arabic sources, was a time not only for making purchases before the holiday, but also for legal cases to be decided and for entertainment. ",
"This institution probably influenced the selection of Friday as Islam's day of congregational prayer. ",
"Hence, preaching, prayer, and the recitation of the Quran, which formed the core of the Muslim Friday congregational worship, grew out of the social practices associated with the Jewish market on the eve of the Sabbath. ",
"In this setting, judges for the legal disputes could be drawn from any group in the community. ",
"In Medina, Muhammad served as a judge, but his role was not merely to render wise decision, but also to mediate between the contending parties and to effect a settlement. ",
"Thus, Newby concludes, \"on the eve of the rise of Muhammad and Islam, political and economic circumstances had reduced the Jews of the Hijaz to a marginal role in the society. ",
"Their legacy remained, however, in the profound influence they had on the ideas of Muhammad and Islam\" (77).",
"\n7\n\nRichard Bell's Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment\n\nBell opens his classic study with the suggestion that the triumph of Islam in the seventh century CE, can best be understood as a victory over what he calls a \"degenerate Christianity,\" a Christianity plagued by sectarian conflict and the alliance of the Church with the State. ",
"This alliance was so tight that the bishops and other high dignitaries of the Church became, in effect, State officials. ",
"This was so much the case, that the acceptance of Christianity was regarded as acceptance of subservience to the Roman Empire of the East. ",
"This fact has definite significance for Bell, when trying to understand the social conditions of Arabia before and during the time of Muhammad. ",
"For it helps to explain the alacrity with which even Christian Arabs accepted an Arabian prophet. ",
"The Church–State alliance also played a part in forming Muhammad's conception of religion. ",
"For Christianity appeared to him to be not merely a religion, but a State as well, which might explain why, beginning in the Medinan period, Islam became political in the full sense: the pursuit of power and hegemony became an essential element of the Prophet's theory and practice.",
"\n\nFor Bell, then, the Church–State alliance of the Byzantine empire, which came to be perceived by the people as a highly oppressive, foreign institution, was one important reason for Christianity's loss of appeal. ",
"Another manifestation of Christianity's \"degeneration\" at the time was its having been torn by internal strife and schism. ",
"It was weak in moral and religious insight when called on to meet the challenge of Islam; dogma took the place of reflection where religious questions were concerned. ",
"As the power of the State was available to the worldly, ambitious, prideful prelates, they were only too ready to employ State power against doctrinal opponents. ",
"As a consequence of the doctrinal quarrels, the Eastern Church became irreparably divided, and the Christian Empire correspondingly vulnerable to dismemberment by Muhammad's warriors. ",
"The main result of the sectarian, metaphysical exercises was that when Islam arrived in Syria and Egypt fully armed, it found a Church divided by embittered feelings, thus making Christians more eager to defeat Christian \"heretics\" than to unite against a common foe. ",
"Moreover, there was wide and deep discontent among the indigenous peoples who resented the Church–State alliance, which sought to force them into the acceptance of a hated doctrine, and a hated, heavy tax, in addition.",
"\n\nBell, thus showing how Christianity had become a negative stimulus for the peoples of Syria and Egypt, proceeds to explore positive Christian influences on Islam. \"",
"Some things in the Quran and in Islam,\" he writes, \"which appear especially Jewish, may really have come through nominally Christian channels.\" ",
"Noteworthy, however, is what Bell has to say in the balance of this passage:\n\nBut even with that allowance there is no doubt about the large influence exercised by Judaism. ",
"There were Jews in Arabia long before Muhammad's time. ",
"In Medina they were numerous, and the fact that many of these Medinan Jews seem to have been proselytes rather than Jews by race [sic], shows that Judaism as a religion had some attraction for Arabs... We know that for some time after the Prophet and his followers emigrated to Medina, and even for some time before, he was in close and friendly relations with the Jews of that place.",
"\n\nIt is therefore not with any desire to deprecate the influence of Judaism that I intend to devote myself mainly to the question of the relation between Christianity and Islam. (",
"14)\n\nBell agrees with Harnack, that the absence of any pre-Islamic translations of the Bible into Arabic is strong proof that Christianity had not struck roots among the Arabs in early times. ",
"This is also borne out by the fact that even in a later period there is no evidence of a Christian church using Arabic in its services. ",
"The language of Christianity in the East was Aramaic (or Syriac). ",
"The influence of Christianity on Arabia, Bell sees as emanating principally from three centers: Syria in the northwest, Mesopotamia in the northeast, and Abyssinia in the west, the last of these exercising some of its influence across the Red Sea, but mainly by way of Yemen in the south, which was for a time ruled by an Abyssinian dynasty.",
"\n\nAny student of the Quran will easily recognize the presence in it of Jewish and Christian elements; but Bell recognizes that it is not at all easy to determine which came through Jewish channels, and which through Christian. ",
"Given this difficulty, it is important to appreciate that the Prophet had fused distinct elements into a new synthesis. ",
"We have to allow, says Bell,\n\nfor considerable originality in Muhammad, not the originality which produces something absolutely new, but the originality of a strong mind, working upon very imperfect information of outside things, yet finding expression for ideas and aspirations which were dimly present in other minds. ",
"He claimed to be an Arab Prophet, and he was. ",
"We shall see him consciously borrowing – he is quite frank about it. ",
"But to begin with, the materials which he uses, though they may remind us ever and again of Jewish and Christian phrases and ideas, are in reality Arab materials. ",
"They may have been originally derived from outside Arabia, but they had by Muhammad's time become part of the Arab mind... As regards Christianity, his own direct knowledge of it was to begin with... just such knowledge as we might expect in a caravan trader who had been to Syria and seen Christian churches, and perhaps Christian services. (",
"69)\n\nBell views Muhammad's project as having been a rational and practical one from the very start. ",
"His understanding, drawn from both Jewish and Christian sources, was that a prophet is sent to his own people. ",
"His central aim in Mecca is to persuade his fellow tribesmen to recognize the true God and to show thankfulness for His bounties. ",
"It is when that appeal is rejected that the Prophet warns of punishment on Judgment Day.",
"\n\nBell now proceeds to illustrate what he regards as Muhammad's syncretic reinterpretation of Jewish and/or Christian ideas. ",
"In some passages of the Quran, Muhammad employs the metaphor of embryo, describing its formation in the womb in some detail, which suggests that the process made a deep impression on his mind. ",
"This, for Bell, is an example of Muhammad's independence of direct biblical influence at the outset of his career. ",
"Bell cites Sura 96, generally regarded as one of the earliest Meccan Suras, where God is spoken of as the Creator of man. ",
"But the Quranic account differs from the biblical account of creation. ",
"In the Quran, God is said to have created man from _alaq_ , and when one compares other passages, it becomes clear that _alaq_ denotes the first stage in the formation of the embryo in the womb. ",
"Only at a later period, when Muhammad had become more familiar with some of the contents of the Hebrew Bible, the so-called Old Testament, did he refer to the creation of man from clay. ",
"After examining several other Quranic passages that have a biblical ring about them – especially those concerning the poor, the orphan and the prisoner – Bell argues that none of them is, apparently, so close to the Bible as to suggest direct borrowing. ",
"It is Bell's strong impression, then, that Muhammad, while growing up in Mecca, had personally felt the abuses, injustices, and cruelties that prevailed there. ",
"Muhammad's moral conscience, Bell argues, was no doubt formed by that Jewish and Christian atmosphere that had penetrated Arabia. ",
"The Quranic passages in question, reflecting his own experience of denigration by the wealthy and powerful of the Quraysh, are a repudiation of what they stood for; he had sought to win them over, found them not only unsympathetic but hostile, and turned away from them.",
"\n\nBell, referring to the early stage of Muhammad's career in Mecca, proposes that \"... the religion of the one God implied the possession of a Holy Scripture. ",
"Even if he had never been out of Mecca, Muhammad could not have been ignorant of the possession by Christians of a Book which was believed to have been directly revealed. ",
"For... that was common knowledge among the Arabs. ",
"What that Book contained was not so generally known and was certainly in my opinion not known to Muhammad. ",
"But the existence of the Book itself he must have known about\" (92). ",
"Bell's proposition regarding Muhammad's independence of thought, is not, however, a denial that there was a great deal of direct influence exerted upon him by Judaism and Christianity, and that much of the Quran is directly dependent upon the Bible and stories associated with it. ",
"Bell, therefore, tends to agree that the influence was of \"cardinal importance, but it was in the course of his mission rather than before it began that it was exerted\" (100).",
"\n\nEventually, Muhammad learned about material which admirably suited his aim of impressing upon the recalcitrant, hard-hearted Meccans the consequences of their unbelief, material that one may refer to generally as Apocalyptic – Judgment Day, the End of the World, the pains of Hell and the Joys of Heaven for the Believers. ",
"Where did he learn of these Apocalyptic concepts? ",
"This material, Bell writes, was, of course, originally Jewish\n\n... and it might have been cherished in Jewish circles in Arabia. ",
"The mainstream of Judaism, however, practically dropped Apocalyptic after the Fall of Jerusalem in the first century . It was by the Christian Church rather than by Judaism that the Apocalyptic books were preserved, and it was in popular rather than official Christianity that Apocalyptic was really alive – as it lives in popular Christianity to this day. ",
"Will it be far wrong to surmise that Muhammad got his information from some Christian (perhaps Abyssinian) slave in Mecca, and that he gave the material form in his qurans? (",
"109)\n\nBut Bell again emphasizes that although the origin of so much of the material in the Quran is undoubtedly Jewish, there is no evidence suggesting that his sources were texts. ",
"On the contrary, the best explanation would be that Muhammad had by now got in touch with Jews and is relating stories he had learned orally from them. ",
"It is a fact, after all, that much of the Jewish legendary material, such as is found in the Talmudic literature, is associated with Old Testament stories. ",
"Bell reminds us, however, that much of such legendary material was also current among Christians. ",
"Some of the names of the prophets mentioned in the Quran also suggest that they have come not directly from Scripture, but rather as mediated through Greek or Syriac before reaching Muhammad. ",
"Examples are: _Ilyas_ for Elijah, _Yunus_ for Jonah, even _Firaun_ for Pharaoh. ",
"Among his narratives of the signs of God, there are those that are connected not with the Old Testament or with Jews, but with Christianity. ",
"Examples are the stories of the Virgin Mary and the Birth of Jesus. ",
"These, however, like the materials of Jewish origin, are conveyed not as they are found in the New Testament, but more in the form in which they appear in Apocryphal Gospels (110). ",
"The image of the Prophet that emerges from this analysis, is \"... a brooding religious genius and man of great native mental power, but very limited knowledge, striving to find out what others more enlightened than his own Arab people knew, which might be of use to him in his own enterprise...\" (111).",
"\n\nAnother piece of evidence indicating that Muhammad most probably had no firsthand acquaintance with the Bible, and that he relied on stories related to him orally, is his inclusion in the Quran a version of the legend of the seven sleepers, references to the story of Alexander the Great, and the legend of Moses and al-Khidr, stories which were never associated with the Bible, but which were prevalent all over the East. ",
"Bell surmises that a chance informant might have told Muhammad these stories as somehow connected with that massive religion surrounding Arabia.",
"\n\nBell now addresses the _Rahman_ phenomenon. ",
"Muhammad's way of referring to the God he worshipped, shows some change or development. ",
"Bell supposes that it was most probably under the influence of the information Muhammad was receiving about monotheism as it prevailed among non-Arabs, that he introduced the word _ar-Rahman_ , which he employed for a time almost as a proper name for God. ",
"Bell, like Margoliouth, cites the fact that the name is found in South Arabian inscriptions, and may have come through that channel – or may have been a native Arabic formation from the root _rhm_. ",
"But the word and the concept, like the kindred word _rahma_ , meaning \"mercy,\" comes ultimately from Hebrew and Aramaic; and the prominence that this idea begins to assume in Muhammad's ideological development is due to outside influence (116).",
"\n\nBell provides a convincing explanation for the choice and prominence of the _Rahman_ name and idea. ",
"As there was no term for God in Arabic quite free from polytheistic associations, Muhammad begins by using _rabb_ , \"Lord,\" in some combinations such as \"my Lord,\" \"thy Lord,\" or \"Lord of this house.\" ",
"Then he uses \" _Allah_ ,\" but with hesitation, probably because it was already combined with the belief in associated and subordinate deities. ",
"Then _ar-Rahman_ appears alongside it. ",
"Too many names, however, had its disadvantages, in that they might lead to polytheistic ideas again. ",
"Muhammad appears to have solved the difficulty by settling on _Allah_ as the name for the Deity – most probably because this name was best known in the Hijaz as an Arabian deity. ",
"Just as he retains and reinterprets several other elements of the old faith that naturally resonated with the Arabian ethnic sentiment – the Kaaba, the centrality of Mecca, Ramadan, pilgrimages, and more. ",
"Nevertheless, the concept of _rahma_ had a lasting effect, as greater emphasis than earlier was now laid on the mercy of God.",
"\n\nTracing in this way Muhammad's theological development, Bell proposes that he became more and more interested in the stories of biblical prophets. ",
"He discovers Moses who begins to stand out from the rest because it was to him that \"the Book\" was given. ",
"This suggests that at this point in Muhammad's career he came into direct contact with Jews, most probably early in his Medinan period. ",
"Bell notes that in Muhammad's stories of the prophets, he seems to be preoccupied with the question of what happens to the believers when the calamity falls upon the unbelievers. ",
"In even the shortest reference to a prophet at this stage, he does not fail to mention that he and those who have responded to his message, were saved from the destruction that had overtaken the others. ",
"It is in that context that the Christian word for salvation, _purqana_ , belongs. \"",
"Remembering the meaning of the Arabic root,\" Bell writes, \"it is easy to see how he [Muhammad] associates it with the separation of the believers from the unbelievers when the catastrophe fell. _",
"Furqan_ is deliverance from the judgment\" (122).",
"\n\nBell now engages in an exercise that we might appropriately describe as _Verstehensoziologie_ in Max Weber's sense, an attempt to grasp how profoundly Muhammad might have been influenced by the Moses narrative. \"",
"Moses then,\" Bell writes,\n\nwas a prophet who proclaimed the true religion. ",
"Some rejected him but some believed. ",
"The believers he led out from among the unbelieving people. ",
"The Book was given to him; \"we [i.e., Allah] gave Moses the Book and the Furqan.\" ",
"This community which had followed Moses becomes a conquering people and destroys the unbelieving inhabitants of the land. ",
"It is not to underestimate Muhammad's knowledge to suggest that he may have assumed that it was the same unbelievers who had rejected Moses who were thus punished. ",
"There, in my opinion, is the suggestion of the Hijra – the exodus from Mecca – and the organization of a fighting community of believers in Medina, who were to be the means by whose hands the calamity which Muhammad had so long proclaimed, was to be brought upon the unbelieving Meccans. (",
"124)\n\nBell recognizes that Muhammad had hardly settled in Medina when, as we see from the Quran, he began to prepare for war, a new strategy and orientation that came as a surprise to his own followers. ",
"Within two years came the great event, the encounter at Badr, a turning point in Muhammad's career. ",
"It enhanced his prestige and gave him power. ",
"But inwardly, Bell believes, it was of equal consequence. ",
"The victory of 300 Muslims over thrice that number was a \"miracle,\" due to the angels which had been sent down to assist the prophet and his band. ",
"The battle of Badr, in Muhammad's mind, was the Calamity upon the unbelieving Meccans; and it was the _Furqan_ , the deliverance out of that calamity, for the believers. ",
"That Muhammad perceived it as a miracle is strongly suggested in the Quran, where it is referred to as an _aya_ or \"sign.\" ",
"Muhammad now feels assured that he is a prophet like Moses, a giver of laws and the leader of a militant, theocratic community. ",
"For Bell, then, it seems quite clear that\n\nIslam as it finally took shape belongs to Medina and not to Mecca. ",
"The same... is true of the Quran itself. \"",
"The Book\" sent down from heaven and revealed to him as required has now taken concrete shape in his mind... it is now that he re-edits the early passages and introduces material having to do with the regulation and guidance of the community... By the crowning mercy of Badr he has become convinced that he stands in a quite special relation to God. ",
"He is a prophet as Moses was a prophet. (",
"125)\n\nIn Medina, Muhammad approached the Jewish tribes, thinking, apparently, that they were the Bani Israil to whom Moses had brought the Book. ",
"At that stage of the Prophet's education, Bell believes, he might just as readily have applied that term to the Christians as well. ",
"But the evidence shows that it was with Jews that he had actually made contact. ",
"That in Medina he was eager to learn from them is shown by his adoption of some of their practices such as the fast of the Day of Atonement and by his instructing his followers to pray facing Jerusalem. ",
"It is, most probably, at this time that he begins to acquire more and more accurate and detailed information regarding the Torah. ",
"Having discovered that Moses came after Noah, he soon makes the discovery which in time he would turn into the ideological foundation of the new faith – he discovers _Abraham_ and his place in the succession of prophets between Noah and Moses. ",
"What Bell next observes is directly pertinent to the question whether the role Muslim scholars have traditionally assigned to Abraham and Ishmael is historical. ",
"The fact, Bell observes,\n\nthat Ishmael is not closely conjoined with Abraham is proof that Muhammad had not, when this passage was revealed, learned of that connection. ",
"It soon became of great importance to him. ",
"Ishmael was the reputed ancestor of the Arabs, and having discovered that he was the son of Abraham, the prophet of the Arabs knew how to make use of the fact that Abraham came in time before Moses. ",
"It brought the Arabs and himself into the race [sic] of the people of God, and into the line of descent in which the prophetic office was appointed to be, as stated in Sura 57: 26: \"We [in the Quran, God often speaks in the first-person plural] appointed the prophetic office and the Book to be among their descendents.\"",
"\n\nAnd in a highly illuminating observation, Bell continues:\n\nThe priority of Abraham to Moses and also to Jesus, enabled him [Muhammad] at Medina, when his hopes for the Jews failed, to fall back upon a man of God, independent alike of Jews and Christians, whom he can associate with the Kaaba and the new Arab faith. (",
"130)\n\nMuhammad's logic in this regard was impeccable. ",
"If in the Scriptures Abraham is stated to be prior to both Moses and Jesus, then it is certain that Abraham cannot be called a follower of either. ",
"Indeed, it is evident from Sura 2: 134 that Muhammad was quite annoyed that the existence of the biblical individual, Abraham, had been concealed from him. ",
"But once Muhammad discovers Abraham and reflects on how to assign him a role independent of both Judaism and Christianity, Abraham takes his place at the head of the list of prophets, \"a sign that Islam is finally to stand on its own basis...\" (130).",
"\n\nThat was the thought-process, for Bell, by which Muhammad turned Abraham and Ishmael into the original Muslims. ",
"They could be made into the precursors of Islam, associated as they were with Arabia, because they represented in his mind the pure religion, which was eternal ( _din qayyim_ ), and free from the corruptions which occasionally crept into it. ",
"That is what Muhammad meant, Bell believes, by _hanif_. ",
"In Sura 30: 29, the phrase \"as a true convert,\" is literally \"as a _hanif_.\"",
"\n\nBefore going on with Bell's analysis we need to observe that his conception of how Muhammad discovered Abraham and his connection with Ishmael, tends to contradict the notion that Muhammad learned about Abraham from the Abrahamic _hanifs_. ",
"The fact that Muhammad acquired this information in Medina and perhaps even late in Medina – since he was annoyed that this information had been \"concealed\" from him – raises the likelihood that he acquired it from the Jews.",
"\n\nAfter learning about Abraham, Muhammad places the \"prophets\" in this sequence: Adam, Noah, the family of Abraham, and the family of Imran [i.e., Amram, father of Moses]. ",
"But as Bell notes, the historical contexts of biblical individuals is still quite unclear: \"probably, the family of Imran is here meant to include both Moses and Jesus. ",
"For Muhammad confused Mary (Arabic, _Maryam_ ), the mother of Jesus with Miryam the sister of Moses...\" (132).",
"\n\nTurning his attention to Muhammad's attitude towards Christians, Bell suggests that it was only after the Hijra, and, indeed, late in the Medinan period, that the prophet had any _direct_ relations with them. ",
"He had very little understanding of Christian teaching or what the Christian church was, and never did acquire intimate knowledge of these matters. ",
"In tracing the development of Muhammad's attention to geographical–cultural areas, Bell proposes that the Prophet first centered on Mecca, then on Arabia as a whole, and then gradually and even then rarely, on events outside Arabia. ",
"Bell's scrutiny of the Quran with the aim of determining when Muhammad learned about the two earlier monotheistic religions, suggests that it was only after the Hijra that he recognized the distinction between Jews and Christians. ",
"Before his discovery of Abraham, he most probably believed that the Jews with whom he had come in contact, were members of the great revealed religion, of which Moses was the founder. ",
"There is no indication that Muhammad knew of Jesus as a prophet in the same sense. ",
"Sura 19 may be the earliest mention of Jesus who had received the Book.",
"\n\nFor Bell, it appears that it was soon after the Hijra that Jesus, in Muhammad's conception of these matters, took his place alongside Moses as one of the great prophets; and it was in this period when the _Injil_ or Evangel, which was given to Jesus, assumed its place alongside the _Taurat_ (Torah), which had been given to Moses. ",
"Bell avers that of the actual contents of the New Testament Muhammad seems never to have gained much knowledge. ",
"There are phrases throughout the Quran that remind one of phrases in the New Testament and the Christian liturgies. ",
"Sura I is made up almost entirely of phrases that might be used in either Jewish or Christian prayers. \"",
"But if they [the phrases],\" Bell writes, \"are directly borrowed and do not belong to the Judeo-Christian atmosphere diffused in Arabia, _they are Jewish rather than Christian_ \" (140, italics added). ",
"Bell notes, further, that Muhammad appears not to have known many of the New Testament parables which, one may suppose, he would have eagerly incorporated in the Quran, had he known them. ",
"Muhammad probably had no desire to learn the contents of the New Testament, Bell surmises, since at that stage of his career he had already set himself up as one who was independent of those who had preceded him. ",
"The information he acquired after this period came from the Christian communities bordering Arabia and arose out of his political relations with them.",
"\n\nAs Bell addresses other questions concerning the relative influences of the earlier monotheisms, he turns to the _qibla_ , or the direction to be faced in prayer. ",
"He notes that this was almost certainly Jewish in suggestion, for although there is a Muslim tradition to the effect that already in Mecca the Prophet had stood so as to face both the Kaaba and Jerusalem, this is a harmonizing account. ",
"There is really no trace of a _qibla_ , Bell concludes, until Muhammad comes in contact with the Jews at Medina; he does so under the impression that this was the _qibla_ of all the people of the Book. ",
"It is only after his relations with the Jews have disappointed him, and after he had resolved to establish an independent position, that he changed the _qibla_ to the direction of the Kaaba, thus making his community one that avoided following either Jews or Christians in matters on which they differed. ",
"The same motive is apparent in his choice of Friday as the day of special service instead of either the Jewish or Christian Sabbath. ",
"Similarly, in the call to prayer, he avoided both the wooden clapper of the Christians and the ram's horn of the Jews, choosing the human voice instead.",
"\n\nThe _Zakat_ ,however, was retained despite its Jewish origin. ",
"In Mecca the word simply meant alms-giving, which never became an institution; in Medina, however, in imitation, of the \"Jewish law of tithes, it became a prescribed tax for the support of the poor of the community\" (145). ",
"As for the Fast of Ramadan, it was instituted in recognition of the victory at Badr; but it was suggested by Jewish practice, since there does not appear to have been any prescribed fast in the Meccan period. ",
"As for the Muslim prohibition of wine, Bell doubts that it resulted from Christian influence, and proposed instead that it emerged out of the Prophet's developing conception of the Arabs as a people, since what he forbade was not the native _nabidh_ made from dates, but _khamr_ , an import, and not a native product at all. ",
"Also, given the need for a minimal sobriety in battle, experience, as Bell observes, may have impressed upon the Prophet the need to restrict the use of wine.",
"\n\nAs Bell takes up the question of the influences on what became the Muslim pilgrimage, one sees how the ceremonies were adopted from pre-Islamic custom, but with the changes necessary to remove the superficial idolatrous features. ",
"As for the mass of legal enactments which the Quran contains, many of them were evidently inspired by Jewish practice; but as most of them were formulated in Medina, the principle that the Prophet's people were to be neither Jewish nor Christian, undoubtedly played a part in the divergence from Jewish practice. ",
"During the Meccan period Muhammad's attitude toward the people of the Book, which most probably included both Jews and Christians, was consistently friendly. ",
"Even in Medina, following his adoption of a more independent stance, he seems at first merely to have thought of establishing his own community on an equal basis with them. ",
"That seems to be the meaning of Sura 3: 57, where we hear \"O people of the Book! ",
"Come ye to a just judgment between us and you – that we worship not aught but God, and that we join no other god with Him...\" Bell views this as addressed specifically to the Jews, but sees no reason, based on Sura 2: 59, why Christians would have been excluded from this invitation: \"Verily, those who believe (Muslims), and they who follow the Jewish religion, and the Christians, and the Sabeites – whoever of these believeth in God and the last day, and doeth that which is right, shall have their reward with their Lord...\" Later, however, as Muhammad's power began to spread in Arabia, his attitude towards the Christians changed, precluding not only alliances but even peaceful accommodation with them.",
"\n\nJudging from Sura 4: 154ff., ",
"Muhammad had learned that Christians believed in a living Christ whom \"God had taken up to Himself.\" ",
"But beyond that information, Bell believes, the Prophet had no real knowledge of Christian sectarian ideas; and, of course, as his power in Arabia increased, it had to come in conflict with Christian power and doctrine. ",
"Just as Muhammad had previously accused the Jews, so now he also charges the Christians with corrupting their scriptures, with altering the teaching delivered to them. ",
"He makes this charge because he still believes that the message of the _Taurat_ (Torah) and the _Injil_ (New Testament) must have been the same as his own. ",
"It followed that insofar as Christian beliefs differed from his teaching, they must have corrupted the Evangel. ",
"In Sura 5: 70ff., ",
"we hear the gist of Muhammad's critique of Christianity:\n\nInfidels now are they who say, \"God is the messiah, Son of Mary\"; for the messiah said, \"O children of Israel! ",
"Worship God, my Lord and your Lord.\" ",
"Whoever shall join other gods with God, God shall forbid him the Garden, and his abode shall be the Fire; and the wicked shall have no helpers.",
"\n\nThey surely are Infidels who say, \"God is the third of three\": for there is no God but one God: and if they refrain not from what they say, a grievous chastisement shall light on such of them as are Infidels...\n\nThe messiah, Son of Mary, is but an Apostle; other Apostles have flourished before him; and his mother was just a person: they both ate food.",
"\n\nSo the relationship with the Christians ended just as it had with the Jews – in war (159). ",
"The strict and absolute monotheism at which the Prophet had arrived meant that no real compromise with Christian doctrine and power was possible. ",
"As Bell remarks, Islam was now the only \"true religion and acceptance of it meant the acceptance of the Prophet's divinely inspired authority. ",
"The example of Moses had implanted in his mind the idea of a conquering religious people\" (160).",
"\n\nAlthough Muhammad thus broke both with Jews and Christians, they are, on the whole, treated more favorably in the Quran than the idolators; idolatry was to be totally rooted out. ",
"Theologically, that is what Islamic law, as it subsequently developed, demands. ",
"Wherever Muslim power extends, idolators have the choice of Islam or death – or enslavement, \"so that they may have time to consider the acceptance of Islam\" (178). ",
"As for the people of the Book, they are not to be coerced into changing their religion; they were, however, to be fought and reduced to subjection. ",
"Under the Caliphates, as a rule, if they agreed to pay tribute ( _Jizya_ ) and accepted Muslim hegemony, they were to be tolerated in their religion. ",
"That is how the Christians were treated under Muslim rule. ",
"For Bell, it seems clear that in Arabia the vast majority of the Christian Arabs went over to Islam with little hesitation or regret and did so in a relatively short period. ",
"This suggests that the adherence of the nominally Christian tribes to Christianity had never been very deep. \"",
"Indeed,\" Bell observes, \"what interest could the abstruse questions of christology, about which the Eastern Church had been kept in ferment for centuries, have had for them?\" (",
"183) In sharp contrast to the Christian preoccupation at the time with trinitarian and chris-tological disputes, Islam offered the rather simple idea of a God of power and moral will, concerned with human destiny and justice.",
"\n8\n\nW. Montgomery Watt's Muhammad\n\nWatt opens with an observation with which we have become familiar: that in the total phenomenon of Islam, the desert had a role of first importance. ",
"Mecca and Medina were islands in a sea of desert, but in close economic relations with the nomads. ",
"The nomad, however, was more dependent on the settled communities, in that central to his way of life was raiding oases and caravans. ",
"Robbery, in the nomad's eyes, was no crime. ",
"The Bedouin's fighting prowess is such, that often the settled, agricultural peoples are willing to pay a desert tribe for the protection of their homesteads and herds, and for the safe passage of their caravans. ",
"Watt notes that the chief crop of the oases was dates, while in the mountains, as at Taif, cereals were important; and that Yathrib-Medina was a large, flourishing oasis, with several Jewish colonies, while in Mecca, in contrast, there was no agriculture.",
"\n\n**Watt's Muhammad at Mecca**\n\nThat leads Watt to make a claim concerning Mecca, which has become quite controversial. ",
"Mecca, Watt stated in 1953, was a commercial city in the time of Muhammad. ",
"Watt attributed the growth of the city as a trading center to the existence of a _haram_ or sanctuary area, to which men came without fear of molestation. ",
"Due to its favorable geographical location, Watt argued, at the crossroads of routes from Yemen to Syria and from Abyssinia to Iraq, Mecca became a central trading center in the Hijaz. ",
"To Mecca, therefore, nomads came, purportedly, for goods brought from the four points of the compass by caravan. ",
"By the end of the sixth century CE, the Meccans, Watt argued, had gained control of most of the trade from Yemen to Syria – an important trade route by which the West got Indian luxury goods as well as South Arabian frankincense. ",
"Taif was a rival of Mecca in commercial affairs, \"but Mecca clearly had the strong position\" (Watt, p. 3). ",
"Watt goes even farther, claiming that Mecca was more than a mere trading center, it was a financial center. ",
"The rulers of Mecca in Muhammad's time were, above all, \"financiers, skilful in the manipulation of credit, shrewd in their speculations, and interested in any potentialities of lucrative investment from Aden to Gaza or Damascus. ",
"In the financial net that they had woven, not merely were all the inhabitants of Mecca caught, but many notable of the surrounding tribes also. ",
"The Quran appeared not in the atmosphere of the desert, but in that of high finance\" (Ibid.).",
"\n\nAn economic system of the kind described by Watt, implies a correspondingly complex politics. ",
"So Watt makes the further claim that within the commercial context of Mecca there was an ongoing struggle for power among several of the most influential groups of the Quraysh. ",
"Taking note of the two major empires, the Byzantine and the Persian, and a third, much weaker, the Abyssinian, Watt proposes that given the prolonged heavy fighting between the two great empires, the Meccan leaders benefited from the neutral stance they had maintained toward the conflict. ",
"As Watt presents this scenario, he acknowledges more than once that there is much in his \"... account of Meccan politics that is conjectural\" (16).",
"\n\nWatt nevertheless continues to build on this conception of Mecca as a financial center, in his search for the social conditions that might have accounted for Muhammad's critique of his fellow tribesmen. ",
"Watt discerns certain individualistic tendencies in the commercial life of Mecca that weakened tribal and clan solidarity. ",
"Looking for a new phenomenon that might be pertinent to Muhammad's inspiration, Watt posits business partnerships that had cut across clan relationships. ",
"The new phenomenon, for Watt, was the emergence of a \"sense of unity based on common material interests\" (19). \"",
"If we are to look for an economic change,\" he writes, \"cor-related with the rise of Islam, then it is here that we must look... In the rise of Mecca to wealth and power we have a movement from a nomadic economy to a mercantile and capitalist economy\" (Ibid.).",
"\n\nIn thus unfolding his central thesis, Watt presents the moral ideals of the desert Arabs, which included, in addition to manliness and bravery in battle, generosity, hospitality, loyalty, and fidelity, the last two of which Watt considers most directly relevant to his thesis. ",
"The individual, according to these Arabian ideals, ought to act with the tribe even when he has disagreed with the decision of its leaders. ",
"The Arabian conception of honor meant, above all, that one remained loyal to one's kin. ",
"Hence, for Watt, it was the undermining and, in practice, the repudiation of the time-honored moral ideals of the desert Arabs that became the negative stimulus, so to speak, for Muhammad's inspiration.",
"\n\nBefore we go on with our exposition of Watt's work on Muhammad at Mecca, we have to pause to consider the most trenchant criticism of Watt's conjectural construction of Meccan socio-economic life. ",
"Patricia Crone, in an impressively painstaking work, succeeds in challenging the notion that has become prevalent since the time of Watt's book, that Meccan trade and the resulting changes in social structure and social psychology, were the ultimate cause of the rise of Islam. ",
"According to Watt, as we have seen, it was the Quraysh's transition to a mercantile economy that undermined the traditional order in Mecca, generating a social and moral malaise to which Muhammad's preaching was the response. ",
"To this thesis Crone raises several cogent objections: (1) There was no apparent deterioration of the traditional, tribal values of caring for kin and protecting the weak. ",
"The protection that Muhammad himself is said to have enjoyed from his own kin, first as an orphan and then as a prophet, would indicate that the clan and tribal organization remained intact. (",
"2) There was no _general_ malaise in Mecca, religious, social, political, or moral. ",
"The reason the Meccans are regarded as morally defective in the Muslim sources is _not_ that their traditional way of life has broken down, but that it functioned too well, the Meccans preferring their polytheistic way of life to Islam. (",
"3) Watt fails to account for the fact that it was in Medina rather than in Mecca that Muhammad's message was accepted. ",
"In Mecca he was only a would-be prophet! ",
"It was outside Mecca, first in Medina and then elsewhere in Arabia that there was a receptivity to his monotheism. (",
"4) The tribal disunity and feuds, to which Muhammad offered a solution, were a constant in Arabian history, not a result of change. ",
"It was only the solution that was new. \"",
"The novelty of the solution,\" Crone writes,\n\nlay in the idea of divinely validated state structures; and it was Muhammad's state, not his supposed blueprint for social reform, which had such powerful effect on the rest of Arabia. ",
"There is no feeling in Muhammad's biography of burning questions and long-debated issues finally resolved. ",
"Instead, there is a strong sense of ethnogenesis... that the Arabs have been in the Peninsula for a long time, in fact since Abraham, and that they had finally been united in a state. ",
"Muhammad was neither a social reformer nor a resolver of spiritual doubts. _",
"He was the creator of a people_. (",
"237, italics added)\n\nIslam, Crone continues, originated in a tribal society, and this must be the starting point of any attempt to explain its emergence. ",
"The fact that Islam originated in a tribal society suggests, to Crone, definite parallels between Moses and Muhammad, and between Yahweh and Allah. ",
"In both cases the Deities endorsed and enabled tribal characteristics such as militantism and ethnic pride. ",
"What was it that Allah, in particular, had to offer, she asks? ",
"What he had to offer was a program of Arab state formation and _conquest_ : the creation of an _Ummah_ , the initiation of _jihad_. ",
"Muhammad was a prophet with a political mission; his monotheism amounted to a political program.",
"\n\nThe fact that Muhammad had begun by denouncing the beliefs and practices of his own tribe had this political significance: he had thus asserted that his God was incompatible with tribal divisions as they existed. ",
"His God – unlike that of the Christians – was One, universal, and ancestral, the ancestor of the Arabs. ",
"It followed that one God requires one nation. ",
"It was around Allah and Allah alone that the Arabs should be organized. ",
"All the ancestral deities of polytheism that allowed for and sanctioned the current tribal divisions, were _false_! ",
"Muhammad was thus a political agitator already in Mecca, and it was as such that he offended the Meccans, and offered his message to other tribes. ",
"And it was as such, and not merely as an otherworldly arbitrator, that he was accepted at Medina.",
"\n\nCrone claims that there had already existed in pre-Islamic Arabia some sense of unity, and that the unity was ethnic and cultural – a kind of pan-Arabian feeling despite the tribal divisions and conflicts. ",
"Crone proposes quite convincingly, that \"Muhammad's success evidently had something to do with the fact that he preached [in Medina] both state formation and conquest: without conquest, first in Arabia and next in the Fertile Crescent, the unification of Arabia would not have been achieved\" (243).",
"\n\nAs Crone proceeds with her argument, it further challenges the Watt thesis: \"And there is no shred of evidence,\" she writes,\n\nthat commercial interests contributed to the decision, on the part of the ruling elite, to adopt a policy of conquest; on the contrary, the sources present conquest as an alternative to trade, the reward of conquest being an effortless life as rulers of the earth as opposed to one as plodding merchants. ",
"Nor is there any evidence that the collapse of Meccan trade caused an \"economic recession\" that contributed to the enthusiasm with which the tribesmen at large adopted this policy... Tribal states _must_ conquer to survive, and the predatory tribesmen who make up their members are in general more inclined to fight than to abstain. (",
"Ibid.)",
"\n\nIn sum, Crone concludes this portion of her rebuttal, \"Muhammad had to conquer, his followers liked to conquer, and his deity told him to conquer: do we need more?\" (",
"244) Crone also makes an insightful observation about what she calls the interminable debate whether the conquerors were motivated more by religious enthusiasm than by material interests or the other way around: \"... holy war was not a cover for material interests; on the contrary, it was an open proclamation of them... Muhammad's God thus elevated tribal militancy and rapaciousness into supreme religious virtues: the material interests were those inherent in tribal society...\" (245).",
"\n\nAs we proceed with our exposition of Watt's _Muhammad at Mecca_ , we need, in light of Crone's critique, to address this question: Is Watt's thesis fundamentally vitiated by her critique, or are there salvageable elements in it? ",
"For Watt, it was so-called Meccan commercialism that had weakened tribal and clan solidarity and given rise to individualism. ",
"Material interests were prevailing over kinship relations. ",
"In an attempt to support his view, Watt claims that the Quran implies an increasing awareness of the difference between rich and poor, the rich showing less concern for the poor even among their own kin; the references to orphans, presumably, also implying that they were ill-treated by their own relatives who served as guardians. ",
"So for Watt, the early passages of the Quran are no more than a \"premonition of the real remedy for this situation, namely, that a new basis for social solidarity is to be found in religion\" (73). ",
"The rise of Islam is \"somehow connected with the change from a nomadic to a mercantile economy\" (79).",
"\n\nTo support this notion, Watt has to try to determine which individuals or strata of Meccan society were most responsive to Muhammad's call. ",
"After surveying the various Meccan clans, with the aim of learning who were the earliest converts to Islam, Watt summarizes the results. ",
"Muhammad's followers in Mecca were young men, the majority of whom were under 40 at the time of the Hijra; they had been converted eight or more years previously. ",
"As Watt proceeds with his sociological analysis, we begin to detect its weaknesses. ",
"He claims that \"it was not a movement of 'down-and-outs,' of the scum[?] ",
"of the population, of 'hangers-on' with no strong tribal affiliations who had drifted into Mecca. ",
"It drew its support not from the bottom layers of the social scale, but from those about the middle who, becoming conscious of the disparity between them and those at the top, were beginning to feel that they were underprivileged. ",
"It was not so much a struggle between 'haves' and 'have nots' as between 'haves' and 'nearly hads' \" (96).",
"\n\nWatt's construction is highly problematic, for it appears to be entirely conjectural, contradicting what Ibn Hisham has to say on the subject. ",
"His very heading reads, \"The Polytheists Persecute the Muslims of the _Lower Classes_ ,\" and under that heading he explicitly mentions _slaves_ among the early persecuted converts, stating that before Abu Bakr migrated to Medina, he had freed six slaves in Islam, Bilal being the seventh (143–4). ",
"And later, under the heading, \"The Apostle Offers Himself to the Tribes,\" Ibn Hisham states that \"when the Apostle returned to Mecca, his people opposed him more bitterly than ever, apart from the \"... few _lower-class_ _people_ who believed in him\" (194). ",
"So when Watt asserts that Muhammad's support in Mecca came not from the bottom layers of the society, but from \"those about the middle,\" we have to say that he does so without showing why we should accept his assessment rather than Ibn Hisham's.",
"\n\nThere is, moreover, something problematic about the logic of his analysis. ",
"The thinking of the Prophet and his early followers, Watt writes, \"... must have been primarily on the religious plane, and it was on the religious plane that men were summoned to Islam; conscious thoughts about economics or politics can have played hardly any part in conversion. ",
"Yet, when this has been said, we can go on to admit that Muhammad and the wiser among his followers must have been alive to the social and political implications of his message, and that, in directing the affairs of the Muslims, such considerations certainly weighed with them\" (99). ",
"But if Muhammad's followers in Mecca were, as Watt claims, from the \"middle\" layers of the social scale, what were the social and political implications of the Prophet's message for them? ",
"That they were suffering from the \"relative deprivation\" of, in Watt's words, the \"nearly hads\"? ",
"Watt not only fails to provide supporting evidence for his notion that the \"middle\" layers or \"nearly hads\" were the most responsive to Muhammad's message, he also employs a puzzling logic. ",
"For would it not make more sense even within Watt's theoretical framework, to follow Ibn Hisham, and argue that it was the lower strata who suffered most from the commercialism and individualism which, Watt surmises, prevailed in Mecca at the time?",
"\n\n**The Daughters of Allah or the So-Called Satanic Verses**\n\nWatt appears to be on no firmer ground in his interpretation of the significance of idolatry in the \"Daughters of Allah\" affair. ",
"He cites the long passage of Tabari's relating that when Muhammad summoned his tribe to accept the guidance and the light revealed to him, they almost hearkened to him until he mentioned their _idols_. ",
"Then there came some of the Quraysh from Taif, owners of property, and rebutted him with vehemence and roused their supporters against him. ",
"So most of the people who had followed the Prophet now turned back and left him, except for a few. ",
"As the passage continues it suggests that persecution of Muhammad's followers increased, and that he advised them to flee to the land of the Abyssinians, which they did, and where the new Muslims were left in peace thanks to the just rule of a good king, Negus. ",
"Interpreting this event, Watt notes that the first active opposition to Muhammad is said to be due to the mention of _idols_ on his part; and that some Quraysh with _property_ were the leaders of the opposition to Muhammad. ",
"Watt, however, fails to consider that the Prophet's mention of \"idols\" spoke to the Quraysh's control of the Kaaba and the pilgrimages; and that the \"property\" of the Quraysh in question here was in fact their control of the means of pilgrimaging. ",
"Since, however, Watt's central thesis is that the Quraysh's source of wealth, power and prestige lay in their monopoly-hold of the caravan trade, he resists the plain meaning of the passage, that it was precisely Muhammad's threat to Meccan idolatry that most likely intensified the opposition to him.",
"\n\nIf we now return to Patricia Crone and consider her findings, we can see clearly why Watt's notion of Mecca as a commercial center with a financial–commercial elite, is misleading. ",
"Crone writes that Meccan trade was a trade in leather above all:\n\nThis is as far as we can go. ",
"We thus have a problem on our hands. ",
"It is not likely that the inhabitants of a remote and barren valley should have founded a commercial empire of international dimensions on the basis of hides and skins. (",
"Crone, 99)\n\nIt would... be hard to present the Quraysh as large-scale suppliers of perfume to the Byzantine and Persian empires. ",
"The Byzantine empire had a perfume industry of its own, centered in Alexandria... [And] the empire produced enough to export some of it to the Arabs themselves. ",
"Thus the Jews of Medina are said to have imported perfume from Syria to Medina in the time of the prophet... (Crone, 96)\n\nCrone's research, incidentally, tends to confirm Ibn Hisham's description of the contents of a Quraysh caravan: it carried dry raisins and leather (Ibn Hisham, p. 287). ",
"It is, then, a near certainty that the primary source of the Quraysh's wealth was their control of the Kaaba and its sacred environs. ",
"If the Quraysh had a monopoly hold on anything, it was on the essential provisions required by the pilgrims – food, water, and prescribed clothing.",
"\n\n**More on the \"Daughters of Allah\" Affair**\n\nAs this is a subject of dispute, we should explore it at some length. ",
"In A. Guillaume's translation of Ibn Hisham's work, he inserts Tabari's words wherever he deems it appropriate to do so. ",
"This is my paraphrase of what Tabari had to say on the subject of the \"Daughters of Allah.\"",
"\n\nNow the Apostle was anxious for the welfare of his people, wishing to attract them as far as he could. ",
"When he saw that his people turned their backs on him and he was pained by their estrangement from what he had brought them from God, he longed that there should come to him from God a message that would reconcile his people to him. ",
"Because of his love for his people and his anxiety over them, it would delight him if the obstacle that made his task so difficult could be removed; so he meditated on the project and longed for it, and it was dear to him. ",
"Then God sent down, \"By the star when it sets, your comrade errs not and is not deceived, he speaks not from his own desire,\" and when he reached His words, \"Have you thought of al-Lat, and al-Uzza and Manat the third, the other,\" Satan, when Muhammad was meditating upon it, and desiring to bring it (reconciliation) to his people, put upon Muhammad's tongue \"These are the exalted Gharaniq whose intercession is approved.\" ",
"When the Quraysh heard of this, they were delighted and pleased; and the Prophet's followers believed that this revelation was true, never suspecting that it was a mistake.",
"\n\nThe news reached the Prophet's companions who had fled to Abyssinia, that the Quraysh had accepted Islam, so some of them started to return to Mecca. ",
"But then Gabriel appeared to the Prophet and said, \"What have you done, Muhammad? ",
"You have read to these people something I did not bring you from God, and you have said what He did not say to you.\"",
"\n\nThe Apostle was now bitterly grieved and greatly in fear of God, so He comforted Muhammad and sent down a new revelation annulling what Satan had provoked and establishing His authentic verses. ",
"God relieved the Prophet's grief in Sura 22: 51: \"We have not sent any apostle or prophet before Thee, among whose desires Satan injected not some _wrong_ desire, but God shall bring to nought that which Satan had suggested. ",
"Thus shall God affirm His revelations, for God is knowing, Wise! ",
"That he may make that which Satan hath injected, a trial to those in whose hearts is a disease; and whose hearts are hardened...\"\n\nThat is the way God relieved the Prophet of his grief and annulled what Satan had suggested, replacing the earlier mistaken revelation with the genuine one, Sura 53:19–27: \"Do you see Al-Lat and Al-Uzza and Manat the third idol besides? ",
"What? ",
"Shall ye have male progeny and God female? ",
"This was indeed an unfair partition! ",
"These are mere names: ye and your fathers named them thus: God hath not sent down any warranty in their regard...\" and so on.",
"\n\nWatt, in another context, assesses the truth of the story and provides a convincing explanation of how it happened. ",
"He writes:\n\nThe story of the \"satanic verses\" (Tabari, 1192–6) shows the persistence of some confusion between Allah conceived monotheistically and Allah as \"high god.\" ",
"The truth of the story cannot be doubted, since it is inconceivable that any Muslim would invent such a story, and it is inconceivable that a Muslim scholar would accept such a story from a non-Muslim. ",
"It also seems to be vouched for by a verse from the Quran. (",
"22: 52)\n\nMany Muslims reject the story as unworthy of Muhammad, but there is nothing unworthy of him in holding that his knowledge and understanding of \"his Lord\" developed during the early years of his prophethood as the revelations multiplied\n\nThe point to be emphasized here is that Muhammad did not immediately appreciate that there was a contradiction between this permission for inter-cession and a genuine monotheism. (",
"Watt-Tabari, xxxiv)\n\nIt seems to be quite reasonable to posit, as Watt does, a _process_ in Muhammad's conception of monotheism – a process culminating in a strict monotheism, but having been less than strict at an earlier stage of his intellectual development. ",
"And yet, despite the fact that the story was related by respected Muslim biographers, there are Muslim scholars who regard the story as a fabrication. ",
"To take but one example, there is the view of Haykal, that the story's \"incoherence is evident upon the least scrutiny. ",
"It contradicts the infallibility of every prophet in conveying the message of the Lord.\" ",
"It is Haykal's view, apparently, that genuine prophets, though they are human, do not err. ",
"Haykal rejects, in particular, William Muir's argument for the story's veracity. ",
"Muir pointed out that the Muslims who had fled to Abyssinia to escape persecution by the Quraysh, had hardly been there three months when they decided to return to Mecca. ",
"What prompted them to return so soon? ",
"Muir argues, in reply, that had they not heard of a reconciliation between Muhammad and the Quraysh, nothing would have caused them to return so quickly. ",
"And, Muir reasons, how could there be a reconciliation between Muhammad and the Quraysh without a determined effort to that effect on the part of Muhammad? ",
"The few Muslims who had remained in Mecca were still weak and incapable of protecting themselves against the torments that the Quraysh had been inflicting upon them. ",
"Why, then, would the Quraysh have taken the initiative in seeking reconciliation? ",
"It followed for Muir that it was the Prophet who initiated the effort at reconciliation with the offer of a concession. ",
"To this argument and to the Muslim narrators of the \"tale,\" Haykal replies by citing Ibn Ishaq's allegation that the story was invented by the _zindiqs_ , forgers, who had sought thereby to spread doubt about the message of Muhammad and to question his candidness in conveying the message of God.",
"\n\nFor Haykal, the Muslim arguments defending the truth of the story are even less convincing than Muir's. ",
"Haykal, citing Sura 22: 51, contends that \"... these verses are utterly devoid of relation to the story of the goddesses. ",
"Moreover, they clearly affirm that God will abrogate all that the devil may bring forth, that Satan's work is only a lure to those who are sick of mind and hard of heart, and that God, the all-wise and all-knowing, would keep His Scripture absolutely pure and true\" (Haykal, 110). ",
"Haykal is right to say that God, according to the Quran, did in fact abrogate all that Satan had sought to bring forth. ",
"But that is not the question. ",
"What is in question is whether a prophet, however great he might be, can err. ",
"If Haykal can agree that to err is human, and that Muhammad was human, then it is possible to conceive of a process, as Watt has proposed, in which the prophet's inspiration culminated in a genuine monotheism, but that in an earlier phase of that process there was less clarity in his mind as to what a strict monotheism meant.",
"\n\nWatt, in his _Muhammad at Mecca_ , writes that from the story of the \"daughters of Allah\" one can deduce two facts: that at one time Muhammad must have publicly recited those verses as part of the Quran, for it is \"... unthinkable that the story could have been invented later by Muslims or foisted upon them by non-Muslims. ",
"Secondly, at some later time Muhammad announced that the verses were not really part of the Quran and should be replaced by others of a vastly different import\" (103). ",
"This suggests that early in his career in Mecca, he encountered no exclusive worship or veneration of God, and, therefore, that he was at first prepared to make the kind of concession implied by the acceptance of the goddesses as intercessors. ",
"We do not know for sure, after all, the nature of Waraqa's religion, since some Muslim scholars had referred to him as a _hanif_ , while others described him as a Christian. ",
"There is, then, no reason, from a realistic standpoint to rule out the process of development in Muhammad's conception.",
"\n\nIn the light of Patricia Crone's findings, we need to continue our critical dialogue with Watt over his central thesis, that Muhammad's general message was a repudiation of the corrosive egoism of Meccan capitalism that was presumably eating away at the traditional tribal and clan solidarity. ",
"If we accept Watt's proposition, that the well-spring of Muhammad's original inspiration was primarily religious, and that, accordingly, the motive of his apparent acceptance of the goddesses was also religious, then it is not clear why we would need Watt's thesis of the vested commercial interests of the Quraysh to explain why they opposed Muhammad's change of mind and his refusal to accept the goddesses. ",
"Watt, however, insists on the relevance of the \"daughters of Allah\" affair to his original thesis. ",
"For Watt, the most likely explanation of the opposition is that the leading men of the Quraysh, who were especially interested in the commerce of Taif, had brought Taif 's commercial activities within the financial orbit of Meccan finances. ",
"Hence, \"the removal of recognition from the shrine of alLat [the goddess] must somehow or other have threatened their enterprises and stirred their anger against Muhammad\" (107). ",
"If we take notice of the phrase \"must somehow or other,\" we can see that Watt had no clear idea of how the rescinding of Muhammad's recognition of the goddesses threatened the interests of the so-called commercial–financial elite of Mecca, whose wealth was, presumably, derived from large-scale caravan trade.",
"\n\nWatt thus fails to consider an alternative hypothesis, that the subsequent abrogation of the earlier legitimization of the goddesses was a threat to the Meccan elite's control of the shrine as a pilgrimage center, and a lucrative source of income. ",
"As we have learned from Patricia Crone's work, the notion of Mecca as a center at the crossroads of large-scale caravan trade, is doubtful in the extreme. ",
"Watt, however, remains wedded to his thesis, that though Muhammad's motives were primarily religious, his teachings \"... impinged upon economic matters, and in this respect it could perhaps be regarded as... opposition to unscrupulous capitalism\" (120). ",
"Indeed, Watt explicitly rejects the alternative hypothesis: \"It is sometimes suggested,\" he writes, \"that the strongest motive underlying the opposition [of the Quraysh elite to Muhammad] was the fear that, if Mecca adopted Islam and abandoned idolatry, the nomads would cease to come to the sanctuary and Meccan trade [?] ",
"would be ruined\" (134). ",
"But this formulation of the alternative hypothesis is not quite accurate. ",
"What it should say is that the motive of the opposition to Muhammad was the fear that the Meccan pilgrimage enterprise would be ruined. ",
"It is ironic that although Watt frequently states his belief that Muhammad's motivation was primarily religious, he (Watt) nevertheless refuses to take seriously the view that Muhammad's message was perceived by the Quraysh elite as a threat to their control of a _religious_ institution, albeit a profitable one.",
"\n\nWatt maintains that the chief reason for opposition was almost certainly that the Quraysh leaders discerned in Muhammad's claim to be a prophet, definite political implications. \"",
"The old Arab tradition,\" he writes, \"was that rule in the tribe or clan should go to him who had most wisdom, prudence and judgment. ",
"If the Meccans believed Muhammad's warning, and then wanted to know how to order their affairs in the light of it, who would be the best person to counsel them if not Muhammad?\" (",
"134–5). ",
"But Watt locates those political implications where his thesis has led him. ",
"The leaders of the Quraysh, he writes, \"were sufficiently far-sighted to recognize the opposition between the ethics of the Quran and the mercantile capitalism which was their life\" (135). ",
"In the very next sentence Watt states, \"there was no whisper of the forbidding of usury till long after the Hijra,\" which, one would think, should have given him pause where his central thesis is concerned. ",
"Instead, however, he follows this sentence with: \"But from the very first there was criticism of their individualistic attitude to wealth\" (135). ",
"This assertion also seems to be questionable, since one finds in the Quran precious little criticism of wealth.",
"\n\nUnrelenting, then, in the defense of his original thesis, Watt concludes this work with the statement that \"the great achievement of the Meccan period of Muhammad's career was the founding of a new religion... Islam\" (151). ",
"But since Watt allows in the end that Muhammad's conception of the new religion only received its _full_ development after the Hijra, there are good grounds for questioning whether it is historically sound to say that it was in Mecca that Muhammad founded _the_ new religion called Islam. ",
"What Watt overlooks in this statement is the centrality of Muhammad's Medinan experience for the successful founding of Islam. ",
"Indeed, the Medinan experience may be described as the _conditio sine qua non_ of Muhammad's success – the condition without which Islam might never have become a world religion. ",
"We shall defend the cogency of this thesis by means of a sociological argument.",
"\n\n**A Sociological Argument**\n\nAs we reflect on history, we see that religious, political, and other organizations often begin with a single leader and a small band of followers. ",
"Some of these organizations remain demographically small, but manage somehow to remain in existence for years or even generations. ",
"Other such small groups disappear quite soon after they have been formed. ",
"A third category of small groups refers to the situation in which a group begins to grow dramatically in numbers and becomes, in short order, a massive social movement, spreading like wildfire. ",
"How, then, does one explain the historical fact that some religious sects are short-lived, disappearing not too long after they have emerged, while other sects take off and become world-historical movements, lasting for hundreds or even thousands of years?",
"\n\nSpeaking in general terms, one might say that when a sect becomes a world-historical movement, it owes its growth to four commonsensical factors. ",
"The first is deep and widespread _discontent_. ",
"In order for a social movement to emerge from a sect, large numbers of people in any given context must be highly dissatisfied with the conditions of their existence. ",
"The second factor we may call _ideology_ , a set of ideas that appeals to the discontented. ",
"Such ideologies usually try to explain the cause of the people's discontent, while providing a vision of a better future that the ideology promises to create. ",
"The third factor is leadership, or _charismatic_ leadership, to borrow Max Weber's concept. ",
"Leaders of groups that become mass movements possess striking qualities of some kind. ",
"Charisma, meaning literally \"gift of grace,\" is the term Weber used to characterize self-appointed leaders who are followed by those who are in a state of discontent or distress, and who follow the leader because he appears to be extraordinarily qualified. ",
"The founders of the world religions, prophets and political and military heroes are the archetypes of the charismatic leader. ",
"The fourth factor we may call _organization_ , which includes strategy and tactics. ",
"It is all four factors taken together that account for the successful emergence and durability of a world-girdling movement.",
"\n\nIf we now ask how these general concepts may be applied to the particular case of Muhammad at Mecca, we have to say something like the following. ",
"At Mecca there appears not to have been the deep and widespread discontent that constitutes the fertile soil from which social movements rise and from which they draw their nourishment. ",
"Not to belabor the obvious, it appears that in Muhammad's Mecca there was not only no massive discontent, there was so little that after thirteen years of preaching, Muhammad made only 200 converts who, far from being representative of a general discontent, were a minuscule and despised minority that had to flee from persecution.",
"\n\nThis fact strongly suggests that the religious-ideological message that Muhammad had promulgated in Mecca in the course of thirteen years, failed to appeal to the vast majority of Meccans, or even to the majority of the members of his own tribe. ",
"It appears that Muhammad's ideological message found no resonance in the sentiments of the people as a whole.",
"\n\nAs for charisma, one would have to say that at Mecca, Muhammad had very little or none. ",
"Indeed, recognizing his cause to be lost in his native town, and greeted with jeers and contempt during his futile propagandist visit to al-Taif, he encouraged his 200 followers to escape quietly to Medina, he himself following soon afterward.",
"\n\nFinally, there is the factor called _organization_ , including strategy and tactics. ",
"In Mecca, it appears that Muhammad relied exclusively on preaching and warning. ",
"In Medina, however, for reasons we hope to make clear, he changed his strategy. ",
"It is almost as if Muhammad in Medina, having reflected on his Meccan experience, anticipated an insight that Machiavelli put forward in his _Prince_ : The innovating prince who relies on persuasion alone will always come to grief. ",
"The prince, however, who controls the means of forcing the issue is seldom endangered. \"",
"That is why armed prophets have conquered, and unarmed prophets have come to grief \" (VI, 52). ",
"Machiavelli provides another relevant insight. ",
"Outstanding historical individuals, with their extraordinary prowess, had received nothing from fortune except _opportunity_. ",
"Fortune provided the material, as it were, but they gave the material its form; for \"without opportunity\" writes Machiavelli, \"their prowess would have been extinguished, and without such prowess the opportunity would have come in vain\" (VI, 50). ",
"One can say, therefore, that had Muhammad remained in Mecca, his extraordinary prowess would have been extinguished for the lack of opportunity. ",
"Our thesis, therefore, is that it was in Medina that Muhammad received the opportunity to bring his prowess to fruition.",
"\n\nAs we now proceed to review Watt's treatment of Muhammad's prophetic career at Medina, we shall see whether he acknowledges, at least implicitly, the soundness of this sociological argument.",
"\n\n**Watt's Muhammad at Medina**\n\nWatt opens by suggesting that at first Muhammad thought of himself as sent to his own tribe, the Quraysh, but gradually came to see his mission as a wider one. ",
"Before the Hijra, the Prophet had summoned some members of the nomadic tribes to believe in Allah, in addition to negotiating with some people of Medina. ",
"With the Hijra the notion of an _Ummah_ or community with a religious basis became prominent. ",
"The most urgent problem facing the Medinans at the time was tribal strife, a condition prevalent throughout Arabia. ",
"Hence, the whole of Muhammad's work in Medina may be regarded as building a religious foundation for a _Pax Islamica_. ",
"The Medinan clans that joined with the Emigrants to form the new community had already had confederates both among the Jewish tribes of Medina and among the surrounding nomads. ",
"Watt suggests that in the early years of the Medinan period Muhammad seems to have contracted alliances with neighborhood tribes on a purely secular basis. ",
"Gradually, however, as the Islamic sphere grew wider and stronger, he began to demand, as conditions of alliance, belief in Allah and recognition of himself as Prophet.",
"\n\nWatt now calls attention to the salience of the material dimension of the alliances Muhammad had contracted in the early Medinan period. \"",
"It is important to realize,\" he writes,\n\nthat when Muhammad began to demand acceptance of Islam from some would-be allies, he did not cease to make alliances with other groups without any religious demand. ",
"No demand was made of the Meccans when he marched into their city in triumph, and many of them took part in the battle of Hunayn without being Muslims. ",
"The survey of tribes in this chapter has shown or suggested that, even up to the time of his death and after, there were many alliances with non-Muslims. ",
"This was normally so with distant and powerful tribes. ",
"Though such allies were merely secular allies, they belonged in a sense to the _Pax Islamica_ in view of current Arab ideas about alliances; they shared in its benefits and helped to maintain it. (",
"144)\n\nAs the new _Ummah_ expanded as a political system, Muhammad had to give thought to its economic basis. ",
"For as tribes entered into these alliances and stopped raiding one another, it was no longer possible for a tribe in need to gain its subsistence by attacking its neighbor. ",
"New sources of subsistence and gain had to be found. ",
"For a time, Watt surmises, Muhammad may have looked to increased trade as a solution. ",
"Watt acknowledges, however, that although there was some trade between Medina and Syria, so little is said about it in the sources as to indicate that it can hardly have been important. ",
"Moreover, even an enlargement of trade would have been inadequate for the multitude that now looked to Muhammad as leader. ",
"Besides, there was the danger Watt had attributed to trade in his original thesis: that it would foster the false attitude that had been the fault of the pagan Meccans. ",
"So Muhammad, rejecting trade for the reason Watt supposes, turned to the remaining option: _booty_ from non-Muslims. \"",
"It was doubtless love of booty,\" Watt writes, \"that made many men come to Medina and attach themselves to Muhammad. ",
"In a sense this was the solution Muhammad chose...\" (145). ",
"But even the raiding of caravans for booty had its limits. ",
"As the Muslim population expanded and became well-off, non-Muslims within easy reach decreased, the traditional form of raiding became inadequate. ",
"If the whole of Arabia were to become Muslim, only the northern frontier would be available for raiding. ",
"Watt describes it as a great, statesmanlike insight on Muhammad's part, to have recognized the need to expand northward.",
"\n\nWatt now addresses the question of the relative weights of material and religious motives in Muhammad's own outlook and in that of his followers. ",
"For Watt, understanding the motives of the seventh century Bedouin conversions to Islam requires that one rid oneself of the Western idea that politics and religion are separate phenomena. ",
"We must not think of such conversions as emotional in William James' sense. ",
"In the history of the Near East from earliest times to the time of Muhammad, says Watt, religion and politics have been closely linked to one another. ",
"Islam under Muhammad was the ideology of a political system. ",
"Watt wants to make the point that the system attracted Bedouin men for various reasons, not the least of which was booty. ",
"Addressing the question of why Muhammad was invited to Medina, Watt recognizes that the violent encounters and the uneasy truce between the Aws and the Khazraj created an opening for the Prophet as arbitrator. ",
"The fact that Muhammad was an outsider seemed to promise that he would be truly non-partisan in his mediation.",
"\n\nWatt now turns his attention to the Jews of Medina, where he sees Muhammad's early modeling of Islam on Judaism as an attempt at reconciliation with the Jews. ",
"Watt recounts the break with the Jews, which became an opportunity for the physical attack upon them, resulting in their expulsion and destruction. ",
"How does Watt explain the harshness of Muhammad's policy towards the Jews? \"",
"To suggest that Muhammad was unaware of the wealth of the Jews,\" Watt writes, \"would be a serious underestimating of his intelligence. ",
"To make this the sole reason, however, for his attacks on the Jews is to be unduly materialistic. ",
"The wealth of the Jews was certainly of great benefit to him and considerably eased his financial position, and the prospect of financial betterment may have influenced the timing of his attacks on the Jews. ",
"But the fundamental reason for the quarrel was theological on both sides\" (220). ",
"Watt had earlier assured us that in Islam the religious or theological cannot be separated from the political. ",
"But now in a rather equivocating treatment of Muhammad's policy, Watt wants us to believe that the quarrel was \"theological on both sides.\" ",
"It was indeed theological on the part of the Jews, for they had nothing material to gain from their quarrel with Muhammad; while he, in contrast, had much to gain, materially, by turning the quarrel into a deadly one for the Jews. ",
"What Watt's interpretation overlooks, as we shall see more clearly in a later discussion, is the valid Ibn Khaldunian thesis regarding the almost natural antagonism between the desert and the sown, and that it is the Bedouins who look upon the wealthy communities of the oases as an alluring, nay, irresistible source of sustenance and more. ",
"Muhammad and his tribal followers at Medina were the Bedouins, while the Jews represented the sown.",
"\n\nWatt, in chapter 8, referring us back to his central thesis in his _Muhammad at Mecca_ , states that the proclamation of a new religion,\n\nwas at bottom due to the transition from a nomadic to a settled economy with a resulting decline in tribal solidarity and its replacement by individualism. ",
"Individualism fostered selfishness... [which] knew very well how to twist nomadic ideals and practices to the private advantage of those who found themselves with a measure of power. ",
"There was a corresponding growth of _discontent_ among those who found themselves at a disadvantage in the struggle for wealth and power. (",
"261, italics added)\n\nI have underscored the word \"discontent\" because that is the very concept that I have designated in my sociological argument as a fundamental factor in the transformation of a sect into a mass movement. ",
"The problem with Watt's use of this concept in _his_ thesis is his failure to recognize that the so-called \"discontent\" in Mecca, as we have observed, could not have been very wide or deep in the light of the unimpressive success Muhammad had in Mecca after thirteen years of preaching and warning.",
"\n\nWatt writes in his concluding remarks that it was through Muhammad that the Arab world received an ideological framework \"within which the resolution of its social tensions became possible. ",
"The provision of such a framework involved both insight into the fundamental causes of the social malaise of the time, and the genius to express this insight in a form which would stir the hearer to the depths of his being\" (334–5).",
"\n\nThis conclusion of Watt's is remarkable for its generality, and formulated so as to lend credence to the thesis he has held since his _Muhammad at Mecca_. ",
"It is formulated in that manner, apparently, in order to give the impression that his Meccan thesis somehow explains Muhammad's success in Medina. ",
"But the truth is that Muhammad's success in Medina requires attention to the historically specific circumstances of Medina at the time.",
"\n9\n\nMuhammad at Medina: William Muir's Analysis\n\nTo understand why Muhammad decided to leave Mecca, one has to grasp the extent to which he felt repulsed and dispirited there. ",
"On top of being rejected by his own people, his personal situation had worsened considerably with the death first of Khadija and then five weeks later, of his protector Abu Talib. ",
"He resolves to make a final attempt at success with the Banu Thaqif at Taif (620 CE), but fails there too. ",
"But his efforts there tell us something about the self-understanding he had reached by that time. ",
"In Muir's words: \"There is something lofty and heroic in this journey of Muhammad to Taif; a solitary man, despised and rejected by his own people, going boldly forth in the name of God – like Jonah to Nineveh – and summoning an idolatrous city to repentance and to the support of his mission. ",
"It sheds a strong light on the intensity of his own belief in the divine origin of his calling.\"",
"\n\nMeanwhile, he is betrothed to Aisha and is encouraged at the pilgrimage of March 620, upon meeting a party from Yathrib-Medina. ",
"For Muir there can be no doubt that Medina was more hospitable to Muhammad and better prepared for his message due to the strong influence there of Judaism and Christianity. ",
"Muir refers to the presence of the Jewish tribes and their divided support for the Aws and the Khazraj, whose strife frequently stained with blood the city and its environs. ",
"Muir then cites Ibn Ishaq to the effect that \"when the Jews used to contend with the idolators at Medina, they would say: a prophet, the messiah, is about to come, his time draws near. ",
"We shall follow him, and then we shall slay all idolators. ",
"So when Muhammad addressed the pilgrims of Medina at Mina, they spoke to one another saying: surely that is the same prophet whom the Jews are wont to threaten us with. ",
"Wherefore let us make haste and be the first to join him\" (vol. ",
"II, 211).",
"\n\nMuir sees historical truth in this event and statement, though exaggerated and distorted. ",
"There was close and constant communication between the Jews and Arabs of Medina, and the expectation of a messiah, so essential an element of the Jewish outlook, was bound to be known by their Arab neighbors. ",
"Moreover, the idolators were bound also to be at least somewhat influenced by the Jewish criticism of their beliefs. ",
"There was also the Christian influence in Medina, a city much closer geographically to the Christian tribes of Southern Syria. ",
"And in light of the violent tribal conflicts of the Aws and Khazraj, it seemed to many Medinans that a mediator and judge was urgently needed. ",
"The bloody battle of Buath, a few years earlier, had left those two tribes in a stalemate and temporary truce. ",
"There was no Common Power, in Hobbes' sense, that could put an end to the sanguinary, internal war, and both the Arabs and the Jews lived in fear and uncertainty. ",
"Medina was ready for an umpire; and since many Medinans had heard of Muhammad's claims, there was a certain receptivity to him there that existed nowhere else. ",
"The receptivity was further enhanced by the fact that Muhammad was descended from a distinguished woman of Khazraj birth, espoused by Hashim, so that a favorable interest in Muhammad within that tribe was thus gained. ",
"Furthermore, the Jews of Medina had heard that Muhammad was a zealous supporter of their monotheism.",
"\n\nGiven such receptivity, the Prophet sends Musab to Medina to instruct the few converts. ",
"At the second pledge at Aqaba, Muhammad begins by reciting appropriate passages from the Quran and inviting all present to the service of Allah; he concludes by saying that he would be content if the strangers pledged themselves to defend him as they did and would their own wives and children. ",
"As the Meccans renew persecution, Muhammad commands his followers to begin to immigrate to Medina, a process that continues for about two months. ",
"The Quraysh are stunned by this sudden turn of events – by areas of the small city entirely deserted and the doors of the houses left deliberately locked. ",
"Muhammad and Abu Bakr escape to the cave of Thaur, and then head for Medina June 20, 622 CE, the so-called Hijra, or move to Medina. ",
"Soon afterward he begins his close association with the Jews.",
"\n\n**Muhammad and the Jewish Tribes of Medina**\n\nIn the beginning, Muhammad not only fully acknowledged the divine origin of the religion of the Jews, but largely based his own claims on their Scriptures and on what he heard from their learned men. ",
"Indeed, he strongly desired a unification with them, perhaps even in one _Ummah_. ",
"All of his feasts, fasts, and ceremonies were modeled on Jewish custom, and Jerusalem was his _qibla_ ,as we have seen. ",
"It was towards Jerusalem that the Prophet and his followers turned five times a day, prostrating themselves in prayer. ",
"At this time, Muhammad was ready to go far, short of abandoning his claim to the prophetic calling, in order to win the Jews over to his cause. ",
"His desire to enter into a close union with the Jews expressed itself in a formal agreement shortly after reaching Medina. ",
"He brought them into a treaty of mutual obligation, drawn up in writing, between the Emigrants and the men of Medina, in which he confirmed the security of the Jews in the practice of their religion and the _possession of their property_.",
"\n\nAccording to Ibn Ishaq, the contract, made in the name of God, was between the Emigrants and the believers of Yathrib, and whoever else joined them in striving for the faith. ",
"The provisions of the agreement stipulated that the several clans of the Emigrants would defray the price of bloodshed and ransom their prisoners, and the Medinan clans would do the same. ",
"Anyone who seeks to undermine the unity of this alliance, shall be opposed by all signatories to the contract. ",
"No believer shall be put to death for killing an infidel; nor shall any infidel be supported against a Believer. ",
"Those among the Jews who join the alliance, shall receive aid and relief when needed; they shall not be injured, nor shall any enemy be aided against them. ",
"No unbeliever (i.e., those of Medina who had not submitted to Muhammad's claims, but who were, nonetheless, brought indirectly into the contract) shall give aid to the Quraysh of Mecca, either in their persons or their property. ",
"Whoever kills a Believer wrongfully shall be liable to retaliation; the Muslims shall join as one man against the murderer. ",
"The curse of God, and his wrath in the day of judgment, shall rest on the man that shall aid or shelter him.",
"\n\nAs the contract turns more specifically to the Jews, it states that they shall contribute their share along with the Muslims in case of war against a common enemy. ",
"The Jews shall maintain their religion, the Muslims theirs. ",
"The Jews shall be responsible for their expenditures, the Muslims for theirs. ",
"Each, if attacked, shall come to the aid of the other. ",
"Medina shall be sacred and inviolable for all who join this treaty. ",
"New questions and doubts, likely to produce evil and danger, shall be referred for decision to God and Muhammad his prophet. ",
"War and peace shall be made in common (vol. ",
"III, 33–4).",
"\n\nFor a while relations between the Jews and Muhammad had remained cordial. ",
"But, as Muir observes, it soon became evident to the Jews that Judaism could not go hand in hand with Islam. ",
"The reasons appear to be the following: Although Muhammad rested his claims on the prophecies of the Jewish Scriptures, he did not profess to be the messiah, for the messiah, he said, had already come in the person of Jesus, and had been rejected. ",
"Muhammad now stated openly that he was not only a prophet, but a greater prophet as foretold in the Jewish Book; the Jews know this, he alleged, but out of jealousy and spite reject him as they did their own messiah. ",
"Given this openly declared position, a Jewish acceptance of it would be tantamount to abandoning Judaism. ",
"Such an option being out of the question for the Jews, a growing antagonism with the Prophet was unavoidable.",
"\n\nThere were, however, a few Jewish converts to Islam, and Muhammad employed them to great effect. ",
"As Muir describes the situation, \"They were constantly referred to as 'witnesses.' ",
"They bore evidence that the Prophet's career answered to every mark predicted in their Books; and asserted that their brethren, actuated by jealousy and mortified that the gift of prophecy should pass over from their nation to another people, had concealed the passages... favorable to his claims\" (III, 35–6). ",
"It was such individuals with allegations of that kind that enabled Muhammad to rebut the Jewish criticisms of his claims. ",
"The Jews persisted, however, with substantive scriptural questions which he found annoyingly difficult and embarrassing. ",
"In Muhammad's eyes, this \"stiff-necked\" people, to whose corroboration he had earlier appealed again and again, had now become a living witness against him. ",
"What made this state of affairs especially threatening from his standpoint, was the strong sympathy that existed between the clans of Medina and the Jewish tribes, who had stood by them in times of trouble and had shed their blood in defense of those clans.",
"\n\nMuhammad resolved, therefore, to rid himself of what he came to regard as a dangerous adversary; and his resolve is reflected in the allegations he makes in the Quran (Sura 2) against the Jewish forefathers. ",
"His break with the Jews explains his decision to change the _qibla_ and to secede, so to speak, from Jewish religious institutions. ",
"The Kaaba now became the _qibla_ of Islam. \"",
"The Jews,\" Muir cogently observes,\n\nknowing full well the motives which led to this alteration, were mortified and still further estranged. ",
"Muhammad had cut... the last link binding him ostensibly to their creed. ",
"They charged him with fickleness, and the worshipping towards an idolatrous temple. ",
"These charges he endeavored to meet in the Quran; but it was the victory at Badr, one or two months after, and the subsequent hostilities against the Jews, which furnished the only effective means for silencing their objections. (",
"III, 44–5)\n\nNot too long after Muhammad had arrived in Yathrib, he observed the Fast of Atonement; but now that he is furious with the Jews and estranged from them, he substitutes the Fast of Ramadan.",
"\n\nMuir avers that Muhammad had contemplated punitive measures against the Quraysh from the day of his flight from Mecca and his arrival in Yathrib. ",
"But no opportunity had as yet presented itself, since the Medinans were pledged to defend the Prophet from attack, not to join him in aggressive actions against the Quraysh. ",
"But now we hear of expeditions against Quraysh caravans led by one of Muhammad's uncles, the powerfully built and high-spirited Hamza; but his raids were not particularly successful. ",
"Nor were those led by Muhammad in person in the summer and autumn of 623 CE. ",
"The next significant event is the affair of Nakhla, where Muhammad's men attack a caravan of the Quraysh in the sacred months, killing one man and carrying off two as captives. ",
"Muhammad at first disclaims responsibility for the attack, but then promulgates a revelation approving it (Sura 2: 217). ",
"The Muslim writers attach much significance to this event. ",
"Ibn Hisham, for example, wrote that \"this was the first booty that the Muslims obtained; the first captives they seized; and the first life they took.\" ",
"The hostility of Muhammad and his followers toward their countrymen grows. ",
"Soon we hear of a divine command to fight the Quraysh and paradise is promised to the slain.",
"\n\n**The Battle of Badr**\n\nThe campaign of Badr was the first occasion on which the Medinans joined the Emigrants in large numbers. ",
"Muhammad sends scouts for intelligence of Abu Sufyan's approach, who, warned of Muhammad's intentions, sends to Mecca for reinforcements. ",
"Muhammad gives the command for the campaign, and marches from Medina. ",
"Abu Sufyan, discovering traces of Muhammad's scouts, quickens his pace and escapes. ",
"At Mecca there is alarm, and the Quraysh resolve to march to the rescue of the caravan. ",
"They set out and soon meet Abu Sufyan's messenger. ",
"They debate whether to return or to go forward, and they resolve to advance to Badr. ",
"Muhammad receives intelligence of the march of the Quraysh army. ",
"In a Quraysh or Meccan council of war, the march is enthusiastically approved. ",
"But the Muslims are more implacable than the Quraysh.",
"\n\nWe can now begin to grasp the causal weight of the Islamic promise of paradise for the slain and the extent to which that promise was internalized as a motivating force by the Muslim warriors. ",
"We also see how the new faith overrode kinship. \"",
"It is remarkable,\" Muir comments, \"how entirely absent from the minds of the Muslims was any trace of compunction at the prospect of entering into mortal combat with their kinsmen\" (III, 94).",
"\n\nMuhammad learns from the Quraysh water-carriers the proximity and strength of the enemy. ",
"The caravan escapes, while Muhammad takes up a position at Badr. ",
"Fierce combat breaks out by the reservoir, and three Quraysh, according to custom, challenge the Muslims to single combat. ",
"The Muslim army puts the Quraysh to flight, and kills some of Muhammad's chief opponents, notably Abu Jakl. ",
"The booty is gathered together, contention over its division is decided by a revelation, and the enemy's dead are cast into a pit. ",
"This victory at Badr is interpreted as a divine intervention in favor of Islam, and it seems almost certain, Muir avers, that Muhammad would have found it difficult to maintain his position at Medina in the face of any reverse or failure. ",
"The victory provided Muhammad with new and effective ideological ammunition, for he attributed the entire success to the miraculous assistance of God, an argument made easier by the fact that the Muslims were vastly outnumbered in this battle. ",
"Muhammad's reputation now stood or fell by his success in the field.",
"\n\nIn the year following the battle of Badr, there was an early movement against the Jews and others who disputed Muhammad's claims and denied the authenticity of his revelations. ",
"To prepare us for the upcoming war against the Jews, Muir writes in a footnote:\n\nI must again draw attention to the importance of bearing in mind, at this stage of the history, that [Muslim] tradition in respect to these Jews is _exclusively one-sided_. ",
"They were _all_ (with the exception of the few gained over to Islam, and therefore lost as witnesses) either expatriated or exterminated. ",
"They are reproached in the severest terms in the Quran; every Muslim, therefore, believes it a merit and a privilege to cast abuse upon them. ",
"It would be vain to expect impartial evidence from such a source. (",
"III, 130)\n\nMuhammad began his campaign against the Jews by authorizing first the assassination of Asma, daughter of Marwan, and then the deliberate murder of Abu Afaq who lived in the suburbs of Medina and who had reached the great age, it was said, of twice three-score years, and known for his opposition to the new religion. ",
"He had composed some stinging verses which annoyed the Muslims; so the Prophet indicated his wish for the murder of this man by saying to his followers, \"who will rid me of this pestilent fellow?\" ",
"A convert fell upon the aged man as he slept outside his house, and dispatching him with one blow of his sword, escaped unrecognized (III, 133). ",
"The Jews are alarmed, and the B. Qainuqa are threatened by Muhammad, due to an incident with a Muslim woman in the market place of the Qainuqa, where a silly man, unperceived, pinned the lower back hem of her skirt to the upper dress. ",
"When she got up, the exposure provoked laughter and she screamed with shame. ",
"A Muslim then slew the offending Jew, whose brothers, in their turn, fell upon and killed the Muslim in revenge. ",
"This became the pretext for Muhammad's siege of their fortified dwelling that lasted fifteen days before the defenders gave in. ",
"We learn from Ibn Hisham that Muhammad wanted to put them all to death, but a powerful Muslim, Ibn Ubayy, interceded on behalf of his allies. ",
"The Prophet began to turn away without answering him, whereupon Ibn Ubayy seized the top of Muhammad's breast plate. ",
"His face became dark with rage and he shouted, \"Let me go.\" \"",
"No, by Allah!\" ",
"came the answer. \"",
"I shall not let you go until you deal kindly with my allies: 400 men who have always defended me against all-comers. ",
"Will you slay them all in the space of a morning? ",
"By Allah, in your place I would fear a reversal of fortune!\" ",
"This was a threat and Ibn Ubayy was still powerful. ",
"So Muhammad yielded and spared the lives of the Qainuqa on condition they left Medina within three days, leaving their goods for the victor. ",
"The spoil was mainly armor and goldsmith's tools, for that was the chief occupation of the tribe. ",
"Apparently, they possessed no agricultural property, nor any fields. ",
"So Muhammad takes the spoil and lets them go. ",
"This experience, as we shall see, taught Muhammad a valuable lesson about the inherent vulnerability of even strongly fortified positions.",
"\n\nIn the battle of Uhud, the next battle of significance, the Quraysh waver, but Khalid saves the day. ",
"The Prophet's Medinan army is routed, and Muhammad himself is wounded. ",
"But by this time Muhammad has become a military strategist. ",
"For it was evident, writes Muir, \"that the destruction of the whole [Medinan] force was only averted by the foresight of Muhammad in keeping a secure place of refuge in the rear\" (III, 177). ",
"Although Muhammad's prestige was affected by the defeat, he presented a line of argument to lessen its ill effect: that the setback at Uhud was necessary to separate the true believers from those who were infidels, at heart.",
"\n\nSome of you were for this world and some of you for the next. ",
"Then, in order to make trial of you, He turned you to flight from them – yet hath He now forgiven you; for all-bounteous is God to the faithful –\n\nWhen ye came up the height and took no heed of anyone, while the Prophet in your rear was calling you _to the fight_! ",
"God hath rewarded you with trouble upon trouble, that ye might _learn_ not to be chagrined at your loss of booty, or what befell you! (",
"Sura 3: 140ff.)",
"\n\nIt was usually after setbacks or when he was in urgent need of funds, that Muhammad turned his attention to the Jews. ",
"One of his followers, Amr, had murdered two men, and Muhammad, apparently, thought it right that the Jewish tribe, Banu Nadir, should help him defray the cost of compensation, the blood price. ",
"It was asserted that a member of the B. Nadir had plotted to climb upon the roof under which the Prophet sat during the conversation about the blood price, and roll down large stones upon him. \"",
"But,\" Muir comments, \"as his own followers saw nothing to excite suspicion, and as the chapter in the Quran specially devoted to the subject does not hint at any such perfidy, the charge is open to grave suspicion\" (III, 209). ",
"The B. Nadir, refusing to share the cost of the blood price, are besieged, and their date trees are burned. \"",
"The Jews,\" Muir writes, \"remonstrated against this as barbarous and cruel; so Muhammad felt that his reputation demanded a special order from the Almighty, which was produced accordingly, sanctioning the destruction of his enemy's palm trees\" (III, 213). ",
"The Banu Nadir submit to the order of expatriation, and their fields are divided among the Emigrants.",
"\n\nMuhammad had up to that time trusted Jewish \"secretaries\" with the transcription of dispatches that had to be written in the Hebrew or Syriac languages. ",
"But now, to rid himself of such dependence, he sends his adopted son, Zayd to learn Hebrew and Syriac to qualify him for secretarial duties.",
"\n\nIt is at about this time that the battle of the Trench or _ditch_ took place. ",
"At the earlier battle of _Uhud_ , we recall, the Quraysh, reacting against Muslim raids from Medina, sent a force against Muhammad and defeated the Muslims on the slopes of Uhud. ",
"As the Quraysh failed to follow up their advantage by continuing to Medina – perhaps because they felt not strong enough – the Muslims suffered a slight setback, but not a disastrous defeat. ",
"Muhammad compensated his followers by attacking and driving out another of the Jewish tribes – the B. Nadir – just as he had after the battle of Badr. ",
"The Quraysh, however, had not yet given up the struggle. ",
"In the spring of 627 a Meccan army of some 10,000 men advanced to Medina and laid siege to the city. ",
"As we learned earlier, the defeat of the Muslims seemed almost certain until a Persian convert suggested the expedience of digging a ditch around the town, which proved to be sufficient to stymie the forty-day siege and compel the Quraysh army to withdraw. ",
"We see, then, that whether it was victory or a slight reversal in the fortunes of the Muslims, Muhammad used the occasion for an assault upon the Medinan Jews.",
"\n\nSoon after the battle of the Trench, Abu Sufyan, a leader of the Quraysh's opposition to Muhammad, succeeded in persuading the Jewish tribe of Qurayza to detach itself from the alliance with Muhammad (Sura 33: 26). ",
"The Prophet, alarmed, now recognizes that his previous treatment of the Jewish tribes might drive the Qurayza to desperate measures. ",
"He attacks and they surrender at the discretion of the Banu Aws, who intercede on behalf of their ancient allies, pleading that their lives be spared. ",
"The Aws requested that this Jewish tribe, the Qurayza, be shown the same consideration that earlier, at the intervention of the Khazraj, had been shown to the B. Nadir, who were allowed to emigrate with all the property they could carry away. \"",
"Are you content, then,\" replied Muhammad, \"that their fate be decided by one of yourselves?\" ",
"They said yes, and Muhammad nominated Saad Ibn Muadz to serve as judge. ",
"He was urged by his fellow Aws tribesmen to spare their Jewish allies, but his answer was not encouraging. ",
"He demanded an oath that his sentence would be carried out, and then he pronounced it: all the men were to be slain, the women and children sold into slavery and their property divided among the Muslims.",
"\n\nThe next day Muhammad had ditches dug in the market place of Medina, while the Jewish men were led out in groups, beheaded, one by one, on the edge of the ditch and thrown in (Ibn Hisham, 461f). ",
"One woman, who had thrown a millstone from the battlements, was put to death. ",
"From Muir we learn that Aisha, Muhammad's young wife, related \"... that this woman, whose heart, perhaps was sustained by the faith in the God of her fathers, went smiling and fearlessly to her fate. ",
"Aisha said that she could never get the image of this woman out of her mind\" (Muir, III, 277). ",
"Ibn Hisham states that \"the number of beheaded men was six or seven hundred, though some put the figure as high as eight or nine hundred\" (466). ",
"Muir, however, states that the number of weapons enumerated among the spoil suggests that even 900 seems to be a moderate estimate of the male victims. \"",
"That the massacre,\" he writes, \"was savage and cruel, to a barbarous and inhuman degree, it does not require any comment to prove. ",
"The ostensible grounds upon which Muhammad proceeded were _purely political_ , for as yet he did not profess to force men to join Islam, or to punish them for not embracing it\" (Muir, III, 282). ",
"In the abridgmentof his four-volume study, Muir adds this comment:\n\nThe massacre of the Banu Qurayza was a barbarous deed which cannot be justified by any reason of political necessity. ",
"There was, no doubt, a sufficient cause for attacking them, and even for severely punishing the leaders who had joined the enemy at so critical a moment. ",
"Muhammad might also have been justified in making them quit altogether a neighborhood in which they formed a dangerous nucleus of disaffection at home, and an encouragement for attack from abroad. ",
"But the indiscriminate slaughter of the whole tribe cannot be recognized otherwise than as an act of monstrous cruelty, which casts an indelible blot upon the Prophet's name.",
"\n\nThe sanguinary fate of the Qurayza removed the last remnant of open opposition, political or religious, from the neighborhood of Medina. ",
"It did not, indeed, at the moment escape hostile criticism; but it struck terror into the heart of every disloyal citizen. ",
"The Prophet was invested with a halo so supernatural, and to his enemies so dreadful, that no one dared outwardly to signify dissent. (",
"Muir, Abridgment, pp. ",
"151–2)\n\n**Current Research on the Massacre of the B. Qurayza**\n\nIn an article entitled, \"On Arabs of the Banu Kilab Executed Together with the Jewish Banu Qurayza,\" Michael Lecker calls attention to a unique record that illuminates an aspect of history otherwise unknown to us. ",
"As the title of the article states, the record concerns a clan of Arab proselytes whose men were executed by Muhammad together with the Banu Qurayza. ",
"Lecker makes the significant observation that the massacre was unprecedented in the Arabian Peninsula – a novelty. ",
"Prior to Islam, the annihilation of an adversary was never an aim of war. ",
"When, after their victory in the battle of Buath on the eve of Islam, the Aws killed many of the defeated Khazraj, someone allegedly shouted: \"O Company of the Aws, be gentle and do not destroy your brothers, because having them as neighbors is better than having foxes as neighbors.\" ",
"This is a genuine reflection, says Lecker, of pre-Islamic attitudes and practices.",
"\n\n**The Conquest of Khaybar**\n\nOn his return from Hudabiyya in the spring of 628, where Muhammad had negotiated a treaty with the Quraysh, he promised those who had accompanied him in that pilgrimage the early prospect of rich and extensive plunder. ",
"But the summer passed without any action, and his followers became restless. ",
"Muhammad was, most likely, waiting for some act on the part of the Jews of Khaybar that he could describe as a provocation. ",
"It was the fertile lands and villages of Khaybar that he had hoped to turn over to his followers. ",
"As no such provocation occurred to serve as a pretext for attack, he resolved in the autumn of 628 on a \"sudden and unprovoked invasion of their territory\" (Muir, vol. ",
"IV, 61).",
"\n\nThe army marched from Medina, 1600 strong, about the same number that had accompanied him on his pilgrimage to Hudabiyya. ",
"The army was reinforced by a cavalry, estimated at one or two hundred. ",
"It is clear that Muhammad and many other Medinans looked upon Khaybar as the juiciest plum available. ",
"As Muir observes, many of the other inhabitants of Medina and the surrounding Bedouin tribes that had ignored Muhammad's earlier summons, were eager to join this expedition, but were not permitted, and their disappointment was great at being left behind.",
"\n\nThe distance of 100 miles or so, was accomplished in three forced marches. ",
"So quick was their movement and the surprise so complete, that the cultivators of Khaybar, coming out to their fields in early morning, suddenly found themselves confronted by a huge army, and rushed back to the city in dismay. ",
"The rich valley of Khaybar consisted of numerous villages and strongholds overlooking date groves and fields of corn. ",
"The rapid approach of Muhammad's forces precluded any timely aid from the Banu Ghatafan, as Ibn Hisham explains:\n\nIn his march from Medina to Khaybar Muhammad halted in a wadi between Khaybar and Ghatafan so as to prevent the men of the latter from reinforcing Khaybar, for they sided with Khaybar. ",
"When the men of Ghatafan heard of Muhammad's assault on Khaybar they marched out to help the Jews, but after a day's journey, hearing a rumor that their camps have been attacked in their absence, they went back on their tracks and left the way to Khaybar open to Muhammad. (",
"Ibn Hisham, p. 511)\n\nBefore any general defense could be organized in Khaybar, their forts were attacked, one by one, and overcome. ",
"From the villages in the valleys of Natah and Schickk, which Muhammad defeated with little loss, he proceeded to the region of Kutayba. ",
"There, however, the Jews had had time to rally around their chief, Kinana, and to prepare for the assault. ",
"They posted themselves in front of the citadel, and resolved on a desperate struggle. ",
"After several failed attempts to dislodge them, Muhammad planned a major offensive. ",
"A great black flag was placed in the hand of Ali, the Prophet's cousin, and Muhammad's troops advanced. ",
"At that moment a warrior stepped forth out of the Jewish line of defense and challenged his adversaries to single combat – which was the customary way that battles began. ",
"The first Muslim who answered the challenge, aimed a blow at the Jewish warrior with deadly force, but the sword recoiled upon himself and he fell fatally wounded. ",
"The Jew named Marhab repeated his challenge, and then Ali advanced, saying that his mother had named him _the Lion_ , and he will demonstrate that the name is well deserved. ",
"The two combatants closed in upon each other and Ali cleft the head of Marhab in two. ",
"Marhab's brother renewed the challenge, and was also slain. ",
"In the battle that ensued between the two forces, the Muslim victory was decisive, the Jews losing 93 men and the Muslims nineteen.",
"\n\nAfter the defeat, the fortress of Qamuss surrendered on condition that its families would be free to leave the country but yield all their property to the conqueror. ",
"With the rest, Kinana, Chief of the Jews of Khaybar, came forward with his cousin. ",
"Muhammad accused them both of keeping back a portion of their wealth, especially the treasures of the Banu Nadir, which Kinana had obtained as a dowry when marrying the daughter of the chief of that tribe. \"",
"Where are the vessels of gold,\" Muhammad asked, \"which you used to lend to the people of Mecca? ",
"If you conceal anything from me,\" Muhammad continued, \"and I should discover it, then your lives and the lives of your families will be at my disposal.\" ",
"Kinana and his cousin agreed, but a traitorous Jew divulged to Muhammad where a part of the wealth was hidden. ",
"Kinana was then subjected to cruel torture – fire was placed on his chest until he almost expired – with the aim of forcing him to confess where the rest of the treasure was concealed; and hearing no such confession, Muhammad gave the command, and the two chiefs were beheaded.",
"\n\nThe torture and bloodshed had hardly ended, Muir observes, when Muhammad sent Bilal to fetch Safia, the wife of Kinana, whose beauty was well known at Medina. ",
"She was brought across the battlefield strewn with the dead, and past the corpses of Kinana and his cousin. ",
"When Safia's companion saw the headless trunks, she screamed wildly, beating her face and casting dust upon her head. ",
"Muhammad then placed his mantle around Safia, thus signifying that she was to be his own, and the marriage was consummated at Khaybar. ",
"In a footnote, Muir explains why Safia's beauty was, most probably, well known at Medina: \"... (1) she was the daughter of a chief who had long lived in Medina, and was well known there; and (2) because Muhammad, immediately upon Kinana's execution, sent for her and cast his mantle over her. ",
"Indeed, he is not free from the suspicion of being influenced in the destruction of Kinana by the desire of obtaining his wife\" (IV, 68).",
"\n\nThe remaining fortresses capitulated and were thus saved from being sacked; but like the rest of Khaybar were subjected to a tax of half their produce. ",
"Evidently, Muhammad agreed to this arrangement because he recognized that the Jews of Khaybar possessed the agricultural skills which his followers lacked. ",
"There was more to gain from leaving the Jewish farmers in place, and exacting from them 50 percent of their yield, than from expelling or killing them. ",
"That seems to be the substance of Ibn Hisham's account: \"when the people of Khaybar surrendered,... they asked the Prophet to employ them on the property with half share in the produce, saying, 'We know more about it than you and we are better farmers' \" (Ibn, Hisham, 511–12).",
"\n\nThe plunder of Khaybar was richer than any of Muhammad's previous preys – enormous stores of dates, oil, honey and barley, flocks of sheep and herds of camels, and a large treasure of jewels. ",
"A fifth of the whole was, as usual, set apart for the use of the Prophet, and for distribution at will among his family and the poor. ",
"The remaining four-fifths were sold and the proceeds, according to the prescribed rule, were divided into 1800 shares, one for every foot soldier and three for a horseman. ",
"The villages and lands were also divided, but on a different principle: one half for Muhammad, which was treated as a kind of crown domain; the other half divided into 1800 portions and allotted by the same rule as the personal booty. ",
"Clearly, a large and permanent source of revenue was thus secured for all those who had remained loyal to the Prophet. ",
"Muir recognizes, of course, that\n\neven in those portions of Khaybar which were gained by storm, it was found expedient, in the absence of other [i.e., Arab] cultivators, to leave the Jewish inhabitants in possession on the condition already specified, of surrendering half the produce... This arrangement continued until the Caliphate of Omar, when, there being no scarcity of Muslim husbandmen, the Jews were expatriated and entire possession taken of their lands. (",
"IV, 75)\n\nAfter returning from Khaybar, Muhammad undertook several expeditions which showed that his influence was fast expanding and bringing him gradually into relations even with distant tribes. ",
"His mind now turns to Mecca. ",
"The time had come, he believed, to return to his country and people. ",
"He plans a lesser pilgrimage, takes precautionary measures before entering Mecca, enters and performs the circuit of the Kaaba, and sizes up the situation. ",
"He discerns the growth of his reputation, the declining power and spirit of the Quraysh, the war-weariness of the Meccans, and the growth of advocates of compromise and peace. ",
"And among the Quraysh there no longer seemed to be leaders of marked ability or commanding influence. ",
"It was time for a bold and rapid stroke that would bring Mecca too into his militant polity. ",
"In January 630, the murder of a Muslim by a Meccan in a private quarrel, provided the pretext for the final attack and the conquest of Mecca. ",
"With the capture of Mecca and the submission of the Quraysh to the Umma of Islam, the mission of the Prophet during his lifetime was virtually completed; and in the year of life that remained to him, he appears to have engaged in no notable activity.",
"\n\nFor Muir, it seems clear that Muhammad had acquired in Mecca a vivid sense of a special mission and had developed an authentic belief in the one God, with its corresponding denunciation of polytheism. ",
"At Medina, however, one sees the salience of worldly motives, though mixed with religious interests. ",
"In the name of the Almighty, he wielded the sword against all who opposed him.",
"\n10\n\nMuhammad and the Jews\n\nBasing himself on several well-known inscriptions, and on the work of Werner Caskel, Barakat Ahmad is inclined to agree that the evidence points to a Jewish population that eventually occupied all the oases in the northwest of the Peninsula, including Yathrib-Medina, which, having been rich in underground water, provided the Jews with a land where they could apply their farming experience. ",
"Ahmad agrees with the Jewish historians whom we cited earlier – Graetz, Baron, and others – that it was the Jews who introduced in the Hijaz, palms, a variety of fruit trees and rice, as well as advanced methods of irrigation and cultivation; they also introduced diverse arts and crafts, ranging from metal work to dyeing, to the making of fine jewelry.",
"\n\nAhmad also agrees that these Jews appear to have become Arabianized, judging from their tribal and personal names. ",
"He therefore addresses the question of whether the term Judaism ought to be applied to these Jews of the Hijaz. ",
"He cites two Jewish scholars with opposing views. ",
"H. G. Reissner, for example, calls it inappropriate to call these tribes \"Jews\":\n\nLess than a hundred years prior to Muhammad's birth, the Talmud had been completed in Babylon. ",
"At that time, there was complete agreement, _intra muros et extra_ ,asto who was a Jew and what constitutes the essence of Judaism. ",
"A Jew was a follower of the Mosaic Law as interpreted by the teachers of the Law in accordance with the principles laid down in the Talmud... Whoever did not conform... was discounted. ",
"If [however] he was Israelite by descent, he could not be deprived of his birthright, viz., ",
"to be called Ben Israel, as in Arabia...\n\nIsrael Friedlaender, disagreeing with Reissner, states that his examination of the Gaonate documents have shown that there was, in fact, contact of Arab Jews with the Gaonate, Jewish religious leadership, in Babylon:\n\nIt is characteristic of the central position of the Gaonate in Jewish life that... it was able to exert its influence over the distant half-mythical Jews in free Arabia and shape their professional and civil life. ",
"It shows at the same time that the Arabian Jews, however far removed from Jewish learning, recognized the authority of the Talmud and were not in any way guilty of those anti-Talmudic sentiments which Graetz is prone to ascribe to their forefathers.",
"\n\nAhmad, proceeding with the assumption that the tribes and clans in question were certainly regarded as Jewish, describes their situation as he understands it from Muslim sources as well. ",
"They owned almost 60 _atam_ (sing. _",
"utum_ ), which formed a prominent feature of Yathrib, and were, in fact, forts stocked with provisions and water and strong enough to withstand attacks and big enough to endure long sieges. ",
"The forts also contained schools, synagogues and council halls. ",
"In Ibn Khaldun's terms, the Jews represented the sedentary culture in the Hijaz. ",
"They lived in forts in recognition of the Hobbesian nature of their environs, and their potential vulnerability to those whom Ibn Khaldun characterized as \"savage Bedouin.\"",
"\n\nAhmad now refers to Khaybar (with which we are now quite familiar) as the second most important Jewish settlement, about 90 miles north of Medina, and located on a very high mountainous plateau entirely composed of lava deposits and malarial swamps. ",
"There the Jews cultivated grapes, vegetables and grain, and raised sheep, cattle, camels, horses, and donkeys. ",
"They also had palm groves; and they traded with Syria, benefiting from the caravan trade between Arabia, Syria and Iraq. ",
"In addition, the Khaybar Jews were known for crafting metal tools and weapons, such as battering rams and catapults. ",
"There were several groups of forts, many built on hilltops, in what appeared to be impregnable positions. ",
"According to alYaqubi, thousands of people lived in these forts. ",
"It hardly needs to be said, then, that the Khaybar Jews lived in strongholds out of the same security considerations as those of the Medinan Jews.",
"\n\nAhmad now reviews briefly the pre-Islamic history of the Hijaz, the arrival of certain Arab tribes from the south who settled or camped on land that had not been brought under cultivation. ",
"They apparently accepted the economically dominant position of the Jews and entered into a relationship with them that was of _jiwar_ (neighbor) or of _hilf_ (confederation). _",
"Hilf_ is a compact between separate tribes with the aim of establishing long-term peace between them. ",
"The compact is made for common defense, common responsibility for debts to third parties, for revenge and for common use of pasturage. ",
"Towards the middle of the sixth century the relationship between the two parties changed owing to the revolt led by Malik b. al-Ajlan against the Jewish overlords, a revolt prompted by the tribute they had been paying. ",
"It appears, then, that the Medinan Jews had lost their position of dominance some time before the birth of the Prophet.",
"\n\nAfter the middle of the sixth century, the Jewish tribes of Medina appear definitely to have become weaker. ",
"The fact that even before the battle of Buath (the battles between the Arab tribes, the Aws and the Khazraj, fought some years before the migration of the Prophet) the Banu-Nadir and BanuQurayza had given hostages to the Khazraj, suggests that they were fully aware of their weaker position. ",
"Hence, at the battle of Buath, both Jewish tribes helped the Aws against the Khazraj even at the cost of the lives of some of their hostages. ",
"The Jewish support made it possible for the Aws to gain victory at Buath. ",
"Though the Aws seemed to have gained the upper hand, they and the Khazraj and everyone else in Medina knew that this was only a temporary truce and that the deadly quarrel can break out again at any moment.",
"\n\nWe get close to the historical truth, then, by recognizing that the Arab tribes in Medina and its vicinity, and indeed, throughout the northern Peninsula were – when Muhammad arrived in Medina – in a condition which Ibn Khaldun had described in proto-Hobbesian terms as a \"war of each against all.\" ",
"Though no formal peace was made after the battle of Buath ( _c_. ",
"615 CE), the warring clans and tribes were too exhausted to continue an active struggle. ",
"During this uneasy truce, the Jewish tribes regained some of their former influence. ",
"This was the state of affairs in Medina that made possible the invitation to Muhammad to move to Medina, and to serve as an arbitrator seeking to arrange that the warring tribes should settle their dispute by peaceful means. ",
"His ultimate aim, at first, was to put an end to the conflicts both among the Arabs and between the Arabs and the Jews, and to create a new community based on his new religious message. ",
"His efforts at creating the first stage of such a unity resulted in a formal document, _Sahifa_ , which sought to provide the basis for positive law in the community thus created – an _Ummah_. ",
"The _Sahifa_ was signed, as we learned earlier, by the new converts to Islam and by the Jews.",
"\n\nThis _Ummah_ , as envisioned by Muhammad and formalized in the _Sahifa_ , could work only with the willing cooperation of all its constituents: the _Muhajirun_ (Emigrants), the _Ansar_ (the Medinan supporters of Muhammad) and the Jews. ",
"The first five years of Muhammad's work in Medina were spent in trying to gain such cooperation. ",
"Ahmad suggests that some within the _Ansar_ and some among the Jews tended to withhold their cooperation, which led to the deteriorating relationship between Muhammad and the Jews, and to the military encounters between them.",
"\n\nAhmad surmises that the Jews could not forget that they were the original settlers of Yathrib and that they represented a superior culture which, Ahmad believes, accounts for their reluctance to accept a contract implying that it was made among equals. ",
"Muhammad's extreme disappointment with the Jewish refusal to recognize him as a prophet, led to his hostility towards them and to the wars against them. ",
"Ahmad now gives us some fresh insights into the strengths and weaknesses of siege warfare.",
"\n\nA key factor in the defeat of the Jews, Ahmad avers, was their reliance on their _atam_ , fort-like castles built on heights. ",
"Within the strongholds, as observed earlier, were stores of food, silos, halls for conferences, schools, synagogues, a treasury and armory, and springs of fresh water. ",
"These strongholds were assumed to provide protection against the raiding Bedouin, a relatively sound assumption in _pre_ -Islamic Arabia, where the Arab raiders had neither the equipment nor the patience for a prolonged siege. ",
"Arab warfare started with the hurling of insults against the adversary and extravagant praise for one's own clan or tribe. ",
"Ahmad now makes the perspicacious observation, that the most important and indeed decisive factor in a siege is the endurance and determination of both sides. ",
"Siege warfare is fundamentally different from ordinary warfare where the combatants on both sides are soldiers. ",
"But in the siege of a fort, which is not of an exclusively garrison nature, the majority of the besieged are non-combatant men, women and children. ",
"The children and the elderly unavoidably suffer the same privations, wounds and threat of death as the soldiers. ",
"Hunger and disease can easily undermine even the best-fortified strongholds. ",
"So for a realistic explanation of the extraordinary success of the Prophet's followers in war, we need to take seriously not only their considerable martial prowess resulting from their new religious zeal, but also the fact that in all four major encounters with Muhammad, the Jews of the Hijaz chose the shelter and protection of their _atam_ , and were defeated in all four encounters.",
"\n\nIt is in these terms that Muhammad and his followers learned something new about the power equation between the desert and the sown. ",
"The \"something new\" was the recognition of the vulnerability of even the best-fortified settlements and towns, a recognition that became an all-important element of Muslim military strategy in their spectacular conquests after the death of the Prophet. ",
"In those terms, Muhammad's war against the Jews of the Hijaz was a \"dress rehearsal\" for the wars of Islam against the empires.",
"\n\nAhmad refers to four encounters, the fourth being Khaybar, which may require some qualification of the proposition stated in the previous paragraph. ",
"For Ahmad observes that Muhammad, as a gifted and experienced commander, could foresee the risks of imposing a siege on Khaybar – located on a heavily fortified, high mountainous plateau, surrounded by cultivated valleys and malarial swamps. ",
"Muhammad took the field nevertheless, but the battle was inconclusive and a peace was negotiated, but only after a great loss of life. ",
"The Jews agreed, as we saw earlier, to pay a tribute of 50 percent of their yield, and Muhammad recognized the advantage he gained by leaving the Jewish communities intact. ",
"The Jews, though they had not in this case decisively lost, were compelled to negotiate because they had underestimated their new kind of adversary. ",
"Their impressive fortification that had served them so well in pre-Islamic times, now turned out to be not quite adequate.",
"\n\nAhmad, turning his attention to the advance of Islam after the death of the Prophet, proposes that the advance benefited the Jews and, indeed, was concomitant with the Jewish renaissance. ",
"It is the great, Jewish–Muslim symbiosis that accounts for the golden age of their fruitful encounter. ",
"In the light of that history, Ahmad regards it as misleading to speak of a \"break with the Jews.\" ",
"The Jews faded out of the limelight, but did not disappear from Medina. ",
"When the Apostle died, his coat of mail was mortgaged to a Jew who had supplied him with food grains. ",
"The Jews, says Ahmad, were obviously conducting business as usual. ",
"For the Muslim chroniclers of wars, however, and for the biographer of the Prophet, the Jews of the Hijaz ceased to be of interest after the peace of Khaybar. ",
"The Jews of the Hijaz were neither expelled nor did they leave the region during Muhammad's lifetime.",
"\n\nAhmad continues with these reflections:\n\nIn less than twenty years after the death of the Apostle they [the Jews] demolished the walls of their mental and spiritual _utum_ [fortress] and walked out to accept the challenge of a Muslim society which opened for them the doors of its mosques, schools, bazaars, markets and civil service, for education, social assimilation and their participation in the civic and political life. ",
"They took the full advantage of... all the intellectual and spiritual resources offered by the dominant elite without disappearing as a marginal minority. ",
"They joined [in effect] the Muslim _Ummah_ as sustaining members. ",
"For 700 years their destiny was bound up with that of the Muslims. (",
"125)\n\nAhmad cites Ellis Rivkin's _The Shaping of Jewish History_ : \"Every phase of Islamic growth was accompanied by a positive and creative reaction among Jews. ",
"Every phase of Muslim breakdown was accompanied by a [Jewish] disintegration: a golden age when [Muslim] Spain's wealth grew; humiliation and exile when it dwindled\" (138). ",
"And in the same vein, Ahmad cites the perceptive comment by Joel Carmichael in his _The Shaping of the Arabs_ , who considers it \"very strange that while Christianity was gradually to disappear in most parts of the Muslim empire, Jewish communities survived and flourished – in Bukhara, formerly a great Christian center; in Yemen, once a Christian bishopric; and in North Africa, the home of St. Augustine\" (p. 54). ",
"Ahmad remarks: \"It would not look strange if the restricted nature and the limits of the Muslim-Jewish conflict were seen in their proper perspective\" (125).",
"\n\nWhen Ahmad thus makes the case that after Muhammad's death Jews fared comparatively well under Muslim hegemony, he stands on rather firm ground where the historical evidence is concerned. ",
"But some of his other assertions about the Prophet, in particular, appear to fly in the face of historical facts. ",
"For example, Ahmad writes that all of the Prophet's\n\nmarriages aimed to promote friendly relations in the political sphere. ",
"The union with Rayhana [the wife of one of the Jewish men of the Qurayza who were beheaded at Muhammad's command] was in fact a political announcement that Muhammad had closed the chapter of bitterness and was making another attempt to win the friendship of the B. Qurayza through marriage with a lady of their clan. _",
"The gesture would have been meaningless and empty if all the male adults had been slain and their women and children sold as slaves_. (",
"123, italics added)\n\nIf we read the italicized passage literally, Ahmad appears to deny that the massacre of the men of Qurayza and the sale of the women and children into slavery, is a historical fact. ",
"If that is what Ahmad meant to say in this passage, one wonders on what ground he chose to make such a claim when Ibn Hisham states the fact without hesitation or qualification:\n\nSaad gives the judgment as the so-called umpire, [Ibn Hisham writes], that the men should be killed, their property confiscated, and the women and children taken and sold as slaves. ",
"Then Muhammad went out to the market of Medina and dug ditches in it. ",
"Then he sent for the men of this Jewish tribe and struck off their heads in those ditches as they were brought out to him in batches... There were 600 or 700 in all, though some put the figure as high as 800 or 900. (",
"461)\n\nAhmad makes another claim about the Prophet's marriages with Jewish women: \"Muhammad tried to strengthen his negotiated peace with the state of Khaybar by the same sign of goodwill. ",
"He took Safiah in marriage and thus sealed his alliance with the most important Jewish power in the Hijaz\" (124). ",
"In the first place, one wonders why Ahmad calls it an \"alliance\" rather than an acceptance by the vanquished of the terms imposed by the victor – 50 percent of the agricultural yield of the vanquished. ",
"And how can this relationship be called an \"alliance,\" when a key provision of the imposed terms stipulated that Muhammad was entitled to expel the Jews from Khaybar any time he wished? (",
"Ibn Hisham, p. 516). ",
"Secondly, how can Muhammad's taking of Safiah as his wife be a sign of goodwill, when he had just tortured and murdered her husband Kinana and her brother-in-law? ",
"Furthermore, as we saw earlier in William Muir's analysis of the event, Safiah's reputation as a great beauty, and the fact that the Prophet sent for her immediately following Kinana's execution, suggests that Muhammad's motive in destroying Kinana was the desire to obtain his wife (Muir, IV, 68). ",
"But Ahmad concludes his study without providing any evidence for his notion that no massacre of the Qurayza had occurred, and that Muhammad's taking of Rayhana and Safiah were diplomatic marriages and signs of goodwill.",
"\n\n**Muhammad and the Jews: G. D. Newby's Re-Examination of the Evidence**\n\nNewby implicitly agrees with our sociological argument that Muhammad's move from Mecca to Medina, the Hijrah of 622 CE, was a watershed event in the life and career of the Prophet. ",
"It was a turning point, as we have argued, because, if he had remained in the city of his birth and had failed to receive the opportunity for the Hijrah, it is a near certainty that a world-historical religion would never have resulted from his efforts. ",
"The Hijrah, far from being a voluntary act on Muhammad's part, was a necessary move owing to the growing hostility toward him by his fellow Meccans, some of whom went so far as to attempt to kill him. ",
"His early converts were few in number and persecuted to the extent that they had to seek refuge in Abyssinia. ",
"Moreover, Muhammad's last-resort attempt to find favor in Taif, Mecca's sister-city, was a total failure. ",
"Newby reminds us that while there is some debate among scholars concerning the reasons for Muhammad's sending his followers to Abyssinia, it seems clear that he wished to place emerging Islam in the Byzantine–Abyssinian camp. ",
"This was made possible, as noted earlier, by the considerable resemblance between Muhammad's teachings and elements of Byzantine–Abyssinian Christianity – so strong a resemblance, indeed, that Muhammad's followers who fled to Abyssinia may have been perceived as a Christian sect.",
"\n\nMuhammad's opportunity to migrate to Medina emerged when a few members of a polytheistic Arab tribe, the Banu Qaylah, better known by the two branch names, the Banu Aus and the Banu Khazraj, came to Mecca for the annual fair. ",
"Traditions relate that the Banu Qaylah had come to Medina from Yemen sometime in the middle of the sixth century CE and settled among the inhabitants, most of whom were Jewish. ",
"Originally subordinate to the Jewish tribes, the B. Qaylah had to settle on agricultural land of lesser quality. ",
"In time, competition over scarce natural resources put them at odds with the Jewish inhabitants, and in the resulting conflicts the Arab tribe gained a measure of independence from the Jews, and perhaps even dominance.",
"\n\nNewby proposes that, \"For the Aus and the Khazraj, linking their fate with Muhammad's rising fortunes would have been seen as a means toward further independence from the Jewish control of the city of Medina.\" ",
"This proposition of Newby's might require a corrective, in that Muhammad was experiencing no rising fortunes at that moment. ",
"On the contrary, he was experiencing serious setbacks and discouragement. ",
"What Muhammad possessed, however, despite the setbacks, was a reputation that had gone before him as a prophet and perhaps even as a messianic figure. ",
"A more likely explanation, then, of the Arab individuals' motives and aims in inviting Muhammad to Medina, is their having learned of his reputation. ",
"In their interactions and conversations with the Jews, members of the Arab tribes would have learned about Jewish eschatological beliefs, and their hopes and expectations for the coming of a Messiah. ",
"Given the apparent fact that Muhammad's reputation as a prophet had spread beyond Mecca during the years of his proselytizing, it is highly probable that the Arab members who met him at the fair, and invited him to Medina, wished to win him over to their cause before the Jews got to him first. ",
"In their conveyance of Jewish eschatological beliefs, the Jews might have asserted that the coming Messiah will first liberate them; but they might also have told their Arab interlocutors, that a universal deliverance would follow, as envisioned, perhaps, by Isaiah. ",
"Hence, the Arabs who negotiated with Muhammad may have reasoned that if they got to him in time, it is the Arabs who will first prosper and gain power.",
"\n\nNewby reviews the complexity of the Medinan social structure, the numerous clans, their mutual hostility, and the long war ending with the Battle of Buath shortly before the Hijra. ",
"The war had left everyone exhausted but not at peace. ",
"Earlier scholars had treated the Aus and the Khazraj as if each had been a distinct and unified tribe. ",
"But Newby, basing himself on more recent research, speaks of _clans_ as armed camps, and agricultural land jealously guarded against raids by hostile neighbors. ",
"Tribal affiliations were weak, if not totally fictitious, and the cramped space of the oasis exacerbated the mutual hatreds. ",
"Jews and non-Jews formed alliances that were abandoned when one or another found an agreement to be no longer in its interest. ",
"Factors of location and occupation, Newby notes, were apparently as important as religion and tribal heritage in some of the alliances.",
"\n\nNewby now makes an observation that implicitly tends to support the cogency of our sociological argument concerning the significance of the Hijra. ",
"He points out that the agreement the Aus and the Khazraj had made with Muhammad allowed some seventy of his followers to precede him to Medina. ",
"These became guests in the homes of the Medinans who had, evidently, \"accepted Muhammad on both religious and political grounds, although it is not clear to what extent religion played a part in the acceptance of Muhammad by the majority of the Aus and Khazraj. ",
"It appears most likely that Muhammad's appeal was as an arbiter among the warring factions in the town, which would fit perceptions that some had of him in Mecca\" (80). ",
"In an endnote Newby explains why there were such perceptions: \"Muhammad was called a _kahin_ in Mecca by some of his detractors. ",
"Not only did this imply that he was a mantic seer, capable of giving minor prophecies in _saj_ , 'rhymed prose'; it also meant that he could act as an intermediary in disputes as he had done when he cleverly solved the problem of replacing the cornerstone in the Kaaba by having a representative of each tribe lift the stone in place while holding onto a blanket in which it was wrapped, thus preventing any one of them from claiming priority over another\" (146–7, n. 7).",
"\n\nNewby reminds us that after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, sources tell us of a treaty, or several treaties, called by Western scholars, the \"Constitution of Medina,\" that established Muhammad in a central, leadership role in Medinan society. ",
"From Ibn Ishaq we learn that the Prophet made an agreement with the _Muhajirun_ , those who had come from Mecca with Muhammad on the Hijra, and the _Ansar_ , the \"Helpers\" of Medina who supported them. ",
"Included in this agreement in the form conveyed by Ibn Ishaq, were the Jews of the city, although a serious question remains about which Jews, and when the agreement was made. ",
"Ibn Ishaq dated the agreement at the beginning of Muhammad's stay in Medina, and later Muslim historians agreed. ",
"But Newby alerts us, to the fact, that by dating what was purportedly a general agreement with all of the Jews of Medina early, Muhammad was credited with an honor and power he acquired only later; the importance of the early dating being that subsequent Jewish opposition to Muhammad could thereby be characterized as a violation of the agreement, thus justifying his retaliations against them.",
"\n\nNewby draws our attention to two questions about the agreement, its authenticity and its dating. ",
"He cites Moshe Gil's well-known article, \"The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration,\" where Gil convincingly argues for the unity and authenticity of the document, supporting observations made by some earlier scholars, that non-Muslims are included in the _ummah_ , that Ibn Ishaq appears to make no corrections or interpolations, and that Muhammad is presented as occupying a relatively minor position. ",
"In response to Gil's view, however, some scholars have asked, if the document is authentic, why then are not all the Jews and Arabs mentioned in the document? ",
"And what is the relationship between this document and the tradition cited by al-Waqidi, that Muhammad had made a pact with _all_ the Jews, which they are alleged to have subsequently broken? ",
"Newby now proceeds to offer an adequate response to these questions.",
"\n\nWhile still in Mecca, Muhammad may very well have believed that Jews and Christians would recognize him as a prophet and embrace his message, given his apparent self-understanding as a prophet in the line of Jewish prophets. ",
"And in Medina, as he was invited to serve as judge and mediator, he felt he had the authority to legislate both for his group of Muslims and for the Jews. ",
"Newby cites Quranic passages to make his case. ",
"In the fifth chapter of the Quran, for example, we find outlines of dietary laws, laws of inter-confessional marriage, and ritual hygiene. ",
"In verse 5 we read: \"Today the good things are made lawful for you. ",
"The food of those who have been given the Scripture is lawful for you, and your food is lawful for them.\" ",
"That this is stated with the Jews in mind is confirmed by verse 7, where the audience is told, \"Remember the kindness of God to you and His covenant by which He bound you, and you said, 'We hear and we obey.' \" ",
"Newby remarks how dietary laws, historically, tended to bind Jews together while separating them from non-Jews. ",
"It therefore seems reasonable to suppose that Muhammad intended to use the same method to unify his new community. ",
"From the standpoint of Muhammad's legislation Jews could be included in the _ummah_ if they accepted his definition of _kashrut_.",
"\n\nThat Muhammad might have discerned a fundamental harmony between Islam and Judaism is further attested by the common observance of the fast on the tenth of the month of Tishri, the Yom Kippur fast, which was eventually replaced by the month-long fast of Ramadan, but not abrogated. ",
"Early Muslims, as we have seen, prayed facing Jerusalem along with the Jews, and some Muslims continued to read the Torah along with the Quran in their devotionals. ",
"Moreover, Muslim ideas about the sanctuary at Mecca, seem to have emerged in a Jewish environment. ",
"To support this proposition, Newby cites the relevant scholarly debate. ",
"In an 1982 article, Gerald Hawting addressed the old issue of the origins of the Muslim sanctuary at Mecca and challenged the notions of the similarities between Muslim sanctuary ideas and those of Judaism. ",
"Hawting rejected as unconvincing the explanations put forth by both Dozy and Snouck Hurgronje. ",
"Dozy's argument for successive migrations of Jews into Arabia from a time even before the establishment of Jerusalem as a Jewish sanctuary was successfully replaced by Snouck Hurgronje's arguments, that the acceptance of the Meccan sanctuary was a result of Muhammad's rejection by the Jews. ",
"Hawting argues, instead:\n\nIt seems that the Muslim sanctuary at Mecca is the result of a sort of compromise between a pre-existing pagan sanctuary and sanctuary ideas which had developed first in a Jewish milieu. ",
"I envisage that Muslim sanctuary ideas originated first in a Jewish matrix, as did Islam itself... It seems likely that the Meccan sanctuary was chosen only after the elimination of other possibilities – that in the early Islamic period a number of possible sanctuary sites gained adherents until finally Mecca became established as the Muslim sanctuary. ",
"And it also seems likely that one reason for the adoption of the Meccan sanctuary was that it did approximate to the sanctuary ideas which had already been formed – although they had to be reformulated, the physical facts of the Meccan sanctuary did not mean that already existing notions and terminology had to be abandoned... The Muslim sanctuary at Mecca should no longer be regarded as simply a remnant of Arab paganism. (",
"cited by Newby, p. 84)\n\nNewby proceeds to explore the significance of Hawting's proposition. ",
"First, the Jewish rejection of Muhammad's message in Medina prompted him neither toward an accommodation of pre-Islamic paganism, nor to a general condemnation of Jews and Judaism. ",
"Second, Muhammad appears to have continued to act within categories shared with the Jews of the Hijaz, even after he and his message were attacked by them. ",
"For Newby, what is fundamental in Muhammad's message is that\n\nMuhammad appeared to himself and to some others as a genuine continuation of the process of divine revelation; he was not crassly \"accommodating\" to the Jews to try to win them over, only to abandon them in the face of opposition. ",
"Such cynicism falls short when it comes to explaining Muhammad's appeal and successes. ",
"Islam and Judaism in Arabia during Muhammad's lifetime were operating in the same sphere of religious discourse: the same fundamental questions were discussed from similar perspectives; moral and ethical values were similar; and both religions shared the same religious characters, stories and anecdotes. ",
"We can see this when we look at the implied context of the Quranic message. ",
"There is no expectation that the stories we call biblical are anything but familiar to the Arabian listeners, whether they are pagan, Jewish, or Christian. ",
"And to this argument we must also add the element of paganism. ",
"Not only is there the implication from the Quran that pagans knew the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim stories, but it is also implied that Jews, Christians, and Muslims knew the pagan stories. ",
"When there was disagreement, as between Muhammad and the Jews, the disagreement was over interpretation of shared topics, not over two mutually exclusive views of the world. (",
"84–5)\n\nNewby argues that Muhammad had earlier expected to convert the Jews and that this expectation was not unreasonable in the light of his aim of reforming the Abrahamic heritage among the Jews and Christians of Arabia. ",
"There were in fact very few Jews who accepted Muhammad's message, and Newby is probably right to assume that even the very few such converts served to raise the level of anxiety in the Jewish communities. ",
"Newby convincingly proposes that Jewish opposition to Muhammad appears to be a combination of religious and political motives which were not separated in the minds of either the Jews or the Arabs. ",
"Indeed, it was the fusion of Muhammad's political–military and prophetic roles in Medina that eventually accounted for his success. ",
"For it was after the \"miraculous\" victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh at Badr that Muhammad gained considerable prestige in Medina and among the surrounding Bedouin tribes, a prestige he soon transformed into political power. ",
"The victory at Badr, however, was followed by a raid on the Muslims by Abu Sufyan, the Meccan commander. ",
"According to Muslim traditions, it was the leaders of the Banu Nadir who hosted Abu Sufyan and his raiders, supplying him with up-to-date intelligence about the Muslim forces. ",
"Although the raid itself was militarily insignificant, it revealed the relationship between the Jewish tribe, B. Nadir, and Muhammad's Meccan enemy. ",
"The Jewish public rhetoric against Muhammad together with the B. Nadir's secret dealings with his enemies, compelled him to act decisively, and to show that he was not weakened by the Meccan attacks. ",
"Ibn Ishaq reports that the Jewish tribe, the B. Qaynuqa, were the first to abrogate what was between them and the messenger of God. ",
"Ibn Ishaq fails to explain the cause of the breach, but Ibn Hisham tells the story with which we are now familiar, that some Jewish men of the B. Qaynuqa pinned the skirt of an Arab woman while she was seated in their market, so that when she stood up her nudity was exposed. ",
"A Muslim who was present took revenge on the Jew responsible for the prank, by killing him; and the Jews retaliated afterward, killing the Muslim.",
"\n\nAlthough W. Montgomery Watt asserts that the B. Qaynuqa were besieged in their strongholds and then expelled, Barakat Ahmad contends that the expulsion of the B. Qaynuqa never took place during Muhammad's lifetime. ",
"Following Ibn Ishaq and Ibn Hisham, he observes that only al-Waqidi introduced the expulsion feature of the story, and that two famous Hadiths date the expulsion after Muhammad's death. ",
"For Muhammad, Ahmad argues, the defeat of the Qaynuqa and the confiscation of their arms sufficed, because he succeeded in separating them from their allies, while none of the other Jewish groups came to their defense. ",
"Newby believes that Ahmad's argument is further strengthened by the traditions reporting that the needy _Muhajirun_ were not given confiscated land until after the expulsion of the B. Nadir.",
"\n\nAs the Jewish resistance to Muhammad continued, it took the form of a propaganda campaign. ",
"As we learned earlier, poetry fulfilled the function of journalism in Arabia, informing, but also inciting, and serving as the opening salvo in battle. ",
"One of the Jewish leaders, Kaab al-Ashraf, whose mother was from the B. Nadir, wrote a poem that was intended to be vulgar and insulting, the offensive nature of which ensured that it would be broadcast. ",
"Muhammad's reaction was predictable anger, and he asked, \"Who will rid me of Ibn al-Ashraf?\" ",
"The volunteer was Muhammad b. Maslama, who became one of the first secret assassins in the Muslim force. ",
"Evidently, he was urged to fill that role by Saad b. Muadh, the leader of the B. Abd alAshal, the man who effectively brought about their conversion to Islam. ",
"He served as Muhammad's personal bodyguard at Badr, and urged the slaying of all the Quraysh. ",
"Described as a man of bad temper, he is the individual who played a key role in the massacre of the men of the B. Qurayza. ",
"So this Maslama devised a plot, gained permission from Muhammad to tell lies in order to gain entry to Kaab, and murdered him. ",
"This act cast terror among the Jews, and according to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad followed this with a blanket order to \"kill any Jew who falls into your power.\"",
"\n\nThe battle of Badr was a delightful surprise for the Muslims who had never expected victory over a military force twice the size of their own. ",
"Their victory, Muhammad assured them, was due to God having been on their side. ",
"But in Muhammad's next major military encounter, the famous battle outside Medina around the hill of Uhud, the Muslims were routed when they thought Muhammad had been killed; they regrouped, however, and managed to hold off the Meccan army that somehow had failed to pursue its early advantage when it had it. ",
"Although the result of the battle was certainly no victory, neither was it interpreted as a defeat by Muhammad, since the Muslims had demonstrated that they could not be eliminated by the largest army the Meccans could mobilize.",
"\n\nWe now come to the chain of events that led to the expulsion of the B. Nadir and the even more tragic end of the B. Qurayza. ",
"According to Barakat Ahmad, whose work we discussed earlier, when Muhammad approached the B. Qurayza and the B. Nadir for a renewal of the mutual non-aggression pact, the B. Nadir refused. ",
"Ibn Ishaq reports that Muhammad had asked the B. Nadir to pay the blood-money due under the existing agreement, which they refused. ",
"According to custom, blood-money or a blood-fine was paid when one was responsible for the killing of an individual. ",
"Muhammad had assumed responsibility for two murders committed by one of his followers, and set about collecting funds. ",
"Among those in Medina whom he approached for contributions were the B. Nadir, but as they had had nothing at all to do with the murders, they saw no good reason for making a contribution. ",
"Ibn Ishaq also relates that the B. Nadir had plotted to drop a rock on Muhammad's head, but he was divinely forewarned and saved from assassination. ",
"Newby agrees that the conjectures found in the sources leads one to the conclusion that the explanations for Muhammad's assault upon the B. Nadir are after-the-fact justifications for his move against them. ",
"As we have already learned, the B. Nadir were forced into their strongholds where they were besieged by Muhammad's troops. ",
"They had been promised support by the B. Awf, a group within the B. Khazraj, but the support never materialized and the Nadir were forced to surrender. ",
"In the terms of their capitulation, they were to be expelled from Medina, and allowed to take with them only such goods as they could carry on camelback, except, of course, weapons of war. ",
"Reports concerning this event relate that they dismantled their houses and carried away the doors and the lintels, departing with great pomp. ",
"The tribe's land was then distributed to the _Muhajirun_ , thus eliminating their dependency on the _Ansar_. ",
"As Newby remarks, \"by the fourth year after the Hijrah, Muhammad had neutralized the B. Qaynuqa and deported the B. Nadir. ",
"That left only the B. Qurayza as a major block of Jewish opposition\" (90).",
"\n\nIn the fifth year of the Hijra, the Meccans mobilized a huge military force with the aim of crushing Muhammad and his followers once and for all. ",
"Muhammad's forces may have been outnumbered by as much as three to one. ",
"In this so-called Battle of the Trench, as we have seen, the Muslims, on the advice of a Persian, adopted the stratagem of digging a ditch around the unprotected areas of the city thus succeeding in the repulsion of the Meccan invaders. ",
"As word spread of Muhammad's success, the Meccan alliance of neighboring allies and large Bedouin tribes proceeded to crumble. ",
"Now was the time, Muhammad decided, to remove the last obstacle to his total control of Medina, the B. Qurayza. ",
"According to Ibn Ishaq, Gabriel appeared to the apostle, with the message that Allah commands him to go to the B. Qurayza, for He is about to shake their stronghold. ",
"With this divine sanction, according to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad deployed the recently victorious Muslim army around the strongholds of the B. Qurayza, forcing them to surrender unconditionally. ",
"They had requested the same terms as those granted to the B. Nadir, but were denied them; and because they were outnumbered, without allies and besieged in a stronghold in which, as we have seen, there were women, children, elderly and sick individuals, in addition to the male warriors, they had to submit to whatever Muhammad decided.",
"\n\nThe B. Aws entreated with Muhammad that he deal with the B. Qurayza as he had with the B. Qaynuqa, who had been allies of the B. Khazraj. ",
"Tribal pride and rivalry demanded that each component of the _Ansar_ be treated equally, and the Aws did not want it said that they were less able to protect their allies than their rivals. ",
"In response to the Aws' request, Muhammad persuaded them to agree to his appointing a _hakam_ , a judge, from among them. ",
"When they agreed, he appointed Saad b. Muadh – whom we heard about earlier, as a man of bad temper who had urged the slaying of all the Quraysh. ",
"Newby recognizes, therefore, that Muhammad \"... must have been certain that Saad's judgment would be harsh, and in line with the Prophet's wishes. ",
"And, since Saad was not only one of the Aws but had been wounded at Uhud, there was little that anyone could do to speak against the choice. ",
"They could only urge him to treat their allies with kindness. ",
"Saad replied, 'the time has come for Saad, in the cause of God, not to care for any man's censure.' ",
"After obtaining the explicit permission that they would abide by his decision, Saad ordered that the men should be killed, the property divided, and the women and children taken as captives. ",
"Muhammad supported the judgment by saying that it had come from God 'above the seven heavens.' ",
"It is reported that anywhere from 400 to over 900 adult males were killed and buried in trenches in the market of Medina\" (92).",
"\n\nNewby's review of the evidence tends to support Ibn Hisham's account, which we cited earlier. ",
"The women and children of the B. Qurayza were sold into slavery to purchase horses and weapons for the Muslims, and Muhammad chose one woman, Rayhana, who is said to have remained with him until she died. ",
"Some of the women and children were ransomed by Jews in Medina, Khaybar, Tayma, and Wadi al-Qura. ",
"The tribe of the B. Qurayza was destroyed, thus eliminating all organized Jewish opposition to Muhammad in Medina. ",
"A small number of Jews seem, nevertheless, to have remained in the city. ",
"Muhammad, having secured the city for Islam, could now turn his attention to other Jewish enclaves in the Hijaz.",
"\n\nPreviously we noted that from the time of William Muir's study, if not earlier, Western scholars have viewed the mass execution of the men of the B. Qurayza as a barbarous act unworthy of one with claims to religious leadership. ",
"This has prompted what Newby describes as \"some recent revisionist examinations of the topic by two Muslims, W. N. Arafat and Barakat Ahmad\" (92). ",
"Ahmad, as we have seen, maintained that the massacre had never occurred, arguing that Muhammad's taking of Rayhana was a _diplomatic_ marriage and gesture. ",
"Ahmad then asks the rhetorical question, what good would such a gesture have been, if Muhammad had actually destroyed the B. Qurayza. ",
"Newby, describing a work by M. J. Kister as a \"penetrating and thorough survey of the sources,\" avers that Kister provides a convincing argument that the main outline of events as presented in the _Sirah_ (biography) is correct, \"even if there has been some embellishment by later authors. ",
"It should not come as a surprise that the massacre of the B. Qurayza took place as it did. ",
"The escalating tension between Muhammad and the Jews was bound to force a military confrontation. ",
"It is clear, however, that the underlying policy was not totally anti-Jewish, because Jews remained in the city of Medina and in the territories under Muhammad's control until after his death\" (93).",
"\n\nThe massacre of the B. Qurayza did not, however, bring to an end Jewish resistance in the Hijaz; it continued from the strongly fortified Jewish city of Khaybar. ",
"In the sixth year after the _Hijra_ Muhammad concluded the agreement of Hudaybiyya. ",
"This came about, we recall, as Muhammad marched to the outskirts of Mecca with the proclaimed intention of making an _umra_ , a \"lesser pilgrimage.\" ",
"Stopped at the borders of the sacred territory surrounding Mecca, he negotiated a withdrawal from Mecca for a year, thus providing the Meccans with a face-saving clause. ",
"But the agreement stipulated that in the following year, Muhammad and his followers would be allowed to enter the city, which the Quraysh would, accordingly, vacate for three nights. ",
"As Newby aptly remarks, \"Despite the face-saving clause of immediate withdrawal, the treaty of al-Hudaybiyya showed that Muhammad had won and that there was no longer any serious Meccan opposition possible\" (94).",
"\n\nSeveral months later, in the seventh year, Muhammad besieged Khaybar. ",
"He now had no fear that the Meccans would come to the aid of their erst-while allies, and no need to worry about a force at his back from Medina. ",
"As we have already learned, the economic basis of Khaybar's wealth was agriculture, and date-palms in particular, as was true of the other oasis towns in the Hijaz. ",
"Considerable expertise was required for artificial irrigation, horticulture and all the other skills needed for successful farming in the desert climate. ",
"Possessing these skills, the Jews were able to negotiate terms that allowed them to remain on their land in return for the payment to Muhammad of half the annual harvest. ",
"The Jewish town of Fadak capitulated on similar terms; and since it was not besieged or taken in warfare, it was not subject to the Muslim division-of-booty rules. ",
"So Muhammad kept the proceeds for himself. ",
"Newby avers that capitulation became a regular feature of \"submission\" agreements mentioned in the _Sirah_. \"",
"In a large sense,\" writes Newby, \"Muhammad's actions became the paradigm for the later Muslim community and, when Islamic society was established outside Arabia with hegemony over large numbers of Jews and Christians, the models of capitulation in Arabia were used to regulate non-Muslim communal life. ",
"There is the charge that many of the capitulation traditions have been tendentiously shaped by later transmitters to reflect their desires for how things ought to be, but in the main it seems that Muhammad was willing to tolerate a non-Muslim population in his _ummah_ as long as it was willing to submit to the Muslim will\" (95).",
"\n11\n\nConcluding Sociological Reflections\n\nIf we reflect on the Medinan phase of Muhammad's career – the last ten years of his life – it seems indisputable that it was in the Medinan context that he achieved astounding success in laying the foundation for a world-historical, political-religious movement. ",
"And if we again employ the counter-factual, thought-experiment introduced earlier, and ask whether the Prophet might have achieved similar success by remaining in Mecca, the answer appears to be beyond doubt: Muhammad's followers would either have remained a minuscule sect, or have been absorbed by Judaism or Christianity, or have vanished altogether.",
"\n\nEarlier we introduced a sociological framework consisting of four factors or necessary pre-conditions for the successful transformation of a demographically small sect, of a few hundred followers, into a mass movement. ",
"The four factors were: (1) widespread discontent; (2) ideology; (3) charismatic leadership; and (4) organizational strategy and tactics. ",
"As applied to the Meccan phase of Muhammad's career, it appears to be a near certainty that _none_ of the factors were operative so as to produce a mass movement. ",
"If discontent existed at all, it was restricted to a small minority of individuals drawn, for the most part, from the lowest strata of Meccan society. ",
"The religious ideology that Muhammad preached there appealed only to those \"have-not\" individuals. ",
"Indeed, this ideology, far from appealing to the majority, seemed, on the contrary, to threaten their religious sentiments and material interests. ",
"The majority of the Quraysh, or at least their leaders and spokesmen, feeling antagonized and provoked, proceeded to persecute the Muslims to the point of their seeking refuge in Abyssinia. ",
"As for the third factor, charismatic leadership, it follows from the fact that discontent was negligible and the ideology correspondingly ineffectual, that there were objective constraints on the power of the Prophet's personality. ",
"Finally, there is the factor of organization, including strategy and tactics. ",
"In Mecca, the Prophet preached and warned, but had no strategy beyond that.",
"\n\nIf now we turn to the Prophet's Medinan phase, and assess the causal weight of the respective factors, we can see rather clearly that each factor actively contributed, so to speak, to the Prophet's success. _",
"Discontent_ at Medina was in fact widespread; it was discontent in the form of a prevalent sense of insecurity and unease, stemming from the bloody civil strife between the Aws and the Khazraj and their respective allies. ",
"The tribal conflicts at Medina and throughout the Hijaz were such, that the social life of the desert tribes was \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short,\" to use Hobbes' phrase to describe the condition that Ibn Khaldun had recognized long before him. ",
"There was no Hobbesian \"common power\" in the northern Peninsula that might have put an end to the tribal wars of each against all. ",
"When Hobbes says that in the absence of a common power war prevails, his meaning is not that fighting is literally incessant. ",
"He explains that the notion of time is as relevant to war as it is to weather: \"For as the nature of Foule weather lyeth not in a showre or two of rain; but in an inclination thereto of many dayes together: So the nature of war, consisteth not in actual fighting; but in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary. ",
"All other times is peace\" (ch. ",
"13, 89).",
"\n\nWhen Muhammad arrived at Medina, it was in a Hobbesian state of war, a condition in which all vitally necessary and worthwhile human activities were uncertain. ",
"This was the indispensable _opportunity_ for Muhammad's success. ",
"If the Aus and/or the Khazraj had not learned from the Jews about their eschatological hopes for the coming of the Messiah; and if those men of the Arab tribes had not entertained the notion that the Prophet of Mecca might be that Messiah; and if they had not hastened to meet Muhammad and to invite him to Medina as a mediator with magisterial powers, it is almost certain that he would have had no other opportunity to migrate with his followers and find a favorable position from which to rethink things, adopt a new strategy and revitalize his mission.",
"\n\nMedina presented Muhammad with a new opportunity, a new starting point and a new organizational strategy. ",
"For the Prophet was now compelled to reflect – more carefully than ever before – on the tribal quarrels that prevailed in the Arabian Peninsula. ",
"If, therefore, we state what Muhammad reflected upon in Ibn–Khaldunian–Hobbesian terms, it must have been the fundamental disunity of the Arab–Bedouin tribes, each standing in the posture of an armed gladiator against every other; each with a strongly particularistic _asabiya_ or \"group feeling,\" but without any over-arching, pan-Arabian _asabiya_. ",
"For Muhammad, then, the question, task and project was how to overcome the divisiveness and how to create a new, pan-Arabian \"group feeling\" or solidarity. ",
"What such solidarity presupposed, of course, was putting an end to the \"war of each against all\" of the tribes; and what was required for putting an end to that war, was the Hobbesian _conditio sine qua non_ :a common power that would keep them all in awe.",
"\n\nIt was now that Muhammad began gradually to create the \"common power\" by propagating his new religious ideology as an _armed_ prophet, and by performing the functions of lawgiver, religious leader, chief magistrate, commander of the army, and civil head of an incipient state – all in one. ",
"And it was in this context that Muhammad, as the Prophet of Allah, acquired charisma – a gift of grace – and became a charismatic leader with the corresponding authority. ",
"The task of unifying required a new strategy and new tactics. ",
"The _Muhajirun_ or Emigrants were poor, with no secure source of livelihood; and the _Ansar_ Muhammad's Medinan supporters, even had they been willing, could not indefinitely have sustained the emigrants with the necessities of life. ",
"So Muhammad urged the Emigrants to adopt the sole remaining option, raiding merchant caravans. ",
"As we have learned from Ibn Khaldun and others, raiding, for the desert Arabs, was a \"natural,\" morally acceptable occupation. ",
"These raids, under Muhammad's leadership, and especially the victory over the Meccans at Badr, enhanced the stature of the Prophet and increased the wealth, power and prestige of the _Ummah_ in Medina. ",
"The Muslim warriors won much booty, and their success was interpreted by the Prophet as a manifestation of Allah's favor.",
"\n\nThe battle of Badr was viewed as a turning point, as one senses from the Medinan revelations in the Quran as compared with those of Mecca, the Medinan dealing with practical, political questions, such as how to distribute the booty. ",
"The Muslim victory made possible an aggressive policy toward the Jews and, eventually, also toward the Christians whom Muhammad now charged with having falsified their own scriptures in order to conceal the prophecies foretelling his emergence. ",
"As compared with his career in Mecca, Muhammad was now clearly preaching a religious ideology deliberately designed to appeal first to the Arabs, and to serve, together with the material rewards gained from raiding, as the means of creating in the Peninsula a pan-Arabian \"group feeling\" or solidarity. ",
"The Arab-centered nature of the new religion that slowly took shape in Medina becomes all too evident in Muhammad's retention of virtually all of the pre-Islamic religious institutions – Allah, the Kaaba, pilgrimages, the Black Stone, Mecca, Ramadan – but imparting to them a new, monotheistic meaning. ",
"Therein lay the Prophet's originality.",
"\n\nThere was one more salient ideological and practical–political development during the late Medinan phase of the Prophet's career. ",
"This is best brought out by reviewing briefly events we have already touched upon. ",
"In the spring of 628 Muhammad felt that his forces were strong enough for an assault on Mecca. ",
"On the way, however, he came to realize that the attempt might be premature, so he converted the expedition into a peaceful pilgrimage. ",
"He and other Muslim leaders met Meccan negotiators at a place called Hudaybiya, near the sacred area around Mecca, in which, according to strict pre-Islamic customs, no fighting was to take place in certain months of the year. ",
"There a pact was reached in which Meccans and Muslims were to be treated on equal terms. ",
"This treaty effectively ended the war with Muhammad's people, the Quraysh, and gave the Muslims the right to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year and to stay there for three days. ",
"Apparently, however, there was among the Prophet's more zealous warriors considerable dissatisfaction with this meager result.",
"\n\nHow, then, did Muhammad deal with this dissatisfaction? ",
"In quite the same way that he had earlier dealt with the murmurs of restlessness among his chief warriors. ",
"As a rule, it was after a victory or a temporary setback or during a lull in fighting, that it became Muhammad's policy to attack the communities of the Jewish tribes – the Banu Qaynuqa, the Banu Nadir, and the Banu Qurayza. ",
"Now in the face of the murmuring after Hudaybiya he resolved to go after the Jewish oasis of Khaybar. ",
"Ibn Khaldun's theory is once again pertinent. ",
"For the Muslim victory at Khaybar, though incomplete, marked the first interaction between the Muslim State and a conquered, non-Muslim people; and the imposition upon the Jews of the tribute, formed a precedent for later conquests of settled peoples. ",
"It is in that sense that Muhammad's assaults upon the Jewish communities constituted a \"dress rehearsal,\" for the Muslim conquests and dealings of the era following the death of the Prophet.",
"\n\nFor Ibn Khaldun, we shall recall, \"Both Bedouins and sedentary people are natural groups\" (I, 249). ",
"In the context of the Prophet's Medina, the Arab–Bedouins were a natural group; and the Jews, as the only sedentary, agricultural people in the area, constituted the other natural group. ",
"What Ibn Khaldun means by \"natural groups\" is that owing to the distinctive social and economic conditions of sedentary peoples and Bedouins, it becomes second nature for the respective groups to lead the ways of life characteristic of them. ",
"The way of life of the Bedouin is to raid, and the way of life of the settled, agricultural people is to till the soil, to engage in arts and crafts, and to try to protect themselves by constructing fortified habitations.",
"\n\nIn pre-Islamic Arabia, where there was no intertribal unity, and where tribal particularism and a Hobbesian \"war of each against all\" prevailed among the Bedouin tribes, the respective \"natural groups\" of the Hijaz found a _modus vivendi_ : tribes raided and robbed, but the settled peoples could still survive and even prosper, often by coopting a tribe and making it worth its while materially to desist from attacking the community, or to serve as a client, protecting the settled people from other marauders. ",
"In such circumstances – that is, in pre-Islamic Arabia – the \"natural groups\" were \"naturally\" inclined to \"live and let live\"; the strongholds of the Jews tended to suffice for their protection and security; and the raiding way of life tended to suffice for the provision of a subsistence-level livelihood for the Bedouins. ",
"Indeed, there prevailed a symbiotic relationship between the desert and the sown.",
"\n\nBut with the rise and development of Islam in Medina and its environs, the Khaldunian interplay between desert and sown underwent a fundamental change. ",
"As Ibn Khaldun reflected on the rise of Islam, he came to understand that a new religion can establish itself only by strife, and will succeed only if it enlists the support of a powerful, social solidarity; and once established, a new religion can greatly reinforce social solidarity, mend tribal divisions, at least temporarily, and create larger and larger solidarities by mobilizing and concentrating men's wills and emotions around a common purpose. ",
"The combination of religion and intertribal solidarity is formidable, and to it Ibn Khaldun attributed the sweeping conquests of the Muslim Arabs in the seventh century.",
"\n\nThe difference, then, between the pre-Islamic and the Islamic interplay of desert and sown lay in the fact that the \"live and let live\" attitude was replaced first by the attitude of conquer and expel, and then of conquer and kill. ",
"That became Muhammad's policy first toward the Banu Qaynuqa and the Banu Nadir, and then toward the Banu Qurayza, whose men were massacred – an action apparently unheard of in pre-Islamic Arabia, and thus a Muhammaden novelty in the Peninsula. ",
"In these new circumstances, even the best fortified Jewish communities, such as those of Khaybar, acquired a vulnerability they had never had before. ",
"The confrontation between the desert and the sown under Muhammad was no longer an interplay in which the poorer Bedouins felt justified in making their living by raiding the prosperous settlements and robbing some of their goods. ",
"No, it now became, under Muhammad, a deadly quarrel in which conquest and tribute was the aim, and killing or the threat of it, the means. ",
"In these terms, Muhammad's deal with the Khaybar Jews was, in fact, a precedent and model for Islam's early conquests.",
"\n\nMoreover, as Ibn Khaldun observed, the Prophet's political practice gave rise to a religious corollary:\n\nIn the Muslim community [he wrote] the holy war is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the Muslim mission and the obligation to convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. (",
"I, 473)\n\nIn citing this passage, the point is not to propose that \"holy war\" is an \"essential\" or eternal trait of the Islamic faith. ",
"However, Ibn Khaldun's statement may, at the very least, be interpreted as a valid characterization of Islam's religio-political ideal in the era of her early conquests. ",
"This ideal followed logically, it seems, from the belief in only one God, a belief implying that there can be only one political sovereign and one law on earth. ",
"The Muslim State may tolerate unbelievers under its rule, as long as they are not polytheists, and follow one of the permitted religions such as Judaism or Christianity. ",
"But the Muslim State may not recognize the permanent existence of a non-Islamic polity. ",
"It seems, therefore, to be a valid historically specific characterization of the Islamic ideal in the period of the early conquests, that all humankind must accept Islam or submit to Muslim rule. ",
"It was the moral duty of Muslims to struggle until this was accomplished. ",
"This duty is called _jihad_ in Arabic, meaning \"effort\" or \"striving.\" ",
"For an adequate understanding of Islam's early conquests, it is, therefore, necessary to recognize that their animating spirit was inspired by the theory and practice of the Prophet.",
"\n\nIt is Fred M. Donner who has made a highly significant contribution to our knowledge by documenting the extent to which Islam's early conquests were a continuation and application of Muhammad's theory and practice in Medina. ",
"Donner fully recognizes the causal priority of Medina and Muhammad's role there, in explaining how Islam became a world movement and militant polity. ",
"For it was Muhammad's initiative in striving to create a unified Islamic community, or _umma_ , in Medina and its environs, that eventually acquired a revolutionary significance in the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. ",
"Unique in the idea of the _umma_ was the uncompromising monotheism of the Islamic community, which by its active rejection of polytheism, laid claim to the bodies _and_ souls of the entire Arabian populace. ",
"The _umma_ claimed to be the community of believers in the one and universal God. ",
"The one universal God implied that the _umma_ must also become universal, which, in turn, implied that it must continue to expand until it has converted the entire pagan population, if not the whole of humankind. ",
"The growing acceptance of this idea was bound to prove quite effectual in developing a conquest movement of a political and religious character.",
"\n\nMembership in the _umma_ as a monotheistic religious community, gradually implanted a new individual consciousness. ",
"For belonging to the _umma_ meant loyalty to a community greater than one's tribe or kinship group. ",
"Because there was only one Islamic _umma_ , breaking from it was not only a social or political act, but a moral act as well. ",
"Breaking ties with the _umma_ was an offense against God and man, a sin and a crime. ",
"The teachings of Muhammad and the Quran posited a divine law and an absolute higher authority. ",
"The _umma_ was to be the embodiment of that authority, regulating the lives of the members by a set of rules transcending the boundaries of tribal identity. ",
"Islam's strict monotheism made it easier, most likely, to accept the idea of one single locus of political authority in the realm of worldly affairs. ",
"Donner cites the fact that some of the separate documents forming the \"Constitution of Medina\" conclude with the phrase, \"whenever you differ about a matter, it must be referred to God and Muhammad.\" \"",
"Implicitly,\" Donner observes, \"Muhammad was in a position to claim absolute religious and political authority in the _umma_ , and, indeed, over the whole world\" (61). ",
"But however strong a Muslim's attachment to Muhammad might have been, one's primary allegiance was to Islam, to God and to the _umma_ as the manifestation of God's will for man. ",
"So although Muhammad played a key role in the centralization of power in the _umma_ ,itdid not prevent the transfer of authority after his death, because ultimate authority resided not in him, but in the community as a whole and the divine law that guided it. ",
"Hence, the creation of the _umma_ , with the concept of absolute divine authority, provided the ideological foundation for the institutions of an incipient state hitherto unknown in the region. ",
"And it was in Medina and only in Medina where Muhammad found it possible to rise in power and to consolidate it.",
"\n\nDonner discerns several phases in the process of consolidation, the first being the struggle to establish himself firmly as the ruler of Medina, against the opposition of the groups resident in the oasis, notably, of course, the Jewish clans of the Qaynuqa, Nadir, and Qurayza. ",
"The second phase in Muhammad's political career was his struggle to humble the Quraysh of his native city, in the battles of Badr, Uhud, and the Trench, and his ultimate success in conquering Mecca. ",
"The third phase in Muhammad's struggle to consolidate his power becomes evident in his relations with nomadic groups, first in Medina's vicinity and increasingly farther afield. ",
"It seems clear that toward the end of his career, nomadic groups found that they had to come to terms with the new Islamic State because it now controlled the main agricultural and market centers in the Hijaz – Medina, Khaybar, and Taif – on which the nomads depended.",
"\n\nDonner reminds us that Muhammad was a skilled diplomat when it came to winning over certain important individuals and groups of a former enemy. ",
"He granted gifts and larger shares of booty, as after the victory at Hunayn, even shocking his old supporters by favoring the new converts. ",
"The Prophet knew, too, how to use promises of official posts in the new Islamic regime. ",
"Despite the long opposition and late conversion of the members of his own tribe, Muhammad nevertheless appointed several Qurayshis to key positions as military commanders, governors and close advisers. ",
"Some of these prominent members of the Quraysh may, in fact, have embraced Islam in return for a direct commitment from Muhammad to bring them into the upper circles of power in the new Islamic State.",
"\n\nDonner calls attention to a fundamental element of the emerging state, the introduction and implementation of a centralized system for the collection of taxes and the administration of justice. ",
"It was Muhammad himself who had set in motion the process of creating a centralized state authority in the Peninsula. ",
"And with centralization came a new, Muslim ruling elite. ",
"As the originally small Islamic community grew gradually into a State, conquering Jewish and Christian areas, the vanquished non-Muslims who were brought under the authority of the Islamic State, paid tribute in exchange for protection and decent treatment by their new over-lords. ",
"Donner cites as the beginning of this tributary system the predominantly Jewish oasis of Khaybar in the northern Hijaz, and the large Christian community at Najran in the northern Yemen.",
"\n\nQuite striking about the new State and its political elite, is the new policy toward the nomadic groups. ",
"The rise of a Hijazi ruling elite meant a direct dominance over nomadic groups, and their subordination, within the State's sphere, to the sedentary groups that constituted the elite. ",
"It was, evidently, a deliberate policy of Muhammad's to bring nomadic groups under the firm control of the Islamic State. ",
"Muhammad appears to have required nomadic groups who embraced Islam, to abandon their nomadic way of life and to settle permanently in Medina – that is, to make a _hijra_ of their own. ",
"Only those who agreed to settle were promised full rights with other Muslims. ",
"Although Donner provides no explanation for this new policy, it seems that one plausible reason for it was the Prophet's recognition that there was no other way to counteract the particularistic and centrifugal forces of the nomadic way of life. ",
"It is as if Muhammad had anticipated the Ibn–Khaldunian–Hobbesian insight, that it is only by means of instituting a \"common power\" that the centrifugal can be turned into centripetal forces. ",
"Muhammad accordingly barred powerful nomadic chieftains from the emerging political elite. ",
"This process of gaining control over the nomads was accentuated with the ascension of the Quraysh after the conquest of Mecca. ",
"If we follow Donner's lucid and, indeed, profound analysis, we can see the new Islamic State, with its ruling elite, producing three types of domination: (1) the hegemony of Muslims over non-Muslims; (2) the dominance of a preponderantly Hijazi ruling elite over other tribal groups; and (3) the hegemony of a sophisticated sedentary elite over nomadic groups (81).",
"\n\n**Abu Bakr and the** _ **Ridda**_\n\nMuhammad's death in 632 plunged the new Islamic State into a crisis of succession, raising the question of who now will lead the _umma_. ",
"The _ridda_ , meaning secession or apostasy, refers to the fact that several or perhaps even many tribes who earlier had sworn allegiance to Muhammad, took that to mean that their contract was with him _personally_.Even in his lifetime they resisted paying _zakah_ , or tax, to the central government in Medina. ",
"Now that the Prophet was dead, it seemed logical to them that their obligations had come to an end and that they were no longer subject to taxation. ",
"It is likely that one of the underlying motives of the secessionists was their resentment of the rising hegemony of the Hijaz capital. ",
"The old and traditional centrifugal forces of Arabian nomadic life were once again expressing themselves. ",
"To allow those forces to gather momentum would mean, ultimately, the dissolution of the _umma_ and the death of Muhammad's vision. ",
"Rising to the challenge, Muhammad's successor, Abu Bakr, mobilized a formidable force and demanded from the \"seceders\" unconditional surrender or war unto destruction. ",
"Khalid ibn-al-Walid, the hero of these wars, had within some six months of his generalship, reduced the tribes of central Arabia to submission. ",
"The _ridda_ represented a massive challenge to Islamic domination of the Arabian Peninsula, and victory under Abu Bakr completed the process of political and military consolidation of the Islamic State. ",
"By the time of his death, the new Islamic regime had successfully conquered the entire Arabian Peninsula.",
"\n\nDonner argues that the _ridda_ wars were therefore the culmination of the process of political consolidation that Muhammad had begun. ",
"It was the process in which an Islamic ruling elite gained full control over the tribal population of the entire Arabian Peninsula. ",
"Included in that process was the success of the sedentary sector of the new State in attaining virtually complete control over the nomadic elements, a remarkable achievement in the light of their long, historical success in avoiding such domination (89). ",
"Although Donner nowhere mentions Ibn Khaldun in his study, it is apparent that his theory of the interplay of the desert and the sown has a continuing relevance to what Donner calls the \"foundations of conquest.\" ",
"Muhammad initiated a process culminating in the victory of the sown over the desert. ",
"And as that victory appears to have been a conscious and deliberate aim of Muhammad's, it would seem that an aspect of his genius was the recognition that without the consolidation of a \"common power\" or \"leviathan,\" in the Hobbesian sense, consisting of a _sedentary_ ruling elite, the _umma_ was bound to disintegrate, with the unavoidable consequence that the nomadic elements would revert to their pre-Islamic condition.",
"\n\nIn these terms, we must recognize the organic continuity between Muhammad's work and that of Abu Bakr. ",
"For if the _ridda_ wars were the culmination of a process Muhammad had begun, the wars were also the beginning of something new –\n\nthe Islamic conquest movement that so transformed the face of the ancient world. ",
"It was, first of all, the efforts of the Islamic State to extend its domination to all Arab tribal groups – including those in the steppes and towns of Iraq and Syria – that led to the first clashes between the new Islamic State and the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. ",
"But the conquests also developed from the events of the _ridda_ wars in a more integral way. ",
"For it was the firm subjugation of the nomadic warrior tribesmen of Arabia by the Islamic State that put into the hands of the new ruling elite the means to undertake an expansionist movement of unparalleled proportions... (89–90).",
"\n\nDonner thus rightly underscores the continuity between Muhammad's work and what followed. \"",
"The Islamic conquest of the Near East,\" Donner avers,\n\ncannot be viewed, then, as something separate from the career of Muhammad the Apostle or from the conquest of Arabia during the _ridda_ wars. ",
"It must be seen as an organic outgrowth of Muhammad's teachings and their impact on Arabian society, of Muhammad's political consolidation, pursued by traditional and novel means, and especially of his efforts to bring nomadic groups firmly under State control, and the extension of that process of consolidation by the Islamic State and its emerging elite under the leadership of Abu Bakr. ",
"These elements, together, formed the foundations on which the Islamic conquest movement rested. (",
"90)\n\nDonner addresses the question of what led the ruling elite of the new Islamic State to embark on an expansionist policy. ",
"The most cogent reply to that question is that the religious-ideological message of Islam itself prompted the elite to believe, that they had an essentially religious duty to expand the domain of the Islamic State as far as practically possible. ",
"They saw it as their divinely ordained mission to do so. ",
"Even if mundane factors were at work, it was the religious ideology that gave sanction to the expansionist policy. ",
"The ideology was therefore a definite causal component of the warriors' motives and of the meaning they assigned to their actions. ",
"So although we cannot, of course, speak of one true cause of the conquests, we come close to such a cause by returning to the proposition stated earlier: one God implied one sovereign on earth, and the moral duty to strive for a universal Islamic republic.",
"\n\nGarth Fowden, a specialist in the history of antiquity, has also concerned himself with Islamic monotheism as a major factor in the aspiration to and realization of world empire. ",
"Fowden reminds us that Muhammad and his successors had to conquer not just one but two empires, the Byzantine and the Persian. ",
"In just 73 years after the Prophet's death, the Islamic Empire reached its greatest extent, comprising all the lands from the Pyrenees through Spain and North Africa to the Indus Valley in the East. ",
"And, Fowden observes, \"Not since the emergence of the Seleucid and Ptolemaic States in the aftermath of Alexander had there existed in this region an empire that had no serious competitor to fear\" (141–2).",
"\n\nFowden, like Donner, therefore addresses this question: Given the spectacular military and political success of early Islam, the durability of its Empire for a considerable stretch of time, its enormous size and its internal cohesion, what was the secret of its dominance and stability? \"",
"What made the Islamic Empire, however briefly, into a successful world empire,\" Fowden writes, \"was the combination of imperial impetus with a universalist monotheism that was inflexible with regard to doctrinal essentials and full of missionary zeal toward polytheists, but flexible... in its dealings with other monotheisms\" (160). ",
"Fowden, then, is inclined to agree that it was Muhammad's proclamation of a fresh revelation from the one God, together with his political theory and practice, that created such a powerful expansionist impulse.",
"\n\nHowever, the Islamic Empire, like all empires, was only a temporarily successful phenomenon, while the Islamic faith, in contrast, has endured. ",
"That is the living, lasting legacy of the historical Muhammad.",
"\nNotes\n\n**Introduction and Overview of the Life of Muhammad**\n\n| F. E. Peters, _Muhammad and the Origin of Islam_ , New York: State University of New York Press, 1994, p. 259. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| Fred M. Donner, _Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginings of Islamic_ _Historical Writing_ , Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press, Inc., 1998. ",
"In the present discussion I rely heavily on Donner's work. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n| Ibn Hisham, _The Life of Muhammad_ ,a translation of Ishaq's _Sirat Rasul_ _Allah_ , with Introduction and notes by A. Guillaume, Pakistan Branch: Oxford University Press, 1955, pp. ",
"118–22. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n| Philip K. Hitti, _History of the Arabs_ , revised 10th edn, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage.",
"\n\n**1 Ibn Khaldun's Social and Economic Theory**\n\n| Ibn Khaldun, _The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History_ , translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal, in 3 volumes, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958. ",
"All page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| For Ibn Khaldun, the term \"Arab,\" as a sociological term, is synonymous with \"Bedouin\" or \"nomad\" regardless of the ethnicity of the group in question. ",
"But he also uses \"Arab\" for its ethnic meaning, as we shall see, in his discussion of pre-Islamic Arabia. ",
" \n| I remind the reader that Ibn Khaldun's term \"Arab\" refers not only to the ethnically Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, but to all types of desert-dwelling Bedouin. ",
" \n| Charles Issawi, _An Arab Philosophy of History: Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of Tunis_ (1332–1406), translated and arranged by Issawi, London: John Murray, 1950.",
"\n\n**2 Pre-Islamic Arabia**\n\n| Philip Hitti, _History of the Arabs_ , revised 10th edn, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, p. 21. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| Vol. ",
"I, edition, translation, and commentary by Alan Jones, published by Ithaca Press Reading for the Board of the Faculty of Oriental Studies, Oxford University, 1992. ",
"The quotations are from his Introduction. ",
" \n| _The Koran_ , translated from the Arabic by J. M. Rodwell. ",
"Foreword and Introduction by Alan Jones, _Everyman_ , London: J. M. Dent; Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle, 1994. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n| Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss, _Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function_ , translated by W. D. Halls, foreword by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. ",
" \n| Marshall G. S. Hodgson, _The Venture of Islam_ ,vol. ",
"I, _The Classical Age of_ _Islam_ , Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1958–9, p. 159.",
"\n\n**3 The Role of Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael**\n\n| In the Quran and in other Muslim texts Abraham is rendered as Ibrahim and Ishmael as Ismail. ",
" \n---|--- \n| See Muhammad Husayn Haykal, _The Life of Muhammad_ , translated from the 8th edn by Ismail Ragi A. al-Faruqi, USA: North American Trust Publications, 1976. ",
"Hereafter all page references to this work are cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n| William Muir, _The Life of Mahomet and History of Islam_ in four volumes, London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1858, vol. ",
"I. Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage.",
"\n\n**4 Recent and Current Scholarship**\n\n| F.E.Peters, _A Reader on Classical Islam_ , Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| F. E. Peters, _The Arabs and Arabia on the Eve of Islam_ , AshgateVariorum, 1999; vol. ",
"III of _The Formation of the Classical Islamic World_ , Lawrence I. Conrad, General Editor. ",
"Hereafter, all references to this volume will be cited with the author's name and the page number of his article, immediately following the quoted or paraphrased passage. ",
"The chapters in this volume are taken from the sources listed below. ",
" \n| _Mawali_ , sing. _",
"Mawla_ , a non-Arab embracing Islam and affiliating himself with an Arabian tribe. ",
"Gil evidently uses the term analogously to refer to an Arab who embraces Judaism. ",
" \n| This figure has been duplicated from U. Rubin, _Arabs and Arabia_ ,p. 314.",
"\n\n**5 Possible Influences on Muhammad's Inspiration**\n\n| New York: Ktav Publishing House, Inc., 1967, p. 1. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| See Heinrich Graetz, _History of the Jews_ , vol. ",
"III, Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1939, ch. ",
"3, pp. ",
"53–85. ",
" \n| See his _History of the Jews_ ,tr. ",
"from the Russian by Moshe Spiegel, New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1968. ",
" \n| Salo Wittmayer Baron, _A Social and Religious History of the Jews_ ,vol. ",
"III, New York: Columbia University Press, 1957. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n| D.S. Margoliouth, _The Relations Between Arabs and Israelites Prior to the_ _Rise of Islam_ , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1924. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage.",
"\n\n**6 The Jews of Arabia: A Recent Re-Examination**\n\n| See Gordon Darnell Newby, _A History of the Jews of Arabia From_ _Ancient Times to Their Eclipse Under Islam_ , University of South Carolina Press, 1988. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| Gershom G. Scholem, _Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism_ , New York: Schoken Books, 1941, p. 42.",
"\n\n**7 Richard Bell's Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment**\n\n| Richard Bell, _The Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment_ , London: Macmillan, 1926. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|---\n\n**8 W. Montgomery Watt's Muhammad**\n\n| W. Montgomery Watt, _Muhammad at Mecca_ , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. ",
"All references to this work will be cited as Watt and the page number, in parentheses, immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| Patricia Crone, _Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam_ , Princeton University Press, 1987. ",
"Hereafter, all references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n| Bibliotheca Persica, ed. ",
"by Ehsan Yar-Shater, \"The History of AlTabari,\" vol. ",
"VI, _Muhammad at Mecca_ , translated and annotated by W. Montgomery Watt and M.V. McDonald, SUNY Press, 1988. ",
"Hereafter, all references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n| Muhammad Husayn Haykal, _The Life of Muhammad_ , translated from the 8th edn by Ismail Ragi A. al-Faruqi, USA: North American Trust Publications, 1976, p. 107. ",
"Hereafter, all references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n| Max Weber, _The Methodology of the Social Sciences_ , tr. ",
"and ed. ",
"Edward A. Shils and Henry A. Finch, Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1949, pp. ",
"164 and 166. ",
" \n| W.Montgomery Watt, _Muhammad at Medina_ , Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1956. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage.",
"\n\n**9 Muhammad at Medina: William Muir's Analysis**\n\n| William Muir, _The Life of Mahomet and History of Islam_ , in four volumes, London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1858, vol. ",
"II, p. 207. ",
"Hereafter, all references to this monumental achievement will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| Sir William Muir, _Mahomet and Islam_ , London: Darf Publishers Ltd, 1986, pp. ",
"151–2. ",
" \n| Michael Lecker, _Jews and Arabs in Pre-Islamic and Early Arabia_ , Ashgate-Variorum, 1998, article number 10, p. 71.",
"\n\n**10 Muhammad and the Jews**\n\n| Barakat Ahmad, _Muhammad and the Jews: A Re-Examination_ , New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, Ltd, 1979. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| H.G.Reissner, \"The Ummi Prophet and the Banu Israel,\" _The Muslim_ _World_ , vol. ",
"39, 1949, p. 278, cited in Ahmad. ",
" \n| Israel Friedlaender, \"The Jews of Arabia and the Gaonate,\" _The Jewish_ _Quarterly Review_ , 1910–11, vol. ",
"I, p. 252, cited in Ahmad. ",
" \n| Gordon Darnell Newby, _A History of the Jews of Arabia from Ancient_ _Times to Their Eclipse Under Islam_ , 1988. ",
"Hereafter, all page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage.",
"\n\n**11 Concluding Sociological Reflections**\n\n| See Fred McGraw Donner, _The Early Islamic Conquests_ , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981. ",
"All page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage. ",
" \n---|--- \n| See his _Empire to Commonwealth_ , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993. ",
"All page references to this work will be cited in parentheses immediately following the quoted passage.",
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"\n\nIbn Hisham, _The Life of Muhammad_ , a translation of Ishaq's _Sirat Rasul_ _Allah_ , with intro. ",
"and notes by A. Guillaume, Pakistan Branch: Oxford University Press, 1955.",
"\n\nIbn Ishaq, Muhammad, _The Making of the Last Prophet: A Reconstruction of the Earliest Biography of Muhammad_ , Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989.",
"\n\nIbn Khaldun, _The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History_ , tr. ",
"Franz Rosenthal, 3 vols., ",
"London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958. ",
"New material copyright 1967 by Bollingen Foundation, Princeton: Princeton University Press.",
"\n\nIssawi, Charles, _An Arab Philosophy of History: Selections from the_ _Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of Tunis_ , London: John Murray, 1950.",
"\n\nJones, Alan, _Early Arabic Poetry_ , vol. ",
"I, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.",
"\n\nJurji, E. J., \"Pre-Islamic Use of the Name Muhammad,\" _The Muslim_ _World_ , 26, (1936), pp. ",
"389–91.",
"\n\nKister, M. J., \"Al-Hira: Some Notes on its Relations with Arabia,\" _Arabica_ 15 (Leiden, 1968), pp. ",
"143–69.",
"\n\nKister, M. J., \"The Campaign of Hulaban: A New Light on the Expedition of Abraha,\" _Le Muséon_ 78 (Paris, 1965), pp. ",
"425–36, and _Studies in Jahiliyya and Early Islam_ (London, 1980), no. ",
"18.",
"\n\nKister, M. J., _Studies in Jahaliyya and Early Islãm_ , Variorum Reprints, 1980.",
"\n\nLecker, Michael, _Jews and Arabs in Pre-Islamic and Early Arabia_ , AshgateVariorum, article 10, 1998.",
"\n\nLecker, Michael, \"Muhammad at Medina: A Geographical Approach,\" _Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam_ , 6, (1985), pp. ",
"29–62.",
"\n\nLecker, Michael, _Muslims, Jews and Pagans: Studies on Early Islamic_ _Medina_ , Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995.",
"\n\nLecker, Michael, \"On Arabs of the Banu Kilab Executed Together with the Jewish Banu Qurayza,\" _Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam_ , 19, (1995), pp. ",
"66–72.",
"\n\nLevy, Reuben, _The Social Structure of Islam_ , being the second edition of the Sociology of Islam, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969.",
"\n\nLewis, Bernard, _The Arabs in History_ , New York: Harper & Row, 1966.",
"\n\nMargoliouth, D. S., _Relations Between Arabs and Israelites Prior to the Rise of Islam_ , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1924.",
"\n\nMargoliouth, D. S., _Lectures on Arabic Historians_ , Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1930.",
"\n\nMargoliouth, D. S., _The Early Development of Muhammadanism_ ,New York: C.Scribner's Sons, 1914.",
"\n\nMontgomery Watt, W., \"Belief in a 'High God' in Pre-Islamic Mecca,\" _Journal of Semitic Studies_ 16 (Oxford, 1971), pp. ",
"35–40.",
"\n\nMuir, William, _The Life of Mahomet and History of Islam_ ,4 vols, London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1858.",
"\n\nMuir, William, _Mahomet and Islam_ , an abridgement of his monumental 4-vol. ",
"study, London: Darf Publishers Ltd, 1986.",
"\n\nNewby, Gordon Darnell, _A History of the Jews of Arabia_ , Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.",
"\n\nPeters, F. E., _The Arabs and Arabia on the Eve of Islam_ , Ashgate-Variorum, 1999, vol. ",
"III of the Formation of the Classical Islamic World, Lawrence I. Conrad, gen. ",
"ed. ",
"Introduction by Peters and articles by G. E. Grunebaum; M. J. Kister; Joseph Henninger; Moshe Gil; Fazlur Rahman; Uri Rubin; H. A. R. Gibb; Montgomery Watt.",
"\n\nPeters, F. E., _Muhammad and the Origins of Islam_ , Albany: SUNY, 1994.",
"\n\nPeters, F. E., _A Reader on Classical Islam_ , Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.",
"\n\nPeters, F. E., _Allah's Commonwealth_ ,New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973.",
"\n\nRahman, Fazlur, _Islam_ , Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.",
"\n\nRahman, Fazlur, \"Pre-Foundations of the Muslim Community in Mecca,\" _Studia Islamica_ 43 (Paris, 1976), pp. ",
"5–24.",
"\n\nReissner, H. G., \"The Ummi Prophet and the Banu Israel,\" _The Muslim_ _World_ , vol. ",
"39, (1949).",
"\n\nRodinson, M., \"The Life of Muhammad and the Sociological Problem of the Beginnings of Islam,\" _Diogenes_ , 20, (1957), 28: 51.",
"\n\nRodinson, M., _Muhammad_ , tr. ",
"Anne Carter, New York: The New Press, 1971. ",
"Introduction and foreword 1980 by Maxime Rodinson.",
"\n\nRodwell, J. M., tr., _",
"The Koran_ , Foreword and Introduction by Alan Jones, Everyman, London: J. M. Dent, 1994.",
"\n\nRubin, Uri, \"The Ka ba: Aspects of its Ritual Functions and Position in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Times,\" _Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam_ 13 (Jerusalem, 1986), pp. ",
"97–131.",
"\n\nRubin, Uri, _The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims_ , Princeton: Darwin, 1995.",
"\n\nRubin, Uri, _Between Bible and Quran: The Children of Israel and the Islamic_ _Self Image_ , Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press, Inc., 1999.",
"\n\nScholem, Gershom G., _Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism_ , New York: Schoken Books, 1941.",
"\n\nSmith, Wilfred Cantwell, _The Meaning and End of Religion_ , New York: Macmillan Company, 1962.",
"\n\nTabari al-, _The Last Years of the Prophet_ , Albany: SUNY Press, 1990. ",
"Torrey, Charles Cutler, _The Jewish Foundation of Islam_ , New York: KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 1967.",
"\n\nTrimmingham, J. Spencer, _Christianity Among the Arabs in Pre-Islamic_ _Times_ , London: Longman, 1979.",
"\n\nWasserstrom, Steven M., _Between Muslim and Jew: The Problem of Symbiosis_ _Under Early Islam_ , Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.",
"\n\nWatt, W. Montgomery, _Muhammad at Medina_ , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956.",
"\n\nWatt, W. Montgomery, _Muhammad at Mecca_ , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953.",
"\n\nWeber, Max, _The Sociology of Religion_ , tr. ",
"Ephraim Fischoff, Boston: Beacon Press, 1963.",
"\n\nWeber, Max, _The Methodology of the Social Sciences_ , tr. ",
"and ed. ",
"Edward A. Shils and Henry A. Finch, Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1949.",
"\n\nZakaria, Rafiq, _Muhammad and the Quran_ , London: Penguin, 1991.",
"\nIndex\n\nAaron,\n\nAbbas, al-,\n\nAbd-al-Muttalib ibn Hashim,\n\nAbdullah,\n\nAbrahah,\n\nAbraham\n\nHanifiya scholarship, –\n\nIslam and, , ,\n\nKaaba and, –, –\n\nand Muhammad, –\n\npre-Islamic Arabia and, , , , –, ,\n\nAbu Afaq,\n\nAbu Bakr al-Siddiq, , , –, , , –\n\nAbu Jakl,\n\nAbu Sufyan, , , , , , ,\n\nAbu Talib, , ,\n\nAbyssinia, , , , , , –\n\nAdam, ,\n\nadministration of Islamic state,\n\nAghani, al-,\n\nAhmad, Barakat, –, , –\n\nAisha, ,\n\n_akbar_ ,\n\nAlbright, William Foxwell, ,\n\nAlexander the Great, ,\n\nAli ibn Abi Talib, , ,\n\nAllah\n\nArabs and, –\n\nDaughters of Allah, –\n\nMuhammad on, –\n\npre-Islamic concept, –, –\n\npre-Islamic worship,\n\nYahveh and,\n\nAminah bin Wahad,\n\nAmr ibn-al-As, ,\n\nAmr ibn Lohai,\n\nAmru al-Qays,\n\nancestor cult,\n\nanimism,\n\n_Ansar_ , , , , , ,\n\nApocryphal Gospels,\n\nArabianization of Islam, ,\n\nArabs\n\nIbn Khaldun on, –\n\npoetry, –, ,\n\npre Islam, –\n\nvalues,\n\nwarfare,\n\nArafat, W. N.,\n\nAramaic, , , , ,\n\n_asabiyah_ (group solidarity), , –, –\n\nAsma,\n\nAtab Abi Rabah,\n\nBabylon, , , , , –\n\nBadr, battle of (624), , –, , –, , , ,\n\nBahira,\n\nBaron, Salo, –,\n\nBashear, Suliman,\n\nBattle of the Trench, , , , ,\n\nBedouins\n\nattraction of Islam, –\n\nIbn Khaldun, –, , ,\n\nJewish Bedouins,\n\nJews and, –\n\nkinship, ,\n\npre-Islam, –,\n\npre-Islamic religion, –\n\nrobbery and,\n\nBell, Richard, , –\n\nBilal, ,\n\nBlack Stone. _",
"See_ Kaaba\n\nBuath, battle of, , ,\n\nByzantium, , , , –, , –, , ,\n\nCalder, Norman,\n\nCaliphate,\n\ncamels, –,\n\nCarmichael, Joel,\n\nCaskel, Werner,\n\nChristianity\n\nand Islam, –, –\n\nMedina,\n\nand Muhammad, , –, ,\n\npre-Islamic Arabia,\n\nseparation from,\n\ncircumcision, ,\n\nclans,\n\nCook, Michael,\n\nCrone, Patricia, –, , , –, , ,\n\nDaniel,\n\nDaws dhu-Thalagan,\n\nDhu Nuwas (Yusuf Ashab), , –, , –\n\nDiodorus,\n\nDonner, Fred, –, –\n\nDozy, Reinhart,\n\nDubnov, Simon,\n\nEgypt, , ,\n\nempire, ,\n\nEnoch, –\n\nEzekiel, ,\n\nfetishism, –\n\nFowden, Garth,\n\nFriedlaender, Israel, –\n\nGabriel, ,\n\nGeiger, Abraham, –\n\nGenesis,\n\nGibb, Hamilton, –\n\ngifts,\n\nGil, Moshe, –, –\n\nGlaser, ??,",
"\n\nGnostics,\n\nGoeje, Claudius Henricus de,\n\nGoitein, S. D.,\n\nGoldziher, Ignaz, –\n\nGraetz, Heinrich, –, , ,\n\nGrunebaum, G. E. von, –\n\nGuillaume, A.,\n\n_hadiths_ , –, , , ,\n\nHagar, , , , –,\n\nHalperin, David,\n\nHamza,\n\nHanifiya\n\nmeaning, ,\n\norigins,\n\nscholarship, –\n\nHarith,\n\nHarith b. Zalim, al-,\n\nHarnack, Adolf von,\n\nHashim,\n\nHatim, ,\n\nHawting, Gerald, , –\n\nHaykal, Muhammad Husayn, , –, –\n\nHebrew,\n\nHenninger, Joseph, –\n\nHeraclius,\n\nHerodotus, ,\n\n_Hijr_ , meaning, –\n\n_Hijrah_ (622), , , –, , , , ,\n\nHimyara, –, , –\n\nHira,\n\nHitti, Philip, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nHobbes, Thomas, , , , , ,\n\nHodgson, Marshall, , –\n\nholy war, , –\n\nhorses,\n\nHourani, Albert,\n\nHubal,\n\nHubert, Henri,\n\nHudaybiya, treaty of al- (628), –, ,\n\nHurgronje, Snouck, , –\n\nIbn Ahhas,\n\nIbn Hisham, Abu Muhammad Abd al-Malik, , , , , , –, , , , , , , , ,\n\nIbn Ishaq, Muhammad Ibn Ishaq Ibn Yasar ibn Khiyar, , , , , , , , –, , –\n\nIbn Jurayj, –\n\nIbn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad\n\n_asabiyah_ (group solidarity), , –, –\n\nBedouins v. sedentary people, , –, , –,\n\nframework, viii–ix\n\nHoly war, , –\n\nkingship, ,\n\nmethodology, ,\n\nsavage Bedouins, , ,\n\nsociology, –, , , , , ,\n\nIbn Sayyad,\n\nIbn Ubayy,\n\nImran,\n\nIsaac (Ishaq), , ,\n\nIshmael, , –, , , , ,\n\n_isnads_ ,\n\nIssawi, Charles, ,\n\nJames, William,\n\nJerusalem, , , –, , ,\n\nJesus, , , , , , ,\n\nJethro,\n\nJews\n\nagriculture,\n\nArabianization,\n\ndefinition of Jew,\n\neconomic life, –\n\nethnicity and, ,\n\nforts, , ,\n\nJewish historiography, –\n\nKhaybar, , , , ,\n\nMuhammad and, –\n\nAhmad on, –\n\nJews— _continued_\n\ncontacts,\n\nharshness,\n\nKhaybar conquest, , –, –, –, , ,\n\nknowledge,\n\nmassacres, –, –, , –, –\n\nMedina Jews, –\n\nmysticism,\n\nNewby on, –, –\n\nwar, –, , –\n\nmysticism, –\n\npoets, –\n\npre-Islamic Arabic relations, –\n\npre-Islamic period, , –, –, –\n\nwealth, , –,\n\nYathrib, , , –, , , –, –, –, –,\n\n_See also_ Judaism\n\n_Jihad_ , ,\n\n_jinn_ ,\n\nJob,\n\nJonah,\n\nJones, Alan, , –\n\nJosephus, ,\n\nJudaism\n\nethnicity and, ,\n\nIslam and, –, –, –\n\nMuhammad and, , , –, –, , –\n\npre-Islamic Hijaz,\n\nseparation from,\n\n_See also_ Jews\n\njustice,\n\nJustin I, Emperor,\n\nKaab al-Ashraf,\n\nKaaba\n\nAbraham and, –, –\n\nconstruction,\n\nIslamic ritual functions, –\n\nIslamic transformation,\n\nlegend, –\n\nMuhammad and,\n\npilgrimage to, ,\n\npre-Islamic, , –, , –, –\n\nKennedy, Hugh,\n\nKhadijah, ,\n\nKhandaq, battle of,\n\nKhattab, al-,\n\nKhaybar\n\nforts,\n\nJews, , , , ,\n\nMuhammad's conquest, , –, –, –, , ,\n\nKinana, –\n\nKister, M. J., –,\n\nKoren, Judith,\n\nKussai,\n\nLammens, Henri, , ,\n\nLecker, Michael, ,\n\nLidzbarski, M.,\n\nMachiavelli, Niccolò, , –\n\nMalik b. al-Ajlan, –\n\nMa'mar b. Rashid,\n\nMargoliouth, D. S., , –, –, ,\n\nMarhab,\n\nMarwan,\n\nMary, , , ,\n\nMasudi, Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn alHusayn al-,\n\nMauss, Marcel,\n\nMecca\n\nAbraham and, –, –, –\n\ndirection of prayer,\n\neconomy, –, , ,\n\nMuhammad in, , , , –, , , –,\n\nMuhammad's conquest, ,\n\nMuslim sanctuary, ,\n\npilgrimage, , ,\n\npre-Islamic period, –, –\n\nsociology, –\n\n_See also_ Kaaba\n\nMedina\n\neconomy,\n\nhegemony,\n\n_Hijrah_ (622), , , –, , , , ,\n\nMuhammad in, , , , , –, –, –, , , –\n\nSuras,\n\n_See also_ Yathrib\n\nMesopotamia, ,\n\nMiryam,\n\nMonaham, J. H.,\n\nMoore, George Foote,\n\nMosaic Law,\n\nMoses, , , , , , , ,\n\n_Muhajirun_ , , , , , ,\n\nMuhammad\n\nAbraham and, –\n\nadministrative systems,\n\nbiography, –\n\nbirth, –,\n\nChristianity and, , –, ,\n\ndeath (632), , ,\n\ndiplomacy, –\n\n_Hijrah. ",
"See Hijrah_\n\nhistorical sources, –\n\nilliteracy,\n\nand Jews. _",
"See_ Jews\n\nJudaism and, , , –, –, , –\n\nmarriages, , , , –,\n\nMecca period. _",
"See_ Mecca\n\nMedina. _",
"See_ Medina\n\nmonotheism, –\n\nMuir on, , –\n\nrevelation, ,\n\n_Saba_ ,\n\nsources of inspiration, –, –,\n\nsuccession, –\n\ntemptation,\n\nwar, –, , –, , , –, –,\n\nwar wounds,\n\nWatt on, –\n\nworldly motivations, ,\n\nand Zayd,\n\nMuhammad b. Maslama,\n\nMuir, William, , –, , , , –,\n\nMusa b. Uqba,\n\nMusab,\n\nmysticism, Jews, –\n\nNabateans, , ,\n\nNajran massacre (523), ,\n\nNakhla,\n\nNau,\n\nNegus, King,\n\nNestorians,\n\nNevo, Jehuda,\n\nNewby, Gordon, –, –\n\nNoah, ,\n\nNöldeke, T., ,\n\nNorth Africa, ,\n\nNuaym b. Masud,\n\nPalestine, , , ,\n\nPaul, Saint,\n\nPersia, , , , –, , , , ,\n\nPeters, F. E., –, , –,\n\npilgrimage, , , ,\n\npoetry, –, , , –\n\nprayer\n\nMuhammad and,\n\npre-Islamic period,\n\npre-Islamic Arabia\n\nHanifiya, –\n\nHijaj, –, –\n\npoetry, –, ,\n\nreligion, –, –, , –\n\nreligious institutions,\n\nQatada,\n\nQaynuqa, battle of,\n\nRahman, Fazlur,\n\nRamadan, , , , ,\n\nRayhana, ,\n\nReissner, H. G.,\n\nreligion\n\nand politics, –\n\nand sociology, –, , –\n\n_ridda_ , –\n\nRivkin, Ellis,\n\nRoman Empire,\n\nRosenthal, Franz,\n\nRousseau, Jean-Jacques,\n\nRubin, Uri, –, , –\n\nSaad b. Muadh, ,\n\nSaad Ibn Muadz,\n\nSabbath, ,\n\nSabeans,\n\nsacrifice, –, –, ,\n\nSafiah, , , _Sahifa_ ,\n\nSalman the Persian,\n\nSamawal b. Adiya, –\n\nSarah, ,\n\nSatanic Verses, , –\n\nScholem, Gersham,\n\nsedentary people, –, ,\n\nSharon, Moshe,\n\nShaykh Abd al Wahlab al Najjar,\n\n_Sira_ ,\n\nSmith, Sydney,\n\nsociology, religion and, –, , –\n\nSpain, ,\n\nSyria, , , –\n\nTabari, Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn\n\nJarir al-, , , , , ,113–\n\ntaxation, ,\n\nTheophanis,\n\nThucydides,\n\nTobit,\n\nTorah,\n\nTorrey, Charles Cutler, , , –\n\nToynbee, Arnold,\n\nTrench, Battle of the, , , , ,\n\nTyler, E. B., , –\n\nUhud, battle of (625), , , , , ,\n\nUmar ibn-al-Khattab, , , , , ,\n\n_umma_ , –,\n\nWalid, Khalid ibn-al-, , , ,\n\nWansbrough, John, ,\n\nWaqidi, Abu Abd AllahMuhammad Ibn Umar al-,24, , ,\n\nWaraqa-ibn-Nawfal,\n\nWasserstrom, Steven,\n\nWatt, Montgomery, , –, –,\n\nWeber, Max, ,\n\nWellhausen, Julius, , , , , ,\n\nWinckler, ,\n\nYahveh,\n\nYathrib\n\nArabs, –\n\nfirst sources,\n\nforts,\n\nJews, , , , –, , , –, –, –, , –,\n\nterminology,\n\n_See also_ Medina\n\nYemen, ,\n\nYom Kippur, , ,\n\nYusuf Ashab. _",
"See_ Dhu Nuwas\n\n_Zakat_ ,\n\nZamzam, , , , , ,\n\nZayd,\n\nZayd b. Amr b. Nufayl,\n\nZayd b. Thabit, –, \n"
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] | 0.007679
| 5
|
[
"Q:\n\nhow can I get score from redis sorted set by rank?",
"\n\nI have a sorted set in redis and I want to get score for 3rd element, for example.",
"\nredis> ZADD myzset 1 \"one\"\nredis> ZADD myzset 2 \"two\"\nredis> ZADD myzset 3 \"three\"\nredis> ZADD myzset 4 \"four\"\n\nA:\n\nZRANGE is just for that. ",
"You can choose index with point or range.",
"\nZRANGE myzset 2 2 WITHSCORES\n\n"
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
}
|
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
0
] | 0
| 5
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[
"Q:\n\nFail TFS Build on Single Unit Test Failure\n\nSetting up CI within Microsoft Team Foundation Server, I have a build that will build the solution and execute all of the unit tests within the solution.",
"\nCurrently the build will show as partially succeeded if the build is successful and an of the unit test fail. ",
" I would like to show the build as failed when a unit test fails.",
"\nCan anyone tell me if there is a way to accomplish this functionality?",
"\n\nA:\n\nIf you have VS2008 SP1 installed on your build machine then you can simply add the following property to your TFSBuild.proj file:\n<TreatTestFailureAsBuildFailure>true</TreatTestFailureAsBuildFailure>\n\nIf you don't have SP1 installed and you don't want to install it, then you can do it the old fashioned route as detailed here by the Dev Lead on the TFS Build team, Aaaron Hallberg:\n <Target Name=\"AfterTest\">\n\n <!-- ",
"Refresh the build properties. --",
">\n <GetBuildProperties TeamFoundationServerUrl=\"$(TeamFoundationServerUrl)\"\n BuildUri=\"$(BuildUri)\"\n Condition=\" '$(IsDesktopBuild)' !",
"= 'true' \">\n <Output TaskParameter=\"TestSuccess\" PropertyName=\"TestSuccess\" />\n </GetBuildProperties>\n\n <!-- ",
"Set CompilationStatus to Failed if TestSuccess is false. --",
">\n <SetBuildProperties TeamFoundationServerUrl=\"$(TeamFoundationServerUrl)\"\n BuildUri=\"$(BuildUri)\"\n CompilationStatus=\"Failed\"\n Condition=\" '$(IsDesktopBuild)' !",
"= 'true' and '$(TestSuccess)' !",
"= 'true' \">\n\n </Target>\n\n"
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
}
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0.01694915254237288,
0.004273504273504274,
0.03225806451612903,
0
] | 0.006132
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[
"By some accounts, the origins of Wah Ching go back 300 years, while others date them to the mid-1960s. ",
"Whatever the case, their criminal activities are highly diversified, making them extraordinarily good at one thing in particular: making money. ",
"The Wah Ching are also violent and sophisticated, as evidenced by two 1995 raids in Los Angeles that uncovered an underground factory run by the Wah Ching featuring $18 million in counterfeit Microsoft products. ",
"The raid also found weapons and explosives, namely TNT and C-4."
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
}
|
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0.009708737864077669,
0,
0.014150943396226415,
0.031746031746031744
] | 0.013901
| 5
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[
"/*\nCopyright 2014 The Kubernetes Authors.",
"\n\nLicensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\");\nyou may not use this file except in compliance with the License.",
"\nYou may obtain a copy of the License at\n\n http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n\nUnless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\ndistributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS,\nWITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.",
"\nSee the License for the specific language governing permissions and\nlimitations under the License.",
"\n*/\n\npackage test\n\nimport (\n\t\"testing\"\n\n\tapitesting \"k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/api/testing\"\n\tmetav1 \"k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/apis/meta/v1\"\n\t\"k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/apis/testapigroup\"\n\t\"k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/runtime\"\n)\n\nfunc TestDecodeList(t *testing.",
"T) {\n\tpl := List{\n\t\tItems: []runtime.",
"Object{\n\t\t\t&testapigroup.",
"Carp{ObjectMeta: metav1.ObjectMeta{Name: \"1\"}},\n\t\t\t&runtime.",
"Unknown{\n\t\t\t\tTypeMeta: runtime.",
"TypeMeta{Kind: \"Carp\", APIVersion: \"v1\"},\n\t\t\t\tRaw: []byte(`{\"kind\":\"Carp\",\"apiVersion\":\"` + \"v1\" + `\",\"metadata\":{\"name\":\"test\"}}`),\n\t\t\t\tContentType: runtime.",
"ContentTypeJSON,\n\t\t\t},\n\t\t},\n\t}\n\n\t_, codecs := TestScheme()\n\tCodec := apitesting.",
"TestCodec(codecs, testapigroup.",
"SchemeGroupVersion)\n\n\tif errs := runtime.",
"DecodeList(pl.",
"Items, Codec); len(errs) !",
"= 0 {\n\t\tt.Fatalf(\"unexpected error %v\", errs)\n\t}\n\tif pod, ok := pl.",
"Items[1].(*testapigroup.",
"Carp); !",
"ok || pod.",
"Name !",
"= \"test\" {\n\t\tt.Errorf(\"object not converted: %#v\", pl.",
"Items[1])\n\t}\n}\n"
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "Github"
}
|
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0.015384615384615385,
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0.041666666666666664,
0,
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[
"The man charged with kidnapping in the disappearance of Alabama college student Aniah Blanchard was captured in Florida by U.S. Marshals late Thursday night.",
"\n\nIbraheem Yazeed, 29, was taken into custody about 10:45 p.m. Thursday off the I-10 Pine Forest Road exit in Escambia County. ",
"He was arrested after a brief foot pursuit.",
"\n\nThat area is on the westside of Pensacola, about six miles from the Alabama state line. ",
"Witnesses reported a large law enforcement presence with tracking dogs on site leading up to Yazeed’s capture. ",
"He was booked into the Escambia County Jail at 2:32 a.m.\n\nEfforts to reach Auburn police late Thursday night for comment on Yazeed’s arrest were unsuccessful. ",
"Yazeed was taken away from the capture scene in an ambulance.",
"\n\n\"i am relieved that we can finally obtain some answers and locate our daughter,'' said Blanchard’s stepmother, Yashiba Blanchard. “",
"I am prayerful that the Lord touches this young man’s heart so he will be honest and truthful and tell the authorities where our daughter is located.”",
"\n\n\"These have been some long days and extremely sleepless nights,'' she said. “",
"I feel as if the Lord has heard our cries and the community’s cries for help with finding our daughter. ",
"We are continue to put our trust in God and pray that Chief Register and the APD with other law enforcement bring us Aniah and justice.”",
"\n\nYazeed, already awaiting trial in an unrelated kidnapping, robbery and attempted murder in Montgomery that left a 77-year-old man “near death,” was charged Thursday with first-degree kidnapping in Blanchard’s abduction in the overnight hours of Oct. 23 and Oct. 24.",
"\n\nAuburn police said Thursday that evidence shows Yazeed was at the same location where Blanchard was last seen and is believed to have taken Blanchard against her will. ",
"Investigators are looking into the possibility Blanchard was kidnapped during a carjacking. ",
"Police had warned that he should be considered armed and dangerous.",
"\n\n\"Obviously our focus is, and has been since the beginning, finding Aniah,'' Auburn Police Chief Paul Register said at a Thursday news briefing. “",
"It’s about giving them (family) some peace of mind.”",
"\n\n\"This is a family that’s hurting,'' Register said. “",
"Regardless of the outcome, they want to know where their daughter is.”",
"\n\nA warrant was issued Thursday for Yazeed’s arrest on a charge of failure to appear in the previous Montgomery case. ",
"His $280,000 bond on those charges was revoked.",
"\n\nYazeed was identified as a suspect in the case after Auburn police late Wednesday afternoon released images of a man wearing dark-colored pants, dark-colored shoes and a camouflage-colored hooded jacket with “Vans” in white writing across the back. ",
"The unknown man was seen leaving the area where Blanchard was last seen in what is described as a late 2000’s model Lincoln Town Car, silver or grey in color.",
"\n\nRegister said the warrant against Yazeed was obtained, in part, because of \"someone doing the right thing,'' indicating one or more tipsters came forward with information. ",
"Investigators believe that Blanchard was kidnapped from the convenience store where she and Yazeed were both last seen. ",
"He said there is no evidence at this point that the two were acquainted. ",
"He said they also have additional information that put Yazeed at the convenience store.",
"\n\nThe police chief said there’s a strong possibility at least one other person was involved in Blanchard’s disappearance and more arrests are expected. ",
"He described public input as “critical” to the case.",
"\n\nBlanchard is the daughter of Birmingham businessman Elijah Blanchard and his wife, lawyer Yashiba Blanchard and Angela Haley-Harris and her husband, UFC fighter Walt Harris.",
"\n\nThe Southern Union College student from Homewood was officially reported missing Thursday, Oct. 24. ",
"She last communicated with a friend late on the night of Oct. 23. ",
"Police said her vehicle was seen in the early-morning hours of Oct. 24 along South College Street.",
"\n\nPolice recovered the teen’s black 2017 Honda CRV from an apartment complex on the 6100 block of Boardwalk Boulevard in Montgomery around 6:15 p.m. the following evening, which was Friday. ",
"A citizen reported the vehicle to police.",
"\n\nAuburn police Capt. ",
"Lorenza Dorsey said Blanchard’s vehicle had been damaged sometime between the last time it was seen in Auburn and Friday night.",
"\n\nAuthorities the following week released a small portion of a video showing Blanchard making a purchase at a convenience store located on South College Street that Wednesday night/Thursday morning just prior to her vehicle being observed traveling southbound on South College Street.",
"\n\nA task force of 60 investigators was then officially formed including the FBI, the U.S. Marshals, the Department of Homeland Security, the Lee County District Attorney’s Office, the Montgomery County Sheriff’s Office, the Alabama Law Enforcement Agency, Alabama Fusion Center and the Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, the Lee County Sheriff’s Office and the Opelika Police Department.",
"\n\nOn Thursday, Oct. 31, authorities announced Blanchard was considered to be a victim of foul play and said evidence found in her damaged vehicle, which was examined by the Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, indicated she had been harmed.",
"\n\nReward money in the case stands at $105,000. ",
"UFC President Dana White, UFC fighter Jon Jones, Dominance MMA CEO Ali Abdelaziz, and an anonymous Homewood family all contributed $25,000 toward the reward money while Gov. Kay Ivey’s office pledged $5,000.",
"\n\nYazeed has a lengthy criminal history. ",
"The attempted murder and kidnapping incident in which Yazeed is a defendant happened in January 2019. ",
"According to court records, two male victims – one of them 77-years-old - were held against their will in a hotel room in January 2019 on the 1200 block of Eastern Boulevard.",
"\n\nThe older man was beaten until “unconscious, unresponsive, severely injured and near death” and robbed of a Rolex, rifle, handguns, wallet, bank card, clothing and unknown amount of currency. ",
"The other man was also beaten and robbed of at least $40.",
"\n\nIn July 2017, Yazeed was arrested by Cass County sheriff’s deputies in Missouri on an arrest warrant for aggravated battery on a law enforcement officer.",
"\n\nYazeed also previously pleaded guilty to felony drug possession in 2015 and received a 13-month suspended sentence. ",
"In 2012, he was charged with attempted murder after authorities said he rammed his car into a Montgomery police vehicle. ",
"A grand jury declined to indict him on those charges as well.",
"\n\nThe previous year – 2011 - Yazeed was charged with two counts of robbery after a man was robbed of more than $2,000, a cell phone and a Gucci watch. ",
"A grand jury also declined to indict him on those charges.",
"\n\nRoy S. Johnson contributed to this report."
] |
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] | 0.00637
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[
"B cell-derived BCGF functions as autocrine growth factor(s) in normal and transformed B lymphocytes.",
"\nThis paper demonstrates that B cell lines, as well as normal activated B cells generate and respond to B cell-specific growth factor(s) (BCGF). ",
"BCGF derived from B cells (B-BCGF) appears to be distinct from interleukin 1, interleukin 2 (IL 2), B cell stimulatory factor, BCGF-II, interferon-gamma, or transforming growth factor. ",
"It acts on activated B cells, but not on resting G0 phase B cells to induce proliferation. ",
"B cell lines, immortalized by Epstein-Barr virus, constitutively secrete 10-fold higher level of B-BCGF compared with normal activated B cells, suggesting that an activated autocrine loop might be operating in immortalized B cells. ",
"On the basis of our observations, we postulate that B cell clonal expansion may occur, at least in part, through a B-BCGF-dependent autocrine pathway similar to IL 2 effect on T cells."
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
}
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0.010810810810810811,
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0.004310344827586207,
0.005434782608695652
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[
"Democratic members of the Finance Committee refused to vote on Trump's picks for Treasury and health secretaries.",
"\n\nSHOW TRANSCRIPT\n\nThe Senate Finance Committee was scheduled to vote Tuesday on President Donald Trump's nominees for health and Treasury secretaries. ",
"But Democratic members boycotted the vote.",
"\n\nAt least one Democratic member is needed for the vote to take place, but all refused to attend. ",
"The Republican chair of the committee said he'll call another vote, but Democratic members could boycott it, too.",
"\n\nDemocrats say Rep. Tom Price and Steven Mnuchin lied during their confirmation hearings. ",
"Some Republicans accused the Democratic members of letting their views of the president get in the way of the vote.",
"\n\nRelated Story Trump Is Keeping Obama's LGBTQ Protections For Federal Workers\n\nBut not all of Trump's nominees have faced intense opposition. ",
"His nominees for interior secretary and energy secretary were both approved in their respective senate committees Tuesday."
] |
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"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
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0.00819672131147541
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[
"1.. Introduction {#sec1}\n==================\n\nHuman transthyretin (TTR) is a 55 kDa homotetramer that transports thyroxine and retinol-binding protein in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid (Hamilton & Benson, 2001[@bb29]; Schreiber *et al.*, ",
"1995[@bb55]). ",
"Wild-type TTR is inherently amyloidogenic and can lead to senile systemic amyloidosis (SSA). ",
"SSA is the most widespread form of TTR amyloid disease and is associated with microscopic amyloid deposits of uncertain clinical significance in many organs of all individuals who are over 80 years old, 25% of whom develop disease symptoms (Westermark *et al.*, ",
"1990[@bb67]). ",
"Point mutations in the TTR gene often result in early onset of disease, presumably due to destabilization of the tetramer, rendering the protein prone to dissociation and aggregation. ",
"This hereditary and often fatal form of amyloidosis is also referred to as familial amyloid polyneuropathy (Planté-Bordeneuve & Said, 2011[@bb52]). ",
"More than 100 TTR mutations have been described of which many are pathogenic (Connors *et al.*, ",
"2003[@bb15]). ",
"A regularly updated list of mutations together with their primary citations can be found on the website <http://amyloidosismutations.com/mut-attr.php>. ",
"A promising approach to the treatment of these diseases is the stabilization of the native fold using drugs that inhibit dissociation of the TTR tetramer and the subsequent aggregation of the protein into its fibrillar form (Connelly *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb14]; Kolstoe *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb38]; Sekijima *et al.*, ",
"2008[@bb56]). ",
"Several drug candidates have been identified and tested and some have been shown to suspend polyneuropathy by raising the kinetic barrier of tetramer dissociation (Choi *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb13]; Sekijima *et al.*, ",
"2008[@bb56]). ",
"Other approaches have resulted in the development of a potent and selective class of bivalent palindromic ligands (Green *et al.*, ",
"2003[@bb28]; Kolstoe *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb38]).",
"\n\nThe stability of the homotetramer of wild-type TTR and the changes associated with point mutations or ageing processes are believed to be closely linked to the electrostatic and hydrogen-bonding interactions present at the protein--protein interface. ",
"Interestingly, wild-type TTR does not necessarily degrade prior to aggregation and deposition in tissue (Ihse *et al.*, ",
"2008[@bb36]; Pepys, 2009[@bb50]). ",
"It has been shown that amyloid fibrils contain a high percentage of wild-type TTR for individuals heterozygous for the Val30Met variant (Ihse *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb35]; Tsuchiya-Suzuki *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb64]).",
"\n\nNeutron diffraction is a powerful tool for structural analysis which strongly complements X-ray techniques because it enables key details of hydration and protonation to be revealed (Forsyth *et al.*, ",
"1989[@bb25]; Langan *et al.*, ",
"1992[@bb42]; Kovalevsky *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb39]; Tomanicek *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb62], 2011[@bb63]; Howard *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb34]; Kovalevsky *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb41]; Weber *et al.*, ",
"2013[@bb66]; Cuypers, Mason *et al.*, ",
"2013[@bb16]; Casadei *et al.*, ",
"2014[@bb11]; Langan *et al.*, ",
"2014[@bb43]). ",
"This occurs because, in contrast to the situation with X-ray diffraction, hydrogen and its isotope deuterium have scattering powers for neutrons that are comparable with those for the other atoms commonly found in biological macromolecules, and are therefore more easily visible in neutron diffraction studies (Blakeley, 2009[@bb7]). ",
"Perdeuteration of the sample, in which all hydrogen atoms are replaced by deuterium, facilitates data collection from smaller samples and those with larger unit cells (Hazemann *et al.*, ",
"2005[@bb31]; Petit-Haertlein *et al.*, ",
"2009[@bb51]), and is invaluable to other techniques used in structural biology and soft matter research including small-angle neutron scattering (Cuypers, Trubitsyna *et al.*, ",
"2013[@bb17]), neutron reflectometry (Grage *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb27]), fibre diffraction (Shotton *et al.*, ",
"1997[@bb59]; Gardner *et al.*, ",
"2004[@bb26]; Nishiyama *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb48]) and NMR (Varga *et al.*, ",
"2007[@bb65]).",
"\n\nA recent review analysing the output of almost 200 X-ray crystal structures of transthyretin, its mutants, complexes and related proteins concludes that despite the abundance of data available, no consistent and conclusive model for mutation-induced structural changes or for the mechanism of amyloid formation has been put forward (Palaninathan, 2012[@bb49]). ",
"The neutron crystallographic analysis presented here sheds light on a vitally important aspect -- the role of hydrogen-atom interactions in the stability of the structure. ",
"In addition to the biological interest of these results, it is noted that the study was carried out using two datasets recorded from completely different neutron diffractometers at the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL). ",
"One was a quasi-Laue machine dedicated to neutron protein crystallography, and the other was a monochromatic instrument that is typically used for studies in structural chemistry, small proteins, as well as fibre diffraction studies of biological and synthetic polymers. ",
"Hence the results, which are closely consistent, are of technical interest for an understanding of the complementary scope of each approach.",
"\n\n2.. Experimental procedures {#sec2}\n=============================\n\n2.1.. Sample preparation {#sec2.1}\n--------------------------\n\nHuman TTR was prepared and crystallized as described previously (Haupt *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb30]). ",
"This involved the use of a pET-M11 bacterial expression vector with an N-terminal 6His tag and a TEV cleavage site (EMBL Protein and Purification Facility, Germany) with the TTR gene ligated *via* NcoI and Acc65I restriction sites. ",
"Following transformation into BL21(DE3) cells (Invitrogen), the cells were adapted to perdeuterated ENFORS minimal medium and grown in a fed batch fermentation process using U-D8-glycerol (99% deuterium, Euriso-top) as the carbon source. ",
"Purification was carried out using an Ni^2+^ column and subsequent gel filtration. ",
"MALDI--TOF mass spectrometry showed deuteration of 100% of all non-exchangeable hydrogen atoms. ",
"Large single crystals of ≥3 mm^3^ were grown using the vapour diffusion method in sitting drops in 2.15 *M* malonate buffer pD 6.0 and 23 mg ml^−1^ protein concentration.",
"\n\n2.2.. Quasi-Laue neutron data collection (LADI-III) {#sec2.2}\n-----------------------------------------------------\n\nDetails of the quasi-Laue neutron diffraction data collection have been reported previously (Haupt *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb30]). ",
"Neutron quasi-Laue diffraction data were collected at room temperature on the LADI-III instrument (Blakeley *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb8]) installed on cold neutron guide H142 at the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL). ",
"Using a crystal of perdeuterated TTR with volume of ∼3.4 mm^3^, diffraction data were collected to 2.0 Å resolution. ",
"As is typical for a Laue crystallography experiment, the crystal was held stationary at a different ϕ (vertical rotation axis) setting for each exposure. ",
"Initially, 12 contiguous images (Δϕ = 7°) were collected using an exposure time of 8 h per image in order to collect the high-resolution data, followed by a low-resolution pass of 11 contiguous images (Δϕ = 7°) using an exposure time of 2 h per image. ",
"Thus, the complete dataset comprised 23 images with an average exposure time of 5.13 h per image. ",
"The neutron diffraction images were processed using the *LAUE* suite program *LAUEGEN* (Campbell, 1995[@bb9]; Helliwell *et al.*, ",
"1989[@bb32]), which was modified to account for the cylindrical geometry of the detector (Campbell *et al.*, ",
"1998[@bb10]). ",
"The program *LSCALE* (Arzt, 1999[@bb4]) was used to determine the wavelength-normalization curve using the intensities of symmetry-equivalent reflections measured at different wavelengths and to apply wavelength-normalization calculations to the observed data. ",
"The data were then scaled and merged in *SCALA* (Evans, 2006[@bb21]). ",
"Relevant data collection statistics are summarized in Table 1[▶](#table1){ref-type=\"table\"}.",
"\n\n2.3.. Thermal neutron data collection (D19) {#sec2.3}\n---------------------------------------------\n\nMonochromatic data were recorded at room temperature using the D19 diffractometer at the ILL. ",
"Data were recorded to a resolution of 2.3 Å using ω-step scans of 0.07°, to preset monitor counts, with typical times per frame of 87 or 173 s. The wavelength used was 2.42 Å produced using a graphite monochromator. ",
"The λ/2 harmonic was reduced below 1% using a graphite filter ahead of the sample position. ",
"The detector was a large, curved multiwire proportional counter having an angular coverage of 120° in the horizontal plane and 30° vertically. ",
"The data were processed using the ILL program *RETREAT* (Wilkinson *et al.*, ",
"1988[@bb68]). ",
"The use of perdeuterated protein effectively obviated the need for an absorption correction. ",
"Data were merged using *SCALA* from the *CCP*4 suite (Winn *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb69]). ",
"A summary of the experimental and refinement statistics is given in Table 1[▶](#table1){ref-type=\"table\"}.",
"\n\n2.4.. X-ray data collection and structure refinement {#sec2.4}\n------------------------------------------------------\n\nX-ray diffraction data were recorded at room temperature using beamline ID23-1 (Flot *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb24]) at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), using a heavily attenuated X-ray beam (0.74%) of wavelength 0.9791 Å. Integrated and scaled reflection intensities were obtained using *MOSFLM* (Battye *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb5]; Leslie, 2006[@bb44]) and *SCALA*, and converted to structure factors using *TRUNCATE* (Winn *et al.*, ",
"2011[@bb69]). ",
"Radiation-damage effects were monitored using the inter-frame merging *R* factors and *B* factors.",
"\n\nPDB code [3ipe](http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/cr.cgi?rm=pdb&pdbId=3ipe) was used as the starting model. ",
"All water molecules and multiple conformations were removed and the model was randomly perturbed to reduce model bias. ",
"Initially, rigid-body refinement was then conducted using *PHENIX* (Adams *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb1]) to 1.95 Å. Following this a series of restrained refinements were conducted and the resulting σ~A~ weighted *F* ~o~ − *F* ~c~ electron-density map contoured to 3σ was used to model 148 solvent molecules and a number of multiple conformations. ",
"Further rounds of restrained refinement were conducted. ",
"The refinement converged with a final *R* factor of 15.2% and *R* ~free~ of 20.1%. ",
"Full refinement statistics are shown in Table 1[▶](#table1){ref-type=\"table\"} and the model has been deposited in the Protein Data Bank (<http://www.rcsb.org/pdb>) under accession code [4pvl](http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/cr.cgi?rm=pdb&pdbId=4pvl).",
"\n\n2.5.. Joint neutron and X-ray structural refinement {#sec2.5}\n-----------------------------------------------------\n\nThe refined X-ray model of perdeuterated TTR to 1.95 Å resolution determined at room temperature was used as the starting model for the joint X-ray and neutron refinement using the *phenix.refine* program (Afonine *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb3]) in the *PHENIX* package (version 1.6.2). ",
"The model was first modified by removing all water molecules, resetting the atomic displacement parameters (ADPs) of all atoms to 25 Å^2^, and randomly perturbing the atomic coordinates to reduce model bias. ",
"Deuterium atoms were then added to the protein model using the *ReadySet* option in *PHENIX* (Adams *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb1]).",
"\n\nInitially rigid-body refinement was performed, followed by several cycles of maximum-likelihood-based refinement of individual coordinates, isotropic ADPs and atomic occupancies of side-chain multiple conformations. ",
"Using the modelling program *Coot* (Emsley *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb19]), rotamer- and torsion-angle adjustments were made manually throughout the model according to positive nuclear scattering density in both σ~A~-weighted 2*F* ~o~ − *F* ~c~ and *F* ~o~ − *F* ~c~ maps. ",
"The first nine residues at the N-terminus, along with the last two residues at the C-terminus of both chains A and B were found to be disordered in the X-ray and neutron scattering density maps and thus were not modelled, with the exception of Lys-9 which could be modelled with the neutron data in chain B. Molecules of D~2~O were added to the model according to positive neutron scattering length density in σ~A~-weighted *F* ~o~ − *F* ~c~ maps, with manual adjustment of all D~2~O molecules completed using both σ~A~-weighted 2*F* ~o~ − *F* ~c~ and *F* ~o~ − *F* ~c~ maps. ",
"A total of 89 solvent molecules were included in the final round of refinement using *phenix.refine* for the Laue dataset, and 84 in the case of the monochromatic dataset. ",
"Based on the density maps, these were modelled as full D~2~O molecules, D---O or 'O-only' (*i.e* exhibiting spherical density); a summary is given in Table 1[▶](#table1){ref-type=\"table\"}. ",
"A minimal r.m.s. ",
"level of 1.5 was used for the attribution of water molecules. ",
"The same strategy was applied for both quasi-Laue diffraction and monochromatic data. ",
"The quasi-Laue neutron *R* ~work~ and *R* ~free~ values for the final model were 20.9% and 27.1%, respectively, while the X-ray *R* ~work~ and *R* ~free~ values were 15.3% and 20.3%, respectively. ",
"For monochromatic neutron joint refinement the *R* ~work~ and *R* ~free~ values for the final model were 20.9% and 26.2% for neutrons and 15.6% and 18.5% for X-rays, respectively. ",
"The final refinement statistics from *phenix.refine* are summarized in Table 1[▶](#table1){ref-type=\"table\"}. *",
"MolProbity* (Davis *et al.*, ",
"2007[@bb18]) was used to analyze the stereochemistry of the final model (see Table 1[▶](#table1){ref-type=\"table\"}). ",
"The models and the diffraction data have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank (<http://www.rcsb.org/pdb>) under accession codes [4pvm](http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/cr.cgi?rm=pdb&pdbId=4pvm) and [4pvn](http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/cr.cgi?rm=pdb&pdbId=4pvn) for the quasi-Laue and monochromatic neutron models, respectively.",
"\n\n3.. Results {#sec3}\n=============\n\n3.1.. Neutron crystal structures {#sec3.1}\n----------------------------------\n\nAs noted above, two independent neutron datasets were obtained from the same crystal using two different diffractometers at the ILL. ",
"The first was recorded using the quasi-Laue diffractometer LADI-III (to a resolution of 2.0 Å), and the second was recorded using the monochromatic thermal neutron diffractometer D19 (to a resolution of 2.3 Å). ",
"Both datasets were recorded at room temperature. ",
"An X-ray dataset was subsequently collected to 1.95 Å resolution at room temperature from a crystal originating from the same crystallization well. ",
"The availability of both X-ray and neutron diffraction data allowed joint refinements, increasing the data-to-parameter ratio and reducing the influence of systematic errors. ",
"A summary of the quasi-Laue neutron, monochromatic neutron, and X-ray data collection statistics is given in Table 1[▶](#table1){ref-type=\"table\"}, along with details of each of the refinements carried out. ",
"A comparison of the two neutron-derived structures showed close agreement; a superposition was carried out using *Coot* (Emsley *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb19]) and the mean deviation was calculated to be 0.13 Å. It is interesting to note that while the study was based on the use of perdeuterated protein (as assessed by mass spectrometry), small amounts of exchange of D back to H can be expected. ",
"This may happen during purification (where hydrogenated reagents are usually used), and may not fully reverse during crystallization in fully deuterated buffers. ",
"Such back-exchange typically involved amide backbone hydrogen atoms and was identified during the respective structure refinements. ",
"The results described here for perdeuterated wild-type TTR have been compared with the crystallographic study of a truncated form of the hydrogenated protein (Yokoyama *et al.*, ",
"2012[@bb71]). ",
"This study was carried out to a resolution of 2 Å using the iBIX instrument at J-PARC (Tanaka *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb61]). ",
"The comparison shows good consistency between the two structures, and demonstrates the major advantages arising from the use of perdeuterated protein. ",
"As has been noted previously, the negative scattering length of hydrogen for neutrons has a number of important implications for neutron macromolecular crystallography. ",
"In addition to hydrogen incoherent scattering and absorption issues that affect data precision and data correction, the character of neutron scattering length density maps obtained are very different. ",
"If, as is often the case in protein crystallography, high-resolution data are not obtained, cancellation can occur between positive and negative regions of density maps, and this may limit the clarity and interpretation of the analysis. ",
"Additionally, given the significantly larger scattering power of deuterium by comparison with its hydrogen isotope, it is evident that deuterium atoms will be more easily identifiable, even at lower resolutions. ",
"In the sections that follow, we note points of comparison between this study and that of Yokoyama *et al.* (",
"2012[@bb71]).",
"\n\n3.2.. Tertiary and quaternary structure {#sec3.2}\n-----------------------------------------\n\nNative human TTR is known to be a homotetramer, or, more precisely, a dimer of dimers (Fig. ",
"1[▶](#fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"The monomer consists of two four-stranded β-sheets, arranged in a sandwich-like tertiary structure in which β-strands HGAD are opposed to β-strands FEBC (Fig. ",
"2[▶](#fig2){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"There is a short β-strand, A\\*, that is folded back relative to strand A *via* a π-turn (*i*+5) and which is involved in the dimer--dimer contact. ",
"The only helical part of the secondary structure is an α-helix located between strands E and F, and also one solvent-exposed β-turn (Thr60--Phe64) that mediates a crystal contact.",
"\n\nThe primary dimer relates the A-chain DAGH sheet to its B-chain counterpart H′G′A′D′, forming what appears as an almost continuous β-sheet in which the monomer--monomer interface is defined by six backbone hydrogen bonds on the binding channel side of the sheet. ",
"Fig. ",
"3[▶](#fig3){ref-type=\"fig\"}(*a*) shows full details of the close hydrogen bonding at this interface, as well as two additional hydrogen bonds involving the side-chain hydroxyl groups of residues Ser115/A with Thr119/B, and Thr119/A with Ser115/B; in all cases the neutron density maps allow direct visualization of the hydrogen atoms involved. ",
"On the other side of the monomer 'sandwich', as shown in Fig. ",
"3[▶](#fig3){ref-type=\"fig\"}(*b*), the A chain strands CBEF form a somewhat looser sheet-like continuation with their B-chain counterparts, F′E′B′C′. Here there are only four direct backbone hydrogen bonds joining the F strands together. ",
"The amide group of Glu89/A, at the N-terminus of strand F, interacts with the carbonyl group of Val94/B in the centre of strand F, as does the amide group of Glu89/B with the carbonyl group of Val94A. Between the space spanned by these four residues, the neutron maps show the location and orientation of three buried water molecules bridging the ND--CO contacts between the F strands. ",
"The central water molecule of the three, being in closer contact to the side-chain hydroxyl group of Tyr116/B than it is to that of Tyr116/A, highlights an important difference in the structure of the two monomers making up the primary dimer (Fig. ",
"4[▶](#fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}).",
"\n\nThe dimer--dimer contact is mediated by only eight backbone hydrogen bonds. ",
"The same four atoms are implicated in each monomer; Ala19/A CO interacts with the Tyr114/B′ ND, and Gly22/A CO with Val122/A′ ND, *etc.* (",
"Fig. ",
"5[▶](#fig5){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"Several residues are involved in hydrophobic contacts that further stabilize the tetramer: Val20, Leu17, Val121, Leu110 and Thr119.",
"\n\nThe primary dimer, formed by monomers A and B, constitutes the crystallographic asymmetric unit. ",
"Some structural differences between the two monomers are clear in solvent-exposed loops (BC, CD, FG); these are likely to be imposed by the crystal lattice and would not be relevant to physiological conditions.",
"\n\n3.3.. Buried water molecules {#sec3.3}\n------------------------------\n\nA total of 13 buried water molecules are found per dimer. ",
"Five are located at the monomer--monomer interface. ",
"Four more are located in each of the monomers. ",
"One water molecule is situated at the junction of strands A and D, making hydrogen bonds to O/Leu12, O/Leu55 and D/Leu58. ",
"Several amyloidogenic mutations are known to be associated with these residues, with Leu55Pro being reported as the most aggressive (Sousa *et al.*, ",
"2002[@bb60]).",
"\n\nA group of three water molecules is trapped between the GH-loop, the residues preceding strand F, and the α-helix. ",
"The atoms involved in hydrogen bonding here are DG1/Thr75, O/His88, ND1/His88, O/Pro113, DE1/Trp79, and O/Ser112 (Fig.",
" 6[▶](#fig6){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"These interactions may be important given that this is a highly conserved part of the structure, with data suggesting that only one mutation, Ser112Ile, can be tolerated. ",
"This very well ordered hydrogen-bond network is in agreement with the structure described by Yokoyama *et al.* (",
"2012[@bb71]).",
"\n\nAnother isolated buried water molecule can be found bridging the monomer--monomer interface between OG1/Thr118 from one chain and DE2/His88 from the other chain. ",
"The water molecule receives a hydrogen bond from NE2/His88 and donates a hydrogen bond to OG1/THr 118; in turn OG1 donates a hydrogen bond to the main-chain oxygen of Ala108. ",
"There are no known mutations associated with these residues. ",
"This feature is also noted in the structure reported by Yokoyama *et al.* (",
"2012[@bb71]).",
"\n\nThree more structured water molecules are found at the monomer--monomer interface where the F-strands of chains A and B join. ",
"The residues involved here are O/His90/A, OH/Tyr116/A and D/Val94/B for the first water molecule, OH/Tyr116/A, DH/Tyr116/B and O/Glu92/A for the central water molecule, and OH/116Tyr/B, D/Val94/A and O/His90/B for the third water molecule. ",
"Mutations relating to more or less severe disease patterns are associated with all of these residues.",
"\n\n3.4.. Histidine protonation states {#sec3.4}\n------------------------------------\n\nThe four histidine residues in each of the A and B chains show different protonation states. ",
"His31 is doubly protonated in both A and B chains, as in the case in the corresponding parts of the structure reported by Yokoyama *et al.* (",
"2012[@bb71]). ",
"In the case of His56, however, the neutron maps show double protonation in the A-chain residue, and single protonation (on ND1) in the B chain, whereas in the structure according to Yokoyama *et al.* ",
"there is single (NE1) protonation in both chains. ",
"For His88 there is full agreement between all structures, with single (ND1) protonation in both chains. ",
"Finally, the His90 residue is protonated on ND1 in both chains in the current structure, whereas Yokoyama and coworkers have this residue protonated on NE1. ",
"The differences noted between this structure and that of Yokoyama *et al.* ",
"may relate to the different pD values associated with the respective studies which were 6.0 and 7.4, respectively.",
"\n\n3.5.. The thyroxin binding pocket {#sec3.5}\n-----------------------------------\n\nThe intermolecular contacts formed by the dimer--dimer interface result in the formation of a spacious channel (∼40 Å long) running along the twofold symmetry axis of the protein. ",
"The channel is about 10 Å wide at the outer rim and narrows in the centre to about 4 Å. This narrowing is defined by the alignment of Ser117A and Ser117B on the bottom of the cleft, and by Ser117A′ and Ser117B′ on the top (Fig. ",
"7[▶](#fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}), accommodating two separate binding sites. ",
"Small, though important, differences between subunits A and B result in different geometries for the two hormone binding sites. ",
"Monomers A and A′ form site A, and monomers B and B′ form site B, each binding pocket being internally symmetric due to the twofold symmetry axis that runs through the central channel of the tetramer. ",
"The central part of this channel, close to Ser117, is quite similar for both binding sites, although the protons of the Ser117 hydroxyl groups have different orientations in the A and B monomers (Fig. ",
"7[▶](#fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"In the A site, the γ-hydrogen atoms chelate a structured water molecule, whereas in site B the γ-hydrogen atoms are rotated by about 20° thus resulting in a 0.5 Å widening of the pocket (distance DG--DG′ 4.1 Å in the A site *versus* 4.7 Å in the B site); the neutron data show no bound water at the B site. ",
"This important detail cannot be derived from X-ray models with riding hydrogen atoms and is consistent with the neutron data published by Yokoyama *et al.* (",
"2012[@bb71]). ",
"The two binding pockets show subtle structural differences. ",
"The charged amino acids Lys15 and Glu54 that define the position of thyroxine adopt very similar positions and are well structured with low *B*-factors. ",
"However their hydration states are different. ",
"The larger binding pocket B, which has been postulated to have the higher binding affinity, has a well defined water molecule bound to Lys15, whereas in the narrower site A no hydration is noted.",
"\n\n4.. Discussion {#sec4}\n================\n\nDespite its ability to form fibrils, transthyretin is a very stable protein. ",
"It withstands temperature changes from 277 to 353 K and pH variation between 5.5 and 12.0 without significant damage (Lundberg *et al.*, ",
"2009[@bb45]). ",
"Studies concerning its evolutionary development show that the central residues in the binding channel have not changed in over 400 million years (Prapunpoj & Leelawatwattana, 2009[@bb53]). ",
"The tertiary structure shows an equally stable architecture that cannot easily be disrupted. ",
"A comparison of 23 structures of wild-type and mutant TTR showed no evidence for significant structural changes between amyloidogenic, non-amyloidogenic or wild-type TTR quarternary structure (Hörnberg *et al.*, ",
"2000[@bb33]). ",
"In fact, the authors of this study concluded that there was greater structural variability amongst published X-ray structures of wild-type TTRs originating from different research groups. ",
"However, the fact that most of the known mutations in the TTR gene have important implications for amyloidosis suggests that there are aspects of TTR structure that are not fully understood. ",
"We believe that the results described here, particularly those relating to the hydration and protonation states of the protein, may provide a fuller understanding of the factors important in TTR stability and disassembly.",
"\n\n4.1.. Ser117 -- the pivotal point {#sec4.1}\n-----------------------------------\n\nA common characteristic of vertebrate TTR, with the exception of fish, is the occurrence of the four Ser117 residues in the centre of the molecule (Prapunpoj & Leelawatwattana, 2009[@bb53]). ",
"Ser117 has been reported as capable of subtle conformational changes upon ligand binding (Morais-de-Sá *et al.*, ",
"2004[@bb46]). ",
"This residue is located at the centre of the tetramer, where the crystallographic (dimer--dimer interface) and noncrystallographic (monomer--monomer interface) symmetry axes intersect. ",
"A comparison of several X-ray structures from the PDB shows considerable variation in the assigned water structure in the binding channel -- ranging from zero to four water molecules situated between the central serine residues, and it is therefore hard to be sure of the significance of these observations. ",
"In this study, both of our independent neutron datasets, which reveal water molecules in greater detail than corresponding X-ray analyses, show the presence of a single highly ordered water molecule, coordinated by Ser117A and Ser117A′. This water molecule mediates an important contact on one side of the dimer--dimer interface (Fig. ",
"7[▶](#fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"We note this to be consistent with the analysis of Yokoyama *et al.* (",
"2012[@bb71]). ",
"The neutron data also show the hydroxyl group orientation that stabilizes this water interaction with good hydrogen bonding geometry.",
"\n\n4.2.. Implications for the thyroxine binding cleft {#sec4.2}\n----------------------------------------------------\n\nThe location of the Ser117A/Ser117A′ hydroxyl-water interaction highlights the importance of subtle structural differences between the A and B chains, as well as the fact that the two thyroxine binding sites are not equivalent (see Fig. ",
"7[▶](#fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"Early binding studies on human TTR with thyroxine suggested a negative binding cooperativity, supported by a decrease in the binding constant for the second thyroxine by a factor of 100; the corresponding *K* ~1~ and *K* ~2~ dissociation constants are approximately 10 n*M* and 1 µ*M*, respectively (Ferguson *et al.*, ",
"1975[@bb22]). ",
"Other monovalent binders such as diflunisal and its analogues only occupy on average one binding site (Adamski-Werner *et al.*, ",
"2004[@bb2]; Castaño *et al.*, ",
"2012[@bb12]). ",
"However, it is hard to determine the ratio of unbound, singly bound or doubly bound TTR tetramer (Wiseman *et al.*, ",
"2005[@bb70]). ",
"Only bivalent compounds force the mutual occupation of both binding sites in the protein, although they are spatially demanding and imply a partial dissociation of the tetramer before they can occupy the entire channel (Green *et al.*, ",
"2003[@bb28]). ",
"Following this, other homo-bivalent inhibitors have been designed to cross link the tetramers and thus speed up the clearance of TTR from serum. ",
"Furthermore, under physiological conditions, these constructs bind to wtTTR and show an increased binding strength and stabilization of the tetramer (Kolstoe *et al.*, ",
"2010[@bb38]).",
"\n\nThis neutron analysis shows an asymmetry at the dimer--dimer interface, leading to different opening angles of the channels. ",
"In solution the protein is very likely to flex back and forth, interchanging the two water molecules bound by the Ser117 between the A--A′ site and the B--B′ site, thereby slightly opening one or the other binding pockets. ",
"It has been suggested that the slightly larger binding site is also the one with the higher binding affinity (Neumann *et al.*, ",
"2001[@bb47]). ",
"Immobilized in the crystal lattice, the existence of two different ground states becomes apparent. ",
"Based on this evidence, our structure supports the concept of two distinct asymmetric binding sites having different affinities (Fig. ",
"8[▶](#fig8){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ",
"Binding of the first ligand in the slightly bigger site will restrain the protein's flexibility, so that only the lower affinity binding pocket is available. ",
"This assumption is supported by the observation that the structure does not significantly change upon ligand binding (Hörnberg *et al.*, ",
"2000[@bb1]).",
"\n\n4.3.. From the native fold to fibrils -- a 'dimer-only' hypothesis {#sec4.3}\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThere are numerous theories concerning the fibril formation of transthyretin. ",
"One of the most popular is the hypothesis that a complete degradation to the monomeric species has to occur prior to aggregation (Lundberg *et al.*, ",
"2009[@bb45]; Wiseman *et al.*, ",
"2005[@bb70]). ",
"Other publications suggest a mechanism *via* the dimeric state of the protein (Serag *et al.*, ",
"2001[@bb57]). ",
"This model is supported by the findings that there is a concentration of amyloidogenic mutations in the edge strands C and D, whereas there are few at the dimerization interfaces (Serpell *et al.*, ",
"1996[@bb58]). ",
"A model for amyloid formation originating from the tetrameric state has also been proposed (Eneqvist *et al.*, ",
"2000[@bb20]). ",
"There is however broad consensus that the resulting amyloid filament is a cross-β structure having ∼4.7 Å inter-strand spacing and ∼10.4 Å inter-sheet spacing (Blake & Serpell, 1996[@bb6]).",
"\n\nThe idea that amyloid formation occurs from dissociated monomers is at variance with the fact that even for mutated transthyretin, harsh denaturing conditions (*e.g.* acidic pH close to the pI) have to be deployed to disrupt the tetrameric structure of the protein and generate fibrils **in vitro**. ",
"The fibrils so formed are usually of poor quality and do not (as visualized by electron microscopy) resemble fibrils from natural sources. ",
"Furthermore, TTR disassembles into a dimer when exposed to 5% SDS, and the monomeric form is only obtained after boiling the sample (Lundberg *et al.*, ",
"2009[@bb45]). ",
"A probe for the existence of a monomeric species **in vivo** is the measurement of subunit exchange under physiological conditions. ",
"By mixing tagged wtTTR with non-tagged protein it has been shown that subunit exchange can be observed after 40 h, and equilibrium is reached after seven days (Schneider *et al.*, ",
"2001[@bb54]). ",
"However, in nature the half-life of TTR in the blood is less than two days (Ingenbleek & Young, 2002[@bb37]). ",
"This rather short biological half-life ensures rapid disposal of denatured protein prone to form fibrils, although some TTR clearly circumvents the pathway.",
"\n\nAt the monomer--monomer interface, 12 inter-monomer hydrogen bonds and about seven intermolecular hydrophobic interactions (π-stacking, hydrophobic side-chain arrangements) were identified. ",
"The interactions on the dimer--dimer interface are much weaker. ",
"For a surface that is more than twice as big, only eight inter-dimer hydrogen bonds can be allocated and few unspecific hydrophobic contacts. ",
"Thus, it is very likely that the dimer--dimer dissociation event prevails over monomer--monomer dissociation. ",
"Stereochemically, it is also easy to see how the β-sheet may be continued *via* a simple dimerization of the edge-strands C and D (residues 45--58) with the corresponding strands from another dimer. ",
"Only minor structural rearrangements are necessary to better expose the amide and carbonyl groups to allow this association with a binding partner. ",
"Once the first building block has formed, it is only a matter of time and protein supply to sustain fibril formation.",
"\n\nThe slow build-up rate of fibrils due to the necessity of nucleation presumably results in an exponential growth rate, with a variable early age onset for mutated protein *versus* a late onset for wtTTR.",
"\n\n5.. Conclusions {#sec5}\n=================\n\nHydrogen accounts for almost 50% of all atoms present in a protein. ",
"Neutron studies such as this one provide a unique opportunity to reliably image these important atoms, and the use of perdeuterated TTR has proved to be crucial. ",
"The data presented here emphasize the importance of determining the hydrogen-atom positions directly rather than assuming them on the basis of chemical context. ",
"For example, the fact that the hydrogen atom of the γ-hydroxyl group of Ser117A is rotated by about 20° compared with the same residue on the B-chain cannot be predicted on the basis of the very small conformational change of the oxygen atom of the same group. ",
"This subtle difference affects the quaternary protein structure at the dimer--dimer interface, resulting in two hormone binding sites with distinct binding constants.",
"\n\nThe information on the location and orientation of buried water molecules provides insight to the specific parts of TTR that are believed to be important in stabilizing the structure of the primary dimer. ",
"This is significant for developing a structural basis for understanding mutations of medical significance and that are known to enhance fibril formation. ",
"The ordered water structures around His88, Thr75, Trp79 and Ser112, are therefore of particular significance, as is the protonation state of His88. ",
"Neutron crystal structures of key mutants would therefore be of clear benefit to this field.",
"\n\nThe hydrogen-bonding network connections identified here corroborate the hypothesis that a dimer is the principal building block of TTR amyloid fibrils and that a complete dissociation into monomers prior to fibril formation is not likely. ",
"We are confident that these findings will be helpful for a better understanding of the properties and dynamics of wild-type transthyretin, and may lead to exploitable information to counter amyloidosis.",
"\n\nSupplementary Material\n======================\n\nPDB reference: [X-ray structure of human transthyretin to 1.9 Å resolution, 4pvl](4pvl)\n\nPDB reference: [neutron structure of human transthyretin to 2.0 Å (Laue), 4pvm](4pvm)\n\nPDB reference: [neutron structure of human transthyretin to 2.3 Å (monochromatic), 4pvn](4pvn)\n\nVTF and JBC acknowledge support from EPSRC under grants GR/R47950/01, GR/R99393/01 and EP/C015452/1. ",
"The new D19 diffractometer was built as part of a collaboration between Durham University, Keele University, Bath University and ILL. ",
"VTF also acknowledges support from the EU under contracts RII3-CT-2003-505925 and NMP4-CT-2006-033256. ",
"We acknowledge the ILL for the provision of beam time on LADI-III and on D19, and the ESRF for beam time on ID23-1. ",
"We gratefully acknowledge the help of John Archer, John Allibon, and the efforts of the ILL detector group. ",
"SF was supported by FWF grant P22862 from the Austrian Science Fund for part of this work.",
"\n\n{#fig1}\n\n{#fig2}\n\n{#fig3}\n\n{#fig4}\n\n{#fig5}\n\n{#fig6}\n\n{#fig7}\n\n{#fig8}\n\n###### Summary of data-collection and analysis statistics\n\n Laue neutron diffraction Monochromatic neutron diffraction X-ray diffraction\n -------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------\n Data collection \n Beamline LADI-III at ILL D19 at ILL ID23-1 at ESRF\n Temperature (K) 293 293 293\n Wavelength () 3.244.18 2.42 0.9791\n Resolution () 43.682.00 (2.112.00) 52.212.30 (2.422.30) 52.281.85 (1.951.85)\n No. ",
"reflections measured 69034 (6128) 40015 (4199) 76578 (10682)\n No. ",
"unique reflections 13480 (1524) 11358 (1613) 21718 (3060)\n Completeness (%) 78.3 (62.1) 99.3 (98.7) 99.4 (97.9)\n No. ",
"of images 23 N/A 180\n Oscillation angle () Step angle = 7 Scan step 0.07 0.5\n Exposure time per image (s) 18470 (5.13hours per image) 87 or 173 0.1 (beam attenuated to 0.74%)\n Space group *P*2~1~2~1~2 *P*2~1~2~1~2 *P*2~1~2~1~2\n Unit-cell parameters ()[†](#tfn1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} *a* = 43.68, *b* = 86.26, *c* = 65.72 *a* = 43.68, *b* = 86.26, *c* = 65.72 *a* = 43.68, *b* = 86.26, *c* = 65.72\n *R* ~merge~ 0.182 (0.337) 0.152 (0.645) 0.093 (0.420)\n *R* ~p.i.m.~ 0.078 (0.162) 0.096 (0.470) 0.057 (0.254)\n Multiplicity 5.1 (4.0) 3.5 (2.6) 3.5 (3.5)\n Mean *I*/(*I*) 7.3 (3.4) 7.7 (1.6) 7.4 (2.6)\n Wilson *B* factor (^2^) 15.7 14.9 19.8\n Refinement Joint NX Joint NX X only\n Resolution range () N: 36.382.00 (2.072.00) N: 52.282.30 (2.532.30) 43.131.95 (2.001.95)\n X: 43.131.95 (2.001.95) X: 43.131.95 (2.051.95) \n PDB code 4pvm 4pvn 4pvl\n No. ",
"reflections N 13391 (923) 11395 (2630) \n No. ",
"reflections X 18655 (1274) 18655 (2512) 18656 (1274)\n Completeness (%) N 76.9 (60.0) 98.6 (98.0) \n Completeness (%) X 99.4 (100.0) 99.4 (100.0) 99.5 (100.0)\n *R* ~work~ N 0.209 (0.280) 0.209 (0.258) \n *R* ~work~ X 0.153 (0.173) 0.156 (0.185) 0.152 (0.175)\n *R* ~free~ N 0.271 (0.320) 0.262 (0.322) \n *R* ~free~ X 0.203 (0.220) 0.185 (0.226) 0.201 (0.198)\n No. ",
"protein atoms 3630 3680 1815 (no H or D)\n No. ",
"main-chain amide-H atoms with H~occ~ \\> 0.5 29 34 0\n No. ",
"D~2~O, DO, O-only molecules 36, 12, 41 30, 18, 36 148\n R.m.s.d. ",
"bond length () 0.013 0.012 0.011\n R.m.s.d. ",
"bond angles () 1.354 1.309 1.282\n Average *B* factors (^2^) \n Main chain (A/B) 18.5/23.4 23.1/29.1 20.7/25.4\n Side chain (A/B) 23.7/28.6 29.3/35.7 28.7/33.2\n Solvent 26.8 46.4 40.9\n Ramachandran statistics (%) \n Favoured 98.3 98.3 97.8\n Allowed 1.3 1.3 2.2\n\nX-ray cell dimensions were used for both neutron structures.",
"\n"
] |
{
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Central"
}
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0.003816793893129771,
0.07142857142857142,
0.005434782608695652,
0.013513513513513514,
0,
0.07142857142857142,
0.006578947368421052,
0.004098360655737705,
0.06451612903225806,
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[
"Here you can find track previews from release Terezín / Theresienstadt Composers: Pavel Haas by artist Pavel Haas. ",
"This album was released 24.05.2017 and containing 8 tracks. ",
"Listen online Pavel Haas - Terezín / Theresienstadt Composers: Pavel Haas previews (30 seconds length) is free and don't require registration. ",
"For buy album Pavel Haas - Terezín / Theresienstadt Composers: Pavel Haas please follow to music stores. ",
"If we have other releases and albums Pavel Haas you can see it on this page. ",
"All music content by Pavel Haas is presented for reference only."
] |
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"The Brexit bill was passed to its next stage on Wednesday – now we want to know your views on your MP’s vote\n\nAre you happy with how your MP voted on article 50?",
"\n\nBritish MPs voted on Wednesday with a majority of 384 to give Theresa May’s government the authority to invoke article 50.",
"\n\n\n\nThe full list of MPs who voted against the Brexit bill Read more\n\nThe European Union (notification of withdrawal) bill passed to its next parliamentary stage – and with 498 for and and 114 against, we’d like to hear from constituents on how their MPs voted.",
"\n\nA total of 47 Labour MPs voted against the bill, along with 50 SNP MPs and seven Liberal Democrats. ",
"Ken Clarke, the lone dissenting Conservative MP, joined them in the division lobbies, to applause from Labour rebels.",
"\n\nWhat do you make of your MP’s vote? ",
"Did he or she vote in line with your wishes, the wishes of the wider constituency, or on personal conviction? ",
"Were you surprised by your representative’s vote, or did they vote as you expected?",
"\n\n\n\nHowever you voted in the referendum, we’d like to hear your views. ",
"You can share them by filling out the form below.",
"\n\n"
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[
"NASHVILLE, Tenn. (WTVF) — A man was arrested in downtown Nashville Sunday, accused of crashing his Bird Scooter into a Mercedes Benz on purpose.",
"\n\nOfficers were called to 2nd Avenue North, near Church Street Sunday. ",
"That's where officers found Thomas Vinh Luu, 38, after witnesses had seen him crash his scooter into the Mercedes.",
"\n\nAccording to his arrest report, Luu was arrested and placed in the back of a patrol car where he admitted to hitting the vehicle because \"it's a Nazi car\" and people should \"buy American.\"",
"\n\nLuu was arrested for vandalism, public intoxication, and disorderly conduct."
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[
"Q:\n\nHow can I preserve double spacing when users paste text into Quill.js editor?",
"\n\nI have an ASP.NET MVC application, which uses Quill.js. ",
"I want users to be able to copy double spaced text from, say, MS Word, and paste it into my Quill editor while preserving their double spacing.",
"\nIn View:\n <div class=\"editor\">\n @Html.",
"Raw(Model.",
"EvaluationText)\n </div>\n\njs:\n var basicEditor = new Quill('.editor', {\n modules: {\n toolbar: {\n container: '.editor-toolbar'\n }\n },\n theme: 'snow'\n });\n\nWhen I look at devtools, I see that there is a div with class 'ql-paste-manager,' which is what I think I need to override, but I'm not sure how or if this is the way to go.",
"\n\nA:\n\nIf you know the text is double spaced you can control this with CSS. ",
"Just set the line height to 200% (or whatever value you'd like). ",
"Ex.",
"\n.ql-editor div, .ql-editor li {\n line-height: 200%;\n}\n\nHowever Quill's paste manager does not currently support detecting if the text pasted was single or double spaced.",
"\n\n"
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[
"Q:\n\nJavascript method in Function Error with \"is not a function\"\n\nI've been learning basic Javascript concept with class.",
"\nI'm trying it with ES5 syntax. ",
"\nBy the way, I'm stuck with this problem.",
"\nI defined a class with function declaration. ",
"And Defined a method in that class. ",
"\n\nconst Vehicle = function() {\r\n this.passengers = [];\r\n console.log('Vehicle created');\r\n\r\n const addPassenger = function(p) {\r\n this.passengers.push(p);\r\n }\r\n}\r\n\r\nconst v = new Vehicle();\r\n\r\nv.addPassenger(\"Frank\");\r\nv.addPassenger(\"Zim\");\r\nconsole.log(v.passengers);\n\nBut when I call it with its instance, I got the error. ",
"I think the problem is bind...But I have no idea where and which one should I bind. ",
"\nThank you!",
"\n\nA:\n\nYou are currently only declaring the addPassenger function as a constant inside the function.",
"\nTo \"make the function part of class\", use this\nthis.addPassenger = function(p) {\n////\n}\n\n"
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[
"Q:\n\nopengl glfrustum function implement\n\nwould somebody tells me how that glfrustum matrix generated? ",
"i know about that matrix can be set many ways, but why that one? ",
"thanks\n\nA:\n\nwould somebody tells me how that glfrustum matrix generated?",
"\n\nRead official glFrustrum documentation. ",
"It includes formula.",
"\n\n"
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[
"Effect of screw insertion torque on push-out and cantilever bending properties of five different angle-stable systems.",
"\nTo compare the screw push-out strength and resistance to cantilever bending of 5 different angle-stable systems using 4 different insertion torque values to tighten locking screws. ",
"In vitro mechanical testing of 5 screw-plate constructs. ",
"Screw plate constructs (n = 60) were tested; 12 of each design, 3 for each torque value. ",
"To compare push-out strength, screws were loaded in axial direction on the screw tip until loosening of the locking mechanism was recorded. ",
"For cantilever bending test, screws were loaded perpendicularly to their longitudinal axis at 2 mm of distance from the under surface of the plate. ",
"Load was applied in displacement control at 1 mm/min. ",
"There was a significant difference between the 5 different angle-stable systems regarding both push-out and cantilever bending strength. ",
"There was an influence of insertion torque value on push-out strength for 2 systems and insertion torque value influenced cantilever bending behavior only in 1 locking system. ",
"Locking mechanisms using \"thread in thread\" principle provided a stronger screw push-out behavior. ",
"Screws materials and core diameter of the different screws were directly related to cantilever bending strength."
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[
"Ya se están levantando los cimientos en ex estación Yungay (ubicado camino a Paranal) de lo que será el primer observatorio astronómico profesional del Estado de Chile en el norte del país y que comenzará a operar desde marzo de este año.",
"\n\nEsta construcción, a cargo de la Universidad de Antofagasta a través de su Unidad de Astronomía, consiste en un recinto de 3 x 14 metros, que contendrá cuatro telescopios; dos móviles con un diámetro de 20 cm, uno más grande con 35 cm, perfecto para usos educativos y de divulgación, y el otro de 60 cm de diámetro para investigación. ",
"Estos últimos dos estarán ubicados permanentemente dentro de las instalaciones, las que podrán ser visitadas por el público a partir del segundo semestre de 2015.",
"\n\nEl Coordinador de la construcción del observatorio, Juan Pablo Colque, contó que “una de las diferencias que tiene este proyecto con los observatorios internacionales, es que al permitir las visitas nocturnas, la comunidad podrá ver y aprender cómo se trabaja en las observaciones y cómo se toman datos de manera profesional”.",
"\n\nLa situación del país\n\nChile goza de fama a nivel mundial por la calidad de sus cielos, los que ofrecen una ventana sin igual al Universo. ",
"No obstante, las iniciativas y grandes proyectos astronómicos han surgido del extranjero. ",
"Aunque esto nos ha permitido como país generar potentes lazos de colaboración con el resto del mundo, también nos ha mantenido al margen de enfrentar varios de los desafíos técnicos y científicos de desarrollar esta clase de instalaciones.",
"\n\nAnte esta situación, el Director de la Unidad de Astronomía de la Universidad de Antofagasta, Eduardo Unda, explicó que “iniciar este observatorio pretende generar una contraparte nacional que, aunque en una escala muy diferente a la de los gigantescos proyectos que han llegado a nuestro país, sirva para dialogar como un par de los mismos en cuanto a intereses y necesidades, y se sitúe además como elemento de inspiración para las nuevas generaciones entusiastas por la ciencia y la tecnología”.",
"\n\nEl punto anterior encuentra respuesta gracias a “Primera Luz”, un proyecto educativo que está asociado con la obra en construcción y que beneficiará a toda la población.",
"\n\nEducando a la comunidad\n\n“Primera Luz” es el nombre del programa que combinará capacidades que permitirán desarrollar investigación básica, con un modelo de trabajo que hará posible visitas que fortalecerán la educación astronómica y el turismo de intereses especiales en la Región de Antofagasta.",
"\n\nDesde fines de 2014 se ha puesto en marcha el programa que consta en primera instancia de visitas a colegios y lugares públicos de la Región de Antofagasta, ofreciendo charlas y observaciones con telescopios solares. ",
"Este programa, ha tenido un impacto directo en más de 4.000 personas, gran parte de ellas, estudiantes de enseñanza básica y media. ",
"Estos últimos tendrán además la oportunidad de conocer el recinto antes de su apertura oficial al público general, gracias a las visitas piloto que se realizarán a partir de marzo y que invitarán a establecimientos educacionales de la Región.",
"\n\nPrimera Luz contará también con la elaboración y distribución de guías educativas de trabajo para docentes y escolares, contribuyendo de esta manera a la creación de academias de astronomía en la Región de Antofagasta, las que puedan explotar la existencia del nuevo observatorio para el desarrollo de sus actividades. ",
"Estas guías serán entregadas a la comunidad regional en abril de 2015.",
"\n\nFuente: Primera Luz"
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